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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 7
+       "Arundel, Thomas" to "Athens"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 4, 2010 [EBook #34209]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SLICE 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ATARGATIS: "... but the home of the goddess was
+      unquestionably not Palestine, but Syria proper, especially at
+      Hierapolis (q.v.), where she had a great temple". 'especially'
+      amended from 'expecially'.
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME II, SLICE VII
+
+         Arundel, Thomas to Athens
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ARUNDEL, THOMAS                 ASSAB
+  ARUNDEL (town)                  ASSAM
+  ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR             ASSAMESE
+  ARUSIANUS MESSIUS               ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  ARVAL BROTHERS                  ASSARY
+  ARVALS                          ASSASSIN
+  ARVERNI                         ASSAULT
+  ARYAN                           ASSAYE
+  ARYA SAMAJ                      ASSAYING
+  ARYTENOID                       ASSEGAI
+  ARZAMAS                         ASSELIJN, HANS
+  AS                              ASSEMANI
+  ASA                             ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL
+  ASAFETIDA                       ASSEN
+  ASAF-UD-DOWLAH                  ASSER
+  ASAPH                           ASSESSMENT
+  ASBESTOS                        ASSESSOR
+  ASBJÖRNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN      ASSETS
+  ASBURY, FRANCIS                 ASSIDEANS
+  ASBURY PARK                     ASSIGNATS
+  ASCALON                         ASSIGNMENT
+  ASCANIUS                        ASSINIBOIA
+  ASCENSION                       ASSINIBOIN
+  ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE         ASSISE
+  ASCETICISM                      ASSISI
+  ASCHAFFENBURG                   ASSIUT
+  ASCHAM, ROGER                   ASSIZE
+  ASCHERSLEBEN                    ASSMANNSHAUSEN
+  ASCIANO                         ASSOCIATE
+  ASCITANS                        ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
+  ASCITES                         ASSONANCE
+  ASCLEPIADES (Greek physician)   ASSUAN
+  ASCLEPIADES (of Samos)          ASSUMPSIT
+  ASCLEPIODOTUS                   ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF
+  ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA         ASSUR (land of Assyria)
+  ASCOLI PICENO                   ASSUR (capital of Assyria)
+  ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS      ASSUR (god of Assyria)
+  ASCOT                           ASSUR-BANI-PAL
+  ASCUS                           ASSUS
+  ASELLI, GASPARO                 ASSYRIA
+  ASGILL, JOHN                    AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH
+  ASH                             ASTARA
+  A'SHA                           ASTARABAD
+  ASHANTI                         ASTARTE
+  ASH'ARI                         ASTELL, MARY
+  ASHBOURNE                       ASTER
+  ASHBURNHAM, JOHN                ASTERIA
+  ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING     ASTERID
+  ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING         ASTERISK
+  ASHBURTON (river)               ASTERIUS (of Cappadocia)
+  ASHBURTON (town)                ASTERIUS (bishop of Amasia)
+  ASHBY, TURNER                   ASTHMA
+  ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH               ASTI
+  A-SHE-HO                        ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY
+  ASHER                           ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE
+  'ASHER BEN-YEHIEL               ASTON, ANTHONY
+  ASHEVILLE                       ASTON MANOR
+  ASHFORD                         ASTOR, JOHN JACOB
+  'ASHI                           ASTORGA, EMANUELE D'
+  ASHINGTON                       ASTORGA (city)
+  'ASHKENAZI, SEBI                ASTORIA
+  ASHLAND (Kentucky, U.S.A.)      ASTRAEA
+  ASHLAND (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)  ASTRAGAL
+  ASHLAND (Virginia, U.S.A.)      ASTRAKHAN (government of Russia)
+  ASHLAND (Wisconsin, U.S.A.)     ASTRAKHAN (town of Russia)
+  ASHLAR                          ASTROLABE
+  ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMES           ASTROLOGY
+  ASHMOLE, ELIAS                  ASTRONOMY
+  ASHRAF                          ASTROPALIA
+  ASHREF                          ASTROPHYSICS
+  ASHTABULA                       ASTRUC, JEAN
+  ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD            ASTURA
+  ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE               ASTURIAS
+  ASH WEDNESDAY                   ASTYAGES
+  ASHWELL, LENA                   ASTYLAR
+  ASIA (continent)                ASUNCIÓN
+  ASIA (Roman province)           ASVINS
+  ASIA MINOR                      ASYLUM
+  ASIENTO                         ASYLUM, RIGHT OF
+  ASIR                            ATACAMA
+  ASISIUM                         ATACAMA, DESERT OF
+  ASKABAD                         ATACAMITE
+  ASKAULES                        ATAHUALLPA
+  ASKE, ROBERT                    ATALANTA
+  ASKEW, ANNE                     ATARGATIS
+  ASMA'I                          ATAULPHUS
+  ASMARA                          ATAVISM
+  ASMODEUS                        ATBARA
+  ASMONEUS                        ATCHISON
+  ASNIČRES                        ATE
+  ASOKA                           ATELLA
+  ASOLO                           ATELLANAE FABULAE
+  ASOR                            ATESTE
+  ASP                             ATH
+  ASPARAGINE                      ATHABASCA
+  ASPARAGUS                       ATHALARIC
+  ASPASIA                         ATHALIAH
+  ASPASIUS                        ATHAMAS
+  ASPEN                           ATHANAGILD
+  ASPENDUS                        ATHANARIC
+  ASPER, AEMILIUS                 ATHANASIUS
+  ASPER, HANS                     ATHAPASCAN
+  ASPERGES                        ATHARVA VEDA
+  ASPERN-ESSLING                  ATHEISM
+  ASPHALT                         ATHELM
+  ASPHODEL                        ATHELNEY
+  ASPHYXIA                        ATHENA
+  ASPIC                           ATHENAEUM
+  ASPIDISTRA                      ATHENAEUS
+  ASPIROTRICHACEAE                ATHENAGORAS
+  ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE              ATHENODORUS
+  ASPROMONTE                      ATHENRY
+  ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY          ATHENS (Greece)
+  ASS                             ATHENS (Georgia, U.S.A.)
+  ASS, FEAST OF THE               ATHENS (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+
+
+
+
+ARUNDEL, THOMAS (1353-1414), archbishop of Canterbury, was the third son
+of Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel and Warenne, by his second wife,
+Eleanor, daughter of Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. His family
+was an old and influential one, and when Thomas entered the church his
+preferment was rapid. In 1373 he became archdeacon of Taunton, and in
+April 1374 was consecrated bishop of Ely. During the early years of the
+reign of King Richard II. he was associated with the party led by
+Thomas, duke of Gloucester, Henry, earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry
+IV., and his own brother Richard, earl of Arundel, and in 1386 he was
+sent with Gloucester to Eltham to persuade Richard to return to
+parliament. This mission was successful, and Arundel was made lord
+chancellor in place of Michael de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and assisted
+to make peace between the king and the supporters of the commission of
+regency. In April 1388 he was made archbishop of York, and, when Richard
+declared himself of age in 1389, he gave up the office of chancellor, to
+which, however, he returned in 1391. During his second tenure of this
+office he removed the courts of justice from London to York, but they
+were soon brought back to the metropolis. In September 1396 he was
+translated from York to Canterbury, and again resigned the office of
+chancellor. He began his new rule by a vigorous attempt to assert his
+rights, warned the citizens of London not to withhold tithes, and
+decided appeals from the judgments of his suffragans during a thorough
+visitation of his province. In November 1396 he had officiated at the
+marriage of Richard and Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., king of
+France, and his fall was the sequel of the king's sudden attack upon the
+lords appellant in 1397. After the arrest of Gloucester, Warwick and
+Arundel, the archbishop was impeached by the Commons with the king's
+consent, although Richard, who had not yet revealed his hostility, held
+out hopes of safety to him. He was charged with assisting to procure the
+commission of regency in derogation of the royal authority, and sentence
+of banishment was passed, forty days being given him during which to
+leave the realm. Towards the end of 1397 he started for Rome, and Pope
+Boniface IX., at the urgent request of the king, translated him to the
+see of St Andrews, a step which the pope afterwards confessed he
+repented bitterly. This translation virtually deprived Arundel of all
+authority, as St Andrews did not acknowledge Boniface. He then became
+associated with Henry of Lancaster, but did not return to England before
+1399, and the account which Froissart gives telling how he was sent by
+the Londoners to urge Henry to come and assume the crown is thought to
+refer to his nephew and namesake, Thomas, earl of Arundel. Landing with
+Henry at Ravenspur, he accompanied him to the west. He took his place at
+once as archbishop of Canterbury, witnessed the abdication of Richard in
+the Tower of London, led the new king, Henry IV., to his throne in
+presence of the peers, and crowned him on the 13th of October 1399.
+
+The main work of his later years was the defence of the church, and the
+suppression of heresy. To put down the Lollards, he called a meeting of
+the clergy, pressed on the statute _de haeretico comburendo_, and passed
+sentence of degradation upon William Sawtrey. He resisted the attempt of
+the parliament of 1404 to disendow the church, but failed to induce
+Henry to pardon Archbishop Scrope in 1405. In 1407 he became chancellor
+for the fourth time, and in 1408 summoned a council at Oxford, which
+drew up constitutions against the Lollards. These he published in
+January 1409, and among them was one forbidding the translation of the
+Bible into English without the consent of the bishop of the diocese, or
+of a provincial synod. In 1411 he went on an embassy abroad, and in 1412
+became chancellor again, his return to power being accompanied by a
+change in the foreign policy of Henry IV. In 1397 he had sought to
+vindicate his right of visitation over the university of Oxford, but the
+dispute remained unsettled until 1411 when a bull was issued by Pope
+John XXIII. recalling one issued by Pope Boniface IX., which had
+exempted the university from the archbishop's authority. In 1413 he took
+a leading part in the proceedings against Sir John Oldcastle, Lord
+Cobham, and in the following year he died on the 19th of February, and
+was buried at Canterbury. A legend of a later age tells how, just before
+his death, he was struck dumb for preventing the preaching of the word
+of God.
+
+  The chief authorities are T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, ed. by
+  H.T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); _Eulogium historiarum sive temporis_,
+  ed. by F.S. Haydon (London, 1858-1863); the Monk of Evesham, _Historia
+  vitae et regni Ricardi II._, ed. by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); W.F.
+  Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv. (London,
+  1860-1876).
+
+
+
+
+ARUNDEL, a market town and municipal borough in the Chichester
+parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 58 m. S.S.W. from London by
+the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 2739. It is
+pleasantly situated on the slope of a hill above the river Arun, which
+is navigable for small vessels to Littlehampton at the mouth, 6 m.
+south. From the summit of the hill rises Arundel Castle, which guarded
+the passage along the river through the hills. For its connexion with
+the title of earl of Arundel see ARUNDEL, EARLDOM OF. A castle existed
+in the time of King Alfred, and at the time of the Conquest it was
+rebuilt by Roger de Montgomerie, but it was taken from his son, who
+rebelled against the reigning monarch, Henry I. In 1397 it was the scene
+of a conspiracy organized by the earl of Arundel, archbishop of
+Canterbury and duke of Gloucester, to dethrone Richard II. and murder
+the lords of his council, a plot which was discovered before it could be
+carried into execution. During the civil wars of the 17th century, the
+stronghold was frequently assaulted by the contending parties, and
+consequently greatly damaged; but it was restored by Charles, 11th duke
+of Norfolk (d. 1815), who made it what it now is, one of the most
+splendid baronial mansions in England. Extensive reconstruction, in the
+style of the 13th century, was undertaken towards the close of the 19th
+century. The town, according to the whimsical etymology shown on the
+corporation seal, takes its name from _hirondelle_ (a swallow). The town
+hall is a castellated building, presented to the corporation by the duke
+of Norfolk. The church of St Nicholas, founded about 1375, is
+Perpendicular with a low tower rising from the centre. In the north
+aisle of the chancel there are several ancient monuments of the earls of
+Arundel. The church is otherwise remarkable for its reredos and iron
+work. The chancel is the property of the duke of Norfolk and is screened
+from the rest of the building, although in 1880 this exercise of right
+by the owner was made the subject of an action at law and subsequent
+appeal. The Roman Catholic church of St Philip Neri was built by the
+duke of Norfolk (1873). Some remains of a _Maison Dieu_, or hospital,
+erected in the time of Richard II., still exist. The borough is under a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2053 acres.
+
+  The first mention of Arundel (Harundell) comes as early as 877, when
+  it was left by King Alfred in his will to his nephew Ćthelm. In the
+  time of Edward the Confessor the town seems to have consisted of the
+  mill and a fortification or earthwork which was probably thrown up by
+  Alfred as a defence against the Danes; but it had increased in
+  importance before the Conquest, and appears in Domesday as a thriving
+  borough and port. It was granted by the Conqueror to Roger de
+  Montgomery, who built the castle on the site of the ancient earthwork.
+  From very early times markets were held within the borough on Thursday
+  and Saturday, and in 1285 Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, obtained
+  a grant of two annual fairs on the 14th of May and the 17th of
+  December. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1302 to
+  1832 when the Reform Act reduced the membership to one; in 1868 it was
+  disfranchised altogether. There are no early charters extant, but in
+  1586 Elizabeth acknowledged the right of the mayor and burgesses to be
+  a body corporate and to hold a court for pleas under forty shillings,
+  two weekly markets and four annual fairs--which rights they claimed to
+  have exercised from time immemorial. James II. confirmed in 1688 a
+  charter given two years before, and incorporated the borough under the
+  title of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 burgesses. The town was half
+  destroyed by fire in 1338, but was soon rebuilt. Arundel was formerly
+  a thriving seaport, and in 1813 was connected by canal with London.
+
+  See M.A. Tierney, _The History and Antiquities of the Castle and Town
+  of Arundel_ (London, 1834); _Victoria County History--Sussex._
+
+
+
+
+ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR, THOMAS ARUNDELL, 1ST BARON (c. 1562-1639), son of
+Sir Mathew Arundell of Wardour Castle in Wiltshire, a member of the
+ancient family of Arundells of Lanherne in Cornwall, and of Margaret,
+daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, was born about 1562. In 1579 he was
+personally recommended by Queen Elizabeth to the emperor Rudolph II. He
+greatly distinguished himself while serving with the imperial troops
+against the Turks in Hungary, and at the siege of Gran or Esztergom on
+the 13th of August 1595, he captured the enemy's banner with his own
+hand. He was created by Rudolph II. a count of the Holy Roman Empire in
+December 1595, and returned to England after suffering shipwreck and
+barely preserving his life in January 1596. His assumption of the
+foreign title created great jealousy among the English peers, who were
+wont to give a precedence by courtesy to foreign nobles, and he incurred
+the resentment of his father, who objected to his superior rank and
+promptly disinherited him. The queen, moreover, was seriously
+displeased, declared that "as chaste wives should have no glances but
+for their own spouses, so should faithful subjects keep their eyes at
+home and not gaze upon foreign crowns," and committed him to the Fleet
+immediately on his arrival, while she addressed a long letter of
+remonstrance on the subject to the emperor. Arundell remained under
+arrest till April, when he was liberated after an examination. In April
+1597, however, he was again confined, but declared innocent of any
+charge save that of "practising to contrive the justification of his
+vain title with Ministers beyond the seas." In December he was liberated
+and placed under the care of his father, but next year he was again
+arrested and accused of a conspiracy against the government. His
+petitions for a licence to undertake an expedition by sea, wherein he
+declared "his end was honour which some base minds call ambition," were
+refused, but in 1599 he was apparently again restored to favour. On the
+4th of May 1605 he was created by James I. Baron Arundell of Wardour,
+but fell again under temporary suspicion at the time of the Gunpowder
+Plot. In 1623 he once more got into trouble by championing the cause of
+the recusants, of whom he was himself one, on the occasion of the visit
+of the Spanish envoys, and he was committed to custody, and in 1625 all
+the arms were removed by the government from Wardour Castle. After the
+accession of Charles I. he was pardoned, and attended the sittings of
+the House of Lords. He was indicted in the king's bench about the year
+1627 for not paying some contribution, and in 1632 he was accused of
+harbouring a priest. In 1637 he was declared exempt from the recusancy
+laws by the king's order, but in 1639 he again petitioned for relief.
+The same year he paid Ł500 in lieu of attending the king at York. He
+died on the 7th of November 1639. Arundell was an earnest Roman
+Catholic, but the suspicions of the government as to his loyalty were
+probably unfounded and stifled a career destined by nature for
+successful adventure. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry
+Wriothesley, 2nd earl of Southampton, by whom besides other children he
+had Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron; and (2) Anne, daughter of
+Miles Philipson, by whom he had several daughters.
+
+HENRY ARUNDELL, 3rd Baron Arundell of Wardour (c. 1607-1694), son of
+Thomas, 2nd baron, and of Blanche, daughter of Edward, earl of
+Worcester, was born on the 21st of July 1607, and succeeded on his
+father's death in 1643 to the family title and estates. A strong
+royalist and Roman Catholic, he supported the king's cause, and
+distinguished himself in 1644 by the recapture of his castle at Wardour
+from the parliamentarians, who had taken it in the previous year in
+spite of his mother's brave defence of the place. In 1648 he was one of
+the delinquents exempted from pardon in the proposals sent to Charles in
+the Isle of Wight. His estates had been confiscated, but he was
+permitted about 1653 to compound for them in the sum of Ł35,000. In
+1652, in consequence of his being second at a duel in which one of the
+combatants was killed, he was arrested, and tried in 1653; he pleaded
+his peerage, but the privilege was disallowed as the House of Lords had
+been abolished. At the Restoration he regained possession of the family
+estates, and in 1663 was made master of the horse to Henrietta Maria. He
+was one of the few admitted to the king's confidence concerning the
+projects for the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion and the
+alliance with France. In 1669 he took part in the secret council
+assembled by Charles II., and in October was sent to France, ostensibly
+for the funeral of Henrietta Maria, but in reality to negotiate with
+Louis XIV. the agreement which took shape in 1670 in the treaties of
+Dover (see CHARLES II.). In 1676 he was privy to James's negotiations
+with Rome through Coleman. He was accused in 1678 by Titus Oates of
+participation in the popish plot, and was one of the five Roman Catholic
+peers arrested and imprisoned in the Tower in October, found guilty by
+the Middlesex grand jury of high treason, and impeached subsequently by
+the parliament. Lord Stafford was found guilty and executed in December
+1680, but after the perpetration of this injustice the proceedings were
+interrupted, and the three surviving peers were released on bail on the
+12th of February 1684. On the 22nd of May 1685, after James II.'s
+accession, the charge was annulled, and on the 1st of June 1685 they
+obtained their full liberty. In February 1686, with other Roman
+Catholics, Arundell urged upon the king the removal of his mistress,
+Lady Dorchester, on account of her strong Protestantism. In spite of his
+religion he was made a privy councillor in August 1686, and keeper of
+the privy seal in 1687, being excused from taking the oaths by the
+king's dispensation. He presented the thanks of the Roman Catholics to
+James in June 1687 for the declaration of indulgence. His public career
+ended with the abdication of the king, and he retired to Breamore, the
+family residence since the destruction of Wardour Castle. He died on the
+28th of December 1694. He was the author of five religious poems said to
+be composed during his confinement in the Tower in 1679, published the
+same year and reprinted in _A Collection of Eighty-six Loyal Poems_ in
+1685. His piety and benevolence to his unfortunate co-religionists were
+conspicuous. Evelyn calls him "very good company" and he was a noted
+sportsman, the Quorn pack being descended from his pack of hounds at
+Breamore. He married Cecily, daughter of Sir Henry Compton, by whom
+besides other children he had Thomas, who succeeded him as 4th baron.
+
+The barony is still held in the Arundell family, which has never ceased
+to be Roman Catholic. The 14th baron (b. 1859) was a direct descendent
+of the 6th.
+
+
+
+
+ARUSIANUS MESSIUS, or MESSUS, Latin grammarian, flourished in the 4th
+century A.D. He was the author of a small extant work _Exempla
+Elocutionum_, dedicated to Olybrius and Probinus, consuls for the year
+395. It contains an alphabetical list, chiefly of verbs admitting more
+than one construction, with examples from each of the four writers,
+Virgil, Sallust, Terence and Cicero. Cassiodorus, the only writer who
+mentions Arusianus, refers to it by the term Quadriga.
+
+  See Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vii.; Suringar, _Historia Critica
+  Scholiastarum Latinorum_ (1834-1835); Van der Hoeven, _Specimen
+  Literarium_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+ARVAL BROTHERS (Fratres Arvales), in Roman antiquities, a college or
+priesthood, consisting of twelve members, elected for life from the
+highest ranks in Rome, and always apparently, during the empire,
+including the emperor. Their chief duty was to offer annually public
+sacrifice for the fertility of the fields (Varro, _L. L_. v. 85). It is
+generally held that the college was founded by Romulus (see ACCA
+LARENTIA). This legend probably arose from the connexion of Acca
+Larentia, as _mater Larum_, with the Lares who had a part in the
+religious ceremonies of the Arvales. But apart from this, there is proof
+of the high antiquity of the college, which was said to have been older
+than Rome itself, in the verbal forms of the song with which, down to
+late times, a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which is still
+preserved. It is clear also that, while the members were themselves
+always persons of distinction, the duties of their office were held in
+high respect. And yet it is singular that no mention of them occurs in
+Cicero or Livy, and that altogether literary allusions to them are very
+scarce. On the other hand, we possess a long series of the _acta_ or
+minutes of their proceedings, drawn up by themselves, and inscribed on
+stone. Excavations, commenced in the 16th century and continued to the
+19th, in the grove of the Dea Dia about 5 m. from Rome, have yielded 96
+of these records from A.D. 14 to 241. The brotherhood appears to have
+languished in obscurity during the republic, and to have been revived by
+Augustus. In his time the college consisted of a master (_magister_), a
+vice-master (_promagister_), a _flamen_, and a _praetor_, with eight
+ordinary members, attended by various servants, and in particular by
+four chorus boys, sons of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore
+a wreath of corn, a white fillet and the praetexta. The election of
+members was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a
+flamen, was himself elected for one year. The great annual festival
+which they had to conduct was held in honour of the anonymous Dea Dia,
+who was probably identical with Ceres. It occupied three days in May.
+The ceremony of the first day took place in Rome itself, in the house of
+the magister or his deputy, or on the Palatine in the temple of the
+emperors, where at sunrise fruits and incense were offered to the
+goddess. A sumptuous banquet took place, followed by a distribution of
+doles and garlands. On the second and principal day of the festival the
+ceremonies were conducted in the grove of the Dea Dia. They included a
+dance in the temple of the goddess, at which the song of the brotherhood
+was sung, in language so antiquated that it was hardly intelligible (see
+the text and translation in Mommsen, _Hist, of Rome_, bk. i. ch. xv.)
+even to Romans of the time of Augustus, who regarded it as the oldest
+existing document in their mother-tongue. Especial mention should be
+made of the ceremony of purifying the grove, which was held to be
+defiled by the felling of trees, the breaking of a bough or the presence
+of any iron tools, such as those used by the lapidary who engraved the
+records of the proceedings on stone. The song and dance were followed by
+the election of officers for the next year, a banquet and races. On the
+third day the sacrifice took place in Rome, and was of the same nature
+as that offered on the first day. The Arvales also offered sacrifice and
+solemn vows on behalf of the imperial family on the 3rd of January and
+on other extraordinary occasions. The brotherhood is said to have lasted
+till the time of Theodosius. The British Museum contains a bust of
+Marcus Aurelius in the dress of a Frater Arvalis.
+
+  Marini, _Atti e Monumenti de' Fratri Arvali_ (1795); Hoffmann, _Die
+  A._ (1858): Oldenberg, _De Sacris Fratrum A_. (1875); Bergk, _Das Lied
+  der Arvalbrüder_ (1856); Bréal, "Le Chant des Arvals" in _Mém. de la
+  Soc. de Linguistique_ (1881); Edon, _Nouvelle Étude sur le Chant
+  Lémural_ (1884); _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vi. 2023-2119;
+  Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (1874).
+
+
+
+
+ARVALS, ARVELS or ARTHELS (O. Norse _Arfr_, inheritance, and _öl_, A.S.
+Ale, a banquet), primarily the funeral dinner, and later, especially in
+the north of England, a thin, light, sweet cake, spiced with cinnamon
+and nutmeg, served to the poor at such feasts. The funeral meal was
+called the Arvel-dinner. The custom seems to have been to hold on such
+occasions an informal inquest, when the corpse was publicly exposed, to
+exculpate the heir and those entitled to the property of the dead from
+all accusations of foul play.
+
+
+
+
+ARVERNI, the name of an ancient Gaulish tribe in the Auvergne, which
+still bears its name. It resisted Caesar longer than most of Gaul; when
+once vanquished it adopted Roman civilization readily. Its tribal deity,
+the god of the mountain, the Puy de Dôme, rechristened in Roman phrase
+Mercurius Dumias, was famous far beyond its territory. Part of his
+temple has been excavated recently.
+
+
+
+
+ARYAN, a term which has been used in a confusing variety of
+significations by different philologists. By Max Müller especially it
+was employed as a convenient short term for the whole body of languages
+more commonly known as Indo-European (q.v.) or Indo-Germanic. In the
+same way Max Müller used Aryas as a general term for the speakers of
+such languages, as in his book published in 1888, _Biographies of Words
+and the Home of the Aryas_. "Aryas are those who speak Aryan languages,
+whatever their colour, whatever their blood. In calling them Aryas we
+predicate nothing of them except that the grammar of their language is
+Aryan" (p. 245). It is to be observed, therefore, that Max Müller is
+careful to avoid any ethnological signification. The Aryas are those who
+speak Aryan without regard to the question whether Aryan is their
+_hereditary_ language or not. As he says still more definitely elsewhere
+in the same work (p. 120), "I have declared again and again that if I
+say Aryas, I mean neither blood nor bones, nor hair nor skull; I mean
+simply those who speak an Aryan language. The same applies to Hindus,
+Greeks, Romans Germans, Celts and Slaves. When I speak of them I commit
+myself to no anatomical characteristics. The blue-eyed and fair-haired
+Scandinavians may have been conquerors or conquered, they may have
+adopted the language of their darker lords or their subjects, or vice
+versa. I assert nothing beyond their language when I call them Hindus,
+Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts and Slaves; and in that sense, and in
+that sense only, do I say that even the blackest Hindus represent an
+earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest
+Scandinavians.... To me an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan
+blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who
+speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar."
+
+From the popularity of Max Müller's works on comparative philology this
+is the use of the word which is most familiar to the general public. The
+arguments in support of this use are set forth by him in the latter part
+of lecture vi. of the _Lectures on the Science of Language_ (first
+series) and as an appendix to chap. vii. of the final edition (i. pp. 291
+ff.). The Sanskrit usage of the word is fully illustrated by him from the
+early Sanskrit writings in the article "Aryan" in the ninth edition of
+this encyclopaedia. From the earliest occurrences of the word it is clear
+that it was used as a national name not only in India but also in Bactria
+and Persia (in Sanskrit _árya_- and _arya_, in Zend _airya_-, in Old
+Persian _ariya_-). That it is in any way connected with a Sanskrit word
+for earth, _ira_, as Max Müller asserts, is far from certain. As Spiegel
+remarks (_Die arische Periode_, p. 105), though it is easy enough to
+connect the word with a root _ar_-, there are several roots of that form
+which have different meanings, and there is no certain criterion whereby
+to decide to which of them it is related. Nor are the other connexions
+for the word outside this group free from doubt. It is, however, certain
+that the connexion with _Erin_ (Ireland), which Pictet in his article
+"Iren and Arier" (Kuhn and Schleicher's _Beiträge_, i. 1858, pp. 81 ff.)
+sought to establish, is impossible (Whitley Stokes in Max Müller's
+_Lectures_, 1891, i. pp. 299 f.), though the word may have the same
+origin as the _Ario_- of names like _Ariovistus_, which is found in both
+Celtic and Germanic words (Uhlenbeck, _Kurzgefasstes etymologisches
+Wörterbuch der altindischen Sprache_, s.v.). The name of Armenia (Old
+Persian _Armina_-), which has often been connected, is of uncertain
+origin. Within Sanskrit itself probably two words have to be
+distinguished: (1) _árya_, the origin of Aryan, from which the usual term
+_arya_ is a derivative; (2) _aryá_, which frequently appears in the _Rig
+Veda_ as an epithet of deities. In many passages, however, _aryás_ may
+equally well be the genitive of _arí_, which is explained as "active,
+devoted, pious." Even in this word probably two originally separate words
+have to be distinguished, for the further meanings which Grassmann in his
+dictionary to the _Rig Veda_ attaches to it, viz. "greedy" (for treasure
+and for battle), "godless," "enemy," seem more appropriately to be
+derived from the same source as the Greek [Greek: eri-s], "strife." The
+word _árya_- is not found as a national name in the _Rig Veda_, but
+appears in the _Vajasaneyi-sainhita_, where it is explained by Mahidhara
+as _Vaisya_-, a cultivator or a man of the third among the original four
+classes of the population. So in the _Atharva Veda_ (iv. 20. 4; xix. 62.
+1) it is contrasted with the Sudra or fourth class (Spiegel, _Arische
+Periode_, p. 102). In the _Avesta, airya_- is found both as adjective and
+substantive in the sense of Aryan, but no light is thrown upon the
+history of the word. Darius describes himself in an inscription as of
+Aryan stock, _Daraya[h]va[h]us ariya[h]civ[r]a[h]_. In the _Avesta_ the
+derivative _airyana_- is also found in the sense of Aryan. In both India
+and Persia a word is found (Skt. _aryaman_-; Zend _airyahman_-) which is
+apparently of the same origin. In both Sanskrit and Zend it means
+something like "comrade" or "bosom friend," but in Zend is used of the
+priestly or highest class. In Sanskrit, besides this use in which it is
+contrasted with the _Dasa_ or _Dasyu_, the enemies, the earlier
+inhabitants, the word is often used for the bridegroom's spokesman, and
+in both languages is also employed as the name of a divine being. In the
+_Rig Veda, Aryaman_- as a deity is most frequently coupled with Mitra and
+Varuna (Grassmann, _Wörterbuch_, s.v.); in Zend, according to Bartholomae
+(_Altiranisches Wörterbuch_, s.v.), from the earliest literature, the
+Gathas, there is nothing definite to be learnt regarding _Airyaman_.
+
+Whatever the origin of _arya_-, however, it is clear that it is a word
+with dignified associations, by which the peoples belonging to the
+Eastern section of the Indo-Europeans were proud to call themselves. It
+is now used uniformly by scholars to indicate the Eastern branch as a
+whole, a compound, _Indo-Aryan_, being employed for that part of the
+Eastern branch which settled in India to distinguish them from the
+Iranians (_Iran_ is of the same origin), who remained in Bactria and
+Persia, while _Aryo-Indian_ is sometimes employed to distinguish the
+Indian people of this stock from the Dravidian and other stocks which
+also inhabit parts of the Indian peninsula. Of the stages in the
+occupation of the Iranian table-land by the Aryan people nothing is
+known, the people themselves having apparently no tradition of a time
+when they did not hold these territories (Spiegel, _Arische Periode_, p.
+319). Though the Hindus have no tradition of their invasion of India, it
+is certain that they are not an indigenous people, and, if they are not,
+it is clear that they could have come in no other direction save from
+the other side of the Hindu Kush. At the period of their earliest
+literature, which may be assigned roughly to about 1000 B.C., they were
+still settled in the valley of the Indus, and at this time the
+separation probably had not long taken place, the Eastern portion of the
+stock having pushed their way along the Kabul valley into the open
+country of the Indus. According to Professor E.W. Hopkins (_India Old
+and New_, 1901, p. 31) the _Rig Veda_ was composed in the district about
+Umballa. He argues that the people must have been then to the west of
+the great rivers, otherwise the dawn could not be addressed as one who
+"in shining light, before the wind arises, comes gleaming over the
+waters, making good paths." The vocabulary is still largely the same;
+whole sentences can be transliterated from one language to the other
+merely by making regular phonetic changes and without the variation of a
+single word (for examples see Bartholomae, _Handbuch der altiranischen
+Dialekte_, 1883, p. v.; Williams Jackson, _Avesta Grammar_, 1892, pp.
+xxxi. f.; _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, 1895, i. p. 1). It is
+noteworthy that it is those who remain behind whose language has
+undergone most change.
+
+By four well-marked characteristics the Aryan group is easily
+distinguishable from the other Indo-European languages. (1) By the
+confusion of original _e_ and _o_, both long and short, with the
+original long and short _a_ sound; (2) the short schwa-sound [schwa] is
+represented here, and in this group only, by _i_ (_pita_, "father," as
+compared with [Greek: pataer], &c.); (3) original _s_ after _i_, _u_ and
+some consonants becomes s; (4) the genitive plural of stems ending in a
+vowel has a suffix-_nam_ borrowed by analogy from the stems ending in
+_-n_ (Skt. _ásvanam_, "of horses"; Zend _aspanam_; Old Persian
+_aspanam_). The distinctions between Sanskrit and Iranian are also
+clear, (1) The Aryan voiced aspirates _gh, dh, bh_, which survive in
+Sanskrit, are confused in Iranian with original _g, d, b_, and further
+changes take place in the language of the later parts of the Avesta; (2)
+the Aryan breathed aspirates _kh, th, ph_, except in combination with
+certain consonants, become spirants in Iranian; (3) Aryan _s_ becomes
+_h_ initially before vowels in Iranian and also in certain cases
+medially, Iranian in these respects resembling Greek (cf. Skt. _saptá_;
+Zend _hapta_; Gr. [Greek: hepta], "seven"); (4) in Zend there are many
+vowel changes which it does not share with Old Persian. Some of these
+arise from the umlaut or epenthesis which is so prevalent, and which we
+have already seen in _airya_- as compared with the Skt. _árya_. In other
+respects the languages are remarkably alike, the only striking
+difference being in the numeral "one"--Skt. _eka_-; Zend _aeva_-; Old
+Persian _aiva_-, where the Iranian group has the same stem as that seen
+in the Greek [Greek: oi(f)o-s], "alone."
+
+For the subdivisions of the two groups see the articles on PERSIA:
+_Language_, and INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. Dr Grierson has shown in his
+monograph on "The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India" (Royal
+Asiatic Society, 1906) that there is good reason for regarding various
+dialects of the north-western frontier (Kafiristan, Chitral, Gilgit,
+Dardistan) as a separate group descended from Aryan but independent of
+either Sanskrit or Iranian.
+
+The history of the separation of the Aryan from the other Indo-European
+languages is not yet clear (see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). Various
+attempts have been made, with little success, to identify fragments of
+unknown languages in cuneiform inscriptions with members of this group.
+The investigation has entered a new and more favourable stage as the
+result of the discoveries made by German excavators at Boghaz Keui (said
+to be identical with Herodotus' Pteria in Cappadocia), where treaties
+between the king of the Hittites and the king of Mitanni, in the
+beginning of the 14th century B.C., seem almost certainly to contain the
+names of the gods Mitra, Varuna and Indra, which belong to the early
+Aryan mythology (H. Winckler, _Mitteilungen der deutschen
+Orientgesellschaft_, No. 35; E. Meyer, _Sitzungsberichte der Berliner
+Akademie_, 1908, pp. 14 ff.; _Zeitschrift für vergleichende
+Sprachforschung_, 42, 1908, pp. 24 ff.). Still further light is to be
+expected when the vast collections of the German expedition to Turfan
+(Turkestan) have been sifted. Up to 1909 only a preliminary account had
+been given of Tocharish, a hitherto unknown Indo-European language,
+which is reported to be in some respects more akin to the Western groups
+than to Aryan. But further investigation is still required (see E. Sieg
+and W. Siegling, "Tocharisch, die Sprache der Indoskythen," in
+_Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad._ (July 1908, pp. 915 ff.).     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+ARYA SAMAJ, a Hindu religious association with reforming tendencies,
+which was founded by a Guzerati Brahman named Dayanand Saraswati. This
+man was born of a Saivite family about 1825, but in early manhood grew
+dissatisfied with idol-worship. He undertook many pilgrim-ages and
+studied the Vedic philosophy in the hope of solving the old problem of
+the Buddha,--how to alleviate human misery and attain final liberation.
+About 1866, when he had begun to teach and to gather disciples, he first
+saw the Christian scriptures, which he vehemently assailed, and the _Rig
+Veda_, which he correspondingly exalted, though in the conception which
+he ultimately formed of God the former was much more influential than
+the latter. Dayanand's treatment of the Vedas was peculiar, and
+consisted of reading into them his own beliefs and modern scientific
+discoveries. Thus he explains the _Yajna_ (sacrificial cult) as "the
+entertainment of the learned in proportion to their worth, the business
+of manufacture, the experiment and application of chemistry, physics and
+the arts of peace; the instruction of the people, the purification of
+the air, the nourishment of vegetables by the employment of the
+principles of meteorology, called _Agni-Notri_ in Sanskrit." He denied
+that the _Vedas_ warranted the caste system, but wished to retain the
+four grades as orders of learning to which admission should be won by
+examination.
+
+These views naturally met with scanty acceptance among the Brahmans to
+whom he introduced them, and Dayanand turned to the masses and
+established _Samajes_ in various parts of India, the first being at
+Bombay in 1875. He chose the epithet Arya as being more dignified than
+the slightly contemptuous term Hindu. After a successful series of
+tours, during which he debated publicly with orthodox pundits and with
+Christian missionaries, he died at Ajmere in 1883.
+
+The Arya Samaj is not an eclectic system like the Brahma Samaj, which
+strives to find the common basis underlying all the great religions, and
+its narrower scope and corresponding intensity of conviction have won it
+a greater strength. It seemed to meet the feeling of many educated
+natives whose faith in current Hinduism was undermined, but who were
+predisposed against any foreign religious influence. Their patriotic
+ardour gladly seized on "a view of the original faith of India that
+seemed to harmonize with all the discoveries of modern science and the
+ethics of European civilization," and they cheerfully supported their
+leader's strange polemic with the agnostic and rationalist literature of
+Europe. By 1890 their numbers had increased to 40,000, by 1900 to over
+92,000. Divisions had, however, set in, especially a cleavage into the
+_Ghasi_ or vegetarian, and the _Mansi_ or flesh-eating sections. To the
+latter belong those Rajputs who though generally in sympathy with the
+movement declined to adhere to the tenet of the _Samaj_ which forbade
+the destruction of animal life and the consumption of animal food. The
+age of admission to the Samaj is eighteen, and members are expected to
+contribute to its funds at least 1% of their income.
+
+The ten articles of their creed may be summarized thus:--
+
+   1. The source of all true knowledge is God.
+   2. God is "all truth, all knowledge, all bliss, boundless, almighty,
+        just, merciful, unbegotten, without a beginning, incomparable,
+        the support and Lord of all, all-pervading, omniscient,
+        imperishable, immortal, eternal, holy, and the cause of the
+        universe; worship is due to him alone."
+   3. The medium of true knowledge is the _Vedas_.
+   4. and 5. The truth is to be accepted and to become the guiding
+        principle.
+   6. The object of the Samaj is to benefit the world by improving
+        its physical, social, intellectual and moral conditions.
+   7. Love and justice are the right guides of conduct.
+   8. Knowledge must be spread.
+   9. The good of others must be sought.
+  10. In general interests members must subordinate themselves to
+        the good of others; in personal interests they should retain
+        independence.
+
+The sixth clause comprehends a wide programme of reform, including
+abstinence from spirituous liquors and animal food, physical cleanliness
+and exercise, marriage reform, the promotion of female education, the
+abolition of caste and of idolatry.
+
+
+
+
+ARYTENOID (or _arytaenoid_; from Gr. [Greek: arytaina], a funnel or
+pitcher), a term, meaning funnel-shaped, applied to cartilages such as
+those of the larynx.
+
+
+
+
+ARZAMAS, a town of Russia, in the government of, and 76 m. by rail S. of
+the town of, Nizhniy-Novgorod, on the Tesha river, at its junction with
+the Arsha. It is an important centre of trade, and has tanneries, oil,
+flour, tallow, dye, soap and iron works; knitting is an important
+domestic industry. Sheepskins and sail-cloth are articles of trade. The
+town has several churches. Pop. (1897) 10,591.
+
+
+
+
+AS, the Roman unit of weight and measure, divided into 12 _unciae_
+(whence both "ounce" and "inch"); its fractions being deunx 11/12,
+dextrans 5/6, dodrans ž, bes 2/3, septunx 7/12, semis ˝, quincunx 5/12,
+triens 1/3, quadrans ź, sextans 1/6, sescuncia 1/8, uncia 1/12. _As_
+really denoted any integer or whole; whence the English word "ace." The
+unit or _as_ of weight was the _libra_ (pound: = about 11-4/5 oz.
+avoirdupois); of length, _pes_ (foot: = about 11-3/5 in.); of surface,
+_jugerum_ ( = about 2/3 acre); of measure, liquid _amphora_ (about 5-3/5
+gal.), dry _modius_ (about 9/10 peck). In the same way _as_ signified a
+whole inheritance; whence _heres ex asse_, the heir to the whole estate,
+_heres ex semisse_, heir to half the estate. It was also used in the
+calculation of rates of interest.
+
+_As_ was also the name of a Roman coin, which was of different weight
+and value at different periods (see NUMISMATICS, § _Roman_). The first
+introduction of coined money is ascribed to Servius Tullius. The old
+_as_ was composed of the mixed metal _aes_, an alloy of copper, tin and
+lead, and was called _as libralis_, because it nominally weighed 1 lb.
+or 12 ounces (actually 10). Its original shape seems to have been an
+irregular oblong bar, which was stamped with the figure of a sheep, ox
+or sow. This, as well as the word _pecunia_ for money (_pecus_, cattle),
+indicates the fact of cattle having been the earliest Italian medium of
+exchange. The value was indicated by little points or globules, or other
+marks. After the round shape was introduced, the one side was always
+inscribed with the figure of a ship's prow, and the other with the
+double head of Janus. The subdivisions of the _as_ had also the ship's
+prow on one side, and on the other the head of some deity. The First
+Punic War having exhausted the treasury, the _as_ was reduced to 2 oz.
+In the Second Punic War it was again reduced to half this weight, viz.
+to 1 oz. And lastly, by the Papirian law (89 B.C.) it was further
+reduced to the diminutive weight of half an ounce. It appears to have
+been still more reduced under Octavian, Lepidus and Antony, when its
+value was 1/3 of an ounce. Before silver coinage was introduced (269
+B.C.) the value of the _as_ was about 6d., in the time of Cicero less
+than a halfpenny. In the time of the emperor Severus it was again
+lowered to about 5/24 of an ounce. During the commonwealth and empire
+_aes grave_ was used to denote the old as in contradistinction to the
+existing depreciated coin; while _aes rude_ was applied to the original
+oblong coinage of primitive times.
+
+
+
+
+ASA, in the Bible, son (or, perhaps, rather brother) of Abijah, the son
+of Rehoboam and king of Judah (1 Kings xv. 9-24). Of his long reign,
+during which he was a contemporary of Baasha, Zimri and Omri of Israel,
+little is recorded with the exception of some religious reforms and
+conflicts with the first-named. Baasha succeeded in fortifying Ramah
+(_er-Ram_), 5 m. north of Jerusalem, and Asa was compelled to use the
+residue of the temple-funds (cf. 1 Kings xiv. 26) to bribe the king of
+Damascus to renounce his league with Baasha and attack Israel. Galilee
+was invaded and Baasha was forced to return; the building material which
+he had collected at Ramah being used by Asa to fortify Geba, and Mizpah
+to the immediate north of Jerusalem. The Book of Chronicles relates a
+story of a sensational defeat of Zerah the "Cushite," and a great
+religious revival in which Judah and Israel took part (2 Chron. xiv.-xv.
+15) (see CHRONICLES). Asa was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat.
+
+"Cushite" may designate an Ethiopian or, more probably, an Arabian
+(Cush, the "father" of the Sabaeans, Gen. x. 7). "If by Zerah the
+Ethiopian or Sabaean prince be meant, the only real difficulty of the
+narrative is removed. No king Zerah of Ethiopia is known at this period,
+nor does there seem to be room for such a person." (W.E. Barnes,
+_Cambridge Bible_, Chronicles, p. xxxi.). The identification with
+Osorkon I. or II. is scarcely tenable considering Asa's weakness; but
+inroads by desert hordes frequently troubled Judah, and if the tradition
+be correct in locating the battle at Mareshah it is probable that the
+invaders were in league with the Philistine towns. Similar situations
+recur in the reigns of Ahaz and Jehoram.
+
+  See also Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, 208; S.A. Cook, _Expositor_ (June
+  1906), p. 540 sq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+ASAFETIDA (_asa_, Lat. form of Persian _aza_ = mastic, and fetidus,
+stinking, so called in distinction to _asa dulcis_, which was a drug
+highly esteemed among the ancients as _laser cyrenaicum_, and is
+supposed to have been a gummy exudation from _Thapsis garganica_), a
+gum-resin obtained principally from the root of _Ferula fetida_, and
+probably also from one or two other closely allied species of
+umbelliferous plants. It is produced in eastern Persia and Afghanistan,
+Herat and Kandahar being centres of the trade. _Ferula fetida_ grows to
+a height of from 5 to 6 ft., and when the plant has attained the age of
+four years it is ready for yielding asafetida. The stems are cut down
+close to the root, and the juice flows out, at first of a milky
+appearance, but quickly setting into a solid resinous mass. Fresh
+incisions are made as long as the sap continues to flow, a period which
+varies according to the size and strength of the plant. A
+freshly-exposed surface of asafetida has a translucent, pearly-white
+appearance, but it soon darkens in the air, becoming first pink and
+finally reddish-brown. In taste it is acrid and bitter; but what
+peculiarly characterizes it is the strong alliaceous odour it emits,
+from which it has obtained the name asafetida, as well as its German
+name _Teufelsdreck_ (devil's dung). Its odour is due to the presence of
+organic sulphur compounds. Asafetida is found in commerce in "lump" or
+in "tear," the latter being the purer form. Medicinally, asafetida is
+given in doses of 5 to 15 grains and acts as a stimulant to the
+intestinal and respiratory tracts and to the nervous system. An enema
+containing it is useful in relieving flatus. It is sometimes useful in
+hysteria, which is essentially a lack of inhibitory power, as its nasty
+properties induce sufficient inhibitory power to render its
+readministration superfluous. It may also be used in an effervescing
+draught in cases of malingering, the drug "repeating" in the mouth and
+making the malingering not worth while. The gum-resin is relished as a
+condiment in India and Persia, and is in demand in France for use in
+cookery. In the regions of its growth the whole plant is used as a fresh
+vegetable, the inner portion of the full-grown stem being regarded as a
+luxury.
+
+
+
+
+ASAF-UD-DOWLAH, nawab wazir of Oudh from 1775 to 1797, was the son of
+Shuja-ud-Dowlah, his mother and grandmother being the begums of Oudh,
+whose spoliation formed one of the chief counts in the charges against
+Warren Hastings. When Shuja-ud-Dowlah died he left two million pounds
+sterling buried in the vaults of the zenana. The widow and mother of the
+deceased prince claimed the whole of this treasure under the terms of a
+will which was never produced. When Warren Hastings pressed the nawab
+for the payment of debt due to the Company, he obtained from his mother
+a loan of 26 lakhs of rupees, for which he gave her a _jagir_ of four
+times the value; he subsequently obtained 30 lakhs more in return for a
+full acquittal, and the recognition of her _jagirs_ without interference
+for life by the Company. These _jagirs_ were afterwards confiscated on
+the ground of the begum's complicity in the rising of Chai Singh, which
+was attested by documentary evidence. The evidence now available seems
+to show that Warren Hastings did his best throughout to rescue the nawab
+from his own incapacity, and was inclined to be lenient to the begums.
+
+  See _The Administration of Warren Hastings, 1772-1785_, by G.W.
+  Forrest (1892).
+
+
+
+
+ASAPH, the eponym of the Asaphite gild of singers, one of the hereditary
+choirs that superintended the musical services of the temple at
+Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The names occur in the titles of certain
+Psalms, and the writer of the Book of Chronicles makes Asaph a seer (2
+Chron. xxix. 30), contemporary with David and Solomon, and chief of the
+singers of his time.
+
+
+
+
+ASBESTOS, a fibrous mineral from Gr. [Greek: asbestos], unquenchable, by
+transference, incombustible, in allusion to its power of resisting the
+action of fire. The word was applied by Dioscorides and other Greek
+authors to quicklime, but Pliny evidently used it in its modern sense.
+It was occasionally woven by the ancients into handkerchiefs, and, it
+has been said, into shrouds which were used in cremation to prevent the
+ashes of the corpse from mingling with the wood-ashes of the pyre.
+
+In different varieties of asbestos the fibres vary greatly in character.
+When silky and flexible they are sometimes known as mountain flax. The
+finer kinds are often termed amianthus (q.v.). When the fibres are
+naturally interwoven, so as to form a felted mass, the mineral passes
+under such trivial names as mountain leather, mountain cork, mountain
+paper, &c. The asbestos formerly used in the arts was generally a
+fibrous form of some kind of amphibole, like tremolite, or
+anthophyllite, though occasionally perhaps a pyroxene. In recent years,
+however, most of the asbestos in the market is a fibrous variety of
+serpentine, known mineralogically as chrysotile, and probably some of
+the ancient asbestos was of this character (see AMIANTHUS). Both
+minerals possess similar properties, so far as resistance to heat is
+concerned. The amphibole-asbestos, or hornblende-asbestos, is usually
+white or grey in colour, and may present great length of fibre, some of
+the Italian asbestos reaching exceptionally a length of 5 or 6 ft., but
+it is often harsh and brittle. The serpentine-asbestos occurs in narrow
+veins, yielding fibres of only 2 or 3 in. in length, but of great
+tensile strength: they are usually of a delicate silky lustre, very
+flexible and elastic, and of yellowish or greenish colour.
+
+The Canadian asbestos, which of all kinds is at present the most
+important industrially, occurs in a small belt of serpentine in the
+province of Quebec, principally near Black Lake and Thetford, where it
+was first recognized as commercially valuable about 1877. The rock is
+generally quarried, cobbed by hand, dried if necessary, crushed in
+rock-breakers, and then passed between rollers; it is reduced to a finer
+state of division by so-called fiberizers, and graded on a shaking
+screen, where the loosened fibres are sorted. The process varies in
+different mills.
+
+In the United States asbestos is worked only to a very limited extent.
+An amphibole-asbestos is obtained from Sall Mountain, Georgia; and
+asbestos has also been worked in the serpentine of Vermont. It occurs
+also in South Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts, Arizona and elsewhere.
+Dr G.P. Merrill has shown that some asbestos results from a process of
+shearing in the rocks.
+
+Formerly asbestos was obtained almost exclusively from Italy and
+Corsica, and a large quantity is still yielded by Italian workings. This
+is mostly an amphibole. It is in some cases associated with nodules of
+green garnet known as "seeds"--_Semenze dell' amianto._ Asbestos is
+widely distributed, but only in a few localities does it occur in
+sufficient abundance and purity to be worked commercially; it is found,
+for example, to a limited extent, at many localities in Tirol, Hungary
+and Russia; Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand. In the British
+Isles it is not unknown, being found among the old rocks of North Wales
+and in parts of Ireland. Byssolite or asbestoid is a blue or green
+fibrous amphibole from Dauphiny.
+
+The Asbestos Mountains in Griqualand West, Cape Colony, yield a blue
+fibrous mineral which is worked under the name of Cape asbestos. This is
+referable to the variety of amphibole called crocidolite (q.v.). It
+occurs in veins in slaty rocks, associated with jaspers and quartzites
+rich in magnetite and brown iron-ore. Their geological position is in
+the Griqua Town series, belonging to what are known in South Africa as
+the Pre-Cape rocks.
+
+Asbestos was formerly spun and woven into fabrics as a rare curiosity.
+Charlemagne is said to have possessed a tablecloth of this material,
+which when soiled was purified by being thrown into the fire. At a
+meeting of the Royal Society in 1676 a merchant from China exhibited a
+handkerchief of "salamander's wool," or _linum asbesti._ By the Eskimos
+of Labrador asbestos has been used as a lamp-wick, and it received a
+similar application in some of the sacred lamps of antiquity. In recent
+times asbestos has been applied to a great variety of uses in the
+industrial arts, and its applications are constantly increasing. Its
+economic value depends not only on its power of withstanding a high
+temperature, but also on its low thermal conductivity and its partial
+resistance to the attack of acids: hence it is used for jacketing
+boilers and steam-pipes, and as a filtering medium for corrosive
+liquids. It has also come into use as an electric insulator. It is made
+into yarn, felt, millboard, &c., and is largely employed as packing for
+joints, glands and stopcocks in machinery. Fire-proof sheathing and felt
+are used for flooring and roofing; fire-proof curtains have been made
+for the stage, and even clothing for firemen. Asbestos enters into the
+composition of fire-proof cements, plasters and paints: it is used for
+packing safes; and is made into balls with fire-clay for gas-stoves.
+Various preparations of asbestos with other materials pass in trade
+under such names as uralite, salamandrite, asbestolith, gypsine, &c.
+"Asbestic" is the name given to a Canadian product formed by crushing
+the serpentine rock containing thin seams of asbestos, and mixing the
+result with lime so as to form a plaster.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Fritz Cirkel, _Asbestos, its Occurrence, Exploitation and
+  Uses_ (Ottawa, 1905); J.H. Pratt and J.S. Diller in Annual Reports on
+  Mineral Resources, U.S. Geol. Survey; G.P. Merrill, _The Non-metallic
+  Minerals_ (New York, 1904); R.H. Jones, _Asbestos and Asbestic_
+  (London, 1897).     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+ASBJÖRNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN (1812-1885), and MOE, JÖRGEN ENGEBRETSEN
+(1813-1882), collectors of Norwegian folklore, so closely united in
+their life's work that it is unusual to name them apart. Asbjörnsen was
+born in Christiania on the 15th of January 1812; he belonged to an
+ancient family of the Gudbrandsdal, which is believed to have died with
+him. He became a student at the university in 1833, but as early as
+1832, in his twentieth year, he had begun to collect and write down all
+the fairy stories and legends which he could meet with. Later he began
+to wander on foot through the length and breadth of Norway, adding to
+his stores. Moe, who was born at Mo i Hole parsonage, in Sigdal
+Ringerike, on the 22nd of April 1813, met Asbjörnsen first when he was
+fourteen years of age. A close friendship began between them, and lasted
+to the end of their lives. In 1834 Asbjörnsen discovered that Moe had
+started independently on a search for the relics of national folklore;
+the friends eagerly compared results, and determined for the future to
+work in concert. By this time, Asbjörnsen had become by profession a
+zoologist, and with the aid of the university made a series of
+investigating voyages along the coasts of Norway, particularly in the
+Hardanger fjord. Moe, meanwhile, having left Christiania University in
+1839, had devoted himself to the study of theology, and was making a
+living as a tutor in Christiania. In his holidays he wandered through
+the mountains, in the most remote districts, collecting stories. In
+1842-1843 appeared the first instalment of the great work of the two
+friends, under the title of _Norwegian Popular Stories (Norske
+Folkeeventyr)_, which was received at once all over Europe as a most
+valuable contribution to comparative mythology as well as literature. A
+second volume was published in 1844, and a new collection in 1871. Many
+of the _Folkeeventyr_ were translated into English by Sir George Dasent
+in 1859. In 1845 Asbjörnsen published, without help from Moe, a
+collection of Norwegian fairy tales (_huldreeventyr og folkesagn_). In
+1856 the attention of Asbjörnsen was called to the deforestation of
+Norway, and he induced the government to take up this important
+question. He was appointed forest-master, and was sent by Norway to
+examine in various countries of the north of Europe the methods observed
+for the preservation of timber. From these duties, in 1876, he withdrew
+with a pension; he died in Christiania on the 6th of January 1885. From
+1841 to 1852 Moe travelled almost every summer through the southern
+parts of Norway, collecting traditions in the mountains. In 1845 he was
+appointed professor of theology in the Military School of Norway. He
+had, however, long intended to take holy orders, and in 1853 he did so,
+becoming for ten years a resident chaplain in Sigdal, and then (1863)
+parish priest of Bragernes. He was moved in 1870 to the parish of Vestre
+Aker, near Christiania, and in 1875 he was appointed bishop of
+Christiansand. In January 1882 he resigned his diocese on account of
+failing health, and died on the following 27th of March. Moe has a
+special claim on critical attention in regard to his lyrical poems, of
+which a small collection appeared in 1850. He wrote little original
+verse, but in his slender volume are to be found many pieces of
+exquisite delicacy and freshness. Moe also published a delightful
+collection of prose stories for children, _In the Well and the Churn (_I
+Bronde og i Kjćrnet), 1851; and _A Little Christmas Present (En liden
+Juleegave)_, 1860. Asbjörnsen and Moe had the advantage of an admirable
+style in narrative prose. It was usually said that the vigour came from
+Asbjörnsen and the charm from Moe, but the fact seems to be that from
+the long habit of writing in unison they had come to adopt almost
+precisely identical modes of literary expression.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASBURY, FRANCIS (1745-1816), American clergyman, was born at Hamstead
+Bridge in the parish of Handsworth, near Birmingham, in Staffordshire,
+England, on the 20th of August 1745. His parents were poor, and after a
+brief period of study in the village school of Barre, he was apprenticed
+at the age of fourteen to a maker of "buckle chapes," or tongues. It
+seems probable that his parents were among the early converts of Wesley;
+at any rate, Francis became converted to Methodism in his thirteenth
+year, and at sixteen became a local preacher. He was a simple, fluent
+speaker, and was so successful that in 1767 he was enrolled, by John
+Wesley himself, as a regular itinerant minister. In 1771 he volunteered
+for missionary work in the American colonies. When he landed in
+Philadelphia in October 1771, the converts to Methodism, which had been
+introduced into the colonies only three years before, numbered scarcely
+300. Asbury infused new life into the movement, and within a year the
+membership of the several congregations was more than doubled. In 1772
+he was appointed by Wesley "general assistant" in charge of the work in
+America, and although superseded by an older preacher, Thomas Rankin
+(1738-1810), in 1773, he remained practically in control. After the
+outbreak of the War of Independence, the Methodists, who then numbered
+several thousands, fell, unjustly, under suspicion of Loyalism,
+principally because of their refusal to take the prescribed oath; and
+many of their ministers, including Rankin, returned to England. Asbury,
+however, feeling his sympathies and duties to be with the colonies,
+remained at his post, and although often threatened, and once arrested,
+continued his itinerant preaching. The hostility of the Maryland
+authorities, however, eventually drove him into exile in Delaware, where
+he remained quietly, but not in idleness, for two years. In 1782 he was
+reappointed to supervise the affairs of the Methodist congregations in
+America. In 1784 John Wesley, in disregard of the authority of the
+Established Church, took the radical step of appointing the Rev. Thomas
+Coke (1747-1814) and Francis Asbury superintendents or "bishops" of the
+church in the United States. Dr Coke was ordained at Bristol, England,
+in September, and in the following December, in a conference of the
+churches in America at Baltimore, he ordained and consecrated Asbury,
+who refused to accept the position until Wesley's choice had been
+ratified by the conference. From this conference dates the actual
+beginning of the "Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States of
+America." To the upbuilding of this church Asbury gave the rest of his
+life, working with tireless devotion and wonderful energy. In 1785, at
+Abingdon, Maryland, he laid the corner-stone of Cokesbury College, the
+project of Dr Coke and the first Methodist Episcopal college in America;
+the college building was burned in 1795, and the college was then
+removed to Baltimore, where in 1796, after another fire, it closed, and
+in 1816 was succeeded by Asbury College, which lived for about fifteen
+years. Every year Asbury traversed a large area, mostly on horseback.
+The greatest testimony to the work that earned for him the title of the
+"Father of American Methodism" was the growth of the denomination from a
+few scattered bands of about 300 converts and 4 preachers in 1771, to a
+thoroughly organized church of 214,000 members and more than 2000
+ministers at his death, which occurred at Spottsylvania, Virginia, on
+the 31st of March 1816.
+
+  His _Journals_ (3 vols., New York, 1852), apart from their importance
+  as a history of his life work, constitute a valuable commentary on the
+  social and industrial history of the United States during the first
+  forty years of their existence. Consult also F.W. Briggs, _Bishop
+  Asbury_ (London, 1874); W.P. Strickland, _The Pioneer Bishop; or, The
+  Life and Times of Francis Asbury_ (New York, 1858); J.B. Wakeley,
+  _Heroes of Methodism_ (New York, 1856): W.C. Larrabee, _Asbury and His
+  Co-Laborers_ (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1853); H.M. Du Bose, _Francis
+  Asbury_ (Nashville, Tenn., 1909); see also under METHODISM.
+
+
+
+
+ASBURY PARK, a city of Monmouth county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
+Atlantic Ocean, about 35 m. S. of New York City (50 m. by rail). Pop.
+(1900) 4148; (1905) 4526; (1910) 10,150. It is served by the Central of
+New Jersey and the Pennsylvania railways, and by electric railway lines
+connecting it with other New Jersey coast resorts both north and south.
+Fresh-water lakes, one of which, Deal Lake, extends for some distance
+into the wooded country, form the northern and southern boundaries. It
+is one of the most popular seaside resorts on the Atlantic coast, its
+numerous hotels and cottages accommodating a summer population that
+approximates 50,000, and a large transient population in the autumn and
+winter months. There is an excellent beach, along which extends a
+board-walk about 1 m. long; the beach is owned and controlled by the
+municipality. The municipality owns and operates its water-works, water
+being obtained from artesian wells. Asbury Park was founded in 1869, was
+named in honour of the Rev. Francis Asbury, was incorporated as a
+borough in 1874, and was chartered as a city in 1897. In 1906 territory
+to the west with a population estimated at 6000 was annexed.
+
+
+
+
+ASCALON, now 'ASKALAN, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines,
+on the coast of the Mediterranean, 12 m. N. of Gaza. The place is
+mentioned several times in the Tell el-Amarna correspondence. It
+revolted from Egypt on two occasions, but was reconquered, and a
+sculpture at Thebes depicts the storming of the city. Ascalon was a
+well-fortified town, and the seat of the worship of the fish-goddess
+Derketo. Though situated in the nominal territory of the tribe of Judah,
+it was never for any length of time in the possession of the Israelites.
+The only incident in its history recorded in the Bible (the spoliation
+by Samson, Judg. xiv. 19) may possibly have actually occurred at another
+place of the same name, in the hill country of Judaea. Sennacherib took
+it in 701 B.C. The conquest of Alexander hellenized its civilization,
+and after his time it became tributary alternately to Syria and Egypt.
+Herod the Great was a native of the city, and added greatly to its
+beauty; but it suffered severely in the later wars of the Romans and
+Jews. In the 4th century it again rose to importance; and till the 7th
+century, when it was conquered by the Moslems, it was the seat of a
+bishopric and a centre of learning. During the first crusade a signal
+victory was gained by the Christians in the neighbouring plain on the
+15th of August 1099; but the city remained in the hands of the caliphs
+till 1157, when it was taken by Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, after a
+siege of five months. By Baldwin IV. it was given to his sister Sibylla,
+on her marriage with William of Montferrat in 1178. When Saladin (1187)
+had almost annihilated the Christian army in the plain of Tiberias,
+Ascalon offered but a feeble resistance to the victor. At first he
+repaired and strengthened its fortifications, but afterwards, alarmed at
+the capture of St Jean d'Acre (Acre) by Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191,
+he caused it to be dismantled. It was restored in the following year by
+the English king, but only to be again abandoned. From this time Ascalon
+lost much of its importance, and at length, in 1270, its fortifications
+were almost totally destroyed by Sultan Bibars, and its port was filled
+up with stones. The place is now a desolate heap of ruins, with remains
+of its walls and fragments of granite pillars. The surrounding country
+is well watered and very fertile.
+
+  See a paper by Guthe, "Die Ruinen Ascalons," in the _Zeitschrift_ of
+  the Deutsche Palastina-Verein, ii. 164 (translated in Palestine
+  Exploration Fund _Quarterly Statement_, 1880, p. 182). See also C.R.
+  Conder in the latter journal, 1875, p. 152.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCANIUS, in Roman legend, the son of Aeneas by Creüsa or Lavinia. From
+Livy it would appear that tradition recognized two sons of Aeneas called
+by this name, the one the son of his Trojan, the other of his Latin
+wife. According to the usual account, he accompanied his father to Italy
+on his flight from Troy. On the death of Aeneas, the government of
+Latium was left in the hands of Lavinia, Ascanius being too young to
+undertake it. After thirty years he left Lavinium, and founded Alba
+Longa. Ascanius was also called Ilus and Iulus, and the Julian gens
+claimed to be descended from him. Several more or less contradictory
+traditions may be found in Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Strabo and other
+writers.
+
+  Virg. _Aen_. ii. 666; Livy i. 3; see also Klausen. _Aeneas und die
+  Penaten_ (1840).
+
+
+
+
+ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, between 7° 53' and 8° S.,
+and 14° 18' and 14° 26' W., 800 m. N.W. of St Helena, about 7˝ m. in
+length and 6 in breadth, with an area of 38 sq. m. and a circumference
+of about 22 m. The island lies within the immediate influence of the
+south-east trade-wind. The lee side of the island is subject to the
+visitation of "rollers," which break on the shore with very great
+violence. Ascension is a volcanic mass erected on a submarine platform.
+Numerous cones exist. Green Mountain, the principal elevation, is a huge
+elliptical crater, rising 2820 ft. above the sea, while the plains or
+table-lands surrounding it vary in height from 1200 to 2000 ft. On the
+north side they sweep gradually down towards the shore, but on the south
+they terminate in bold and lofty precipices. Steep and rugged ravines
+intersect the plains, opening into small bays or coves on the shore,
+fenced with masses of compact and cellular lava; and all over the island
+are found products of volcanic action. Ascension was originally
+destitute of vegetation save on the summit of Green Mountain, which owes
+its verdure to the mists which frequently enshroud it, but the lower
+hills have been planted with grasses and shrubs. The air is clear and
+light, and the climate remarkably healthy, notwithstanding the high
+temperature--the average day temperature on the shore being 85° F., on
+Green Mountain 75° F. The average rainfall is about 20 in., March and
+April being the rainy months. Ascension is noted for the number of
+turtles and turtle eggs found on its shores, the season lasting from
+December to May or June. The turtles are caught and kept in large ponds.
+The coasts abound with a variety of fish of excellent quality, of which
+the most important are the rock-cod, the cavalli, the conger-eel and the
+"soldier." Numbers of sheep are bred on the island, and there are a few
+cattle and deer, besides goats and wild cats. Feathered game is
+abundant. Like St Helena, the island does not possess any indigenous
+vertebrate land fauna. The "wideawake" birds frequent the island in
+large numbers, and their eggs are collected and eaten. Beetles and
+land-shells are well represented. Flies, ants, mosquitoes, scorpions,
+centipedes and crickets abound. The flora includes purslane, rock roses
+and several species of ferns and mosses.
+
+The island was discovered by the Portuguese navigator, Joăo da Nova, on
+Ascension Day 1501, and was occasionally visited thereafter by ships. In
+1701 William Dampier was wrecked on its coast, and during his detention
+discovered the only spring of fresh water the island contains. Ascension
+remained uninhabited till after the arrival of Napoleon at St Helena
+(1815), when it was taken possession of by the British government, who
+sent a small garrison thither. A settlement, named George Town (locally
+known as Garrison), was made on the north-west coast, water being
+obtained from "Dampier's" springs in the Green Mountain, 6 m. distant.
+The island is under the rule of the admiralty, and was likened by Darwin
+to "a huge ship kept in first-rate order." It is governed by a naval
+captain borne on the books of the flagship of the admiral superintendent
+at Gibraltar. A depot of stores for the navy is maintained, but the
+island is used chiefly as a sanatorium. Ascension is connected by cable
+with Europe and Africa, and is visited once a month by mail steamers
+from the Cape. Formerly letters were left by passing ships in a crevice
+in one of the rocks. The population, about 300, consists of seamen,
+marines, and Krumen from Liberia.
+
+  See _Africa Pilot_, part ii., 5th ed. (London, 1901); C. Darwin,
+  _Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited during the
+  Voyage of H.M.S. "Beagle"_ (London, 1844); _Report of the Scientific
+  Results of the Voyage of the "Challenger,"_ vol. i. part 2 (London,
+  1885); and _Six Months in Ascension_, by Mrs Gill (London, 1878), an
+  excellent sketch of the island and its inhabitants. It was at
+  Ascension that Mr, afterwards Sir, David Gill determined, in 1877, the
+  solar parallax.
+
+
+
+
+ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE, one of the oecumenical festivals of the
+Christian Church, ranking in solemnity with those of Christmas, of
+Easter and of Pentecost. It is held forty days after Easter, or ten days
+before Whitsunday, in celebration of Christ's ascension into heaven
+forty days after the resurrection. It always falls on a Thursday, and
+the day is known as Ascension Day, or Holy Thursday. The festival is of
+great antiquity; and though there is no discoverable trace of it before
+the middle of the 4th century, subsequent references to it assume its
+long establishment. Thus St Augustine (_Ep. 54 ad Januar._) mentions it
+as having been kept from time immemorial and as probably instituted by
+the apostles. Chrysostom, in his homily on the ascension, mentions a
+celebration of the festival in the church of Romanesia outside Antioch,
+and Socrates (_Hist. eccles._ vii. 26) records that in the year 390 the
+people of Constantinople "of old custom" ([Greek: ex ethous]) celebrated
+the feast in a suburb of the city. As these two references suggest, the
+festival was associated with a professional pilgrimage, in commemoration
+of the passing of Christ and his apostles to the Mount of Olives; such a
+procession is described by Adamnan, abbot of Iona, as taking place at
+Jerusalem in the 7th century, when the feast was celebrated in the
+church on Mount Olivet (_de loc. sanct._ i. 22). The _Peregrinatio_ of
+Etheria (Silvia), which dates from c. A.D. 385, says that the festival
+was held in the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (Duchesne, _Chr.
+Worship_, p. 515). In the West, however, in the middle ages, the
+procession with candles and banners outside the church was taken as
+symbolical of Christ's triumphant entry into heaven.
+
+In the East the festival is known as the [Greek: analaepsis], "taking
+up," or [Greek: episozomenae], a term first used in the Cappadocian
+church, and of which the meaning has been disputed, but which probably
+signifies the feast "of completed salvation." The word _ascensio_,
+adopted in the West, implies the ascension of Christ by his own power,
+in contradistinction to the _assumptio_, or taking up into heaven of the
+Virgin Mary by the power of God.
+
+In the Roman Catholic Church the most characteristic ritual feature of
+the festival is now the solemn extinction of the paschal candle after
+the Gospel at high mass. This candle, lighted at every mass for the
+forty days after Easter, symbolizes the presence of Christ with his
+disciples, and its extinction his parting from them. The custom dates
+from 1263, and was formerly confined to the Franciscans; it was
+prescribed for the universal church by the Congregation of Rites on the
+19th of May 1697. Other customs, now obsolete, were formerly associated
+with the liturgy of this feast; e.g. the blessing of the new beans after
+the Commemoration of the Dead in the canon of the mass (Duchesne, p.
+183). In some churches, during the middle ages, an image of Christ was
+raised from the altar through a hole in the roof, through which a
+burning straw figure representing Satan was immediately thrown down.
+
+In the Anglican Church Ascension Day and its octave continue to be
+observed as a great festival, for which a special preface to the
+consecration prayer in the communion service is provided, as in the case
+of Christmas, Easter, Whitsunday, and Trinity Sunday. The celebration of
+the Feast of the Ascension was also retained in the Lutheran churches as
+warranted by Holy Scripture.
+
+  See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (1900), s. _"Himmelfahrtsfest"_;
+  L. Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (2nd Eng. ed., London, 1904); _The
+  Catholic Encyclopaedia_ (London and New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+ASCETICISM, the theory and practice of bodily abstinence and
+self-mortification, generally religious. The word is derived from the
+Gr. verb [Greek: askeo], "I practise," whence the noun [Greek: askaesis]
+and the adjective [Greek: askaetikos]; and it embodies a metaphor taken
+from the ancient wrestling-place or palaestra, where victory rewarded
+those who had best trained their bodies. Not a few other technical terms
+of Greek philosophic asceticism, used in the first instance by Cynics
+and Neo-pythagoreans, and then continued among the Greek Jews and
+Christians, were metaphors taken from athletic contests--but only
+metaphors, for all asceticism, worthy of the name, has a moral purport,
+and is based on the eternal contrast of the proposition, "This is
+right," with the proposition, "That is pleasant." The ascetic instinct
+is probably as old as humanity, yet we must not forget that early
+religious practices are apt to be deficient in lofty spiritual meaning,
+many things being esteemed holy that are from a modern point of view
+trifling and even obscene. We may therefore expect in primitive
+asceticism to find many abstentions and much self-torture apparently
+valueless for the training of character and discipline of the feelings,
+which are the essence of any healthy asceticism. Nevertheless these
+non-moral _taboos_ or restraints may have played a part in building up
+in us that faculty of preferring the larger good to the impulse of the
+moment which is the note of real civilization. Aristotle in his _Ethics_
+defines, as the barbarian's ideal of life, "the living as one likes."
+Yet nothing is less true; for the savage, more than the civilized man,
+is tied down at every step with superstitious scruples and restrictions
+barely traceable in higher civilizations except as primitive survivals.
+It is not that savages are devoid of the ascetic instinct. It is on the
+contrary over-developed in them, but ill-informed and working in ways
+unessential or even morally harmful. It is the note of every great
+religious reformer, Moses, Buddha, Paul, Mani, Mahomet, St Francis,
+Luther, to enlighten and direct it to higher aims, substituting a true
+personal holiness for a ritual purity or _taboo_, which at the best was
+viewed as a kind of physical condition and contagion, inherent as well
+in things and animals as in man.
+
+It is useful, therefore, in a summary sketch of asceticism, to begin
+with the facts as they can be observed among less advanced races, or as
+mere survivals among people who have reached the level of genuine moral
+reflection; and from this basis to proceed to a consideration of
+self-denial consciously pursued as a method of ethical perfection. The
+latter is as a rule less cruel and rigorous than primitive forms of
+asceticism. Under this head fall the following:--Fasting, or abstention
+from certain meats and drinks; denial of sexual instinct; subjection of
+the body to physical discomforts, such as nakedness, vigils, sleeping on
+the bare ground, tattooing, deformation of skull, teeth, feet, &c., vows
+of silence to be observed throughout life or during pilgrimages,
+avoidance of baths, of hair-cutting and of clean raiment, living in a
+cave; actual self-infliction of pain, by scourging, branding, cutting
+with knives, wearing of hair shirts, fire-walking, burial alive, hanging
+up of oneself by hooks plunged into the skin, suspension of weights by
+such hooks to the tenderer parts of the body, self-mutilation and
+numerous other, often ingenious, modes of torture. Such customs repose
+on various superstitions; for example, the self-mutilation of the Galli
+or priests of Cybele was probably a magical ceremony intended to
+fertilize the soil and stimulate the crops. Others of the practices
+enumerated, probably the greater part of them, spring from demonological
+beliefs.
+
+Fasting (q.v.) is used in primitive asceticism for a variety of reasons,
+among which the following deserve notice. Certain animals and vegetables
+are _taboo_, i.e. too holy, or--what among Semites and others was the
+same thing--too defiling and unclean, to be eaten. Thus in Leviticus xi.
+the Jews are forbidden to eat animals other than cloven-footed
+ruminants; thus the camel, coney, hare and swine were forbidden; so also
+any water organisms that had not fins and scales, and a large choice of
+birds, including swan, pelican, stork, heron and hoopoe. All winged
+creeping things that have four feet were equally abominable. Lastly, the
+weasel, mouse and most lizards were _taboo_. All or nearly all of these
+were at one time totem animals among one or another of the Semitic
+tribes, and were not eaten because primitive men will not eat animals
+between which and themselves and their gods they believe a peculiar tie
+of kinship to exist. Men do not eat an animal for which they have a
+reverential dread, or if they eat it at all, it is only in a sacramental
+feast and in order to absorb into themselves its life and holy
+properties. Such abstinences as the above, though based on _taboo_, that
+is, on a reluctance to eat the totem or sacred animal, are yet ascetic
+in so far as they involve much self-denial. No flesh is more wholesome
+or succulent than beef, yet the Egyptians and Phoenicians, says Porphyry
+(_de Abst._ ii. 11), would rather eat human flesh than that of the cow,
+and so would two hundred and fifty millions of modern Hindus. The
+privation involved in abstention from the flesh of the swine, a _taboo_
+hardly less widespread, is obvious.
+
+Similar prohibitions are common in Africa, where fetish priests are
+often reduced to a diet of herbs and roots. That such dietary
+restrictions were merely ceremonial and superstitious, and not intended
+to prevent the consumption of meats which would revolt modern tastes, is
+certain from the fact that the Levitical law freely allowed the eating
+of locusts, grasshoppers, crickets and cockroaches, while forbidding the
+consumption of rabbits, hares, storks, swine, &c. The Pythagoreans were
+forbidden to eat beans.
+
+Another widespread reason for avoiding flesh diet altogether was the
+fear of absorbing the irrational soul of the animal, which especially
+resided in the blood. Hence the rule not to eat meats strangled, except
+in sacramental meals when the god inherent in the animal was partaken
+of. It is equally a soul or spirit in wine which inspires the
+intoxicated; the old Egyptian kings avoided wine at table and in
+libations, because it was the blood of rebels who had fought with the
+gods, and out of whose rotting bodies grew the vines; to drink the blood
+was to imbibe the soul of these rebels, and the frenzy of intoxication
+which followed was held to be possession by their spirits. The medieval
+Jews also held that there is a cardiac demon in wine which takes
+possession of drunken men; and the Mahommedan prohibition of
+wine-drinking is based on a similar superstition. The avoidance of wine,
+therefore, by Rechabites, Nazirites, Arab dervishes and Pythagoreans,
+and also of leaven in bread, is parallel to and explicable in the same
+way as abstention from flesh. Porphyry (_de Abst._ i. 19) acquaints us
+with another widespread scruple against flesh diet. It was this, that
+the souls of men transmigrated into animals, so that if you ate these,
+you might consume your own kind, cannibal-wise. Contemporary meat-eaters
+set themselves to combat this prejudice, and argued that it was a pious
+duty to kill animals and so release the human souls imprisoned. In the
+same tract Porphyry relates (ii. 48) how wizards acquired the mantic
+powers of certain birds, such as ravens and hawks, by swallowing their
+hearts. The soul of the bird, he explains, enters them with its flesh,
+and endows them with power of divination. The lover of wisdom, who is
+priest of the universal God, rather than risk the taking into himself of
+inferior souls and polluting demons, will abstain from eating animals.
+Such is Porphyry's argument.
+
+The same fear of imbibing the irrational soul of animals, and thereby
+reinforcing the lower appetites and instincts of the human being,
+inspired the vegetarianism of Apollonius of Tyana and of the Jewish
+Therapeutae, who in their sacred meals were careful to have a table free
+from blood-containing meats; and the fear of absorbing the animal's
+psychic qualities equally motived the Jewish and early Christian rule
+against eating things strangled. It was an early belief, which long
+survived among the Manichaean sects, that fish, being born in and of the
+waters, and without any sexual connexion on the part of other fishes are
+free from the taint which pollutes all animals _quae copulatione
+generantur_. Fish, therefore, unlike flesh, could be safely eaten. Here
+we have the origin of the Catholic rule of fasting, seldom understood by
+those who observe it. The same scruple against flesh-eating is conveyed
+in the beautiful confession, in the _Cretans_ of Euripides, of one who
+had been initiated in the mysteries of Orpheus and became a "Bacchos."
+The last lines of this, as rendered by Dr Gilbert Murray, are as
+follows:--
+
+  "Robed in pure white, I have borne me clean
+   From man's vile birth and coffined clay,
+   And exiled from my lips alway
+   Touch of all meat where life hath been."
+
+This Orphic fast from meat was only broken by an annual sacramental
+banquet, originally, perhaps, of human, but later of raw bovine flesh.
+
+The Manichaeans held that in every act of begetting, human or otherwise,
+a soul is condemned afresh to a cycle of misery by imprisonment in
+flesh--a thoroughly Indian notion, under the influence of which their
+perfect or elect ones scrupulously abstained from flesh. The prohibition
+of taking life, which they took over from the Farther East, in itself
+entailed fasting from flesh. A fully initiated Manichaean would not even
+cut his own salad, but employed a catechumen to commit on his behalf
+this act of murder, for which he subsequently shrived him.
+
+We come to a third widespread reason for fasting, common among savages.
+Famished persons are liable to morbid excitement, and fall into
+imaginative ecstasies, in the course of which they see visions and
+spectres, converse with gods and angels, and are the recipients of
+supernatural revelations. Accordingly King Saul "ate no bread all the
+day nor all the night" in which the witch of Endor revealed to him the
+ghost of Samuel. Weak and famished, he hardly wanted to eat the fatted
+calf when the vision was over. Among the North American Indians ecstatic
+fasting is regularly practised. A faster writes down his visions and
+revelations for a whole season. They are then examined by the elders of
+the tribe, and if events have verified them, he is recognized as a
+supernaturally gifted being, and rewarded with chieftaincy. All over the
+world fasting is a recognized mode of evoking, consulting and also of
+overcoming the spirit world. This is why the Zulus and other primitive
+races distrust a medicine man who is not an ascetic and lean with
+fasting. In the Semitic East it is an old belief that a successful fast
+in the wilderness of forty days and nights gives power over the Djinns.
+The Indian _yogi_ fasts till he sees face to face all the gods of his
+Pantheon; the Indian magician fasts twelve days before producing rain or
+working any cure. The Bogomils fasted till they saw the Trinity face to
+face. From the first, fasting was practised in the church for similar
+reason. In the _Shepherd of Hermas_ a vision of the church rewards
+frequent fasts and prayer; and it is related in extra-canonical sources
+that James the Less vowed that he would fast until he too was vouchsafed
+a vision of the risen Lord. After a long and rigorous fast the Lord
+appeared to him. Not a few saints were rewarded for their fasting by
+glimpses of the beatific vision. Dr Tylor writes on this point as
+follows (_Prim. Cult._ ii. 415): "Bread and meat would have robbed the
+ascetic of many an angel's visit: the opening of the refectory door must
+many a time have closed the gates of heaven to his gaze."
+
+Among the Semites and Tatars worshippers lacerate themselves before the
+god. So in I Kings xviii. 28 the priests of Baal engaged in a
+rain-making ceremony, gashed themselves with knives and lances till the
+blood gushed out upon them. The Syriac word _ethkashshaph_, which means
+literally to "cut oneself," is the regular equivalent of to "make
+supplication." Among Greeks and Arabs, mourners also cut themselves with
+knives and scratched their faces; the Hebrew law forbade such mourning,
+and we find the prohibition repeated in many canons of the Eastern
+churches. At first sight these rites seem intended to call down the pity
+of heaven on man, but as Robertson Smith points out, their real import
+was by shedding blood on a holy stone or in a holy place to tie or renew
+a blood-bond between the God and his faithful ones. We have no clear
+information about the mind of the Flagellants, who in 1259, and again in
+1349, swarmed through the streets of European cities, naked and
+thrashing themselves, till the blood ran, with leather thongs and iron
+whips. They were penitents, and no doubt imbued with the ancient belief
+that without the shedding of blood there is no remission of sins.
+
+Asceticism then in its origin was usually not ascetic in a modern sense,
+that is, not ethical. It was rather of the nature of the savage _taboo_
+(q.v.), the outcome of totemistic beliefs or a mode of averting the
+contaminating presence of djinns and demons. Above all, fasting was a
+mode of preparing oneself for the sacramental eating of a sacred animal,
+and as such often assisted by use of purgatives and aperients. It was
+essential in the old Greek rites of averting the _Kęres_ or djinns, the
+ill regulated ghosts who return to earth and molest the living, to
+abstain from flesh. The Pythagoreans and Orphic _mystae_ so abstained
+all their life long, and Porphyry eloquently insists on such a
+discipline for all who "are not content merely to talk about Reason, but
+are really intent on casting aside the body and living through Reason
+with Truth. Naked and without the tunic of the flesh these will enter
+the arena and strive in the Olympic contest of the soul."
+
+It is time to pass on to Buddhist asceticism, in its essence a more
+ethical and philosophical product than some of the forms so far
+considered. The keynote of Buddhist asceticism is deliverance from life
+and its inevitable suffering. Once at a village where he rested the
+Blessed One (Buddha) addressed his brethren and said: "It is through not
+understanding and grasping four Noble Truths, O brethren, that we have
+had to run so long, to wander so long in this weary path of
+transmigration, both you and I." These noble truths were about sorrow,
+its cause, its cessation and the path which leads to that cessation.
+Once they are grasped the craving for existence is rooted out, that
+which leads to renewed existence is destroyed, and there is no more
+birth. The Buddha believed he had a way of Truth, which if an elect
+disciple possessed he might say of himself, "Hell is destroyed for me,
+and rebirth as an animal, or a ghost, or in any place of woe. I am
+converted, I am no longer liable to be reborn in a state of suffering,
+and am assured of final salvation."
+
+Suffering, said the sage in his great sermon at Benares, is inseparable
+from birth and old age. Sickness is suffering, so is death, so is union
+with the unloved, and separation from the loved; not to obtain what one
+desires is suffering; the entire fivefold clinging to the earthly is
+suffering. Its origin is the thirst for being which leads from birth to
+birth, together with lust and desire, which find gratification here and
+there; the thirst for pleasures, for being, for power. This thirst must
+be extinguished by complete annihilation of desire, by letting it go,
+expelling it, separating oneself from it, giving it no room. This
+extinction is achieved in eight ways, namely rectitude of faith,
+resolve, speech, action, living, effort, thought, self-concentration.
+
+In this gospel we must be done with the outer world, participation in
+which is not the self, yet means for the self birth and death,
+appetites, longings, emotions, change and suffering, pleasure and pain.
+He that has put off all lust and desire, all hope and fear, all will to
+exist as a sinful, because a sentient, being, has won to the heaven of
+extinction or Nirvana. He may still tread the earth, but he is a saint
+or Brahman, is in heaven, has quitted the transient and enjoys eternity.
+
+Such was the Buddha's gospel, as his most ancient scriptures enunciate
+it. Nirvana is constantly defined in them as supreme happiness. It is
+not even clear how far, if we interpret it strictly, this philosophy
+leaves any self to be happy. However this be, its practical expression
+is the life of the monk who has separated himself from the world. Five
+commandments must be observed by him who would even approach the higher
+life of saint and ascetic. They are these: to kill no living thing; not
+to lay hands on another's property; not to touch another's wife; not to
+speak what is untrue; not to drink intoxicating drinks.
+
+Though couched in the negative, these rules must be interpreted in the
+amplest and widest sense by all believers. The Order, however, which the
+would-be ascetic can enter by regular initiation, when he is twenty
+years of age, entails a discipline much more severe. He has gone forth
+from home into homelessness, and has not where to lay his head. He must
+eat only the morsels he gets by begging; must dress in such rags as he
+can pick up; must sleep under trees. Mendicancy is his recognized way of
+life. Furthermore, he must abstain all his life from sexual intercourse;
+he may not take even a blade of grass without permission of the owner;
+he must not kill even a worm or ant; he must not boast of his
+perfection. In practice the lives of Buddhist monks are not so squalid
+as these rules would lead us to suppose. Thanks to the reverent charity
+of the laymen, they do not live much worse than Benedictine monks; and
+the prohibition to live in houses does not extend to caves. Everywhere
+in India and Ceylon they hollowed out cells and churches in the cliffs
+and rocks, which are the wonder of the European tourist.
+
+But long before the advent of Buddhism, the hermit, or wandering beggar,
+was a familiar figure in India. No formal initiation was imposed on the
+would-be ascetic, save (in the case of young men) the duty to live at
+first in his teacher's house. One who had thus fulfilled the duties of
+the student order must "go forth remaining chaste," says the
+_Apastamba_, ii. 9. 8. He shall then "live without a fire, without a
+house, without pleasures, without protection; remaining silent and
+uttering speech only on the occasion of the daily recitation of the
+Veda; begging so much food only in the village as will sustain his life,
+he shall wander about, neither caring for this world nor for heaven. He
+shall only wear clothes thrown away by others. Some declare that he
+shall even go naked. Abandoning truth and falsehood, pleasure and pain,
+the Vedas, this world and the next, he shall seek the Universal Soul, in
+knowledge of which standeth eternal salvation."
+
+Such a life was specially recommended for one who has lived the life of
+a householder, and, having begotten sons according to the sacred law and
+offered sacrifices, desires in his old age to abandon worldly objects
+and direct his mind to final liberation. He leaves his wife, if she will
+not accompany him, and goes forth into the forest, committing her and
+his house to his sons. He must indeed take with him the sacred fire and
+implements for domestic sacrifice, but until death overtakes him he must
+wander silent, alone, possessing no hearth nor dwelling, begging his
+food in the villages, firm of purpose, with a potsherd for an alms bowl,
+the roots of trees for a dwelling, and clad in coarse worn out garments.
+"Let him not desire to die, let him not desire to live; let him wait for
+his appointed time, as a servant waits for the payment of his wages. Let
+him drink water purified by straining with a cloth, let him utter speech
+purified by truth, let him keep his heart pure. Let him patiently bear
+hard words, let him not insult anybody, let him not become any one's
+enemy for the sake of this perishable body.... Let him reflect on the
+transmigrations of men, caused by their sinful deeds, on their falling
+into hell, and on their torments in the world of Yama.... A twice-born
+man who becomes an ascetic thus shakes off sin here below and reaches
+the highest Brahman" (_Laws of Manu_, by G. Bühler, vi. 85).
+
+This old-world wisdom of the Hindus, a thousand years before our era, is
+worthily to be paralleled from the Manichaeism of about the year 400.
+Augustine has preserved (_contra Faustum_, v. 1) the portraiture of a
+Manichaean elect as drawn by himself:--
+
+  "I have given up father and mother, wife, children and all else that
+  the gospel bids us, and do you ask if I accept the gospel? Are you
+  then still ignorant of what the word gospel means? It is nothing else
+  than the preaching and precept of Christ. I have cast away gold and
+  silver, and have ceased to carry even copper in my belt, being content
+  with my daily bread, nor caring for the morrow, nor anxious how my
+  belly shall be filled or my body clothed; and do you ask me if I
+  accept the gospel? You behold in me those beatitudes of Christ which
+  make up the gospel, and you ask me if I accept it. You behold me
+  gentle, a peacemaker, pure of heart, a mourner, hungering, thirsting,
+  bearing persecutions and hatreds for righteousness' sake, and do you
+  doubt whether I accept the gospel.... All that was mine I have given
+  up, father, mother, wife, children, gold, silver, eating, drinking,
+  delights, pleasures. Deem this a sufficient answer to your question
+  and deem yourself on the way to be blessed, if you have not been
+  scandalized in me."
+
+The Greek Cynics (see CYNICS) played a great part in the history of
+Asceticism, and they were so much the precursors of the Christian
+hermits that descriptions of them in profane literature have been
+mistaken for pictures of early monasticism. In striving to imitate the
+rugged strength and independence of their master Socrates, they went to
+such extremes as rather to caricature him. They affected to live like
+beggars, bearing staff and wallet, owning nothing, renouncing pleasures,
+riches, honours. For older thinkers like Plato and Aristotle the perfect
+life was that of the citizen and householder; but the Cynics were
+individualists, citizens of the world without loyalty or respect for the
+ancient city state, the decay of which was coincident with their rise.
+Their zeal for renunciation often extended not to pleasures, marriage
+and property alone, but to cleanliness, knowledge and good manners as
+well, and in this respect also they were the forerunners of later monks.
+
+Philo (20 B.C.-A.D. 40) has left us many pictures of the life which to
+his mind impersonated the highest wisdom, and they are all inspired by
+the more respectable sort of cynicism, which had taken deep root among
+Greek Jews of the day. One such picture merits citation from his tract
+_On Change of Names_ (vol. i. 583, ed. Mangey): "All this company of the
+good and wise have of their own free will divested themselves of too
+copious wealth; nay, have spurned the things dear to the flesh. For of
+good habit and lusty are athletes, since they have fortified against
+the soul the body which should be its servant; but the disciples of
+wisdom are pale and wasted, and in a manner reduced to skeletons,
+because they have sacrificed the whole of their bodily strength to the
+faculties of the soul."
+
+His own favourite ascetics, the Therapeutae, whose chief centre was in
+Egypt, had renounced property and all its temptations, and fled,
+irrevocably abandoning brothers, children, wives, parents, throngs of
+kinsmen, intimacy of friends, the fatherlands where they were born and
+bred (see THERAPEUTAE). Here we have the ideal of early Christian
+renunciation at work, but apart from the influence of Jesus. In the
+pages of Epictetus the same ideal is constantly held up to us.
+
+In the Christian Church there was from the earliest age a leaning to
+excessive asceticism, and it needed a severe struggle on the part of
+Paul, and of the Catholic teachers who followed him, to secure for the
+baptized the right to be married, to own property, to engage in war and
+commerce, or to assume public office. One and all of the permanent
+institutions of society were condemned by the early enthusiasts,
+especially by those who looked forward to a speedy advent of the
+millennium, as alien to the kingdom of God and as impediments to the
+life of grace.
+
+Marriage and property had already been eschewed in the Jewish Essene and
+Therapeutic sects, and in Christianity the name of Encratite was given
+to those who repudiated marriage and the use of wine. They did not form
+a sect, but represented an impulse felt everywhere. In early and popular
+apocryphal histories the apostles are represented as insisting that
+their converts should either not contract wedlock or should dissolve the
+tie if already formed. This is the plot of the _Acts of Thecla_, a story
+which probably goes back to the first century. Repudiation of the tie by
+fervent women, betrothed or already wives, occasioned much domestic
+friction and popular persecution. In the Syriac churches, even as late
+as the 4th century, the married state seems to have been regarded as
+incompatible with the perfection of the initiated. Renunciation of the
+state of wedlock was anyhow imposed on the faithful during the lengthy,
+often lifelong, terms of penance imposed upon them for sins committed;
+and later, when monkery took the place, in a church become worldly,
+partly of the primitive baptism and partly of that rigorous penance
+which was the rebaptism and medicine of the lapsed, celibacy and
+virginity were held essential thereto, no less than renunciation of
+property and money-making.
+
+Together with the rage for virginity went the institution of _virgines
+subintroductae_, or of spiritual wives; for it was often assumed that
+the grace of baptism restored the original purity of life led by Adam
+and Eve in common before the Fall. Such rigours are encouraged in the
+_Shepherd of Hermas_, a book which emanated from Rome and up to the 4th
+century was read in church. They were common in the African churches,
+where they led to abuses which taxed the energy even of a Cyprian. They
+were still rife in Antioch in 260. We detect them in the Celtic church
+of St Patrick, and, as late as the 7th century, among the Celtic elders
+of the north of France. In the Syriac church as late as 340, such
+relations prevailed between the "Sons and daughters of the
+Resurrection." It continued among the Albigenses and other dissident
+sects of the middle ages, among whom it served a double purpose; for
+their elders were thus not only able to prove their own chastity, but to
+elude the inquisitors, who were less inclined to suspect a man of the
+catharism which regarded marriage as the "greater adultery" (_maius
+adulterium_) if they found him cohabiting (in appearance at least) with
+a woman. There was hardly an early council, great or small, that did not
+condemn this custom, as well as the other one, still more painful to
+think of, of self-emasculation. In the Catholic church, however, common
+sense prevailed, and those who desired to follow the Encratite ideal
+repaired to the monasteries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--E.B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (London, 1903);
+  Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_ (London, 1901); J.E.
+  Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_; F. Max Müller,
+  _The Sacred Books of the East_; Victor Henry, _La Magie dans l'Inde
+  antique_; J.G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_ (London, 1900), and _Adonis,
+  Attis, Osiris_ (London, 1906); Georges Lafay, _Culte des divinitęs
+  d'Alexandrie_ (Paris, 1884); Döllinger, _Sectengeschichte des
+  Mittelalters_ (Munich, 1890); Fr. Cumont, _Mysteries of Mithra_
+  (Chicago, 1903); Zöckler, _Gesch. der Ascese_ (1863). See also under
+  PURIFICATION. Goldziher, "De l'ascetisme aux premiers temps de
+  l'Islam," in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_ (1898), p. 314;
+  Muratori, _De Synisactis et Agapetis_ (Pavia, 1709); Jas. Martineau,
+  _Types of Ethical Theory_ (Oxford, 1885); T.H. Green, _Prolegomena to
+  Ethics_ (Oxford, 1883); Franz Cumont, _Les Religions orientales dans
+  le paganisme romain_ (Paris, 1907); Porphyrius, _De Abstinentia_;
+  Plutarchus, _De Carnium Esu_.     (F. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCHAFFENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the
+right bank of the Main, at its confluence with the Aschaff, near the
+foot of the Spessart, 26 m. by rail S.E. of Frankfort-On-Main. Pop.
+(1900) 18,091; (1905) 25,275. Its chief buildings are the Johannisburg,
+built (1605-1614) by Archbishop Schweikard of Cronberg, which contains a
+library with a number of _incunabula_, a collection of engravings and
+paintings; the _Stiftskirche_, or cathedral, founded in 980 by Otto of
+Bavaria, but dating in the main from the early 12th and the 13th
+centuries, in which are preserved various monuments by the Vischers, and
+a sarcophagus, with the relics of St Margaret (1540); the Capuchin
+hospital; a theatre, which was formerly the house of the Teutonic order;
+and several mansions of the German nobility. The town, which has been
+remarkable for its educational establishments since the 10th century,
+has a gymnasium, lyceum, seminarium and other schools. There is an
+archaeological museum in the old abbey buildings. The graves of Klemens
+Brentano and his brother Christian (d. 1851) are in the churchyard; and
+Wilhelm Heinse is buried in the town. Coloured and white paper,
+ready-made clothing, cellulose, tobacco, lime and liqueurs are the chief
+manufactures, while a considerable export trade is done down the Main in
+wood, cattle and wine.
+
+Aschaffenburg, called in the middle ages Aschafaburg and also Askenburg,
+was originally a Roman settlement. The 10th and 23rd Roman legions had
+their station here, and on the ruins of their _castrum_ the Frankish
+mayors of the palace built a castle. Bonifacius erected a chapel to St
+Martin, and founded a Benedictine monastery. A stone bridge over the
+Main was built by Archbishop Willigis in 989. Adalbert increased the
+importance of the town in various ways about 1122. In 1292 a synod was
+held here, and in 1474 an imperial diet, preliminary to that of Vienna,
+in which the concordat was decided which has therefore been sometimes
+called the _Aschaffenburg Concordat_.
+
+The town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War, being held in
+turn by the various belligerents. In 1842-1849, King Louis built himself
+to the west of the town a country house, called the _Pompeianum_, from
+its being an imitation of the house of Castor and Pollux at Pompeii. In
+1866 the Prussians inflicted a severe defeat on the Austrians in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+The principality of Aschaffenburg, deriving its name from the city,
+comprehended an area of 654 English sq. m. It formed part of the
+electorate of Mainz, and in 1803 was made over to the archchancellor,
+Archbishop Charles of Dalberg. In 1806 it was annexed to the grand-duchy
+of Frankfort; and in 1814 was transferred to Bavaria, in virtue of a
+treaty concluded on the 19th of June between that power and Austria.
+With lower Franconia, it now forms a district of the kingdom of Bavaria.
+
+
+
+
+ASCHAM, ROGER (c. 1515-1568), English scholar and writer, was born at
+Kirby Wiske, a village in the North Riding of Yorkshire, near
+Northallerton, about the year 1515. His name would be more properly
+spelt Askham, being derived, doubtless, from Askham in the West Riding.
+He was the third son of John Ascham, steward to Lord Scrope of Bolton.
+The family name of his mother Margaret is unknown, but she is said to
+have been well connected. The authority for this statement, as for most
+others concerning Ascham's early life, is Edward Grant, headmaster of
+Westminster, who collected and edited his letters and delivered a
+panegyrical oration on his life in 1576.
+
+Ascham was educated not at school, but in the house of Sir Humphry
+Wingfield, a barrister, and in 1533 speaker of the House of Commons, as
+Ascham himself tells us, in the _Toxophilus_, p. 120 (not, as by a
+mistake which originated with Grant and has been repeated ever since,
+Sir Anthony Wingfield, who was nephew of the speaker). Sir Humphry
+"ever loved and used to have many children brought up in his house,"
+where they were under a tutor named R. Bond. Their sport was archery,
+and Sir Humphry "himself would at term times bring down from London both
+bows and shafts and go with them himself to the field and see them
+shoot." Hence Ascham's earliest English work, the _Toxophilus_, the
+importance which he attributed to archery in educational establishments,
+and probably the provision for archery in the statutes of St Albans,
+Harrow and other Elizabethan schools. From this private tuition Ascham
+was sent "about 1530," at the age, it is said, of fifteen, to St John's
+College, Cambridge, then the largest and most learned college in either
+university. Here he fell under the influence of John Cheke, who was
+admitted a fellow in Ascham's first year, and Sir Thomas Smith. His
+guide and friend was Robert Pember, "a man of the greatest learning and
+with an admirable facility in the Greek tongue." On his advice he
+practised seriously the precept embodied in the saying, "I know nothing
+about the subject, I have not even lectured on it," and "to learn Greek
+more quickly, while still a boy, taught Greek to boys." In Latin he
+specially studied Cicero and Caesar. He became B.A. on the 18th of
+February 1534/5. Dr Nicholas Metcalfe was then master of the college, "a
+papist, indeed, and yet if any young man given to the new learning as
+they termed it, went beyond his fellows," he "lacked neither open
+praise, nor private exhibition." He procured Ascham's election to a
+fellowship, "though being a new bachelor of arts, I chanced among my
+companions to speak against the Pope ... after grievous rebuke and some
+punishment, open warning was given to all the fellows, none to be so
+hardy, as to give me his voice at that election." The day of election
+Ascham regarded as his "birthday," and "the whole foundation of the poor
+learning I have and of all the furtherance that hitherto elsewhere I
+have obtained." He took his M.A. degree on the 3rd of July 1537. He
+stayed for some time at Cambridge taking pupils, among whom was William
+Grindal, who in 1544 became tutor to Princess Elizabeth. Ascham himself
+cultivated music, acquired fame for a beautiful handwriting, and
+lectured on mathematics. Before 1540, when the Regius professorship of
+Greek was established, Ascham "was paid a handsome salary to profess the
+Greek tongue in public," and held also lectures in St John's College. He
+obtained from Edward Lee, then archbishop of York, a pension of Ł2 a
+year, in return for which Ascham translated Oecumenius' Commentaries on
+the Pauline Epistles. But the archbishop, scenting heresy in some
+passage relating to the marriage of the clergy, sent it back to him,
+with a present indeed, but with something like a reprimand, to which
+Ascham answered with an assurance that he was "no seeker after
+novelties," as his lectures showed. He was on safer ground in writing in
+1542-1543 a book, which he told Sir William Paget in the summer of 1544
+was in the press, "on the art of Shooting." This was no doubt suggested
+partly by the act of parliament 33 Henry VIII. c. 9, "an acte for
+mayntenaunce of Artyllarie and debarringe of unlawful games," requiring
+every one under sixty, of good health, the clergy, judges, &c.,
+excepted, "to use shooting in the long bow," and fixing the price at
+which bows were to be sold. Under the title of _Toxophilus_ he presented
+it to Henry VIII. at Greenwich soon after his triumphant return from the
+capture of Boulogne, and promptly received a grant of a pension of Ł10 a
+year, equal to some Ł200 a year of our money. A novelty of the book was
+that the author had "written this Englishe matter in the Englishe tongue
+for Englishe men," though he thought it necessary to defend himself by
+the argument that what "the best of the realm think it honest to use" he
+"ought not to suppose it vile for him to write." It is a Platonic
+dialogue between Toxophilus and Philologus, and nowadays its chief
+interest lies in its incidental remarks. It may probably claim to have
+been the model for Izaak Walton's _Compleat Angler._
+
+From 1541, or earlier, Ascham acted as letter-writer to the university
+and also to his college. Perhaps the best specimen of his skill was the
+letter written to the protector Somerset in 1548 on behalf of Sedbergh
+school, which was attached to St John's College by the founder, Dr
+Lupton, in 1525, and the endowment of which had been confiscated under
+the Chantries Act. In 1546 Ascham was elected public orator by the
+university on Sir John Cheke's retirement.
+
+Shortly after the beginning of the reign of Edward VI., Ascham made
+public profession of Protestant opinions in a disputation on the
+doctrine of the Mass, begun in his own college and then removed for
+greater publicity to the public schools of the university, where it was
+stopped by the vice-chancellor. Thereon Ascham wrote a letter of
+complaint to Sir William Cecil. This stood him in good stead. In January
+1548, Grindal, the princess Elizabeth's tutor, died. Ascham had already
+corresponded with the princess, and in one of his letters says that he
+returns her pen which he has mended. Through Cecil and at the princess's
+own wish he was selected as her tutor against another candidate pressed
+by Admiral Seymour and Queen Katherine. Ascham taught Elizabeth--then
+sixteen years old--for two years, chiefly at Cheshunt. In a letter to
+Sturm, the Strassburg schoolmaster, he praises her "beauty, stature,
+wisdom and industry. She talks French and Italian as well as English:
+she has often talked to me readily and well in Latin and moderately so
+in Greek. When she writes Greek and Latin nothing is more beautiful than
+her handwriting ... she read with me almost all Cicero and great part of
+Titus Livius: for she drew all her knowledge of Latin from those two
+authors. She used to give the morning to the Greek Testament and
+afterwards read select orations of Isocrates and the tragedies of
+Sophocles. To these I added St Cyprian and Melanchthon's Commonplaces."
+In 1550 Ascham quarrelled with Elizabeth's steward and returned to
+Cambridge. Cheke then procured him the secretaryship to Sir Richard
+Morrison (Moryson), appointed ambassador to Charles V. It was on his way
+to join Morrison that he paid his celebrated morning call on Lady Jane
+Grey at Bradgate, where he found her reading Plato's _Phaedo_, while
+every one else was out hunting.
+
+The embassy went to Louvain, where he found the university very inferior
+to Cambridge, then to Innsbruck and Venice. Ascham read Greek with the
+ambassador four or five days a week. His letters during the embassy,
+which was recalled on Mary's accession, were published in English in
+1553, as a "Report" on Germany. Through Bishop Gardiner he was appointed
+Latin secretary to Queen Mary with a pension of Ł20 a year. His
+Protestantism he must have quietly sunk, though he told Sturm that "some
+endeavoured to hinder the flow of Gardiner's benevolence on account of
+his religion." Probably his never having been in orders tended to his
+safety. On the 1st of June 1554 he married Margaret Howe, whom he
+described as niece of Sir R. (? J., certainly not, as has been said,
+Henry) Wallop. By her he had two sons. From his frequent complaints of
+his poverty then and later, he seems to have lived beyond his income,
+though, like most courtiers, he obtained divers lucrative leases of
+ecclesiastical and crown property. In 1555 he resumed his studies with
+Princess Elizabeth, reading in Greek the orations of Aeschines and
+Demosthenes' _De Corona_. Soon after Elizabeth's accession, on the 5th
+of October 1559, he was given, though a layman, the canonry and prebend
+of Wetwang in York minster. In 1563 he began the work which has made him
+famous, _The Scholemaster_. The occasion of it was, he tells us (though
+he is perhaps merely imitating Boccaccio), that during the "great
+plague" at London in 1563 the court was at Windsor, and there on the
+10th of December he was dining with Sir William Cecil, secretary of
+state, and other ministers. Cecil said he had "strange news; that divers
+scholars of Eaton be run away from the schole for fear of beating"; and
+expressed his wish that "more discretion was used by schoolmasters in
+correction than commonly is." A debate took place, the party being
+pretty evenly divided between floggers and anti-floggers, with Ascham as
+the champion of the latter. Afterwards Sir Richard Sackville, the
+treasurer, came up to Ascham and told him that "a fond schoolmaster"
+had, by his brutality, made him hate learning, much to his loss, and as
+he had now a young son, whom he wished to be learned, he offered, if
+Ascham would name a tutor, to pay for the education of their respective
+sons under Ascham's orders, and invited Ascham to write a treatise on
+"the right order of teaching." _The Scholemaster_ was the result. It is
+not, as might be supposed, a general treatise on educational method, but
+"a plaine and perfite way of teachyng children to understand, write and
+speake in Latin tong"; and it was not intended for schools, but
+"specially prepared for the private brynging up of youth in gentlemen
+and noblemens houses." The perfect way simply consisted in "the double
+translation of a model book"; the book recommended by this professional
+letter-writer being "Sturmius' _Select Letters of Cicero_." As a method
+of learning a language by a single pupil, this method might be useful;
+as a method of education in school nothing more deadening could be
+conceived. The method itself seems to have been taken from Cicero. Nor
+was the famous plea for the substitution of gentleness and persuasion
+for coercion and flogging in schools, which has been one of the main
+attractions of the book, novel. It was being practised and preached at
+that very time by Christopher Jonson (c. 1536-1597) at Winchester; it
+had been enforced at length by Wolsey in his statutes for his Ipswich
+College in 1528, following Robert Sherborne, bishop of Chichester, in
+founding Rolleston school; and had been repeatedly urged by Erasmus and
+others, to say nothing of William of Wykeham himself in the statutes of
+Winchester College in 1400. But Ascham's was the first definite
+demonstration in favour of humanity in the vulgar tongue and in an easy
+style by a well-known "educationist," though not one who had any actual
+experience as a schoolmaster. What largely contributed to its fame was
+its picture of Lady Jane Grey, whose love of learning was due to her
+finding her tutor a refuge from pinching, ear-boxing and bullying
+parents; some exceedingly good criticisms of various authors, and a
+spirited defence of English as a vehicle of thought and literature, of
+which it was itself an excellent example. The book was not published
+till after Ascham's death, which took place on the 23rd of December
+1568, owing to a chill caught by sitting up all night to finish a New
+Year's poem to the queen.
+
+  His letters were collected and published in 1576, and went through
+  several editions, the latest at Nuremberg in 1611; they were re-edited
+  by William Elstob in 1703. His English works were edited by James
+  Bennett with a life by Dr Johnson in 1771, reprinted in 8vo in 1815.
+  Dr Giles in 1864-1865 published in 4 vols. select letters with the
+  _Toxophilus_ and _Scholemaster_ and the life by Edward Grant. _The
+  Scholemaster_ was reprinted in 1571 and 1589. It was edited by the
+  Rev. J. Upton in 1711 and in 1743, by Prof. J.E.B. Mayor in 1863, and
+  by Prof. Edward Arber in 1870. The _Toxophilus_ was republished in
+  1571, 1589 and 1788, and by Prof. Edward Arber in 1868 and 1902.
+       (A. F. L.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCHERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 36
+m. by rail N.W. from Halle, and at the junction of lines to Cothen and
+Nienhagen. Pop. (1900) 27,245; (1905) 27,876. It contains one Roman
+Catholic and four Protestant churches, a synagogue, a fine town-hall
+dating from the 16th century, and several schools. The discovery of coal
+in the neighbourhood stimulated and altered its industries. In addition
+to the manufacture of woollen wares, for which it has long been known,
+there is now extensive production of vinegar, paraffin, potash and
+especially beetroot-sugar; while the surrounding district, which was
+formerly devoted in great part to market-gardening, is now turned almost
+entirely into beetroot fields. There are also iron, zinc and chemical
+manufactures, and the cultivation of agricultural seeds is carried on.
+In the neighbourhood are brine springs and a spa (Wilhelmsbad).
+Aschersleben was probably founded in the 11th century by Count Esico of
+Ballenstedt, the ancestor of the house of Anhalt, whose grandson, Otto,
+called himself count of Ascania and Aschersleben, deriving the former
+part of the title from his castle in the neighbourhood of the town. On
+the death of Otto III. (1315) Aschersleben passed into the hands of the
+bishop of Halberstadt, and at the peace of 1648 was, with the bishopric,
+united to Brandenburg.
+
+
+
+
+ASCIANO, a town of Tuscany, in the province of Siena, 19 m. S.E. of the
+town of Siena by rail. Pop. (1901) 7618. It is surrounded by walls built
+by the Sienese in 1351, and has some 14th-century churches with
+paintings of the same period. Six miles to the south is the large
+Benedictine monastery of Monte Oliveto Maggiore, founded in 1320, famous
+for the frescoes by Luca Signorelli (1497-1498) and Antonio Bazzi,
+called Sodoma (1505), in the cloister, illustrating scenes from the
+legend of St Benedict; the latter master's work is perhaps nowhere
+better represented than here. The church contains fine inlaid choir
+stalls by Fra Giovanni da Verona. The buildings, which are mostly of red
+brick, are conspicuous against the gray clayey and sandy soil. The
+monastery is described by Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II.) in
+his _Commentaria_. Remains of Roman baths, with a fine mosaic pavement,
+were found within the town in 1898 (G. Pellegrini in _Notizie degli
+scavi_, 1899, 6).
+
+
+
+
+ASCITANS (or ASCITAE; from [Greek: askos], the Greek for a wine-skin), a
+peculiar sect of 2nd-century Christians (Montanists), who introduced the
+practice of dancing round a wine-skin at their meetings.
+
+
+
+
+ASCITES, ([Greek: askitaes] dropsical, from [Greek: askosaskos] _sc_.
+[Greek: nosos] disease), the term in medicine applied to an effusion of
+non-inflammatory fluid within the peritoneum. It is not a disease in
+itself, but is one of the manifestations of disease elsewhere--usually
+in the kidneys, heart, or in connexion with the liver (portal
+obstruction). Portal obstruction is the commonest cause of well-marked
+ascites. It is produced by (1) diseases within the liver, as cirrhosis
+(usually alcoholic) and cancer; (2) diseases outside the liver, as
+cancer of stomach, duodenum or pancreas, causing pressure on the portal
+vein, or enlarged glands in the fissure of the liver producing the same
+effect. Ascites is one of the late symptoms in the disease, and precedes
+dropsy of the leg, which may come on later, due to pressure on the large
+veins in the abdominal cavity by the ascitic fluid. In ascites due to
+heart disease, the dropsy of the feet and legs precedes the ascites, and
+there will be a history of palpitation, shortness of breath, and perhaps
+cough. In the ascites of kidney troubles there will be a history of
+general oedema--puffiness of face and eyes on rising in the morning
+probably having attracted the attention of the patient or his friends
+previously. Other less common causes of ascites are chronic peritonitis,
+either tuberculous in the young, or due to cancer in the aged, and more
+rarely still pernicious anaemia.
+
+
+
+
+ASCLEPIADES, Greek physician, was born at Prusa in Bithynia in 124 B.C.,
+and flourished at Rome in the end of the 2nd century B.C. He travelled
+much when young, and seems at first to have settled at Rome as a
+rhetorician. In that profession he did not succeed, but he acquired
+great reputation as a physician. He founded his medical practice on a
+modification of the atomic or corpuscular theory, according to which
+disease results from an irregular or inharmonious motion of the
+corpuscles of the body. His remedies were, therefore, directed to the
+restoration of harmony, and he trusted much to changes of diet,
+accompanied by friction, bathing and exercise, though he also employed
+emetics and bleeding. He recommended the use of wine, and in every way
+strove to render himself as agreeable as possible to his patients. His
+pupils were very numerous, and the school formed by them was called the
+Methodical. Asclepiades died at an advanced age.
+
+
+
+
+ASCLEPIADES, of Samos, epigrammatist and lyric poet, friend of
+Theocritus, flourished about 270 B.C. He was the earliest and most
+important of the convivial and erotic epigrammatists. Only a few of his
+compositions are actual "inscriptions"; others sing the praises of the
+poets whom he specially admired, but the majority of them are
+love-songs. It is doubtful whether he is the author of all the epigrams
+(some 40 in number) which bear his name in the Greek Anthology. He
+possibly gave his name to the Asclepiadean metre.
+
+
+
+
+ASCLEPIODOTUS, Greek military writer, flourished in the 1st century B.C.
+Nothing is known of him except that he was a pupil of Poseidonius the
+Stoic (d. 51 B.C.). He is the supposed author of a treatise on
+Graeco-Macedonian tactics ([Greek: Taktiká Kephálaia]), which, however,
+is probably not his own work, but the skeleton outline of the lectures
+delivered by his master, who is known to have written a work on the
+subject.
+
+
+
+
+ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA (1820-1907), Italian philologist; of Jewish
+family, was born at Görz at an early age showed a marked linguistic
+talent. In 1854 he published his _Studii orientali e linguistici_, and
+in 1860 was appointed professor of philology at Milan. He made various
+learned contributions to the study of Indo-European and Semitic
+languages, and also of the gipsy language, but his special field was the
+Italian dialects. He founded the _Archivio glottologico italiano_ in
+1873, publishing in it his _Saggi Ladini_, and making it in succeeding
+years the great organ of original scholarship on this subject. He was
+universally recognized as the greatest authority on Italian linguistics,
+and his article in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th ed., revised for
+this edition) became the classic exposition in English. (See ITALY:
+_Language_.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCOLI PICENO[1] (anc. _Ausculum_) a town and episcopal see of the
+Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Ascoli Piceno, 17 m. W.
+of Porto d' Ascoli (a station on the coast railway, 56 m. S.S.E. of
+Ancona), and 53 m. S. of Ancona direct, situated on the S. bank of the
+Tronto (anc. _Truentus_) at its confluence with the Castellano, 500 ft.
+above sea-level, and surrounded by lofty mountains. Pop. (1901) town,
+12,256; commune, 28,608. The Porta Romana is a double-arched Roman gate;
+adjacent are remains of the massive ancient city walls, in rectangular
+blocks of stone 2 ft. in height, and remains of still earlier
+fortifications have been found at this point (F. Barnabei in _Notizie
+degli scavi_, 1887, 252). The church of S. Gregorio is built into a
+Roman tetrastyle Corinthian temple, two columns of which and the _cella_
+are still preserved; the site of the Roman theatre can be distinguished;
+and the church and convent of the Annunziata (with two fine cloisters
+and a good fresco by Cola d' Amatrice in the refectory) are erected upon
+large Roman substructures of concrete, which must have supported some
+considerable building. Higher up is the castle, which now shows no
+traces of fortifications older than medieval; it commands a fine view of
+the town and of the mountains which encircle it. The town has many good
+pre-Renaissance buildings; the picturesque colonnaded market-place
+contains the fine Gothic church of S. Francesco and the original Palazzo
+del Comune, now the prefecture (Gothic with Renaissance additions). The
+cathedral is in origin Romanesque,[2] but has been much altered, and was
+stored in 1888 by Count Giuseppe Sacconi (1855-1905). The frescoes in
+the dome, of the same date, are by Cesare Mariani. The cope presented to
+the cathedral treasury by Pope Nicholas IV. was stolen in 1904, and sold
+to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, who generously returned it to the Italian
+government, and it was then placed for greater safety in the Galleria
+Corsini at Rome. The baptistery still preserves its ancient character;
+and the churches of S. Vittore and SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio are also
+good Romanesque buildings. The fortress of the Malatesta, constructed in
+1349, has been in the main destroyed; the part of it which remains is
+now a prison. The present Palazzo Comunale, a Renaissance edifice,
+contains a fine museum, chiefly remarkable for the contents of
+prehistoric tombs found in the district (including good bronze fibulae,
+necklaces, amulets, &c., often decorated with amber), and a large
+collection of acorn-shaped lead missiles (_glandes_) used by slingers,
+belonging to the time of the siege of Asculum during the Social War (89
+B.C.). There is also a picture gallery containing works by local
+masters, Pietro Alamanni, Cola d' Amatrice, Carlo Crivelli, &c. The
+bridges across the ravines which defend the town are of considerable
+importance; the Ponte di Porta Cappucina is a very fine Roman bridge,
+with a single arch of 71 ft. span. The Ponte di Cecco (so named from
+Cecco d' Ascoli), with two arches, is also Roman and belongs to the Via
+Salaria; the Ponte Maggiore and the Ponte Cartaro are, on the other
+hand, medieval, though the latter perhaps preserves some traces of Roman
+work. Near Ascoli is Castel Trosino, where an extensive Lombard
+necropolis of the 7th century was discovered in 1895; the contents of
+the tombs are now exhibited in the Museo Nazionale delle Terme at Rome
+(_Notizie degli scavi_, 1895, 35).
+
+The ancient Asculum was the capital of Picenum, and it occupied a strong
+position in the centre of difficult country. It was taken in 268 B.C. by
+the Romans, and the Via Salaria was no doubt prolonged thus far at this
+period; the distance from Rome is 120 m. It took a prominent part in the
+Social War against Rome, the proconsul Q. Servilius and all the Roman
+citizens within its walls being massacred by the inhabitants in 90 B.C.
+It was captured after a long siege by Pompeius Strabo in 89 B.C. The
+leader, Judacilius, committed suicide, the principal citizens were put
+to death, and the rest exiled. The Roman general celebrated his triumph
+on the 25th of December of that year. Caesar occupied it, however, as a
+strong position after crossing the Rubicon; and it received a Roman
+colony, perhaps under the triumvirs, and became a place of some
+importance. In A.D. 301 it became the capital of Picenum Suburbicarium.
+In 545 it was taken by Totila, but is spoken of by Paulus Diaconus as
+the chief city of Picenum shortly afterwards. From the time of
+Charlemagne it was under the rule of its bishops, who had the title of
+prince and the right to coin money, until 1185, when it became a free
+republic. It had many struggles with Fermo, and in the 15th century came
+more directly under the papal sway.
+
+  See N. Persichetti in _Romische Mitteilungen_ (1903), 295 seq. (T.
+  As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The epithet distinguishes it from Ascoli Satriano (anc.
+    _Ausculum_), which lies 19 m. S. of Foggia by rail.
+
+  [2] It contains a fine polyptych by Carlo Crivelli (1473).
+
+
+
+
+ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS (9 B.C.-A.D. 76; or A.D. 3-88), Roman
+grammarian and historian, was probably a native of Patavium (Padua). In
+his later years he resided at Rome, where he died, after having been
+blind for twelve years, at the age of eighty-five. During the reigns of
+Claudius and Nero he compiled for his sons, from various sources--e.g.
+the Gazette (_Acta Publica_), shorthand reports or "skeletons"
+(_commentarii_) of Cicero's unpublished speeches, Tiro's life of Cicero,
+speeches and letters of Cicero's contemporaries, various historical
+writers, e.g. Varro, Atticus, Antias, Tuditanus and Fenestella (a
+contemporary of Livy whom he often criticizes)--historical commentaries
+on Cicero's speeches, of which only five, viz. _in Pisonem_, _pro
+Scauro_, _pro Milone_, _pro Cornelio_ and _in toga Candida_, in a very
+mutilated condition, are preserved. In a note upon the speech _pro
+Scauro_, he speaks of Longus Caecina (d. A.D. 57) as still living, while
+his words imply that Claudius (d. 54) was not alive. This statement,
+therefore, must have been written between A.D. 54 and 57. These valuable
+notes, written in good Latin, relate chiefly to legal, historical and
+antiquarian matters. A commentary, of inferior Latinity and mainly of a
+grammatical character, on Cicero's Verrine orations, is universally
+regarded as spurious. Both works were found by Poggio in a MS. at St
+Gallen in 1416. This MS. is lost, but three transcripts were made by
+Poggio, Zomini (Sozomenus) of Pistoia and Bartolommeo da Montpulciano.
+That of Poggio is now at Madrid (Matritensis x. 81), and that of Zomini
+is in the Forteguerri library at Pistoia (No. 37). A copy of
+Bartolommeo's transcript exists in Florence (Laur. liv. 5). The later
+MSS. are derived from Poggio's copy. Other works attributed to Asconius
+were: a life of Sallust, a defence of Virgil against his detractors, and
+a treatise (perhaps a symposium in imitation of Plato) on health and
+long life.
+
+  Editions by Kiessling-Schöll (1875), and A.C. Clark (Oxford, 1906),
+  which contains a previously unpublished collation of Poggio's
+  transcript. See also Madvig, _De Asconio Pediano_ (1828).
+
+
+
+
+ASCOT, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire,
+England, famous for its race-meetings. Pop. of parish of Ascot Heath
+(1901), 1927. The station on the Southwestern railway, 29 m. W.S.W. of
+London, is called Ascot and Sunninghill; the second name belonging to an
+adjacent township with a population (civil parish) of 4719. The
+race-course is on Ascot Heath, and was laid out by order of Queen Anne
+in 1711, and on the 11th of August in that year the first meeting was
+held and attended by the queen. The course is almost exactly 2 m. in
+circumference, and the meetings are held in June. The principal race is
+that for the Ascot Gold Cup, instituted in 1807. The meeting is one of
+the most fashionable in England, and is commonly attended by members of
+the royal family. The royal procession, for which the meeting is
+peculiarly famous, was initiated by George IV. in 1820.
+
+  See R. Herod, _Royal Ascot_ (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+ASCUS (Gr. [Greek: askos], a bag), a botanical term for the membranous
+sacs containing the reproductive spores in certain lichens and fungi.
+Various compounds of the word are used, e.g. _ascophorous_, producing
+asci; _ascospore_, the spore (or sporule) developed in the ascus;
+_ascogonium_, the organ producing it, &c.
+
+
+
+
+ASELLI [ASELLIUS, or ASELLIO], GASPARO (1581-1626), Italian physician,
+was born at Cremona about 1581, became professor of anatomy and surgery
+at Pavia, and practised at Milan, where he died in 1626. To him is due
+the discovery of the lacteal vessels, published in _De Lactibus_ (Milan,
+1627).
+
+
+
+
+ASGILL, JOHN (1659-1738), English writer, was born at Hanley Castle, in
+Worcestershire, in 1659. He was bred to the law, and gained considerable
+reputation in his profession, increased by two pamphlets--the first
+(1696) advocating the establishment of some currency other than the
+usual gold and silver, the second (1698) on a registry for titles of
+lands. In 1699, when a commission was appointed to settle disputed
+claims in Ireland, he set out for that country, attracted by the hopes
+of practice. Before leaving London he put in the hands of the printer a
+tract, entitled _An Argument proving that, according to the Covenant of
+Eternal Life revealed in the Scripture, Man may be translated from hence
+into that Eternal Life without passing through Death_ (1700). Coleridge
+has highly praised the "genuine Saxon English," the "irony" and "humour"
+of this extraordinary pamphlet, which interpreted the relation between
+God and man by the technical rules of law, and insisted that, Christ
+having wiped out Adam's sin, the penalty of death must consequently be
+illegal for those who claim exemption. How far it was meant seriously
+was doubted at the time, and may be doubted now. But its fame preceded
+the author to Ireland, and was of material service in securing his
+professional success, so that he amassed money, purchased an estate, and
+married a daughter of the second Lord Kenmare. He was returned both to
+the Irish and English parliaments, but was expelled from both on account
+of his "blasphemous" pamphlet. He was also involved in money
+difficulties, and litigation about his Irish estate, and these
+circumstances may have had something to do with his trouble in
+parliament. In 1707 he was arrested for debt, and the remainder of his
+life was spent in the Fleet prison, or within the rules of the king's
+bench. He died in 1738. Asgill also wrote in 1714-1715 some pamphlets
+defending the Hanoverian succession against the claims of the Pretender.
+
+
+
+
+ASH[1] (Ger. _Esche_), a common name (Fr. _fréne_) given to certain
+trees. The common ash (_Fraxinus excelsior_) belongs to the natural
+order Oleaceae, the olive family, an order of trees and shrubs which
+includes lilac, privet and jasmine. The Hebrew word _Oren_, translated
+"ash" in Isaiah xliv. 14, cannot refer to an ash tree, as that is not a
+native of Palestine, but probably refers to the Aleppo pine (_Pinus
+halepensis_). The ash is a native of Great Britain and the greater part
+of Europe, and also extends to Asia. The tree is distinguished for its
+height and contour, as well as for its graceful foliage. It attains a
+height of from 50 to 80 ft., and flowers in March and April, before the
+leaves are developed. The reddish flowers grow in clusters, but are not
+showy. They are naked, that is without sepals or petals, and generally
+imperfect, wanting either stamens or pistil. The large leaves, which are
+late in appearing, are pinnately compound, bearing four to seven pairs
+of gracefully tapering toothed leaflets on a slender stalk. The dry
+winged fruits, the so-called keys, are a characteristic feature and
+often remain hanging in bunches long after the leaves have fallen in
+autumn. The leaves fall early, but the greyish twigs and black buds
+render the tree conspicuous in winter and especially in early spring.
+
+The ash is in Britain next in value to the oak as a timber-tree. It
+requires a good deep loam with gravelly subsoil, and a situation
+naturally sheltered, such as the steep banks of glens, rivers or lakes;
+in cold and wet clay it does not succeed. As the value of the timber
+depends chiefly on its toughness and elasticity, it is best grown in
+masses where the soil is good; the trunk is thus drawn up free from
+large side-branches. The tree is easily propagated from seeds; it throws
+up strong root shoots. The ash requires much light, but grows rapidly,
+and its terminal shoots pierce easily through thickets of beech, with
+which it is often associated. Unmixed ash plantations are seldom
+satisfactory, because the foliage does not sufficiently cover the
+ground; but when mixed with beech it grows well, and attains great
+height and girth. Owing to the dense mass of roots which it sends out
+horizontally a little beneath the surface of the ground, the ash does
+much harm to vegetation beneath its shade, and is therefore obnoxious as
+a hedgerow tree. Coppice shoots yield excellent hop-poles, crates,
+hoops, whip-handles, &c. The timber is much used for agricultural
+implements, and by coach-builders and wheelwrights.
+
+A variety of the common species, known as var. _heterophylla_, has
+simple leaves. It occurs wild in woods in Europe and England. Another
+variety of ash (_pendula_) is met with in which the branches are
+pendulous and weeping. Sometimes this variety is grafted on the tall
+stem of the common ash, so as to produce a pleasing effect. It is said
+that the weeping variety was first observed at Gamlingay, in
+Cambridgeshire. A variety (_crispa_) occurs with curled leaves, and
+another with warty stems and branches, called _verrucosa_. _F. Ornus_ is
+the manna ash (see MANNA), a handsome tree with greenish-white flowers
+and native in south Europe. In southern Europe there is a small-leaved
+ash, called _Fraxinus parvifolia_. _F. floribunda_, a large tree with
+terminal panicles of white flowers, is a native of the Himalayas. In
+America there are several species--such as _Fraxinus americana_, the
+white ash; _F. pubescens_, the red ash; and _F. sambucifolia_, the black
+ash.
+
+The "mountain ash" belongs to a totally different family from the common
+ash. It is called _Pyrus Aucuparia_, and belongs to the natural order
+Rosaceae, and the tribe _Pomeae_, which includes also apples, pears, &c.
+Its common name is probably due to its resemblance to the true ash, in
+its smooth grey bark, graceful ascending branches, and especially the
+form of the leaf, which is also pinnately compound but smaller than in
+the true ash. Its common name in Scotland is the rowan tree; it is well
+known by its clusters of white blossoms and succulent scarlet fruit. The
+name of poison ash is given to _Rhus venenata_, the North American
+poison elder or sumach, belonging to the Anacardiaceae (Cashew family).
+The bitter ash of the West Indies is _Simaruba excelsa_, which belongs
+to the natural order Simarubaceae. The Cape ash is _Ekebergia capensis_,
+belonging to the natural order Meliaceae, a large tree, a native of the
+Cape of Good Hope. The prickly ash, _Xanthoxylon Clava-Herculis_ (nat.
+ord. Xanthoxyleae), a native of the south-eastern United States, is a
+small tree, the trunk of which is studded with corky tubercles, while
+the branches are armed with stout, sharp, brown prickles.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The homonym, ash or (pl.) ashes, the residue (of a body, &c.)
+    after burning, is a common Teutonic word, Ger. _Asche_, connected
+    with the root found in Lat. _ardere_, to burn.
+
+
+
+
+A'SHA [MAIMUN IBN QAIS], Arabian poet, was born before Mahomet, and
+lived long enough to accept the mission of the prophet. He was born in
+Manfuha, a village of al-Yemama in the centre of Arabia, and became a
+wandering singer, passing through all Arabia from Hadramut in the south
+to al-Hira in the north, and naturally frequenting the annual fair at
+Okaz (Ukaz). His love poems are devoted to the praise of Huraira, a
+black female slave. Even before the time of Mahomet he is said to have
+believed in the resurrection and last judgment, and to have been a
+monotheist. These beliefs may have been due to his intercourse with the
+bishop of Nejran (Najran) and the `Ibadites (Christians) of al-Hira. His
+poems were praised for their descriptions of the wild ass, for the
+praise of wine, for their skill in praise and satire, and for the
+varieties of metre employed. His best-known poem is that in praise of
+Mahomet.
+
+  His poems have been collected from various sources in L. Cheikho's
+  _Les Počtes arabes chrétiens_ (Jesuit press, Beirut, 1890), pp.
+  357-399. His eulogy of Mahomet has been edited by H. Thorbecke, _Al
+  Asa's Lobgedicht auf Muhammad_ (Leipzig, 1875).     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHANTI, a British possession in West Africa, bounded W. by the (French)
+Ivory Coast colony, N. by the British Protectorate known as Northern
+Territories of the Gold Coast (see GOLD COAST), and E. by the river
+Volta (which separates it from the German colony of Togoland); the
+southern frontier is conterminous with the northern frontier of the
+(British) Gold Coast colony. It forms an irregular oblong, with a
+triangular projection (the country of the Adansi) southward. It has an
+area of 23,000 sq. m., and a population estimated (1907) at 500,000.
+
+_Physical Features; Flora and Fauna._--A great part of Ashanti is
+covered with primeval and almost impenetrable forest.[1] Many of the
+trees, chiefly silk-cotton and hardwood, attain splendid proportions,
+the bombax reaching a height of over 200 ft., but the monotony is
+oppressive, and is seldom relieved by the sight of flowers, birds or
+beasts. Ferns are abundant, and the mimosa rises to heights of from 30
+to 60 ft. All over the forest spread lianas, or monkey-ropes, their
+usual position being that of immense festoons hanging from tree to tree.
+To these lianas (species of which yield one kind of the rubber of
+commerce) is due largely the weird aspect of the forest. The country
+round the towns, however, is cultivated with care, the fields yielding
+in abundance grain, yams, vegetables and fruits. In the north-eastern
+districts the primeval forest gives place to park-like country,
+consisting of plains covered with high coarse grass, and dotted with
+occasional baobabs, as well as with wild plum, shea-butter, dwarf date,
+fan palms, and other small trees. Among the wild animals are the
+elephant (comparatively rare), the leopard, varieties of antelope, many
+kinds of monkeys and numerous venomous snakes. Crocodiles and two kinds
+of hippopotami, the ordinary and a pygmy variety, are found in the
+rivers. Of birds, parrots are the most characteristic. Insect life is
+abundant.
+
+About 25 m. south-east of Kumasi is Lake Busumchwi, the sacred lake of
+the Ashanti. It is surrounded by forest-clad hills some 800 ft. high, is
+nearly circular and has a maximum diameter of 6 m. The Black Volta, and
+lower down the Volta (q.v.), form the northern frontier, and various
+tributaries of the Volta, running generally in a northerly direction,
+traverse the eastern portion of the country. In the central parts are
+the upper courses of the Ofin and of some tributaries of the Prah.
+Farther west are the Tano and Bia rivers, which empty their waters into
+the Assini lagoon. In their course through Ashanti, the rivers, apart
+from the Volta, are navigable by canoes only. The elevation of the
+country is generally below 2000 ft., but it rises towards the north.
+
+_Climate._--The climate, although unsuited to the prolonged residence of
+Europeans, is less unhealthy than that of the coast towns of West
+Africa. The water-supply is good and abundant. The rainy season lasts
+from the end of May until October; storms are frequent and violent. The
+mean temperature at Kumasi is 76° F., the mean annual rainfall 40 ins.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The most probable tradition represents the Ashanti as
+deriving their origin from bands of fugitives, who in the 16th or 17th
+century were driven before the Moslem tribes migrating southward from
+the countries on the Niger and Senegal. Having obtained possession of a
+region of impenetrable forest, they defended themselves with a valour
+which, becoming part of their national character, raised them to the
+rank of a powerful and conquering nation. They are of the pure negro
+type, and are supposed to be originally of the same race as the Fanti,
+nearer the coast, and speak the same language. The separation of Fanti
+and Ashanti has been ascribed to a famine which drove the former south,
+and led them to live on _fan_, or herbs, while the latter subsisted on
+_san_, or Indian corn, &c., whence the names Fanti and Santi. The
+Ashanti are divided into a large number of tribes, of whom a dozen may
+be distinguished, namely, the Bekwai, Adansi, Juabin, Kokofu, Kumasi,
+Mampon, Nsuta, Nkwanta, Dadiassi, Daniassi, Ofinsu and Adjisu. Each
+tribe has its own king, but from the beginning of the 18th century the
+king of Kumasi was recognized as king paramount, and was spoken of as
+the king of Ashanti. As paramount king he succeeded to the "golden
+stool," the symbol of authority among the Ashanti. After the deposition
+of Prempeh (1896) no king of Kumasi was chosen; Prempeh himself was
+never "enstooled." The government of Ashanti was formerly a mixture of
+monarchy and military aristocracy. The confederate tribes were
+originally organized for purposes of war into six great divisions or
+clans, this organization developing into the main social fabric of the
+state. The chiefs of the clans, with a few sub-chiefs having hereditary
+rights, formed the King's Council, and the king, unless of exceptionally
+strong character, often exercised less power than the council of chiefs,
+each of whom kept his little court, making a profuse display of barbaric
+pomp. Land is held in common by the tribes, lands unallotted being
+attached to the office of head chief or king and called "stool lands."
+Polygamy is practised by all who can afford it. It is stated by the
+early chroniclers that the king of Ashanti was bound to maintain the
+"fetish" number of 3333 wives; many of these, however, were employed in
+menial services. The crown descended to the king's brother, or his
+sister's son, not to his own offspring. The queen mother exercised
+considerable authority in the state, but the king's wives had no power.
+The system of human sacrifices, practised among the Ashanti until the
+closing years of the 19th century, was founded on a sentiment of piety
+towards parents and other connexions--the chiefs believing that the rank
+of their dead relatives in the future world would be measured by the
+number of attendants sent after them. There were two periods, called the
+great Adai and little Adai, at which human victims, chiefly prisoners of
+war or condemned criminals, were immolated. There is reason to believe
+that the extent of this practice was not so great as was currently
+reported.
+
+There are a few Mahommedans in Ashanti, most of them traders from other
+countries, and the Basel and Wesleyan missionaries have obtained some
+converts to Christianity; but the great bulk of the people are
+spirit-worshippers. Unlike many West African races, the Ashanti in
+general show a repugnance to the doctrines of Islam.
+
+_Towns and Trade._--Besides the capital, Kumasi (q.v.), with a
+population of some 6000, there are few important towns in Ashanti.
+Obuassi, in the south-west, is the centre of the gold-mining industry.
+Wam is on the western border, Nkoranza, Atabubu and Kintampo in the
+north. Kintampo is a town of some size and is about 130 m. north-east of
+Kumasi. It is the meeting-place of traders from the Niger countries and
+from the coast. Formerly one of the great slave and ivory marts of West
+Africa, it is now a centre of the kola-nut commerce and a depot for
+government stores. The Ashanti are skilful in several species of
+manufacture, particularly in weaving cotton. Their pottery and works in
+gold also show considerable skill. A large quantity of silver-plate and
+goldsmiths' work of great value and considerable artistic elaboration
+was found in 1874 in the king's palace at Kumasi, not the least
+remarkable objects being masks of beaten gold. The influence of Moorish
+art is perceptible.
+
+The vegetable products do not differ greatly from those found on the
+Gold Coast; the most important commercially is the rubber tree
+(_Funtumia elastica_). The nut of the kola tree is in great demand, and
+since 1905 many cocoa plantations have been established, especially in
+the eastern districts. Tobacco is cultivated in the northern regions.
+Gum copal is exported. Part of the trade of Ashanti had been diverted to
+the French port of Assini in consequence of the wars waged between
+England and the Ashanti, but on the suppression of the revolt of 1900
+measures were taken to improve trade between Kumasi and Cape Coast.
+Kumasi is the distributing centre for the whole of Ashanti and the
+hinterland. Gold exists in the western districts of the country, and
+several companies were formed to work the mines in the period 1895-1901.
+Most of the gold exported from the Gold Coast in 1902 and following
+years came from the Obuassi mines. The gold output from Ashanti amounted
+in 1905 to 68,259 oz., valued at Ł254,790. The railway to Kumasi from
+Sekondi, which was completed in 1903, passes through the auriferous
+region. As far as the trade goes through British territory southward,
+the figures are included in those of the Gold Coast; but Ashanti does
+also a considerable trade with its French and German neighbours, and
+northwards with the Niger countries. Its revenue and expenditure are
+included in those of the Gold Coast. Revenue is obtained principally
+from caravan taxes, liquor licences, rents from government land and
+contributions from the gold-mining companies.
+
+_Communications._--The railway to Kumasi, cut through one of the densest
+forest regions, is described under GOLD COAST. The usual means of
+communication is by tortuous paths through the forest, too narrow to
+admit any wheeled vehicle. A wide road, 141 m. long, has been cut
+through the bush from Cape Coast to Kumasi, and from Kumasi ancient
+caravan routes go to the chief trading centres farther inland. Where
+rivers and swamps have to be crossed, ferries are maintained. A
+favourite mode of travelling in the bush is in a palanquin borne on the
+heads of four carriers. Telegraph lines connect Kumasi with the coast
+towns and with the towns in the Northern Territories. There is a
+well-organized postal service.
+
+
+  Early relations with the British.
+
+_History._--The Ashanti first came under the notice of Europeans early
+in the 18th century, through their successful wars with the kingdoms
+bordering the maritime territory. Osai Tutu may be considered as the
+real founder of the Ashanti power. He either built or greatly extended
+Kumasi; he subdued the neighbouring state of Denkera (1719) and the
+Mahommedan countries of Gaman (Jaman) and Banna, and extended the empire
+by conquests both on the east and west. At last he was defeated and
+slain (1731); but his successor, Osai Apoko, made further acquisitions
+towards the coast. In 1800, Osai Tutu Quamina, an enterprising and
+ambitious man, who appears early to have formed the desire of opening a
+communication with white nations, became king. About 1807, two chiefs of
+the Assin, whom he had defeated in battle, sought refuge among the
+Fanti, the ruling people on the coast. On the refusal of the Fanti to
+deliver up the fugitives, Osai Tutu invaded their country, defeated them
+and drove them towards the sea. The Ashanti reached the coast near
+Anamabo, where there was then a British fort. The governor exhorted the
+townsmen to come to terms and offered to mediate; but they resolved to
+abide the contest. The result was the destruction of the town, and the
+slaughter of 8000 of the inhabitants. The Ashanti, who lost over 2000
+men, failed, however, to storm the English fort, though the garrison was
+reduced from twenty-four to eight men. A truce was agreed to, and the
+king refusing to treat except with the governor of Cape Coast, Colonel
+G. Torrane (governor 1805-1807) repaired to Anamabo, where he was
+received with great pomp. Torrane determined to surrender the fugitive
+Assin chiefs, but one succeeded in escaping; the other, on being given
+up, was put to death by the Ashanti. Torrane concluded an agreement with
+the Ashanti, acknowledging their conquest of Fantiland, and delivering
+up to them half the fugitives in Anamabo fort (most of the remainder
+were sold by Torrane and the members of his council as slaves). The
+governor also agreed to pay rent to the Ashanti for Anamabo fort and
+Cape Coast castle. The character of this man, who died on the coast in
+1808, is indicated by Osai Tutu's eulogy of him. "From the hour Governor
+Torrane delivered up Tchibbu [one of the Assin fugitives] I took the
+English for my friends," said the king of Ashanti, "because I saw their
+object was trade only and they did not care for the people. Torrane was
+a man of sense and he pleased me much."
+
+In consequence of repeated invasions of Fantiland by the Ashanti, the
+British in 1817 sent Frederick James, commandant of Accra fort, T.E.
+Bowdich and W. Hutchinson on a mission to Kumasi. After one or two
+harmonious interviews, the king advanced a claim for the payment of the
+quit rents for Anamabo fort and Cape Coast castle, rents the major part
+of which the Fanti had induced the British to pay to them, leaving only
+a nominal sum for transmission to Kumasi. Mr James, the head of the
+mission, volunteered no satisfactory explanation, whereupon the king
+broke into uncontrollable rage, calling the emissaries cheats and liars.
+Bowdich and Hutchinson, thinking that British interests and the safety
+of the mission were endangered, took the negotiation into their own
+hands. Mr James was recalled, and a treaty was concluded, by which the
+king's demands were satisfied, and the right of the British to control
+the natives in the coast towns recognized.
+
+
+  Sir Charles M'Carthy's fate.
+
+The government at home, though they demurred somewhat to the course that
+had been pursued, saw the wisdom of cultivating intercourse with this
+powerful African kingdom. They sent out, therefore, to Kumasi, as
+consul, Mr Joseph Dupuis, formerly consul at Mogador, who arrived at
+Cape Coast in January 1819. By that time fresh difficulties had arisen
+between the coast natives, who were supported by the British, and the
+Ashanti. Dupuis set out on the 9th of February 1820, and on the 28th
+arrived at Kumasi. After several meetings with the king, a treaty was
+drawn up, which acknowledged the sovereignty of Ashanti over the
+territory of the Fanti, and left the natives of Cape Coast to the mercy
+of their enemies. Mr J. Hope Smith, the governor of Cape Coast, disowned
+the treaty, as betraying the interests of the natives under British
+protection. Mr Hope Smith was supported by the government in London,
+which in 1821 assumed direct control of the British settlements. Sir
+Charles M'Carthy, the first governor appointed by the crown, espoused
+the cause of the Fanti, but was defeated in battle by the Ashanti, the
+21st of January 1824, at a place beyond the Prah called Essamako. The
+Ashanti had 10,000 men to Sir Charles's 500. Sir Charles and eight other
+Europeans were killed. The skull of the governor was afterwards used at
+Kumasi as a royal drinking-cup. It was asserted that Sir Charles lost
+the battle through his ordnance-keeper bringing up kegs filled with
+vermicelli instead of ammunition. The fact is that the mistake, if made,
+only hastened the inevitable catastrophe. On the very day of this defeat
+Osai Tutu Quamina died and was succeeded by Osai Okoto. A state of
+chronic warfare ensued, until the Ashanti sustained a signal defeat at
+Dodowah on the 7th of August 1826. From this time the power of the
+Ashanti over the coast tribes waned, and in 1831 the king was obliged to
+purchase peace from Mr George Maclean, then administrator of the Gold
+Coast, at the price of 600 oz. of gold, and to send his son as a hostage
+to Cape Coast. The payment of ground rent for the forts held by the
+British had ceased after the battle of Dodowah, and by the treaty
+concluded by Maclean the river Prah was fixed as the boundary of the
+Ashanti kingdom, all the tribes south of it being under British
+protection.
+
+The king (Kwaka Dua I.), who had succeeded Osai Okoto in 1838, was a
+peace-loving monarch who encouraged trade, but in 1852 the Ashanti tried
+to reassert authority over the Fanti in the Gold Coast protectorate, and
+in 1863 a war was caused by the refusal of the king's demand for the
+surrender by the British of a fugitive chief and a runaway slave-boy.
+The Ashanti were victorious in two battles and retired unmolested. The
+governor, Mr Richard Pine, urged the advisability of an advance on
+Kumasi, but this the British government would not allow. No further
+fighting followed, but the prestige of the Ashanti greatly increased.
+"The white men" (said Kwaka Dua) "bring many cannon to the bush, but the
+bush is stronger than the cannon." In April 1867 Kwaka Dua died, and
+after an interval of civil war was succeeded by Kofi Karikari, who on
+being enstooled swore, "My business shall be war." Thereafter
+preparations were made throughout Ashanti to attack the Fanti tribes,
+and the result was the war of 1873-74.
+
+
+  The war of 1873-1874.
+
+Two distinct events were the immediate cause of the war. The principal
+was the transference of Elmina fort from the Dutch to the British, which
+took place on the 2nd of April 1872. The Elmina were regarded by the
+Ashanti as their subjects, and the king of Ashanti held the Elmina
+"custom-note,"--that is, he received from the Dutch an annual payment,
+in its origin a ground rent for the fort, but looked upon by the Dutch
+as a present for trade purposes. The Ashanti greatly resented the
+occupation by Britain of what they considered Ashanti territory. Another
+but minor cause of the war was the holding in captivity by the Ashanti
+of four Europeans. An Ashanti force invaded Krepi, a territory beyond
+the Volta, and in June 1869 captured Mr Fritz A. Ramseyer, his wife and
+infant son (the child died of privation shortly afterwards), and Mr J.
+Kühne, members of the Basel mission. Monsieur M.J. Bonnat, a French
+trader, was also captured at another place. The captives were taken to
+Kumasi. Negotiations for their release were begun, but the Europeans
+were still prisoners when the sale of Elmina occurred. The Ashanti
+delayed war until their preparations were complete, whilst the Gold
+Coast officials appear to have thought the risk of hostilities remote.
+However, on the 22nd of January 1873 an Ashanti force crossed the Prah
+and invaded the British protectorate. They defeated the Fanti, stirred
+up disputes at Elmina, and encamped at Mampon near Cape Coast, to the
+great alarm of the inhabitants. Measures were taken for the defence of
+the territory and the punishment of the assailants, which culminated in
+the despatch of Sir Garnet (afterwards Viscount) Wolseley as British
+administrator, Ł800,000 being voted by parliament for the expenses of
+the expedition. On landing (October 2) at Cape Coast, Wolseley found the
+Ashanti, who had been decimated by smallpox and fever, preparing to
+return home. He determined, however, to march to Kumasi, whilst Captain
+(afterwards Sir) John Glover, R.N., administrator of Lagos, was with a
+force of native levies to co-operate from the east and take the Ashanti
+in rear. Meanwhile the enemy broke up camp, and, although harassed by
+native levies raised by the British, effected an orderly retreat. The
+Ashanti army re-entered Kumasi on the 22nd of December. Wolseley asked
+for the help of white troops, and the 2nd battalion Rifle Brigade, the
+23rd Fusiliers and 42nd Highlanders were despatched. Seeing the
+preparations made by his enemy, Kofi Karikari endeavoured to make peace,
+and in response to General Wolseley's demands the European captives were
+released (January 1874). Sir Garnet determined that peace must be signed
+in Kumasi and continued his advance. On the 20th of January the river
+Prah was crossed by the European troops; on the 24th the Adansi hills
+were reached; on the 31st there was severe fighting at Amoaful; on the
+1st of February Bekwai was captured; and on the evening of the 4th the
+victorious army was in Kumasi, after seven hours' fighting. The king,
+who had led his army, fled into the bush when he saw the day was lost.
+As the 42nd Highlanders pushed forward to Kumasi, the town was found
+full of Ashanti soldiers, but not a shot was fired at the invaders. Sir
+Garnet Wolseley sent messengers to the king, but Kofi Karikari refused
+to surrender. As his force was small, provisions scarce, and the rainy
+season setting in, and as he was encumbered with many sick and wounded,
+the British general decided to retire. On the 6th, therefore, the
+homeward march was commenced, the city being left behind in flames. In
+the meantime Captain Glover's force had crossed the Prah on the 15th of
+January, and the Ashanti opposition weakening after the capture of
+Kumasi, Glover was able to push forward. On the 11th of February,
+Captain (later General) R.W. Sartorius, who had been sent ahead with
+twenty Hausa only, found Kumasi still deserted. Captain Sartorius and
+his twenty men marched 50 m. through the heart of the enemy's country.
+On the 12th Glover and his force of natives entered the Ashanti capital.
+The news of Glover's approach induced the king, who feared also the
+return of the white troops, to sue for peace. On the 9th of February a
+messenger from Kofi Karikari overtook Sir Garnet, who on the 13th at
+Fomana received the Ashanti envoys. A treaty was concluded whereby the
+king agreed, among other conditions, to pay 50,000 oz. of gold, to
+renounce all claim to homage from certain neighbouring kings, and all
+pretensions of supremacy over any part of the former Dutch protectorate,
+to promote freedom of trade, to keep open a road from Kumasi to the
+Prah, and to do his best to check the practice of human sacrifice.
+Besides coloured troops, there were employed in this campaign about 2400
+Europeans, who suffered severely from fever and otherwise, though the
+mortality among the men was slight. Seventy-one per cent of the troops
+were on the sick list, and more than forty officers died--only six from
+wounds. The success of the expedition was facilitated by the exertions
+of Captain (afterwards General Sir William) Butler and Captain
+(afterwards General W. L.) Dalrymple, who effected diversions with very
+inadequate resources.
+
+
+  A British protectorate established.
+
+  Prempeh deposed.
+
+One result of the war of 1873-74 was that several states dependent on
+Ashanti declared themselves independent, and sought British protection.
+This was refused, and the inaction of the colonial office contributed to
+the reconsolidation of the Ashanti power.[2] Shortly after the war the
+Ashanti deposed Kofi Karikari, and placed on the golden stool--the
+symbol of sovereignty--his brother Mensa. This monarch broke almost
+every article of the Fomana treaty, and even the payment of the
+indemnity was not demanded. (In all, only 4000 oz. of gold, out of the
+50,000 stipulated for, were paid.) Mensa's rule was tyrannous and
+stained with repeated human sacrifices. In 1883 a revolution displaced
+that monarch, who was succeeded by Kwaka Dua II.--a young man who died
+(June 1884) within a few months of his election. In the same month died
+the ex-king Kofi Karikari, and disruption threatened Ashanti. At length,
+after a desolating civil war, Prince Prempeh--who took the name of Kwaka
+Dua III.--was chosen king (March 26, 1888), the colonial government
+having been forced to intervene in the dispute owing to the troubles it
+occasioned in the Gold Coast. The election of Prempeh took place in the
+presence and with the sanction of an officer of the Gold Coast
+government. Prempeh defeated his enemies, and for a time peace and
+prosperity returned to Ashanti. However in 1893 there was fresh trouble
+between Ashanti and the tribes of the protectorate, and the roads were
+closed to traders by Prempeh's orders. The British government was forced
+to interfere, more especially as the country, by international
+agreement, had been included in the British sphere of influence. A
+mission was despatched to Prempeh, calling upon him to fulfil the terms
+of the 1874 treaty, and further, to accept a British protectorate and
+receive a resident at Kumasi. The king declined to treat with the
+governor of the Gold Coast, and despatched informal agents to England,
+whom the secretary of state refused to receive. To the demands of the
+British mission relative to the acceptance of a protectorate and other
+matters, Prempeh made no reply in the three weeks' grace allowed, which
+expired on the 31st of October 1895. To enforce the British demands, to
+put an end to the misgovernment and barbarities carried on at Kumasi,
+and to establish law, order and security for trade, an expedition was at
+length decided upon. The force, placed under Colonel Sir Francis Scott,
+consisted of the 2nd West Yorkshire regiment, a "special service corps,"
+made up of detachments from various regiments in the United Kingdom,
+under specially selected officers, the 2nd West India regiment, and the
+Gold Coast and Lagos Hausa. The composition of the special service corps
+was much criticized at the time; but as it was not called upon for
+fighting purposes, no inferences as to its efficiency are possible. The
+details of the expedition were carefully organized. Before the arrival
+of the staff and contingent from England (December 1895) the native
+forces were employed in improving the road from Cape Coast to Prahsu (70
+m.), and in establishing road stations to serve as standing camps for
+the troops. About 12,000 carriers were collected, the load allotted to
+each being 50 lb. In addition, a force of native scouts, which
+ultimately reached a total of 860 men, was organized in eighteen
+companies, and partly armed with Snider rifles, to cover the advance of
+the main column, which started on the 27th of December, and to improve
+the road. The king of Bekwai having asked for British protection, a
+small force was pressed forward and occupied this native town, about 25
+m. from Kumasi, on the 4th of January 1896. The advance continued, and
+at Ordahsu a mission arrived from King Prempeh offering unconditional
+submission. On the 17th of January Kumasi was occupied, and Colonel Sir
+F. Scott received the king. Effective measures were taken to prevent
+his escape, and on the 20th Prempeh made submission to Mr (afterwards
+Sir W. E.) Maxwell, the governor of Cape Coast, in native fashion. After
+this act of public humiliation, the king and the queen mother with the
+principal chiefs were arrested and taken as prisoners to Cape Coast,
+where they were embarked on board H.M.S. "Racoon" for Elmina. The fetish
+buildings at Bantama were burned, and on the 22nd of January Bokro, a
+village 5 m. from Kumasi, and Maheer, the king's summer palace, were
+visited by the native scouts and found deserted. On the same day,
+leaving the Hausa at Kumasi, the expedition began the return march of
+150 m. to Cape Coast. The complete success of the expedition was due to
+the excellent organization of the supply and transport services, while
+the promptitude with which the operations were carried out probably
+accounts in great measure for the absence of resistance. Although no
+fighting occurred, a heavy strain was thrown upon all ranks, and fever
+claimed many victims, among whom was Prince Henry of Battenberg, who had
+volunteered for the post of military secretary to Colonel Sir F. Scott.
+
+
+  Siege and relief of Kumasi.
+
+After the deportation of Prempeh no successor was appointed to the
+throne of Ashanti. A British resident, Captain Donald W. Stewart, was
+installed at Kumasi, and whilst the other states of the confederacy
+retained their king and tribal system the affairs of the Kumasi were
+administered by chiefs under British guidance. Mr and Mrs Ramseyer (two
+of the missionaries imprisoned by King Kofi Karikari for four and a half
+years) returned to Kumasi, and other missionaries followed. A fort was
+built in Kumasi and garrisoned with Gold Coast constabulary. Though
+outwardly submissive, the Kumasi chiefs were far from reconciled to
+British rule, and in 1900 a serious rebellion broke out. The tribes
+involved were the Kumasi, Adansi and Kokofu; the other tribes of the
+Ashanti confederation remained loyal. The rebels were, however, able to
+command a force reported to number 40,000. On the 28th of March, before
+the rebellion had declared itself, the governor of the Gold Coast, Sir
+F. Hodgson, in a public palaver at Kumasi, announced that the Ashanti
+chiefs would have to pay the British government 4000 oz. of gold yearly,
+and he reproached the chiefs with not having brought to him the golden
+stool, which the Kumasi had kept hidden since 1896. Three days
+afterwards the Kumasi warriors attacked a party of Hausa sent with the
+chief object of discovering the golden stool. (In the previous January a
+secret attempt to seize the stool had failed.) The Kumasi, who were
+longing to wipe out the dishonour of having let Prempeh be deported
+without fighting, next threatened the fort of Kumasi. Mr Ramseyer and
+the other Basel missionaries, and Sir F. and Lady Hodgson, took refuge
+in the fort, and reinforcements were urgently asked for. On the 18th of
+April 100 Gold Coast constabulary arrived. On the 29th the Kumasi
+attacked in force, but were repulsed. The same day a party of 250 Lagos
+constabulary reached Kumasi. They had fought their way up, and came in
+with little ammunition. On the 15th of May Major A. Morris arrived from
+the British territory north of Ashanti, also with 250 men. The garrison
+now numbered 700. The 29 Europeans in the fort included four women.
+Outside the fort were gathered 3000 native refugees. Famine and disease
+soon began to tell their tale. Sir F. Hodgson sent out a message on the
+4th of June (it reached the relieving force on the 12th of June), saying
+that they could only hold out to the 11th of June. However, it was not
+till the 23rd of June that the governor and all the Europeans save
+three, together with 600 Hausa of all ranks, sallied out of the fort.
+Avoiding the main road, held by the enemy in force, they attacked a
+weakly held stockade, and succeeded in cutting their way through, with a
+loss of two British officers mortally wounded, 39 Hausa killed, and
+double that number wounded or missing. The governor's party reached Cape
+Coast safely on the 10th of July.
+
+A force of 100 Hausa, with three white men (Captain Bishop, Mr Ralph and
+Dr Hay), was left behind in Kumasi fort with rations to last three
+weeks. Meantime a relief expedition had been organized at Cape Coast by
+Colonel James Willcocks. This officer reached Cape Coast from Nigeria on
+the 26th of May. The difficulties before him were appalling. Carriers
+could scarcely be obtained, there were no local food supplies, the rainy
+season was at its height, all the roads were deep mire, the bush was
+almost impenetrable, and the enemy were both brave and cunning, fighting
+behind concealed stockades. It was not until the 2nd of July that
+Colonel Willcocks was able to advance to Fumsu. On the next day he heard
+of the escape of the governor and of the straits of the garrison left at
+Kumasi. He determined to relieve the fort in time, and on the 9th of
+July reached Bekwai, the king of which place had remained loyal. Making
+his final dispositions, the colonel spread a report that on the 13th he
+would attack Kokofu, east of Bekwai, and this drew off several thousands
+of the enemy from Kumasi. After feinting to attack Kokofu, Colonel
+Willcocks suddenly marched west. There was smart fighting on the 14th,
+and at 4.30 P.M. on the 15th, after a march since daybreak through roads
+"in indescribably bad condition," the main rebel stockade was
+encountered. It was carried at the point of the bayonet by the Yoruba
+troops, who proved themselves fully equal to the Hausa. "The charge
+could not have been beaten in _élan_ by any soldiers." Kumasi was
+entered the same evening, a bugler of the war-worn garrison of the fort
+sounding the "general salute" as the relieving column came in view. Most
+of the defenders were too weak to stand. Outside the fort nothing was to
+be seen but burnt-down houses and putrid bodies. The relieving force
+that marched into Kumasi consisted of 1000 fighting men (all West
+Africans), with 60 white officers and non-commissioned officers, two
+75-millimetre guns, four seven-pounder guns and six Maxims.
+
+Kumasi relieved, there remained the task of crushing the rebellion.
+Colonel Willcocks's force was increased by Yaos and a few Sikhs from
+Central Africa to a total of 3368 natives, with 134 British officers and
+35 British non-commissioned officers. In addition there were Ashanti
+levies. On the 30th of September the Kumasi were completely beaten at
+Obassa. Thereafter many of the rebel chiefs surrendered, and the only
+two remaining in the field were captured on the 28th of December. Thus
+1901 opened with peace restored. The total number of casualties during
+the campaign (including those who died of disease) was 1007. Nine
+British officers were killed in action, forty-three were wounded, and
+six died of disease. The commander, Colonel Willcocks, was promoted and
+created a K.C.M.G.
+
+
+  Progress under British administration.
+
+By an order in council, dated the 26th of September 1901, Ashanti was
+formally annexed to the British dominions, and given a separate
+administration under the control of the governor of the Gold Coast. A
+chief commissioner represents the governor in his absence, and is
+assisted by a staff of four commissioners and four assistant
+commissioners. A battalion of the Gold Coast regiment is stationed in
+the country with headquarters at Kumasi. The order in council mentioned,
+which may be described as the first constitution granted Ashanti by its
+British owners, provides that the governor, in issuing ordinances
+respecting the administration of justice, the raising of revenue, or any
+other matter, shall respect any native laws by which the civil relations
+of any chiefs, tribes or populations are regulated, "except so far as
+they may be incompatible with British sovereignty or clearly injurious
+to the welfare of the natives themselves." After the annexation of the
+country in 1901 the relations between the governing power and the
+governed steadily improved. Mr F.C. Fuller, who succeeded Sir Donald
+Stewart as chief commissioner early in 1905, was able to report in the
+following year that among the Ashanti suspicion of the "white man's"
+ulterior motives was speedily losing ground. The marked preference shown
+by the natives to resort to the civil and criminal courts established by
+the British demonstrated their faith in the impartial treatment awarded
+therein. Moreover, the maintenance of the tribal system and the support
+given to the lawful chiefs did much to win the confidence and respect of
+a people naturally suspicious, and mindful of their exiled king.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general survey of the country, see _Travels_ _in
+  Ashanti and Jaman_, by R.A. Freeman (London, 1898); _Historical
+  Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. iii. "West Africa," by C.P.
+  Lucas (Oxford, 1900); and the _Annual Reports, Ashanti_, issued from
+  1906 onward by the Colonial Office, London. _The Tshi-speaking Peoples
+  of the Gold Coast_, by Col. A.B. Ellis (London, 1887), deals with
+  ethnology. Of early works on the country the most valuable are _A
+  Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_, by T.E. Bowdich (London,
+  1819); and _Journal of a Residence in Ashantee_ (London, 1824), by J.
+  Dupuis. For history generally, see _A History of the Gold Coast of
+  West Africa_, by Col. A.B. Ellis (London, 1893); and _History of the
+  Gold Coast and Asante ... from about 1500 to 1860_, by C.C. Reindorf,
+  a native pastor of the Basel mission (Basel, 1895).
+
+  For the British military campaigns, in addition to the official
+  blue-books, consult: _Narrative of the Ashantee War_, 2 vols., by
+  (Sir) Henry Brackenbury (London, 1874); _The Story of a Soldier's
+  Life_ by Viscount Wolseley, vol. ii. chs. xliii.-l. (London, 1903);
+  _Coomassie_, by (Sir) H.M. Stanley, being the story of the 1873-74
+  expedition (new ed., London, 1896); _Life of Sir John Hawley Glover_,
+  by Lady Glover, chs. iii.-x. (London, 1897); _The Downfall of
+  Prempeh_, by (General) R.S.S. Baden-Powell, an account of the 1895-96
+  expedition (London, 1896); _From Kabul to Kumassi_ (chs. xv. to end),
+  by Sir James Willcocks, (London, 1904); _The Ashanti Campaign of
+  1900_, by Capt. C.H. Armitage and Lieut.-Col. A.F. Montanaro (London,
+  1901); _The Relief of Kumasi_, by Capt. H.C.J. Biss (London, 1901).
+  The two bocks following are by besieged residents in Kumasi: _The
+  Siege of Kumasi_, by Lady Hodgson (London, 1901); _Dark and Stormy
+  Days at Kumasi_, 1900, from the diary of the Rev. Fritz Ramseyer
+  (London, 1901). Many of the works quoted under GOLD COAST deal also
+  with Ashanti.     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The exact area of dense forest land is unknown, but is estimated
+    at fully 12,000 sq. m.
+
+  [2] An attempt was made late in 1875, by the despatch of Dr V.S.
+    Gouldsbury on a mission to Eastern Akim, Juabin and Kumasi, to repair
+    the effects of the previous inaction of the colonial government, but
+    without success.
+
+
+
+
+ASH'ARI [Abu-l Hasan 'Ali ibn Isma'il ul-Ash'ari], (873-935), Arabian
+theologian, was born of pure Arab stock at Basra, but spent the greater
+part of his life at Bagdad. Although belonging to an orthodox family, he
+became a pupil of the great Mu'tazalite teacher al-Jubba'i, and himself
+remained a Mu'tazalite until his fortieth year. In 912 he returned to
+the faith of his fathers and became its most distinguished champion,
+using the philosophical methods he had learned in the school of heresy.
+His theology, which occupied a mediate position between the extreme
+views on most points, became dominant among the Shafi'ites. He is said
+to have written over a hundred works, of which only four or five are
+known to be extant.
+
+  See W. Spitta, _Zur Geschichte Abu 'l-Hasan al As'ari's_ (Leipzig,
+  1876); A.F. Mehren, _Exposé de la reforme de l'Islamisme commencée par
+  Abou. 'l-Hasan Ali el-Ash'ari_ (Leiden, 1878); and D.B. Macdonald's
+  _Muslim Theology_ (London, 1903), especially the creed of Ash'ari in
+  Appendix iii.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHBOURNE, a market-town in the western parliamentary division of
+Derbyshire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. of Derby, on the London &
+North-Western and the North Staffordshire railways. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 4039. It is pleasantly situated on rising ground between
+two small valleys opening into that of the Dove, and the most beautiful
+scenery of Dovedale is not far distant. The church of St Oswald is
+cruciform, Early English and later; a fine building with a central tower
+and lofty octagonal spire. Its monuments and brasses are of much
+interest. The town has a large agricultural trade and a manufacture of
+corsets. The streams in the neighbourhood are in favour with trout
+fishermen. Ashbourne Hall, an ancient mansion, has associations with
+"Prince Charlie," who occupied it both before and after his advance on
+Derby in 1745. There are also many connexions with Dr Johnson, a
+frequent visitor here to his friend Dr Taylor, who occupied a house
+opposite the grammar school.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURNHAM, JOHN (c. 1603-1671), English Royalist, was the son of Sir
+John Ashburnham of Ashburnham in Sussex. He early entered the king's
+service. In 1627 he was sent to Paris by his relative the duke of
+Buckingham to make overtures for peace, and in 1628 he prepared to join
+the expedition to Rochelle interrupted by the duke's assassination. The
+same year he was made groom of the bedchamber and elected member of
+parliament for Hastings, which borough he also represented in the Long
+Parliament of 1640. In this capacity he rendered services by reporting
+proceedings to the king. He made a considerable fortune and recovered
+the Ashburnham estates alienated by his father. He became one of the
+king's chief advisers and had his full confidence. He attended Charles
+at York on the outbreak of the war with Scotland. In the Civil War he
+was made treasurer of the royal army, in which capacity he aroused
+Hyde's jealousy and remonstrances by infringing on his province as
+chancellor of the exchequer. In 1644 he was a commissioner at Uxbridge.
+He accompanied Charles in his flight from Oxford in April 1646 to the
+Scots, and subsequently escaped abroad, joining the queen at Paris,
+residing afterwards at Rouen and being sent to the Hague to obtain aid
+from the prince of Orange. After the seizure of Charles by the army,
+Ashburnham joined him at Hampton Court in 1647, where he had several
+conferences with Cromwell and other army officers. When Charles escaped
+from Hampton Court on the 11th of November, he followed Ashburnham's
+advice in opposition to that of Sir John Berkeley, who urged the king to
+go abroad, and took refuge in the Isle of Wight, being placed by
+Ashburnham in the hands of Robert Hammond, the governor. "Oh, Jack," the
+king exclaimed when he understood the situation, "thou hast undone me!"
+when Ashburnham, "falling into a great passion of weeping, offered to go
+and kill Hammond." By this fatal step Ashburnham incurred the unmerited
+charge of treachery and disloyalty. Clarendon, however, who censures his
+conduct, absolves him from any crime except that of folly and excessive
+self-confidence, and he was acquitted both by Charles I. and Charles II.
+He was separated with Berkeley from Charles on the 1st of January 1648,
+waited on the mainland in expectation of Charles's escape, and was
+afterwards taken and imprisoned at Windsor, and exchanged during the
+second Civil War for Sir W. Masham and other prisoners. He was one of
+the delinquents specially exempted from pardon in the treaty of Newport.
+In November he was allowed to compound for his estates, and declared
+himself willing to take the covenant. After the king's death he remained
+in England, an object of suspicion to all parties, corresponded with
+Charles II., and underwent several terms of imprisonment in the Tower
+and in Guernsey. At the Restoration he was reinstated in his former
+place of groom of the bedchamber and was compensated for his losses. He
+represented Sussex in parliament from 1661 till the 22nd of November
+1667, when he was expelled the House for taking a bribe of Ł500 from
+French merchants for landing their wines. He died on the 15th of June
+1671.
+
+He had eight children, the eldest of whom, William, left a son John
+(1656-1710), who in 1689 was created Baron Ashburnham. John's second
+son, John (1687-1737), who became 3rd Baron Ashburnham on his brother's
+death in 1710, was created Viscount St Asaph and earl of Ashburnham in
+1730. The 5th earl (b. 1840) was his direct descendant. Bertram
+(1797-1878), the 4th earl, was the collector of the famous Ashburnham
+library, which was dispersed in 1883 and 1884.
+
+  _A Letter from Mr Ashburnham to a Friend_, defending John Ashburnham's
+  conduct with regard to the king, was published in 1648. His longer
+  _Narrative_ was published in 1830 by George, 3rd earl of Ashburnham
+  (the latter's championship of his ancestor, however, being entirely
+  uncritical and unconvincing); _A Letter to W. Lenthall_ (1647)
+  repudiates the charge brought against the king of violating his parole
+  (_Thomason Tracts_, Brit. Museum, E 418 [4]).
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING, 1ST BARON[1] (1774-1848), English
+politician and financier, 2nd son of Sir Francis Baring (the founder of
+the house of Baring Brothers & Co.) and of Harriet, daughter of William
+Herring, was born on the 27th of October 1774, and was brought up in his
+father's business. He was sent by the latter to the United States;
+married Anne, daughter of William Bingham, of Philadelphia, and formed
+wide connexions with American houses. In 1810, by his father's death, he
+became head of the firm. He sat in parliament for Taunton (1806-1826),
+Callington (1826-1831), Thetford (1831-1832), North Essex (1832-1835).
+He regarded politics from the point of view of the business man, opposed
+the orders in council, and the restrictions on trade with the United
+States in 1812, and in 1826 the act for the suppression of small
+bank-notes. He was a strong antagonist of Reform. He accepted the post
+of chancellor of the exchequer in the duke of Wellington's projected
+ministry of 1832; but afterwards, alarmed at the scene in parliament,
+declared "he would face a thousand devils rather than such a House of
+Commons," and advised the recall of Lord Grey. In 1834 he was president
+of the board of trade and master of the mint in Sir Robert Peel's
+government, and on the latter's retirement was created Baron Ashburton
+on the 10th of April 1835, taking the title previously held by John
+Dunning, his aunt's husband. In 1842 he was despatched to America, and
+the same year concluded the Ashburton or Webster-Ashburton treaty. A
+compromise was settled concerning the north-east boundary of Maine, the
+extradition of certain criminals was arranged, each state agreed to
+maintain a squadron of at least eighty guns on the coast of Africa for
+the suppression of the slave trade, and the two governments agreed to
+unite in an effort to persuade other powers to close all slave markets
+within their territories. Despite his earlier attitude, Lord Ashburton
+disapproved of Peel's free-trade projects, and opposed the Bank Charter
+Act of 1844. He was a trustee of the British Museum and of the National
+Gallery, a privy councillor and D.C.L. of Oxford. He published, besides
+several speeches, _An Enquiry into the Causes and Consequences of the
+Orders in Council_ (1808), and _The Financial and Commercial Crisis
+Considered_ (1847). He died on the 13th of May 1848, leaving a large
+family, his eldest son becoming 2nd baron. The 5th baron (b. 1866)
+succeeded to the title in 1889.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] i.e. in the existing line; see below for the earlier creation.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING, 1ST BARON[1] (1731-1783), English lawyer, the
+second son of John Dunning of Ashburton, Devonshire, an attorney, was
+born at Ashburton on the 18th of October 1731, and was educated at the
+free grammar school of his native place. At first articled to his
+father, he was admitted, at the age of nineteen, to the Middle Temple,
+and called to the bar in 1756, where he came very slowly into practice.
+He went the western circuit for several years without receiving a single
+brief. In 1762 he was employed to draw up a defence of the British East
+India Company against the Dutch East India Company, which had
+memorialized the crown on certain grievances, and the masterly style
+which characterized the document procured him at once reputation and
+emolument. In 1763 he distinguished himself as counsel on the side of
+Wilkes, whose cause he conducted throughout. His powerful argument
+against the validity of general warrants in the case of _Leach v. Money_
+(June 18, 1763) established his reputation, and his practice from that
+period gradually increased to such an extent that in 1776 he is said to
+have been in the receipt of nearly Ł10,000 per annum. In 1766 he was
+chosen recorder of Bristol, and in December 1767 he was appointed
+solicitor-general. The latter appointment he held till May 1770, when he
+retired with his friend Lord Shelburne. In 1771 he was presented with
+the freedom of the city of London. From this period he was considered as
+a regular member of the opposition, and distinguished himself by many
+able speeches in parliament. He was first chosen member for Calne in
+1768, and continued to represent that borough until he was promoted to
+the peerage. In 1780 he brought forward a motion that the "influence of
+the crown had increased, was increasing, and ought to be diminished,"
+which he carried by a majority of eighteen. He strongly opposed the
+system of sinecure officers and pensions; but his probity was not strong
+enough to prevent his taking advantage of it himself. In 1782, when the
+marquis of Rockingham became prime minister, Dunning was appointed
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, a rich sinecure; and about the
+same time he was advanced to the peerage, with the title of Lord
+Ashburton. Under Lord Shelburne's administration he accepted a pension
+of Ł4000 a year. He died at Exmouth on the 18th of August 1783. Though
+possessed of an insignificant person, an awkward manner and a provincial
+accent, Lord Ashburton was one of the most fluent and persuasive orators
+of his time. He had married Elizabeth Baring, and was succeeded as 2nd
+baron by his son Richard, at whose death in 1823 the title became
+extinct, being revived in 1835 by Alexander Baring.
+
+  Besides the answer to the Dutch memorial, Lord Ashburton is supposed
+  to have assisted in writing a pamphlet on the law of libel, and to
+  have been the author of _A Letter to the Proprietors of East India
+  Stock, on the subject of Lord Clive's Jaghire, occasioned by his
+  Lordship's Letter on that Subject_ (1764, 8vo). He was at one time
+  suspected of being the author of the _Letters of Junius_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] i.e. of the first creation; for the present title see above.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, a river of Western Australia, rising in the mountains west of
+the Great Sandy Desert, and following a course north-westward for 400
+m., into Exmouth Gulf. In its upper reaches it flows through a rich
+gold-bearing district to which it gives name, and nearer its mouth it
+traverses a vast tract of fine pastoral country. The outlet for both
+these districts is the port of Onslow, at the mouth of the river, near
+which there are several pearl-fishing stations. The river is not
+navigable.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, a market-town in the Ashburton parliamentary division of
+Devonshire, England, 24 m. N.W. by W. of Plymouth, on a branch of the
+Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2628. It lies in a
+valley surrounded by hills, at a short distance from the river Dart; the
+scenery, towards Dartmoor and in the neighbourhood of Buckland and Holne
+Chase, being unsurpassed in the county. The church of St. Andrew is
+cruciform with a lofty tower. It was built early in the 15th century,
+and contains a fine old oak roof over the north aisle, and a tablet in
+memory of John Dunning, solicitor-general and 1st Baron Ashburton
+(1731-1783). The inscription is by Dr Johnson. Lord Ashburton was
+educated at the grammar school, which was founded as a chantry in 1314.
+Serge is manufactured in Ashburton, and there are breweries, paint
+factories and saw-mills. A large deposit of umber is worked in the
+neighbourhood. Slate quarries and copper and tin mines were formerly
+valuable. A neighbouring centre of the serge industry is the urban
+district of BUCKFASTLEIGH (pop. 2520), 3 m. S S.W. Between the two towns
+is Buckfast Abbey, said to have been, before the Conquest, a Benedictine
+house, and refounded for Cistercians in 1137. It was restored to use in
+1882 by a French Benedictine community, the fine Perpendicular abbot's
+tower remaining, while other parts have been rebuilt on the original
+lines.
+
+  Ashburton (Essebretona, Asperton, Ashperton) is a borough by
+  prescription and an ancient stannary town. It was governed by a
+  portreeve and bailiff, elected annually at the court leet held by the
+  lord of the manor. According to Domesday, Ashburton was held in chief
+  by Osbern, bishop of Exeter, and rendered geld for six hides. In 1552,
+  as the two manors of Ashburton Borough and Ashburton Foreign, it was
+  sold by the bishop, and subsequently became crown property. Finally,
+  it was acquired in moieties by the Clinton family, and the present
+  Lord Clinton is joint lord of the manor with Sir Robert Jardine. In
+  1298 and 1407 Ashburton returned two members, from 1407 until 1640 one
+  member only, and then again two members, until deprived of one by the
+  Reform Act of 1832 and of the other by the Reform Act of 1885. In the
+  reign of Edward II. Bishop Stapledon obtained a Saturday market, and
+  two annual fairs lasting three days at the feasts of St Laurence
+  (August 10) and St Martin in winter (November 11). In 1672 John Ford
+  was granted a Tuesday market for the sale of wool and woollen goods
+  made from English yarn, and in 1705 Andrew Quicke obtained two annual
+  fairs, on the first Thursdays in March and June, for the sale of
+  cattle, corn and merchandise.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBY, TURNER (1824-1862), American cavalry leader in the Confederate
+army, was born in Fauquier county, Virginia, in 1824. Before the Civil
+War he was a planter in Markham, Fauquier county, and a local
+politician. When hostilities began he raised a regiment of cavalry,
+which he led with conspicuous success in the Valley campaigns of
+1861-62, under Joseph Johnston and Stonewall Jackson. He was promoted a
+brigadier-general shortly before his death, which took place in a
+cavalry skirmish at Harrisonburg, Va., on the 6th of June 1862. By his
+early death the Confederates lost one of the best cavalry officers in
+their service.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a market-town in the Bosworth parliamentary division
+of Leicestershire, England; 118 m. N.W. by N. from London by the Midland
+railway, on the Leicester-Burton branch. Pop. of urban district (1901)
+4726. The church of St Helen is a fine Perpendicular building, restored
+and enlarged (1880); it contains monuments of the Huntingdon family, and
+an old finger-pillory for the punishment of misbehaviour in church. The
+Ivanhoe baths, erected in 1826, are frequented for their saline waters,
+which, as containing bromine, are found useful in scrofulous and
+rheumatic complaints. The springs are at Moira, 3 m. west. There is a
+Queen Eleanor cross commemorating the countess of Loudoun, by Sir
+Gilbert Scott. To the south of the town are the extensive remains of
+Ashby Castle. There are extensive coal-mines in the neighbouring
+district, as at Moira, whence the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal runs south to
+the Coventry canal.
+
+  At the time of the Domesday survey Ashby-de-la-Zouch formed part of
+  the estates of Hugh de Grentmaisnel. Soon after it was held by Robert
+  Beaumeis, from whom it passed by female descent to the family of la
+  Zouch, whence it derived the adjunct to its name, having been hitherto
+  known as Ashby or Essebi. The earliest record of a grant of market
+  rights is in 1219, when Roger la Zouch obtained a grant of a weekly
+  market and a two days' fair at the feast of St Helen, in consideration
+  of a fine of one palfrey. In the 15th century the manor was held by
+  James Butler, earl of Ormond, after whose attainder it was granted in
+  1461 to Lord Hastings, who in 1474 obtained royal licence to empark
+  3000 acres and to build and fortify a castle. At this castle Mary
+  queen of Scots was detained in 1569 under the custody of the earls of
+  Huntingdon and Shrewsbury. During the Civil War Colonel Henry Hastings
+  fortified and held it for the king, and it was visited by Charles in
+  1645. In 1648, at the close of the war, it was dismantled by order of
+  parliament. It plays a great part in Sir Walter Scott's _Ivanhoe_. In
+  the 18th century Ashby was celebrated as one of the best markets for
+  horses in England, and had besides prosperous factories for woollen
+  and cotton stockings and for hats.
+
+  See _Victoria County History--Leicestershire; History of
+  Ashby-de-la-Zouch_ (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1852).
+
+
+
+
+A-SHE-HO (Manch. _Alchuku_), a town of Manchuria, China, 125 m. N.E. of
+Kirin, and 30 m. S. of the Sungari. It is governed by a mandarin of the
+second class. Pop. about 60,000.
+
+
+
+
+ASHER, a tribe of Israel, called after the son of Jacob and Zilpah,
+Leah's maid. The name is taken by the narrator of Gen. xxx. 12 seq. (J)
+to mean happy or propitious, possibly an allusion to the fertility of
+the tribe's territory (with which cf. Gen. xlix. 20, Deut. xxxiii. 24);
+on the other hand, like Gad, it may have been originally a divine title.
+The district held by this tribe bordered upon Naphtali, and lay to the
+north of Issachar and Zebulun, and to the south of Dan. But the
+boundaries are not definite and the references to its territory are
+obscure. Asher is blamed for taking no part in the fight against Sisera
+(Judg. v. 17), and although it shares with Zebulun and Naphtali in
+Gideon's defeat of the Midianites (Judg. vi. 35, vii. 23), the narrative
+in question is not the older of the two accounts of the event, and the
+incorporation of the name is probably due to a late redactor. Lying as
+it did in the closest proximity to Phoenicians and Aramaeans, its
+population must have been exceptionally mixed, and the description of
+the occupation of Palestine in Judg. i. 31 seq. shows that it contained
+a strong Canaanite element. In the Blessing of Moses it is bidden to
+defend itself--evidently against invasion (Deut. xxxiii. 25).
+
+Even in the time of Seti I. and Rameses II. (latter half of 14th cent.
+B.C.) the district to the west of Galilee appears to have been known to
+the Egyptians as Aser(u), so that it is possible to infer either (a)
+that Asher was an Israelite tribe which, if it ever went down into
+Egypt, separated itself from its brethren in Egypt and migrated north,
+"an example which was probably followed by some of the other tribes as
+well" (Hommel, _Ancient Hebrew Tradition_, p. 228); or (b) it was a
+district which, if never closely bound to Israel, was at least regarded
+as part of the national kingdom, and treated as Israelite by the
+genealogical device of making it a "son" of Jacob. It is possible that
+some of its Israelite population had followed the example of Dan and
+moved from an earlier home in the south. Two of the clans of Asher,
+Heber and Malchiel, have been associated with Milk-ili and Habiri, the
+names of a hostile chief and people in the Amarna Tablets (Jastrow,
+_Journal Bibl. Lit._ xi. pp. 118 seq., xii. pp. 61 seq., Hommel), but it
+is scarcely probable that events of about 1400 B.C. should have survived
+only in this form. This applies also to the suggestion that the name
+Asher has been derived from a famous Abd-ashirta of the same period
+(Barton, _ib._ xv. p. 174). Some connexion with the goddess Ashir(t)a,
+however, is not unlikely.
+
+  See further H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bibl._ col. 327 seq.; E. Meyer,
+  _Israeliten_, pp. 540 sqq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+'ASHER BEN-YEHIEL (known as _Rosh_), Jewish rabbi and codifier, was born
+in the Rhine district c. 1250, and died in Toledo 1327. Endangered by
+the persecutions inflicted on the German Jews in the 13th century,
+'Asher fled to Spain, where he was made rabbi of Toledo. His enforced
+exile impoverished him, and from this date begins an important change in
+the status of medieval rabbis. Before the 14th century, rabbis had
+obtained a livelihood by the exercise of some secular profession,
+particularly medicine, and received no salary for performing the
+rabbinic function. This was now changed. A disciple of Meir of
+Rothenburg, 'Asher's sole interest was in the Talmud. He was a man of
+austere piety, profound and narrow. He was a determined opponent of the
+study of philosophy, and thus was antipathetic to the Spanish spirit.
+The Jews of Spain continued, nevertheless, devotees of secular sciences
+as well as of rabbinical lore. 'Asher was the first of the German rabbis
+to display strong talent for systematization, and his chief work partook
+of the nature of a compendium of the Talmud. Compiled between 1307 and
+1314, 'Asher's _Compendium_ resembled, and to a large extent superseded,
+the work of 'Al-phasi (q.v.). 'Asher's _Compendium_ is printed in most
+editions of the Talmud, and it differed from previous Compendia in
+greater simplicity and in the deference shown to German authorities.
+'Asher's son Jacob, who died at Toledo before 1340, was the author of
+the four _Turim_, a very profound and popular codification of rabbinical
+law. This work was the standard code until Joseph Qaro directly based on
+it his widely accepted Code of Jewish law, the _Shulhan 'Arukh_.
+     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Buncombe county, North
+Carolina, U.S.A., in the mountainous Blue Ridge region in the west part
+of the state, about 210 m. W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 10,235; (1900)
+14,692, of whom 4724 were negroes; (1910, census) 18,762. Asheville is
+situated at the junction of three branches of the Southern railway, on a
+high terrace on the east bank of the French Broad river, at the mouth of
+the Swannanoa, about 2300 ft. above the sea. The city is best known as
+one of the most popular health and pleasure resorts in the south, being
+a summer resort for southerners and a winter resort for northerners. It
+has a dry and equable climate and beautiful scenery. Among its social
+clubs are the Albemarle, the Asheville, the Elks, the Tahkeeostee and
+the Swannanoa Country clubs. An extensive system of city and suburban
+parks, connected by a series of beautiful drives, adds to the city's
+attractiveness. There are great forests in the vicinity. Among the
+public buildings are the city hall, the court house, the Federal
+building, the public library and an auditorium. In or near Asheville are
+a normal and collegiate institute for young women (1892), and, occupying
+the same campus, a home industrial school (1887) for girls, both under
+the control of the Woman's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian
+Church; the Asheville farm school for boys, an industrial school for
+negroes; the Asheville school for boys (5 m. west of Asheville); and the
+Bingham school (1793), founded at Pittsboro, N.C., by William Bingham
+(d. 1826), and removed to its present site (3 m. north-west of
+Asheville) in 1891. About 2 m. south-east of the city is Biltmore, the
+estate of George W. Vanderbilt, its 125,000 acres constituting what is
+probably the finest country place in the United States. The central
+feature of the estate is a château (375 × 150 ft.) of French Renaissance
+design, after the famous château at Blois, France. In the neighbourhood
+is a model village, with an elementary school, an industrial school for
+whites, a hospital and a church, maintained by Mr Vanderbilt. Both the
+château and the village were designed by Richard M. Hunt; the landscape
+gardening was done by Frederick Law Olmsted. A collection of woody
+plants, one of the largest and finest in the world, and a broad forest
+and hunting preserve, known as Pisgah Forest (100,000 acres), are also
+maintained by the owner. Asheville is a market for live-stock, dairy
+products, lumber and fruits, and has various manufactories (in which a
+good water-power is utilized), including tanneries, cotton mills, brick
+and tile factories, and a wood-working and veneer plant. The value of
+the city's factory products increased from $1,300,698 in 1900 to
+$1,918,362 in 1905, or 47.5%. The city was named in honour of Samuel
+Ashe (1725-1813), chief-justice of North Carolina from 1777 to 1796, and
+John Ashe (1720-1781), a North Carolina soldier who distinguished
+himself in the War of Independence, was settled about 1790, and was
+incorporated in 1835. The city's boundaries were enlarged in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+ASHFORD, a market-town in the Southern or Ashford parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 56 m. S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 12,808. It is pleasantly situated
+on a gentle eminence near the confluence of the upper branches of the
+river Stour. It has a fine Perpendicular church dedicated to St Mary,
+with a lofty, well-proportioned tower and many interesting monuments.
+The grammar school was founded by Sir Norman Knatchbull in the reign of
+Charles I. Ashford has agricultural implement works and breweries; and
+the large locomotive and carriage works of the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway are here. At Bethersden, between Ashford and Tenterden, marble
+quarries were formerly worked extensively, supplying material to the
+cathedrals of Canterbury and Rochester, and to many local churches. At
+Charing, north-west of Ashford, the archbishops of Canterbury had a
+residence from pre-Conquest times, and ruins of a palace, mainly of the
+Decorated period, remain. On the south-eastern outskirts of Ashford is
+the populous village of Willesborough (3602).
+
+  Ashford (Esselesford, Asshatisforde, Essheford) was held at the time
+  of the Domesday survey by Hugh de Montfort, who came to England with
+  William the Conqueror. A Saturday market and an annual fair were
+  granted to the lord of the manor by Henry III. in 1243. Further annual
+  fairs were granted by Edward III. in 1349 and by Edward IV. in 1466.
+  In 1672 Charles II. granted a market on every second Tuesday, with a
+  court of pie-powder. James I. in 1607, at the petition of the
+  inhabitants of Ashford, gave Sir John Smith, Kt., the right of holding
+  a court of record in the town on every third Tuesday. The fertility of
+  the pasture-land in Romney Marsh to the south and east of Ashford
+  caused the cattle trade to increase in the latter half of the 18th
+  century, and led to the establishment of a stock market in 1784. The
+  town has never been incorporated.
+
+  See Edward Hasted, _History and Survey of Kent_ (Canterbury,
+  1778-1799, 2nd ed. 1797-1801); _Victoria County History--Kent_.
+
+
+
+
+'ASHI (352-427), Jewish _'amora_, the first editor of the Talmud, was
+born at Babylon. He was head of the Sura Academy, and there began the
+Babylonian Talmud, spending thirty years of his life at it. He left the
+work incomplete, and it was finished by his disciple Rabina just before
+the year 500 A.D. (See TALMUD.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHINGTON, an urban district in the Wansbeck parliamentary division of
+Northumberland, England, 4 m. E. of Morpeth, on the Newbiggin branch of
+the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 13,956. The district, especially
+along the river Wansbeck, is not without beauty, but there are numerous
+collieries, from the existence of which springs the modern growth of
+Ashington. At Bothal on the river (from which parish that of Ashington
+was formed) is the castle originally belonging to the Bertram family, of
+which Roger Bertram probably built the gatehouse, the only habitable
+portion remaining, in the reign of Edward III. The ruins of the castle
+are fragmentary, but of considerable extent. The church of St Andrew
+here has interesting details from Early English to Perpendicular date,
+and in the neighbouring woods is a ruined chapel of St Mary. The mining
+centre of Ashington lies 2 m. north-east, on the high ground north of
+the Wansbeck.
+
+
+
+
+'ASHKENAZI, SEBI (1656-1718), known as Hakham Sebi, for some time rabbi
+of Amsterdam, was a resolute opponent of the followers of the
+pseudo-Messiah, Sabbatai Sebi (q.v.). He had a chequered career, owing
+to his independence of character. He visited many lands, including
+England, where he wielded much influence. His _Responsa_, are held in
+high esteem.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a city of Boyd county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river,
+about 130 m. E. by N. of Frankfort. Pop. (1890) 4195; (1900) 6800 (489
+negroes); (1910) 8688. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio (being a
+terminal of the Lexington and Big Sandy Divisions) and the Norfolk &
+Western railways, and is connected with Huntington, West Virginia, by an
+electric line. The city has a fine natural park (Central Park) of about
+30 acres; and Clyffeside Park (maintained by a private corporation), of
+about 75 acres, just east of the city, is a pleasure resort and a
+meeting-ground (with a casino seating 3000 people) for the Tri-State
+"Chautauqua" (for certain parts of Kentucky, Ohio and West Virginia).
+The surrounding country abounds in coal, iron ore, oil, clay, stone and
+timber, for which the city is a distributing centre. Ashland has
+considerable river traffic, and various manufactures, including pig
+iron, nails, wire rods, steel billets, sheet steel, dressed lumber
+(especially poplar), furniture, fire brick and leather. Ashland was
+settled in 1854, and was chartered as a city in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 50
+m. N.E. of Harrisburg and about 100 m. N.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890)
+7346; (1900) 6438 (969 foreign-born); (1910) 6855. It is served by the
+Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by the
+electric lines of the Schuylkill Railway Company and the Shamokin &
+Mount Carmel Transit Company. The borough is built on the slope of
+Locust Mountain, about 885 ft. above sea-level. Its chief industry is
+the mining of anthracite coal at several collieries in the vicinity; and
+at Fountain Springs, 1 m. south-east, is a state hospital for injured
+persons of the Anthracite Coal Region of Pennsylvania, opened in 1883.
+The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Ashland was laid out
+as a town in 1847, and was named in honour of Henry Clay's home at
+Lexington, Ky.; in 1857 it was incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a village of Hanover county, Virginia, U.S.A., 17 m. N.W. of
+Richmond. Pop. (1900) 1147; (1910) 1324. It is served by the Richmond,
+Fredericksburg & Potomac railway, and is a favourite resort from
+Richmond. Here is situated the Randolph-Macon College (Methodist
+Episcopal, South), one of the oldest Methodist Episcopal colleges in the
+United States. In 1832, two years after receiving its charter, it opened
+near Boydton, Mecklenburg county, Virginia, and in 1868 was removed to
+Ashland. The college in 1907-1908 had 150 students and a faculty of 16;
+it publishes an endowed historical series called _The John P. Branch
+Historical Papers of Randolph-Macon College_; and it is a part of the
+"Randolph-Macon System of Colleges and Academies," which includes,
+besides, Randolph-Macon Academy (1890) at Bedford City, Virginia, and
+Randolph-Macon Academy (1892) at Front Royal, Virginia, both for boys;
+Randolph-Macon Woman's College (1893) at Lynchburg, Virginia, which in
+1907-1908 had an enrolment of 390; and Randolph-Macon Institute, for
+girls, Danville, Virginia, which was admitted into the "System" in 1897.
+These five institutions are under the control of a single board of
+trustees; the work of the preparatory schools is thus correlated with
+that of the colleges. About 7 m. out of Ashland is the birthplace of
+Henry Clay, and about 15 m. distant is the birthplace of Patrick Henry.
+Ashland was settled in 1845 and was incorporated in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a city and the county-seat of Ashland county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., situated about 315 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, and about 70 m. E. of
+Superior and Duluth, in the N. part of the state, at the head of
+Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Lake Superior. Pop. (1890) 9956; (1900)
+13,074, of whom 4417 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 11,594. It is
+served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Northern Pacific, the
+Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, and the Wisconsin Central
+railways, and by several steamboat lines on the Great Lakes. The city is
+attractively situated, has a dry, healthful climate, and is a summer
+resort. It has a fine Federal building, one of the best high-school
+buildings in Wisconsin, the Vaughn public library (1895), a Roman
+Catholic hospital, and the Rinehart hospital, and is the seat of the
+Northland College and Academy (Congregational). Ashland has an excellent
+harbour, has large iron-ore and coal docks, and is the principal port
+for the shipment of iron ore from the rich Gogebic Range, the annual ore
+shipment approximating 3,500,000 tons, valued at $12,000,000, and it has
+also an extensive export trade in lumber. Brownstone quarried in the
+vicinity is also an important export. The lake trade amounts to more
+than $35,000,000 annually. Ashland has large saw-mills, iron and steel
+rolling mills, foundries and machine shops, railway repair shops (of the
+Chicago & North-Western railway), knitting works, and manufactories of
+dynamite, sulphite fibre, charcoal and wood-alcohol. In 1905 its total
+factory product was valued at $4,210,265. Settled about 1854, Ashland
+was incorporated as a village in 1863 and received a city charter in
+1887.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAR, also written ASHLER, ASHELERE, &c. (probably from Lat. _axilla_,
+diminutive of _axis_, an axle), hewn or squared stone, generally applied
+to that used for facing walls. In a contract of date 1398 we
+read--"Murus erit exterius de puro lapide vocato _achilar_, plane
+incisso, interius vero de lapide fracto vocato _roghwall_." "Clene hewen
+ashler" often occurs in medieval documents; this no doubt means tooled
+or finely worked, in contradistinction to rough-axed faces.
+
+An "ashlar piece" in building is an upright piece of timber framed
+between the common rafters and the wall plate.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMES (1860-   ), English economist, was born in London
+on the 25th of February 1860. He was educated at St Olave's grammar
+school and Balliol College, Oxford, and became a fellow of Lincoln
+College. In 1888 he was appointed professor of political economy and
+constitutional history in Toronto University, a post which he resigned
+in 1892, in order to become professor of economic history at Harvard
+University. In 1901 he was appointed professor of commerce and finance
+in Birmingham University and in 1902 dean of the faculty of commerce.
+Professor Ashley became well known for his work on the early history of
+English industry, and for his prominence among those English economists
+who supported Mr Chamberlain's tariff reform movement. His most
+important works are _Early History of the English Woollen Industry_
+(1887); _Introduction to English Economic History and Theory_ (2 parts,
+1888-1893); _Surveys, Historic and Economic_ (1900); _Adjustment of
+Wages_ (1903); the _Tariff Problem_ (2nd ed. 1904); _Progress of the
+German Working Classes_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+ASHMOLE, ELIAS (1617-1692), English antiquarian, and founder of the
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, was born at Lichfield on the 23rd of May
+1617, the son of a saddler. In 1638 he became a solicitor, and in 1644
+was appointed commissioner of excise. At Oxford, whither this brought
+him when the Royalist Parliament was sitting there, he made friends with
+Captain (afterwards Sir) George Wharton, through whose influence he
+obtained the king's commission as captain of horse and comptroller of
+the ordnance. In 1646 he was initiated as a Freemason--the first
+gentleman, or amateur, to be "accepted." In 1649 he married Lady
+Mainwaring, some twenty years his senior and a relative of his first
+wife who had died eight years before. This marriage placed him in a
+position of affluence that enabled him to devote his whole time to his
+favourite studies. His interest in astrology, aroused by Wharton, and by
+William Lilly,--whom with other astrologers he met in London in
+1646,--seems, in the following years, to have subsided in favour of
+heraldry and antiquarian research. In 1657 his wife petitioned for a
+separation, but failing to gain her case returned to live with him.
+Between this crisis in his domestic life and the time of her death in
+1668, Ashmole was in high favour at court. He was made successively
+Windsor herald, commissioner, comptroller and accountant-general of
+excise, commissioner for Surinam and comptroller of the White Office. He
+afterwards refused the office of Garter king-at-arms in favour of Sir
+William Dugdale, whose daughter he had married in 1668. In 1672 he
+published his _Institutions, Laws and Ceremonies of the Order of the
+Garter_, a work which was practically exhaustive, and is an example of
+his diligence and years of patient antiquarian research. Five years
+later he presented the Ashmolean Museum, the first public museum of
+curiosities in the kingdom, the larger part of which he had inherited
+from a friend, John Tradescant, to the university of Oxford. He made it
+a condition that a suitable building should be erected for its
+reception, and the collection was not finally installed until 1683.
+Subsequently he made the further gift to the university of his library.
+He died on the 18th of May 1692.
+
+
+
+
+ASHRAF (SHUREFA, SHERIFS), a small scattered tribe of African "Arabs"
+settled near Tokar, in the valleys of the Gash and Baraka, and in the
+Amarar country north of Suakin. They call themselves Beni Hashin, and
+claim descent from Mahomet; hence their name, _sherif_ (plural _ashraf_)
+being the title applied to descendants of the prophet. In the time of
+the khalifa Abdulla (1885-1898), Ashraf was the name by which the family
+and adherents of his late master the mahdi were known, the mahdi's
+family claiming to be Ashraf. The Ashraf of Tokar remained loyal to
+Egypt during the Sudan troubles.
+
+  See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905);
+  _Fire and Sword in the Sudan_, by Slatin Pasha (London, 1896); for the
+  Ashraf or Sherifs in Arabia, see ARABIA: _Geography_.
+
+
+
+
+ASHREF, a town of Persia in the province of Mazandaran, about 50 m. W.
+of Astarabad and 5 m. inland from the Caspian Sea, in 36° 42' N. and 53°
+32' E. The population is about 6000, comprising descendants of some
+Georgians introduced by Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) and a number of
+Gudars, a peculiar pariah race, probably of Indian origin. The place was
+without importance until 1612, when Shah Abbas began building and laying
+out the palaces and gardens in the neighbourhood now collectively known
+as Bagh i Shah (the garden of the shah). The palaces, completed in 1627,
+are now in ruins, but the gardens with their luxuriant vegetation and
+gigantic cypress and orange trees ate well worth a visit. There were
+originally six separate gardens, all contained within one large wall but
+separated one from another by high walls. The principal palace was the
+Chehel Situn (forty pillars), destroyed by the Afghans in 1723, and,
+although rebuilt by Nadir Shah in 1731, already in ruins in 1743. About
+ž m. north of the town is the Safi-abad garden, with a palace built by
+Shah Safi (1629-1642) for his daughter. It is situated on a lovely
+wooded hill, and was repaired and in part renovated about 1870 by
+Násiru'd-Din Shah.
+
+
+
+
+ASHTABULA, a city of Ashtabula county, Ohio, U.S.A., in Ashtabula
+township, on the Ashtabula river and Lake Erie, and 54 m. N.E. of
+Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 8338; (1900) 12,949, of whom 3688 were
+foreign-born; (1910, census) 18,266. There is a large Finnish-born
+population in the city and in Ashtabula county, and the _Amerikan
+Sanomat_, established here in 1897, is one of the most widely read
+Finnish weeklies in the country. Ashtabula is served by the
+Pennsylvania, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the New York,
+Chicago & St Louis railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. The city
+is built on the high bank of the river about 75 ft. above the lake, and
+commands good views of diversified scenery. There is a public library.
+Ashtabula has an excellent harbour, to and from which large quantities
+of iron ore and coal are shipped. More iron ore is received at this port
+annually than at any other port in the country, or, probably, in the
+world; the ore is shipped thence by rail to Pittsburg, Youngstown and
+other iron manufacturing centres. In 1907 the port received 7,542,149
+gross tons of iron ore, and shipped 2,632,027 net tons of soft coal.
+Among the city's manufactures are leather, worsted goods, agricultural
+implements, and foundry and machine shop products; in 1905 the total
+value of the factory product was $1,895,454, an increase of 114.3% in
+five years. There are large green-houses in and near Ashtabula, and
+quantities of lettuce, cucumbers and tomatoes are raised under glass and
+shipped to Pittsburg and other large cities. The first settlement here
+was made about 1801. Ashtabula township was created in 1808, and from it
+the townships of Kingsville, Plymouth and Sheffield have subsequently
+been formed. The village of Ashtabula was incorporated in 1831, and
+received a city charter in 1891. The name _Ashtabula_ is an Indian word
+first applied to the river and said to mean "fish river."
+
+
+
+
+ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, an urban district in the Newton parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. S. of Wigan, on the Great Central
+railway. Pop. (1901) 18,687. The district is rich in minerals, and has
+large collieries, and a colliery company's institute; iron goods are
+manufactured.
+
+
+
+
+ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a market-town and municipal and parliamentary borough
+of Lancashire, England, on the river Tame, a tributary of the Mersey,
+185 m. N. W. by N. from London and 6˝ E. from Manchester. Area, 1346
+acres. Pop. (1891) 40,486; (1901) 43,890. It is served by the London &
+North-Western and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Charlestown
+station), and by the Great Central (Park Parade station). The church of
+St Michael is Perpendicular, but almost wholly rebuilt. In the vicinity
+are barracks. The Old Hall, or manor house of the Asshetons, remains in
+an altered form, with an ancient prison adjoining, and the name of
+Gallows Meadow, still preserved, recalls the summary execution of
+justice by the lords of the manor. In the vicinity of Ashton a few
+picturesque old houses remain among the numerous modern residences.
+Stamford Park, presented by Lord Stamford, is shared by the towns of
+Ashton and Stalybridge, which extends across the Tame into Cheshire. A
+technical school, school of art and free library, and several hospitals
+are maintained. Chief among industries are cotton-spinning, hat-making
+and iron-founding and machinery works; and there are large collieries in
+the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough, which returns one member,
+extends into Cheshire. The corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen
+and 24 councillors.
+
+The derivation from the Saxon _aesc_ (ash) and _tun_ (an enclosed place)
+accounts for the earliest orthography Estun. The addition _subtus
+lineam_ is found in ancient deeds and is due to the position of the
+place below the line or boundary of Cheshire, which once formed the
+frontier between the kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia. The manor was
+granted to Roger de Poictou by William I., but before the end of his
+reign came to the Greslets as part of the barony of Manchester. It was
+held by the Asshetons from 1335 to 1515, when it passed by marriage to
+the Booths of Dunham Massey, and is now held by the earl of Stamford,
+the representative of that family. The lord of the manor still holds the
+ancient court-leet and court-baron half-yearly in May and November, in
+which cognizance is taken of breaches of agreement among the tenants,
+especially concerning the repair of roads and cultivation of lands. The
+place had long enjoyed the name of borough, but it was not till 1847
+that a charter of incorporation was granted. Under the Reform Act (1832)
+it returns one member. One of the markets dates back to 1436. The
+ancient industry was woollen, but soon after the invention of the
+spinning frame the cotton trade was introduced, and as early as 1769 the
+weaving of ginghams, nankeens and calicoes was carried on, and the
+weaving of cotton yarn by machinery soon became the staple industry. A
+chapel or church existed here as early as 1261-1262.
+
+
+
+
+ASH WEDNESDAY, in the Western Church, the first day of Lent (q.v.), so
+called from the ceremonial use of ashes, as a symbol of penitence, in
+the service prescribed for the day. The custom, which is ultimately
+based on the penance of "sackcloth and ashes" spoken of by the prophets
+of the Old Testament, has been dropped in those of the reformed Churches
+which still observe the fast; but it is retained in the Roman Catholic
+Church, the day being known as _dies cinerum_ (day of ashes) or _dies
+cineris et cilicii_ (day of ash and sackcloth). The ashes, obtained by
+burning the palms or their substitutes used in the ceremonial of the
+previous Palm Sunday, are placed in a vessel on the altar before High
+Mass. The priest, vested in a violet cope, prays that God may send His
+angel to hallow the ash, that it become a _remedium salubre_ for all
+penitents. After another prayer the ashes are thrice sprinkled with holy
+water and thrice censed. Then the priest invites those present to
+approach and, dipping his thumb in the ashes, marks them as they kneel
+with the sign of the cross on the forehead (or in the case of clerics on
+the place of tonsure), with the words: _Memento, homo, quid pulvis es et
+in pulverem reverteris_ (Remember, man, that thou art dust and unto dust
+thou shall return). The celebrant himself either sprinkles the ash on
+his own head in silence, or receives it from the priest of highest
+dignity present.
+
+This ceremony is derived from the custom of public penance in the early
+Church, when the sinner to be reconciled had to appear in the
+congregation clad in sackcloth and covered with ashes (cf. Tertullian,
+_De Pudicitia_, 13). At what date this use was extended to the whole
+congregation is not known. The phrase _dies cinerum_ appears in the
+earliest extant copies of the Gregorian Sacramentary, and it is probable
+that the custom was already established by the 8th century. The
+Anglo-Saxon homilist Aelfric, in his _Lives of the Saints_ (996 or 997),
+refers to it as in common use; but the earliest evidence of its
+authoritative prescription is a decree of the synod of Beneventum in
+1091.
+
+Of the reformed Churches the Anglican Church alone marks the day by any
+special service. This is known as the Commination service, its
+distinctive element being the solemn reading of "the general sentences
+of God's cursing against sinners, gathered out of the seven and
+twentieth chapter of Deuteronomy, and other places of Scripture." The
+lections for the day are the same as in the Roman Church (Joel ii. 12,
+&c., and Matt. vi. 16, &c.). In the American Prayer Book the office of
+Commination is omitted, with the exception of the three concluding
+prayers, which are derived from the prayers and anthems said or sung
+during the blessing and distribution of the ashes according to the Sarum
+Missal. The ceremonial of the ashes was not proscribed in England at the
+Reformation; it was indeed enjoined by a proclamation of Henry VIII.
+(February 26, 1538) and again in 1550 under Edward VI.; but it had
+fallen into complete disuse by the beginning of the 17th century.
+
+  See Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, and Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.), s. "_Aschermittuoch_"; L. Duchesne,
+  _Christian Worship_, trans. by M.L. McClure (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+ASHWELL, LENA (1872-   ), English actress, was the daughter of Commander
+Pocock, R.N. In 1896 she married the actor Arthur Playfair, whom she
+divorced in 1908; later in the latter year she married Dr Simson. In
+1895 she played Elaine in Sir Henry Irving's production of _King Arthur_
+at the Lyceum, and again acted with him in 1903 in _Dante_. She made her
+first striking success, however, on the London stage in _Mrs Dane's
+Defence_ with Sir Charles Wyndham in 1900, and a few years later her
+acting in _Leah Kleschna_ confirmed her position as one of the leading
+actresses in London. In 1907 she started under her own management at the
+Kingsway theatre.
+
+
+
+
+ASIA, the name of one of the great continents into which the earth's
+surface is divided, embracing the north-eastern portion of the great
+mass of land which constitutes what is generally known as the Old World,
+of which Europe forms the north-western and Africa the south-western
+region.
+
+Much doubt attaches to the origin of the name. Some of the earliest
+Greek geographers divided their known world into two portions only,
+Europe and Asia, in which last Libya (the Greek name for Africa) was
+included. Herodotus, who ranks Libya as one of the chief divisions of
+the world, separating it from Asia, repudiates as fables the ordinary
+explanations assigned to the names Europe and Asia, but confesses his
+inability to say whence they came. It would appear probable, however,
+that the former of these words was derived from an Assyrian or Hebrew
+root, which signifies the west or setting sun, and the latter from a
+corresponding root meaning the east or rising sun, and that they were
+used at one time to imply the west and the east. There is ground also
+for supposing that they may at first have been used with a specific or
+restricted local application, a more extended signification having
+eventually been given to them. After the word Asia had acquired its
+larger sense, it was still specially used by the Greeks to designate the
+country around Ephesus. The idea of Asia as originally formed was
+necessarily indefinite, and long continued to be so; and the area to
+which the name was finally applied, as geographical knowledge increased,
+was to a great extent determined by arbitrary and not very precise
+conceptions, rather than on the basis of natural relations and
+differences subsisting between it and the surrounding regions.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY
+
+  Boundaries.
+
+The northern boundary of Asia is formed by the Arctic Ocean; the
+coast-line falls between 70° and 75° N., and so lies within the Arctic
+circle, having its extreme northern point in Cape Sivero-Vostochnyi
+(i.e. north-east) or Chelyuskin, in 78° N. On the south the coast-line
+is far more irregular, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the China
+Sea reaching about to the northern tropic at the mouths of the Indus, of
+the Ganges and of the Canton river; while the great peninsulas of
+Arabia, Hindostan and Cambodia descend to about 10° N., and the Malay
+peninsula extends within a degree and a half of the equator. On the west
+the extreme point of Asia is found on the shore of the Mediterranean, at
+Cape Baba, in 26° E., nor far from the Dardanelles. Thence the boundary
+passes in the one direction through the Mediterranean, and down the Red
+Sea to the southern point of Arabia, at the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in
+45° E.; and in the other through the Black Sea, and along the range of
+Caucasus, following approximately 40° N. to the Caspian, whence it turns
+to the north on a line not far from the 60th meridian, along the Ural
+Mountains, and meets the Arctic Ocean nearly opposite the island of
+Novaya Zemlya. The most easterly point of Asia is East Cape (Vostochnyi,
+i.e. east, or Dezhnev), in 190° E., at the entrance of Bering Strait.
+The boundary between this point and the extremity of the Malay Peninsula
+follows the coast of the Northern Pacific and the China Sea, on a line
+deeply broken by the projection of the peninsulas of Kamchatka and
+Korea, and the recession of the Sea of Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea, and the
+Gulfs of Tongking and Siam.
+
+
+  Islands.
+
+On the east and south-east of Asia are several important groups of
+islands, the more southern of which link this continent to Australia,
+and to the islands of the Pacific. The Kurile islands, the Japanese
+group, Luchu, Formosa and the Philippines, may be regarded as
+unquestionable outliers of Asia. Between the islands of the Malay
+archipelago from Sumatra to New Guinea, and the neighbouring Asiatic
+continent, no definite relations appear ever to have existed, and no
+distinctly marked boundary for Asia has been established by the old
+geographers in this quarter. Modern science, however, has indicated a
+line of physical separation along the channel between Borneo and
+Celebes, called the Straits of Macassar, which follows approximately
+120° E., to the west of which the flora and fauna are essentially
+Asiatic in their type, while to the south and east the Australian
+element begins to be distinctly marked, soon to become predominant. To
+this boundary has been given the name of Wallace's line, after the
+eminent naturalist, A.R. Wallace, who first indicated its existence.
+
+
+  Form of continent.
+
+Owing to the great extent of Asia, it is not easy to obtain a correct
+conception of the actual form of its outline from ordinary maps, the
+distortions which accompany projections of large spherical areas on a
+flat surface being necessarily great and misleading. Turning, therefore,
+to a globe, Asia, viewed as a whole, will be seen to have the form of a
+great isosceles spherical triangle, having its north-eastern apex at
+East Cape (Vostochnyi), in Bering Strait; its two equal sides, in length
+about a quadrant of the sphere, or 6500 m., extending on the west to the
+southern point of Arabia, and on the east to the extremity of the Malay
+peninsula; and the base between these points occupying about 60° of a
+great circle, or 4500 m., and being deeply indented by the Arabian Sea
+and the Bay of Bengal on either side of the Indian peninsula. A great
+circle, drawn through East Cape and the southern point of Arabia, passes
+nearly along the coast-line of the Arctic Ocean, over the Ural
+Mountains, through the western part of the Caspian, and nearly along the
+boundary between Persia and Asiatic Turkey. Asia Minor and the
+north-western half of Arabia lie outside such a great circle, which
+otherwise indicates, with fair accuracy, the north-western boundary of
+Asia. In like manner a great circle drawn through East Cape and the
+extremity of the Malay peninsula, passes nearly over the coasts of
+Manchuria, China and Cochin-China, and departs comparatively little from
+the eastern boundary.
+
+
+    General physiography.
+
+  Asia is divided laterally along the parallel of 40° north by a
+  depression which, beginning on the east of the desert of Gobi, extends
+  westwards through Mongolia to Chinese Turkestan. To the west of
+  Kashgar the central depression is limited by the meridional range of
+  Sarikol and the great elevation of the Pamir, of which the Sarikol is
+  the eastern face. The level of this depression (once a vast inland
+  sea) between the mountains which enclose the sources of the Hwang-ho
+  and the Sarikol range probably never exceeds 2000 ft. above sea, and
+  modern researches tend to prove that in the central portions of the
+  Gobi (about Lop Nor) it may be actually below sea-level. A vast
+  proportion of the continent north of this central line is but a few
+  hundred feet in altitude. Shelving gradually upward from the low flats
+  of Siberia the general continental level rises to a great central
+  water-parting, or divide, which stretches from the Black Sea through
+  the Elburz and the Hindu Kush to the Tian-shan mountains in the Pamir
+  region, and hence to Bering Strait on the extreme north-east. This
+  great divide is not always marked by well-defined ranges facing
+  steeply either to the north or south. There are considerable spaces
+  where the strike, or axis, of the main ranges is transverse to the
+  water-parting, which is then represented by intermediate highlands
+  forming lacustrine regions with an indefinite watershed. Only a part
+  of this great continental divide (including such ranges as the Hindu
+  Kush, Tian-shan, Altai or Khangai) rises to any great height, a
+  considerable portion of it being below 5000 ft. in altitude. South of
+  the divide the level at once drops to the central depression of Gobi,
+  which forms a vast interior, almost waterless space, where the local
+  drainage is lost in deserts or swamps. South of this enclosed
+  depression is another great hydrographic barrier which parts it from
+  the low plains of the Amur, of China, Siam and India, bordered by the
+  shallows of the Yellow Sea and the shoals which enclose the islands of
+  Japan and Formosa, all of them once an integral part of the continent.
+  This second barrier is one of the most mighty upheavals in the world,
+  by reason both of its extent and its altitude. Starting from the Amur
+  river and reaching along the eastern margin of the Gobi desert towards
+  the sources of the Hwang-ho, it merges into the Altyn-tagh and the
+  Kuen-lun, forming the northern face of the vast Tibetan highlands
+  which are bounded on the south by the Himalaya. The Pamir highlands
+  between the base of the Tian-shan mountains and the eastern buttresses
+  of the Hindu Kush unite these two great divides, enclosing the Gobi
+  depression on the west; and they would again be united on the east but
+  for the transverse valley of the Amur, which parts the Khingan
+  mountains from the Yablonoi system to the east of Lake Baikal.
+
+  If we consider the whole continent to be divided into three sections,
+  viz. a northern section with an average altitude of less than 5000 ft.
+  above sea, where all the main rivers flow northward to the
+  Mediterranean, the Arctic Sea, or the Caspian; a central section of
+  depression, where the drainage is lost in swamps or _hamuns_, and of
+  which the average level probably does not exceed 2000 ft. above sea;
+  and a southern section divided between highly elevated table-lands
+  from 15,000 to 16,000 ft. in altitude, and lowlands of the Arabian,
+  Indian, Siamese and Chinese peninsulas, with an ocean outlet for its
+  drainage; we find that there is only one direct connexion between
+  northern and southern sections which involves no mountain passes, and
+  no formidable barrier of altitudes. That one is afforded by the narrow
+  valley of the Hari Rud to the west of Herat. From the Caspian to
+  Karachi it is possible to pass without encountering any orographic
+  obstacle greater than the divide which separates the valley of the
+  Hari Rud from the Helmund _hamun_ basin, which may be represented by
+  an altitude of about 4000 ft. above sea-level. This fact possesses
+  great significance in connexion with the development of Asiatic
+  railways.
+
+
+    Hydrography.
+
+  If we examine the hydrographic basins of the three divisions of Asia
+  thus indicated we find that the northern division, including the
+  drainage falling into the Arctic Sea, the Aralo-Caspian depression, or
+  the Mediterranean, embraces an area of about 6,394,500 sq. m., as
+  follows:--
+
+                                      Sq. m.
+    Area of Arctic river basins    4,367,000
+       "    Aralo-Caspian basin    1,759,000
+       "    Mediterranean            268,500
+                                   ---------
+                      Total        6,394,500
+
+  The southern division is nearly equal in extent--
+
+                                      Sq. m.
+    Pacific drainage               3,641,000
+    Indian Ocean                   2,873,000
+                                   ---------
+                      Total        6,514,000
+
+  The interior or inland basins, including the lacustrine regions south
+  of the Arctic watershed, the Gobi depression, Tibetan plateau, the
+  Iranian (or Perso-Afghan) uplands, the Syro-Arabian inland basin, and
+  that of Asia Minor, amount to 3,141,500 sq. m. or about half the
+  extent of the other two.
+
+  By far the largest Asiatic river basin is that of the Ob, which
+  exceeds 1,000,000 sq. m. in extent. On the east and south the Amur
+  embraces no less than 776,000 sq. m., the Yang-tsze-kiang including
+  685,000, the Ganges 409,500, and the Indus 370,000 sq. m.[1]
+
+  The lakes of Asia are innumerable, and vary in size from an inland sea
+  (such as Lakes Baikal and Balkash) to a highland loch, or the
+  indefinitely extended swamps of Persia. Many of them are at high
+  elevations (Lake Victoria, 13,400 ft., being probably the most
+  elevated), and are undoubted vestiges of an ancient period of
+  glaciation. Such lakes, as a rule, show indications of a gradual
+  decrease in size. Others are relics of an earlier geological period,
+  when land areas recently upheaved from the sea were spread at low
+  levels with alternate inundations of salt and fresh water. Of these
+  Lop Nor and the Helmund _hamuns_ are typical. Such lakes (in common
+  with all the plateau _hamuns_ of south-west Baluchistan and Persia)
+  change their form and extent from season to season, and many of them
+  are impregnated with saline deposits from the underlying strata. The
+  _kavirs_, or salt depressions, of the Persian desert are more
+  frequently widespread deposits of mud and salt than water-covered
+  areas.
+
+
+    Political divisions.
+
+  Although for the purposes of geographical nomenclature, boundaries
+  formed by a coast-line--that is, by depressions of the earth's solid
+  crust _below_ the ocean level--are most easily recognized and are of
+  special convenience; and although such boundaries, from following
+  lines on which the continuity of the land is interrupted, often
+  necessarily indicate important differences in the conditions of
+  adjoining countries, and of their political and physical relations,
+  yet variations of the elevation of the surface _above_ the sea-level
+  frequently produce effects not less marked. The changes of temperature
+  and climate caused by difference of elevation are quite comparable in
+  their magnitude and effect on all organized creatures with those due
+  to differences of latitude; and the relative position of the high and
+  low lands on the earth's surface, by modifying the direction of the
+  winds, the fall of rain, and other atmospheric phenomena, produce
+  effects in no sense less important than those due to the relative
+  distribution of the land and sea. Hence the study of the mountain
+  ranges of a continent is, for a proper apprehension of its physical
+  conditions and characteristics, as essential as the examination of its
+  extent and position in relation to the equator and poles, and the
+  configuration of its coasts.
+
+
+    Himalayan boundary.
+
+  From such causes the physical conditions of a large part of Asia, and
+  the history of its population, have been very greatly influenced by
+  the occurrence of the mass of mountain above described, which includes
+  the Himalaya and the whole elevated area having true physical
+  connexion with that range, and occupies an area about 2000 m. in
+  length and varying from 100 to 500 m. in width, between 65° and 100°
+  east and between 28° and 35° north. These mountains, which include the
+  highest peaks in the world, rise, along their entire length, far above
+  the line of perpetual snow, and few of the passes across the main
+  ridges are at a less altitude than 15,000 or 16,000 ft. above the sea.
+  Peaks of 20,000 ft. abound along the whole chain, and the points that
+  exceed that elevation are numerous. A mountain range such as this,
+  attaining altitudes at which vegetable life ceases, and the support of
+  animal life is extremely difficult, constitutes an almost impassable
+  barrier against the spread of all forms of living creatures. The
+  mountain mass, moreover, is not less important in causing a complete
+  separation between the atmospheric conditions on its opposite flanks,
+  by reason of the extent to which it penetrates that stratum of the
+  atmosphere which is in contact with the earth's surface and is
+  effective in determining climate. The highest summits create serious
+  obstructions to the movements of nearly three-fourths of the mass of
+  the air resting on this part of the earth, and of nearly the whole of
+  the moisture it contains; the average height of the entire chain is
+  such as to make it an almost absolute barrier to one-half of the air
+  and three-fourths of the moisture; while the lower ranges also produce
+  important atmospheric effects, one-fourth of the air and one-half of
+  the watery vapour it carries with it lying below 9000 ft.
+
+  This great mass of mountain, constituting as it does a complete
+  natural line of division across a large part of the continent, will
+  form a convenient basis from which to work, in proceeding, as will now
+  be done, to give a general view of the principal countries contained
+  in Asia.
+
+
+    Tibet.
+
+  The summit of the great mountain mass is occupied by Tibet, a country
+  known by its inhabitants under the name of _Bod_ or _Bodyul_. Tibet is
+  a rugged table-land, narrow as compared with its length, broken up by
+  a succession of mountain ranges, which follow as a rule the direction
+  of the length of the table-land, and commonly rise into the regions of
+  perpetual snow; between the flanks of these lie valleys, closely
+  hemmed in, usually narrow, having a very moderate inclination, but at
+  intervals opening out into wide plains, and occupied either by rivers,
+  or frequently by lakes from which there is no outflow and the waters
+  of which are salt. The eastern termination of Tibet is in the line of
+  snowy mountains which flanks China on the west, between the 27th and
+  35th parallels of latitude, and about 103° east. On the west the
+  table-land is prolonged beyond the political limits of Tibet, though
+  with much the same physical features, to about 70° east, beyond which
+  it terminates; and the ranges which are covered with perpetual snow as
+  far west as Samarkand, thence rapidly diminish in height, and
+  terminate in low hills north of Bokhara.
+
+  The mean elevation of Tibet may be taken as 15,000 ft. above the sea.
+  The broad mountainous slope by which it is connected with the lower
+  levels of Hindostan contains the ranges known as the Himalaya; the
+  name Kuen-lun is generally applied to the northern slope that descends
+  to the central plains of the Gobi, though these mountains are not
+  locally known under those names, Kuen-lun being apparently a Chinese
+  designation.
+
+  The extreme rigour of the climate of Tibet, which combines great cold
+  with great drought, makes the country essentially very poor, and the
+  chief portion of it little better than desert. The vegetation is
+  everywhere most scanty, and scarcely anything deserving the name of a
+  tree is to be found unless in the more sheltered spots, and then
+  artificially planted. The population in the lower and warmer valleys
+  live in houses, and follow agriculture; in the higher regions they are
+  nomadic shepherds, thinly scattered over a large area.
+
+
+    China.
+
+  China lies between the eastern flank of the Tibetan plateau and the
+  North Pacific, having its northern and southern limits about on 40°
+  and 20° N. respectively. The country, though generally broken up with
+  mountains of moderate elevation, possesses none of very great
+  importance apart from those of its western border. It is well watered,
+  populous, and, as a rule, highly cultivated, fertile, and well wooded;
+  the climate is analogous to that of southern Europe, with hot summers,
+  and winters everywhere cold and in the north decidedly severe.
+
+
+    Indo-Chinese region.
+
+  From the eastern extremity of the Tibetan mountains, between the 95th
+  and 100th meridians, high ranges extend from about 35° N. in a
+  southerly direction, which, spreading outwards as they go south, reach
+  the sea at various points in Cochin-China, the Malay peninsula, and
+  the east flank of Bengal. Between these ranges, which are probably
+  permanently snowy to about 27° N., flow the great rivers of the
+  Indo-Chinese peninsula, the Mekong, the Menam, the Salween, and the
+  Irrawaddy, the valleys of which form the main portions of the states
+  of Cochin-China (including Tongking and Cambodia), of Siam (including
+  Laos) and of Burma. The people of Cochin-China are called Anam; it is
+  probably from a corruption of their name for the capital of Tongking,
+  Kechao, that the Portuguese Cochin has been derived. All these
+  countries are well watered, populous and fertile, with a climate very
+  similar to that of eastern Bengal. The geography of the region in
+  which the mountains of Cochin-China and Siam join Tibet is still
+  imperfectly known, but there is no ground left for doubting that the
+  great river of eastern Tibet, the Tsanpo, supplies the main stream of
+  the Brahmaputra. The two great rivers of China, the Hwang-ho and the
+  Yang-tsze-kiang take their rise from the eastern face of Tibet, the
+  former from the north-east angle, the latter from the south-east. The
+  main stream of this last is called Dichu in Tibet, and its chief
+  feeder is the Ya-lung-kiang, which rises not far from the Hwang-ho,
+  and is considered the territorial boundary between China and Tibet.
+
+
+    British India.
+
+  British India comprises approximately the area between the 95th and
+  70th meridians, and between the Tibetan table-land and the Indian
+  Ocean. The Indian peninsula from 25° N. southwards is a table-land,
+  having its greatest elevation on the west, where the highest points
+  rise to over 8000 ft., though the ordinary altitude of the higher
+  hills hardly exceeds 4000 ft.; the general level of the table-land
+  lies between 3000 ft. as a maximum and 1000 ft.
+
+  From the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra on the east to that of
+  the Indus on the west, and intervening between the table-land of the
+  peninsula and the foot of the Himalayan slope of the Tibetan plateau,
+  lies the great plain of northern India, which rises at its highest
+  point to about 1000 ft., and includes altogether, with its
+  prolongation up the valley of Assam, an area of about 500,000 sq. m.,
+  comprising the richest, the most populous and most civilized districts
+  of India. The great plain extends, with an almost unbroken surface,
+  from the most western to the most eastern extremity of British India,
+  and is composed of deposits so finely comminuted, that it is no
+  exaggeration to say that it is possible to go from the Bay of Bengal
+  up the Ganges, through the Punjab, and down the Indus again to the
+  sea, over a distance of 2000 m. and more, without finding a pebble,
+  however small.
+
+  The great rivers of northern India--the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and
+  the Indus--all derive their waters from the Tibetan mountain mass; and
+  it is a remarkable circumstance that the northern water-parting of
+  India should lie to the north of the Himalaya in the regions of
+  central Tibet.
+
+  The population of India is very large, some of its districts being
+  among the most densely peopled in the world. The country is generally
+  well cleared, and forests are, as a rule, found only along the flanks
+  of the mountains, where the fall of rain is most abundant. The more
+  open parts are highly cultivated, and large cities abound. The climate
+  is generally such as to secure the population the necessaries of life
+  without severe labour; the extremes of heat and drought are such as to
+  render the land unsuitable for pasture, and the people everywhere
+  subsist by cultivation of the soil or commerce, and live in settled
+  villages or towns.
+
+  The island of Ceylon is distinguished from the neighbouring parts of
+  British India by little more than its separate administration and the
+  Buddhistic religion of its population. The highest point in Ceylon
+  rises to about 9000 ft. above the sea, and the mountain slopes are
+  densely covered with forest. The lower levels are in climate and
+  cultivation quite similar to the regions in the same latitude on the
+  Malay peninsula.
+
+  Of the islands in the Bay of Bengal the Nicobar and Andaman groups are
+  alone worth notice. They are placed on a line joining the north end of
+  Sumatra and Cape Negrais, the south-western extremity of Burma. They
+  possibly owe their existence to the volcanic agencies which are known
+  to extend from Sumatra across this part of the Indian Ocean.
+
+  [Illustration: map of Asia.]
+
+  The Laccadives and Maldives are groups of small coral islands,
+  situated along the 73rd meridian at no great distance from the
+  Indian peninsula on which they have a political dependency.
+
+
+    The Nearer East.
+
+  The portion of Asia west of British India excluding Arabia and Syria
+  forms another extensive plateau covering an area as large as that of
+  Tibet though at a much lower altitude. Its southern border runs along
+  the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Tigris and thence westward to
+  the north-east angle of the Levant, on the north the high land follows
+  nearly 36° N. to the southern shore of the Caspian and thence to the
+  Black Sea and Sea of Marmora. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran or
+  Persia, Armenia and the provinces of Asia Minor occupy this high
+  region with which they are nearly conterminous. The eastern flank of
+  this table-land follows a line of hills drawn a short distance from
+  the Indus between the mouth of that river and the Himalaya, about on
+  the 72nd meridian, these hills do not generally exceed 4000 or 5000
+  ft. in elevation but a few of the summits reach 10,000 ft. or more.
+  The southern and south western face follows the coast closely up the
+  Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Indus, and is formed farther west
+  by the mountain scarp, which, rising in many points to 10,000 ft.
+  flanks the Tigris and the Mesopotamian plains, and extends along
+  Kurdistan and Armenia nearly to the 40th meridian, beyond which it
+  turns along the Taurus range, and the north eastern angle of the
+  Mediterranean. The north eastern portion of the Afghan table-land
+  abuts on the Himalaya and Tibet, with which it forms a continuous mass
+  of mountain between the 71st and 72nd meridians and 34° and 36° N.
+  From the point of intersection of the 71st meridian with the 36th
+  parallel of latitude, an unbroken range of mountain stretches on one
+  side towards the north east, up to the crest of the northern slope of
+  the Tibetan plateau, and on the other nearly due west as far as the
+  Caspian. The north eastern portion of this range is of great altitude,
+  and separates the headwaters of the Oxus, which run off to the Aral
+  Sea, from those of the Indus and its Kabul tributary, which, uniting
+  below Peshawar are thence discharged southward into the Arabian Sea.
+  The western part of the range, which received the name of Paropamisus
+  Mons from the ancients, diminishes in height west of the 65th meridian
+  and constitutes the northern face of the Afghan and Persian plateau
+  rising abruptly from the plains of the Turkoman desert which lies
+  between the Oxus and the Caspian. These mountains at some points
+  attain a height of 10,000 or 12,000 ft. Along the south coast of the
+  Caspian this line of elevation is prolonged as the Elburz range (not
+  to be confused with the Elburz of the Caucasus), and has its
+  culminating point in Demavend, which rises to 19,400 ft. above the sea
+  thence it extends to the north west to Ararat, which rises to upwards
+  of 17,000 ft. from the vicinity of which the Euphrates flows off to
+  the south west across the high lands of Armenia. Below the north east
+  declivity of this range lies Georgia, on the other side of which
+  province rises the Caucasus, the boundary of Asia and Europe between
+  the Caspian and Black Seas, the highest points of which reach an
+  elevation of nearly 19,000 ft. West of Ararat high hills extend along
+  the Black Sea between which and the Taurus range lies the plateau of
+  Asia Minor reaching to the Aegean Sea, the mountains along the Black
+  Sea, on which are the Olympus and Ida of the ancients rise to 6000 or
+  7000 ft., the Taurus is more lofty--reaching 8000 and 10,000 ft.--both
+  ranges decline in altitude as they approach the Mediterranean.
+
+  This great plateau extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus has a
+  length of about 2500 m. from east to west, and a breadth of upwards of
+  600 m. on the west and nowhere of less than 250 m. It lies generally
+  at altitudes between 2000 ft. and 8000 ft. above the sea level. Viewed
+  as a whole the eastern half of this region, comprising Persia,
+  Afghanistan and Baluchistan, is poor and unproductive. The climate is
+  very severe in the winter and extremely hot in summer. The rainfall is
+  very scanty, and running waters are hardly known excepting among the
+  mountains which form the scarps of the elevated country. The
+  population is sparse, frequently nomadic, and addicted to plunder,
+  progress in the arts and habits of civilization is small. The western
+  part of the area falls within the Turkish empire. Its climate is less
+  hot and and its natural productiveness much greater and its population
+  more settled and on the whole more advanced.
+
+
+    Arabia.
+
+  The peninsula of Arabia with Syria, its continuation to the
+  north-west, has some of the characteristics of the hottest and driest
+  parts Persia and Baluchistan. Excepting the northern part of this
+  tract which is conterminous with the plain of Mesopotamia (which at
+  its highest point reaches an elevation of about 700 ft. above the sea)
+  the country is covered with low mountains, rising to 3000 or 4000 ft.
+  in altitude having among them narrow valleys in which the vegetation
+  is scanty with exceptional regions of greater fertility in the
+  neighbourhood of the coasts where the rainfall is greatest. In
+  northern Syria the mountains of Lebanon rise to about 10,000 ft. and
+  with a more copious water supply the country becomes more productive.
+  The whole tract, excepting south eastern Arabia is nominally subject
+  to Turkey but the people are to no small extent practically
+  independent living a nomadic pastoral and freebooting life under petty
+  chiefs in the more arid districts, but settled in towns in the more
+  fertile tracts where agriculture becomes more profitable and external
+  commerce is established.
+
+
+    Trans-Caspian region and central Asia.
+
+  The area between the northern border of the Persian high lands and the
+  Caspian and Aral Seas is a nearly desert low lying plain, extending to
+  the foot of the north-western extremity of the great Tibeto-Himalayan
+  mountains and prolonged eastward up the valleys of the Oxus (Amu
+  Darya) and Jaxartes (Syr-Darya), and northward across the country of
+  the Kirghiz to the south western border of Siberia. It includes
+  Bokhara, Khiva and Turkestan proper in which the Uzbeg Turks are
+  dominant, and for the most part is inhabited by nomadic tribes, who
+  are marauders, enjoying the reputation of being the worst among a race
+  of professed robbers. The tribes to the north, subject to Russia, are
+  naturally more peaceable, and have been brought into some degree of
+  discipline. In this tract the rainfall is nowhere sufficient for the
+  purposes of agriculture, which is only possible by help of irrigation,
+  and the fixed population (which contains a non-Turkish element) is
+  comparatively small, and restricted to the towns and the districts
+  near the rivers.
+
+  The north-western extremity of the elevated Tibeto-Himalayan mountain
+  plateau is situated about on 73° E. and 39° N. This region is known as
+  Pamir, it has all the characteristics of the highest regions of Tibet,
+  and so far fitly receives the Russian designation of steppe, but it
+  seems to have no special peculiarities, and the reason of its having
+  been so long regarded as a geographical enigma is not obvious. From it
+  the Oxus, or Amu, flows off to the west, and the Jaxartes, or Syr, to
+  the north, through the Turki state of Khokand, while to the east the
+  waters run down past Kashgar to the central desert of the Gobi,
+  uniting with the streams from the northern slope of the Tibetan
+  plateau that traverse the principalities of Yarkand and Khotan, which
+  are also Turki. Here the Tibetan mountains unite with the line of
+  elevation which stretches across the continent from the Pacific, and
+  which separates Siberia from the region commonly spoken of under the
+  name of central Asia.
+
+
+    Manchuria.
+
+  A range of mountains, called Stanovor, rising to heights of 4000 or
+  5000 ft., follows the southern coast of the eastern extremity of Asia
+  from Kamchatka to the borders of Manchuria, as far as the 135th
+  meridian, in lat. 55° N. Thence the Yablonoi range, continuing in the
+  same direction, divides the waters of the river Lena, which flows
+  through Siberia into the Arctic Sea, from those of the river Amur,
+  which falls into the North Pacific, the basin of this river, with its
+  affluents, constitutes Manchuria. From the north of Manchuria the
+  Khingan range stretches southward to the Chinese frontier near Peking,
+  east of which the drainage falls into the Amur and the Yellow Sea,
+  while to the west is an almost rainless region, the inclination of
+  which is towards the central area of the continent, Mongolia.
+
+
+    Mongolia.
+
+  From the western end of the Yablonoi range, on the 115th meridian, a
+  mountainous belt extends along a somewhat irregular line to the
+  extremity of Pamir, known under various names in its different parts,
+  and broken up into several branches, enclosing among them many
+  isolated drainage areas, from which there is no outflow, and within
+  which numerous lakes are formed. The most important of these ranges is
+  the Tian-shan or Celestial Mountains, which form the northern boundary
+  of the Gobi desert, they lie between 40° and 43° N., and between 75°
+  and 95° E., and some of the summits are said to exceed 20,000 ft. in
+  altitude, along the foot of this range are the principal cultivated
+  districts of central Asia, and here too are situated the few towns
+  which have sprung up in this barren and thinly peopled region. Next
+  may be named the Ala-tau, on the prolongation of the Tian-shan,
+  flanking the Syr on the north, and rising to 14,000 or 15,000 ft. It
+  forms the barrier between the Issyk-kul and Balkash lakes, the
+  elevation of which is about 5000 ft. Last is the Altai, near the 50th
+  parallel, rising to 10,000 or 12,000 ft., which separates the waters
+  of the great rivers of western Siberia from those that collect into
+  the lakes of north-west Mongolia, Dzungaria and Kalka. A line of
+  elevation is continued west of the Altai to the Ural Mountains, not
+  rising to considerable altitudes; this divides the drainage of
+  south-west Siberia from the great plains lying north east of the Aral
+  Sea.
+
+  The central area bounded on the north and north-west by the Yablonoi
+  Mountains and their western extension in the Tian-shan, on the south
+  by the northern face of the Tibetan plateau and on the east by the
+  Khingan range before alluded to, forms the great desert of central
+  Asia, known as the Gobi. Its eastern part is nearly conterminous with
+  south Mongolia, its western forms Chinese or eastern Turkestan. It
+  appears likely that no part of this great central Asiatic desert is
+  less than 2000 ft. above the sea level. The elevation of the plain
+  about Kashgar and Yarkand is from 4000 to 6000 ft. The more northern
+  parts of Mongolia are between 4000 and 6000 ft., and no portion of the
+  route across the desert between the Chinese frontier and Kiakhta is
+  below 3000 ft. The precise positions of the mountain ridges that
+  traverse this central area are not properly known, their elevation is
+  everywhere considerable, and many points are known to exceed 10,000 or
+  12,000 ft.
+
+  In Mongolia the population is essentially nomadic, its wealth
+  consisting in herds of horned cattle, sheep, horses and camels. The
+  Turki tribes, occupying western Mongolia, are among the least
+  civilized of human beings, and it is chiefly to their extreme
+  barbarity and cruelty that our ignorance of central Asia is due. The
+  climate is very severe, with great extremes of heat and cold. The
+  drought is very great, rain falls rarely and in small quantities. The
+  surface is for the most part a hard stony desert, areas of blown sand
+  occurring but exceptionally. There are few towns or settled villages,
+  except along the slopes of the higher mountains, on which the rain
+  falls more abundantly, or the melting snow supplies streams for
+  irrigation. It is only in such situations that cultivated lands are
+  found, and beyond them trees are hardly to be seen.
+
+
+    Siberia.
+
+  The portion of Asia which lies between the Arctic Ocean and the
+  mountainous belt bounding Manchuria, Mongolia and Turkestan on the
+  north is Siberia. It includes an immense high and broken plateau which
+  spreads from south-west to north-east, losing in width and altitude as
+  it advances north-east. It is fringed on either side by high border
+  ridges, which subside on the north-west into a stretch of high plains,
+  1500 to 2000 ft. high, finally dropping to lowlands a few hundred feet
+  above sea-level. The extremes of heat and cold are very great. The
+  rainfall, though not heavy, is sufficient to maintain such vegetation
+  as is compatible with the conditions of temperature, and the surface
+  is often swampy or peaty. The mountain-sides are commonly clothed with
+  pine forests, and the plains with grasses or shrubs. The population is
+  very scanty; the cultivated tracts are comparatively small in extent
+  and restricted to the more settled districts. The towns are entirely
+  Russian. The indigenous races are nomadic Mongols, of a peaceful
+  character, but in a very backward state of civilization. The Ural
+  Mountains do not exceed 2000 or 3000 ft. in average altitude, the
+  highest summits not exceeding 6000 ft., and one of the passes being as
+  low as 1400 ft. In the southern half of the range are the chief mining
+  districts of Russia. The Ob, Yenisei and Lena, which traverse Siberia,
+  are among the largest rivers in the world.
+
+
+    Malay Archipelago.
+
+  The southern group of the Malay Archipelago, from Sumatra to Java and
+  Timor, extends in the arc of a circle between 95° and 127° E., and
+  from 5° to 10° S. The central part of the group is a volcanic region,
+  many of the volcanoes being still active, the summits frequently
+  rising to 10,000 ft. or more.
+
+  Sumatra, the largest of the islands, is but thinly peopled; the
+  greater part of the surface is covered with dense forest, the
+  cultivated area being comparatively small, confined to the low lands,
+  and chiefly in the volcanic region near the centre of the island. Java
+  is the most thickly peopled, best cultivated and most advanced island
+  of the whole Eastern archipelago. It has attained a high degree of
+  wealth and prosperity under the Dutch government. The people are
+  peaceful and industrious, and chiefly occupied with agriculture. The
+  highest of the volcanic peaks rises to 12,000 ft. above the sea. The
+  eastern islands of this group are less productive and less advanced.
+
+  Borneo, the most western and the largest of the northern group of
+  islands which extends between 110° and 150° E., as far as New Guinea
+  or Papua, is but little known. The population is small, rude and
+  uncivilized; and the surface is rough and mountainous and generally
+  covered with forest except near the coast, to the alluvial lands on
+  which settlers have been attracted from various surrounding countries.
+  The highest mountain rises to nearly 14,000 ft., but the ordinary
+  elevations do not exceed 4000 or 5000 ft.
+
+  Of Celebes less is known than of Borneo, which it resembles in
+  condition and natural characteristics. The highest known peaks rise to
+  8000 ft., some of them being volcanic.
+
+
+    Pacific Islands.
+
+  New Guinea extends almost to the same meridian as the eastern coast of
+  Australia, from the north point of which it is separated by Torres
+  Straits. Very little is known of the interior. The mountains are said
+  to rise to 20,000 ft., having the appearance of being permanently
+  covered with snow; the surface seems generally to be clothed with
+  thick wood. The inhabitants are of the Negrito type, with curly or
+  crisp and bushy hair; those of the west coast have come more into
+  communication with the traders of other islands and are fairly
+  civilized. Eastward, many of the tribes are barbarous savages.
+
+  The Philippine Islands lie between 5° and 20° N., between Borneo and
+  southern China. The highest land does not rise to a greater height
+  than 10,250 ft.; the climate is well suited for agriculture, and the
+  islands generally are fertile and fairly cultivated, though not coming
+  up to the standard of Java either in wealth or population.
+
+  Formosa, which is situated under the northern tropic, near the coast
+  of China, is traversed by a high range of mountains, reaching nearly
+  13,000 ft. in elevation. On its western side, which is occupied by an
+  immigrant Chinese population, are open and well-cultivated plains; on
+  the east it is mountainous, and occupied by independent indigenous
+  tribes in a less advanced state.
+
+  The islands of Japan, not including Sakhalin, of which half is
+  Japanese, lie between the 30th and 45th parallels. The whole group is
+  traversed by a line of volcanic mountains, some of which are in
+  activity, the highest point being about 13,000 ft. above the sea. The
+  country is generally well watered, fertile and well cultivated. The
+  Japanese people have added to their ancient civilization and their
+  remarkable artistic faculty, an adaptation of Western methods, and a
+  capacity for progress in war and commerce, which single them out among
+  Eastern races as a great modern world-force.
+
+
+  EXPLORATION
+
+  The progress of geodetic surveys in Russia had long ago extended
+  across the European half of the great empire, St Petersburg being
+  connected with Tiflis on the southern slopes of the Caucasus by a
+  direct system of triangulation carried out with the highest scientific
+  precision. St Petersburg, again, is connected with Greenwich by
+  European systems of triangulation; and the Greenwich meridian is
+  adopted by Russia as the zero for all her longitude values. But beyond
+  the eastern shores of the Caspian no system of direct geodetic
+  measurements by first-class triangulation has been possible, and the
+  surveys of Asiatic Russia are separated from those of Europe by the
+  width of that inland sea. The arid nature of the trans-Caspian deserts
+  has proved an insuperable obstacle to those rigorous methods of
+  geodetic survey which distinguish Russian methods in Europe, so that
+  Russian geography in central Asia is dependent on other means than
+  that of direct measurement for the co-ordinate values in latitude and
+  longitude for any given point. The astronomical observatory at
+  Tashkent is adopted for the initial starting-point of the
+  trans-Caspian triangulation of Russia; the triangulation ranks as
+  second-class only, and now extends to the Pamir frontier beyond Osh.
+  The longitude of the Tashkent observatory has been determined by
+  telegraph differentially with Pulkova as follows:--
+
+                                            H. M.    S.
+    In 1875 via Ekaterinburg and Omsk       2  35  52.151
+    "  1891  "  Saratov       "  Orenburg   2  35  52.228
+    "  1895  "  Kiev          "  Baku       2  35  51.997
+
+  With these three independent values, all falling within a range of
+  0^S.25, it is improbable that the mean value has an error as large as
+  0^S.10.
+
+
+    Extent of exact surveys in Asia.
+
+  Exact surveys in Russia, based upon triangulation, extend as far east
+  as Chinese Turkestan in longitude about 75° E. of Greenwich. In India
+  geodetic triangulation furnishes the basis for exact surveys as far
+  east as the eastern boundaries of Burma in longitude about 100° E.
+
+  The close of the 19th century witnessed the forging of the final links
+  in the great geodetic triangulation of India, so far as the peninsula
+  is concerned. Further geodetic connexion with the European systems
+  remains to be accomplished. Since 1890 further and more rigorous
+  application of the telegraphic method of determining longitudes
+  differentially with Greenwich has resulted in a slight correction
+  (amounting to about 2" of arc) to the previous determination by the
+  same method through Suez. This last determination was effected through
+  four arcs as follows:--
+
+      I. Greenwich--Potsdam.
+     II. Potsdam--Teheran.
+    III. Teheran--Bushire.
+     IV. Bushire--Karachi.
+
+  Each arc was measured with every precaution and a multitude of
+  observations. The only element of uncertainty was caused by the
+  retardation of the current, which between Potsdam and Teheran (3000
+  m.) took 0^S.20 to travel; but it is probable that the final value can
+  be accepted as correct to within 0^S.05.
+
+  The final result of this latest determination is to place the Madras
+  observatory 2' 27" to the west of the position adopted for it on the
+  strength of absolute astronomical determinations.
+
+
+    Connexion between Russian and Indian surveys.
+
+  But while we have yet to wait for that expansion of principal
+  triangulation which will bring Asia into connexion with Europe by the
+  direct process of earth measurement, a topographical connexion has
+  been effected between Russian and Indian surveys which sufficiently
+  proves that the deductive methods employed by both countries for the
+  determination of the co-ordinate values of fixed points so far agree
+  that, for all practical purposes of future Asiatic cartography, no
+  difficulty in adjustment between Indian and Russian mapping need be
+  apprehended.
+
+
+    Extension of geographical surveys.
+
+  In connexion with the Indian triangulation minor extensions carried
+  out on systems involving more or less irregularity have been pushed
+  outwards on all sides. They reach through Afghanistan and Baluchistan
+  to the eastern districts of Persia, and along the coast of Makran to
+  that of Arabia. They have long ago included the farther mountain peaks
+  of Nepal, and they now branch outwards towards western China and into
+  Siam. These far extensions furnish the basis for a vast amount of
+  exploratory survey of a strictly geographical character, and they have
+  contributed largely towards raising the standard of accuracy in
+  Asiatic geographical surveys to a level which was deemed unattainable
+  fifty years ago. There is yet a vast field open in Asia for this class
+  of surveys. While at the close of the 19th century western Asia
+  (exclusive of Arabia) may be said to have been freed from all
+  geographical perplexity, China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia still
+  include enormous areas of which geographical knowledge is in a
+  primitive stage of nebulous uncertainty.
+
+
+    Indian explorers.
+
+  Of scientific geographical exploration in Asia (beyond the limits of
+  actual surveys) the modern period has been so prolific that it is only
+  possible to refer in barest outline to some of the principal
+  expeditions, most of which have been directed either to the great
+  elevated table-land of Tibet or to the central depression which exists
+  to the north of it. In southern Tibet the trans-Himalayan explorations
+  of the native surveyors attached to the Indian survey, notably Pundits
+  Nain Singh and Krishna, added largely to our knowledge of the great
+  plateau. Nain Singh explored the sources of the Indus and of the Upper
+  Brahmaputra in the years 1865-1867; and in 1874-1875 he followed a
+  line from the eastern frontiers of Kashmir to the Tengri Nor lake and
+  thence to Lhasa, in which city he remained for some months. Krishna's
+  remarkable journey in 1879-1882 extended from Lhasa northwards through
+  Tsaidam to Sachu, or Saitu, in Mongolia. He subsequently passed
+  through eastern Tibet to the town of Darchendo, or Tachienlu, on the
+  high road between Lhasa and Peking, and on the borders of China.
+  Failing to reach India through Upper Assam he returned to the
+  neighbourhood of Lhasa, and crossed the Himalayas by a more westerly
+  route. Both these explorers visited Lhasa.
+
+
+    Russian explorers.
+
+  In 1871-1873 the great Russian explorer, Nicolai Prjevalsky, crossed
+  the Gobi desert from the north to Kansu in western China. He first
+  defined the geography of Tsaidam, and mapped the hydrography of that
+  remarkable region, from which emanate the great rivers of China, Siam
+  and Burma. He penetrated southwards to within a month's march of
+  Lhasa. In 1876 he visited the Lop Nor and discovered the Altyn Tagh
+  range. In 1879 he followed up the Urangi river to the Altai Mountains,
+  and demonstrated to the world the extraordinary physical changes which
+  have passed over the heart of the Asiatic continent since Jenghiz Khan
+  massed his vast armies in those provinces. He crossed, and named, the
+  Dzungarian extension of the Gobi desert, and then traversed the Gobi
+  itself from Hami to Sachu, which became a point of junction between
+  his journeys and those of Krishna. He visited the sources of the
+  Hwang-ho (Yellow river) and the Salween, and then returned to Russia.
+  His fourth journey in 1883-1885 was to Sining (the great trade centre
+  of the Chinese borderland), and thence through northern Tibet
+  (crossing the Altyn Tagh to Lop Nor), and by the Cherchen-Keriya trade
+  route to Khotan. From Khotan he followed the Tarim to Aksu.
+
+  Following Prjevalsky the Russian explorers, Pevtsov and Roborovski, in
+  1889-1890 (and again in 1894), added greatly to our knowledge of the
+  topography of western Chinese Turkestan and the northern borders of
+  Tibet; all these Russian expeditions being conducted on scientific
+  principles and yielding results of the highest value. Among other
+  distinguished Russian explorers in Asia, the names of Lessar,
+  Annentkov (who bridged the Trans-Caspian deserts by a railway), P.K.
+  Kozlov and Potanin are conspicuous during the 19th century.
+
+
+    Other explorations in central Asia.
+
+  Although the establishment of a lucrative trade between India and
+  central Asia had been the dream of many successive Indian viceroys,
+  and much had been done towards improving the approaches to Simla from
+  the north, very little was really known of the highlands of the
+  Pamirs, or of the regions of the great central depression, before the
+  mission of Sir Douglas Forsyth to Yarkand in 1870. Robert Barkley Shaw
+  and George Hayward were the European pioneers of geography into the
+  central dominion of Kashgar, arriving at Yarkand within a few weeks of
+  each other in 1868. Shaw subsequently accompanied Forsyth's mission in
+  1870, when Henry Trotter made the first maps of Chinese Turkestan. The
+  next great accession to our knowledge of central Asiatic geography was
+  gained with the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886, when
+  Afghan Turkestan and the Oxus regions were mapped by Colonel Sir T.H.
+  Holdich, Colonel St George Gore and Sir Adelbert Talbot; and when Ney
+  Elias crossed from China through the Pamirs and Badakshan to the camp
+  of the commission, identifying the great "Dragon Lake," Rangkul, on
+  his way. About the same time a mission, under Captain (afterwards Sir
+  Willaim) Lockhart, crossed the Hindu Kush into Wakhan, and returned to
+  India by the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This was Colonel
+  Woodthorpe's opportunity, and he was then enabled to verify the
+  results of W.W. M'Nair's previous explorations, and to determine the
+  conformation of the Hindu Kush. In 1885 Arthur Douglas Carey and
+  Andrew Dalgleish, following more or less the tracks of Prjevalsky,
+  contributed much that was new to the map of Asia; and in 1886 Captain
+  (afterwards Sir Francis) Younghusband completed a most adventurous
+  journey across the heart of the continent by crossing the Muztagh, the
+  great mountain barrier between China and Kashmir.
+
+
+    Tibetan explorations.
+
+  It was in 1886-1887 that Pierre G. Bonvalot, accompanied by Prince
+  Henri d'Orleans, crossed the Tibetan plateau from north to south but
+  failed to enter Lhasa. In 1889-1891 the American traveller, W.W.
+  Rockhill, commenced his Tibetan journeys, and also attempted to reach
+  Lhasa, without success. By his writings, as much as by his
+  explorations, Rockhill has made his name great in the annals of
+  Asiatic research. In 1891 Hamilton Bower made his famous journey from
+  Leh to Peking. He, too, failed to penetrate the jealously-guarded
+  portals of Lhasa; but he secured (with the assistance of a native
+  surveyor) a splendid addition to our previous Tibetan mapping. In
+  1891-1892-1893 the gallant French explorer, Dutreuil de Rhins, was in
+  the field of Tibet, where he finally sacrificed his life to his work;
+  and the same years saw George N. (afterwards Lord) Curzon in the
+  Pamirs, and St George Littledale on his first great Tibetan journey,
+  accompanied by his wife. Littledale's first journey ended at Peking;
+  his second, in 1894-1895, took him almost within sight of the sacred
+  walls of Lhasa, but he failed to pass inside. Greatest among modern
+  Asiatic explorers (if we except Prjevalsky) is the brave Swede,
+  Professor Sven Hedin, whose travels through the deserts of Takla Makan
+  and Tibet, and whose investigations in the glacial regions of the
+  Sarikol mountains, occupied him from 1894 to 1896. His is a truly
+  monumental record. From 1896 to 1898 we find two British cavalry
+  officers taking the front position in the list of Tibetan
+  travellers-Captain M.S. Wellby of the 18th Hussars and Captain H.
+  Deasy of the 16th Lancers, each striking out a new line, and rendering
+  most valuable service to geography. The latter continued the Pamir
+  triangulation, which had been carried across the Hindu Kush by
+  Colonels Sir T.H. Holdich and R.A. Wahab during the Pamir Boundary
+  Commission of 1895, into the plains of Kashgar and to the sources of
+  the Zarafshan.
+
+  Since the beginning of the century the work of Deasy in western Tibet
+  has been well extended by Dr M.A. Stein and Captain C. G. Rawling, who
+  have increased our knowledge of ancient fields of industry and
+  commerce in Turkestan and Tibet. Ellsworth Huntington threw new light
+  on the Tian-shan plateau and the Alai range by his explorations of
+  1903; and Sven Hedin, between 1899 and 1902, was collecting material
+  in Turkestan and Tibetan fields, and resumed his journeys in
+  1905-1908, the result being to revolutionize our knowledge of the
+  region north of the upper Tsanpo (see TIBET). The mission of Sir
+  Francis Younghusband to Lhasa in 1904 resulted in an extension of the
+  Indian system of triangulation which finally determined the
+  geographical position of that city, and in a most valuable
+  reconnaissance of the valleys of the Upper Brahmaputra and Indus by
+  Captains C.H.D. Ryder and C.G. Rawling.
+
+
+    Chinese explorations.
+
+  Meanwhile, in the Farther East so rapid has been the progress of
+  geographical research since the first beginnings of investigation into
+  the route connexion between Burma and China in 1874 (when the brave
+  Augustus Margary lost his life), that a gradually increasing tide of
+  exploration, setting from east to west and back again, has culminated
+  in a flood of inquiring experts intent on economic and commercial
+  development in China, essaying to unlock those doors to trade which
+  are hereafter to be propped open for the benefit of humanity. Captain
+  William Gill, of the Indian survey, first made his way across China to
+  eastern Tibet and Burma, and subsequently delighted the world with his
+  story of the _River of Golden Sand_. Then followed another charming
+  writer, E.C. Baber, who, in 1877-1878, unravelled the geographic
+  mysteries of the western provinces of the Celestial empire. Mark Bell
+  crossed the continent in 1887 and illustrated its ancient trade
+  routes, following the steps of Archibald Colquhoun, who wandered from
+  Peking to Talifu in 1881. Meanwhile, the acquisition of Burma and the
+  demarcation of boundaries had opened the way to the extension of
+  geographical surveys in directions hitherto untraversed. Woodthorpe
+  was followed into Burmese fields by many others; and amongst the
+  earliest travellers to those mysterious mountains which hide the
+  sources of the Irrawaddy, the Salween and the Mekong, was Prince Henri
+  d'Orleans. Burma was rapidly brought under survey; Siam was already in
+  the map-making hands of James M'Carthy, whilst Curzon and Warrington
+  Smyth added much to our knowledge of its picturesque coast districts.
+  No more valuable contribution to the illustration of western Chinese
+  configuration has been given to the public than that of C.C. Manifold
+  who explored and mapped the upper basin of the Yang-tsze river between
+  the years 1900 and 1904, whilst our knowledge of the geography of the
+  Russo-Chinese borderland on the north-east has been largely advanced
+  by the operations attending the Russo-Japanese war which terminated in
+  1905.
+
+
+    Indian frontiers--Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia.
+
+  Turning our attention westwards, no advance in the progress of
+  scientific geography is more remarkable than that recorded on the
+  northern and north-western frontiers of India. Here there is little
+  matter of exploration. It has rather been a wide extension of
+  scientific geographical mapping. Afghan war of 1878-80; the
+  Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1885; the occupation of
+  Gilgit and Chitral; the extension of boundaries east and north of
+  Afghanistan, and again, between Baluchistan and Persia--these, added
+  to the opportunities afforded by the systematic survey of Baluchistan
+  which has been steadily progressing since 1880--combined to produce a
+  series of geographical maps which extend from the Oxus to the Indus,
+  and from the Indus to the Euphrates.
+
+  In these professional labours the Indian surveyors have been assisted
+  by such scientific geographers as General Sir A. Houtum Schindler,
+  Captain H.B. Vaughan and Major Percy M. Sykes in Persia, and by Sir
+  George Robertson and Cockerill in Kafiristan and the Hindu Kush.
+
+
+    Arabia.
+
+  In still more western fields of research much additional light has
+  been thrown since 1875 on the physiography of the great deserts and
+  oases of Arabia. The labours of Charles Doughty and Wilfrid S. Blunt
+  in northern Arabia in 1877-1878 were followed by those of G.
+  Schweinfurth and E. Glaser in the south-west about ten years later. In
+  1884-1885 Colonel S.B. Miles made his adventurous journey through
+  Oman, while Theodore Bent threw searchlights backwards into ancient
+  Semitic history by his investigations in the Bahrein Islands in 1888
+  and in Hadramut in 1894-1895.
+
+
+    Northern Asia, Siberia, &c.
+
+  In northern Asia it is impossible to follow in detail the results of
+  the organized Russian surveys. The vast steppes and forest-clad
+  mountain regions of Siberia have assumed a new geographical aspect in
+  the light of these revelations, and already promise a new world of
+  economic resources to Russian enterprise in the near future. A
+  remarkable expedition by Baron Toll in 1892 through the regions
+  watered by the Lena, resulted in the collection of material which
+  will greatly help to elucidate some of the problems which beset the
+  geological history of the world, proving _inter alia_ the primeval
+  existence of a boreal zone of the Jurassic sea round the North Pole.
+
+
+    General results of investigation.
+
+  In no other period of the world's history, of equal length of time,
+  has so much scientific enterprise been directed towards the field of
+  Asiatic inquiry. The first great result of recent geographical
+  research has been to modify pre-existing ideas of the orography of the
+  vast central region represented by Tibet and Mongolia. The great
+  highland plateau which stretches from the Himalaya northwards to
+  Chinese Turkestan, and from the frontier of Kashmir eastwards to
+  China, has now been defined with comparative geographical exactness.
+  The position of Sachu (or Saitu) in Mongolia may be taken as an
+  obligatory point in modern map construction. The longitude value now
+  adopted is 94° 54' E. of Greenwich, which is the revised value given
+  by Prjevalsky in the map accompanying the account of his fourth
+  exploration into central Asia. Other values are as follows:--
+
+    Prjevalsky, by his second and third explorations  94° 26'
+    Krishna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94° 23'
+    Carey and Dalgleish . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94° 48'
+    Littledale  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94° 49'
+    Kreitner (with Szecheny's expedition) . . . . .   94° 58'
+
+  The longitude of Darchendo, or Tachienlu, on the extreme east, may be
+  accepted as another obligatory point. The adopted value by the Royal
+  Geographical Society is 102° 12". Krishna gives 102° 15", Kreitner
+  102° 5", Baber 102° 18".
+
+  South and west the bounding territories are well fixed in geographical
+  position by the Indian survey determinations of the value of Himalayan
+  peaks. On the north the Chinese Turkestan explorations are now brought
+  into survey connexion with Kashmir and India.
+
+  No longer do we regard the Kuen-lun mountains, which extend from the
+  frontiers of Kashmir, north of Leh, almost due east to the Chinese
+  province of Kansu, as the southern limit of the Gobi or Turkestan
+  depression. This very remarkable longitudinal chain is undoubtedly the
+  northern limit of the Chang Tang, the elevated highland steppes of
+  Tibet; but from it there branches a minor system to the north-east
+  from a point in about 83° E. longitude, which culminates in the Altyn
+  Tagh, and extends eastwards in a continuous water-divide to the Nan
+  Shan mountains, north of the Koko Nor basin. Thus between Tibet and
+  the low-lying sands of Gobi we have, thrust in, a system of elevated
+  valleys (Tsaidam), 8000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, forming an
+  intermediate steppe between the highest regions and the lowest, east
+  of Lop Nor. All this is comparatively new geography, and it goes far
+  to explain why the great trade routes from Peking to the west were
+  pushed so far to the north.
+
+
+    Russo-Chinese boundary.
+
+  On the western edge of the Kashgar plains, the political boundary
+  between Russia and China is defined by the meridional range of
+  Sarikol. This range (known to the ancients as Taurus and in medieval
+  times as Bolor) like many others of the most important great natural
+  mountain divisions of the world, consists of two parallel chains, of
+  which the western is the water-divide of the Pamirs, and the eastern
+  (which has been known as the Kashgar or Kandar range) is split at
+  intervals by lateral gorges to allow of the passage of the main
+  drainage from the eastern Pamir slopes.
+
+
+    Indian frontiers--Afghanistan, &c.
+
+  In western Asia we have learned the exact value of the mountain
+  barrier which lies between Merv and Herat, and have mapped its
+  connexion with the Elburz of Persia. We can now fully appreciate the
+  factor in practical politics which that definite but somewhat
+  irregular mountain system represents which connects the water-divide
+  north of Herat with the southern abutment of the Hindu Kush, near
+  Bamian. Every pass of importance is known and recorded; every route of
+  significance has been explored and mapped; Afghanistan has assumed a
+  new political entity by the demarcation of a boundary; the value of
+  Herat and of the Pamirs as bases of aggression has been assessed, and
+  the whole intervening space of mountain and plain thoroughly examined.
+
+
+    Persia.
+
+  Although within the limits of western Asiatic states, still under
+  Asiatic government and beyond the active influence of European
+  interests, the material progress of the Eastern world has appeared to
+  remain stationary, yet large accessions to geographical knowledge have
+  at least been made, and in some instances a deeper knowledge of the
+  surface of the country and modern conditions of life has led to the
+  straightening of many crooked paths in history, and a better
+  appreciation of the slow processes of advancing civilization. The
+  steady advance of scientific inquiry into every corner of Persia,
+  backed by the unceasing efforts of a new school of geographical
+  explorers, has left nothing unexamined that can be subjected to
+  superficial observation. The geographical map of the country is fairly
+  complete, and with it much detailed information is now accessible
+  regarding the coast and harbours of the Persian Gulf, the routes and
+  passes of the interior, and the possibilities of commercial
+  development by the construction of trade roads uniting the Caspian,
+  the Karun, the Persian Gulf, and India, via Seistan. Persia has
+  assumed a comprehensible position as a factor in future Eastern
+  politics.
+
+
+    Arabia.
+
+  In Arabia progress has been slower, although the surveys carried out
+  by Colonel Wahab in connexion with the boundary determined in the Aden
+  hinterland added more exact geographical knowledge within a limited
+  area. Little more is known of the wide spaces of interior desert than
+  has already been given to the world in the works of Sir Richard F.
+  Burton, Wm. Gifford Palgrave and Sir Lewis Pelly amongst Englishmen,
+  and Karsten Niebuhr, John Lewis Burckhardt, Visconte, Joseph Halévy
+  and others, amongst foreign travellers. Charles Doughty and Wilfrid S.
+  Blunt have visited and illustrated the district of Nejd, and described
+  the waning glories of the Wahabi empire. But extended geographical
+  knowledge does not point to any great practical issue. Commercial
+  relations with Arabia remain much as they were in 1875.
+
+
+    Asia Minor, &c.
+
+  In Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia there is little to record of
+  progress in material development beyond the promises held out by the
+  Euphrates Valley railway concession to a German company. The exact
+  information obtained by the researches of English surveyors in
+  Palestine and beyond Jordan, or by the efforts of explorers in the
+  regions that lie between the Mediterranean and the Caspian, have so
+  far led rather to the elucidation of history than to fresh commercial
+  enterprise or the possible increase of material wealth.
+
+
+    Russia in Asia.
+
+  Asiatic Russia, especially eastern Siberia and Mongolia, have been
+  brought within the sphere of Russian exploration, with results so
+  surprising as to form an epoch in the history of Asia. Here there has
+  been a development of the resources of the Old World which parallels
+  the best records of the New.
+
+
+    Chinese Turkestan and Oxus basin.
+
+  The great central depression of the continent which reaches from the
+  foot of the Pamir plateau on the west through the Tarim desert to Lop
+  Nor and the Gobi has yielded up many interesting secrets. The
+  remarkable phenomenon of the periodic shifting of the Lop Nor system
+  has been revealed by the researches of Sven Hedin, and the former
+  existence of highly civilized centres of Buddhist art and industry in
+  the now sand-strewn wastes of the Turkestan desert has been clearly
+  demonstrated by the same great explorer and by Dr M.A. Stein. The
+  depression westward of the Caspian and Aral basins, and the original
+  connexion of these seas, have also come under the close investigation
+  of Russian scientists, with the result that the theory of an ancient
+  connexion between the Oxus and the Caspian has been displaced by the
+  more recent hypothesis of an extension of the Caspian Sea eastwards
+  into Trans-Caspian territory within the post-Pleiocene age. The
+  discovery of shells (now living in the Caspian) at a distance of about
+  100 m. inland, at an altitude of 140 to 280 ft. above the present
+  level of the Caspian, gives support to this hypothesis, which is
+  further advanced by the ascertained nature of the Kara-kum sands,
+  which appear to be a purely marine formation exhibiting no traces of
+  fluviatile deposits which might be considered as delta deposits of the
+  Oxus.
+
+  In the discussion of this problem we find the names of Baron A.
+  Kaulbars, Annentkov, P.M. Lessar, and A.M. Konshin prominent. Further
+  matter of interest in connexion with the Oxus basin was elucidated by
+  the researches of L. Griesbach in connexion with the Russo-Afghan
+  Boundary Commission. He reported the gradual formation of an
+  anticlinal or ridge extending longitudinally through the great Balkh
+  plain of Afghan Turkestan, which effectually shuts off the northern
+  affluents of that basin from actual junction with the river. This
+  evidence of a gradual process of upheaval still in action may throw
+  some light on the physical (especially the climatic) changes which
+  must have passed over that part of Asia since Balkh was the "mother of
+  cities," the great trade centre of Asia, and the plains of Balkh were
+  green with cultivation. In the restoration of the outlines of ancient
+  and medieval geography in Asia Sven Hedin's discoveries of the actual
+  remains of cities which have long been buried under the advancing
+  waves of sand in the Takla Makan desert, cities which flourished in
+  the comparatively recent period of Buddhist ascendancy in High Asia,
+  is of the very highest interest, filling up a blank in the
+  identification of sites mentioned by early geographers and
+  illustrating more fully the course of old pilgrim routes.
+
+
+    Baluchistan and Makran.
+
+  With the completion of the surveys of Baluchistan and Makran much
+  light has also been thrown on the ancient connexion between east and
+  west; and the final settlement of the southern boundaries of
+  Afghanistan has led to the reopening of one at least of the old trade
+  routes between Seistan and India.
+
+
+    Burma and China.
+
+  Farther east no part of Asia has been brought under more careful
+  investigation than the hydrography of the strange mountain wilderness
+  that divides Tibet and Burma from China. In this field the researches
+  of travellers already mentioned, combined with the more exact
+  reconnaissance of native surveyors and of those exploring parties
+  which have recently been working in the interests of commercial
+  projects, have left little to future inquiry. We know now for certain
+  that the great Tsanpo of Tibet and the Brahmaputra are one and the
+  same river; that north of the point where the great countermarch of
+  that river from east to west is effected are to be found the sources
+  of the Salween, the Mekong, the Yang-tsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho, or
+  Yellow river, in order, from west to east; and that south of it,
+  thrust in between the extreme eastern edge of the Brahmaputra basin
+  and the Salween, rise the dual sources of the Irrawaddy. From the
+  water-divide which separates the most eastern affluent of the
+  Brahmaputra, eastwards to the deep gorges which enclose the most
+  westerly branch of the upper Yang-tsze-kiang (here running from north
+  to south), is a short space of 100 m.; and within that space two
+  mighty rivers, the Salween and the Mekong, send down their torrents to
+  Burma and Siam. These three rivers flow parallel to each other for
+  some 300 m., deep hidden in narrow and precipitous troughs, amidst
+  some of the grandest scenery of Asia; spreading apart where the
+  Yank-tsze takes its course eastwards, not far north of the parallel of
+  25°.
+
+  The comparatively restricted area which still remains for close
+  investigation includes the most easterly sources of the Brahmaputra,
+  the most northerly sources of the Irrawaddy, and some 300 m. of the
+  course of the upper Salween.
+
+  _Modern Boundary Demarcation._--The period from about 1880 has been an
+  era of boundary-making in Asia, of defining the politico-geographical
+  limits of empire, and of determining the responsibilities of
+  government. Russia, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, India and China
+  have all revised their borders, and with the revision the political
+  relations between these countries have acquired a new and more assured
+  basis. See also the articles on the different countries. We are not
+  here concerned with understandings as to "spheres of influence," or
+  with arrangements such as the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907
+  concerning Persia.
+
+
+    Southern boundary of Russia in Asia.
+
+  The advance of Russia to the Turkoman deserts and the Oxus demanded a
+  definite boundary between her trans-Caspian conquests and the kingdom
+  of Afghanistan. This was determined on the north-west by the
+  Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886. A boundary was then
+  fixed between the Hari Rud (the river of Herat) and the Oxus, which is
+  almost entirely artificial in its construction. Zulfikar, where the
+  boundary leaves the Hari Rud, is about 70 m. south of Sarakhs, and the
+  most southerly point of the boundary (where it crosses the Kushk) is
+  about 60 m. north of Herat. From the junction of the boundary with the
+  Oxus at Khamiab about 150 m. above the crossing-point of the Russian
+  Trans-Caspian railway at Charjui, the main channel of the Oxus river
+  becomes the northern boundary of Afghanistan, separating that country
+  from Russia, and so continues to its source in Victoria Lake of the
+  Great Pamir. Beyond this point the Anglo-Russian Commission of 1895
+  demarcated a line to the snowfields and glaciers which overlook the
+  Chinese border. Between the Russian Pamirs and Chinese Turkestan the
+  rugged line of the Sarikol range intervenes, the actual dividing line
+  being still indefinite. Beyond Kashgar the southern boundary of
+  Siberia follows an irregular course to the north-east, partly defined
+  by the Tian-shan and Alatau mountains, till it attains a northerly
+  point in about 53° N. lat. marked by the Sayan range to the west of
+  Irkutsk. It then deflects south-east till it touches the Kerulen
+  affluent of the Amur river at a point which is shown in unofficial
+  maps as about 117° 30' E. long, and 49° 20' N. lat. From here it
+  follows this affluent to its junction with the Amur river, and the
+  Amur river to its junction with the Usuri. It follows the Usuri to its
+  head (its direction now being a little west of south), and finally
+  strikes the Pacific coast on about 42° 30' N. lat. at the mouth of the
+  Tumen river 100 m. south of the Amur bay, at the head of which lies
+  the Russian port of Vladivostok. At two points the Russian boundary
+  nearly approaches that of provinces which are directly under British
+  suzerainty. Where the Oxus river takes its great bend to the north
+  from Ishkashim, the breadth of the Afghan territory intervening
+  between that river and the main water-divide of the Hindu Kush is not
+  more than 10 or 12 m.; and east of the Pamir extension of Afghanistan,
+  where the Beyik Pass crosses the Sarikol range and drops into the
+  Taghdumbash Pamir, there is but the narrow width of the Karachukar
+  valley between the Sarikol and the Muztagh. Here, however, the
+  boundary is again undefined. Eastwards of this the great Kashgar
+  depression, which includes the Tarim desert, separates Russia from the
+  vast sterile highlands of Tibet; and a continuous series of desert
+  spaces of low elevation, marking the limits of a primeval inland sea
+  from the Sarikol meridional watershed to the Khingan mountains on the
+  western borders of Manchuria, divide her from the northern provinces
+  of China. From the Khingan ranges to the Pacific, south of the Amur,
+  stretch the rich districts of Manchuria, a province which connects
+  Russia with the Korea by a series of valleys formed by the Sungari and
+  its affluents--a land of hill and plain, forest and swamp, possessing
+  a delightful climate, and vast undeveloped agricultural resources.
+  Throughout this land of promise Russian influence was destroyed by
+  Japan in the war of 1904. The possession of Port Arthur, and direct
+  political control over Korea, place Japan in the dominant position as
+  regards Manchuria.
+
+
+    Afghan political boundaries.
+
+  Coincident with the demarcation of Russian boundaries in Turkestan was
+  that of northern Afghanistan. From the Hari Rud on the west to the
+  Sarikol mountains on the east her northern limits were set by the
+  Boundary Commissions of 1884-1886 and of 1895 respectively. Her
+  southern and eastern boundaries were further defined by a series of
+  minor commissions, working on the basis of the Kabul agreement of
+  1893, which lasted for nearly four years, terminating with the Mohmand
+  settlement at the close of an expedition in 1897.
+
+  The Pamir extension of Afghan territory to the north-east reaches to a
+  point a little short of 75° E., from whence it follows the
+  water-divide to the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, and is
+  thenceforward defined by the water-parting of the Hindu Kush. It
+  leaves the Hindu Kush near the Dorah Pass at the head of one of the
+  minor Chitral affluents, and passing south-west divides Kafiristan
+  from Chitral and Bajour, separates the sections of the Mohmands who
+  are within the respective spheres of Afghan and British sovereignty,
+  and crosses the Peshawar-Kabul route at Lundi-Khana. It thus places a
+  broad width of independent territory between the boundaries of British
+  India (which have remained practically, though not absolutely,
+  untouched) and Afghanistan; and this independent belt includes Swat,
+  Bajour and a part of the Mohmand territory north of the Kabul river.
+  The same principle of maintaining an intervening width of neutral
+  territory between the two countries is definitely established
+  throughout the eastern borders of Afghanistan, along the full length
+  of which a definite boundary has been demarcated to the point where it
+  touches the northern limits of Baluchistan on the Gomal river. From
+  the Gomal Baluchistan itself becomes an intervening state between
+  British India and Afghanistan, and the dividing line between
+  Baluchistan and Afghanistan is laid down with all the precision
+  employed on the more northerly sections of the demarcation.
+
+
+    Baluchistan.
+
+  Baluchistan can no longer be regarded as a distinct entity amongst
+  Asiatic nations, such as Afghanistan undoubtedly is. Baluchistan
+  independence demands qualification. There is British Baluchistan _par
+  excellence_, and there is the rest of Baluchistan which exists in
+  various degrees of independence, but is everywhere subject to British
+  control. British Baluchistan officially includes the districts of
+  Peshin, Sibi and of Thal-Chotiali. As these districts had originally
+  been Afghan, they were transferred to British authority by the treaty
+  of Gandamak in 1879, although nominally they had been handed over to
+  Kalat forty years previously. Now they form an official province of
+  British Baluchistan within the Baluchistan Agency; and the agency
+  extends from the Gomal to the Arabian Sea and the Persian frontier.
+  Within this agency there are districts as independent as any in
+  Afghanistan, but the political status of the province as a whole is
+  almost precisely that of the native states of the Indian peninsula.
+  The agent to the governor-general of India, with a staff of political
+  assistants, practically exercises supreme control.
+
+
+    Kirman.
+
+  The increase of Russian influence on the northern Persian border and
+  its extension southwards towards Seistan led to the appointment of a
+  British consul at Kirman, the dominating town of southern Khorasan,
+  directly connected with Meshed on the north; and the acquisition of
+  rights of administration of the Nushki district secured to Great
+  Britain the trade between Seistan and Quetta by the new Helmund desert
+  route.
+
+
+    Boundary between French territory and India.
+
+  While British India has so far avoided actual geographical contact
+  with one great European power in Asia on the north and west, she has
+  touched another on the east. The Mekong river which limits British
+  interests in Burma limits also those of France in Tongking. The
+  eastern boundaries of Burma are not yet fully demarcated on the
+  Chinese frontier. At a point level in latitude with Mogaung, near the
+  northern termination of the Burmese railway system, this boundary is
+  defined by the eastern watershed of the Nmaikha, the eastern of the
+  two great northern affluents of the Irrawaddy. Then it follows an
+  irregular course southwards to a position south-east of Bhamo in lat.
+  24°. It next defines the northern edge of the Shan States, and finally
+  strikes the Mekong river in lat. 21° 45' (approximately). From that
+  point southwards the river becomes the boundary between the Shan
+  States and Tongking for some 200 m., the channel of the river defining
+  the limits of occupation (though not entirely of interest) between
+  French and British subjects. Approximately on the parallel of 20° N.
+  lat. the Burmese boundary leaves the Mekong to run westwards towards
+  the Salween, and thereafter following the eastern watershed of the
+  Salween basin it divides the Lower Burma provinces from Siam.
+
+
+    Area and political division.
+
+  The following table shows the areas of territories in Asia
+  (continental and insular) dependent on the various extra-Asiatic
+  powers, and of those which are independent or nominally so:--
+
+     Territory.                        Sq. m.
+    Russian . . . . . . . . . . . .  6,495,970
+    British . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,998,220
+    Dutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  586,980
+    French  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  247,580
+    U.S.A.  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  114,370
+    German  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  193
+    Turkish . . . . . . . . . . . . .  681,980
+    Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . .  4,299,600
+    Japanese  . . . . . . . . . . . .  161,110
+    Other independent territories .  2,232,270
+
+  The total area of Asia, continental and insular, is therefore somewhat
+  over 16,819,000 sq. m. (but various authorities differ considerably in
+  their detailed estimates). The population may be set down roughly as
+  823,000,000, of which 330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory,
+  302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000 Russian.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+  [Illustration: Geological map of Asia]
+
+
+  GEOLOGY
+
+  The geology of Asia is so complex and over wide areas so little known
+  that it is difficult to give a connected account of either the
+  structure or the development of the continent, and only the broader
+  features can be dealt with here.
+
+  In the south, in Syria, Arabia and the peninsula of India, none but
+  the oldest rocks are folded, and the Upper Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic
+  and the Tertiary beds lie almost horizontally upon them. It is a
+  region of quiescence or of faulting, but not of folding. North of this
+  lies a broad belt in which the Mesozoic deposits and even the lower
+  divisions of the Tertiary system are thrown into folds which extend in
+  a series of arcs from west to east and now form the principal mountain
+  ranges of central Asia. This belt includes Asia Minor, Persia,
+  Afghanistan, Baluchistan, the Himalayas, the Tian-shan, and, although
+  they are very different in direction, the Burmese ranges. The
+  Kuen-lun, Nan-shan and the mountain ranges of southern China are,
+  perhaps, of earlier date, but nevertheless they be in the same belt.
+  It is not true that throughout the whole width of this zone the beds
+  are folded. There are considerable tracts which are but little
+  disturbed, but these tracts are enclosed within the arcs formed by the
+  folds, and the zone taken as a whole is distinctly one of crumpling.
+  North of the folded belt, and including the greater part of Siberia,
+  Mongolia and northern China, lies another area which is, in general,
+  free from any important folding of Mesozoic or Tertiary age. There
+  are, it is true, mountain ranges which are formed of folded beds; but
+  in many cases the direction of the chains is different from that of
+  the folds, so that the ranges must owe their elevation to other
+  causes; and the folds, moreover, are of ancient date, for the most
+  part Archaean or Palaeozoic. The configuration of the region is
+  largely due to faulting, trough-like or tray-like depressions being
+  formed, and the intervening strips, which have not been depressed,
+  standing up as mountain ridges. Over a large part of Siberia and in
+  the north of China, even the Cambrian beds still lie as horizontally
+  as they were first laid down. In the extreme north, in the Verkhoyansk
+  range and in the mountains of the Taimyr peninsula, there are
+  indications of another zone of folding of Mesozoic or later date, but
+  our information concerning these ranges is very scanty. Besides the
+  three chief regions into which the mainland is thus seen to be
+  divided, attention should be drawn to the festoons of islands which
+  border the eastern side of the continent, and which are undoubtedly
+  due to causes similar to those which produced the folds of the folded
+  belt.
+
+  Of all the Asiatic ranges the Himalayan is, geologically, the best
+  known; and the evidence which it affords shows clearly that the folds
+  to which it owes its elevation were produced by an overthrust from
+  the north. It is, indeed, as if the high land of central Asia had been
+  pushed southward against and over the unyielding mass formed by the
+  old rocks of the Indian peninsula, and in the process the edges of the
+  over-riding strata had been crumpled and folded. Overlooking all
+  smaller details, we may consider Asia to consist of a northern mass
+  and a southern mass, too rigid to crumple, but not too strong to
+  fracture, and an intermediate belt of softer rock which was capable of
+  folding. If then by the contraction of the earth's interior the outer
+  crust were forced to accommodate itself to a smaller nucleus, the
+  central softer belt would yield by crumpling, the more rigid masses to
+  the north and south, if they gave way at all, would yield by faulting.
+  It is interesting to observe, as will be shown later, that during the
+  Mesozoic era there was a land mass in the north of Asia and another in
+  the south, and between them lay the sea in which ordinary marine
+  sediments were deposited. The belt of folding does not precisely
+  coincide with this central sea, but the correspondence is fairly
+  close.
+
+  The present outline of the eastern coast and the nearly enclosed seas
+  which lie between the islands and the mainland, are attributed by
+  Richthofen chiefly to simple faulting.
+
+  Little is known of the early geological history of Asia beyond the
+  fact that a large part of the continent was covered by the sea during
+  the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. But there is positive evidence
+  that much of the north and east of Asia has been land since the
+  Palaeozoic era, and it has been conclusively proved that the peninsula
+  of India has never been beneath the sea since the Carboniferous period
+  at least. Between these ancient land masses lies an area in which
+  marine deposits of Mesozoic age are well developed and which was
+  evidently beneath the sea during the greater part of the Mesozoic era.
+  The northern land mass has been named Angaraland by E. Suess; the
+  southern, of which the Indian peninsula is but a fragment, is called
+  Gondwanaland by Neumayr, Suess and others, while the intervening sea
+  is the central Mediterranean sea of Neumayr and the Tethys of Suess.
+  The greater part of western Asia, including the basin of the Obi, the
+  drainage area of the Aral Sea, together with Afghanistan, Baluchistan,
+  Persia and Arabia, was covered by the sea during the later stages of
+  the Cretaceous period, but a considerable part of this region was
+  probably dry land in Jurassic times.
+
+  The northern land mass begins in the north with the area which lies
+  between the Yenisei and the Lena. Here the folded Archean rocks are
+  overlaid by Cambrian and Ordovician beds, which still lie for the most
+  part flat and undisturbed. Upon these rest patches of freshwater
+  deposits containing numerous remains of plants. They consist chiefly
+  of sandstone and conglomerate, but include workable seams of coal.
+  Some of the deposits appear to be of Permian age, but others are
+  probably Jurassic, and they are all included under the general name of
+  the Angara series. Excepting in the extreme north, where marine
+  Jurassic and Cretaceous fossils have been found, there is no evidence
+  that this part of Siberia has been beneath the sea since the early
+  part of the Palaeozoic era. Besides the plant beds extensive outflows
+  of basic lava rest directly upon the Cambrian and Ordovician strata.
+  The date of these eruptions is still uncertain, but they probably
+  continued to a very recent period.
+
+  South and east of the Palaeozoic plateau is an extensive area
+  consisting chiefly of Archean rocks, and including the greater part of
+  Mongolia north of the Tian-shan. Here again there are no marine beds
+  of Mesozoic or Tertiary age, while plant-bearing deposits belonging to
+  the Angara series are known. Structurally, the folds of this region
+  are of ancient date, but the area is crossed by a series of
+  depressions formed by faults, and the intervening strips, which have
+  not been depressed to the same extent, now stand up as mountain
+  ranges. Farther south, in the Chinese provinces of Shansi and Shensi,
+  the geological succession is similar in some respects to that of the
+  Siberian Palaeozoic plateau, but the sequence is more complete. There
+  is again a floor of folded Archean rocks overlaid by nearly horizontal
+  strata of Lower Palaeozoic age, but these are followed by marine beds
+  belonging to the Carboniferous period. From the Upper Carboniferous
+  onward, however, no marine deposits are known; and, as in Siberia,
+  plant bearing beds are met with. Southern China is very different in
+  structure, consisting largely of folded mountain chains; but the
+  geological succession is very similar, and excepting near the Tibetan
+  and Burmese borders, there are no marine deposits of Mesozoic or
+  Tertiary age.
+
+  Thus it appears that from the Arctic Ocean there stretches a broad
+  area as far as the south of China, in which no marine deposits of
+  later date than Carboniferous have yet been found, except in the
+  extreme north. Freshwater and terrestrial deposits of Mesozoic age
+  occur in many places, and the conclusion is irresistible that the
+  greater part of this area has been land since the close of the
+  Palaeozoic era. The Triassic deposits of the Verkhoyansk Range show
+  that this land did not extend to the Bering Sea, while the marine
+  Mesozoic deposits of Japan on the east, the western Tian-shan on the
+  west and Tibet on the south give us some idea of its limits in other
+  directions.
+
+  In the same way the entire absence of any marine fossils in the
+  peninsula of India, excepting near its borders, and the presence of
+  the terrestrial and freshwater deposits of the Gondwana series,
+  representing the whole of the geological scale from the top of the
+  Carboniferous to the top of the Jurassic, show that this region also
+  has been land since the Carboniferous period. It was a portion of a
+  great land mass which probably extended across the Indian Ocean and
+  was at one time united with the south of Africa.
+
+  But these two land masses were not connected. Between India and China
+  there is a broad belt in which marine deposits of Mesozoic and
+  Tertiary age are well developed. Marine Tertiary beds occur in Burma;
+  in the Himalayas and in south Tibet there is a nearly complete series
+  of marine deposits from the Carboniferous to the Eocene; in
+  Afghanistan the Mesozoic beds are in part marine and in part
+  fluviatile. The sea in which these strata were deposited seems to have
+  attained its greatest extension in Upper Cretaceous times when its
+  waters spread over the whole of western Asia and even encroached
+  slightly upon the Indian land. The Eocene sea however cannot have been
+  much inferior in extent.
+
+  It was after the Eocene period that the main part of the elevation of
+  the Himalayas took place, as is shown by the occurrence of nummulitic
+  limestone at a height of 20,000 ft. The formation of this and of the
+  other great mountain chains of central Asia resulted in the isolation
+  of portions of the former central sea, and the same forces finally led
+  to the elevation of the whole region and the union of the old
+  continents of Angara and Gondwana. Gondwanaland, however, did not long
+  survive, and the portion which lay between India and South Africa sank
+  beneath the waves in Tertiary times.
+
+  Leaving out of consideration all evidence of more ancient volcanic
+  activity, each of the three regions into which, as we have seen, the
+  continent may be divided has been, during or since the Cretaceous
+  period, the seat of great volcanic eruptions. In the southern region
+  of unfolded beds are found the lavas of the "harras" of Arabia, and in
+  India the extensive flows of the Deccan Trap. In the central folded
+  belt lie the great volcanoes, now mostly extinct, of Asia Minor,
+  Armenia, Persia and Baluchistan. In Burma also there is at least one
+  extinct volcano. In the northern unfolded region great flows of basic
+  lava lie directly upon the Cambrian and Ordovician beds of Siberia,
+  but are certainly in part of Tertiary age. Similar flows on a smaller
+  scale occur in Manchuria, Korea and northern China.
+
+  In all these cases, however, the eruptions have now almost ceased, and
+  the great volcanoes of the present day lie in the islands off the
+  eastern and south eastern coasts.
+
+  REFERENCES--E. Suess, _Das Antlitz der Erde_ (see, especially, vol.
+  iii. part 1.); F.V. Richthofen, "Ueber Gestalt und Gliederung einer
+  Grundlinie in der Morphologie Ost-Asiens," _Sitz. k. preuss. Akad.
+  Wiss._ (Berlin, 1900), pp. 888-925, and Geomorphologische Studien aus
+  Ostasien, _ibid._, 1901, pp. 782-808, 1902, pp. 944-975, 1903, pp.
+  867-918.     (P. La.)
+
+
+  CLIMATE.
+
+    Temperature.
+
+  Among the places on the globe where the temperature falls lowest are
+  some in northern Asia; and among those where it rises highest are some
+  in southern Asia. The mean temperature of the north coast of eastern
+  Siberia is but a few degrees above the zero of Fahrenheit; the lowest
+  mean temperature anywhere observed is about 4° Fahr., at Melville
+  Island, north of the American continent. The isothermals of mean
+  annual temperature lie over northern Asia on curves tolerably regular
+  in their outline, having their western branches in a somewhat higher
+  latitude than their eastern; a reduction of 1° of latitude corresponds
+  approximately--and irrespective of modifications due to elevation--to
+  a rise of ˝° Fahr., as far say as 30° N, where the mean temperature is
+  about 75° Fahr. Farther south the increase is slower, and the highest
+  mean temperature anywhere attained in southern Asia is not much above
+  82° Fahr.
+
+  The variations of temperature are very great in Siberia, amounting
+  near the coast to more than 100° Fahr., between the mean of the
+  hottest and coldest months, and to still more between the extreme
+  temperatures of those months. In southern Asia, and particularly near
+  the sea, the variation between the hottest and coldest monthly means
+  is very much less, and under the equator it is reduced to about 5°. In
+  Siberia the difference between the means of the hottest and coldest
+  months is hardly anywhere less than 60° Fahr. On the Sea of Aral it is
+  80° Fahr., and at Astrakhan, on the Caspian, more than 50°. At Tiflis
+  it is 45°. In northern China, at Peking, it is 55°, reduced to 30° at
+  Canton, and to 20° at Manila. In northern India the greatest
+  difference does not exceed 40°, and it falls off to about 15° at
+  Calcutta and to about 10° or 12° at Bombay and Madras. The
+  temperatures at the head of the Persian Gulf approximate to those of
+  northern India, and those of Aden to Madras. At Singapore the range is
+  less than 5°, and at Batavia in Java, and Galle in Ceylon, it is about
+  the same. The extreme temperatures in Siberia may be considered to lie
+  between 80° and 90° Fahr. for maxima, and between -40° and -70° Fahr.
+  for minima. The extreme of heat near the Caspian and Aral Seas rises
+  to nearly 100° Fahr., while that of cold falls to -20° Fahr. or lower.
+  Compared with these figures, we find in southern Asia 110° or 112°
+  Fahr. as a maximum hardly ever exceeded. The absolute minimum in
+  northern India, in lat. 30°, hardly goes below 32°; at Calcutta it is
+  about 40°, though the thermometer seldom falls to 50°. At Madras it
+  rarely falls as low as 65°, or at Bombay below 60°. At Singapore and
+  Batavia the thermometer very rarely falls below 70°, or rises above
+  90°. At Aden the minimum is a few degrees below 70°, the maximum not
+  much exceeding 90°.
+
+  These figures sufficiently indicate the main characteristics of the
+  air temperatures of Asia. Throughout its northern portion the winter
+  is long and of extreme severity; and even down to the circle of 35° N.
+  lat., the minimum temperature is almost as low as zero of Fahrenheit.
+  The summers are hot, though short in the northern latitudes, the
+  maximum of summer heat being comparatively little less than that
+  observed in the tropical countries farther south. The moderating
+  effect of the proximity of the ocean is felt in an important degree
+  along the southern and eastern parts of Asia, where the land is broken
+  up into islands or peninsulas. The great elevations above the
+  sea-level of the central part of Asia, and of the table-lands of
+  Afghanistan and Persia, tend to exaggerate the winter cold; while the
+  sterility of the surface, due to the small rainfall over the same
+  region, operates powerfully in the opposite direction in increasing
+  the summer heat. In the summer a great accumulation of solar heat
+  takes place on the dry surface soil, from which it cannot be released
+  upwards by evaporation, as might be the case were the soil moist or
+  covered with vegetation, nor can it be readily conveyed away downwards
+  as happens on the ocean. In the winter similar consequences ensue, in
+  a negative direction, from the prolonged loss of heat by radiation in
+  the long and clear nights--an effect which is intensified wherever the
+  surface is covered with snow, or the air little charged with vapour.
+  In illustration of the very slow diffusion of heat in the solid crust
+  of the earth, and as affording a further indication of the climate of
+  northern Asia, reference may here be made to the frozen soil of
+  Siberia, in the vicinity of Yakutsk. In this region the earth is
+  frozen permanently to a depth of more than 380 ft. at which the
+  temperature is still 5° or 6° Fahr. below the freezing point of water,
+  the summer heat merely thawing the surface to a depth of about 3 ft.
+  At a depth of 50 ft. the temperature is about 15 Fahr. below the
+  freezing point. Under such conditions of the soil, the land,
+  nevertheless, produces crops of wheat and other grain from fifteen to
+  forty fold.
+
+  The very high summer temperatures of the area north of the tropic of
+  Cancer are sufficiently accounted for, when compared with those
+  observed south of the tropic, by the increased length of the day in
+  the higher latitude, which more than compensates for the loss of heat
+  due to the smaller mid-day altitude of the sun. The difference between
+  the heating power of the sun's rays at noon on the 21st of June, in
+  latitude 20° and in latitude 45°, is only about 2%; while the
+  accumulated heat received during the day, which is lengthened to 15˝
+  hours in the higher latitude, is greater by about 11% than in the
+  lower latitude, where the day consists only of 13ź hours.
+
+  Although the foregoing account of the temperatures of Asia supplies
+  the main outline of the observed phenomena, a very important modifying
+  cause, of which more will be said hereafter, comes into operation over
+  the whole of the tropical region, namely, the periodical summer rains.
+  These tend very greatly to arrest the increase of the summer heat over
+  the area where they prevail, and otherwise give it altogether peculiar
+  characteristics.
+
+
+    Pressure and Winds.
+
+  The great summer heat, by expanding the air upwards, disturbs the
+  level of the planes of equal pressure, and causes an outflow of the
+  upper strata from the heated area. The winter cold produces an effect
+  of just an opposite nature, and causes an accumulation of air over the
+  cold area. The diminution of barometric pressure which takes place all
+  over Asia during the summer months, and the increase in the winter,
+  are hence, no doubt, the results of the alternate heating and cooling
+  of the air over the continent.
+
+  The necessary and immediate results of such periodical changes of
+  pressure are winds, which, speaking generally, blow from the area of
+  greatest to that of least pressure--subject, however, to certain
+  modifications of direction, arising from the absolute motion of the
+  whole body of the air due to the revolution of the earth on its axis
+  from west to east. The south-westerly winds which prevail north of the
+  equator during the hot half of the year, to which navigators have
+  given the name of the south-west monsoon (the latter word being a
+  corruption of the Indian name for season), arise from the great
+  diminution of atmospheric pressure over Asia, which begins to be
+  strongly marked with the great rise of temperature in April and May,
+  and the simultaneous relatively higher pressure over the equator and
+  the regions south of it. This diminution of pressure, which continues
+  as the heat increases till it reaches its maximum in July soon after
+  the solstice, is followed by the corresponding development of the
+  south-west monsoon; and as the barometric pressure is gradually
+  restored, and becomes equalized within the tropics soon after the
+  equinox in October, with the general fall of temperature north of the
+  equator, the south-west winds fall off, and are succeeded by a
+  north-east monsoon, which is developed during the winter months by the
+  relatively greater atmospheric pressure which then occurs over Asia,
+  as compared with the equatorial region.
+
+  Although the succession of the periodical winds follows the progress
+  of the seasons as just described, the changes in the wind's direction
+  everywhere take place under the operation of special local influences
+  which often disguise the more general law, and make it difficult to
+  trace. Thus the south-west monsoon begins in the Arabian Sea with west
+  and north-westerly winds, which draw round as the year advances to
+  south-west and fall back again in the autumn by north-west to north.
+  In the Bay of Bengal the strength of the south-west monsoon is rather
+  from the south and south-east, being succeeded by north-east winds
+  after October, which give place to northerly and north-westerly winds
+  as the year advances. Among the islands of the Malay Archipelago the
+  force of the monsoons is much interrupted, and the position of this
+  region on the equator otherwise modifies the directions of the
+  prevailing winds. The southerly summer winds of the Asiatic seas
+  between the equator and the tropic do not extend to the coasts of
+  Java, and the south-easterly trade winds are there developed in the
+  usual manner. The China Sea is fully exposed to both monsoons, the
+  normal directions of which nearly coincide with the centre of the
+  channel between the continent of Asia and the eastern islands.
+
+  The south-west monsoon does not generally extend, in its character of
+  a south-west wind, over the land. The current of air flowing in from
+  over the sea is gradually diverted towards the area of least pressure,
+  and at the same time is dissipated and loses much of its original
+  force. The winds which pass northward over India blow as
+  south-easterly and easterly winds over the north-eastern part of the
+  Gangetic plain, and as south winds up the Indus. They seem almost
+  entirely to have exhausted their northward velocity by the time they
+  have reached the northern extremity of the great Indian plain; they
+  are not felt on the table-lands of Afghanistan, and hardly penetrate
+  into the Indus basin or the ranges of the Himalaya, by which
+  mountains, and those which branch off from them into the Malay
+  peninsula, they are prevented from continuing their progress in the
+  direction originally imparted to them.
+
+  Among the more remarkable phenomena of the hotter seas of Asia must be
+  noticed the revolving storms or cyclones, which are of frequent
+  occurrence in the hot months in the Indian Ocean and China Sea, in
+  which last they are known under the name of typhoon. The cyclones of
+  the Bay of Bengal appear to originate over the Andaman and Nicobar
+  islands, and are commonly propagated in a north-westward direction,
+  striking the east coast of the Indian peninsula at various points, and
+  then often advancing with an easterly tendency over the land, and
+  passing with extreme violence across the delta of the Ganges. They
+  occur in all the hot months, from June to October, and more rarely in
+  November, and appear to be originated by adverse currents from the
+  north meeting those of the south-west monsoon. The cyclones of the
+  China Sea also occur in the hot months of the year, but they advance
+  from north-east to south-west, though occasionally from east to west;
+  they originate near the island of Formosa, and extend to about the
+  10th degree of N. lat. They are thus developed in nearly the same
+  latitudes and in the same months as those of the Indian Sea, though
+  their progress is in a different direction. In both cases, however,
+  the storms appear to advance towards the area of greatest heat. In
+  these storms the wind invariably circulates from north by west through
+  south to east.
+
+
+    Rainfall.
+
+  The heated body of air carried from the Indian Ocean over southern
+  Asia by the south-west monsoon comes up highly charged with watery
+  vapour, and hence in a condition to release a large body of water as
+  rain upon the land, whenever it is brought into circumstances which
+  reduce its temperature in a notable degree. Such a reduction of
+  temperature is brought about along the greater part of the coasts of
+  India and of the Burmo-Siamese peninsula by the interruption of the
+  wind current by continuous ranges of mountains, which force the mass
+  of air to rise over them, whereby the air being rarefied, its specific
+  capacity for heat is increased and its temperature falls, with a
+  corresponding condensation of the vapour originally held in
+  suspension.
+
+  This explanation of the principal efficient cause of the summer rains
+  of south Asia is immediately based on an analysis of the complicated
+  phenomena actually observed, and it serves to account for many
+  apparent anomalies. The heaviest falls of rain occur along lines of
+  mountain of some extent directly facing the vapour-bearing winds, as
+  on the Western Ghats of India and the west coast of the Malay
+  peninsula. The same results are found along the mountains at a
+  distance from the sea, the heaviest rainfall known to occur anywhere
+  in the world (not less than 600 in. in the year) being recorded on the
+  Khasi range about 100 m. north-east of Calcutta, which presents an
+  abrupt front to the progress of the moist winds flowing up from the
+  Bay of Bengal. The cessation of the rains on the southern border of
+  Baluchistan, west of Karachi, obviously arises from the projection of
+  the south-east coast of Arabia, which limits the breadth of the
+  south-west monsoon air current and the length of the coast-line
+  directly exposed to it. The very small and irregular rainfall in Sind
+  and along the Indus is to be accounted for by the want of any obstacle
+  in the path of the vapour-bearing winds, which, therefore, carry the
+  uncondensed rain up to the Punjab, where it falls on the outer ranges
+  of the western Himalaya and of Afghanistan.
+
+  The diurnal mountain winds are very strongly marked on the Himalaya,
+  where they probably are the most active agents in determining the
+  precipitation of rain along the chain--the monsoon currents, as before
+  stated, not penetrating among the mountains. The formation of dense
+  banks of cloud in the afternoon, when the up wind is strongest, along
+  the southern face of the snowy ranges of the Himalaya, is a regular
+  daily phenomenon during the hotter months of the year, and heavy rain,
+  accompanied by electrical discharges, is the frequent result of such
+  condensation.
+
+  Too little is known of the greater part of Asia to admit of any more
+  being said with reference to this part of the subject, than to
+  mention a few facts bearing on the rainfall. In northern Asia there
+  is a generally equal rainfall of 19 to 29 in. between the Volga and
+  the Lena in Manchuria and northern China, rather more considerable
+  increase in Korea, Siam and Japan. At Tiflis the yearly fall is 22
+  in.; on the Caspian about 7 or 8 in.; on the Sea of Aral 5 or 6 in. In
+  south-western Siberia it is 12 or 14 in., diminishing as we proceed
+  eastward to 6 or 7 in. at Barnaul, and to 5 or 6 in. at Urga in
+  northern Mongolia. In eastern Siberia it is about 15 to 20 in. In
+  China we find about 23 in. to be the fall at Peking; while at Canton,
+  which lies nearly on the northern tropic and the region of the
+  south-west monsoon is entered, the quantity is increased to 78 in. At
+  Batavia in Java the fall is about 78 in.; at Singapore it is nearly
+  100 in. The quantity increases considerably on that part of the coast
+  of the Malay peninsula which is not sheltered from the south-west by
+  Sumatra. On the Tenasserim and Burmese coast falls of more than 200
+  in. are registered, and the quantity is here nowhere less than 75 or
+  80 in., which is about the average of the eastern part of the delta of
+  the Ganges, Calcutta standing at about 64 in. On the hills that flank
+  Bengal on the east the fall is very great. On the Khasi hills, at an
+  elevation of about 4500 ft., the average of ten years is more than 550
+  in. As much as 150 in. has been measured in one month, and 610 in. in
+  one year. On the west coast of the Indian peninsula the fall at the
+  sea-level varies from about 75 to 100 in., and at certain elevations
+  on the mountains more than 250 in. is commonly registered, with
+  intermediate quantities at intervening localities. On the east coast
+  the fall is far less, nowhere rising to 50 in., and towards the
+  southern apex of the peninsula being reduced to 25 or 30 in. Ceylon
+  shows from 60 to 80 in. As we recede from the coast the fall
+  diminishes, till it is reduced to about 25 or 30 in. at the head of
+  the Gangetic plain. The tract along the Indus to within 60 or 80 m. of
+  the Himalaya is almost rainless, 6 or 8 in. being the fall in the
+  southern portion of the Punjab. On the outer ranges of the Himalaya
+  the yearly fall amounts to about 200 in. on the east in Sikkim, and
+  gradually diminishes on the west, where north of the Punjab it is
+  about 70 or 80 in. In the interior of the chain the rain is far less,
+  and the quantity of precipitation is so small in Tibet that it can be
+  hardly measured. It is to the greatly reduced fall of snow on the
+  northern faces of the highest ranges of the Himalaya that is to be
+  attributed the higher level of the snow-line, a phenomenon which was
+  long a cause of discussion.
+
+  In Afghanistan, Persia, Asia Minor and Syria, winter and spring appear
+  to be the chief seasons of condensation. In other parts of Asia the
+  principal part of the rain falls between May and September, that is,
+  in the hottest half of the year. In the islands under the equator the
+  heaviest fall is between October and February.     (R. S.)
+
+
+  FLORA AND FAUNA
+
+  The general assemblage of animals and plants found over northern Asia
+  resembles greatly that found in the parts of Europe which are adjacent
+  and have a similar climate. Siberia, north of the 50th parallel, has a
+  climate not much differing from a similarly situated portion of
+  Europe, though the winters are more severe and the summers hotter. The
+  rainfall, though moderate, is still sufficient to maintain the supply
+  of water in the great rivers that traverse the country to the Arctic
+  Sea, and to support an abundant vegetation. A similar affinity exists
+  between the life of the southern parts of Europe and that in the zone
+  of Asia extending from the Mediterranean across to the Himalaya and
+  northern China. This belt, which embraces Asia Minor, northern Persia,
+  Afghanistan, and the southern slopes of the Himalaya, from its
+  elevation has a temperate climate, and throughout it the rainfall is
+  sufficient to maintain a vigorous vegetation, while the summers,
+  though hot. and the winters, though severe, are not extreme. The
+  plants and animals along it are found to have a marked similarity of
+  character to those of south Europe, with which region the zone is
+  virtually continuous.
+
+  The extremely dry and hot tracts which constitute an almost unbroken
+  desert from Arabia, through south Persia and Baluchistan, to Sind, are
+  characterized by considerable uniformity in the types of life, which
+  closely approach to those of the neighbouring hot and dry regions of
+  Africa. The region of the heavy periodical summer rains and high
+  temperature, which comprises India, the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and
+  southern China, as well as the western part of the Malay Archipelago,
+  is also marked by much similarity in the plants and animals throughout
+  its extent. The area between the southern border of Siberia and the
+  margin of the temperate alpine zone of the Himalaya and north China,
+  comprising what are commonly called central Asia, Turkestan, Mongolia
+  and western Manchuria, is an almost rainless region, having winters of
+  extreme severity and summers of intense heat. Its animals and plants
+  have a special character suited to the peculiar climatal conditions,
+  more closely allied to those of the adjacent northern Siberian tract
+  than of the other bordering regions. The south-eastern parts of the
+  Malay Archipelago have much in common with the Australian continent,
+  to which they adjoin, though their affinities are chiefly Indian.
+  North China and Japan also have many forms of life in common. Much
+  still remains to be done in the exploration of China and eastern Asia;
+  but it is known that many of the special forms of this region extend
+  to the Himalaya, while others clearly indicate a connexion with North
+  America.
+
+  The foregoing brief review of the principal territorial divisions
+  according to which the forms of life are distributed in Asia,
+  indicates how close is the dependence of this distribution on climatic
+  conditions, and this will be made more apparent by a somewhat fuller
+  account of the main features of the flora and fauna.
+
+
+    Northern Asia.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora of the whole of northern Asia is in essentials the
+  same as that of northern Europe, the differences being due rather to
+  variations of species than of genera. The absence of the oak and of
+  all heaths east of the Ural may be noticed. Pines, larch, birch are
+  the principal trees on the mountains; willow, alders and poplars on
+  the lower ground. The northern limit of the pine in Siberia is about
+  70° N.
+
+  Along the warm temperate zone, from the Mediterranean to the Himalaya,
+  extends a flora essentially European in character. Many European
+  species reach the central Himalaya, though few are known in its
+  eastern parts. The genera common to the Himalaya and Europe are much
+  more abundant, and extend throughout the chain, and to all elevations.
+  There is also a corresponding diffusion of Japanese and Chinese forms
+  along this zone, these being most numerous in the eastern Himalaya,
+  and less frequent in the west.
+
+  The truly tropical flora of the hotter and wetter regions of eastern
+  India is continuous with that of the Malayan peninsula and islands,
+  and extends along the lower ranges of the Himalaya, gradually becoming
+  less marked and rising to lower elevations as we go westward, where
+  the rainfall diminishes and the winter cold increases.
+
+  The vegetation of the higher and therefore cooler and less rainy
+  ranges of the Himalaya has greater uniformity of character along the
+  whole chain, and a closer general approach to European forms is
+  maintained; an increased number of species is actually identical,
+  among these being found, at the greatest elevations, many alpine
+  plants believed to be identical with species of the north Arctic
+  regions. On reaching the Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness
+  the flora assumes many features of the Siberian type. Many true
+  Siberian species are found, and more Siberian genera. Some of the
+  Siberian forms, thus brought into proximity with the Indian flora,
+  extend to the rainy parts of the mountains, and even to the plains of
+  upper India. Assemblages of marine plants form another remarkable
+  feature of Tibet, these being frequently met with growing at
+  elevations of 14,000 to 15,000 ft. above the sea, more especially in
+  the vicinity of the many salt lakes of those regions.
+
+  The vegetation of the hot and dry region of the south-west of the
+  continent consists largely of plants which are diffused over Africa,
+  Baluchistan and Sind; many of these extend into the hotter parts of
+  India, and not a few common Egyptian plants are to be met with in the
+  Indian peninsula.
+
+
+    Indian region.
+
+  The whole number of species of plants indigenous in the region of
+  south-eastern Asia, which includes India and the Malayan peninsula and
+  islands, from about the 65th to the 105th meridian, was estimated by
+  Sir J.D. Hooker at 12,000 to 15,000. The principal orders, arranged
+  according to their numerical importance, are as follows:--Leguminosae,
+  Rubiaceae, Orchidaceae, Compositae, Gramineae, Euphorbiaceae,
+  Acanthaceae, Cyperaceae and Labiatae. But within this region there is
+  a very great variation between the vegetation of the more humid and
+  the more arid regions, while the characteristics of the flora on the
+  higher mountain ranges differ wholly from those of the plains. In
+  short, we have a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of tropical,
+  temperate and alpine plants, as has been already briefly indicated, of
+  which, however, the tropical are so far dominant as to give their
+  character to the flora viewed as a whole. The Indian flora contains a
+  more general and complete illustration of almost all the chief natural
+  families of all parts of the world than any other country. Compositae
+  are comparatively rare; so also Gramineae and Cyperaceae are in some
+  places deficient, and Labiatae, Leguminosae and ferns in others.
+  Euphorbiaceae and Scrophulariaceae and Orchidaceae are universally
+  present, the last in specially large proportions.
+
+  The perennially humid regions of the Malayan peninsula and western
+  portion of the archipelago are everywhere covered with dense forest,
+  rendered difficult to traverse by the thorny cane, a palm of the genus
+  _Calamus_, which has its greatest development in this part of Asia.
+  The chief trees belong to the orders of Terebinthaceae, Sapindaceae,
+  Meliaceae, Clusiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Ternstroemiaceae,
+  Leguminosae, laurels, oaks and figs, with Dilleniaceae, Sapotaceae and
+  nutmegs. Bamboos and palms, with _Pandanus_ and _Dracaena_, are also
+  abundant. A similar forest flora extends along the mountains of
+  eastern India to the Himalaya, where it ascends to elevations varying
+  from 6000 to 7000 ft. on the east to 3000 or 4000 ft. on the west.
+
+  The arboreous forms which least require the humid and equable heat of
+  the more truly tropical and equatorial climates, and are best able to
+  resist the high temperatures and excessive drought of the northern
+  Indian hot months from April to June, are certain Leguminosae,.
+  _Bauhinia, Acacia, Butea_ and _Dalbergia, Bombax, Skorea, Nauclea,
+  Lagerstroemia_, and _Bignonia_, a few bamboos and palms, with others
+  which extend far beyond the tropic, and give a tropical aspect to the
+  forest to the extreme northern border of the Indian plain.
+
+  Of the herbaceous vegetation of the more rainy regions may be noted
+  the Orchidaceae, Orontiaceae, Scitamineae, with ferns and other
+  Cryptogams, besides Gramineae and Cyperaceae. Among these some forms,
+  as among the trees, extend much beyond the tropic and ascend into the
+  temperate zones on the mountains, of which may be mentioned _Begonia,
+  Osbeckia_, various Cyrtandraceae, Scitamineae, and a few epiphytical
+  orchids.
+
+  Of the orders most largely developed in south India, and more
+  sparingly elsewhere, may be named Aurantiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
+  Balsaminaceae, Ebenaceae, Jasmineae, and Cyrtandraceae; but of these
+  few contain as many as 100 peculiar Indian species. _Nepenthes_ may be
+  mentioned as a genus specially developed in the Malayan area, and
+  extending from New Caledonia to Madagascar; it is found as far north
+  as the Khasi hills, and in Ceylon, but does not appear on the Himalaya
+  or in the peninsula of India. The Balsaminaceae may be named as being
+  rare in the eastern region and very abundant in the peninsula. A
+  distinct connexion between the flora of the peninsula and Ceylon and
+  that of eastern tropical Africa is observable not only in the great
+  similarity of many of the more truly tropical forms, and the identity
+  of families and genera found in both regions, but in a more remarkable
+  manner in the likeness of the mountain flora of this part of Africa to
+  that of the peninsula, in which several species occur believed to be
+  identical with Abyssinian forms. This connexion is further established
+  by the absence from both areas of oaks, conifers and cycads, which, as
+  regards the first two families, is a remarkable feature of the flora
+  of the peninsula and Ceylon, as the mountains rise to elevations in
+  which both of them are abundant to the north and east. With these
+  facts it has to be noticed that many of the principal forms of the
+  eastern flora are absent or comparatively rare in the peninsula and
+  Ceylon.
+
+  The general physiognomy of the Indian flora is mainly determined by
+  the conditions of humidity of climate. The impenetrable shady forests
+  of the Malay peninsula and eastern Bengal, of the west coast of the
+  Indian peninsula, and of Ceylon, offer a strong contrast to the more
+  loosely-timbered districts of the drier regions of central India and
+  the north-western Himalaya. The forest areas of India include the
+  dense vegetation and luxuriant growth of the Tarai jungles at the foot
+  of the eastern Himalaya, and wide stretches of loosely-timbered
+  country which are a prevailing feature in the Central Provinces and
+  parts of Madras. Where the lowlands are highly cultivated they are
+  adorned with planted wood, and where they are cut off from rain they
+  are nearly completely desert.
+
+  The higher mountains rise abruptly from the plains; on their slopes,
+  clothed below almost exclusively with the more tropical forms, a
+  vegetation of a warm temperate character, chiefly evergreen, soon
+  begins to prevail, comprising Magnoliaceae, Ternstroemiaccae,
+  subtropical Rosaceae, rhododendron, oak, _Ilex, Symplocos_, Lauraceae,
+  _Pinus longifolia_, with mountain forms of truly tropical orders,
+  palms, _Pandanus, Musa, Vitis, Vernonia_, and many others. On the east
+  the vegetation of the Himalaya is most abundant and varied. The forest
+  extends, with great luxuriance, to an elevation of 12,000 ft., above
+  which the sub-alpine region may be said to begin, in which
+  rhododendron scrub often covers the ground up to 13,000 or 14,000 ft.
+  Only one pine is found below 8000 ft., above which several other
+  Coniferae occur. Plantains, tree-ferns, bamboos, several _Calami_, and
+  other palms, and _Pandanus_, are abundant at the lower levels. Between
+  4000 and 8000 ft. epiphytal orchids are very frequent, and reach even
+  to 10,000 ft. Vegetation ascends on the drier and less snowy mountain
+  slopes of Tibet to above 18,000 ft. On the west, with the drier
+  climate, the forest is less luxuriant and dense, and the hill-sides
+  and the valleys better cultivated. The warm mountain slopes are
+  covered with _Pinus longifolia_, or with oaks and rhododendron, and
+  the forest is not commonly dense below 8000 ft., excepting in some of
+  the more secluded valleys at a low elevation. From 8000 to 12,000 ft.,
+  a thick forest of deciduous trees is almost universal, above which a
+  sub-alpine region is reached, and vegetation as on the east continues
+  up to 18,000 ft. or more. The more tropical forms of the east, such as
+  the tree-ferns, do not reach west of Nepal. The cedar or deodar is
+  hardly indigenous east of the sources of the Ganges, and at about the
+  same point the forms of the west begin to be more abundant, increasing
+  in number as we advance towards Afghanistan.
+
+  The cultivated plants of the Indian region include wheat, barley, rice
+  and maize; various millets, _Sorghum, Penicillaria, Panicum_ and
+  _Eleusine_; many pulses, peas and beans; mustard and rape; ginger and
+  turmeric; pepper and capsicum; several Cucurbitaceae; tobacco,
+  _Sesamum_, poppy, _Crotolaria_ and _Cannabis_; cotton, indigo and
+  sugar; coffee and tea; oranges, lemons of many sorts; pomegranate,
+  mango, figs, peaches, vines and plantains. The more common palms are
+  _Cocos, Phoenix_ and _Borassus_, supplying cocoa-nut and toddy. Indian
+  agriculture combines the harvests of the tropical and temperate zones.
+  North of the tropic the winter cold is sufficient to admit of the
+  cultivation of almost all the cereals and vegetables of Europe, wheat
+  being sown in November and reaped early in April. In this same region
+  the summer heat and rain provide a thoroughly tropical climate, in
+  which rice and other tropical cereals are freely raised, being as a
+  rule sown early in July and reaped in September or October. In
+  southern India, and the other parts of Asia and of the islands having
+  a similar climate, the difference of the winter and summer half-years
+  is not sufficient to admit of the proper cultivation of wheat or
+  barley. The other cereals may be seen occasionally, where artificial
+  irrigation is practised, in all stages of progress at all seasons of
+  the year, though the operations of agriculture are, as a general rule,
+  limited to the rainy months, when alone is the requisite supply of
+  water commonly forthcoming.
+
+  The trees of India producing economically useful timber are
+  comparatively few, owing to the want of durability of the wood, in the
+  extremely hot and moist climate. The teak, _Tectona grandis_, supplies
+  the finest timber. It is found in greatest perfection in the forests
+  of the west coasts of Burma and the Indian peninsula, where the
+  rainfall is heaviest, growing to a height of 100 or 150 ft., mixed
+  with other trees and bamboos. The sal, _Shorea robusta_, a very
+  durable wood, is most abundant along the skirts of the Himalaya from
+  Assam to the Punjab, and is found in central India, to which the teak
+  also extends. The sal grows to a large size, and is more gregarious
+  than the teak. Of other useful woods found in the plains may be named
+  the babool, _Acacia_; toon, _Cedrela_; and sissoo, _Dalbergia_. The
+  only timber in ordinary use obtained from the Himalaya proper is the
+  deodar, _Cedrus deodara_. Besides these are the sandalwood,
+  _Santalum_, of southern India, and many sorts of bamboo found in all
+  parts of the country. The cinchona has recently been introduced with
+  complete success; and the mahogany of America reaches a large size,
+  and gives promise of being grown for use as timber.
+
+
+    Western Asia.
+
+  The flora of the rainless region of south-western Asia is continuous
+  with the desert flora of northern and eastern Africa, and extends from
+  the coast of Senegal to the meridian of 75° E., or from the great
+  African desert to the border of the rainless tract along the Indus and
+  the southern parts of the Punjab. It includes the peninsula of Arabia,
+  the shores of the Persian Gulf, south Persia, and Afghanistan and
+  Baluchistan. On the west its limit is in the Cape Verde Islands, and
+  it is partially represented in Abyssinia.
+
+  The more common plants in the most characteristic part of this region
+  in southern Arabia are Capparidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and a few
+  Leguminosae, a _Reseda_ and _Dipterygium_; palms, Polygonaceae, ferns,
+  and other cryptogams, are rare. The number of families relative to the
+  area is very small, and the number of genera and species equally
+  restricted, in very many cases a single species being the only
+  representative of an order. The aspect of the vegetation is very
+  peculiar, and is commonly determined by the predominance of some four
+  or five species, the rest being either local or sparingly scattered
+  over the area. The absence of the ordinary bright green colours of
+  vegetation is another peculiarity of this flora, almost all the plants
+  having glaucous or whitened stems. Foliage is reduced to a minimum,
+  the moisture of the plant being stored up in massive or fleshy stems
+  against the long-continued drought. Aridity has favoured the
+  production of spines as a defence from external attack, sharp thorns
+  are frequent, and asperities of various sorts predominate. Many
+  species produce gums and resins, their stems being encrusted with the
+  exudations, and pungency and aromatic odour is an almost universal
+  quality of the plants of desert regions.
+
+  The cultivated plants of Arabia are much the same as those of northern
+  India--wheat, barley, and the common _Sorghum_, with dates and lemons,
+  cotton and indigo. To these must be added coffee, which is restricted
+  to the slopes of the western hills. Among the more mountainous regions
+  of the south-western part of Arabia, known as Arabia Felix, the
+  summits of which rise to 6000 or 7000 ft., the rainfall is sufficient
+  to develop a more luxuriant vegetation, and the valleys have a flora
+  like that of similarly situated parts of southern Persia, and the less
+  elevated parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, partaking of the
+  characters of that of the hotter Mediterranean region. In these
+  countries aromatic shrubs are abundant. Trees are rare, and almost
+  restricted to _Pistacia, Celtis_ and _Dodonaea_, with poplars, and the
+  date palm. Prickly forms of _Statice_ and _Astragalus_ cover the dry
+  hills. In the spring there is an abundant herbaceous vegetation,
+  including many bulbous plants, with genera, if not species, identical
+  with those of the Syrian region, some of which extend to the Himalaya.
+
+  The flora of the northern part of Afghanistan approximates to that of
+  the contiguous western Himalaya. _Quercus Ilex_, the evergreen oak of
+  southern Europe, is found in forests as far east as the Sutlej,
+  accompanied with other European forms. In the higher parts of
+  Afghanistan and Persia Boraginaceae and thistles abound; gigantic
+  Umbelliferae, such as _Ferula, Galbanum, Dorema, Bubon, Peucedanum,
+  Prangos_, and others, also characterize the same districts, and some
+  of them extend into Tibet.
+
+  The flora of Asia Minor and northern Persia differs but little from
+  that of the southern parts of Europe. The mountains are clothed, where
+  the fall of rain is abundant, with forests of _Quercus, Fagus, Ulmus,
+  Acer, Carpinus_ and _Corylus_, and various Coniferae. Of these the
+  only genus that is not found on the Himalaya is _Fagus_. Fruit trees
+  of the plum tribe abound. The cultivated plants are those of southern
+  Europe.
+
+
+    Eastern Asia.
+
+  The vegetation of the Malayan Islands is for the most part that of the
+  wetter and hotter region of India; but the greater uniformity of the
+  temperature and humidity leads to the predominance of certain tropical
+  forms not so conspicuous in India, while the proximity of the
+  Australian continent has permitted the partial diffusion of Australian
+  types which are not seen in India. The liquidambar and nutmeg may be
+  noticed among the former, the first is one of the most conspicuous
+  trees in java, on the mountains of the eastern part of which the
+  casuarina, one of the characteristic forms of Australia, is also
+  abundant. Rhododendrons occur in Borneo and Sumatra, descending to the
+  level of the sea. On the mountains of Java there appears to be no
+  truly alpine flora, _Saxifraga_ is not found. In Borneo some of the
+  temperate forms of Australia appear on the higher mountains. On the
+  other islands similar characteristics are to be observed, Australian
+  genera extending to the Philippines, and even to southern China.
+
+  The analysis of the Hong Kong flora indicates that about three-fifths
+  of the species are common to the Indian region, and nearly all the
+  remainder are either Chinese or local forms. The number of species
+  common to southern China, Japan and northern Asia is small. The
+  cultivated plants of China are, with a few exceptions, the same as
+  those of India South China, therefore seems, botanically hardly
+  distinct from the great Indian region, into which many Chinese forms
+  penetrate, as before noticed. The flora of north China, which is akin
+  to that of Japan, shows manifest relation to that of the neighbouring
+  American continent, from which many temperate forms extend, reaching
+  to the Himalaya, almost as far as Kashmir. Very little is known of the
+  plants of the interior of northern China, but it seems probable that a
+  complete botanical connexion is established between it and the
+  temperate region of the Himalaya.
+
+
+    Central Asia.
+
+  The vegetation of the dry region of central Asia is remarkable for the
+  great relative number of Chenopodiaceae, _Salicornia_ and other salt
+  plants being common; Polygonaceae also are abundant, leafless forms
+  being of frequent occurrence, which gives the vegetation a very
+  remarkable aspect. Peculiar forms of Leguminosae also prevail, and
+  these with many of the other plants of the southern and drier regions
+  of Siberia, or of the colder regions of the desert tracts of Persia
+  and Afghanistan, extend into Tibet, where the extreme drought and the
+  hot (nearly vertical) sun combine to produce a summer climate not
+  greatly differing from that of the plains of central Asia.
+
+
+    Zoological Regions.
+
+  _Fauna._--The zoological provinces of Asia correspond very closely
+  with the botanical. The northern portion of Asia, as far south as the
+  Himalaya, is not zoologically distinct from Europe, and these two
+  areas, with the strip of Africa north of the Atlas, constitute the
+  Palaearctic region of Dr. Sclater, whose zoological primary divisions
+  of the earth have met with the general approval of naturalists. The
+  south-eastern portion of Asia with the adjacent islands of Sumatra,
+  Java, Borneo and the Philippines, form his Indian region. The extreme
+  south-west part of the continent constitutes a separate zoological
+  district, comprising Arabia, Palestine and southern Persia, and
+  reaching, like the hot desert botanical tract, to Baluchistan and
+  Sind, it belongs to what Dr. Sclater calls the Ethiopian region, which
+  extends over Africa, south of the Atlas. Celebes, Papua, and the other
+  islands east of Java beyond Wallace's line fall within the Australian
+  region.
+
+
+    Mammals and birds.
+
+  Nearly all the mammals of Europe also occur in northern Asia, where
+  however, the Palaearctic fauna is enriched by numerous additional
+  species. The characteristic groups belong mostly to forms which are
+  restricted to cold and temperate regions. Consequently the Quadrumana,
+  or monkeys, are nearly unrepresented, a single species occurring in
+  Japan, and one or two others in northern China and Tibet.
+  Insectivorous bats are numerous, but the frugivorous division of this
+  order is only represented by a single species in Japan. Carnivora are
+  also numerous, particularly the frequenters of cold climates, such as
+  bears, weasels, wolves and foxes. Of the Insectivora, numerous forms
+  of moles, shrews and hedgehogs prevail. The Rodents are also well
+  represented by various squirrels, mice, and hares. Characteristic
+  forms ot this order in northern Asia are the marmots (_Arctomys_) and
+  the pikas or tailless hares (_Lagomys_). The great order of Ungulata
+  is represented by various forms of sheep, as many as ten or twelve
+  wild species of _Ovis_ being met with in the mountain chains of Asia,
+  and more sparingly by several peculiar forms of antelope, such as the
+  saiga (_Saiga tatarica_) and the _Gazella gutturosa_, or yellow sheep.
+  Coming to the deer, we also meet with characteristic forms in northern
+  Asia, especially those belonging to the typical genus _Cervus_. The
+  musk deer (_Moschus_) is also quite restricted to northern Asia, and
+  is one of its most peculiar types.
+
+  The ornithology ot northern Asia is even more closely allied to that
+  of Europe than the mammal fauna. Nearly three fourths of the
+  well-known species of Europe extend through Siberia into the islands
+  of the Japanese empire. Here again, we have an absence of all tropical
+  forms, and a great development of groups characteristic of cold and
+  temperate regions. One of the most peculiar of these is the genus
+  _Phasianus_, of which splendid birds all the species are restricted in
+  their wild state to northern Asia. The still more magnificently clad
+  gold pheasants (_Thaumalea_), and the eared pheasants (_Crossoptilon_)
+  are also confined to certain districts in the mountains of north
+  eastern Asia. Amongst the _Passeres_, such forms as the larks, stone
+  chats, finches, linnets, and grosbeaks are well developed and exhibit
+  many species.
+
+  The mammal fauna of the Indian region of Asia is much more highly
+  developed than that of the Palaearctic. The Quadrumana are represented
+  by several peculiar genera, amongst which are _Semnopithecus_,
+  _Hylobates_ and _Simia_. Two peculiar forms of the Lemurine group are
+  also met with. Both the insectivorous and frugivorous divisions of the
+  bats are well represented. Amongst the Insectivora very peculiar forms
+  are found, such as _Gymnura_ and _Tupaia_. The _Carnivora_ are
+  likewise numerous, and this region may be considered as the true home
+  of the tiger, though this animal has wandered far north into the
+  Palaearctic division of Asia. Other characteristic Carnivora are
+  civets, various ichneumons, and the benturong (_Arctictis_). Two
+  species of bears are likewise restricted to the Indian region. In the
+  order of Rodents squirrels are very numerous and porcupines of two
+  genera are met with. The Indian region is the home of the Indian
+  elephant--one of the two sole remaining representatives of the order
+  Proboscidea. Of the Ungulates, four species of rhinoceros and one of
+  tapir are met with, besides several peculiar forms of the swine
+  family. The Bovidae or hollow-horned ruminants, are represented by
+  several genera of antelopes, and by species of true _Bos_--such as _B.
+  sondaicus_, _B. frontalis_ and _B. bubalus_. Deer are likewise
+  numerous, and the peculiar group of chevrotains (_Tragulus_) is
+  characteristic of the Indian region. Finally, this region affords us
+  representatives of the order Edentata, in the shape of several species
+  of _Manis_, or scaly ant-eater.
+
+  The assemblage of birds of the Indian region is one of the richest and
+  most varied in the world, being surpassed only by that of tropical
+  America. Nearly every order, except that of the Struthiones or
+  ostriches, is well represented, and there are many peculiar genera not
+  found elsewhere, such as _Buceros_, _Harpactes_, _Lophophorus_,
+  _Euplocamus_, _Pajo_ and _Ceriornis_. The _Phasianidae_ (exclusive of
+  true _Phasianus_) are highly characteristic ot this region, as are
+  likewise certain genera of barbets (_Megalaema_), parrots
+  (_Palaeornis_), and crows (_Dendrocitta_, _Urocissa_ and _Cissa_). The
+  family _Eurylaemidae_ is entirely confined to this part of Asia.
+
+  The Ethiopian fauna plays but a subordinate part in Asia, intruding
+  only into the south-western corner, and occupying the desert districts
+  of Arabia and Syria, although some of the characteristic species reach
+  still farther into Persia and Sind, and even into western India. The
+  lion and the hunting leopard, which may be considered as in this epoch
+  at least, Ethiopian types extend thus far, besides various species of
+  jerboa and other desert-loving forms.
+
+  In the birds, the Ethiopian type is shown by the prevalence of larks
+  and stone chats, and by the complete absence of the many peculiar
+  genera of the Indian region.
+
+  The occurrence of mammals of the Marsupial order in the Molucca
+  Islands and Celebes, while none have been found in the adjacent
+  islands of Java and Borneo, lying on the west of Wallace's line, or in
+  the Indian region, shows that the margin of the Australian region has
+  here been reached. The same conclusion is indicated by the absence
+  from the Moluccas and Celebes of various other Mammals, Quadrumana,
+  Carnivora, Insectivora and Ruminants, which abound in the western part
+  of the Archipelago. Deer do not extend into New Guinea, in which
+  island the genus _Sus_ appears to have its eastern limit. A peculiar
+  form of baboon, _Cynopithecus_, and the singular ruminant, _Anoa_,
+  found in Celebes, seem to have no relation to Asiatic animals, and
+  rather to be allied to those in Africa.
+
+  The birds of these islands present similar peculiarities. Those of the
+  Indian region abruptly disappear at, and many Australian forms reach
+  but do not pass, the line above spoken of. Species of birds akin to
+  those of Africa also occur in Celebes.
+
+  Of the marine orders of Sirenia and Cetacea the Dugong, _Halicore_, is
+  exclusively found in the Indian Ocean and a dolphin, _Platanista_,
+  peculiar to the Ganges, ascends that river to a great distance from
+  the sea.
+
+
+    Fishes.
+
+  Of the sea fishes of Asia, among the Acanthopterygii, or spiny-rayed
+  fishes, the _Percidae_, or perches, are largely represented, the genus
+  _Serranus_, which has only one species in Europe, is very numerous in
+  Asia, and the forms are very large. Other allied genera are abundant
+  and extend from the Indian seas to eastern Africa. The Squamipennes,
+  or scaly-finned fishes, are principally found in the seas of southern
+  Asia, and especially near coral reefs. The _Mullidae_ or red mullets
+  are largely represented by genera differing from those of Europe. The
+  _Polynemidae_, which range from the Atlantic through the Indian Ocean
+  to the Pacific, supply animals from which isinglass is prepared; one
+  of them, the mango fish, esteemed a great delicacy, inhabits the seas
+  from the Bay of Bengal to Siam. The _Sciaenidae_ extend from the Bay
+  of Bengal to China, but are not known to the westward. The
+  _Stromateidae_, or pomfrets, resemble the dory, a Mediterranean form,
+  and extend to China and the Pacific. The sword fishes _Xiphidae_, the
+  lancet fishes, _Acanthuridae_, and the scabbard fishes, _Trichuridae_,
+  are distributed through the seas of south Asia. Mackerels of various
+  genera abound, as well as gobies, blenniesm and mullets.
+
+  Among the Anacanthim, the cod family so well known in Europe shows but
+  one or two species in the seas of south Asia, though the soles and
+  allied fishes are numerous along the coasts. Of the Physostomi, the
+  siluroids are abundant in the estuaries and muddy waters; the habits
+  of some of these fishes are remarkable, such as that of the males
+  carrying the ova in their mouths till the young are hatched. The small
+  family of _Scopelidae_ affords the gelatinous _Harpodon_, or bumalo.
+  The gar-fish and flying fishes are numerous, extending into the seas
+  of Europe. The _Clupeidae_ or herrings, are most abundant, and
+  anchovies, or sardines, are found in shoals, but at irregular and
+  uncertain intervals. The marine eels, _Muraenidae_, are more numerous
+  towards the Malay Archipelago than in the Indian seas. Forms of
+  sea-horses (_Hippocampus_), pipe-fishes (_Syngnathus_), fife-fishes
+  (_Sclerodermus_), and sun-fish, globe-fish, and other allied forms of
+  _Gymnodontes_, are not uncommon.
+
+  Of the cartilaginous fishes, Chondropterygii, the true sharks and
+  hammer-headed sharks, are numerous. The dog-fish also is found, one
+  species extending from the Indian seas to the Cape of Good Hope. The
+  saw-fishes, _Pristidae_, the electrical rays, _Torpedinae_, and
+  ordinary rays and skates, are also found in considerable numbers.
+
+  The fresh waters of southern Asia are deficient in the typical forms
+  of the Acanthopterygii, and are chiefly inhabited by carp, siluroids,
+  simple or spined eels, and the walking and climbing fishes. The
+  _Siluridae_ attain their chief development in tropical regions. Only
+  one _Silurus_ is found in Europe, and the same species extends to
+  southern Asia and Africa. The _Salmonidae_ are entirely absent from
+  the waters of southern Asia, though they exist in the rivers that flow
+  into the Arctic Ocean and the neighbouring parts of the northern
+  Pacific, extending perhaps to Formosa; and trout, though unknown in
+  Indian rivers, are found beyond the watershed of the Indus, in the
+  streams flowing into the Caspian. The _Cyprinidae_, or carp, are
+  largely represented in southern Asia, and there grow to a size unknown
+  in Europe; a _Barbus_ in the Tigris has been taken of the weight of
+  300 lb. The chief development of this family, both as to size and
+  number of forms, is in the mountain regions with a temperate climate;
+  the smaller species are found in the hotter regions and in the
+  low-lying rivers. Of the _Clupeidae_, or herrings, numerous forms
+  occur in Asiatic waters, ascending the rivers many hundred miles; one
+  of the best-known of Indian fishes, the hilsa, is of this family. The
+  sturgeons, which abound in the Black Sea and Caspian, and ascend the
+  rivers that fall into them, are also found in Asiatic Russia, and an
+  allied form extends to southern China. The walking or climbing fishes,
+  which are peculiar to south-eastern Asia and Africa, are organized so
+  as to be able to breathe when out of the water, and they are thus
+  fitted to exist under conditions which would be fatal to other fishes,
+  being suited to live in the regions of periodical drought and rain in
+  which they are found.
+
+
+    Insects.
+
+  The insects of all southern Asia, including India south of the
+  Himalaya, China, Siam and the Malayan Islands, belong to one group;
+  not only the genera, but even the species are often the same on the
+  opposite sides of the Bay of Bengal. The connexion with Africa is
+  marked by the occurrence of many genera common to Africa and India,
+  and confined to those two regions, and similarities of form are not
+  uncommon there in cases in which the genera are not peculiar. Of
+  Coleopterous insects known to inhabit east Siberia, nearly one-third
+  are found in western Europe. The European forms seem to extend to
+  about 30° N., south of which the Indo-Malayan types are met with,
+  Japan being of the Europeo-Asiatic group. The northern forms extend
+  generally along the south coast of the Mediterranean up to the border
+  of the great desert, and from the Levant to the Caspian.
+
+
+    Domesticated animals.
+
+  Of the domesticated animals of Asia may first be mentioned the
+  elephant. It does not breed in captivity, and is not found wild west
+  of the Jumna river in northern India. The horse is produced, in the
+  highest perfection in Arabia and the hot and dry countries of western
+  Asia. Ponies are most esteemed from the wetter regions of the east,
+  and the hilly tracts. Asses are abundant in most places, and two wild
+  species occur. The horned cattle include the humped oxen and buffaloes
+  of India, and the yak of Tibet. A hybrid between the yak and Indian
+  cattle, called zo, is commonly reared in Tibet and the Himalaya. Sheep
+  abound in the more temperate regions, and goats are universally met
+  with; both of these animals are used as beasts of burden in the
+  mountains of Tibet. The reindeer of northern Siberia call also for
+  special notice; they are used for the saddle as well as for draught.
+       (R. S.)
+
+
+  ETHNOLOGY
+
+    Racial types.
+
+  Asia, including its outlying islands, has become the dwelling-place of
+  all the great families into which the races of men have been divided.
+  By far the largest area is occupied by the Mongolian group. These have
+  yellow-brown skins, black eyes and hair, flat noses and oblique eyes.
+  They are short in stature, with little hair on the body and face. In
+  general terms they extend, with modifications of character probably
+  due to admixture with other types and to varying conditions of life,
+  over the whole of northern Asia as far south as the plains bordering
+  the Caspian Sea, including Tibet and China, and also over the
+  Indo-Malayan peninsula and Archipelago, excepting Papua and some of
+  the more eastern islands.
+
+  Next in numerical importance to the Mongolians are the races which
+  have been called by Professor Huxley _Melanochroic_ and
+  _Xanthochroic_. The former includes the dark-haired people of southern
+  Europe, and extends over North Africa, Asia Minor, Syria to
+  south-western Asia, and through Arabia and Persia to India. The latter
+  race includes the fair-haired people of northern Europe, and extends
+  over nearly the same area as the Melanochroi, with which race it is
+  greatly intermixed. The Xanthochroi have fair skins, blue eyes and
+  light hair; and others have dark skins, eyes and hair, and are of a
+  slighter frame. Together they constitute what were once called the
+  Caucasian races. The Melanochroi are not considered by Huxley to be
+  one of the primitive modifications of mankind, but rather to be the
+  result of the admixture of the Xanthochroi with the Australoid type,
+  next to be mentioned.
+
+  The third group is that of the Australoid type. Their hair is dark,
+  generally soft, never woolly. The eyes and skin are dark, the beard
+  often well developed, the nose broad and flat, the lips coarse, and
+  jaws heavy. This race is believed to form the basis of the people of
+  the Indian peninsula, and of some of the hill tribes of central India,
+  to whom the name Dravidian has been given, and by its admixture with
+  the Melanochroic group to have given rise to the ordinary population
+  of the Indian provinces. It is also probable that the Australoid
+  family extends into south Arabia and Egypt.
+
+  The last group, the Negroid, is represented by the races to which has
+  been given the name of _Negrito_, from the small size of some of them.
+  They are closely akin to the negroes of South Africa, and possess the
+  characteristic dark skins, woolly but scanty beard and body hair,
+  broad flat noses, and projecting lips of the African; and are diffused
+  over the Andaman Islands, a part of the Malay peninsula, the
+  Philippines, Papua, and some of the neighbouring islands. The Negritos
+  appear to be derived from a mixture of the true Negro with the
+  Australoid type.
+
+
+    Mongolians.
+
+  The distribution of the Mongolian group in Asia offers no particular
+  difficulty. There is complete present, and probably previous
+  long-existing, geographical continuity in the area over which they are
+  found. There is also considerable similarity of climate and other
+  conditions throughout the northern half of Asia which they occupy. The
+  extension of modified forms of the Mongolian type over the whole
+  American continent may be mentioned as a remarkable circumstance
+  connected with this branch of the human race.
+
+  The Mongolians of the northern half of Asia are almost entirely
+  nomadic, hunters and shepherds or herdsmen. The least advanced of
+  these, but far the most peaceful, are those that occupy Siberia.
+  Farther south the best-known tribes are the Manchus, the Mongols
+  proper, the Moguls and the Turks, all known under the name of Tatars,
+  and to the ancients as Scythians, occupying from east to west the zone
+  of Asia comprised between the 40th and 50th circles of N. lat. The
+  Turks are Mahommedans; their tribes extend up the Oxus to the borders
+  of Afghanistan and Persia, and to the Caspian, and under the name of
+  Kirghiz into Russia, and their language is spoken over a large part of
+  western Asia. Their letters are those of Persia. The Manchus and
+  Mongols are chiefly Buddhist, with letters derived from the ancient
+  Syriac. The Manchus are now said to be gradually falling under the
+  influence of Chinese civilization, and to be losing their old nomadic
+  habits, and even their peculiar language. The predatory habits of the
+  Turkish, Mongolian and Manchu population of northern Asia, and their
+  irruptions into other parts of the continent and into Europe, have
+  produced very remarkable results in the history of the world.
+
+  The Chinese branch of the Mongolian family are a thoroughly settled
+  people of agriculturists and traders. They are partially Buddhist, and
+  have a peculiar monosyllabic, uninflected language, with writing
+  consisting of symbols, which represent words, not letters.
+
+  The countries lying between India and the Mongolian are occupied by
+  populations chiefly of the Mongolian and Chinese type, having
+  languages fundamentally monosyllabic, but using letters derived from
+  India, and adopting their religion, which is almost everywhere
+  Buddhist, from the Indians. Of these may be named the Tibetans, the
+  Burmese and the Siamese. Cochin-China is more nearly Chinese in all
+  respects. It is known that to the Tibeto-Chinese modifications of the
+  pure Mongolian type all the eastern Burmese tribes--Chins, Kachins,
+  Shans, &c.--belong (as indeed do the Burmese themselves), and that a
+  cognate race occupies the Himalaya to the eastern limits of Kashmir.
+
+  Some light has been thrown on the connexion between the Tibetan race
+  and certain tribes of central India, the Bhils and Kols; and it seems
+  more probable that these tribes are the remnants of a Mongolian race
+  which first displaced a yet earlier Negroid population, and was then
+  itself shouldered out by a Caucasian irruption, than that they entered
+  India by any of the northern passages within historic times. Mongolian
+  settlements have lately been found very much farther extended into the
+  border countries of north-west India than has been hitherto
+  recognized. The Mingals, who, conjointly with the Brahuis, occupy the
+  hills south of Kalat to the limits of the Rajput province of Las Bela,
+  claim Mongolian descent, and traces of a Mongolian colony have been
+  found in Makran.
+
+
+    Malays.
+
+  The Malays, who occupy the peninsula and most of the islands of the
+  Archipelago called after them, are Mongols apparently modified by
+  their very different climate, and by the maritime life forced upon
+  them by the physical conditions of the region they inhabit. As they
+  are now known to us, they have undergone a process of partial
+  civilization, first at the hands of the Brahminical Indians, from whom
+  they borrowed a religion, and to some extent literature and an
+  alphabet, and subsequently from intercourse with the Arabs, which has
+  led to the adoption of Mahommedanism by most of them.
+
+
+    Aryans.
+
+  The name of Aryan has been given to the races speaking languages
+  derived from, or akin to, the ancient form of Sanskrit, who now occupy
+  the temperate zone extending from the Mediterranean, across the
+  highlands of Asia Minor, Persia and Afghanistan, to India. The races
+  speaking the languages akin to the ancient Assyrian, which are now
+  mainly represented by Arabic, have been called Semitic, and occupy the
+  countries south-west of Persia, including Syria and Arabia, besides
+  extending into North Africa. Though the languages of these races are
+  very different they cannot be regarded as physically distinct, and
+  they are both without doubt branches of the Melanochroi, modified by
+  admixture with the neighbouring races, the Mongols, the Australoids
+  and the Xanthochroi.
+
+  The Aryans of India are probably the most settled and civilized of all
+  Asiatic races. This type is found in its purest form in the north and
+  north-west, while the mixed races and the population referred to the
+  Australoid type predominate in the peninsula and southern India. The
+  spoken languages of northern India are very various, differing one
+  from another in the sort of degree that English differs from German,
+  though all are thoroughly Sanskritic in their vocables, but with an
+  absence of Sanskrit grammar that has given rise to considerable
+  discussion. The languages of the south are Dravidian, not Sanskritic.
+  The letters of both classes of languages, which also vary
+  considerably, are all modifications of the ancient Pali, and probably
+  derived from the Dravidians, not from the Aryans. They are written
+  from left to right, exception being made of Urdu or Hindostani, the
+  mixed language of the Mahommedan conquerors of northern India, the
+  character used for writing which is the Persian. From the river Sutlej
+  and the borders of the Sind desert, as far as Burma and to Ceylon, the
+  religion of the great bulk of the people of India is Hindu or
+  Brahminical, though the Mahommedans are often numerous, and in some
+  places even in a majority. West of the Sutlej the population of Asia
+  may be said to be wholly Mahommedan with the exception of certain
+  relatively small areas in Asia Minor and Syria, where Christians
+  predominate. The language of the Punjab does not differ very
+  materially from that of Upper India. West of the Indus the dialects
+  approach more to Persian, which language meets Arabic and Turki west
+  of the Tigris, and along the Turkoman desert and the Caspian. Through
+  the whole of this tract the letters are used which are common to
+  Persian, Arabic and Turkish, written from right to left.
+
+
+    Racial distribution.
+
+  Considerable progress has been made in the classification of the
+  various races which occupy the continent to the west of the great
+  Mongolian region. The ancient Sacae, or Scyths, are recognized in the
+  Aryan population, who may be found in great numbers and in their
+  purest form in the more inaccessible mountains and glens of the
+  central highlands. These Tajiks (as they are usually called) form the
+  underlying population of Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and
+  Badakshan, and their language (in the central districts of Asia) is
+  found to contain words of Aryan or Sanskrit derivation which are not
+  known in Persian. They have been for the most part dispossessed of
+  their country by Turkish immigration and conquests, but they still
+  retain their original intellectual superiority over the Turkish and
+  other mixed tribes by which they are surrounded. Uzbegs and Kirghiz
+  have but small affinity with the Mongol element of Asia. They are the
+  representatives of those countless Turkish irruptions which have taken
+  place through all history. Of the two divisions (Kara Kirghiz and
+  Kassak Kirghiz) into which the Kirghiz tribes are divided by Russian
+  authorities, the Kassak Kirghiz is the more closely allied to the
+  Mongol type; the Kara Kirghiz, who are found principally in the
+  valleys of the Tian-shan and Altai mountains, being unmistakably
+  Turkish. The Kipchaks are only a Kirghiz clan. The language of the
+  Kirghiz is Turki and their religion that of Mahomet. As a nomadic
+  people they have great contempt for the Sarts, who represent the town
+  dwellers of the tribe. The Kalmucks are a Buddhist and Mongolian
+  people who originated in a confederacy of tribes dwelling in
+  Dzungaria, migrated to Siberia, and settled on the Lower Volga. From
+  thence they returned late in the 18th century to the reoccupation of
+  their old ground in Kulja under the Chinese. The Turkoman is the
+  purest form of the Turk element, and his language is the purest form
+  of the Turkish tongue, which is represented at Constantinople by a
+  comparatively mongrel, or mixed, dialect. Ethnographers have traced a
+  connexion between the Turkoman of central Asia and the Teutonic races
+  of Europe, based on a similarity of national customs and immemorial
+  usage. Evidence of an original affinity between Turkoman and Rajput
+  has also been found in the mutual possession by these races of a ruddy
+  skin, so that as ethnographical inquiry advances the Turk appears to
+  recede from his Mongolian affinities and to approach the Caucasian.
+  Turks and Mongols alike were doubtless included under the term Scyth
+  by the ancients, and as Tatars by more modern writers, insomuch that
+  the Turkish dynasty at Delhi, founded by Baber, is usually termed the
+  Mogul dynasty, although there can be no distinction traced between the
+  terms Mogul and Mongol. The general results of recent inquiry into the
+  ethnography of Afghanistan is to support the general correctness of
+  Bellew's theories of the origin of the Afghan races. The claim of the
+  Durani Afghan to be a true Ben-i-Israel is certainly in no way
+  weakened by any recent investigation. The influence of Greek culture
+  in northern India is fully recognized, and the distribution of Greek
+  colonies previous to Alexander's time is attested by practical
+  knowledge of the districts they were said to occupy. The _habitat_ of
+  the Nysaeana, and the identity of certain tribes of Kafiristan with
+  the descendants of these pre-Alexandrian colonists from the west, are
+  also well established. To this day hymns are unwittingly sung to
+  Bacchus in the dales and glens of Kafiristan. The ethnographical
+  status of the mixed tribes of the mountains that lie between Chitral
+  and the Peshawar plains has been fairly well fixed by John Biddulph,
+  and much patient inquiry in the vast fields of Baluchistan by Major
+  Mockler, G.P. Tate and others has resulted in quite a new appreciation
+  of the tribal origin of the great conglomeration of Baluch peoples.
+
+  The result of trans-border surveys to the north and west of India has
+  been to establish the important geographical fact that it is by two
+  gateways only, one on the north-west and one on the west of India,
+  that the central Asiatic tides of immigration have flowed into the
+  peninsula. The Kabul valley indicates the north-western entrance, and
+  Makran indicates that on the west. By the Kabul valley route, which
+  includes at its head the group of passes across the Hindu Kush which
+  extend from the Khawak to the Kaoshan, all those central Asian hordes,
+  be they Sacae, Yue-chi, Jats, Goths or Huns, who were driven towards
+  the rich plains of the south, entered the Punjab. Some of them
+  migrated from districts which belong to eastern Asia, but none of them
+  penetrated into India by eastern passes. Such tides as set towards the
+  Himalaya broke against their farther buttresses, leaving an
+  interesting ethnographical flotsam in the northern valleys; but they
+  never overflowed the Himalayan barrier. Later most of the historic
+  invasions of India from central Asia followed the route which leads
+  directly from Kabul to Peshawar and Delhi.
+
+  By the western gates of Makran prehistoric irruptions from Mesopotamia
+  broke into the plains of Lower Sind, and either passed on towards the
+  central provinces of India or were absorbed in the highlands south of
+  Kalat. In later centuries the Arabs from the west reached the valley
+  of the Indus by their western route, and there established a dynasty
+  which lasted for 300 years. The identification of existing peoples
+  with the various Scythic, Persian and Arab races who have passed from
+  High Asia into the Indian borderland, has opened up a vast field of
+  ethnographical inquiry which has hardly yet found adequate workers for
+  its investigation. To such fields may be added the yet more
+  complicated problems of those reflex waves which flowed backwards from
+  India into the border highlands.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+1. The borders assigned to Asia on the west are somewhat arbitrary. The
+Urals indicate no real division of races, and in both Greek and Turkish
+times Asia Minor has been connected with the opposite shores of Europe
+rather than with the lands lying to the east. A juster view of early
+history is probably obtained by thinking of the countries round the
+Mediterranean as interacting on one another than by separating Palestine
+and Asia Minor as Asiatic.
+
+
+  Asiatic characteristics.
+
+2. The words "Asiatic" and "Oriental" are often used as if they denoted
+a definite and homogeneous type, but Russians resemble Asiatics in many
+ways, and Turks, Hindus, Chinese, &c., differ in so many important
+points that the common substratum is small. It amounts to this, that
+Asiatics stand on a higher level than the natives of Africa or America,
+but do not possess the special material civilization of western Europe.
+As far as any common mental characteristic can be assigned it is also
+somewhat negative, namely, that Asiatics have not the same sentiment of
+independence and freedom as Europeans. Individuals are thought of as
+members of a family, state or religion, rather than as entities with a
+destiny and rights of their own. This leads to autocracy in politics,
+fatalism in religion and conservatism in both. Hence, too, Asiatic
+history has large and simple outlines. Though longer chronologically
+than the annals of Europe, it is less eventful, less diversified and
+offers fewer personalities of interest. But the same conditions which
+render individual eminence difficult procure for it when once attained a
+more ready recognition, and the conquerors and prophets of Asia have had
+more power and authority than their parallels in Europe. Jenghiz Khan
+and Timur covered more ground than Napoleon, and no European has had
+such an effect on the world as Mahomet.
+
+
+  Religion and civilisation.
+
+3. Attention has often been called to the religious character of Asia.
+Not only the great religions of the world--Buddhism, Christianity,
+Islam--but those of secondary importance, such as Judaism, Parseeism,
+Taoism, are all Asiatic. No European race left to itself has developed
+any thing more than an unsystematic paganism. It is true that Greek
+philosophy advanced far beyond this stage, but it produced nothing
+sufficiently popular to be called a religion. On the other hand
+Christianity, though Asiatic in its origin and essential ideas, has to a
+large extent taken its present form on European soil, and some of its
+most important manifestations--notably the Roman Church--are European
+reconstructions in which little of the Asiatic element remains.
+Christianity has made little way farther east then Asia Minor. Modern
+missions have made no great conquests there, and in earlier times the
+Nestorians and Jacobites who penetrated to central Asia, China and
+India, received respectful hearing, but never had anything like the
+success which attended Buddhism and Islam. Yet Buddhism has never made
+much impression west of India; and Islam is clearly repugnant to
+Europeans, for even when under Moslem rule (as in Turkey) they refuse to
+accept it in a far larger proportion than did the Hindus in similar
+circumstances. Hence there is clearly a deep-seated difference between
+the religious feelings of the two continents.
+
+Since Asiatic records go back much farther than those of Europe, it is
+natural that Asia should be thought the birthplace of civilization. But
+this originality cannot be absolute, for, whatever may have been the
+relations of Babylonia and the Aryans, the latter brought civilization
+to India from the west, and it is not always clear whether similarity of
+government and institutions is the result of borrowing or of parallel
+development. Both in Europe and in Asia small feudal or aristocratic
+states tended to consolidate themselves into monarchies, but whereas in
+Europe from the early days of Rome onwards royalty has often been driven
+out and replaced temporarily or permanently by popular government, this
+change seems not to occur in Asia, where revolution means only a change
+of dynasty. The few cases where the government is not monarchical, as
+Arabia, seem to represent the persistence of very ancient conditions.
+
+The contemplation of Asia suggests that progress is most rapid when
+accompanied by the migration of races or the transplantation of ideas
+and institutions. Thus Greece excelled the Eastern countries from whom
+she may have derived her civilization, and Buddhism had a far more
+brilliant career outside India than in it.
+
+
+  General historical outlines.
+
+4. In many parts of southern Asia are found semi-barbarous races
+representing the earliest known stratum of population, such as the
+Veddahs of Ceylon, and various tribes in China and the Malay
+Archipelago. Some of them offer analogies to the Australians. This
+connexion, if true, must be very ancient, since it apparently goes back
+to a time when the distribution of land and water was other than at
+present. In northern Asia are found other aborigines, such as the Ainus
+of Japan and the so-called hyperborean races (Chukchis, &c.), but no
+materials are at present forthcoming for their history. There is some
+record of the migrations of the later races superimposed on these
+aborigines. The Chinese came from the west, though how far west is
+unknown: the Hindus and Persians from the north-west: the Burmese and
+Siamese from the north. We do not know if the Mongols, Turks, &c., had
+any earlier home than central Asia, but their extensive movements from
+that region are historical.
+
+The antiquity of Asiatic history is often exaggerated. With the
+exception of Babylonia and Assyria, we can hardly even conjecture what
+was the condition of this continent much before 1500 B.C. At that period
+the Chinese were advancing along the Hwang-ho, and the Aryans were
+entering India from the north-west. Both were in conflict with earlier
+races. The influence of Babylonian civilization was probably widespread.
+Some connexion between Babylonia and China is generally admitted, and
+all Indian alphabets seem traceable to a Semitic original borrowed in
+the course of commerce from the Persian Gulf.
+
+Apart from European conquests, the internal history of Asia in the last
+2000 years is the result of the interaction of four main influences: (a)
+Chinese, (b) Indian, (c) Mahommedan, (d) Central Asian. Of these the
+first three represent different types of civilization: the fourth has
+little originality, but has been of great importance in affecting the
+distribution of races and political power.
+
+(a) China has moulded the civilization of the eastern mainland and
+Japan, without much affecting the Malay Archipelago. In the sphere of
+direct influence fall Korea, Japan and Annam; in the outer sphere are
+Mongolia, Tibet, Siam, Cambodia and Burma, where Indian and Chinese
+influence are combined, the Indian being often the stronger. These
+countries, except Japan, have all been at some time at least nominal
+tributaries of China. Where Chinese influence had full play it
+introduced Confucianism, a special style in art and the Chinese system
+of writing. After the Christian era it was accompanied by Chinese
+Buddhism. The cumbrous Chinese script maintains itself in the Far East,
+but has not advanced west of China proper and Annam.
+
+(b) Indian influence may be defined as Buddhism, if it is understood
+that Buddhism is not at all periods clearly distinguishable from
+Hinduism. Its sphere includes Indo-China, much of the Malay Archipelago,
+Tibet and Mongolia, Moreover, China and Japan themselves may be said to
+fall within this sphere, in view of the part which Buddhism has played
+in their development. The Buddhist influence is not merely religious,
+for it is always accompanied by Indian art and literature, and often by
+an Indian alphabet. Much of this art is Greek in origin, being derived
+from the Perso-Greek states on the north-west frontiers of India. Indian
+alphabets have spread to Tibet, Cambodia, Java and Korea. The history of
+Indian civilization in Indo-China and the Archipelago is still obscure,
+in spite of the existence of gigantic ruins, but it would appear that in
+some parts at least two periods must be distinguished, first the
+introduction of Hinduism (or mixed Hinduism and Buddhism), perhaps under
+Indian princes, and secondly a later and more purely ecclesiastical
+introduction of Sinhalese Buddhism, with its literature and art.
+
+(c) Mahommedanism or Islam is perhaps the greatest transforming force
+which the world has seen. It has profoundly affected and to a large
+extent subjugated all western Asia including India, all eastern and
+northern Africa as well as Spain, and all eastern Europe. Its open
+advocacy of force attracts warlike races, and the intensity of its
+influence is increased by the fusion of secular and religious power, so
+that the Moslem Church is a Moslem state characterized by slavery,
+polygamy, and, subject to the autocracy of the ruler, by the theoretical
+equality of Moslems, who in political status are superior to
+non-Moslems. Thus, whenever the population of a Moslem country is of
+mixed belief, a ruling caste of Moslems is formed, as in Turkey at the
+present day and India under the Moguls. Islam is paramount in Turkey,
+Persia, Arabia and Afghanistan. India is the dividing line: Islam is
+strong in northern and central India, weaker in the south. But only
+one-fifth of the whole population is Moslem. Beyond India it has spread
+to Malacca and the Malay Archipelago, where it overwhelmed Hindu
+civilization, and reached the southern Philippines. But it made no
+progress in Indo-China or Japan; and though there is a large Moslem
+population in China the Chinese influence has been stronger, for alone
+of all Asiatics the Chinese have succeeded in forcing Islam to accept
+the ordinary limitations of a religion and to take its place as a creed
+parallel to Buddhism or any other.
+
+Even more than Buddhism Islam has carried with it a special style of art
+and civilization. It is usually accompanied by the use of the Arabic
+alphabet, and in the languages of Moslem nations (notably Turkish,
+Persian, Hindustani and Malay) a large proportion of the vocabulary is
+borrowed from Arabic. Hindi and Hindustani, two forms of the same
+language as spoken by Hindus and Mahommedans respectively, are a curious
+example of how deeply religion may affect culture.
+
+(d) The great part which central Asian tribes have played in history is
+obscured by the absence of any common name for them. Linguistically they
+can be divided into several groups such as Turks, Mongols and Huns, but
+they were from time to time united into states representing more than
+one group, and their armies were recruited, like the Janissaries, from
+all the military races in the neighbourhood. Soon after the Christian
+era central Asia began to boil over, and at least seven great invasions
+and more or less complete conquests can be ascribed to these tribes
+without counting minor movements, (i.) The early invasions of Europe by
+the Avars, Huns and Bulgarians. (ii.) The invasion and temporary
+subjection of Russia by the Mongols, who penetrated as far west as
+Silesia, (iii.) The conquests of Timur. (iv.) The conquest of Asia Minor
+and eastern Europe by the Turks. (v.) The conquest of India by the
+Moguls. (vi.) The conquest of China by the Mongols under Kublai. (vii.)
+The later conquest of China by the Manchus. To these may be added
+numerous lesser invasions of India, China and Persia.
+
+These tribes have a genius for warfare rather than for government, art
+or literature, and with few exceptions (e.g. the Moguls in India) have
+proved poor administrators. Apart from conquest their most important
+function has been to keep up communications in central Asia, and to
+transport religions and civilizations from one region to another. Thus
+they are mainly responsible for the introduction of Islam with its
+Arabic or Persian civilization into India and Europe, and in earlier
+times their movements facilitated the infiltration of Graeco-Bactrian
+civilization into India, besides maintaining communication between China
+and the West.
+
+5. _Babylonia and Assyria._--The movements mentioned above have been the
+chief factors of relatively modern Asiatic history, but in early times
+the centre of activity and culture lay farther west, in Babylonia and
+Assyria. These ancient states began to decline in the 7th century B.C.,
+and on their ruins rose the Persian empire, which with various political
+metamorphoses continued to be an important power till the 7th century
+A.D., after which all western Asia was overwhelmed by the Moslem wave,
+and old landmarks and kingdoms were obliterated.
+
+The materials for the study of their institutions and population are
+abundant, but lend themselves to discussion rather than to a summary of
+admitted facts. In the early history of south-western Asia the Semites
+form the most important ethnic group, which is primarily linguistic but
+also shares other remarkable characteristics. Two of the greatest
+religions of the world, Christianity and Islam, are Semitic in origin,
+as well as Judaism. In politics these races have been less successful in
+modern times, but the Semitic states of Babylonia and Assyria were once
+the principal centres for the development and distribution of
+civilization. It is generally agreed that this civilization can be
+traced back to an earlier race, the Sumero-Akkadians, whose language
+seems allied to the agglutinative idioms of central Asia. If this
+ancient civilized race was really allied to the ancestors of the Turks
+and Huns, it is a remarkable instance of how civilization thrives best
+by being transplanted at a certain period of growth. Still less is known
+of the early non-Aryan races of Asia Minor such as the Hittites and
+Alorodians. One hypothesis supposes that the shores of the Mediterranean
+were originally inhabited by a homogeneous race neither Aryan nor
+Semitic.
+
+The earliest Sumerian records seem to be anterior to 4000 B.C. Shortly
+after that period Babylonia was invaded by Semites, who became the
+ruling race. The city of Babylon came to the fore as metropolis about
+2285 B.C. under Khammurabi. Assyria was an offshoot of Babylonia lying
+to the north-west, and apparently colonized before the second
+millennium. While using the same language as the Babylonians, the
+Assyrians had an individuality which showed itself in art and religion.
+In the 9th and 8th centuries B.C. they became the chief power within
+their sphere and the suzerain of their parent Babylon. But they
+succumbed before the advance of the Medo-Persian power in 606 B.C.,
+whereas it was not till 555 that Cyrus took Babylon. Assyria, being
+essentially a military power, disappeared with the destruction of
+Nineveh, but Babylon continued to exercise an influence on culture and
+religion for many centuries after the Persian conquest.
+
+6. _China._--This is the oldest of existing states, though its authentic
+history does not go back much beyond 1000 B.C. It is generally admitted
+that there was some connexion between the ancient civilizations of China
+and Babylonia, but its precise nature is still uncertain. It is clear,
+however, that the Chinese came from the west, and entered their present
+territory along the course of the Hwang-ho at an unknown period,
+possibly about 3000 B.C. In early historical times China consisted of a
+shifting confederacy of feudal states, but about 220 B.C. the state of
+Tsin or Chin (whence the name China) came into prominence, and succeeded
+in forming a homogeneous empire, which advanced considerably towards the
+south. The subsequent history of China is mainly a record of struggles
+with various tribes, commonly, but not very correctly, called Tatars.
+The empire was frequently broken up by successful incursions, or divided
+between rival dynasties, but at least twice became a great Asiatic
+power: under the Han dynasty (about 200 B.C.-A.D. 220), and the T'ang
+(A.D. 618-906). The dominions of the latter extended across central Asia
+to northern India, but were dismembered by the attacks of the Kitans,
+whence the name Cathay. China proper, minus these external provinces,
+was again united under the Sung dynasty (960-1127), but split into the
+northern (Tatar) and southern (Chinese) kingdoms. In the 13th century
+arose the Mongol power, and Kublai Khan conquered China. The Mongol
+dynasty lasted less than a century, but the Ming, the native Chinese
+dynasty which succeeded it, reigned for nearly 300 years and despatched
+expeditions which reached India, Ceylon and East Africa. In 1644 the
+Ming succumbed to the attacks of the Manchus, a northern tribe who
+captured Peking and founded the present imperial house.
+
+Until the advent of Europeans, the Chinese were always in contact with
+inferior races. Whether they expanded at the expense of weak aboriginal
+tribes or were conquered by more robust invaders, Chinese civilization
+prevailed and assimilated alike the conquered and the conquerors. It is
+largely to this that we must ascribe the national conservatism and
+contempt for foreigners. The spirit of the Chinese polity is
+self-contained, anti-military and anti-sacerdotal. Rank is nominally
+determined by merit, as tested by competitive examinations. Society is
+conceived as regulated by mutual obligations, of which the duties of
+parents and children are the most important. The emperor is head of the
+state and the high priest, who sacrifices to Heaven on behalf of his
+people, but he can be deposed, and no divine right is inherent in
+certain families as in Japan and Turkey. On the contrary there have been
+20 dynasties since the Christian era.
+
+The most conspicuous figure in Chinese literature is Confucius (551-475
+B.C.). Though he laid no claim to originality and merely sought to
+collect and systematize the traditions of antiquity, his influence in
+the Far East has been unbounded, and he must be pronounced one of the
+most powerful advocates of peace and humanity that have ever existed.
+Confucianism is an ethical rather than a religious system, and hence was
+able to co-exist, though not on very friendly terms, with Buddhism,
+which reached China about the 1st century A.D. and was the chief source
+of Chinese religious ideas, except the older ancestor worship. But they
+are not a religious people, and like many Europeans regard the church as
+a department of the state.
+
+7. _Japan_ appears to have been formerly inhabited by the Ainus, who
+have traditions of an older but unknown population, but was invaded in
+prehistoric times by a race akin to the Koreans, which was possibly
+mingled with Malay elements after occupying the southern part of the
+islands. Authentic history does not begin till about the 6th century
+A.D., when Chinese civilization and Buddhism were introduced. The
+government was originally autocratic, but as early as the 7th century
+the most characteristic feature of Japanese politics--the power of great
+families who overshadowed the throne--makes its appearance. We hear
+first of the Fujiwara family, and then of the rivalry between the houses
+of Taira and Minamoto. The latter prevailed, and in 1192 established the
+dual system of government under which the emperor or Mikado ruled only
+in name, and the real power was in the hands of a hereditary military
+chief called Shogun. Japan has never been invaded in historical times,
+but an attempt made by Kublai Khan to conquer it was successfully
+repulsed. The chief power then passed to the Ashikaga dynasty of
+Shoguns, who retained it for about 200 years and were distinguished for
+their patronage of the arts. The second half of the 16th century was a
+period of ferment and anarchy, marked by the arrival of the Portuguese
+and the rise of some remarkable adventurers, one of whom, Hideyoshi,
+conquered Korea and apparently meditated the invasion of China. His
+plans were interrupted by his death, and his successor, Ieyasu, who
+shaped the social and political life of Japan for nearly 300 years
+(1603-1868), definitely decided on a policy of seclusion and isolation.
+All ideas of external conquest were abandoned, Christianity was
+forbidden, and Japan closed to foreigners, only the Dutch being allowed
+a strictly limited commerce. In 1854-1859 the Christian powers,
+beginning with the United States, successfully asserted their right to
+trade with Japan. The influx of new ideas provoked civil war, in which
+the already decadent Shogunate was abolished and the authority of the
+Mikado restored. Recognizing that their only chance of competing with
+Europeans was to fight them with their own weapons, the Japanese set
+themselves deliberately to assimilate the material civilization and to
+some extent the institutions of Europe, such as constitutional
+government. Their progress and success are without parallel. In 1895
+they defeated the Chinese and ten years later the Russians. Their
+exceptional status among Asiatic nations has been recognized by treaties
+which, contrary to the general practice in non-Christian countries,
+place all foreigners in Japan under Japanese law.
+
+This sudden development of the Japanese is perhaps the most important
+event of the second half of the 19th century, since it marks the rise of
+an Asiatic power capable of competing with Europe on equal terms. Their
+history is so different from that of the rest of Asia that it is not
+surprising if the result is different. The nation hardly came into
+existence till China and India had passed their prime, and remained
+secluded and free from the continual struggle against barbarian
+invaders, which drained the energies of its neighbours. It was left
+untouched by Mahommedanism, and for an unprecedentedly long period kept
+Europeans at bay without wasting its strength in hostilities. The
+military spirit was evolved, not in raids and massacres of the usual
+Asiatic type which create little but intense racial hatred, but in feuds
+between families and factions of the same race, which restrained
+ferocity and tended to create a temper like that of the feudal chivalry
+of Europe. On the other hand it is noticeable that the Japanese have
+little which is original in the way of religion, literature or
+philosophy. Unlike the Chinese and Indians, they have hitherto not had
+the smallest influence on the intellectual development of Asia, and
+though they have in the past sometimes shown themselves intensely
+nationalist and conservative, they have, compared with India and China,
+so little which is really their own that their assimilation of foreign
+ideas is explicable.
+
+8. _Korea_ received its civilization and religion from China, but
+differs in language, and to some extent in customs. An alphabet derived
+from Indian sources is in use as well as Chinese writing. The country
+was at most periods independent though nominally tributary to China. In
+the 16th century the Japanese occupied it for a short period, and in
+1894 they went to war with China on account of her claims to suzerainty.
+In 1895 Korea was declared independent.
+
+9. _India._--The population of India comprises at least three strata:
+firstly, uncivilized aborigines, such as the Kols and Santhals, and
+secondly, the Dravidians (Tamils, Kanarese, &c.), who perhaps represent
+the earliest northern invaders, and appear to have attained some degree
+of culture on their own account. The most recent authorities are of
+opinion that the Kolarians and Dravidians represent a single physical
+type; but, whatever the historical explanation may be, they certainly
+have different languages and show different stages of civilization. In
+prehistoric times they were spread over the whole of India, but were
+driven to the centre and south of the peninsula by the third stratum of
+Aryans, and perhaps also by invasions of so-called Mongolian races from
+the north-west. No historical record has been preserved of these latter,
+but they appear to have profoundly affected the population of Bengal,
+which is believed to be Mongolo-Dravidian in composition. The Aryans
+appear to have been settled to the north of the Hindu Kush, and to have
+migrated south-eastwards about 1500 B.C. Their original home has been a
+subject of much discussion, but the view now prevalent is that they
+arose in southern Russia or Asia Minor, whence a section spread
+eastwards and divided into two closely related branches--the Hindus and
+Iranians. There were probably two successive Aryan immigrations, and the
+tradition of a struggle between them may be preserved in the
+_Mahabharata_. The life of the ancient Aryans, as portrayed in their
+sacred songs, the _Rig Veda_, was quasi-nomadic and in many ways
+democratic, but by the 6th century B.C. settled states had been formed
+in the Ganges valley. They were absolute monarchies, but the power of
+the king was tempered by the extraordinary influence possessed by the
+hereditary sacerdotal class or Brahmans. The position of this class,
+which has remained till the present day, is connected with the
+institution of caste, a division of the population into groups founded
+partly on racial distinctions. The peaceful progress of Brahmanism was
+hindered by the doctrine of the Indian prince Gotama, called the Buddha,
+which grew into one of the greatest religions of the world. For many
+centuries the culture and development of the Hindus depended mainly on
+the interaction of the old Brahmanical religion and Buddhism. The latter
+was finally absorbed, and disappeared in India itself, but has spread
+Indian influence over the whole of eastern Asia, where it still
+flourishes.
+
+In 326 B.C. Alexander invaded the Punjab. The immediate result was
+small, but the establishment of Perso-Greek kingdoms in central Asia had
+a powerful influence on Indian art and culture. It may also have helped
+to familiarize the Hindu mind with the idea of an empire, which appeared
+among them later than in other Asiatic countries. The first empire,
+called Maurya, reached its greatest extent in the time of Asoka (264-227
+B.C.), who ruled from Afghanistan to Madras. He was a zealous Buddhist
+and gave the first example of a missionary religion, for by his
+exertions the faith was spread over all India and Ceylon. No Hindu
+empires have lasted long, and the Maurya dominions broke up fifty years
+after his death.
+
+In the next period (c. 150 B.C.-A.D. 300) India was invaded from the
+north by tribes partly of Parthian and partly of Turki (Yue-chi, &c.)
+origin. Owing to the absence of dated records, the chronology of these
+invasions has not yet been set beyond dispute, but the most important
+was that of the Kushans, whose king Kanishka founded a state which
+comprised northern India and Kashmir. They were Buddhists, and it is
+probable that the Mahayana or northern form of Buddhism was due to an
+amalgamation of Gotama's doctrines with the ideas (largely Greek and
+Persian) which they brought with them. Much of Sivaism has probably the
+same origin. Another native empire, known as Gupta, rose on the ruins of
+the Kushan kingdom, and embraced nearly the whole peninsula, but it
+broke up in the 5th century, partly owing to the attacks of new northern
+invaders, the Huns. The Malava dynasty maintained Hindu civilization in
+the 6th century, and from 606 to 646 Harsha established a brief but
+brilliant empire in the north with its capital at Kanauj. This epoch is
+marked by the renaissance of Sanskrit literature and the gradual revival
+of Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. But after Harsha Hindu history
+is lost in a maze of small and transitory states, incapable of resisting
+the ever advancing Mahommedan peril. As early as 712 the Arabs conquered
+Sind, and by the end of the 11th century the whole of northern India was
+in Moslem hands. Two periods may be distinguished, namely the Turki
+(1200-1526) and the Mogul empire. The former comprised several dynasties
+of mixed Turki and Iranian race, but was wanting in coherency. In the
+neighbourhood of the Moslem capitals, Islam spread rapidly, but in such
+districts as Rajputana and specially Vijayanagar (Mysore) Hindu
+civilization and religion maintained themselves.
+
+In 1526 the Moguls descended on India from Transoxiana and seized the
+throne of Delhi. They never subjugated the south, but the empire which
+they founded in the north was for about two centuries, under such rulers
+as Akbar and Shah Jehan, one of the most brilliant which Asia has seen.
+After 1707 it began to decline: the governors became independent: a
+powerful Mahratta confederacy arose in central India; Nadir Shah of
+Persia sacked Delhi; and Ahmed Shah made repeated invasions. A still
+more formidable danger, the power of the French and English, continued
+to increase. Amidst such confusion the authority of the Mogul empire
+rapidly disappeared, but it lasted as a name till the Mutiny (1857).
+
+Indian history until Mahommedan times is marked by the unusual
+prominence of religious ideas, and is a record of intellectual
+development rather than of political events. Whatever national unity the
+Hindu peoples possessed came from the persistent and penetrating
+influence of the Brahman caste. Kings held a secondary position, and
+were generally regarded as adventitious tyrants, rather than as the
+heads and representatives of the nation. Even the great dynasties have
+left few traces, and it is with difficulty that the patient historian
+disinters the minor kingdoms from obscurity, but Indian religion,
+literature and art have influenced all Asia from Persia to Japan.
+
+10._Persia._-- The Persians, with whom are often coupled the Medes,
+appear to be pure Aryans in origin, and the earliest form of their
+language and religion offers remarkable analogies to the Vedas. It is
+reasonable to suppose that their ancestors and those of the Hindus at
+one time formed a single tribe somewhere in central Asia. The religion
+was remodelled by Zoroaster, who seems to be a historical character and
+to have lived about the 7th century B.C. About the same time they shook
+off the domination of Assyria. From the 6th century onwards their
+empire, then known as Median, began to expand at the expense of the
+surrounding states. They destroyed Nineveh in alliance with the
+Babylonians, and half a century later Cyrus took Babylon and founded the
+great dynasty of the Achaemenidae. The substitution of the Persian for
+the Median power, which took place with the advent of Cyrus, seems to
+indicate merely the pre-eminence of a particular tribe and not conquest
+by another race. The power of the Achaemenidae, when at its maximum,
+extended from the Oxus and Indus in the east to Thrace in the west and
+Egypt in the south, but fell before Greece, after lasting for rather
+more than 200 years. Darius and Xerxes were repulsed in their efforts to
+subjugate the Greek Peninsula, and Alexander the Great conquered their
+successor Darius III. in 329. But the greater part of the empire
+continued to exist under new masters, the Seleucids, as a Hellenistic
+power which was of great importance for the dissemination of Greek
+culture in the East. Bactria soon became independent under an Indo-Greek
+dynasty, and the blending of Greek, Persian, central Asiatic and Hindu
+influences had an important effect on the art and religion of India, and
+through India on all eastern Asia. About the same period (250 B.C.-A.D.
+227) the Parthian empire arose under the Arsacids in Khorasan and the
+adjacent districts. The Parthians appear to have been a Turanian tribe
+who had adopted many Persian customs. They successfully withstood the
+Romans, and at one time their power extended from India to Syria. They
+succumbed to the Persian dynasty of the Sassanids, who ruled
+successfully for about four centuries, established the Zoroastrian faith
+as their state religion, and maintained a creditable conflict with the
+East Roman empire. But in the 7th century they were defeated by
+Heraclius, and shortly afterwards were annihilated before the first
+impetus of the Mahommedan conquest, which established Islam in Persia
+and the neighbouring lands, sweeping away old civilizations and
+boundaries. During the greater part of the Mahommedan period Persia has
+been ruled by troubled and short-lived dynasties. It attained a certain
+dignity and unity under Abbas Shah (1585-1628), but in later times was
+distracted and disorganized by Afghan invasions. The present dynasty,
+which is of Turkoman origin, dates from 1789.
+
+The achievements of the Persians in art, literature and religion are by
+no means contemptible, but somewhat mixed and cosmopolitan. Owing to its
+position, the Persian state, when it from time to time became a
+conquering empire, overlapped Asia Minor, Babylon and India, and hence
+acted as an intermediary for transmitting art and ideas, sending for
+instance Greek sculpture to India and the cult of Mithra to western
+Europe. It is perhaps on account of this intermediate flavour that the
+literature of Persia--for instance the adaptations of Omar Khayyam--is
+more appreciated in Europe than that of other Oriental nations. On the
+other hand, the wars between Persia and Greece were recognized both at
+the time and afterwards as a struggle between Europe and Asia; the fact
+that both combatants were Aryans was not felt, and has no importance
+compared to the difference of continent.
+
+11. _Jews._--The Israelites appear to have been originally a nomadic
+tribe akin to the Arabs, whom they resemble in their want of political
+instinct and in their extraordinary religious genius. Among many
+remarkable qualities they have been distinguished from the earliest
+times by a species of commensalism, or power of living among other
+nations without becoming either socially merged or politically distinct.
+Their traditional history represents them as migrating to the borders of
+Egypt and living there for some centuries. After the exodus, which
+perhaps took place about 1300 B.C., they moved northwards again and
+founded a state of modest dimensions, which attained a short-lived unity
+under Solomon, but succumbed to internal dissensions and to the attacks
+of Assyria and Babylon. Shalmanezer destroyed the northern kingdom or
+Israel in 720, and following the practice of the times deported the
+majority of the population, whose traces became lost to history. There
+is no reason why their descendants should not be found to-day in various
+tribes, but the physical type commonly called Jewish is characteristic
+not so much of Israel as of western Asia generally. In 588
+Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews in captivity, but after the Persian
+conquest of Babylonia they were allowed to return to Palestine in 538.
+Their institutions and ideas were probably considerably modified during
+this period. Babylon long continued to be a Jewish centre whence the
+Jews radiated to other countries. The restored state of Jerusalem lived
+for about six centuries in partial independence under Persian, Egyptian,
+Syrian and Roman rule, often showing an aggressively heroic attachment
+to its national customs, which brought it into collision with its
+suzerains, until the temple was destroyed by Titus in A.D. 70, and the
+country laid waste in the succeeding years. But long before this period
+the Jews of the Dispersion had become as important as the inhabitants of
+Palestine. From choice or compulsion large numbers settled in Egypt in
+the time of the Ptolemies, and added an appreciable element to
+Alexandrine culture, while gradual voluntary emigration established
+Jewish communities in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, who
+facilitated the first spread of Christianity. In spite of chronic
+unpopularity and recurring persecutions they have spread over nearly all
+Europe. At the end of the 13th century they were expelled from Spain and
+many of the exiles moved eastwards. At present the largest numbers are
+to be found in the eastern parts of Europe. It is remarkable that though
+the Jews live in relative peace with Asiatics, the great majority of
+them prefer Europe as a residence.
+
+12. _Arabs._--The Arabs have hardly any history before the rise of
+Islam, although their name is mentioned by surrounding nations from the
+9th century B.C. onwards. They appear to have had few states or kings,
+but rather tribes and chiefs. Their relationship to the Babylonians and
+Jews is indicated by linguistic and ethnological data. The language and
+writing of the Semites who, at an unknown period, settled in what is now
+Abyssinia, show affinities with those of South Arabia, and these Semites
+may have been immigrants into Africa from that region. It is plain from
+early Moslem literature that Persian, Christian and especially Jewish
+ideas had penetrated into Arabia.
+
+With the rise of Mahommedanism occurred a sudden effervescence of the
+Arabs, who during some centuries threatened to impose not only their
+political authority but their civilization and new religion on the whole
+known world. They successfully invaded India and central Asia in the
+east, Spain and Morocco in the west. The Caliphate under the Omayyads of
+Damascus, and then the Abbasids of Bagdad, became the principal power in
+the nearer East. It had not, however, a sufficiently coherent
+organization for permanence; parts of it became independent, others
+were first protected and then absorbed by the Turks. The Arab rule in
+Spain, which once threatened to overwhelm Europe and was turned back
+near Tours by Charles Martel, was distinguished by its tolerance and
+civilization, and lingered on till the 15th century.
+
+The collapse of the political power of the Arabs was singularly
+complete. The Caliphate, though Arabian, was always geographically
+outside Arabia, and on its fall Arabia remained as it was before Islam,
+isolated and inaccessible. It is still one of the least known parts of
+the globe, and has hardly any political link with the outside, for the
+Arabs of northern Africa form separate states. But in spite of this
+total political collapse, Arabic religion and literature are still one
+of the greatest forces working in the western half of Asia, in northern
+Africa and to some extent in eastern Europe.
+
+13. _Ceylon_, though geographically an annex of India, has not followed
+its fortunes historically. According to tradition it was invaded by an
+Aryan-speaking colony from the valley of the Ganges in the 6th century
+B.C. It received Buddhism from north India in the time of Asoka, and has
+had considerable importance as a centre of religious culture which has
+influenced Burma and Siam. Its medieval history consists of struggles
+between the native sovereigns and Tamil invaders. A powerful native
+dynasty reigned in the 12th century, but in 1408 the island was attacked
+by Chinese, and from 1505 onwards it was distracted by the attacks and
+squabbles of Europeans. It was partially subjugated, first by the
+Portuguese and then by the Dutch. In 1796 the Dutch were expelled by the
+English.
+
+14. _Indo-China._--This is an appropriate name for Burma, Siam,
+Cambodia, Annam, &c., for both in position and in civilization they lie
+between India and China. Indian influence is predominant as far as
+Cambodia (though with a Chinese tinge), Indian alphabets being employed
+and the Buddhism being of the Sinhalese type, but in Annam and Tongking
+the Chinese script and many Chinese institutions are in use. The
+population belongs to various races, and also comprises little-known
+wild tribes, (i.) Languages of the group known as Mon-Annam are spoken
+in Annam and in Pegu, an ancient kingdom originally distinct from Burma
+though now confounded with it. This distribution seems to indicate that
+they once spread over the whole region, and were divided by the later
+advance of the Siamese and others. Until Annam was taken by the French,
+its history consisted of a struggle with the Chinese, who alternately
+asserted and lost their sovereignty. The Annamese are, however, a
+distinct race. Cochin China was once the seat of a kingdom called
+Champa, which appears to have had a hinduized Malay civilization and to
+have been subsequently absorbed by Annam. (ii.) The Burmese are
+linguistically allied to the Tibetans, and probably entered Burma from
+the north-west. The early history consists largely of conflicts between
+the Burmese and Talaings. The kingdom which was annexed by Britain in
+1885 was founded about 1750 by Alompra, who united his countrymen and
+broke the power of the Talaings. He also invaded Siam. (iii.) The Khmers
+or Cambodians, whose languages appear to belong to the Mon-Annam group,
+form a relatively ancient kingdom, much reduced in the last few
+centuries by the advance of the Siamese and new a French protectorate.
+Remarkable ruins dating from perhaps A.D. 800 to 1000 attest the former
+prevalence of strong Hindu influence, (iv.) The Siamese or Thai, who
+speak a monosyllabic language of the Chinese type, but written in an
+Indian alphabet, represent a late invasion from southern China, whence
+they descended about the 13th century.
+
+15. _Malays._--This widely-scattered race has no political union and its
+distribution is a puzzle for ethnography. At present it occupies the
+extremity of the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines
+and other islands of the Malay Archipelago as well as Madagascar, while
+the inhabitants of most islands in the South Seas, including New Zealand
+and Hawaii, speak languages which if not Malay have at least undergone a
+strong Malay influence. It would seem from this distribution that the
+Malays are not continental, but a seafaring race with exceptional powers
+of dispersal, who have spread over the ocean from some island
+centre--perhaps Java. The latest theory, however, is that there is a
+great linguistic group (which may or may not prove to correspond to an
+ethnic unity) comprising the Munda, Monkhmer, Malay, Polynesian and
+Micronesian languages, and that the stream of immigration which
+distributed them started from the extreme west. Three periods can be
+traced in the history of the Asiatic Malays. In the first (in which such
+tribes as the Dyaks have remained) they were semi-barbarous. In the
+second, Hindu civilization reached the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra
+and other islands. The presence of Hindu ruins, as well as of numerous
+Indian words and customs, testifies to the strength of this influence.
+It was, however, superseded by Islam, which spread to the Malay
+Archipelago and Peninsula before the 16th century. At the present time
+the Arabic alphabet is used on the mainland, but Indian alphabets in
+Java, Sumatra, &c.
+
+16. _Tibet._--This remote and mountainous country has a peculiar
+civilization. It has entirely escaped Islam, and though it is a nominal
+vassal of China, direct Chinese influence has not been strong. The most
+striking feature is the religion, a corrupt form of late Indian
+Buddhism, known as Lamaism, which, largely in consequence of the favour
+shown by Jenghiz Khan and his successors, has attained temporal power
+and developed into an ecclesiastical state curiously like the papacy.
+
+17. _Mongols._--Such civilization as the Mongols possess is a mixture of
+Chinese and Indian, the latter derived chiefly through Tibet, but their
+alphabet is a curious instance of transplantation. It is an adaptation
+of the Syriac writing introduced by the early Nestorian missionaries.
+
+
+  Literature, art, science.
+
+18. Almost all Asiatic countries have a literature, but it is often not
+indigenous and consists of foreign works, chiefly religious, read either
+in translations or the original. Thus with the exception of a little
+folklore the literature of Indo-China, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea and
+Manchuria is mainly Indian or Chinese. The chief original literatures
+are Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic and Persian. The Japanese have
+produced few books of importance, and their compositions are chiefly
+remarkable as being lighter and more secular than is usual in Asia, but
+the older Chinese works take high rank both for their merits and the
+effect they have had. The extensive Sanskrit literature, which has
+reached in translations China, Japan and Java, is chiefly theological
+and poetical, history being conspicuously absent. India has also a
+considerable medieval and modern literature in various languages. Pali,
+though only a form of Hindu literature, has a separate history, for it
+died in India and was preserved in Ceylon, whence it was imported to
+Burma and Siam as the language of religion. The Pali versions of
+Buddha's discourses are among the most remarkable products of Asia. The
+literatures of all Moslem peoples are largely inspired by Arabic, which
+has produced a voluminous collection of works in prose and poetry.
+Persian, after being itself transformed by Arabic, has in its turn
+largely influenced all west Asiatic Moslem literature from Hindustani to
+Turkish.
+
+If one excepts the Old Testament, which is a product of the extreme west
+of Asia, it is remarkable how small has been the influence of Asiatic
+literature on Europe. Though Greek and Slavonic almost ceased to be
+written languages under Turkish rule, Europeans showed no disposition to
+replace them by Ottoman or Arabic literature.
+
+Without counting subdivisions there would seem to be three main schools
+of art in Asia at present--Chinese, Indian and Moslem. The first
+contains many original elements. It is feeblest in architecture and
+strongest in the branches demanding skill and care in a limited compass,
+such as painting, porcelain and enamel. It is the main inspiration of
+Japanese art, which, however, shows great originality in its treatment
+of borrowed themes. Both China and Japan have felt through Buddhism the
+influence of Indian art, which contains at least two elements--one
+indigenous and the other Greco-Persian. Unlike Chinese art it has a
+genius for architecture and sculpture rather than painting. Mahommedan
+art is also largely architectural and has affected nearly all Moslem
+countries. Except that the use of Arabic inscriptions is one of its
+principal methods of decoration, it owes little to Arabia and much to
+Byzantium. The Persian variety of this art is more ornate, and less
+averse to representations of living beings. Both Moslem and Chinese art
+are closely connected with calligraphy, but Hindus rarely use writing
+for ornament.
+
+In both art and literature modern Asia is inferior to the past more
+conspicuously than Europe.
+
+As for science, astronomy was cultivated by the Babylonians at an early
+period, and it is probably from them that a knowledge of the heavenly
+bodies and their movements spread over Asia. Grammar and prosody were
+studied in India with a marvellous accuracy and minuteness several
+centuries before Christ. Mathematics were cultivated by the Chinese,
+Indians and Arabs, but nearly all the sciences based on the observation
+of nature, including medicine, have remained in a very backward
+condition. Much the same, however, might have been said of Europe until
+two centuries ago, and the scientific knowledge of the Arabs under the
+earlier Caliphates was equal or superior to that of any of their
+contemporaries. Histories and accounts of travels have been composed
+both in Arabic and Chinese.
+
+
+  Influence of Asia on other continents.
+
+19. It is only natural that Europe should have chiefly felt the
+influence of western Asia. Though Europeans may be indebted to China for
+some mechanical inventions, she was too distant to produce much direct
+effect, and the influence of India has been mainly directed towards the
+East. The resemblances between primitive Christianity and Buddhism
+appear to be coincidences, and though both early Greek philosophy and
+later Alexandrine ideas suggest Indian affinities, there is no clear
+connexion such as there is between certain aspects of Chinese thought
+and India.
+
+Any general statement as to the debt owed by early European
+civilizations to western Asia would at present be premature, for though
+important discoveries have been made in Crete and Babylonia the best
+authorities are chary of positive conclusions as to the relations of
+Cretan civilization to Egypt and Babylonia. Egyptian influence within
+the Aegean area seems certain, and the theory that Greek writing and
+systems for reckoning time are Babylonian in origin has not been
+disproved, though the history of the alphabet is more complex than was
+supposed.
+
+In historic times Asia has attempted to assert her influence over Europe
+by a series of invasions, most of which have been repulsed. Such were
+the Persian wars of Greece, and perhaps one may add Hannibal's invasion
+of Italy, if the Carthaginians were Phoenicians transplanted to Africa.
+The Roman empire kept back the Persians and Parthians, but could not
+prevent a series of incursions by Avars, Huns, Bulgarians, and later by
+Mongols and Turks. Islam has twice obtained a footing in Europe, under
+the Arabs in Spain and under the Turks at Constantinople. The earlier
+Asiatic invasions were conducted by armies operating at a distance from
+their bases, and had little result, for the soldiery retired after a
+time (like Alexander from India), or more rarely (e.g. the Bulgarians)
+settled down without keeping up any connexion with Asia. The Turks, and
+to some extent the Arabs in Spain, were successful because they first
+conquered the parts of Asia and Africa adjoining Europe, so that the
+final invaders were in touch with Asiatic settlements. Though the Turks
+have profoundly affected the whole of eastern Europe, the result of
+their conquests has been not so much to plant Asiatic culture in Europe
+as to arrest development entirely, the countries under their rule
+remaining in much the same condition as under the moribund Byzantine
+empire.
+
+In general, Europe has in historic times shown itself decidedly hostile
+to Asiatic institutions and modes of thought. It is only of recent years
+that the writings of Schopenhauer and the researches of many
+distinguished orientalists have awakened some interest in Asiatic
+philosophy.
+
+The influence of Asia on Africa has been considerable, and until the
+middle of the 10th century greater than that of Europe. Some authorities
+hold that Egyptian civilization came from Babylonia, and that the
+so-called Hamitic languages are older and less specialized members of
+the Semitic family. The connexion between Carthage and Phoenicia is more
+certain, and the ancient Abyssinian kingdom was founded by Semites from
+south Arabia. The traditions of the Somalis derive them from the same
+region. The theory that the ruins in Mashonaland were built by
+immigrants from south Arabia is now discredited, but there was certainly
+a continuous stream of Arab migration to East Africa which probably
+began in pre-Moslem times and founded a series of cities on the coast.
+The whole of the north of Africa from Egypt to Morocco has been
+mahommedanized, and Mahommedan influence is general and fairly strong
+from Timbuktu to Lake Chad and Wadai. South of the equator, Arab
+slave-dealers penetrated from Zanzibar to the great lakes and the Congo
+during the second and third quarters of the 19th century, but their
+power, though formidable, has disappeared without leaving any permanent
+traces.
+
+The relation to Asia of the pre-European civilizations of America is
+another of those questions which admit of no definite answer at present,
+though many facts support the theory that the semi-civilized inhabitants
+of Mexico and Central America crossed from Asia by Bering Straits and
+descended the west coast. Some authorities hold that Peruvian
+civilization had no connexion with the north and was an entirely
+indigenous product, but Kechua is in structure not unlike the
+agglutinative languages of central and northern Asia.
+
+
+  Influence of Europe on Asia.
+
+20. European influence on Asia has been specially strong at two epochs,
+firstly after the conquests of Alexander the Great, and secondly from
+the 16th century onwards. Alexander's conquests resulted in the
+foundation of Perso-Greek kingdoms in Asia, which not only hellenized
+their own area but influenced the art and religion of India and to some
+extent of China. Then follows a long period in which eastern Europe was
+mainly occupied in combating Asiatic invasions, and had little
+opportunity of Europeanizing the East. Somewhat later the Crusades kept
+up communication with the Levant, and established there the power of the
+Roman Church, somewhat to the detriment of oriental Christianity, but
+intercourse with farther Asia was limited to the voyages of a few
+travellers. Looking at eastern Europe and western Asia only, one must
+say that Asiatic influences have on the whole prevailed hitherto (though
+perhaps the tide is turning), for Islam is paramount in this region and
+European culture at a low ebb. But the case is quite different if one
+looks at the two continents as a whole, for improvement in means of
+communication has brought about strange vicissitudes, and western Europe
+has asserted her power in middle and eastern Asia.
+
+In the 16th century a new era began with the discovery by the Portuguese
+of the route to India round the Cape, and the naval powers of Europe
+started one after another on careers of oriental conquest. The movement
+was maritime and affected the nations in the extreme west of Europe
+rather than those nearer Asia, who were under the Turkish yoke. Also the
+parts of Asia affected were chiefly India and the extreme East. The
+countries west of India, being less exposed to naval invasion, remained
+comparatively untouched. It will thus be seen that European (excluding
+Russian) power in Asia is based almost entirely on improved navigation.
+There was no attempt to overwhelm whole empires by pouring into them
+masses of troops, but commerce was combined with territorial
+acquisition, and a continuity of European interest secured by the
+presence of merchants and settlers. The course of oriental conquest
+followed the events of European politics, and the possessions of
+European powers in the East generally changed hands according to the
+fortunes of their masters at home. Portugal was first on the scene, and
+in the 16th century established a considerable littoral empire on the
+coasts of East Africa, India and China, fragments of which still remain,
+especially Goa, where Portuguese influence on the natives was
+considerable. Before the century was out the Dutch appeared as the
+successful rivals of the Portuguese, but the real struggle for supremacy
+in southern Asia took place between France and England about 1740-1783.
+Both entered India as commercial companies, but the disorganized
+condition of the Mogul empire necessitated the use of military force to
+protect their interests, and allured them to conquest. The companies
+gradually undertook the financial control of the districts where they
+traded and were recognized by the natives as political powers. The
+ultimate victory of England seems due less to any particular aptitude
+for dealing with oriental problems than to a better command of the seas
+and to considerations of European politics. At the end of the Napoleonic
+wars Portugal had Macao and Goa, Holland Java, Sumatra and other
+islands, France some odds and ends in India, while England emerged with
+Hong Kong, Singapore, Ceylon and a free hand in India. Guided by such
+administrators as Warren Hastings, the East India Company had assumed
+more and more definitely the functions of government for a great part of
+India. In 1809 its exclusive trading rights were taken away by
+Parliament, but its administrative status was thus made clearer, and
+when after the mutiny of 1857 it was desirable to define British
+authority in India there seemed nothing unnatural in declaring it to be
+a possession of the crown.
+
+Another category of European possessions in Asia comprises those
+acquired towards the end of the 19th century, such as Indo-China
+(France), Burma and Wei-Hai-Wei (Britain), and Kiao-Chow (Germany).
+Whereas the earlier conquests were mostly the results of large
+half-conscious national movements working out their destinies in the
+East, these later ones were annexations deliberately planned by European
+cabinets. It seemed to be assumed that Asia was to be divided among the
+powers of Europe, and each was anxious to get its share or more.
+
+The advance of Russia in Asia is entirely different from that of the
+other powers, since it has taken place by land and not by sea. Though
+the geographical extent of Russian territory and influence is enormous,
+she has always moved along the line of least resistance. She is a
+moderately strong empire lying to the north of the great Moslem states,
+and having for neighbours a series of very weak principalities or
+semi-civilized tribes. The conquest of Siberia and central Asia
+presented no real difficulties: Persia and Constantinople were left on
+one side, and Russia was defeated as soon as she was opposed by a
+vigorous power in the Far East. As the Russian possessions in Asia are
+continuous with European Russia, it is only natural that they should
+have been russified far more thoroughly than the British possessions
+have been anglicized.
+
+There has been great difference of opinion as to the extent to which
+Alexander's conquests influenced Asia, and it is equally hard to say
+what is the effect now being produced by Europe. Clearly such
+alterations as the construction of railways in nearly all parts of the
+continent, and the establishment of peace over formerly disturbed areas
+like India, are of enormous importance, and must change the life of the
+people. But the mental constitution of Asiatics is less easily modified
+than their institutions, and even Japan has assimilated European methods
+rather than European ideas. (C. El.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The modern bibliography of Asia, including the works of
+  travellers and explorers since 1880, is voluminous. It is impossible
+  to refer to all that has been written in the Survey Reports and
+  Gazetteers of the government of India, or in the records of the Royal
+  Asiatic Society, or the Asiatic Society, Bengal; but amongst the more
+  important popular works are the following:--Richthofen, "China, Japan,
+  and Korea," vol. iv. _Jour. R.G.S._, _China_ (Berlin, 1877); Regel,
+  "Upper Oxus," vol. i. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1879; Dr Bellew, _Afghanistan
+  and the Afghans_ (London, 1879); Nicolas Prjevalski, "Explorations in
+  Asia," see vols. i., ii., v., ix. and xi. of the _Proc. R.G.S._,
+  1879-1889; W. Blunt, "A Visit to Jebel Shammar," vol ii. _Proc.
+  R.G.S._, 1880; Captain W Gill, _The River of Golden Sand_ (London,
+  1880); Sir R. Temple, "Central Plateau of Asia," vol. iv. _Proc.
+  R.G.S._ 1882; Baker, "A Journey of Exploration in Western Ssu-Chuan,"
+  vol. i. _Supplementary Papers R.G.S._, 1882-1885; Sir C. Wilson,
+  "Notes on Physical and Historical Geography of Asia Minor," vol. vi.
+  _Proc. R.G.S._, 1884; General J.T. Walker, "Asiatic Explorers of the
+  Indian Survey," vol. viii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1885; Samuel Beal,
+  _Buddhist Records of the Western World_ (Boston, 1885); Charles
+  Doughty, _Travels in Northern Arabia_ (Cambridge, 1886); _Travels in
+  Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888); Venukoff, "Explorations," vol.
+  viii. _Proc. G.R.S._, 1886; Ney Elias, "Explorations in Central Asia,"
+  see vols. viii. and ix. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1886-1887; Arthur Carey,
+  "Explorations in Turkestan," see vol. ix. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1887; Henry
+  Lansdell, _Through Central Asia_ (London, 1887); Archibald Colquhoun,
+  _Report on Railway Connexion between Burma and China_ (London, 1887);
+  Major C. Yate, _Northern Afghanistan_ (Edinburgh, 1888); Captain F.
+  Younghusband, _The Heart of a Continent_ (London, 1893); _A Journey
+  through Manchuria, &c._ (Lahore, 1888); also see vol. x. _Proc.
+  R.G.S._, and vol. v. _Jour. R.G.S._; Dutreuil de Rhins, _L'Asie
+  Centrale_ (Paris, 1889); Pierre Bonvalot, _Through the Heart of Asia_,
+  trans. Pitman (London, 1889); _From Paris to Tonkin_, trans. Pitman
+  (London, 1891); Roborovski, translation from Russian _Invalide_,
+  October 1889, vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._; "Central Asia," vol. viii.
+  _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Colonel Mark Bell, "Trade Routes of Asia," vol.
+  xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; W.W. Rockhill, "An American in Tibet,"
+  _Century Magazine_, November 1890; _The Land of the Lamas_ (London,
+  1891); Theodore Bent, "Hadramut," vol. iv. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894;
+  "Southern Arabia," vol. vi. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; "Bahrein Islands,"
+  vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; Grombcherski, "Explorations in Kuen
+  Lun," vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; Lydekker, "The Geology of the
+  Kashmir Valley and Chamba Territories," vols. xiii. and xiv.
+  _Geological Survey of India_; Max Müller, _The Sacred Books of the
+  East_ (Oxford, 1890-1894); Elisée Reclus, _The Earth and its
+  Inhabitants_ (series, 1890); G.W. Leitner, _Dardistan_; H.F. Blanford,
+  _Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and Ceylon_ (London, 1890);
+  _Guide to the Climate and Weather of India_ (London, 1889); Lord
+  Dunmore, _The Pamirs_ (London, 1892); A. Tissandier, _Voyage au tour
+  du monde_ (Paris, 1892); Lord Curzon, _Persia and the Persian
+  Question_ (London, 1892); _Russia and the Anglo-Russian Question_
+  (London, 1889); _Problems of the Far East_ (London, 1894); Captain
+  Hamilton Bower, _Diary of a Journey across Tibet_ (Calcutta, 1893);
+  Szechenyi, _Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Reise des Grafen
+  Béla Szechenyi in Ostasien_ (Wien, 1893); R.D. Oldham, "Evolution of
+  Indian Geology," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894; Baron Toll,
+  "Siberia," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894; Delmar Morgan, "The
+  Mountain Systems of Central Asia," _Scottish Geological Magazine_, No.
+  10, of 1894; Sir Frederick Goldsmid, "Persian Geography," vol. vi.
+  _Jour. R.G.S._, 1895; Warrington Smyth, "Siam," vol. vi. _Jour.
+  R.G.S._, 1895; "Siamese East Coast," vol xi. _Jour._ 1898; Prince
+  Kropotkin, "Siberian Railway," vol. v. _R.G.S. Jour._, 1895; W.R.
+  Lawrence, _The Vale of Kashmir_ (Oxford, 1895); Captain Vaughan,
+  "Persia," vol. viii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Prince H. d'Orleans, "Yunan
+  to India," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; "Tonkin to Talifu," vol.
+  viii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Sir T. Holdich, "Ancient and Medieval
+  Makran," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; _The Indian Borderland_
+  (London, 1901); India (Oxford, 1904); Colonel Woodthorpe, "Shan
+  States," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; _Report of the Pamir Boundary
+  Commission_ (Calcutta, 1896); St George Littledale, "Journey Across
+  the Pamirs from North to South," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894, and
+  vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Sir G. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the
+  Hindu Kush_ (London, 1896); Captain Stiffe, "Persian Gulf Trading
+  Centres," vols. viii., ix. and x. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1897; Ney Elias and
+  Ross, _A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia, from the
+  Tarskh-i-Rastisdi of Mirza Haidar_ (London, 1898); Grenard, _Mission
+  scientifique sur la Haute Asie_ (Paris, 1898); Dr Sven Hedin, _Through
+  Asia_ (London, 1898); Central Asia and Tibet (1903); _Geographie des
+  Hochlandes van Pamir_ (Berlin, 1894); Captain M.S. Wellby, "Through
+  Tibet," _R.G.S. Jour._, September 1898; Captain P.M. Sykes, "Persian
+  Explorations," vol. x. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1898; _Ten Thousand Miles in
+  Persia_ (1902); Kronshin, "Old Beds of the Oxus," _Jour. R.G.S._,
+  September 1898; Sir W. Hunter, _History of British India_, vol. i.
+  (London, 1898); Captain H. Deasy, "Western Tibet," vol. ix. _Jour.
+  R.G.S._; In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan (London, 1901); A. Little,
+  _The Far East_ (Oxford, 1905); Captain Rawling, _The Great Plateau_
+  (London, 1905); _Journal of the Royal Geogl. Society_, vols. xv. to
+  xxv. (1900-1905); Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a Frontier_
+  (London, 1899); R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_ (London, 1900).
+       (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Authorities differ in their methods and results of computation of
+    these and other similar measurements.
+
+
+
+
+ASIA, in a restricted sense, the name of the first Roman province east
+of the Aegean, formed (133 B.C.) out of the kingdom left to the Romans
+by the will of Attalus III. Philometor, king of Pergamum. It included
+Mysia, Lydia, Caria and Phrygia, and therefore, of course, Aeolis, Ionia
+and the Troad. In 84 B.C., on the close of the Mithradatic War, Sulla
+reorganized the province, forming 40 _regiones_ for fiscal purposes, and
+it was later divided into _conventus_. From 80 to 50 B.C. the upper
+Maeander valley and all Phrygia, except the extreme north, were detached
+and added to Cilicia. In 27 B.C. Asia was made a senatorial province
+under a pro-consul. As the wealthiest of Roman provinces it had most to
+gain by the _pax Romana_, and therefore welcomed the empire, and
+established and maintained the most devout cult of Augustus by means of
+the organization known as the _Koinon_ or Commune, a representative
+council, meeting in the various _metropoleis_. In this cult the emperor
+came to be associated with the common worship of the Ephesian Artemis.
+By the reorganization of Diocletian, A.D. 297, Asia was broken up into
+several small provinces, and one of these, of which the capital was
+Ephesus, retained the name of the original province (see ASIA MINOR).
+
+
+
+
+ASIA MINOR, the general geographical name for the peninsula, forming
+part of the empire of Turkey, on the extreme west of the continent of
+Asia, bounded on the N. by the Black Sea, on the W. by the Aegean, and
+on the S. by the Mediterranean, and at its N.W. extremity only parted
+from Europe by the narrow straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On
+the east, no natural boundary separates it from the Armenian plateau;
+but, for descriptive purposes, it will suffice to take a line drawn from
+the southern extremity of the Giaour Dagh, east of the Gulf of
+Alexandretta along the crest of that chain, then along that of the
+eastern Taurus to the Euphrates near Malatia, then up the river, keeping
+to the western arm till Erzingan is reached, and finally bending north
+to the Black Sea along the course of the Churuk Su, which flows out west
+of Batum. This makes the Euphrates the main eastern limit, with radii to
+the north-east angle of the Levant and the south-east angle of the Black
+Sea, and roughly agrees with the popular conception of Asia Minor as a
+geographical region. But it must be remembered that this term was not
+used by classical geographers (it is first found in Orosius in the 5th
+century A.D.), and is not in local or official use now. It probably
+arose in the first instance from a vague popular distinction between the
+continent itself and the Roman province of "Asia" (q.v.), which at one
+time included most of the peninsula west of the central salt desert
+(_Axylon_). The name _Anatolia_, in the form _Anadol_, is used by
+natives for the western part of the peninsula (_cis Halym_) and not as
+including ancient Cappadocia and Pontus. Before the reconstitution of
+the provinces as _vilayets_ it was the official title of the principal
+_eyalet_ of Asia Minor, and was also used more generally to include all
+the peninsular provinces over which the beylerbey of Anadoli, whose seat
+was at Kutaiah, had the same paramount military jurisdiction which the
+beylerbey of "Rumili" enjoyed in the peninsular provinces of Europe. The
+term "Anatolia" appears first in the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus
+(10th century).
+
+  The greatest length of Asia Minor, as popularly understood, is along
+  its north edge, 720 m. Along the south it is about 650 m. The greatest
+  breadth is 420 m. from _C. Kerembé_ to _C. Anamur_; but at the waist
+  of the peninsula, between the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta and the
+  southernmost bight of the Black Sea (at Ordu), it is not quite 300 m.
+  The greater portion of Asia Minor consists of a plateau rising
+  gradually from east to west, 2500 ft. to 4500 ft.; east of the Kizil
+  Irmak (Halys), the ground rises more sharply to the highlands of
+  Armenia (q.v.). On the south the plateau is buttressed by the Taurus
+  range, which stretches in a broken irregular line from the Aegean to
+  the Persian frontier. On the north the plateau is supported by a range
+  of varying altitude, which follows the southern coast of the Black Sea
+  and has no distinctive name. On the west the edge of the plateau is
+  broken by broad valleys, and the deeply indented coast-line throws out
+  long rocky promontories towards Europe. On the north, excepting the
+  deltas formed by the Kizil and Yeshil Irmaks, there are no
+  considerable coast plains, no good harbours except Sinope and Vona,
+  and no islands. On the west there are narrow coast plains of limited
+  extent, deep gulfs, which offer facilities for trade and commerce, and
+  a fringe of protecting islands. On the south are the isolated plains
+  of Pamphylia and Cilicia, the almost land-locked harbours of
+  Marmarice, Makri and Kekova, the broad bay of Adalia, the deep-seated
+  gulf of Alexandretta (Iskanderun), and the islands of Rhodes with
+  dependencies, Castelorizo and Cyprus.
+
+  _Mountains._--The Taurus range, perhaps the most important feature in
+  Asia Minor, runs the whole length of the peninsula on the south,
+  springing east of Euphrates in the Armeno-Kurdish highlands, and being
+  prolonged into the Aegean Sea by rocky promontories and islands. It
+  attains in Lycia an altitude of 10,500 ft., and in the Bulgar Dagh
+  (Cilicia) of over 10,000 ft. The average elevation is about 7000 ft.
+  East of the Bulgar Dagh the range is pierced by the Sihun and Jihun
+  rivers, and their tributaries, but its continuity is not broken. The
+  principal passes across the range are those over which Roman or
+  Byzantine roads ran:--(1) from Laodicea to Adalia (Attalia), by way of
+  the Khonas pass and the valley of the Istanoz Chai; (2) from Apamea or
+  from Pisidian Antioch to Adalia, by Isbarta and Sagalassus; (3) from
+  Laranda, by Coropissus and the upper valley of the southern
+  Calycadnus, to Germanicopolis and thence to Anemourium or Kelenderis;
+  (4) from Laranda, by the lower Calycadnus, to Claudiopolis and thence
+  to Kelenderis or Seleucia; (5) from Iconium or Caesarea Mazaca,
+  through the Cilician Gates (Gulek Boghaz, 3300 ft.) to Tarsus; (6)
+  from Caesarea to the valley of the Sarus and thence to Flaviopolis on
+  the Cilician Plain; (7) from Caesarea over Anti-Taurus by the Kuru
+  Chai to Cocvsus (Geuksun) and thence to Germanicia (Marash). Large
+  districts on the southern slopes of the Taurus chain are covered with
+  forests of oak and fir, and there are numerous _yailas_ or grassy
+  "alps," with abundant water, to which villagers and nomads move with
+  their flocks during the summer months.
+
+  Anti-Taurus is a term of rather vague and doubtful application, (a)
+  Some have regarded it as meaning the more or less continuous range
+  which buttresses up the central plateau on the north, parallel to the
+  Taurus, (b) Others take it to mean the line of heights and mountain
+  peaks which separates the waters running to the Black Sea and the
+  Anatolian plateau from those falling to the Persian Gulf and the
+  Mediterranean. This has its origin in the high land, near the source
+  of the Kizil Irmak, and thence runs south-west towards the volcanic
+  district of Mt. Argaeus, which, however, can hardly be regarded as
+  orographically one with it. After a low interval it springs up again
+  at its southern extremity in the lofty sharp-peaked ridge of Ala Dagh
+  (11,000 ft.), and finally joins Taurus. (c) South of Sivas a line of
+  bare hills connects this chain with another range of high forest-clad
+  mountains, which loses itself southwards in the main mass of Taurus,
+  and is held to be the true Anti-Taurus by geographers. It throws off,
+  in the latitude of Kaisarieh, a subsidiary range, the Binboa Dagh,
+  which separates the waters of the Sihun from those of the Jihun. The
+  principal passes are those followed by the old roads:--(1) from
+  Sebasteia to Tephrike and the upper valley of the western Euphrates;
+  (2) from Sebasteia to Melitene, by way of the pass of Delikli Tash and
+  the basin of the Tokhma Su; (3) from Caesarea to Arabissus, by the
+  Kuru Chai and the valley of Cocysus (Geuksun). The range of Amanus
+  (Giaour Dagh) is separated from the mass of Taurus by the deep gorge
+  of the Jihun, whence it runs south-south-west to Ras el-Khanzir,
+  forming the limit between Cilicia and Syria, various parts bearing
+  different names, as Elma Dagh above Alexandretta. It attains its
+  greatest altitude in Kaya Duldul (6500 ft.), which rises abruptly from
+  the bed of the Jihun, and it is crossed by two celebrated passes:--(1)
+  the Amanides Pylae (Baghche Pass), through which ran the road from the
+  Cilician Plain to Apamea-Zeugma, on the Euphrates; (2) the Pylae
+  Syriae or "Syrian Gates" (Beilan Pass), through which passed the great
+  Roman highway from Tarsus to Syria. On the western edge of the plateau
+  several short ranges, running approximately east and west, rise above
+  the general level:--Sultan Dagh (6500 ft.); Salbacus-Cadmus (8000
+  ft.); Messogis (3600 ft.); Latmus (6000 ft.); Tmolus (5000 ft.);
+  Dindymus (8200 ft.); Ida (5800 ft.); and the Mysian Olympus (7600
+  ft.). The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and Caicus facilitate
+  communication between the plateau and the Aegean, and the descent to
+  the Sea of Marmora along the valleys of the Tembris and Sangarius
+  presents no difficulties. The northern border range, though not
+  continuous, rises steadily from the west to its culmination in the
+  Galatian Olympus (Ilkaz Dagh), south of Kastamuni. East of the Kizil
+  Irmak there is no single mountain chain, but there are several short
+  ranges with elevations sometimes exceeding 9000 ft. The best routes
+  from the plateau to the Black Sea were followed by the Roman roads
+  from Tavium and Sebasteia to Sinope and Amisus, and those from
+  Sebasteia to Cotyora and Cerasus-Pharnacia, which at first ascend the
+  upper Halys. Several minor ranges rise above the level of the eastern
+  plateau, and in the south groups of volcanic peaks and cones extend
+  for about 150 m. from Kaisarieh (Caesarea) to Karaman. The most
+  important are Mt. Argaeus (Erjish Dagh, 13,100 ft.) above Kaisarieh
+  itself, the highest peak in Asia Minor; Ali Dagh (6200 ft.); Hassan
+  Dagh (8000 ft.); Karaja Dagh; and Kara Dagh (7500 ft.). On the west of
+  the plateau evidences of volcanic activity are to be seen in the
+  district of Kula (Katakekaumene), coated with recent erupted matter,
+  and in the numerous hot springs of the Lycus, Maeander, and other
+  valleys. Earthquakes are frequent all over the peninsula, but
+  especially in the south-east and west, where the Maeander valley and
+  the Gulf of Smyrna are notorious seismic foci. The centre of the
+  plateau is occupied by a vast treeless plain, the _Axylon_ of the
+  Greeks, in which lies a large salt lake, Tuz Geul. The plain is
+  fertile where cultivated, fairly supplied with deep wells, and in many
+  places covered with good pasture. Enclosed between the Taurus and
+  Amanus ranges and the sea are the fertile plains of Cilicia Pedias,
+  consisting in great part of a rich, stoneless loam, out of which rise
+  rocky crags that are crowned with the ruins of Greco-Roman and
+  Armenian strongholds, and of Pamphylia, partly alluvial soil, partly
+  travertine, deposited by the Taurus rivers.
+
+  _Rivers._--The rivers of Asia Minor are of no great importance. Some
+  do not flow directly to the sea; others find their way to the coast
+  through deep rocky gorges, or are mere torrents; and a few only are
+  navigable for boats for short distances from their mouths. They cut so
+  deep into the limestone formation of the plateau as to over-drain it,
+  and often they disappear into swallow holes (_duden_) to reappear
+  lower down. The most important rivers which flow to the Black Sea are
+  the following:--the Boas (Churuk Su) which rises near Baiburt, and
+  flows out near Batum; the Iris (Yeshil Irmak), with its tributaries
+  the Lycus (Kelkit Irmak), which rises on the Armenian plateau, the
+  Chekerek Irmak, which has its source near Yuzgat, and the Tersakan Su;
+  the Halys (Kizil Irmak) is the longest river in Asia Minor, with its
+  tributaries the Delije Irmak (Cappadox), which flows through the
+  eastern part of Galatia, and the Geuk Irmak, which has its sources in
+  the mountains above Kastamuni. With the exception of Sivas, no town
+  of importance lies in the valley of the Kizil Irmak throughout its
+  course of over 600 m. The Sangarius (Sakaria) rises in the Phrygian
+  mountains and, after many changes of direction, falls into the Black
+  Sea, about 80 m. east of the Bosporus. Its tributaries are the Pursak
+  Su (Tembris), which has its source in the Murad Dagh (Dindymus), and,
+  after running north to Eski-shehr, flows almost due east to the
+  Sakaria, and the Enguri Su, which joins the Sakaria a little below the
+  junction of the Pursak. To the Black Sea, about 40 m. east of Eregli,
+  also flows the Billaeus (Filiyas Chai). Into the Sea of Marmora run
+  the Rhyndacus (Edrenos Chai) and the Macestus (Susurlu Chai), which
+  unite about 12 m. from the sea. The most celebrated streams of the
+  Troad are the Granicus (Bigha Chai) and the Scamander (Menderes Su),
+  both rising in Mt. Ida (Kaz Dagh). The former flows to the Sea of
+  Marmora; the latter to the Dardanelles. The most northerly of the
+  rivers that flow to the Aegean is the Caicus (Bakir Chai), which runs
+  past Soma, and near Pergamum, to the Gulf of Chanderli. The Hermus
+  (Gediz Chai) has its principal sources in the Murad Dagh, and,
+  receiving several streams on its way, runs through the volcanic
+  district of Katakekaumene to the broad fertile valley through which it
+  flows past Manisa to the sea, near Lefke. So recently as about 1880 it
+  discharged into the Gulf of Smyrna, but the shoals formed by its
+  silt-laden waters were so obstructive to navigation that it was turned
+  back into its old bed. Its principal tributaries are--the Phrygius
+  (Kum Chai), which receives the waters of the Lycus (Gürduk Chai), and
+  the Cogamus (Kuzu Chai), which in its upper course is separated from
+  the valley of the Maeander by hills that were crossed by the Roman
+  road from Pergamum to Laodicea. The Caystrus (Kuchuk Menderes) flows
+  through a fertile valley between Mt. Tmolus and Messogis to the sea
+  near Ephesus, where its silt has filled up the port. The Maeander
+  (Menderes Chai) takes its rise in a celebrated group of springs near
+  Dineir, and after a winding course enters the broad valley, through
+  which it "meanders" to the sea. Its deposits have long since filled up
+  the harbours of Miletus, and converted the islands which protected
+  them into mounds in a swampy plain. Its principal tributaries are the
+  Glaucus, the Senarus (Banaz Chai), and the Hippurius, on the right
+  bank. On the left bank are the Lycus (Churuk Su), which flows
+  westwards by Colossae through a broad open valley that affords the
+  only natural approach to the eleated plateau, the Harpasus (Ak Chai),
+  and the Marsyas (China Chai). The rivers that flow to the
+  Mediterranean, with two exceptions, rise in Mt. Taurus, and have short
+  courses, but in winter and spring they bring down large bodies of
+  water. In Lycia are the Indus (Gereniz Chai), and the Xanthus (Eshen
+  Chai). The Pamphylian plain is traversed by the Cestrus (Ak Su), the
+  Eurymedon (Keupri Su), and the Melas (Menavgat Chai), which, where it
+  enters the sea, is a broad, deep stream, navigable for about 6 m. The
+  Calycadnus (Geuk Su) has two main branches which join near Mut and
+  flow south-east, and enter the sea, a deep rapid river, about 12 m.
+  below Selefke. The Cydnus (Tersous or Tarsus Chai) is formed by the
+  junction of three streams that rise in Mt. Taurus, and one of these
+  flows through the narrow gorge known as the Cilician Gates. After
+  passing Tarsus, the river enters a marsh which occupies the site of
+  the ancient harbour. The Cydnus is liable to floods, and its deposits
+  have covered Roman Tarsus to a depth of 20 ft. The Sarus (Sihun) is
+  formed by the junction of the Karmalas (Zamanti Su), which rises in
+  Uzun Yaila, and the Sarus (Saris), which has its sources in the hills
+  to the south of the same plateau. The first, after entering Mt.
+  Taurus, flows through a deep chasm walled in by lofty precipices, and
+  is joined in the heart of the range by the Saris. Before reaching the
+  Cilician Plain the river receives the waters of the Kerkhun Su, which
+  cuts through the Bulgar Dagh, and opens a way for the roads from the
+  Cilician Gates to Konia and Kaisarieh. After passing Adana, to which
+  point small craft ascend, the Sihun runs south-west to the sea. There
+  are, however, indications that at one period it flowed south-east to
+  join the Pyramus. The Pyramus (Jihun) has its principal source in a
+  group of large springs near Albistan; but before it enters Mt. Taurus
+  it is joined by the Sogutli Irmak, the Khurman Su and the Geuk Su. The
+  river emerges from Taurus, about 7 m. west of Marash, and here it is
+  joined by the Ak Su, which rises in some small lakes south of Taurus.
+  The Jihun now enters a remarkable defile which separates Taurus from
+  the Giaour Dagh, and reaches the Cilician Plain near Budrun. From this
+  point it flows west, and then south-west past Missis, until it makes a
+  bend to discharge its waters south of Ayas Bay. The river is navigable
+  as far as Missis. The only considerable tributary of the Euphrates
+  which comes within our region is the Tokhma Su, which rises in Uzun
+  Yaila and flows south-east to the main river not far from Malatia. In
+  the central and southern portions of the plateau the streams either
+  flow into salt lakes, where their waters pass off by evaporation, or
+  into freshwater lakes, which have no visible outlets. In the latter
+  cases the waters find their way beneath Taurus in subterranean
+  channels, and reappear as the sources of rivers flowing to the coast.
+  Thus the Ak Geul supplies the Cydnus, and the Beishehr, Egirdir and
+  Kestel lakes feed the rivers of the Pamphylian plain.
+
+  _Lakes._--The salt lakes are Tuz Geul (anc. _Tatta_), which lies in
+  the great central plain, and is about 60 m. long and 10 to 30 m. broad
+  in winter, but in the dry season it is hardly more than a saline
+  marsh; Buldur Geul, 2900 ft. above sea-level; and Aji-tuz Geul, 2600
+  ft. The freshwater lakes are Beishehr Geul (anc. _Karalis_), 3770 ft.,
+  a fine sheet of water 30 m. long, which discharges south-east to the
+  Soghla Geul; Egirdir Geul (probably anc. _Limnae_, a name which
+  included the two bays of Hoiran and Egirdir, forming the lake), 2850
+  ft., which is 30 m. long, but less broad than Beishehr and noted for
+  the abundance and variety of its fish. In the north-west portion of
+  Asia Minor are Isnik Geul (L. Ascania), Abulliont Geul (L. Apollonia),
+  and Maniyas Geul (L. Miletopolis).
+
+  _Springs._--Asia Minor is remarkable for the number of its thermal and
+  mineral springs. The most important are:--Yalova, in the Ismid sanjak;
+  Brusa, Chitli, Terje and Eskishehr, in the Brusa vilayet; Tuzla, in
+  the Karasi; Cheshme, Ilija, Hierapolis (with enormous alum deposits),
+  and Alashehr, in the Aidin; Terzili Hammam and Iskelib in the Angora;
+  Boli in the Kastamuni; and Khavsa, in the Sivas. Many of these were
+  famous in antiquity and occur in a list given by Strabo. The Maeander
+  valley is especially noted for its hot springs.
+
+  _Geology._--The central plateau of Asia Minor consists of nearly
+  horizontal strata, while the surrounding mountain chains form a
+  complex system, in which the beds are intensely folded. Around the
+  coast flat-lying deposits of Tertiary age are found, and these often
+  extend high up into the mountain region. The deposits of the central,
+  or Lycaonian, plateau consist of freshwater marls and limestones of
+  late Tertiary or Neogene age. Along the south-eastern margin, in front
+  of the Taurus, stands a line of great volcanoes, stretching from
+  Kara-Dagh to Argaeus. They are now extinct, but were probably active
+  till the close of the Tertiary period. On its southern side the
+  plateau is bounded by the high chains of the Taurus and the
+  Anti-Taurus, which form a crescent with its convexity facing
+  southwards. Devonian and Carboniferous fossils have been found in
+  several places in the Anti-Taurus. Limestones of Eocene or Cretaceous
+  age form a large part of the Taurus, but the interior zone probably
+  includes rocks of earlier periods. The folding of the Anti-Taurus
+  affects the Eocene but not the Miocene, while in the Taurus the
+  Miocene beds have been elevated, but without much folding, to great
+  heights. North of the Lycaonian plateau lies another zone of folding
+  which may be divided into the East Pontian and West Pontian arcs. In
+  the east a well-defined mountain system runs nearly parallel to the
+  Black Sea coast from Batum to Sinope, forming a gentle curve with its
+  convexity facing southwards. Cretaceous limestones and serpentine take
+  a large part in the formation of these mountains, while even the
+  Oligocene is involved in the folds. West of Sinope Cretaceous beds
+  form a long strip parallel to the shore line. Carboniferous rocks
+  occur at Eregli (Heraclea Pontica), where they have been worked for
+  coal. Devonian fossils have been found near the Bosporus and
+  Carboniferous fossils at Balia Maden in Mysia. Triassic, Jurassic and
+  Cretaceous beds form a band south of the Sea of Marmora, probably the
+  continuation of the Mesozoic band of the Black Sea coast. Farther
+  south there are zones of serpentine, and of crystalline and schistose
+  rocks, some of which are probably Palaeozoic. The direction of the
+  folds of this region is from west to east, but on the borders of
+  Phrygia and Mysia they meet the north-westerly extension of the Taurus
+  folds and bend around the ancient mass of Lydia. Marine Eocene beds
+  occur near the Dardanelles, but the Tertiary deposits of this part of
+  Asia Minor are mostly freshwater and belong to the upper part of the
+  system. In western Mysia they are much disturbed, but in eastern Mysia
+  they are nearly horizontal. They are often accompanied by volcanic
+  rocks, which are mainly andesitic, and they commonly lie unconformably
+  upon the older beds. In the western part of Asia Minor there are
+  several areas of ancient rocks about which very little is known. The
+  Taurus folds here meet another system which enters the region from the
+  Aegean Sea.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is varied, but systematic observations are
+  wanting. On the plateau the winter is long and cold, and in the
+  northern districts there is much snow. The summer is very hot, but the
+  nights are usually cool. On the north coast the winter is cold, and
+  the winds, sweeping across the Black Sea from the steppes of Russia,
+  are accompanied by torrents of rain and heavy falls of snow. East of
+  Samsun, where the coast is partially protected by the Caucasus, the
+  climate is more moderate. In summer the heat is damp and enervating,
+  and, as Trebizond is approached, the vegetation becomes almost
+  subtropical. On the south coast the winter is mild, with occasional
+  frosts and heavy rain; the summer heat is very great. On the west
+  coast the climate is moderate, but the influence of the cold north
+  winds is felt as far south as Smyrna, and the winter at that place is
+  colder than in corresponding latitudes in Europe. A great feature of
+  summer is the _inbat_ or north wind, which blows almost daily, often
+  with the force of a gale, off the sea from noon till near sunset.
+
+  _Products, &c._--The mineral wealth of Asia Minor is very great, but
+  few mines have yet been opened. The minerals known to exist are--alum,
+  antimony, arsenic, asbestos, boracide, chrome, coal, copper, emery,
+  fuller's earth, gold, iron, kaolin, lead, lignite, magnetic iron,
+  manganese, meerschaum, mercury, nickel, rock-salt, silver, sulphur and
+  zinc. The vegetation varies with the climate, soil and elevation. The
+  mountains on the north coast are clothed with dense forests of pine,
+  fir, cedar, oak, beech, &c. On the Taurus range the forests are
+  smaller, and there is a larger proportion of pine. On the west coast
+  the ilex, plane, oak, valonia oak, and pine predominate. On the
+  plateau willows, poplars and chestnut trees grow near the streams,
+  but nine-tenths of the country is treeless, except for scrub. On the
+  south and west coasts the fig and olive are largely cultivated. The
+  vine yields rich produce everywhere, except in the higher districts.
+  The apple, pear, cherry and plum thrive well in the north; the orange,
+  lemon, citron and sugar-cane in the south; styrax and mastic in the
+  south-west; and the wheat lands of the Sivas vilayet can hardly be
+  surpassed. The most important vegetable productions are--cereals,
+  cotton, gum tragacanth, liquorice, olive oil, opium, rice, saffron,
+  salep, tobacco and yellow berries. Silk is produced in large
+  quantities in the vicinity of Brusa and Amasia, and mohair from the
+  Angora goat all over the plateau. The wild animals include bear, boar,
+  chamois, fallow red and roe deer, gazelle, hyena, ibex, jackal,
+  leopard, lynx, moufflon, panther, wild sheep and wolf. The native
+  reports of a maneless lion in Lycia (_arslan_) are probably based on
+  the existence of large panthers. Amongst the domestic animals are the
+  buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel, bred from a Bactrian sire
+  and Syrian mother. Large numbers of sheep and Angora goats are reared
+  on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on the Uzun Yaila; but no
+  effort is made to improve the quality of the wool and mohair or the
+  breed of horses. Good mules can be obtained in several districts, and
+  small hardy oxen are largely bred for ploughing and transport. The
+  larger birds are the bittern, great and small bustard, eagle,
+  francolin, goose; giant, grey and red-legged partridge, sand grouse,
+  pelican, pheasant, stork and swan. The rivers and lakes are well
+  supplied with fish, and the mountain streams abound with small trout.
+
+  The principal manufactures are:--Carpets, rugs, cotton, tobacco,
+  mohair and silk stuffs, soap, wine and leather. The exports
+  are:--Cereal, cotton, cotton seed, dried fruits, drugs, fruit, gall
+  nuts, gum tragacanth, liquorice root, maize, nuts, olive oil, opium,
+  rice, sesame, sponges, storax, timber, tobacco, valonia, walnut wood,
+  wine, yellow berries, carpets, cotton yarn, cocoons, hides, leather,
+  mohair, silk, silk stuffs, rugs, wax, wool, leeches, live stock,
+  minerals, &c. The imports are:--Coffee, cotton cloths, cotton goods,
+  crockery, dry-salteries, fezzes, glass-ware, haberdashery, hardware,
+  henna, ironware, jute, linen goods, manufactured goods, matches,
+  petroleum, salt, sugar, woollen goods, yarns, &c.
+
+  _Communications._--There are few metalled roads, and those that exist
+  are in bad repair, but on the plateau light carts can pass nearly
+  everywhere. The lines of railway now open are:--(1) From Haidar Pasha
+  to Ismid, Eski-shehr and Angora; (2) from Mudania to Brusa; (3) from
+  Eski-shehr to Afium-Kara-hissar, Konia and Bulgurli, east of Eregli
+  (the first section of the Bagdad railway). These lines are worked by
+  the German _Gesellschaft der anatolischen Eisenbahnen_. (4) From
+  Smyrna to Manisa, Ala-shehr and Afium-Kara-hissar, with a branch line
+  from Manisa to Soma. This line is worked by a French company. (5) From
+  Smyrna to Aidin and Dineir, with branches to Odemish, Tireh, Sokia,
+  Denizli, Ishekli, Seidi Keui and Bouja, constructed and worked by an
+  English company. (6) From Mersina to Tarsus and Adana, an English line
+  under a control mainly French. There are two competing routes for the
+  eastern trade--one running inland from Constantinople (Haidar Pasha),
+  the other from Smyrna. The first is connected by ferry with the
+  European railway system; the second with the great sea routes from
+  Smyrna to Trieste, Marseilles and Liverpool. The right to construct
+  all railways in Armenia and north-eastern Asia Minor has been conceded
+  to Russia, and the Germans have a virtual monopoly of the central
+  plateau.
+
+_Ethnology._--None of the conquering races that invaded Asia Minor,
+whether from the east or from the west, wholly expelled or exterminated
+the race in possession. The vanquished retired to the hills or absorbed
+the victors. In the course of ages race distinction has been almost
+obliterated by fusion of blood; by the complete Hellenization of the
+country, which followed the introduction of Christianity; by the later
+acceptance of Islam; and by migrations due to the occupation of
+cultivated lands by the nomads. It will be convenient here to adopt the
+modern division into Moslems, Christians and Jews:--(a) _Moslems._ The
+Turks never established themselves in such numbers as to form the
+predominant element in the population. Where the land was unsuitable for
+nomad occupation the agricultural population remained, and it still
+retains some of its original characteristics. Thus in Cappadocia the
+facial type of the non-Aryan race is common, and in Galatia there are
+traces of Gallic blood. The Zeibeks of the west and south-west are
+apparently representatives of the Carians and Lycians; and the peasants
+of the Black Sea coast range of the people of Bithynia, Paphlagonia and
+Pontus. Wherever the people accepted Islam they called themselves Turks,
+and a majority of the so-called "Turks" belong by blood to the races
+that occupied Asia Minor before the Seljuk invasion. Turkish and
+Zaza-speaking Kurds (see KURDISTAN) are found in the Angora and Sivas
+vilayets. There are many large colonies of Circassians and smaller ones
+of Noghai (Nogais), Tatars, Georgians, Lazis, Cossacks, Albanians and
+Pomaks. East of Boghaz Keui there is a compact population of Kizilbash,
+who are partly descendants of Shia Turks transplanted from Persia and
+partly of the indigenous race. In the Cilician plain there are large
+settlements of Nosairis who have migrated from the Syrian mountains (see
+SYRIA). The nomads and semi-nomads are, for the most part,
+representatives of the Turks, Mongols and Tatars who poured into the
+country during the 350 years that followed the defeat of Romanus.
+Turkomans are found in the Angora and Adana vilayets; Avshars, a tribe
+of Turkish origin, in the valleys of Anti-Taurus; and Tatars in the
+Angora and Brusa vilayets; Yuruks are most numerous in the Konia
+vilayet. They speak Turkish and profess to be Moslems, but have no
+mosques or imams. The Turkomans have villages in which they spend the
+winter, wandering over the great plains of the interior with their
+flocks and herds during the summer. The Yuruks on the contrary are a
+truly nomad race. Their tents are made of black goats' hair and their
+principal covering is a cloak of the same material. They are not limited
+to the milder districts of the interior, but when the harvest is over,
+descend into the rich plains and valleys near the coast. The Chepmi and
+Takhtaji, who live chiefly in the Aidin vilayet, appear to be derived
+from one of the early races. (b) _Christians._ The Greeks are in places
+the descendants of colonists from Greece, many of whom, e.g. in
+Pamphylia and the Smyrna district, are of very recent importation; but
+most of them belong by blood to the indigenous races. These people
+became "Greeks" as being subjects of the Byzantine empire and members of
+the Eastern Church. On the west coast, in Pontus and to some extent of
+late in Cappadocia, and in the mining villages, peopled from the
+Trebizond Greeks, the language is Romaic; on the south coast and in many
+inland villages (e.g. in Cappadocia) it is either Turkish, which is
+written in Greek characters, or a Greco-Turkish jargon. In and near
+Smyrna there are large colonies of Hellenes. Armenians are most numerous
+in the eastern districts, where they have been settled since the great
+migration that preceded and followed the Seljuk invasion. There are,
+however, Armenians in every large town. In central and western Asia
+Minor they are the descendants of colonists from Persia and Armenia (see
+ARMENIA), (c) The _Jews_ live chiefly on the Bosporus; and in Smyrna,
+Rhodes, Brusa and other western towns. _Gypsies_--some Moslem, some
+Christian--are also numerous, especially in the south.
+
+_History._--Asia Minor owes the peculiar interest of its history to its
+geographical position. "Planted like a bridge between Asia and Europe,"
+it has been from the earliest period a battleground between the East and
+the West. The central plateau (2500 to 4500 ft.), with no navigable
+river and few natural approaches, with its monotonous scenery and severe
+climate, is a continuation of central Asia. The west coast, with its
+alternation of sea and promontory, of rugged mountains and fertile
+valleys, its bright and varied scenery, and its fine climate, is almost
+a part of Europe. These conditions are unfavourable to permanence, and
+the history of Asia Minor is that of the march of hostile armies, and
+rise and fall of small states, rather than that of a united state under
+an independent sovereign. At a very early period Asia Minor appears to
+have been occupied by non-Aryan tribes or races which differed little
+from each other in religion, language and social system. During the past
+generation much light has been thrown upon one of these races--the
+"Hittites" or "Syro-Cappadocians," who, after their rule had passed
+away, were known to Herodotus as "White Syrians," and whose descendants
+can still be recognised in the villages of Cappadocia.[1] The centre of
+their power is supposed to have been Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA), east of
+the Halys, whence roads radiated to harbours on the Aegean, to Sinope,
+to northern Syria and to the Cilician plain. Their strange sculptures
+and inscriptions have been found at Pteria, Euyuk, Fraktin, Kiz Hissar
+(Tyana), Ivriz, Bulgar, Muden and other places between Smyrna and the
+Euphrates (see HITTITES). When the great Aryan immigration from Europe
+commenced is unknown, but it was dying out in the 11th and 10th
+centuries B.C. In Phrygia the Aryans founded a kingdom, of which traces
+remain in various rock tombs, forts and towns, and in legends preserved
+by the Greeks. The Phrygian power was broken in the 9th or 8th century
+B.C. by the Cimmerii, who entered Asia Minor through Armenia; and on its
+decline rose the kingdom of Lydia, with its centre at Sardis. A second
+Cimmerian invasion almost destroyed the rising kingdom, but the invaders
+were expelled at last by Alyattes, 617 B.C. (see SCYTHIA). The last
+king, Croesus (? 560-546 B.C.) carried the boundaries of Lydia to the
+Halys, and subdued the Greek colonies on the coast. The date of the
+foundation of these colonies cannot be fixed; but at an early period
+they formed a chain of settlements from Trebizond to Rhodes, and by the
+8th century B.C. some of them rivalled the splendour of Tyre and Sidon.
+Too jealous of each other to combine, and too demoralized by luxury to
+resist, they fell an easy prey to Lydia; and when the Lydian kingdom
+ended with the capture of Sardis by Cyrus, 546 B.C. they passed, almost
+without resistance, to Persia. Under Persian rule Asia Minor was divided
+into four satrapies, but the Greek cities were governed by Greeks, and
+several of the tribes in the interior retained their native princes and
+priest-dynasts. An attempt of the Greeks to regain their freedom was
+crushed, 500-494 B.C., but later the tide turned and the cities were
+combined with European Greeks into a league for defence against the
+Persians. The weakness of Persian rule was disclosed by the expedition
+of Cyrus and the Ten Thousand Greeks, 402 B.C.; and in the following
+century Asia Minor was invaded by Alexander the Great (q.v.), 334 B.C.
+(See GREECE; PERSIA; IONIA.)
+
+The wars which followed the death of Alexander eventually gave Asia
+Minor to Seleucus, but none of the Seleucid kings was able to establish
+his rule over the whole peninsula. Rhodes became a great maritime
+republic, and much of the south and west coast belonged at one time or
+another to the Ptolemies of Egypt. An independent kingdom was founded at
+Pergamum, 283 B.C., which lasted until Attalus III., 133 B.C., made the
+Romans his heirs. Bithynia became an independent monarchy, and
+Cappadocia and Paphlagonia tributary provinces under native princes. In
+southern Asia Minor the Seleucids founded Antioch, Apamea, Attalia, the
+Laodiceas and Seleuceias, and other cities as centres of commerce, some
+of which afterwards played an important part in the Hellenization (see
+HELLENISM) of the country, and in the spread of Christianity. During the
+3rd century, 278-277 B.C., certain Gallic tribes crossed the Bosporus
+and Hellespont, and established a Celtic power in central Asia Minor.
+They were confined by the victories of Attalus I. of Pergamum, c. 232
+B.C., to a district on the Sangarius and Halys to which the name Galatia
+was applied; and after their defeat by Manlius, 189 B.C., they were
+subjected to the suzerainty of Pergamum (see GALATIA).
+
+The defeat of Antiochus the Great at Magnesia, 190 B.C., placed Asia
+Minor at the mercy of Rome; but it was not until 133 that the first
+Roman province, Asia, was formed to include only western Anatolia,
+without Bithynia. Errors in policy and in government facilitated the
+rise of Pontus into a formidable power under Mithradates, who was
+finally driven out of the country by Pompey, and died 63 B.C. Under the
+settlement of Asia Minor by Pompey, Bithynia-Pontus and Cilicia became
+provinces, whilst Galatia and Cappadocia were allowed to retain nominal
+independence for over half a century more under native kings, and Lycia
+continued an autonomous League. A long period of tranquillity followed,
+during which the Roman dominion grew, and all Asia Minor was divided
+into two provinces. The boundaries were often changed; and about A.D.
+297, in Diocletian's reorganization of the empire, the power of the
+great military commands was broken, and the provinces were made smaller
+and united in groups called dioceses. A great change followed the
+introduction of Christianity, which spread first along the main roads
+that ran north and west from the Cilician Gates, and especially along
+the great trade route to Ephesus. In some districts it spread rapidly,
+in others slowly. With its advance the native languages and old
+religions gradually disappeared, and at last the whole country was
+thoroughly Hellenized, and the people united by identity of language and
+religion.
+
+At the close of the 6th century Asia Minor had become wealthy and
+prosperous; but centuries of peace and over-centralization had affected
+the _moral_ of the people and weakened the central government. During
+the 7th century the provincial system broke down, and the country was
+divided into _themes_ or military districts. From 616 to 626 Persian
+armies swept unimpeded over the land, and Chosroes (Khosrau) II. pitched
+his camp on the shore of the Bosporus. The victories of Heraclius forced
+Chosroes to retire; but the Persians were followed by the Arabs, who,
+advancing with equal ease, laid siege to Constantinople, A.D. 668. It
+almost appeared as if Asia Minor would be annexed to the dominion of the
+Caliph. But the tide of conquest was stemmed by the iconoclast emperors,
+and the Arab expeditions, excepting those of Harun al-Rashid, 781 and
+806, and of el-Motasim, 838, became simply predatory raids. In the 10th
+century the Arabs were expelled. They never held more than the districts
+along the main roads, and in the intervals of peace the country rapidly
+recovered itself. But a more dangerous enemy was soon to appear on the
+eastern border.
+
+In 1067 the Seljuk Turks ravaged Cappadocia and Cilicia; in 1071 they
+defeated and captured the emperor Romanus Diogenes, and in 1080 they
+took Nicaea. One branch of the Seljuks founded the empire of Rum, with
+its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium. The empire, which at
+one time included nearly the whole of Asia Minor, with portions of
+Armenia and Syria, passed to the Mongols when they defeated the sultan
+of Rum in 1243, and the sultans became vassals of the Great Khan. The
+Seljuk sultans were liberal patrons of art, literature and science, and
+the remains of their public buildings and tombs are amongst the most
+beautiful and most interesting in the country. The marches of the
+Crusaders across Asia Minor left no permanent impression. But the
+support given by the Latin princes to the Armenians in Cilicia
+facilitated the growth of the small warlike state of Lesser Armenia,
+which fell in 1375 with the defeat and capture of Leo VI. by the
+Mameluke sultan of Egypt. The Mongols were too weak to govern the
+country they had conquered, and the vassalage of the last sultan of Rum,
+who died in 1307, was only nominal. On his death the Turkoman governors
+of his western provinces drove out the Mongols and asserted their
+independence. A contest for supremacy followed, which eventually ended
+in favour of the Osmanli Turks of Brusa. In 1400 Sultan Bayezid I. held
+all Asia Minor west of the Euphrates; but in 1402 he was defeated and
+made prisoner by Timur, who swept through the country to the shores of
+the Aegean. On the death of Timur Osmanli supremacy was re-established
+after a prolonged straggle, which ended with the annexation by Mahommed
+II. (1451-1481) of Karamania and Trebizond, and the abandonment of the
+last of the Italian trading settlements which had studded the coast
+during the 13th and 14th centuries. The later history of Asia Minor is
+that of the Turkish empire. The most important event was the advance
+(1832-1833) of an Egyptian army, under Ibrahim Pasha, through the
+Cilician Gates to Konia and Kutaiah.
+
+The defeat of the emperor Romanus (1071) initiated a change in the
+condition of Asia Minor which was to be complete and lasting. A long
+succession of nomad Turkish tribes, pressing forward from central Asia,
+wandered over the rich country in search of fresh pastures for their
+flocks and herds. They did not plunder or ill-treat the people, but they
+cared nothing for town life or for agricultural pursuits, and as they
+passed onward they left the country bare. Large districts passed out of
+cultivation and were abandoned to the nomads, who replaced wheeled
+traffic by the pack horse and the camel. The peasants either became
+nomads themselves or took refuge in the towns or the mountains. The
+Mongols, as they advanced, sacked towns and laid waste the agricultural
+lands. Timur conducted his campaigns with a ruthless disregard of life
+and property. Entire Christian communities were massacred, flourishing
+towns were completely destroyed, and all Asia Minor was ravaged. From
+these disasters the country never recovered, and the last traces of
+Western civilization disappeared with the enforced use of the Turkish
+language and the wholesale conversions to Islam under the earliest
+Osmanli sultans. The recent large increase of the Greek population in
+the western districts, the construction of railways, and the growing
+interests of Germany and Russia on the plateau seem, however, to
+indicate that the tide is again turning in favour of the West.
+
+[Illustration: Asia Minor map.]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--1. GENERAL AUTHORITIES:--C. Texier, _Asie Mineure_
+  (1843); P. Tchihatcheff, _Asie Mineure_ (1853-1860); C. Ritter,
+  _Erdkunde_, vols. xviii. xix. (1858-1859); W.J. Hamilton, _Researches
+  in Asia Minor_ (1843); E. Reclus. _Nouv. Géog. Univ._ vol. ix. (1884);
+  V. Cuinet, _La Turquie d'Asie_ (1890); W.M. Ramsay, _Hist. Geog. of A.
+  M._ (1890); Murray's _Handbook for A. M. &c._, ed. by Sir C. Wilson
+  (1895). For GEOLOGY see Tchihatcheff, _Asie Mineure, Géologie_ (Paris,
+  1867-1869); Schaffer, _Cilicia, Peterm. Mitt. Ergänzungsheft_, 141
+  (1903); Philippson, _Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss._ (1903), pp.
+  112-124; English, _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (London, 1904), pp.
+  243-295; see also Suess, _Das Antlitz der Erde_, vol. iii. pp.
+  402-412, and the accompanying references.
+
+  2. A. _Western Asia Minor._--J. Spon and G. Wheler, _Voyage du Levant_
+  (1679); P. de Tournefort, _Voyage du Levant_ (1718); F. Beaufort,
+  _Ionian Antiquities_ (1811); R. Chandler, _Travels_ (1817); W.M.
+  Leake, _Journal of a Tour in A. M._ (1820); F.V.J. Arundell, _Visit to
+  the Seven Churches_ (1828), and _Discoveries, &c._ (1834); C. Fellows,
+  _Excursion in A. M._ (1839); C.T. Newton, _Travels_ (1867), and
+  _Discoveries at Halicarnassus, &c._ (1863); Dilettanti Society,
+  _Ionian Antiquities_ (1769-1840); J.R.S. Sterrett, _Epigr. Journey_
+  and _Wolfe Exped._ (Papers, Amer. Arch. Inst. ii. iii.) (1888); J.H.
+  Skene, _Anadol_ (1853); G. Radet, _Lydie_ (1893); O. Rayet and A.
+  Thomas, _Milet et le Golfe Latmique_ (1872); K. Buresch, _Aus Lydien_
+  (1898); W.M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_ (1895), and
+  _Impressions of Turkey_ (1898).
+
+  B. _Eastern Asia Minor._--W.F. Ainsworth, _Travels in A. M._ (1842);
+  G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, _Expl. arch, de la Galatie_ (1862-1872);
+  E.J. Davis, _Anatolica_ (1874); H.F. Tozer, _Turkish Armenia_ (1881);
+  H.J. v. Lennep, _Travels_ (1870); D.G. Hogarth, _Wandering Scholar_
+  (1896); Lord Warkworth, _Notes of a Diary, &c._ (1898); E. Sarre,
+  _Reise_ (1896); D.G. Hogarth and J.A.R. Munro, _Mod. and Anc. Roads_
+  (R.G.S. Supp. Papers iii.) (1893); H.C. Barkley, _A Ride through A. M.
+  and Armenia_ (1891); M. Sykes, _Dar ul-Islam_ (1904); E. Chantre,
+  _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898).
+
+  C. _Southern Asia Minor._--F. Beaufort, _Karamania_ (1817); C.
+  Fellows, _Discoveries in Lycia_ (1841); T.A.B. Spratt and E. Forbes,
+  _Travels in Lycia_ (1847); V. Langlois, _Voy. dans la Cilicie_ (1861);
+  E.J. Davis, _Life in Asiatic Turkey_ (1879); O. Benndorf and E.
+  Niemann, _Lykien_ (1884); C. Lanckoronski, _Villes de la Pamphylie et
+  de la Pisidie_ (1890); F. v. Luschan, _Reisen in S.W. Kleinasien_
+  (1888); E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, _Lykien_ (1889); K. Humann and
+  O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien_ (1890).
+
+  D. _Northern Asia Minor._--J.M. Kinneir, _Journey through A. M._
+  (1818); J.G.C. Anderson and F. Cumont, _Studia Pontica_ (1903); E.
+  Naumann, _Vom Goldenen Horn, &c._ (1893).
+
+  See also G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, _Hist. de l'art dans l'antiquité_,
+  vols. iv. v. (1886-1890); J. Strzygowski, _Kleinasien, &c._ (1903).
+  Also numerous articles in all leading archaeological periodicals, the
+  _Geographical Journal_, _Deutsche Rundschau_, _Petermann's Geog.
+  Mitteilungen_, &c. &c.
+
+  3. MAPS.--H. Kiepert, _Nouv. carte gén. des prov. asiat. de l'Emp.
+  ottoman_ (1894), and _Spezialkarte v. Westkleinasien_ (1890); W. von
+  Diest, _Karte des Nordwestkleinasien_ (1901); R. Kiepert, _Karte von
+  Kleinasien_ (1901); E. Friederich, _Handels- und Produktenkarte von
+  Kleinasien_ (1898); J.G.C. Anderson, _Asia Minor_ (Murray's Handy
+  Class. Maps) (1903).     (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The people, Moslem and Christian, are physically one and appear
+    to be closely related to the modern Armenians. This relationship is
+    noticeable in other districts, and the whole original population of
+    Asia Minor has been characterized as Proto-Armenian or Armenoid.
+
+
+
+
+ASIENTO, or ASSIENTO (from the verb _asentar_, to place, or establish),
+a Spanish word meaning a farm of the taxes, or contract. The farmer or
+contractor is called an _asentista_. The word acquired a considerable
+notoriety in English and American history, on account of the "Asiento
+Treaty" of 1713. Until 1702 the Spanish government had given the
+contract for the supply of negroes to its colonies in America to the
+Genoese. But after the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in 1700, a
+French company was formed which received the exclusive privilege of the
+Spanish-American slave trade for ten years--from September 1702 to 1712.
+When the peace of Utrecht was signed the British government insisted
+that the monopoly should be given to its own subjects. By the terms of
+the Asiento treaty signed on the 16th of March 1713, it was provided
+that British subjects should be authorized to introduce 144,000 slaves
+in the course of thirty years, at the rate of 4800 per annum. The
+privilege was to expire on the 1st of May 1743. British subjects were
+also authorized to send one ship of 500 tons per annum, laden with
+manufactured goods, to the fairs of Porto Bello and La Vera Cruz. Import
+duties were to be paid for the slaves and goods. This privilege was
+conveyed by the British government to the South Sea Company, formed to
+work it. The privilege, to which an exaggerated value was attached,
+formed the solid basis of the notorious fit of speculative fever called
+the South Sea Bubble. Until 1739 the trade in blacks went on without
+interruption, but amid increasingly angry disputes between the Spanish
+and the British governments. The right to send a single trading ship to
+the fairs of Porto Bello or La Vera Cruz was abused. Under pretence of
+renewing her provisions she was followed by tenders which in fact
+carried goods. Thus there arose what was in fact a vast contraband
+trade. The Spanish government established a service of revenue boats
+(_guarda costas_) which insisted on searching all English vessels
+approaching the shores of the Spanish colonies. There can be no doubt
+that the smugglers were guilty of many piratical excesses, and that the
+_guarda costas_ often acted with violence on mere suspicion. After many
+disputes, in which the claims of the British government were met by
+Spanish counterclaims, war ensued in 1739. When peace was made at
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 Spain undertook to allow the asiento to be
+renewed for the four years which were to run when war broke out in 1739.
+But the renewal for so short a period was not considered advantageous,
+and by the treaty of El Retiro of 1750, the British government agreed to
+the recession of the Asiento treaty altogether on the payment by Spain
+of Ł100,000.
+
+  A very convenient account of the Asiento Treaty, and of the trade
+  which arose under it, will be found in Malachy Postlethwayt's
+  _Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce_ (London, 1751), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+ASIR, a district in western Arabia, lying between 17° 30' and 21° N.,
+and 40° 30' and 45° E.; bounded N. by Hejaz, E. by Nejd, S. by Yemen and
+W. by the Red Sea. Like Yemen, it consists of a lowland zone some 20 or
+30 m. in width along the coast, and of a mountainous tract, falling
+steeply on the west and merging into a highland plateau which slopes
+gradually to the N.E. towards the Nejd steppes. Its length along the
+coast is about 230 m., and its breadth from the coast to El Besha about
+180. The lowland, or Tehama, is hot and barren; the principal places in
+it are Kanfuda, the chief port of the district, Marsa Hali and El Itwad,
+smaller ports farther south. The mountainous tract has probably an
+average altitude of between 6000 and 7000 ft., with a temperate climate
+and regular rainfall, and is fertile and populous. The valleys are well
+watered and produce excellent crops of cereals and dates. The best-known
+are the Wadi Taraba and the W. Besha, both running north-east towards
+the W. Dawasir in Nejd. Taraba, according to John Lewis Burckhardt, is a
+considerable town, surrounded by palm groves and gardens, and watered by
+numerous rivulets, and tamous for its long resistance to Mehemet Ali's
+forces in 1815. Five or six days' journey to the south-east is the
+district of Besha, the most important position between Sana and Taif.
+Here Mehemet Ali's army, amounting to 12,000 men, found sufficient
+provisions to supply it during a fortnight's halt. The Wadi Besha is a
+broad valley abounding with streams containing numerous hamlets
+scattered over a tract some six or eight hours' journey in length. Its
+principal affluent, the W. Shahran, rises 120 m. to the south and runs
+through the fertile district of Khamis Mishet, the highest in Asir. The
+Zahran district lies four days west of Besha on the crest of the main
+range: the principal place is Makhwa, a large town and market, from
+which grain is exported in considerable quantities to Mecca. Farther
+south is the district of Shamran. Throughout the mountainous country the
+valleys are well watered and cultivated, with fortified villages perched
+on the surrounding heights. Juniper forests are said to exist on the
+higher mountains. Three or four days' journey east and south-east of
+Besha are the encampments of the Bani Kahtan, one of the most ancient
+tribes of Arabia; their pastures extend into the adjoining district of
+Nejd, where they breed camels in large numbers, as well as a few horses.
+
+The inhabitants are a brave and warlike race of mountaineers, and aided
+by the natural strength of their country they have hitherto preserved
+their independence. Since the beginning of the 19th century they have
+been bigoted Wahhabis, though previously regarded by their neighbours as
+very lax Mahommedans; during Mehemet Ali's occupation of Nejd their
+constant raids on the Egyptian communications compelled him to send
+several punitive expeditions into the district, which, however, met with
+little success. Since the reconquest of Yemen by the Turks, they have
+made repeated attempts to subjugate Asir, but beyond occupying Kanfuda,
+and holding one or two isolated points in the interior, of which Ibha
+and Manadir are the principal, they have effected nothing.
+
+The chief sources of information regarding Asir are the notes made by
+J.L. Burckhardt at Taif in 1814 and those of the French officers with
+the Egyptian expeditions into the country from 1814 to 1837. No part of
+Arabia would better repay exploration.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829); F.
+  Mengin, _Histoire de l'Égypte_, &c. (Paris, 1823); M.O. Tamisier,
+  _Voyage en Arabie_ (Paris, 1840).     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+
+
+ASISIUM (mod. _Assisi_), an ancient town of Umbria, in a lofty situation
+about 15 m. E.S.E. of Perusia. As an independent community it had
+already begun to use Latin as well as Umbrian in its inscriptions (for
+one of these recording the chief magistrates--_marones_--see _C.I.L._
+xi. 5390). It became a _municipium_ in 90 B.C., but, though numerous
+inscriptions (_C.I.L._ xi. 5371-5606) testify to its importance in the
+Imperial period, it is hardly mentioned by our classical authorities.
+Scanty traces of the ancient city walls may be seen; within the town the
+best-preserved building is the so-called temple of Minerva, with six
+Corinthian columns of travertine, now converted into a church, erected
+by Gaius and Titus Caesius in the Augustan era. It fronted on to the
+ancient forum, part of the pavement of which, with a base for the
+equestrian statues of Castor and Pollux (as the inscription upon it
+records) has been laid bare beneath the present Piazza Vittorio
+Emanuele. The remains of the amphitheatre, in _opus reticulatum_, may be
+seen in the north-east corner of the town; and other ancient buildings
+have been discovered. Asisium was probably the birthplace of Propertius.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+ASKABAD, or ASKHABAD, a town of Russian central Asia, capital of the
+Transcaspian province, 345 m. by rail S.E. of Krasnovodsk and 594 from
+Samarkand, situated in a small oasis at the N. foot of the Kopet-dagh
+range. It has a public library and a technical railway school; also
+cotton-cleaning works, tanneries, brick-works, and a mineral-water
+factory. The trade is valued at Ł250,000 a year. The population, 2500 in
+1881, when the Russians seized it, was 19,428 in 1897, one-third
+Persians, many of them belonging to the Babi sect.
+
+
+
+
+ASKAULES (Gr. [Greek: askaulaes] [?] from [Greek: askos], bag, [Greek:
+aulos], pipe), probably the Greek word for bag-piper, although there is
+no documentary authority for its use. Neither it nor [Greek: askaulos]
+(which would naturally mean the bag-pipe) has been found in Greek
+classical authors, though J.J. Reiske--in a note on Dio Chrysostom,
+_Orat._ lxxi. _ad fin._, where an unmistakable description of the
+bag-pipe occurs ("and they say that he is skilled to write, to work as
+an artist, and to play the pipe with his mouth, on the bag placed under
+his arm-pits")--says that [Greek: askaulaes] was the Greek word for
+bag-piper. The only actual corroboration of this is the use of
+_ascaules_ for the pure Latin _utricularius_ in Martial x. 3. 8. Dio
+Chrysostom flourished about A.D. 100; it is therefore only an assumption
+that the bag-pipe was known to the classical Greeks by the name of
+[Greek: askaulos]. It need not, however, be a matter of surprise that
+among the highly cultured Greeks such an instrument as the bag-pipe
+should exist without finding a place in literature. It is significant
+that it is not mentioned by Pollux (_Onomast._ iv. 74) and Athenaeus
+(_Deipnos._ iv. 76) in their lists of the various kinds of pipes.
+
+  See articles AULOS and BAG-PIPE; art. "Askaules" in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+ASKE, ROBERT (d. 1537), English rebel, was a country gentleman who
+belonged to an ancient family long settled in Yorkshire, his mother
+being a daughter of John, Lord Clifford. When in 1536 the insurrection
+called the "Pilgrimage of Grace" broke out in Yorkshire, Aske was made
+leader; and marching with the banner of St Cuthbert and with the badge
+of the "five wounds," he occupied York on the 16th of October and on the
+20th captured Pontefract Castle, with Lord Darcy and the archbishop of
+York, who took the oath of the rebels. He caused the monks and nuns to
+be reinstated, and refused to allow the king's herald to read the royal
+proclamation, announcing his intention of marching to London to declare
+the grievances of the commons to the sovereign himself, secure the
+expulsion of counsellors of low birth, and obtain restitution for the
+church. The whole country was soon in the hands of the rebels, a
+military organization with posts from Newcastle to Hull was established,
+and Hull was provided with cannon. Subsequently Aske, followed by 30,000
+or 40,000 men, proceeded towards Doncaster, where lay the duke of
+Norfolk with the royal forces, which, inferior in numbers, would
+probably have been overwhelmed had not Aske persuaded his followers to
+accept the king's pardon, and the promise of a parliament at York and to
+disband. Soon afterwards he received a letter from the king desiring him
+to come secretly to London to inform him of the causes of the rebellion.
+Aske went under the guarantee of a safe-conduct and was well received by
+Henry. He put in writing a full account of the rising and of his own
+share in it; and, fully persuaded of the king's good intentions,
+returned home on the 8th of January 1537, bringing with him promises of
+a visit from the king to Yorkshire, of the holding of a parliament at
+York, and of free elections. Shortly afterwards he wrote to the king
+warning him of the still unquiet state not only of the north but of the
+midlands, and stating his fear that more bloodshed was impending. The
+same month he received the king's thanks for his action in pacifying Sir
+Francis Bigod's rising. But his position was now a difficult and a
+perilous one, and a few weeks later the attitude of the government
+towards him was suddenly changed. The new rising had given the court an
+excuse for breaking off the treaty and sending another army under
+Norfolk into Yorkshire. Possibly in these fresh circumstances Aske may
+have given cause for further suspicions of his loyalty, and in his last
+confession he acknowledged that communications to obtain aid had been
+opened with the imperial ambassador and were contemplated with Flanders.
+But it is more probable that the government had from the first
+treacherously affected to treat him with confidence to secure the
+secrets of the rebels and to effect his destruction. In March Norfolk
+congratulated Cromwell on the successful accomplishment of his task,
+having persuaded Aske to go to London on false assurances of security.
+He was arrested in April, tried before a commission at Westminster, and
+sentenced to death for high treason on the 17th of May; and on the 28th
+of June he was taken back to Yorkshire, being paraded in the towns and
+country through which he passed. He was hanged at York in July,
+expressing repentance for breaking the king's laws, but declaring that
+he had promise of pardon both from Cromwell and from Henry. It is
+related that his servant, Robert Wall, died of grief at the thought of
+his master's approaching execution. Aske was a real leader, who gained
+the affection and confidence of his followers; and his sudden rise to
+greatness and his choice by the people point to abilities that have not
+been recorded.
+
+  See _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_, by F.A. Gasquet (1906);
+  _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, vols. xi. and xii.;
+  _English Histor. Review_, v. 330, 550 (account of the rebellion,
+  examination and answers to interrogations); _Chronicle of Henry
+  VIII._, tr. by M.A.S. Hume (1889); Whitaker's _Richmondshire_, i. 116
+  (pedigree of the Askes).
+
+
+
+
+ASKEW, or ASCUE, ANNE (1521?-1546), English Protestant martyr, born at
+Stallingborough about 1521, was the second daughter of Sir William Askew
+(d. 1540) of South Kelsey, Lincoln, by his first wife Elizabeth,
+daughter of Thomas Wrottesley. Her elder sister, Martha, was betrothed
+by her parents to Thomas Kyme, a Lincolnshire justice of the peace, but
+she died before marriage, and Anne was induced or compelled to take her
+place. She is said to have had two children by Kyme, but religious
+differences and incompatibility of temperament soon estranged the
+couple. Kyme was apparently an unimaginative man of the world, while
+Anne took to Bible-reading with zeal, became convinced of the falsity of
+the doctrine of transubstantiation, and created some stir in Lincoln by
+her disputations. According to Bale and Foxe her husband turned her out
+of doors, but in the privy council register she is said to have "refused
+Kyme to be her husband without any honest allegation." She had as good a
+reason for repudiating her husband as Henry VIII. for repudiating Anne
+of Cleves. In any case, she came to London and made friends with Joan
+Bocher, who was already known for heterodoxy, and other Protestants. She
+was examined for heresy in March 1545 by the lord mayor, and was
+committed to the Counter prison. Then she was examined by Bonner, the
+bishop of London, who drew up a form of recantation which he entered in
+his register. This fact led Parsons and other Catholic historians to
+state that she actually recanted but she refused to sign Bonner's form
+without qualification. Two months later, on the 24th of May, the privy
+council ordered her arrest. On the 13th of June 1545, she was arraigned
+as a sacramentarian under the Six Articles at the Guildhall; but no
+witness appeared against her; she was declared not guilty by the jury
+and discharged after paying her fees.
+
+The reactionary party, which, owing to the absence of Hertford and Lisle
+and to the presence of Gardiner, gained the upper hand in the council in
+the summer of 1546, were not satisfied with this repulse; they probably
+aimed at the leaders of the reforming party, such as Hertford and
+possibly Queen Catherine Parr, who were suspected of favouring Anne, and
+on the 18th of June 1546 Anne was again arraigned before a commission
+including the lord mayor, the duke of Norfolk, St John, Bonner and
+Heath. No jury was empanelled and no witnesses were called; she was
+condemned, simply on her confession, to be burnt. On the same day she
+was called before the privy council with her husband. Kyme was sent home
+into Lincolnshire, but Anne was committed to Newgate, "for that she was
+very obstinate and heady in reasoning of matters of religion." On the
+following day she was taken to the Tower and racked; according to Anne's
+own statement, as recorded by Bale, the lord chancellor, Wriothesley,
+and the solicitor-general, Rich, worked the rack themselves; but she
+"would not convert for all the pain" (Wriothesley, _Chronicle_ i. 168).
+Her torture, disputed by Jardine, Lingard and others, is substantiated
+not only by her own narrative, but by two contemporary chronicles, and
+by a contemporary letter (_ibid._; _Narratives of the Reformation_, p.
+305; Ellis, _Original Letters_, 2nd Ser. ii. 177). For four weeks she
+was left in prison, and at length on the 16th of July, she was burnt at
+Smithfield in the presence of the same persecuting dignitaries who had
+condemned her to death.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Bale's two tracts, printed at Marburg in November 1546
+  and January 1547, are the basis of Foxe's account. See also _Acts of
+  the Privy Council_ (1542-1547), pp. 424-462; Wriothesley's _Chron._
+  i. 155, 167-169; _Narratives of the Reformation_, passim; Gough's
+  _Index to Parker Soc. Publications_; Burnet's _Hist. of the
+  Reformation_; Dixon's _Hist. of the Church of England; Dict. Nat.
+  Biogr._     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+ASMA'I [Abu Sa'id 'Abd ul-Malik ibn Quraib] (c. 739-831), Arabian
+scholar, was born of pure Arab stock in Basra and was a pupil there of
+Abu 'Amr ibn ul-'Ala. He seems to have been a poor man until by the
+influence of the governor of Basra he was brought to the notice of Harun
+al-Rashid, who enjoyed his conversation at court and made him tutor of
+his son. He became wealthy and acquired property in Basra, where he
+again settled for a time; but returned later to Bagdad, where he died in
+831. Asma'i was one of the greatest scholars of his age. From his youth
+he stored up in his memory the sacred words of the Koran, the traditions
+of the Prophet, the verses of the old poets and the stories of the
+ancient wars of the Arabs. He was also a student of language and a
+critic. It was as a critic that he was the great rival of Abu 'Ubaida
+(q.v.). While the latter followed (or led) the Shu'ubite movement and
+declared for the excellence of all things not Arabian, Asma'i was the
+pious Moslem and avowed supporter of the superiority of the Arabs over
+all peoples, and of the freedom of their language and literature from
+all foreign influence. Some of his scholars attained high rank as
+literary men. Of Asma'i's many works mentioned in the catalogue known as
+the _Fihrist_, only about half a dozen are extant. Of these the _Book of
+Distinction_ has been edited by D.H. Müller (Vienna, 1876); the _Book of
+the Wild Animals_ by R. Geyer (Vienna, 1887); the _Book of the Horse_,
+by A. Haffner (Vienna, 1895); the _Book of the Sheep_, by A. Haffner
+(Vienna, 1896).
+
+  For life of Asma'i, see Ibn Khallikan, _Biographical Dictionary_,
+  translated from the Arabic by McG. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842),
+  vol. ii. pp. 123-127. For his work as a grammarian, G. Flügel, _Die
+  grammatischen Schulen der Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862), pp. 72-80.
+       (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASMARA, the capital of the Italian colony of Eritrea, N.E. Africa. It is
+built on the Hamasen plateau, near its eastern edge, at an elevation of
+7800 ft., and is some 40 m. W.S.W. in a direct line of the seaport of
+Massawa. Pop. (1904) about 9000, including the garrison of 300 Italian
+soldiers, and some 1000 native troops. The European civil population
+numbers over 500; the rest of the inhabitants are chiefly Abyssinians.
+There is a small Mahommedan colony. The town is strongly fortified. The
+European quarter contains several fine public buildings, including the
+residence of the governor, club house, barracks and hospital. Fort
+Baldissera is built on a hill to the south-west of the town and is
+considered impregnable.
+
+Asmara, an Amharic word signifying "good pasture place," is a town of
+considerable antiquity. It was included in the maritime province of
+northern Abyssinia, which was governed by a viceroy who bore the title
+of Bahar-nagash (ruler of the sea). By the Abyssinians the Hamasen
+plateau was known as the plain of the thousand villages. Asmara appears
+to have been one of the most prosperous of these villages, and to have
+attained commercial importance through being on the high road from Axum
+to Massawa. When Werner Munzinger (q.v.) became French consul at
+Massawa, he entered into a scheme for annexing the Hamasen (of which
+Asmara was then the capital) to France, but the outbreak of the war with
+Germany in 1870 brought the project to nought (cf. A.B. Wylde, _Modern
+Abyssinia_, 1901). In 1872 Munzinger, now in Egyptian service, annexed
+Asmara to the khedivial dominions, but in 1884, owing to the rise of the
+mahdi, Egypt evacuated her Abyssinian provinces and Asmara was chosen by
+Ras Alula, the representative of the negus Johannes (King John), as his
+headquarters. Shortly afterwards the Italians occupied Massawa, and in
+1889 Asmara (see ABYSSINIA: _History_). In 1900 the seat of government
+was transferred from Massawa to Asmara, which in its modern form is the
+creation of the Italians. It is surrounded by rich agricultural lands,
+cultivated in part by Italian immigrants, and is a busy trading centre.
+A railway from Massawa to Asmara was completed as far as Ghinda, at the
+foot of the plateau, in 1904. At Medrizien, 6 m. north of Asmara, are
+gold-mines which have been partially worked.
+
+  See G. Dainelli, _In Africa. Lettere dall' Eritrea_ (Bergamo, 1908);
+  R. Perini, _Di qua dal Mareb_ (Florence, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+ASMODEUS, or ASHMEDAI, an evil demon who appears in later Jewish
+tradition as "king of demons." He is sometimes identified with Beelzebub
+or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11). In the Talmud he plays a great part in the
+legends concerning Solomon. In the apocryphal book of Tobit (iii. 8)
+occurs the well-known story of his love for Sara, the beautiful daughter
+of Raguel, whose seven husbands were slain in succession by him on their
+respective bridal nights. At last Tobias, by burning the heart and liver
+of a fish, drove off the demon, who fled to Egypt. From the part played
+by Asmodeus in this story, he has been often familiarly called the
+genius of matrimonial unhappiness or jealousy, and as such may be
+compared with Lilith. Le Sage makes him the principal character in his
+novel _Le Diable boiteux_. Both the word and the conception seem to have
+been derived originally from the Persian. The name has been taken to
+mean "covetous." It is in any case no doubt identical with the demon
+Aeshma of the Zend-Avesta and the Pahlavi texts. But the meaning is not
+certain. It is generally agreed that the second part of the name
+Asmodeus is the same as the Zend _daewa, dew_, "demon." The first part
+may be equivalent to Aeshma, the impersonation of anger. But W.
+Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_) prefers to derive it from
+_ish_, to drive, set in motion; whence _ish-min_, driving, impetuous.
+
+  The legend of Asmodeus is given fully in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_,
+  s.v. See also the articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, Hastings'
+  _Dictionary of the Bible_, and Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+ASMONEUS, or ASAMONAEUS (so Josephus), great-grandfather of Mattathias,
+the father of Judas Maccabaeus. Nothing more is known of him, and the
+name is only given by Josephus (not in 1 Macc. ii. 1). But the dynasty
+was known to Josephus and the Mishna (once) as "the sons (race) of the
+Asamonaeans (of A.)"; and the Targum of 1 Sam. ii. 4 has "the house of
+the Hashmoneans who were weak, signs were wrought for them and
+strength." If not the founder, Asmoneus was probably the home of the
+family (cf. Heshmon, Jos. xv. 27).
+
+  See Schurer, _Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes_, i. 248 N; art.
+  "Maccabees," § 2, in _Ency. Biblica_.     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASNIČRES, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, on the
+left bank of the Seine, about 1˝ m. N.N.W. of the fortifications of
+Paris. Pop. (1906) 35,883. The town, which has grown rapidly in recent
+years, is a favourite boating centre for the Parisians. The industries
+include boat-building and the manufacture of colours and perfumery.
+
+
+
+
+ASOKA, a famous Buddhist emperor of India who reigned from 264 to 228 or
+227 B.C. Thirty-five of his inscriptions on rocks or pillars or in caves
+still exist (see INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_), and they are among the most
+remarkable and interesting of Buddhist monuments (see BUDDHISM). Asoka
+was the grandson of Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya (Peacock)
+dynasty, who had wrested the Indian provinces of Alexander the Great
+from the hands of Seleucus, and he was the son of Bindusara, who
+succeeded his father Chandragupta, by a lady from Champa. The Greeks do
+not mention him and the Brahmin books ignore him, but the Buddhist
+chronicles and legends tell us much about him. The inscriptions, which
+contain altogether about five thousand words, are entirely of religious
+import, and their references to worldly affairs are incidental. They
+begin in the thirteenth year of his reign, and tell us that in the ninth
+year he had invaded Kalinga, and had been so deeply impressed by the
+horrors involved in warfare that he had then given up the desire for
+conquest, and devoted himself to conquest by "religion." What the
+religion was is explained in the edicts. It is purely ethical,
+independent alike of theology and ritual, and is the code of morals as
+laid down in the Buddhist sacred books for laymen. He further tells us
+that in the ninth year of his reign he formally joined the Buddhist
+community as a layman, in the eleventh year he became a member of the
+order, and in the thirteenth he "set out for the Great Wisdom" (the
+_Sambodhi_), which is the Buddhist technical term for entering upon the
+well-known, eightfold path to Nirvana. One of the edicts is addressed to
+the order, and urges upon its members and the laity alike the learning
+and rehearsal of passages from the Buddhist scriptures. Two others are
+proclamations commemorating visits paid by the king, one to the dome
+erected over the ashes of Konagamana, the Buddha, another to the
+birthplace of Gotama, the Buddha (q.v.). Three very short ones are
+dedications of caves to the use of an order of recluses. The rest either
+enunciate the religion as explained above, or describe the means adopted
+by the king for propagating it, or acting in accordance with it. These
+means are such as the digging of wells, planting medicinal herbs, and
+trees for shade, sending out of missionaries, appointment of special
+officers to supervise charities, and so on. The missionaries were sent
+to Kashmir, to the Himalayas, to the border lands on the Indus, to the
+coast of Burma, to south India and to Ceylon. And the king claims that
+missions sent by him to certain Greek kingdoms that he names had
+resulted in the folk there conforming themselves to his religion. The
+extent of Asoka's dominion included all India from the thirteenth degree
+of latitude up to the Himalayas, Nepal, Kashmir, the Swat valley,
+Afghanistan as far as the Hindu Kush, Sind and Baluchistan. It was thus
+as large as, or perhaps somewhat larger than, British India before the
+conquest of Burma. He was undoubtedly the most powerful sovereign of his
+time and the most remarkable and imposing of the native rulers of India.
+"If a man's fame," says Köppen, "can be measured by the number of hearts
+who revere his memory, by the number of lips who have mentioned, and
+still mention him with honour, Asoka is more famous than Charlemagne or
+Caesar." At the same time it is probable that, like Constantine's
+patronage of Christianity, his patronage of Buddhism, then the most
+rising and influential faith in India, was not unalloyed with political
+motives, and it is certain that his vast benefactions to the Buddhist
+cause were at least one of the causes that led to its decline.
+
+  See also _Asoka_, by Vincent Smith (Oxford, 1901); _Inscriptions de
+  Piyadasi_, by E. Senart (Paris, 1891); chapters on Asoka in T.W. Rhys
+  Davids's _Buddhism_ (20th ed., London, 1903), and _Buddhist India_
+  (London, 1903); V.A. Smith, _Edicts of Asoka_ (1909).     (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+
+
+ASOLO (anc. _Acelum_), a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
+Treviso, about 19 m. N.W. direct from the town of Treviso, and some 10
+m. E. of Bassanoby road. Pop. (1901) 5847. It is well situated on a
+hill, 690 ft. above sea-level. Remains of Roman baths and of a theatre
+have been discovered in the course of excavation (_Notizie degli scavi_,
+1877, 235; 1881, 205; 1882, 289), and the town was probably a
+_municipium_. It became an episcopal see in the 6th century. It was to
+Asolo that Catherine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, retired on her
+abdication. Here she was visited by Pietro Bembo, who conceived here his
+_Dialoghi degli Asolani_, and by Andrea Navagero (Naugerius). Paulus
+Manutius was born here. The village of Maser is 4˝ m. to the E., and
+near it is the Villa Giacomelli, erected by Palladio, containing
+frescoes by Paolo Veronese, executed in 1566-1568 for Marcantonio
+Barbaro of Venice, and ranking among his best works.
+
+
+
+
+ASOR (Hebr. for "ten"), an instrument "of ten strings" mentioned in the
+Bible, about which authors are not agreed. The word occurs only three
+times in the Bible, and has not been traced elsewhere. In Psalm xxxiii.
+2 the reference is to "kinnor, nebel and asor"; in Psalm xcii. 3, to
+"nebel and asor"; in Psalm cxliv. to "nebel-asor." In the English
+version _asor_ is translated "an instrument of ten strings," with a
+marginal note "omit" applied to "instrument." In the Septuagint, the
+word being derived from a root signifying "ten," the Greek is [Greek: en
+dekachordo] or [Greek: psaltaerion dekachordon], in the Vulgate _in
+decachordo psalterio_. Each time the word _asor_ is used it follows the
+word _nebel_ (see PSALTERY), and probably merely indicates a variant of
+the nebel, having ten strings instead of the customary twelve assigned
+to it by Josephus (_Antiquities_, vii. 12. 3).
+
+  See also Mendel and Reissmann, _Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon_,
+  vol. i. (Berlin, 1881); Sir John Stainer, _The Music of the Bible_,
+  pp. 35-37; Forkel, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik_, Bd. i. p. 133
+  (Leipzig, 1788).     (K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ASP (_Vipera aspis_), a species of venomous snake, closely allied to the
+common adder of Great Britain, which it represents throughout the
+southern parts of Europe, being specially abundant in the region of the
+Alps. It differs from the adder in having the head entirely covered with
+scales, shields being absent, and in having the snout somewhat turned
+up. The term "Asp" [Greek: aspis] seems to have been employed by Greek
+and Roman writers, and by writers generally down to comparatively recent
+times, to designate more than one species of serpent; thus the asp, by
+means of which Cleopatra is said to have ended her life, and so avoided
+the disgrace of entering Rome a captive, is now generally supposed to
+have been the cerastes, or horned viper (_Cerastes cornutus_), of
+northern Africa and Arabia, a snake about 15 in. long, exceedingly
+venomous, and provided with curious horn-like protuberances over each
+eye, which give it a decidedly sinister appearance. The snake, however,
+to which the word "asp" has been most commonly applied is undoubtedly
+the haje of Egypt, the _spy-slange_ or spitting snake of the Boers
+(_Naja haje_), one of the very poisonous _Elarinae_, from 3 to 4 ft.
+long, with the skin of its neck loose, so as to render it dilatable at
+the will of the animal, as in the cobra of India, a species from which
+it differs only in the absence of the spectacle-like mark on the back of
+the neck. Like the cobra, also, the haje has its fangs extracted by the
+jugglers of the country, who afterwards train it to perform various
+tricks. The asp (_Pethen_, [Hebrew: pethen]) is mentioned in various
+parts of the Old Testament. This name is twice translated "adder," but
+as nothing is told of it beyond its poisonous character and the
+intractability of its disposition, it is impossible accurately to
+determine the species.
+
+
+
+
+ASPARAGINE, C4H3N2O3, a naturally occurring base, found in plants
+belonging to the natural orders Leguminosae and Cruciferae. It occurs
+in two optically active forms, namely, as laevo-asparagine and
+dextro-asparagine. Laevo-asparagine was isolated in 1805 by L.N.
+Vauquelin. A. Piutti (_Gazz. chim. Ital._, 1887, 17, p. 126; 1888, 18,
+p. 457) synthesized the asparagines from the monomethyl ester of
+inactive aspartic acid by heating it with alcoholic ammonia. In this way
+a mixture of the two asparagines was obtained, which were separated by
+picking out the hemihedral crystals.
+
+  HOOCˇCHˇNH2CH2ˇCOOC2H5 + NH3 = C2H5OH + HOOCˇCHˇNH2ˇCH2ˇCONH2.
+
+Laevo-asparagine is slightly soluble in cold water and readily soluble
+in hot water. It crystallizes in prisms, containing one molecule of
+water of crystallization, the anhydrous form melting at 234-235° C.
+Nitrous acid converts it into malic acid, HOOCˇCHOHˇCH2ˇCOOH. It is
+laevo-rotatory in aqueous or in alkaline solution, and dextro-rotatory
+in acid solution (L. Pasteur, _Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1851 [2], 31, p. 67).
+Dextro-asparagine was first found in 1886 in the shoots of the vetch
+(Piutti). It forms rhombic crystals possessing a sweet taste. It is
+dextro-rotatory in aqueous or alkaline solution, and laevo-rotatory in
+acid solution.
+
+Hydrolysis by means of acids or alkalis converts the asparagines into
+aspartic acid; whilst on heating with water in a sealed tube they are
+converted into ammonium aspartate. The constitution of the asparagines
+has been determined by A. Piutti (_Gazz. chim. Ital._, 1888, 18, p.
+457).
+
+
+
+
+ASPARAGUS, a genus of plants (nat. ord. Liliaceae) containing more than
+100 species, and widely distributed in the temperate and warmer parts of
+the Old World; it was introduced from Europe into America with the early
+settlers. The name is derived from the Greek [Greek: asparagos] or
+[Greek: aspharagos], the origin of which is obscure. _Sperage_ or
+_sparage_ was the form in use from the 16th to 18th centuries, cf. the
+modern Italian _sparagio_. The vulgar corruption _sparrow-grass_ or
+_sparagrass_ was in accepted popular use during the 18th century,
+"asparagus" being considered pedantic. The plants have a short,
+creeping, underground stem from which spring slender, branched, aerial
+shoots. The leaves are reduced to minute scales bearing in their axils
+tufts of green, needle-like branches (the so-called _cladodes_), which
+simulate, and perform the functions of, leaves. In one section of the
+genus, sometimes regarded as a distinct genus _Myrsiphyllum_, the
+cladodes are flattened. The plants often climb or scramble, in which
+they are helped by the development of the scale-leaves into persistent
+spines. The flowers are small, whitish and pendulous; the fruit is a
+berry.
+
+Several of the climbing species are grown in greenhouses for their
+delicate, often feathery branches, which are also valuable for cutting;
+the South African _Asparagus plumosus_ is an especially elegant species.
+The so-called smilax, much used for decoration, is a species of the
+_Myrsiphyllum_ section, _A. medeoloides_, also known as _Myrsiphyllum
+asparagoides_. The young shoots of _Asparagus officinalis_ have from
+very remote times been in high repute as a culinary vegetable, owing to
+their delicate flavour and diuretic virtues. The plant, which is a
+native of the north temperate zone of the Old World, grows wild on the
+south coast of England; and on the waste steppes of Russia it is so
+abundant that it is eaten by cattle like grass. In common with the
+marsh-mallow and some other plants, it contains asparagine or aspartic
+acidamide. The roots of asparagus were formerly used as an aperient
+medicine, and the fruits were likewise employed as a diuretic. Under the
+name of Prussian asparagus, the spikes of an allied plant, _Ornithogalum
+pyrenaicum_, are used in some places. The diuretic action is extremely
+feeble, and neither the plant nor asparagine is now used medicinally.
+
+Asparagus is grown extensively in private gardens as well as for market.
+The asparagus prefers a loose, light, deep, sandy soil; the depth should
+be 3 ft., the soil being well trenched, and all surplus water got away.
+A considerable quantity of well-rotted dung or of recent seaweed should
+be laid in the bottom of the trench, and another top-dressing of manure
+should be dug in preparatory to planting or sowing. The beds should be 3
+ft. or 5 ft. wide, with intervening alleys of 2 ft., the narrower beds
+taking two rows of plants, the wider ones three rows. The beds should
+run east and west, so that the sun's rays may strike against the side of
+the bed. In some cases the plants are grown in equidistant rows 3 to 4
+ft. apart. Where the beds are made with plants already prepared, either
+one-year-old or two-year-old plants may be used, for which a trench
+should be cut sufficient to afford room for spreading out the roots, the
+crowns being all kept at about 2 in. below the surface. Planting is best
+done in April, after the plants have started into growth. To prevent
+injury to the roots, it is, however, perhaps the better plan to sow the
+seeds in the beds where the plants are to remain. To experience the
+finest flavour of asparagus, it should be eaten immediately after having
+been gathered; if kept longer than one day, or set into water, its finer
+flavour is altogether lost. If properly treated, asparagus beds will
+continue to bear well for many years. The asparagus grown at Argenteuil,
+near Paris, has acquired much notoriety for its large size and excellent
+quality. The French growers plant in trenches instead of raised beds.
+The most common method of forcing asparagus is to prepare, early in the
+year, a moderate hot-bed of stable litter with a bottom heat of 70°, and
+to cover it with a common frame. After the heat of fermentation has
+somewhat subsided, the surface of the bed is covered with a layer of
+light earth or exhausted tan-bark, and in this the roots of strong
+mature plants are closely placed. The crowns of the roots are then
+covered with 3 to 6 in. of soil. A common three-light frame may hold 500
+or 600 plants, and will afford a supply for several weeks. After
+planting, linings are applied when necessary to keep up the heat, but
+care must be taken not to scorch the roots; air must be occasionally
+admitted. Where there are pits heated by hot water or by the tank
+system, they may be advantageously applied to this purpose. A succession
+of crops must be maintained by annually sowing or planting new beds.
+
+The "asparagus-beetle" is the popular name for two beetles, the "common
+asparagus beetle" (_Crioceris asparagi_) and the "twelve-spotted" (_C.
+duodecimpunctata_), which feed on the asparagus plant. _C. asparagi_ has
+been known in Europe since early times, and was introduced into America
+about 1856; the rarer _C. duodecimpunctata_ (sometimes called the "red"
+to distinguish it from the "blue" species) was detected in America in
+1881. For an admirable account of these pests see F.H. Chittenden,
+_Circular 102 of the U.S. Dep. of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology_,
+May 1908.
+
+The "asparagus-stone" is a form of apatite, simulating asparagus in
+colour.
+
+
+
+
+ASPASIA, an Athenian courtesan of the 5th century B.C., was born either
+at Miletus or at Megara, and settled in Athens, where her beauty and her
+accomplishments gained for her a great reputation. Pericles, who had
+divorced his wife (445), made her his mistress, and, after the death of
+his two legitimate sons, procured the passing of a law under which his
+son by her was recognized as legitimate. It was the fashion, especially
+among the comic poets, to regard her as the adviser of Pericles in all
+his political actions, and she is even charged with having caused the
+Samian and Peloponnesian wars (Aristoph. _Acharn_. 497). Shortly before
+the latter war, she was accused of impiety, and nothing but the tears
+and entreaties of Pericles procured her acquittal. On the death of
+Pericles she is said to have become the mistress of one Lysicles, whom,
+though of ignoble birth, she raised to a high position in the state;
+but, as Lysicles died a year after Pericles (428), the story is
+unconvincing. She was the chief figure in the dialogue _Aspasia_ by
+Aeschines the Socratic, in which she was represented as criticizing the
+manners and training of the women of her time (for an attempted
+reconstruction of the dialogue see P. Natorp in _Philologus_, li. p.
+489, 1892); in the _Menexenus_ (generally ascribed to Plato) she is a
+teacher of rhetoric, the instructress of Socrates and Pericles, and a
+funeral oration in honour of those Athenians who had given their lives
+for their country (the authorship of which is attributed to Aspasia) is
+repeated by Socrates; Xenophon (_Oecon._ lii. 14) also speaks of her in
+favourable terms, but she is not mentioned by Thucydides. In opposition
+to this view, Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (_Hermes_, xxxv. 1900) regards her
+simply as a courtesan, whose personality would readily become the
+subject of rumour, favourable or unfavourable. There is a bust bearing
+her name in the Pio Clementino Museum in the Vatican.
+
+  See Le Conte de Bičvre, _Les Deux Aspasies_ (1736); J.B. Capefigue,
+  _Aspasie et le sičcle de Périclčs_ (1862); L. Becq de Fouquičres.
+  _Aspasie de Milet_ (1872); H. Houssaye, _Aspasie, Cléopâtre, Théodora_
+  (1899); R. Hamerling, _Aspasia_ (a romance; Eng. trans. by M.J.
+  Safford, New York, 1882); J. Donaldson, _Woman_ (1907). Also PERICLES.
+
+
+
+
+ASPASIUS, a Greek peripatetic philosopher, and a prolific commentator on
+Aristotle. He flourished probably towards the close of the 1st century
+A.D., or perhaps during the reign of Antoninus Pius. His commentaries on
+the _Categories, De Interpretatione, De Sensu_, and other works of
+Aristotle are frequently referred to by later writers, but have not come
+down to us. Commentaries on Plato, mentioned by Porphyry in his life of
+Plotinus, have also been lost. Commentaries on books 1-4, 7 (in part),
+and 8 of the _Nicomachean Ethics_ are preserved; that on book 8 was
+printed with those of Eustratius and others by Aldus Manutius at Venice
+in 1536. They were partly (2-4) translated into Latin by Felicianus in
+1541, and have frequently been republished, but their authenticity has
+been disputed. The most recent edition is by G. Heylbut in _Commentaria
+in Aristotelem Graeca_, xix. 1 (Berlin, 1889).
+
+Another ASPASIUS, in the 3rd century A.D., was a Roman sophist and
+rhetorician, son or pupil of the rhetorician Demetrianus. He taught
+rhetoric in Rome, and filled the chair of rhetoric founded by Vespasian.
+He was secretary to the emperor Maximin. His orations, which are praised
+for their style, are lost.
+
+
+
+
+ASPEN, an important section of the poplar genus (_Populus_) of which the
+common aspen of Europe, _P. tremula_, may be taken as the type,--a tall
+fast-growing tree with rather slender trunk, and grey bark becoming
+rugged when old. The roundish leaves, toothed on the margin, are
+slightly downy when young, but afterwards smooth, dark green on the
+upper and greyish green on the lower surface; the long slender petioles,
+much flattened towards the outer end, allow of free lateral motion by
+the lightest breeze, giving the foliage its well-known tremulous
+character. By their friction on each other the leaves give rise to a
+rustling sound. It is supposed that the mulberry trees (_Becaim_)
+mentioned in 1 Chronicles xiv. 14, 15 were really aspen trees. The
+flowers, which appear in March and April, are borne on pendulous hairy
+catkins, 2-3 in. long; male and female catkins are, as in the other
+species of the genus, on distinct trees.
+
+The aspen is found in moist places, sometimes at a considerable
+elevation, 1600 ft. or more, in Scotland. It is an abundant tree in the
+northern parts of Britain, even as far as Sutherland, and is
+occasionally found in the coppices of the southern counties, but in
+these latter habitats seldom reaches any large size; throughout northern
+Europe it abounds in the forests,--in Lapland flourishing even in 70° N.
+lat., while in Siberia its range extends to the Arctic Circle; in Norway
+its upper limit is said to coincide with that of the pine; trees exist
+near the western coast having stems 15 ft. in circumference. The wood of
+the aspen is very light and soft, though tough; it is employed by
+coopers, chiefly for pails and herring-casks; it is also made into
+butchers' trays, pack-saddles, and various articles for which its
+lightness recommends it; sabots are also made of it in France, and in
+medieval days it was valued for arrows, especially for those used in
+target practice; the bark is used for tanning in northern countries;
+cattle and deer browse greedily on the young shoots and abundant
+suckers. Aspen wood makes but indifferent fuel, but charcoal prepared
+from it is light and friable, and has been employed in gunpowder
+manufacture. The powdered bark is sometimes given to horses as a
+vermifuge; it possesses likewise tonic and febrifugal properties,
+containing a considerable amount of salicin. The aspen is readily
+propagated either by cuttings or suckers, but has been but little
+planted of late years in Britain. _P. trepida_, or _tremuloides_. is
+closely allied to the European aspen, being chiefly distinguished by its
+more pointed leaves; it is a native of most parts of Canada and the
+United States, extending northwards as far as Great Slave Lake. The wood
+is soft and neither strong nor durable; it burns better in the green
+state than that of most trees, and is often used by the hunters of the
+North-West as fuel; split into thin layers, it was formerly employed in
+the United States for bonnet and hat making. It is largely manufactured
+into wood-pulp for paper-making. The bark is of some value as a tonic
+and febrifuge. _P. grandidentata_, the large-leaved American aspen, has
+ovate or roundish leaves deeply and irregularly serrated on the margin.
+The wood is light, soft and close-grained, but not strong. In northern
+New England and Canada it is largely manufactured into wood-pulp; it is
+occasionally used in turnery and for wooden-ware.
+
+
+
+
+ASPENDUS (mod. _Balkis Kalé_, or, more anciently in the native language,
+ESTVEDYS (whence the adjective _Estvedijys_ on coins), an ancient city
+of Pamphylia, very strongly situated on an isolated hill on the right
+bank of the Eurymedon at the point where the river issues from the
+Taurus. The sea is now about 7 m. distant, and the river is navigable
+only for about 2 m. from the mouth; but in the time of Thucydides ships
+could anchor off Aspendus. Really of pre-Hellenic date, the place
+claimed to be an Argive colony. It derived wealth from great _salines_
+and from a trade in oil and wool, to which the wide range of its
+admirable coinage bears witness from the 5th century B.C. onwards. There
+Alcibiades met the satrap Tissaphernes in 411 B.C., and thence succeeded
+in getting the Phoenician fleet, intended to co-operate with Sparta,
+sent back home. The Athenian, Thrasybulus, after obtaining contributions
+from Aspendus in 389, was murdered by the inhabitants. The city bought
+off Alexander in 333, but, not keeping faith, was forcibly occupied by
+the conqueror. In due course it passed from Pergamene to Roman dominion,
+and according to Cicero, was plundered of many artistic treasures by
+Verres. It was ranked by Philostratus the third city of Pamphylia, and
+in Byzantine times seems to have been known as Primopolis, under which
+name its bishop signed at Ephesus in A.D. 431. In medieval times it was
+evidently still a strong place, but it has now sunk, in the general
+decay of Pamphylia, to a wretched hamlet.
+
+The ruins still extant are very remarkable, and, with the noble Roman
+theatre, the finest in the world, have earned for the place (as is the
+case with certain other great monuments) a legendary connexion with
+Solomon's Sheban queen. On the summit of the hillock, surrounded by a
+wall with three gates, lie the remains of the city. The public buildings
+round the forum can all be traced, and parts of them are standing to a
+considerable height. They consist of a fine nympheum on the north with a
+covered theatre behind it, covered market halls on the west, and a
+peristyle hall and a basilica on the east. In the plain below are large
+thermae, and ruins of a splendid aqueduct. But all else seems
+insignificant beside the huge theatre, half hollowed out of the
+north-east flank of the hill. This was first published by C.F.M. Texier
+in 1849, and has now been completely planned, &c., by Count
+Lanckoronski's expedition in 1884. It is built of local conglomerate and
+is in marvellous preservation. Erected to the honour of the emperors
+Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus by the architect Zeno, for the heirs of a
+local Roman citizen (as an inscription repeated over both portals
+attests), its auditorium has a circuit of 313.17 feet. There are forty
+tiers of seating, divided by one _diazoma_, and crowned by an arched
+gallery of rather later date, repaired in places with brick. This
+auditorium held 7500 spectators. The seats are not perfect, but so
+nearly so as to appear practically intact. The wooden stage has, of
+course, perished, but all its supporting structures are in place, and
+the great scena wall stands to its full height, and produces a
+magnificent impression whether from within or from without. Inwardly it
+was decorated with two orders of columns one above the other, with rich
+entablatures, much of which survives. In the _tympanum_ is a relief of
+Bacchus (wrongly supposed to be of a female, and called the Bal-Kis,
+i.e. "Honey Girl"). The position of the sounding board above the stage
+is apparent. Under the forepart of the auditorium, built out from the
+hill, are immense vaults. The whole structure was enclosed within one
+great wall, pierced with numerous windows. This structure was probably
+put to some ecclesiastical Byzantine use, as certain mutilated heads of
+saints appear upon it; and later it became a fortress and received
+certain additions. It is now under the care of the local _aghá_ and not
+allowed to be plundered for building stone.
+
+  See C. Lanckoronski, _Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie_, i.
+  (1890).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASPER, AEMILIUS, Latin grammarian, possibly lived in the 2nd century
+A.D. He wrote commentaries on Terence, Sallust and Virgil. Numerous
+fragments of the last show that as both critic and commentator he
+possessed good judgment and taste. They are printed in Keil, _Probi in
+Vergilii Bucolica Commentarius_ (1848); see also Suringar, _Historia
+Critica Scholiastarum Latinorum_ (1834); Gräfenhan, _Geschichte der
+klassischen Philologie im Alterthum._ iv. (1843-1850). Two short
+grammatical treatises, extant under the name of Asper, and of very
+little value, have nothing to do with the commentator, but belong to a
+much later date--the time of Priscian (6th century). Both are printed in
+Keil, _Grammatici Latini_. See also Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen
+Litteratur_, § 598.
+
+
+
+
+ASPER, HANS (1499-1571), Swiss painter, was born and died at Zürich. He
+wrought in a great variety of styles, but excelled chiefly in flower and
+fruit pieces, and in portrait-painting. Many of his pictures have
+perished, but his style may be judged from the illustrations to
+Gessner's _Historia Animalium_, for which he is said to have furnished
+the designs, and from portraits of Zwingli and his daughter Regula
+Gwalter, which are preserved in the public library of Zürich. It has
+been usual to class Asper among the pupils and imitators of Holbein, but
+an inspection of his works is sufficient to show that this is a mistake.
+Though Asper was held in high reputation by his fellow-citizens, who
+elected him a member of the Great Council, and had a medal struck in his
+honour, he seems to have died in poverty.
+
+
+
+
+ASPERGES ("thou wilt sprinkle," from the Latin verb _aspergere_), the
+ceremony of sprinkling the people with holy water before High Mass in
+the Roman Catholic Church, so called from the first word of the verse
+(Ps. iv. 9) _Asperges me, Domini, hyssopo et mundabor_, with which the
+priest begins the ceremony. The brush used for sprinkling is an
+aspergill (_aspergillum_), or aspersoir, and the vessel for this water
+an _aspersorium_. The act of sprinkling the water is called _aspersion_.
+
+
+
+
+ASPERN-ESSLING, BATTLE OF (1809), a battle fought on the 21st and 22nd
+of May 1809 between the French and their allies under Napoleon and the
+Austrians commanded by the archduke Charles (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS).
+At the time of the battle Napoleon was in possession of Vienna, the
+bridges over the Danube had been broken, and the archduke's army was on
+and about the Bisamberg, a mountain near Korneuburg, on the left bank of
+the river. The first task of the French was the crossing of the Danube.
+Lobau, one of the numerous islands which divide the river into minor
+channels, was selected as the point of crossing, careful preparations
+were made, and on the night of the 19th-20th of May the French bridged
+all the channels from the right bank to Lobau and occupied the island.
+By the evening of the 20th great masses of men had been collected there
+and the last arm of the Danube, between Lobau and the left bank,
+bridged. Massena's corps at once crossed to the left bank and dislodged
+the Austrian outposts. Undeterred by the news of heavy attacks on his
+rear from Tirol and from Bohemia, Napoleon hurried all available troops
+to the bridges, and by daybreak on the 21st, 40,000 men were collected
+on the Marchfeld, the broad open plain of the left bank, which was also
+to be the scene of the battle of Wagram. The archduke did not resist the
+passage; it was his intention, as soon as a large enough force had
+crossed, to attack it before the rest of the French army could come to
+its assistance. Napoleon had, of course, accepted the risk of such an
+attack, but he sought at the same time to minimize it by summoning every
+available battalion to the scene. His forces on the Marchfeld were drawn
+up in front of the bridges facing north, with their left in the village
+of Aspern (Gross-Aspern) and their right in Essling (or Esslingen). Both
+places lay close to the Danube and could not therefore be turned;
+Aspern, indeed, is actually on the bank of one of the river channels.
+But the French had to fill the gap between the villages, and also to
+move forward to give room for the supports to form up. Whilst they were
+thus engaged the archduke moved to the attack with his whole army in
+five columns. Three under Hiller, Bellegarde and Hohenzollern were to
+converge upon Aspern, the other two, under Rosenberg, to attack Essling.
+The Austrian cavalry was in the centre, ready to move out against any
+French cavalry which should attack the heads of the columns. During the
+21st the bridges became more and more unsafe, owing to the violence of
+the current, but the French crossed without intermission all day and
+during the night.
+
+The battle began at Aspern; Hiller carried the village at the first
+rush, but Masséna recaptured it, and held his ground with the same
+tenacity as he had shown at Genoa in 1800. The French infantry, indeed,
+fought on this day with the old stubborn bravery which it had failed to
+show in the earlier battles of the year. The three Austrian columns
+fighting their hardest through the day were unable to capture more than
+half the village; the rest was still held by Masséna when night fell. In
+the meanwhile nearly all the French infantry posted between the two
+villages and in front of the bridges had been drawn into the fight on
+either flank. Napoleon therefore, to create a diversion, sent forward
+his centre, now consisting only of cavalry, to charge the enemy's
+artillery, which was deployed in a long line and firing into Aspern. The
+first charge of the French was repulsed, but the second attempt, made by
+heavy masses of cuirassiers, was more serious. The French horsemen,
+gallantly led, drove off the guns, rode round Hohenzollern's infantry
+squares, and routed the cavalry of Lichtenstein, but they were unable to
+do more, and in the end they retired to their old position. In the
+meanwhile Essling had been the scene of fighting almost as desperate as
+that of Aspern. The French cuirassiers made repeated charges on the
+flank of Rosenberg's force, and for long delayed the assault, and in the
+villages Lannes with a single division made a heroic and successful
+resistance, till night ended the battle. The two armies bivouacked on
+their ground, and in Aspern the French and Austrians lay within pistol
+shot of each other. The latter had fought fully as hard as their
+opponents, and Napoleon realized that they were no longer the
+professional soldiers of former campaigns. The spirit of the nation was
+in them and they fought to kill, not for the honour of their arms. The
+emperor was not discouraged, but on the contrary renewed his efforts to
+bring up every available man. All through the night more and more French
+troops were put across.
+
+At the earliest dawn of the 22nd the battle was resumed. Masséna swiftly
+cleared Aspern of the enemy, but at the same time Rosenberg stormed
+Essling at last. Lannes, however, resisted desperately, and reinforced
+by St Hilaire's division, drove Rosenberg out. In Aspern Masséna had
+been less fortunate, the counter-attack of Hiller and Bellegarde being
+as completely successful as that of Lannes and St Hilaire. Meantime
+Napoleon had launched a great attack on the Austrian centre. The whole
+of the French centre, with Lannes on the right and the cavalry in
+reserve, moved forward. The Austrian line was broken through, between
+Rosenberg's right and Hohenzollern's left, and the French squadrons
+poured into the gap. Victory was almost won when the archduke brought up
+his last reserve, himself leading on his soldiers with a colour in his
+hand. Lannes was checked, and with his repulse the impetus of the attack
+died out all along the line. Aspern had been lost, and graver news
+reached Napoleon at the critical moment. The Danube bridges, which had
+broken down once already, had at last been cut by heavy barges, which
+had been set adrift down stream for the purpose by the Austrians.
+Napoleon at once suspended the attack. Essling now fell to another
+assault of Rosenberg, and though again the French, this time part of the
+Guard, drove him out, the Austrian general then directed his efforts on
+the flank of the French centre, slowly retiring on the bridges. The
+retirement was terribly costly, and but for the steadiness of Lannes the
+French must have been driven into the Danube, for the archduke's last
+effort to break down their resistance was made with the utmost fury.
+Only the complete exhaustion of both sides put an end to the fighting.
+The French lost 44,000 out of 90,000 successively engaged, and amongst
+the killed were Lannes and St Hilaire. The Austrians, 75,000 strong,
+lost 23,360. Even this, the first great defeat of Napoleon, did not
+shake his resolution. The beaten forces were at last withdrawn safely
+into the island. On the night of the 22nd the great bridge was repaired,
+and the army awaited the arrival of reinforcements, not in Vienna, but
+in Lobau.
+
+  See sketch map in article WAGRAM.
+
+
+
+
+ASPHALT, or ASPHALTUM. The solid or semi-solid kinds of bitumen (q.v.)
+were termed [Greek: asphaltos] by the Greeks; and by some ancient
+classical writers the name of _pissasphaltum_ ([Greek: pissa], pitch)
+was also sometimes employed. The asphalt of the Dead Sea (known as
+_Lacus Asphaltites_) received considerable notice from early travellers,
+and Diodorus the historian states that the inhabitants of the
+surrounding parts were accustomed to collect it for use in Egypt for
+embalming. In common with other forms of bitumen, asphalt is very widely
+distributed geographically and occurs in greater or less quantity in
+rocks of all ages. There is some divergence in the views expressed as to
+the precise manner of its production, but it may certainly be said that
+the principal asphalt deposits are merely the result of the evaporation
+and oxidation of liquid petroleum which has escaped from outcropping
+strata. The celebrated Pitch Lake of Trinidad was long regarded as the
+largest deposit of asphalt in existence, but it is said to be exceeded
+in area, if not in depth also, by one in Venezuela. The Trinidad "Lake"
+has an area of 99.3 acres, and is sufficiently firm in places to support
+a team of horses. The deposit is worked with picks to a depth of a foot
+or two, and the excavations soon become filled up by the plastic
+material flowing in from below and hardening. The depth of the deposit
+is not accurately known. The surface is not level but is composed of
+irregularly tumescent masses of various sizes, each said to be subject
+to independent motion, whereby the interior of each rises and flows
+centrifugally towards the edges. As the spaces between them are always
+filled with water, these masses are prevented from coalescing. The
+softer parts of the lake constantly evolve gas, which is stated to
+consist largely of carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, and the
+pitch, which is honeycombed with gas-cavities, continues to exhibit this
+action for some time after its removal from the lake. The working of the
+deposit is in the hands of the New Trinidad Asphalt Company, who hold
+the concession up to the year 1930 on payment to the government of a
+minimum royalty of Ł10,000 a year. A circular line of tramway, supported
+on palm-leaves, has been laid on the lake to facilitate the removal of
+the asphalt. Very large quantities are exported for paving and other
+purposes, the annual shipments amounting to about 130,000 tons from the
+lake and about 30,000 tons from other properties. The amount of asphalt
+in the lake has been estimated at 158,400 tons for each foot of depth,
+and if the average depth be taken at 20 ft. this would give a total of
+3,168,000 tons; but in 1908, though 1,885,600 tons had been removed in
+the previous thirty-five years, there was but little evidence of
+reduction in the quantity. The Venezuelan deposit already referred to is
+in the state of Bermudez, and the area of it is reported to be more than
+1000 acres. The asphalt of Cuba is a well-known article of commerce, of
+which 7252 tons was exported to the United States in 1902. The principal
+deposits are near the harbour of Cardenas (70 ft. thick), in the Pinar
+del Rio, near Havana (18 ft. thick), at Canas Tomasita (105 ft. thick);
+and a specially pure variety near Vuelta.
+
+The comparative composition of Trinidad and Cuba asphalt is given in the
+following table:--
+
+  +---------------------+---------+------------+------------+
+  |                     | Refined |  Refined   |  Refined   |
+  |                     |Trinidad,|Cuba (soft),|Cuba (hard),|
+  |                     | Melting |  Melting   | Melting    |
+  |                     |  point  |    point   |   point    |
+  |                     | 185° F. |   115° F.  |  160° F.   |
+  +---------------------+---------+------------+------------+
+  | Water.              |   0.17  |    0.13    |    0.11    |
+  | Volatile bitumen.   |  51.81  |   64.03    |    8.34    |
+  | Sulphur.            |  10.00  |    8.35    |    8.92    |
+  | Ash (earthy matter).|  28.30  |   19.51    |   16.60    |
+  | Fixed carbon.       |   9.72  |    7.98    |   66.03    |
+  |                     +---------+------------+------------+
+  |                     | 100.00  |  100.00    |  100.00    |
+  +---------------------+---------+------------+------------+
+
+The chemical composition of Trinidad asphalt has been given as:--
+
+  +-------+------+------+------+-------+
+  |   C.  |  H.  |  N.  |  O.  |   S.  |
+  +-------+------+------+------+-------+
+  | 80.32 | 6.30 | 0.50 | 1.40 | 11.48 |
+  +-------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+The following is a comparison of Trinidad and Venezuela (Bermudez)
+asphalt:--
+
+                                                Refined    Refined
+                                               Trinidad.  Bermudez.
+  Specific gravity at 60° F.                     1.373      1.071
+  Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide.         61.507 %    92.22  %
+  Mineral matter (ash).                         34.51  "     1.50  "
+  Non-bituminous organic matter.                 3.983 "     1.28  "
+  Portion of total bitumen soluble in alcohol.   8.24  "    11.66  "
+  Portion of total bitumen soluble in ether.    80.01  "    81.63  "
+  Loss at 212° F.                                0.65  "     1.37  "
+  Loss at 400° F. in ten hours.                  7.98  "    17.80  "
+  Loss at 400° on total bitumen.                12.811 "    18.308 "
+  Evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen at        410° F.   none at 437° F.
+  Softening-point.                             160° F.      "    113° F.
+  Flowing-point.                               192° F.      "    150° F.
+
+Asphalt in its purest forms is generally black or blackish brown in
+colour, and is frequently brittle at ordinary temperatures. Apart from
+its principal use in the manufacture of paving materials, it is largely
+employed in building as a "damp-course" and as a water-excluding coating
+for concrete floors, as well as in the manufacture of roofing-felt. It
+also enters largely into the composition of black varnish. The material
+chiefly used in the construction of asphalt roadways is an asphaltic or
+bituminous limestone found in the Val de Travers, canton of Neuchâtel;
+in the neighbourhood of Seyssel, department of Ain; at Limmer, near the
+city of Hanover; and elsewhere. The proportion of bitumen present in
+asphalt rock usually ranges from 7 to 20%, but it is found that rock
+containing more than 11% cannot be satisfactorily used for street
+pavements, and it is accordingly customary to mix the richer and poorer
+varieties in fine powder in such respective quantities that the
+proportion of bitumen present is from 9 to 10%. The richer rock is
+utilized as a source of asphalt "mastic," which is employed for
+footpaths, floors, roofs, &c. Excellent foundations for steam-hammers,
+dynamos and high-speed engines are made of asphaltic concrete.
+     (B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+ASPHODEL (_Asphodelus_), a genus of the lily order (Liliaceae),
+containing seven species in the Mediterranean region. The plants are
+hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted radical leaves and an
+elongated stem bearing a handsome spike of white or yellow flowers.
+_Asphodelus albus_ and _A. fistulosus_ have white flowers and grow from
+1˝ to 2 ft. high; _A. ramosus_ is a larger plant, the large white
+flowers of which have a reddish-brown line in the middle of each
+segment. Bog-asphodel (_Narthecium ossifragum_), a member of the same
+family, is a small herb common in boggy places in Britain, with rigid
+narrow radical leaves and a stem bearing a raceme of small golden yellow
+flowers.
+
+In Greek legend the asphodel is the most famous of the plants connected
+with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes it as covering the
+great meadow ([Greek: asphodelos leimon]), the haunt of the dead (_Od._
+xi. 539, 573; xxiv. 13). It was planted on graves, and is often
+connected with Persephone, who appears crowned with a garland of
+asphodels. Its general connexion with death is due no doubt to the
+greyish colour of its leaves and its yellowish flowers, which suggest
+the gloom of the underworld and the pallor of death. The roots were
+eaten by the poorer Greeks; hence such food was thought good enough for
+the shades (cf. Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 41; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxi.
+17 [68]; Lucian, _De luctu_, 19). The asphodel was also supposed to be a
+remedy for poisonous snake-bites and a specific against sorcery; it was
+fatal to mice, but preserved pigs from disease. The Libyan nomads made
+their huts of asphodel stalks (cf. Herod. iv. 190).
+
+No satisfactory derivation of the word is suggested. The English word
+"daffodil" is a perversion of "asphodel," formerly written "affodil."
+The d may come from the French _fleur d'affodille_. It is no part of the
+word philologically.
+
+  See Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, s.v.; H.O. Lenz, _Botanik der
+  alten Griechen und Römer_ (1859); J. Murr, _Die Pflanzenwelt in der
+  griechischen Mythologie_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+ASPHYXIA (Gr. [Greek: a-] priv., [Greek: sphaexis], a pulse), a term in
+medicine, literally signifying loss of pulsation, which is applied to
+describe the arrestment of the function of respiration from some
+hindrance to the entrance of air into the lungs. (See RESPIRATORY
+SYSTEM: _Pathology_.)
+
+
+
+
+ASPIC (French, from Lat. _aspis_), an asp or viper found in Egypt whose
+bite is supposed to cause a swift and easy death, hence poetically a
+term for any venomous snake. From association, perhaps, with the
+coldness of the aspic (as in the French proverb, _froid comme un
+aspic_), the word is used for a savoury jelly containing meat, fish or
+eggs, &c. It is also the botanical name of the _Lavandula spica_, or
+spikenard, from which a white, aromatic and highly inflammable oil is
+distilled, called _huile d'aspic_.
+
+
+
+
+ASPIDISTRA, a small genus of the lily order (Liliaceae), native of the
+Himalayas, China and Japan. _Aspidistra lurida_ is a favourite
+pot-plant, bearing large green or white-striped leaves on an underground
+stem, and small dark purplish, cup-shaped flowers close to the ground.
+
+
+
+
+ASPIROTRICHACEAE (O. Bütschli), an order of Ciliate Infusoria,
+characterized by an investment, general or partial, of nearly uniform
+cilia, without any distinct adoral wreath, and one or two adoral endoral
+undulating membranes. With the Gymnostomaceae it formed the Holotricha
+of Stein.
+
+
+
+
+ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE (1836-1905), Mexican statesman and diplomatist, was
+born at Puebla, and educated at the university of Mexico, where he took
+his degree in 1855. He took part in the war against the emperor
+Maximilian, and in 1867, on the establishment of the republic, was
+appointed assistant secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1873 he
+became Mexican consul at San Francisco, where he remained till his
+election to the Senate in 1875. He was professor of jurisprudence at the
+college of Puebla from 1883 to 1890, when he was again appointed
+assistant secretary of foreign affairs. From 1899 till he died in 1905
+he was Mexican ambassador to the United States. Among his writings may
+be mentioned; _Código de extranjeria de los Estados-Unidos Mexicanos_
+(1876), and _La liberdad civil como base del derecho internacional
+privado_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+ASPROMONTE, a mountain of Calabria, Italy, rising behind Reggio di
+Calabria, the west extremity of the Sila range. The highest point is
+6420 ft. and the slopes are clad with forest. Here Garibaldi was wounded
+and taken prisoner by the Italian troops under Pallavicini in 1862.
+
+
+
+
+ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY (1852-   ), English statesman, son of Joseph
+Dixon Asquith, was born at Morley, Yorkshire, on the 12th of September
+1852. He came of a middle-class Yorkshire family of pronounced Liberal
+and Nonconformist views, and was educated under Dr Edwin Abbott at the
+City of London school, from which he went as a scholar to Balliol,
+Oxford; there he had a distinguished career, taking a first-class in
+classics, winning the Craven scholarship and being elected a fellow of
+his college. He was president of the Union, and impressed all his
+contemporaries with his intellectual ability, Dr Jowett himself
+confidently predicting his signal success in any career he adopted. On
+leaving Oxford he went to the bar, and as early as 1890 became a K.C. In
+1887 he unsuccessfully defended Mr R.B. Cunninghame Graham and Mr John
+Burns for their share in the riot in Trafalgar Square; and in 1889 he
+was junior to Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Russell as counsel for the
+Irish Nationalists before the Parnell Commission--an association
+afterwards bitterly commented upon by Mr T. Healy in the House of
+Commons (March 30, 1908). But though he attained a fair practice at the
+bar, and was recognized as a lawyer of unusual mental distinction and
+clarity, his forensic success was not nearly so conspicuous as that of
+some of his contemporaries. His ambitions lay rather in the direction of
+the House of Commons. He had taken a prominent part in politics as a
+Liberal since his university days, especially in work for the Eighty
+Club, and in 1886 was elected member of parliament for East Fife, a seat
+which he retained in subsequent elections. Mr Gladstone was attracted by
+his vigorous ability as a speaker, and his evidence of sound political
+judgment; and in August 1892, though comparatively unknown to the
+general public, he was selected to move the vote of want of confidence
+which overthrew Lord Salisbury's government, and was made home secretary
+in the new Liberal ministry. At the Home Office he proved his capacity
+as an administrator; he was the first to appoint women as factory
+inspectors, and he was responsible for opening Trafalgar Square to
+Labour demonstrations; but he firmly refused to sanction the proposed
+amnesty for the dynamiters, and he was violently abused by extremists on
+account of the shooting of two men by the military at the strike riot at
+Featherstone in August 1893. It was he who coined the phrase
+(Birmingham, 1894) as to the government's "ploughing the sands" in their
+endeavour to pass Liberal legislation with a hostile House of Lords. His
+Employers' Liability Bill 1893 was lost because the government refused
+to accept the Lords' amendment as to "contracting-out." His suspensory
+bill, with a view to the disestablishment of the church in Wales, was
+abortive (1895), but it served to recommend him to the Welsh
+Nationalists as well as to the disestablishment party in England and
+Scotland. During his three years of office he more than confirmed the
+high opinion formed of his abilities.
+
+The Liberal defeat in 1895 left him out of office for eleven years. He
+had married Miss Helen Melland in 1877, and was left with a family when
+she died in 1891; in 1894, however, he had married again, his second
+wife being the accomplished Miss Margaret ("Margot") Tennant, daughter
+of the wealthy ironmaster, Sir Charles Tennant, Bart., a lady well known
+in London society as a member of the coterie known as "Souls," and
+commonly identified as the original of Mr E.F. Benson's _Dodo_ (1893).
+On leaving the Home Office in 1895, Mr Asquith decided to return to his
+work at the bar, a course which excited much comment, since it was
+unprecedented that a minister who had exercised judicial functions in
+that capacity should take up again the position of an advocate; but it
+was obvious that to maintain the tradition was difficult in the case of
+a man who had no sufficient independent means. During the years of
+Unionist ascendancy Mr Asquith divided his energies between his legal
+work and politics; but his adhesion to Lord Rosebery (q.v.) as a Liberal
+Imperialist at the time of the Boer War, while it strengthened his
+position in the eyes of the public, put him in some difficulty with his
+own party, led as it was by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.), who was
+identified with the "pro-Boer" policy. He was one of the founders of the
+Liberal League, and his courageous definiteness of view and intellectual
+vigour marked him out as Lord Rosebery's chief lieutenant if that
+statesman should ever return to power. He thus became identified with
+the Roseberyite attitude towards Irish Home Rule; and, while he
+continued to uphold the Gladstonian policy in theory, in practice the
+Irish Nationalists felt that very little could be expected from his
+advocacy. In spite of his Imperialist views, however, he did much to
+smooth over the party difficulties, and when the tariff-reform movement
+began in 1903, he seized the opportunity for rallying the Liberals to
+the banner of free-trade and championing the "orthodox" English
+political economy, on which indeed he had been a lecturer in his younger
+days. During the critical years of Mr Chamberlain's crusade (1903-1906)
+he made himself the chief spokesman of the Liberal party, delivering a
+series of speeches in answer to those of the tariff-reform leader; and
+his persistent following and answering of Mr Chamberlain had undoubted
+effect. He also made useful party capital out of the necessity for
+financial retrenchment, owing to the large increase in public
+expenditure, maintained by the Unionist government even after the Boer
+War was over; and his mastery of statistical detail and argument made
+his appointment as chancellor of the exchequer part of the natural order
+of things when in December 1905 Mr Balfour resigned and Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.) became prime minister.
+
+During Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership, Mr Asquith gradually
+rose in political importance, and in 1907 the prime minister's
+ill-health resulted in much of the leadership in the Commons devolving
+on the chancellor of the exchequer. At first the party as a whole had
+regarded him somewhat coldly. And his unbending common-sense, and
+sobriety of criticism in matters which deeply interested the less
+academic Radicals who were enthusiasts for extreme courses, would have
+made the parliamentary situation difficult but for the exceptional
+popularity of the prime minister. In the autumn of 1907, however, as the
+latter's retention of office became more and more improbable, it became
+evident that no other possible successor had equal qualifications. The
+session of 1908 opened with Mr Asquith acting avowedly as the prime
+minister's deputy, and the course of business was itself of a nature to
+emphasize his claims. After two rather humdrum budgets he was pledged to
+inaugurate a system of old-age pensions (forming the chief feature of
+the budget of 1908, personally introduced by him at the beginning of
+May), and his speech in April on the Licensing Bill was a triumph of
+clear exposition, though later in the year, after passing the Commons,
+it was thrown out by the Lords. On the 5th of April it was announced
+that Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman had resigned and Mr Asquith been sent
+for by the king. As the latter was staying at Biarritz, the
+unprecedented course was followed of Mr Asquith journeying there for the
+purpose, and on the 8th he resigned the chancellorship of the exchequer
+and kissed hands as prime minister. The names of the new cabinet were
+announced on the 13th. The new appointments were: Lord Tweedmouth as
+lord president of the council (instead of the admiralty); Lord Crewe as
+colonial secretary (instead of lord president of the council); Mr D.
+Lloyd George, chancellor of the exchequer (transferred from the Board of
+Trade); Mr R. McKenna, first lord of the admiralty (instead of minister
+of education); Mr Winston Churchill, president of the Board of Trade;
+and Mr Walter Runciman, minister of education. Lord Elgin ceased to be
+colonial secretary, but Lord Loreburn (lord chancellor), Lord Ripon
+(lord privy seal), Mr H. Gladstone (Home Office), Sir E. Grey (foreign
+affairs), Mr Haldane (War Office), Mr Sinclair (secretary for Scotland;
+created in 1909 Lord Pentland), Mr Burns (Local Government Board), Lord
+Carrington (Board of Agriculture), Mr Birrell (Irish secretary), Mr S.
+Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L. Harcourt (commissioner of works), Mr
+John Morley (India) and Sir Henry Fowler (duchy of Lancaster) retained
+their offices, the two latter being created peers. The Budget (see LLOYD
+GEORGE) was the sole feature of political interest in 1909, and its
+rejection in December by the Lords led to the general election of
+January 1910, which left the Liberals and Unionists practically equal,
+with the Labour and Irish parties dominating the situation (L. 275, U.
+273, Lab. 40, I. 82). Mr Asquith was in a difficult position, but the
+ministry remained in office; and he had developed a concentration of
+forces with a view to attacking the veto of the House of Lords (see
+PARLIAMENT), when the death of the king in May caused a suspension of
+hostilities. A conference between the leaders on both sides was
+arranged, to discuss whether any compromise was possible, and
+controversy was postponed to an autumn session.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+ASS (O.E. _assa_; Lat. _asinus_), a common name (the synonym "donkey" is
+supposed to be derived either by analogy from "monkey," or from the
+Christian name Duncan; cf. Neddy, Jack, Dicky, &c.) for different
+varieties of the sub-genus _Asinus_, belonging to the horse tribe, and
+especially for the domestic ass; it differs from the horse in its
+smaller size, long ears, the character of its tail, fur and markings,
+and its proverbial dulness and obstinacy. The ancient Egyptians
+symbolized an ignorant person by the head and ears of an ass, and the
+Romans thought it a bad omen to meet one. In the middle ages the Germans
+of Westphalia made the ass the symbol of St Thomas, the incredulous
+apostle; the boy who was last to enter school on St Thomas' day was
+called the "Ass Thomas" (Gubernatis's _Zoological Mythology_, i. 362).
+The foolishness and obstinacy of the ass has caused the name to be
+transferred metaphorically to human beings; and the fifth proposition of
+Book i. of Euclid is known as the _Pons Asinorum_, bridge of asses.
+
+
+
+
+ASS, FEAST OF THE, formerly a festival in northern France, primarily in
+commemoration of the biblical flight into Egypt, and usually held on the
+14th of January. A girl with a baby at her breast and seated on an ass
+splendidly caparisoned was led through the town to the church, and there
+placed at the gospel side of the altar while mass was said. The ceremony
+degenerated into a burlesque in which the ass of the flight became
+confused with Balaam's ass. So scandalous became the popular revels
+associated with it, that the celebration was prohibited by the church in
+the 15th century. (See FOOLS, FEAST OF.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSAB, a bay and port on the African shore of the Red Sea, 60 m. N. of
+the strait of Bab-el Mandeb. Assab Bay was the first territory acquired
+by Italy in Africa. Bought from the sultan of Raheita in 1870, it was
+not occupied until 1880. (See ERITREA, and ITALY: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSAM, a former province of British India, which was amalgamated in 1905
+with "Eastern Bengal and Assam" (q.v.). Area 56,243 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
+6,126,343. The province of Assam lies on the N.E. border of Bengal, on
+the extreme frontier of the Indian empire, with Bhutan and Tibet beyond
+it on the N., and Burma and Manipur on the E. It comprises the valleys
+of the Brahmaputra and Surma rivers, together with the mountainous
+watershed which intervenes between them. It is situated between 24° 0'
+and 28° 17' N. lat., and between 89° 46' and 97° 5' E. long. It is
+bounded on the N. by the eastern section of the great Himalayan range,
+the frontier tribes from west to east being successively Bhutias, Akas,
+Daphlas, Miris, Abors and Mishmis; on the N.E. by the Mishmi hills,
+which sweep round the head of the Brahmaputra valley; on the E. by the
+unexplored mountains that mark the frontier of Burma, by the hills
+occupied by the independent Naga tribes and by the state of Manipur; on
+the S. by the Lushai hills, the state of Hill Tippera, and the Bengal
+district of Tippera; and on the W. by the Bengal districts of Mymensingh
+and Rangpur, the state of Kuch Behar and Jalpaiguri district.
+
+_Natural Divisions._--Assam is naturally divided into three distinct
+tracts, the Brahmaputra valley, the Surma valley and the hill ranges
+between the two. The Brahmaputra valley is an alluvial plain, about 450
+m. in length, with an average breadth of 50 m., lying almost east and
+west. To the north is the main chain of the Himalayas, the lower ranges
+of which rise abruptly from the plain; to the south is the great
+elevated plateau or succession of plateaus known as the Assam range. The
+various portions of this range are called by the names of the tribes who
+inhabit them--the Garo, the Khasi, the Jaintia, the North Cachar and the
+Naga hills. The range as a whole is joined at its eastern extremity by
+the Patkai to the Himalayan system, and by the mountains of Manipur to
+the Arakan Yoma. The highest points in the range are Nokrek peak (4600
+ft.) in the Garo hills, Shillong peak (6450 ft.) in the Khasi-Jaintia
+hills, and Japva peak (nearly 10,000 ft.) in the Naga hills. South of
+the range comes the third division of the province, the Surma valley,
+comprising the two districts of Cachar and Sylhet. The Surma valley is
+much smaller than the Brahmaputra valley, covering only 7506 against
+24,283 sq. m.; its mean elevation is much lower and its rivers are more
+sluggish.
+
+  _Physical Aspects._--Assam is a fertile series of valleys, with the
+  great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the _Son of Brahma_)
+  flowing down its middle, and an infinite number of tributaries and
+  watercourses pouring into it from the mountains on either side. The
+  Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad during
+  the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a number of
+  islands in its bed. Rising in the Tibetan plateau, far to the north of
+  the Himalayas, and skirting round their eastern passes not far from
+  the Yang-tsze-kiang and the great river of Cambodia, it enters Assam
+  by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders and
+  accumulations of rocks. The gorge, situated in Lakhimpur district,
+  through which the southernmost branch of the Brahmaputra enters, has
+  from time immemorial been held in reverence by the Hindus. It is
+  called the Brahmakunda or Parasuramkunda; and although the journey to
+  it is both difficult and dangerous, it is annually visited by
+  thousands of devotees. After a rapid course westwards down the whole
+  length of the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra turns sharply to the
+  south, spreading itself over the alluvial districts of the Bengal
+  delta, and, after several changes of name, ends its course of 1800 m.
+  in the Bay of Bengal. Its first tributaries in Assam, after crossing
+  the frontier, are the Kundil and the Digaru, flowing from the Mishmi
+  hills on the north, and the Tengapani and Dihing, which take their
+  rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east. Shortly afterwards it
+  receives the Dihang, flowing from the north-east; but its principal
+  confluent is the Dihong, which, deriving its origin, under the name of
+  the Tsangpo, from a spot in the vicinity of the source of the Sutlej,
+  flows in a direction precisely opposite to that river, and traversing
+  the table-land of Tibet, at the back of the great Himalaya range,
+  falls into the Brahmaputra in 27° 48' N. lat., 95° 26' E. long., after
+  a course of nearly 1000 m. Doubts were long entertained whether the
+  Dihong could be justly regarded as the continuation of the Tsangpo,
+  but these were practically set at rest by the voyage of F.J. Needham
+  in 1886. Below the confluence, the united stream flows in a
+  south-westerly direction, forming the boundary between the districts
+  of Lakhimpur and Darrang, situated on its northern bank, and those of
+  Sibsagar and Nowgong on the south; and finally bisecting Kamrup, it
+  crosses over the frontier of the province and passes into Bengal. In
+  its course it receives on the left side the Dihing, a river having its
+  rise at the south-eastern angle of the province; and lower down, on
+  the opposite side, it parts with a considerable offset termed the Buri
+  Lohir, which, however, reunites with the Brahmaputra 60 m. below the
+  point of divergence, bearing with it the additional waters of the
+  Subansiri, flowing from Tibet. A second offset, under the name of the
+  Kalang river, rejoins the parent stream a short distance above the
+  town of Gauhati. The remaining rivers are too numerous to be
+  particularized. The streams of the south are not rapid, and have no
+  considerable current until May or June. Among the islands formed by
+  the intersection and confluence of the rivers is Majuli, or the Great
+  Island, as it is called by way of pre-eminence. This island extends 55
+  m. in length by about 10 in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra
+  on the south-east and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west. In the
+  upper part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra
+  enters, the country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north
+  and east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the base to the
+  snow-line. On either bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow strip of
+  plain rises almost imperceptibly to the foot of the hills. Gigantic
+  reeds and grasses occupy the low lands near the banks of the great
+  river; expanses of fertile rice-land come next; a little higher up,
+  dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and fruit trees of
+  great size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the interior
+  table-land and mountains. The country in the vicinity of the large
+  rivers is flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled jungle, with the
+  exception of some very low-lying tracts which are either permanent
+  marshes or are covered with water during the rains. Jungle will not
+  grow on these depressions, and they are covered either with water,
+  reeds, high grasses or rice cultivation. On or near such open spaces
+  are collected all the villages. As the traveller proceeds farther down
+  the valley, the country gradually opens out into wide plains. In the
+  western district of Kamrup the country forms one great expanse, with a
+  few elevated tracts here and there, varying from 200 to 800 ft. in
+  height.
+
+  _Soils._--The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kinds
+  of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich
+  black loam reposing on a grey sandy clay, though occasionally it
+  exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into
+  three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the
+  largest group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains,
+  which stand out upon the plain. Another set of hills project into the
+  valley at Gauhati. But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs
+  from the Khasi chain than isolated groups belonging to the plains. The
+  other hills are all isolated and of small extent. The second division
+  of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies
+  above the ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra. The channels of
+  some of the hill streams, however, are of so little depth that the
+  highest lands in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods. On
+  the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the
+  whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the
+  beds of the hill streams. The breadth of these plains is in some
+  places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a tract of many
+  miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills
+  that protect them from the aberrations of the river. The alluvial
+  deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be
+  considered as the third general division of lands in Assam. These
+  lands are very extensive, and present every degree of fertility and
+  elevation, from the vast _chars_ of pure sand, subject to annual
+  inundations, to the firm islands, so raised by drift-sand and the
+  accumulated remains of rank vegetable matter, as no longer to be
+  liable to flood. The rapidity with which wastes, composed entirely of
+  sand newly washed forward by the current during floods, become
+  converted into rich pasture is astonishing. As the freshets begin to
+  lessen and retire into the deeper channels, the currents form natural
+  embankments on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion
+  of water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the
+  action of the sun's rays. It slowly evaporates, leaving a thin crust
+  of animal and vegetable matter. This is soon impregnated with the
+  seeds of the _Saccharum spontaneum_ and other grasses that have been
+  partly brought by the winds and partly deposited by the water. Such
+  places are frequented by numerous flocks of aquatic birds, which
+  resort thither in search of fish and mollusca. As vegetation begins to
+  appear, herds of wild elephants and buffaloes are attracted by the
+  supply of food and the solitude of the newly-formed land, and in their
+  turn contribute to manure the soil.
+
+  _Geology._--Geographically the Assam hills lie in the angle between
+  the Himalayas and the Burmese ranges, but geologically they belong to
+  neither. The older rocks are like those of Bengal, and the newer beds
+  show no sign of either the Himalayan or the Burmese folding--on the
+  top of the plateau they are nearly horizontal, but along the southern
+  margin they are bent sharply downwards in a simple monoclinal fold.
+  The greater part of the mass is composed of gneiss and schists. The
+  Sylhet traps near the southern margin are correlated with the Rajmahal
+  traps of Bengal. The older rocks are overlaid unconformably by
+  Cretaceous beds, consisting chiefly of sandstones with seams of coal,
+  the whole series thinning rapidly towards the north and thus
+  indicating the neighbourhood of the old shore-line. The fossils are
+  very similar to those of the South Indian Cretaceous, but very
+  different from those of the corresponding beds in the Nerbudda valley.
+  The overlying Tertiary series includes nummulitic beds and valuable
+  seams of coal.
+
+  The border ranges of the east and south of Assam belong to the Burmese
+  system of mountain chains (see BURMA), and consist largely of Tertiary
+  beds, including the great coal seams of Upper Assam. The Assam valley
+  is covered by the alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra.
+
+  Of the mineral productions by far the most valuable is coal. Compared
+  with the Gondwana coal of the peninsula of India the Tertiary coal
+  seams of Assam are remarkable for their purity and their extraordinary
+  thickness. The "Thick Seam" of Margherita, in Upper Assam, averages 50
+  ft., and in some places reaches as much as 80 ft. The average
+  percentage of ash in 27 assays of Assam coal was 3.8 as against 16.3
+  in 17 assays of Raniganj coal. The coal seams are commonly associated
+  with petroleum springs. Gold is found in the alluvial deposits, but
+  the results of exploration have not been very promising.
+
+  _Earthquakes_.--Assam is liable to earthquakes. There was a severe
+  earthquake in Cachar on the 10th of January 1869, a severe shock in
+  Shillong and Gauhati in September 1875, and one in Silchar in October
+  1882; but by far the severest shock known is that which occurred on
+  the evening of 12th June 1897. The area of this seismic disturbance
+  extended over north-eastern India, from Manipur to Sikkim; but the
+  focus was in the Khasi and Garo hills. In the station of Shillong
+  every masonry building was levelled to the ground. Throughout the
+  country bridges were shattered, roads were broken up like ploughed
+  fields, and the beds of rivers were dislocated. In the hills there
+  were terrible landslips, which wrecked the little Cherrapunji railway
+  and caused 600 deaths. The total mortality recorded was 1542,
+  including two Europeans at Shillong. The levels of the country were so
+  affected that the towns of Goalpara and Barpeta became almost
+  uninhabitable during the rains.
+
+  _Fauna._--The zoology of Assam presents some interesting features.
+  Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering villages
+  in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to their tastes.
+  Many are caught by means of female elephants previously tamed, and
+  trained to decoy males into the snares prepared for subjecting them to
+  captivity. A considerable number are tamed and exported from Assam
+  every year. Many are killed every year in the forests for the sake of
+  the ivory which they furnish. The government _keddah_ establishment
+  from Dacca captures large numbers of elephants in the province, and
+  the right of hunting is also sold by auction to private bidders. The
+  annual catch of the latter averages about two hundred. The rhinoceros
+  is found in the denser parts of the forests and generally in swampy
+  places. This animal is hunted and killed for its skin and its horn.
+  The skin affords the material for the best shields. The horn is sacred
+  in the eyes of the natives. Contrary to the usual belief, it is stated
+  that, if caught young, the rhinoceros is easily tamed and becomes
+  strongly attached to his keeper. Tigers abound, and though many are
+  annually destroyed for the sake of the government reward, their
+  numbers seem scarcely, if at all, to diminish. Leopards and bears are
+  numerous; and the sand-badger, the _Arctonyx collaris_ of Cuvier, a
+  small animal somewhat resembling a bear, but having the snout, eyes
+  and tail of a hog, is found. Among the most formidable animals known
+  is the wild buffalo or _gaur_ which is of great size, strength and
+  fierceness. The fox and the jackal exist, and the wild hog is very
+  abundant. Goats, deer of various kinds, hares, and two or three
+  species of antelope are found, as are monkeys in great variety. The
+  porcupine, the squirrel, the civet cat, the ichneumon and the otter
+  are common. The birds are too various to admit of enumeration. Wild
+  game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, snipe and water-fowl of many
+  descriptions make the country a tempting field for the sportsman.
+  Vultures and other birds of prey are met with. Crocodiles (commonly
+  called alligators) swarm in all parts of the Brahmaputra, and are very
+  destructive to the fish, of which hundreds of varieties are found, and
+  which supply a valuable article of food. The most destructive of the
+  _ferae naturae_, as regards human life, are, however, the snakes. Of
+  these, several poisonous species exist, including the cobra and karait
+  (_Naja tripudians_ and _Bungarus caeruleus_). The bite of a
+  fairly-grown healthy serpent of either of these species is deadly; and
+  it is ascertained that more deaths occur from snake-bite than from all
+  the other wild beasts put together. Among the non-poisonous serpents
+  the python ranks first. This is an enormous boa-constrictor of great
+  length and weight, which drops upon his prey from the branch of a
+  tree, or steals upon it in the thick grass. He kills his victim by
+  rolling himself round the body till he breaks its ribs, or suffocates
+  it by one irresistible convolution round its throat. He seldom or
+  never attacks human beings unless in self-defence, and loss of life
+  from this cause is scarcely ever reported.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The principal and almost the only food-grain of the
+  plains portion of the province is rice. The production of this staple
+  is carried on generally under the same conditions as in Bengal; but
+  the times of sowing and reaping and the names given to the several
+  crops vary much in different parts of the province. In 1901-1902 out
+  of a total cultivated area of 1,736,000 acres, there were 1,194,000
+  acres under rice. In addition jute is grown to a considerable extent
+  in Goalpara and Sylhet; cotton is grown in large quantities along the
+  slopes of the Assam range. Rubber is grown in government plantations
+  and is also brought in by the hill tribes; while lac, mustard and
+  potatoes are also produced.
+
+  _Tea Plantations._--The most important article of commerce produced in
+  Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great proportion of the
+  cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption, and the
+  Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own consumption,
+  large quantities being imported for the coolies. The tea plantations
+  are the one great source of wealth to the province, and the
+  necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the
+  development of Assam. The plant was discovered in 1823 by Mr Robert
+  Bruce, who had proceeded thither on a mercantile exploration. The
+  country, however, then formed part of the Burmese dominions. But war
+  with this monarchy shortly afterwards broke out, and a brother of the
+  first discoverer, happening to be appointed to the command of a
+  division of gunboats employed in some part of the operations, followed
+  up the pursuit of the subject, and obtained several hundred plants and
+  a considerable quantity of seed. Some specimens were ultimately
+  forwarded to the superintendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta. In
+  1832 Captain F. Jenkins was deputed by the governor-general of India,
+  Lord William Bentinck, to report upon the resources of the country,
+  and the tea plant was brought to his especial notice by Mr Bruce; in
+  1834 a minute was recorded by the governor-general on the subject, in
+  which it is stated that his attention had been called to it in 1827
+  before his departure from England. In accordance with the views of
+  that minute, a committee was appointed to prosecute inquiries, and to
+  promote the cultivation of the plant. Communications were opened with
+  China with a view to obtain fresh plants and seeds, and a deputation,
+  composed of gentlemen versed in botanical studies, was despatched to
+  Assam. Some seeds were obtained from China; but they proved to be of
+  small importance, as it was clearly ascertained by the members of the
+  Assam deputation that both the black and the green tea plants were
+  indigenous here, and might be multiplied to any extent; another result
+  of the Chinese mission, that of procuring persons skilled in the
+  cultivation and manufacture of black tea, was of more material
+  benefit. Subsequently, under Lord Auckland, a further supply of
+  Chinese cultivators and manufacturers was obtained--men well
+  acquainted with the processes necessary for the production of green
+  tea, as the former set were with those requisite for black. In 1838
+  the first twelve chests of tea from Assam were received in England.
+  They had been injured in some degree on the passage, but on samples
+  being submitted to brokers, and others of long experience and tried
+  judgment, the reports were highly favourable. It was never, however,
+  the intention of government to carry on the trade, but to resign it to
+  private adventure as soon as the experimental course could be fairly
+  completed. Mercantile associations for the culture and manufacture of
+  tea in Assam began to be formed as early as 1839; and in 1849 the
+  government disposed of their establishment, and relinquished the
+  manufacture to the ordinary operation of commercial enterprise. In
+  1851 the crop of the principal company was estimated to produce
+  280,000 lb. Since then the enterprise has rapidly developed. Tea is
+  now cultivated in all the plains district of the provinces. When the
+  industry was first established, the land which was supposed to be best
+  for the plant was hill or undulating ground; but now it has been found
+  in the Surma valley that with good drainage the heaviest crops of tea
+  can be raised from low-lying land, even such as formerly supported
+  rice cultivation. At the close of the year 1905 there were 942 gardens
+  in all, with 422,335 acres, and employing 464,912 coolies. The
+  majority of gardens are owned by Europeans, 405,486 acres belonging to
+  them as against 16,849 to Indians. The total out-turn for the province
+  in 1905 was 193,556,047 lb. Between 1893 and 1898 there was a great
+  extension of tea cultivation, with the result that the industry began
+  to suffer from the congestion that follows over-production. Also to
+  meet the requirements of the industry, an enormous number of coolies
+  had to be brought into the province from other parts of India, and in
+  recent years the supply of labour has begun to fall off, causing a
+  rise in the cost of production. For these reasons there was a crisis
+  in the tea industry of Assam, which was relieved to some extent by the
+  reduction of the English duty on tea in 1906.
+
+  _Tea-Garden Coolies._--The labour required on the tea gardens is
+  almost entirely imported, as the natives of the province are too
+  prosperous to do such work. During the decade 1891-1901, 596,856
+  coolies were imported, or about a tenth of the total population of the
+  province. The importation of coolies is controlled by an elaborate
+  system of legislation, which provides for the registration of
+  contracts, the medical inspection of coolies during the journey, and
+  supervision over rates of pay, &c., on the gardens. The first labour
+  act was passed in 1863, and since then the law on the subject has been
+  changed by successive enactments. The measure now in force is called
+  Act VI. of 1901. Under this act the maximum term of the labour
+  contract is fixed at four years, and a minimum monthly wage is laid
+  down, the payment of which, however, is contingent on the completion
+  of a daily task by the labourer. Labourers under contract deserting
+  are liable to fine and imprisonment, and, subject to certain
+  restrictions, may be arrested without warrant by their employers. In
+  addition to the labourers engaged under this act, a large number are
+  employed under contract enforceable by Act XIII, of 1859, which
+  provides penalties for breach of the contract, but does not allow of
+  the arrest of deserters without warrant. Neither does this act
+  regulate in any way the terms of the contract, nor contain any special
+  provisions for the protection of the labourer. Many labourers on the
+  conclusion of their first engagement under Act VI. of 1901 enter into
+  renewed contracts under Act XIII. of 1859. In 1905 there were in all
+  664,296 labourers, and 24,209 fresh importations, of whom 62% chose
+  the old act.
+
+  _Railways._--The Assam-Bengal railway runs from the seaport of
+  Chittagong to the Surma valley, and thence across the hills to
+  Dibrugarh, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to
+  Gauhati lower down the Brahmaputra. The hill section of this line was
+  found exceedingly difficult of construction, and extensive damage was
+  done by the earthquake of 1897; but it is now complete. This railway
+  is financed by the government, though worked by a company, and
+  therefore ranks as a state line. At the end of 1904 its open mileage
+  was 576 m. There are several short lines of light railway or tramway
+  in the province. The most important is the Dibru-Sadiya railway, at
+  the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to the coal-fields.
+
+  _Trade_.-The external trade of Assam is conducted partly by steamer,
+  partly by native boat, and to a small extent by rail. In the
+  Brahmaputra valley steamers carry as much as 86% of the exports, and
+  94% of the imports. In the Surma valley native boats carry about 43%
+  of both. In 1904-1905 the total exports were valued at 726 lakhs of
+  rupees. The chief items were tea, rice in the husk, oil-seeds,
+  tea-seed, timber, coal and jute. The imports were valued at 457 lakhs
+  of rupees. The chief items were cotton piece-goods, rice not in the
+  husk, sugar, grain and pulse, salt, iron and steel, tobacco, cotton
+  twist and yarn, and brass and copper. No less than two-thirds of the
+  total trade is conducted with Calcutta. The trans-frontier trade is
+  insignificant; and most of it is conducted with the Bengal state of
+  Hill Tippera. The trade through Chittagong is increasing owing to the
+  opening of the hill-section of the Assam-Bengal railway, which gives
+  direct communication between the districts of Upper Assam and the port
+  of Chittagong, and the incorporation of that port in the new province
+  of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The total population of Assam, according to the census
+of 1901, was 6,126,343, of whom 3,429,099 were Hindus, 1,581,317
+Mahommedans and 1,068,334 Animists. The number of foreigners in the
+population due to immigration by the tea-garden coolies was 775,844. But
+in spite of this immigration the rate of increase in the population was
+only 5.9% in the decade, and with the immigrants deducted 1.36%. Amongst
+native-born Assamese during the decade there was a serious decrease in
+Nowgong and some other districts, due to _kalaazar_ and other diseases.
+The Assamese are an interesting race, of distinct origin from the
+neighbouring Bengalis. A large proportion of them derive their origin
+from tribes who came from the Himalayan ranges, from Burma or from the
+Chinese frontier. The most important of these are the Ahoms or Ahams, an
+offshoot of the Shan race of northern Burma. They were the last
+conquerors of Assam before the Burmese, and they long preserved their
+ancient traditions, habits and institutions. Hinduism first made its
+encroachments among their kings and nobility. Several generations ago
+they gave up eating beef, and they are now completely Hinduized, except
+in a few remote recesses of Assam. Hinduism has also impressed its
+language upon the province, and the vernacular Assamese possesses a
+close affinity to Bengali, with the substitution of _s_ for the Bengali
+_ch_, of a guttural _h_ for the Bengali _h_ or _sh_, and a few other
+dialectic changes. Indeed, so close was the resemblance that for a time
+Bengali was used as the court and official language of the province
+under British rule. But with the development of the country the Assamese
+tongue asserted its claims to be treated as a distinct vernacular, and a
+resolution of government (1873) re-established it as the language of
+official life and public business.
+
+The Assam peasant, living in a half-populated province, and surrounded
+by surplus land, is indolent, good-natured and, on the whole,
+prosperous. He raises sufficient food for his wants with very little
+labour, and, with the exception of a few religious ceremonies, he has no
+demand made upon him for money, saving the light rental of his fields.
+Under the peaceful influences of British rule, he has completely lost
+his ancient warlike instincts, and forgotten his predatory habits. In
+complexion he is a shade or two fairer than the Bengali. His person is
+in general short and robust, but devoid of the grace and flexibility of
+the Hindu. A flat face, with high cheek-bones, presents a physiognomy
+resembling the Chinese, and suggests no idea of beauty. His hair is
+abundant, black, lank and coarse, but the beard is scanty, and usually
+plucked out, which gives him an effeminate appearance. The women form a
+striking contrast to the men; there is more of feminine beauty in them
+than is commonly seen in the women of Bengal, with a form and feature
+somewhat approaching the European. The habits of life of the Assamese
+peasantry are pre-eminently domestic. Great respect is paid to old age;
+when parents are no longer capable of labour they are supported by their
+children, and scarcely any one is allowed to become a burden to the
+public. They have also in general a very tender regard for their
+offspring, and are generous and kind to their relations. They are
+hospitable to people of their own caste, but to no others. The use of
+opium is very general.
+
+_Hill Tribes._--The hill and frontier tribes of Assam include the Nagas,
+Singphos, Daphlas, Miris, Khamtis, Mishmis, Abors, &c., nearly all of
+whom, excepting the Nagas, are found near the frontiers of Lakhimpur
+district. The principal of these, in point of numbers, are the Nagas,
+who inhabit the hills and forests along the eastern and south-eastern
+frontier of Assam. They reside partly in the British district of the
+Naga hills and partly in independent territory under the political
+control of the deputy-commissioner of the adjoining districts. They
+cultivate rice, cotton, yams and Indian corn, and prepare salt from the
+brine springs in their hills. The different tribes of Nagas are
+independent of and unconnected with one another, and are often at war
+with each other. The Singphos are another of the main population of the
+same race, who occupy in force the hilly country between the Patkai and
+Chindwin rivers, and are nominally subject to Burma. The Akas, Daphlas,
+Miris, Abors, Mishmis and Khamtis are described under separate headings.
+Under regulation V. of 1873, an inner line has been laid down in certain
+districts, up to which the protection of British authority is
+guaranteed, and beyond which, except by special permission, it is not
+lawful for British subjects to go. This inner line has been laid down in
+Darrang towards the Bhutias, Akas and Daphlas; in Lakhimper towards the
+Daphlas, Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Singphos and Nagas; and in
+Sibsagar towards the Nagas. The inner line formerly maintained along the
+Lushai border has since 1895 been allowed to fall into desuetude, but
+Lushais visiting Cachar are required to take out passes from the
+superintendent of the Lushai hills. The line is marked at intervals by
+frontier posts held by military police and commanding the roads of
+access to the tract beyond; and any person from the plains who has
+received permission to cross the line has to present his pass at these
+posts.
+
+_History._--Assam was the province of Bengal which remained most
+stubbornly outside the limits of the Mogul empire and of the Mahommedan
+polity in India. Indeed, although frequently overrun by Mussulman
+armies, and its western districts annexed to the Mahommedan vice-royalty
+of Bengal, the province maintained an uncertain independence till its
+invasion by the Burmese towards the end of the 18th century, and its
+final cession to the British in 1826. It seems to have been originally
+included, along with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the
+old Hindu territory of Kamrup. Its early legends point to great
+religious revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a
+source of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into
+prehistoric times, but the first rajah capable of indentification
+flourished about the year 76 A.D. Kamrup, the Pragjotishpur of the
+ancient Hindus, was the capital of a legendary king Narak, whose son
+Bhagadatta distinguished himself in the great war of the _Mahabharata_.
+
+When Hsüan Tsang visited the country in A.D. 640, a prince named Kumar
+Bhaskara Barman was on the throne. The people are described as being of
+small stature with dark yellow complexions; they were fierce in
+appearance, but upright and studious. Hinduism was the state religion,
+and the number of Buddhists was very small. The soil was deep and
+fertile, and the towns were surrounded by moats with water brought from
+rivers or banked-up lakes. Subsequently we read of Pal rulers in Assam.
+It is supposed that these kings were Buddhist and belonged to the Pal
+dynasty of Bengal. Although the whole of Kamrup appears from time to
+time to have been united into one kingdom under some unusually powerful
+monarch, it was more often split up into numerous petty states; and for
+several centuries the Koch, the Ahom and the Chutia powers contested for
+the Assam valley. In the early part of the 13th century the Ahoms or
+Ahams, from northern Burma and the Chinese frontiers, poured into the
+eastern districts of Assam, founded a kingdom, and held it firmly for
+several centuries. The Ahoms were Shans from the ancient Shan kingdom of
+Pong. Their manners, customs, religion and language were, and for a long
+time continued to be, different from those of the Hindus; but they found
+themselves compelled to respect the superior civilization of this race,
+and slowly adopted its customs and language. The conversion of their
+king Chuchengpha to Hinduism took place in the year A.D. 1655, and all
+the Ahoms of Assam gradually followed his example. In medieval history,
+the Assamese were known to the Mussulman population as a warlike,
+predatory race, who sailed down the Brahmaputra in fleets of innumerable
+canoes, plundered the rich districts of the delta, and retired in safety
+to their forests and swamps. As the Mahommedan power consolidated itself
+in Bengal, repeated expeditions were sent out against these river
+pirates of the north-east. The physical difficulties which an invading
+force had to contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a
+regular subjugation of the country; and after repeated efforts, the
+Mussulmans contented themselves with occupying the western districts at
+the mouth of the Assam valley. The following details will suffice for
+the history of a struggle in which no great political object was
+attained, and which left the Assamese still the same wild and piratical
+people as when their fleets of canoes first sallied forth against the
+Bengal delta. In 1638, during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan, the
+Assamese descended the Brahmaputra, and pillaged the country round the
+city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal, who
+retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam. During the civil wars
+between the sons of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam renewed his predatory
+incursions into Bengal; upon the termination of the contest, Aurangzeb
+determined to avenge these repeated insults, and despatched a
+considerable force for the regular invasion of the Assamese territory
+(1660-1662). His general, Mir Jumla, defeated the rajah, who fled to the
+mountains, and most of the chiefs made their submission to the
+conqueror. But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumla's
+army was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated the
+last expedition against Assam by the Mahommedans, whose fortunes in this
+country were never prosperous. A writer of the Mahommedan faith
+says:--"Whenever an invading army has entered their territories, the
+Assamese have sheltered themselves in strong posts, and have distressed
+the enemy by stratagems, surprises and alarms, and by cutting off their
+provisions. If these means failed, they have declined a battle in the
+field, but have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the
+grain and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set in
+upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity to make
+excursions and vent their rage; the famished invaders have either become
+their prisoners or been put to death. In this manner powerful and
+numerous armies have been sunk in that whirlpool of destruction, and not
+a soul has escaped." The same writer states that the country was
+spacious, populous and hard to be penetrated; that it abounded in
+dangers; that the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that
+the obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The
+inhabitants, he says, were enterprising, well-armed and always prepared
+for battle. Moreover, they had lofty forts, numerously garrisoned and
+plentifully provided with warlike stores; and the approach to them was
+opposed by thick and dangerous jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers.
+The difficulties in the way of successful invasion are of course not
+understated, as it was the object of the writer to exalt the prowess and
+perseverance of the faithful. He accounts for their temporary success by
+recording that "the Mussulman hordes experienced the comfort of fighting
+for their religion, and the blessings of it reverted to the sovereignty
+of his just and pious majesty." The short-lived triumph of the
+Mussulmans might, however, have warranted a less ambitious tone. About
+the middle of the 17th century the chief became a convert to Hinduism.
+By what mode the conversion was effected does not clearly appear, but
+whatever were the means employed, it seems that the decline of the
+country commenced about the same period. Internal dissensions, invasion
+and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province, and neither
+prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the 18th century some
+interference took place on the part of the British government, then
+conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but the successor of that nobleman, Sir
+John Shore, adopting the non-intervention policy, withdrew the British
+force, and abandoned the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged
+the Burmese to depose the rajah, and to make Assam a dependency of Ava.
+The extension of their encroachments on a portion of the territory of
+the East India Company compelled the British government to take decisive
+steps for its own protection. Hence arose the series of hostilities with
+Ava known in Indian history as the first Burmese War, on the termination
+of which by treaty in February 1826, Assam remained a British
+possession. In 1832 that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam
+was formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon
+Purandhar Singh, the ex-rajah of the country; but the administration of
+this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his principality was
+reunited with the British dominions. After a period of successful
+administration and internal development, under the lieutenant-governor
+of Bengal, it was erected into a separate chief-commissionership in
+1874.
+
+In 1886 the eastern Dwars were annexed from Bhutan; and in 1874 the
+district of Goalpara, the eastern Dwars and the Garo hills were
+incorporated in Assam. In 1898 the southern Lushai hills were
+transferred from Bengal to Assam, and the north and south Lushai hills
+were amalgamated as a district of Assam, and placed under the
+superintendent of the Lushai hills. Frontier troubles occasionally occur
+with the Akas, Daphlas, Abors and Mishmis along the northern border,
+arising out of raids from the independent territory into British
+districts. In October 1905 the whole province of Assam was incorporated
+in the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
+
+  See E.A. Gait, _The History of Assam_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+ASSAMESE, the Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Assam valley. In 1901
+the number of its speakers was 1,350,846. It is closely related to
+Bengali and Oriya, forming with them and with Bihari the Eastern Group
+of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars. For further particulars see BENGALI.
+
+
+
+
+ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1829), the founder of schools
+for the education of deaf-mutes in Italy, was born at Genoa in 1753.
+After qualifying himself for the church, he entered the society of the
+Pietists, "Scuole Pie," who devoted themselves to the training of the
+young. His superior learning caused him to be appointed to lecture on
+theology to the students of the order. In 1801 he heard of the Abbé
+Sicard's training of deaf-mutes in Paris, and resolved to try something
+similar in Italy. He began with one pupil, and had by degrees collected
+a small number round him, when, in 1805, Napoleon, hearing of his
+endeavours, ordered a convent to be given him for a school-house, and
+funds for supporting twelve scholars to be taken from the convent
+revenues. This order was scarcely attended to till 1811, when it was
+renewed, and in the following year Assarotti, with a considerable number
+of pupils, took possession of the new school. Here he continued, with
+the exception of a short interval in 1814, till his death in 1829. A
+pension, which had been awarded him by the king of Sardinia, he
+bequeathed to his scholars.
+
+
+
+
+ASSARY, or ASSARION, a Roman copper coin, the "farthing" of Matthew x.
+29.
+
+
+
+
+ASSASSIN (properly _Hashishin_, from _Hashish_, the opiate made from the
+juice of hemp leaves), a general term for a secret murderer, originally
+the name of a branch of the Shiite sect (see SHIITES), known as
+Isma'ilites, founded by Hassan (ibn) Sabbah at the end of the 11th
+century, and from that time active in Syria and Persia until crushed in
+the 13th century by the Mongols under Hulaku (Hulagu) in Persia, and by
+the Mameluke Bibars in Syria. The father of Hassan Sabbah, a native of
+Khorasan, and a Shiite, had been frequently compelled to profess Sunnite
+orthodoxy, and from prudential motives had sent his son to study under
+an orthodox doctor at Nishapur. Here Hassan made the acquaintance of
+Nizam-ul-Mulk, afterwards vizier of the sultan Malik-Shah (see SELJUKS).
+During the reign of Alp-Arslan he remained in obscurity, and then
+appeared at the court of Malik-Shah, where he was at first kindly
+received by his old friend the vizier. Hassan, who was a man of great
+ability, tried to supplant him in the favour of the sultan, but was
+outwitted and compelled to take his departure from Persia. He went to
+Egypt (1078-79), and, on account of his high reputation, was received
+with great honour by the lodge at Cairo. He soon stood so high in the
+caliph Mostansir's favour as to excite against him the jealousy of the
+chief general, and a cause of open enmity soon arose. The caliph had
+nominated first one and then another of his sons as his successor, and
+in consequence a party division took place among the leading men.
+Hassan, who adopted the cause of Nizar, the eldest son, found his
+enemies too strong for him, and was forced to leave Egypt. After many
+adventures he reached Aleppo and Damascus, and after a sojourn there,
+settled near Kuhistan (Kohistan). He gradually spread his peculiar
+modification of Isma'ilite doctrine, and, having collected a
+considerable number of followers, formed them into a secret society. In
+1090 he obtained, by stratagem, the strong mountain fortress of Alamut
+in Persia, and, removing there with his followers, settled as chief of
+the famous society afterwards called the Assassins.
+
+The speculative principles of this body were identical with those of the
+Isma'ilites, but their external policy was marked by one peculiar and
+distinctive feature--the employment of secret "assassination" against
+all enemies. This practice was introduced by Hassan, and formed the
+essential characteristic of the sect. In organization they closely
+resembled the western lodge at Cairo. At the head was the supreme ruler,
+the _Sheik-al-Jabal_ (_Jebel_), i.e. Chief, or, as it is commonly
+translated, Old Man of the Mountains. Under him were three
+_Da'i-al-Kirbal_, or, as they may be called, grand priors, who ruled the
+three provinces over which the sheik's power extended. Next came the
+body of _Da'is_, or priors, who were fully initiated into all the secret
+doctrines, and were the emissaries of the faith. Fourth were the
+_Refiqs_, associates or fellows, who were in process of initiation, and
+who ultimately advanced to the dignity of _da'is_. Fifth came the most
+distinctive class, the _Fedais_ (i.e. the devoted ones), who were the
+guards or assassins proper. These were all young men, and from their
+ranks were selected the agents for any deed of blood. They were kept
+uninitiated, and the blindest obedience was exacted from and yielded by
+them. When the sheik required the services of any of them, the selected
+_fedais_ were intoxicated with the _hashish_. When in this state they
+were introduced into the splendid gardens of the sheik, and surrounded
+with every sensual pleasure. Such a foretaste of paradise, only to be
+granted by their supreme ruler, made them eager to obey his slightest
+command; their lives they counted as nothing, and would resign them at a
+word from him. Finally, the sixth and seventh orders were the _Lasiqs_,
+or novices, and the common people. Hassan well knew the efficacy of
+established law and custom in securing the obedience of a mass of
+people; accordingly, upon all but the initiated, the observances of
+Islam were rigidly enforced. As for the initiated, they knew the
+worthlessness of positive religion and morality; they believed in
+nothing, and scoffed at the practices of the faithful.
+
+The Assassins soon began to make their power felt. One of their first
+victims was Hassan's former friend, Nizam-ul-Mulk, whose son also died
+under the dagger of a secret murderer. The death by poison of the sultan
+Malik-Shah was likewise ascribed to this dreaded society, and
+contributed to increase their evil fame. Sultan Sinjar, his successor,
+made war upon them, but he was soon glad to come to terms with enemies
+against whose operations no precaution seemed available. After a long
+and prosperous rule Hassan died at an advanced age in 1124. He had
+previously slain both his sons, one on suspicion of having been
+concerned in the murder of a _da'i_ at Kuhistan, the other for drinking
+wine, and he was therefore compelled to name as his successor his chief
+_da'i_, Kia-Busurg-Omid.
+
+During the fourteen years' reign of this second leader, the Assassins
+were frequently unfortunate in the open field, and their castles were
+taken and plundered; but they acquired a stronghold in Syria, while
+their numerous murders made them an object of dread to the neighbouring
+princes, and spread abroad their evil renown. A long series of
+distinguished men perished under the daggers of the _fedais_; even the
+most sacred dignity was not spared. The caliph Mostarshid was
+assassinated in his tent, and not long after, the caliph Rashid suffered
+a similar fate. Busurg-Omid was succeeded by his son Mahommed I., who,
+during the long period of twenty-five years, ruthlessly carried out his
+predecessor's principles. In his time Massiat became the chief seat of
+the Syrian branch of the society. Mahommed's abilities were not great,
+and the affections of the people were drawn towards his son Hassan, a
+youth of great learning, skilled in all the wisdom of the initiated, and
+popularly believed to be the promised Imam become visible on earth. The
+old sheik prevented any attempt at insurrection by slaying 250 of
+Hassan's adherents, and the son was glad to make submission. When,
+however, he attained the throne, he began to put his views into effect.
+On the 17th of the month Ramadan, 1164, he assembled the people and
+disclosed to them the secret doctrines of the initiated; he announced
+that the doctrines of Islam were now abolished, that the people might
+give themselves up to feasting and joy. Soon after, he announced that he
+was the promised Imam, the caliph of God upon earth. To substantiate
+these claims he gave out that he was not the son of Mahommed, but was
+descended from Nizar, son of the Egyptian caliph Mostansir, and a lineal
+descendant of Isma'il. After a short reign of four years Hassan was
+assassinated by his brother-in-law, and his son Mahommed II. succeeded.
+One of his first acts was to slay his father's murderer, with all his
+family and relatives; and his long rule, extending over a period of
+forty-six years, was marked by many similar deeds of cruelty. He had to
+contend with many powerful enemies, especially with the great Atabeg
+sultan Nureddin, and his more celebrated successor, Saladin, who had
+gained possession of Egypt after the death of the last Fatimite caliph,
+and against whom even secret assassination seemed powerless. During his
+reign, also, the Syrian branch of the society, under their _da'i_,
+Sinan, made themselves independent, and remained so ever afterwards. It
+was with this Syrian branch that the Crusaders made acquaintance; and it
+appears to have been their emissaries who slew Count Raymund of Tripoli
+and Conrad of Montferrat.
+
+Mahommed II. died from the effects of poison, administered, it is
+believed, by his son, Jelaleddin Hassan III., who succeeded. He restored
+the old form of doctrine--secret principles for the initiated, and Islam
+for the people--and his general piety and orthodoxy procured for him the
+name of the new Mussulman. During his reign of twelve years no
+assassinations occurred, and he obtained a high reputation among the
+neighbouring princes. Like his father, he was removed by poison, and his
+son, 'Ala-ed-din Mahommed III., a child of nine years of age, weak in
+mind and body, was placed on the throne. Under his rule the mild
+principles of his father were deserted, and a fresh course of
+assassination entered on. In 1255, after a reign of thirty years,
+'Ala-ed-din was slain, with the connivance of his son, Rukneddin, the
+last ruler of the Assassins. In the following year Hulaku (Hulagu),
+brother of the Tatar, Mangu Khan, invaded the hill country of Persia,
+took Alamut and many other castles, and captured Rukneddin (see
+MONGOLS). He treated him kindly, and, at his own request, sent him under
+escort to Mangu. On the way, Rukneddin treacherously incited the
+inhabitants of Kirdkuh to resist the Tatars. This breach of good faith
+was severely punished by the khan, who ordered Rukneddin to be put to
+death, and sent a messenger to Hulaku (Hulagu) commanding him to slay
+all his captives. About 12,000 of the Assassins were massacred, and
+their power in Persia was completely broken. The Syrian branch
+flourished for some years longer, till Bibars, the Mameluke sultan of
+Egypt, ravaged their country and nearly extirpated them. Small bodies of
+them lingered about the mountains of Syria, and are believed still to
+exist there. Doctrines somewhat similar to theirs are still to be met
+with in north Syria.
+
+  See J. von Hammer, _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818); S. de Sacy,
+  _Mémoires de l'lnstitut_, iv. (1818), who discusses the etymology
+  fully; _Calcutta Review_, vols. lv., lvi.; A. Jourdain in Michaud's
+  _Histoire des Croisades_, ii. pp. 465-484, and trans. of the Persian
+  historian Mirkhond in _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_, xiii. pp.
+  143 sq.; cf. R. Dozy, _Essai sur l'histoire de l'Islamisme_ (Leiden
+  and Paris, 1879); ch. ix.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSAULT (from Lat. _ad_, to or on, and _saltare_, to leap), in English
+law, "an attempt or offer with force or violence to do corporal hurt to
+another, as by striking at another with a stick or other weapon, or
+without a weapon, though the party misses his aim." Notwithstanding
+ancient opinions to the contrary, it is now settled that mere words, be
+they ever so provoking, will not constitute an assault. Coupled with the
+attempt or threat to inflict corporal injury, there must in all cases be
+the means of carrying the threat into effect. A _battery_ is more than a
+threat or attempt to injure the person of another; the injury must have
+been inflicted, but it makes no difference however small it may be, as
+the law does not "draw the line between degrees of violence," but
+"totally prohibits the first and lowest stage of it." Every battery
+includes an assault. A common assault is a misdemeanour, and is
+punishable by imprisonment with or without hard labour to the extent of
+one year, and if it occasions bodily harm, with penal servitude for
+three years, or imprisonment to the extent of two years, with or without
+hard labour. There are various different kinds of assaults which are
+provided against by particular enactments of parliament, such as the
+Offences against the Person Act 1861, the Prevention of Crimes Act 1871,
+&c.; and there are also certain aggravated assaults for which the
+punishment is severer than for common assault, as an assault with intent
+to murder, with intent to commit a rape, &c. In certain cases an assault
+and battery is sometimes justifiable, as in the case where a person in
+authority, as a parent or schoolmaster, inflicts moderate punishment
+upon a child, or in certain cases of self-defence, or in defence of
+one's goods and chattels. An assault may be both a tort and a crime,
+giving a civil action for damages to the person injured, as well as
+being the subject of a criminal prosecution.
+
+_United States._--The general principles applicable throughout the
+United States are the same as in England. Riding a horse threateningly
+near a person; or riding a bicycle against another (_Mercer v. Corbin_,
+117 Indiana Rep. 450); waking one from sleep to present a milk bill
+(_Richmond v. Fiske_, 160 Mass. 34), are assaults. A minor is liable for
+damages for an assault (_Hildreth v. Hancock_, 156 Illinois Rep. 618).
+In Texas it has been held that an assault with a knife is not
+necessarily an aggravated assault (_Warren v. State_, 3 S.W. 240), and
+an axe is not necessarily a "deadly weapon" with which to assault
+(_Gladney v. State_, 12 S.W. 868), and the State must prove that it
+would be likely to produce death or serious bodily injury (_Melton v.
+State_, 17 S.W. 257). Neither a pistol nor brass knuckles are
+necessarily deadly weapons; the State must show their size or manner of
+use in making the assault (_Ballard v. State_, 13 S.W. 674; _Miles v.
+State_, 5 S.W. 250). But in 1903 a pistol was held by the Texas Supreme
+Court to be a deadly weapon if not used simply as a club (_Lockland v.
+State_, 73 S.W. 1054), and the same court held in 1904 that a pistol is
+a deadly weapon (_Pace v. State_, 79 S.W. 531), and so the assault was
+an aggravated assault. In North Carolina it has been held that an axe is
+_ex vi termini_ a "deadly weapon" (_State v. Shields_, 110 N.C. 49).
+
+
+
+
+ASSAYE, a village of Hyderabad or the Nizam's Dominions, in southern
+India, just beyond the Berar frontier. The place is celebrated as the
+site of a battle fought on the 23rd of September 1803 between the
+combined Mahratta forces Under Sindhia and the rajah of Berar and the
+British under Major-General Wellesley, afterwards the duke of
+Wellington. The Mahratta force consisted of 50,000 men, supported by 100
+pieces of cannon served by French artillerymen, and entrenched in a
+strong position. Against this the English had but a force of 4500 men,
+which, however, after a severe struggle, gained the most complete
+victory that ever crowned British valour in India. Of the enemy 12,000
+were killed and wounded; and General Wellesley lost 1657--one-third of
+his little force--killed and wounded. Assaye is 261 m. north-west of
+Hyderabad.
+
+
+
+
+ASSAYING. To "assay" (or "essay"; Fr. _essayer_) is in general to try,
+or attempt, so to make trial or test. In a restricted sense the term
+assaying is applied in metallurgy to the determination of the amount of
+gold or silver in ores or alloys; in this article, however, it will be
+used in a wider technical signification, and will include a description
+of the methods for the quantitative determination of those elements in
+ores which affect their value in metallurgical operations. It would be
+impossible to give in detail here all the precautions necessary for the
+successful use of the methods, and the descriptions will therefore be
+confined to the principles involved and the general manner in which they
+are applied to secure the desired results.
+
+_Gold and Silver._--Ores containing gold or silver are almost invariably
+assayed in the dry way; that is, by fusion with appropriate fluxes and
+ultimate separation of the elements in the metallic form. One of the
+customs which has grown out of our peculiar system of weights is the
+form of statement of the results of such an assay. Instead of expressing
+the amounts of gold and silver in percentages of the weight of ore, they
+are expressed in ounces to the ton, the ounce being the troy ounce and
+the ton that of 2000 avoirdupois pounds. To simplify calculation and to
+enable the assayer to use the metric system of weights employed in all
+chemical calculations, the "assay ton" ("A.T." = 29.166 grammes) has
+been devised, which bears the same relation to the ton of 2000 lb.
+avoirdupois that one milligram does to the troy ounce; when one assay
+ton of ore is used, each milligram of gold or silver found represents
+one ounce to the ton.
+
+The assay of an ore for gold or silver consists of two operations. In
+the first the gold or silver is made to combine or alloy with metallic
+lead, the other constituents of the ore being separated from the lead as
+slag. In the second, the lead button containing the gold or silver is
+cupelled and the resulting gold or silver button is weighed. The first
+is conducted in one of two ways, known respectively as the crucible
+method and the scorification method. The crucible method is generally
+used for ores containing gold in small amounts and for certain classes
+of silver ores. The amount of ore taken for assay is generally one-half
+"A.T.," but in very low-grade ores one, two, and sometimes even four
+"A.T.s" are used. In the scorification method one-tenth of an "A.T." is
+the amount commonly taken. While in both methods the same result is
+sought, the means employed are quite different. In the scorification
+method the ore is mixed in the scorifier (a shallow dish of burned clay)
+with from ten to twenty times its weight of granulated metallic lead
+(test lead) and a little borax glass, and heated in a muffle, the front
+of which is at first closed. When the lead melts and begins to oxidize,
+the lead oxide, or so-called litharge, combines with or dissolves the
+non-metallic and readily oxidizable constituents of the ore, while the
+gold and silver alloy with the lead. As the slag thus formed flows off
+to the sides of the scorifier, the assay clears and the melted metallic
+lead forms an "eye" in the middle. The door of the muffle is then opened
+and the current of air which is drawn over the scorifier rapidly
+oxidizes the lead, while the melted litharge gradually closes over the
+metal. When the "eye" has quite disappeared the door is closed and the
+temperature raised to make the slag very liquid. The scorifier is taken
+from the muffle in a pair of tongs and the contents poured into a mould,
+the lead forming a button in the bottom while the slag floats on top.
+When cold, the contents of the mould are taken out and the lead button
+hammered into the form of a cube, the slag, which is glassy and brittle,
+separating readily from the metal, which is then ready for cupellation.
+In the crucible method the ore is mixed with from once to twice its
+weight of flux, which varies in composition, but of which the following
+may be taken as a type:--
+
+  Sodium bicarbonate  . . . 8 parts.
+  Potassium carbonate . . . 3   "
+  Powdered borax  . . . . . 4   "
+  Flour . . . . . . . . . . 1   "
+  Litharge  . . . . . . . . 9   "
+
+The mixture is charged into a round clay crucible from 100 mm. to 125
+mm. high, and heated either in a muffle or in a crucible furnace at a
+gradually increasing heat for forty or fifty minutes. At the expiration
+of this time, when the charge should be perfectly liquid and in a
+tranquil state of fusion, the crucible is removed from the furnace and
+the contents are poured into a mould. The resulting lead button hammered
+into shape and carefully cleansed from slag is ready for the cupel. If
+the button is too large for cupellation, or if it is hard, it may be
+scorified either alone or mixed with test lead before cupellation. The
+character and amount of the flux necessarily depend upon the character
+of the ore, the object being to concentrate in the lead button all the
+gold and silver while dissolving and carrying off in the slag the other
+constituents of the ore. Under the most favourable conditions there is a
+slight loss of gold and silver in the fusion, the scorification and the
+cupellation, both by absorption in the slag and by actual volatilization
+and absorption in the cupel. In ores containing much copper, this metal
+is largely concentrated in the lead button, making it hard, and
+necessitating repeated scorifications and, in some cases, a preliminary
+removal of the copper by solution of the ore in nitric acid. This leaves
+the gold in the insoluble residue, which is filtered off, and the silver
+in the solution is thrown down by hydrochloric acid. The resulting
+precipitate of silver chloride is filtered, and the residue and the
+precipitate are scorified together. Ores containing much arsenic or
+sulphur are generally roasted at a low heat and the assay is made on the
+roasted material.
+
+The process of cupellation is briefly as follows:--The gold alloy is
+fused with a quantity of lead, and a little silver if silver is already
+present. The resulting alloy, which is called the _lead button_, is then
+submitted to fusion on a very porous support, made of bone-ash, and
+called a _cupel_. The fusion being effected in a current of air, the
+lead oxidizes. The heat is sufficient to keep the resulting lead oxide
+fused, and the porous cupel has the property of absorbing melted lead
+oxide without taking up any of the metallic globule, exactly in the same
+way that blotting-paper will absorb water whilst it will not touch a
+globule of mercury. The heat being continued, and the current of air
+always passing over the surface of the melted lead button, and the lead
+oxide being sucked up by the cupel as fast as it is formed, the metallic
+globule rapidly diminishes in size until at last all the lead has been
+got rid of. Now, if this were the only action, little good would have
+been gained, for we should simply have put lead into the gold alloy, and
+then taken it out again; but another action goes on whilst the lead is
+oxidizing in the current of air. Other metals, except the silver and
+gold, also oxidize, and are carried by the melted litharge into the
+cupel. If the lead is therefore rightly proportioned to the standard of
+alloy, the resulting button will consist of only gold and silver, and
+these are separated by the operation of _parting_, which consists in
+boiling the alloy (after rolling it to a thin plate) in strong nitric
+acid, which dissolves the silver and leaves the gold as a coherent
+sponge. To effect this parting properly, the proportion of silver to
+gold should be as 3 to 1. The operation by which the alloy is brought to
+this standard is termed _quartation_ or _inquartation_, and consists in
+fusing the alloy in a cupel with lead and the quantity of fine silver or
+fine gold necessary to bring it to the desired composition.
+
+_Lead._--The "dry" or fire assay for lead is largely used for the
+valuation of lead ores, although it is being gradually replaced by
+volumetric methods. One part of the ore is mixed with from three to five
+parts of a flux of the following composition:--
+
+  Potassium carbonate .  .  .  .  . 40.6 %
+  Sodium bicarbonate  .  .  .  .  . 31.3 "
+  Borax   .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 15.6 "
+  Flour   .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 12.5 "
+
+The mixture is charged into a clay crucible and heated for twenty
+minutes at a good red heat. When the mixture has been in a tranquil
+state of fusion for a few minutes it is poured into a mould. When cold,
+the button is hammered, cleaned carefully from slag, and weighed. The
+proportion is calculated from the amount of ore used, and the result is
+expressed in parts in a hundred or percentage of the ore. Various
+impurities, such as copper, antimony and sulphur, go into the lead
+button, so that the result is generally too high. The most accurate
+method for the determination of lead in ores is the gravimetric method,
+in which it is weighed as lead sulphate after the various impurities
+have been separated. Nearly all lead ores contain more or less sulphur;
+and as in the process of solution in nitric acid this is oxidized to
+sulphuric acid which unites with the lead to form the very insoluble
+lead sulphate, it is simpler to add sulphuric acid to convert all the
+lead into sulphate and then evaporate until the nitric acid is expelled.
+The salts of iron, copper, &c., are then dissolved in water and filtered
+from the insoluble silica, lead sulphate, and calcium sulphate, which
+are washed with dilute sulphuric acid. The insoluble matter is treated
+with a hot solution of alkaline ammonium acetate, which dissolves the
+lead sulphate, the other materials being separated by filtration. The
+lead sulphate, re-precipitated in the filtrate by an excess of sulphuric
+acid and alcohol, is then filtered on an asbestos felt in a Gooch
+crucible, washed with dilute sulphuric acid and alcohol, ignited, and
+weighed. Lead sulphate contains 68.30% of metallic lead.
+
+There are several volumetric methods for assaying lead ores, but the
+best known is that based on the precipitation of lead by ammonium
+molybdate in an acetic acid solution. The lead sulphate, obtained as
+described above and dissolved in ammonium acetate, is acidulated with
+acetic acid diluted with hot water and heated to boiling-point. A
+standardized solution of ammonium molybdate is then added from a
+burette. As long as the solution contains lead, the addition of the
+molybdate solution causes a precipitation of white lead molybdate. An
+excess of the precipitant is shown by a drop of the solution imparting a
+yellow colour to a solution of tannin, prepared by dissolving one part
+of tannin in 300 of water; drops of this solution are placed on a white
+porcelain plate, and as the precipitant is added to the lead solution a
+drop of the latter is removed from time to time on a glass stirring-rod
+and added to one of the drops on the porcelain plate. The appearance of
+a yellow colour shows that all the lead has been precipitated and that
+the solution contains an excess of molybdate. From the reading of the
+burette the lead is calculated. The molybdate solution should be of such
+a strength that 1 cc. will precipitate 0.01 gramme of lead. It is
+standardized by dissolving a weighed amount of lead sulphate in ammonium
+acetate and proceeding as described above.
+
+_Zinc._--Chemically the ores of zinc consist of the silicates,
+carbonates, oxides, and sulphides of zinc associated with other metals,
+some of which complicate the methods of assay. The most modern and the
+most generally accepted method is volumetric, and is based on the
+reaction between zinc chloride and potassium ferrocyanide, by which
+insoluble zinc ferrocyanide and soluble potassium chloride are formed;
+the presence of the slightest excess of potassium ferrocyanide is shown
+by a brownish tint being imparted by the solution to a drop of uranium
+nitrate. The ore (0.5 gramme) is digested with a mixture of potassium
+nitrate and nitric acid. A saturated solution of potassium chlorate in
+strong nitric acid is added, and the mass evaporated to dryness. It is
+then heated with a mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonia, filtered
+and washed with a hot dilute solution of the same mixture. The filtrate
+diluted to 200 cc. is carefully neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and
+excess of 6 cc. of the strong acid is added, and the solution saturated
+with hydrogen sulphide, which precipitates the copper and cadmium,
+metals which would otherwise interfere. Without filtering, the standard
+solution is added from a burette, and from time to time a drop of the
+solution is removed on the glass stirring-rod and added to a drop or two
+of a strong solution of uranium nitrate, previously placed on a white
+porcelain plate. The appearance of a brown tint in one of these tests
+shows the end of the reaction. When cadmium is not present the copper
+may be precipitated by boiling the acidulated ammoniacal solution with
+test lead and titrating, as before described, without removing the lead
+and copper from the solution. The ferrocyanide solution is standardized
+by dissolving 1 gramme of pure zinc in 6 cc. of hydrochloric acid,
+adding ammonium chloride, and titrating as before. This method is
+modified in practice by the character of the ores, carbonates and
+silicates free from sulphides being decomposed by hydrochloric acid,
+with the addition of a little nitric acid.
+
+_Copper._--The fire assay for copper ores was abandoned years ago and
+the electrolytic method took its place; this in turn is now largely
+replaced by volumetric methods. In the electrolytic method from 0.5 to 5
+grammes of ore are treated in a flask or beaker, with a mixture of 10
+cc. of nitric and 10 cc. of sulphuric acid, until thoroughly decomposed.
+When this liquid is cold it is diluted with cold water, heated until all
+the soluble salts are dissolved, transferred to a tall, narrow beaker,
+and diluted to about 150 cc. The electrodes are attached to a frame
+connected with the battery and the beaker is placed on a stool, which
+can be raised so that the electrodes are immersed in the liquid and
+reach the bottom of the beaker. The electrodes consist of two cylinders
+of platinum (placed one inside the other) about 75 mm. high, the smaller
+of the two 37 mm. and the larger 50 mm. in diameter, both pierced with
+10 to 12 holes 5 mm. in diameter, evenly distributed over the surfaces
+to facilitate diffusion of the liquids. The surfaces of the cylinders
+are roughened with a sand blast to increase the areas and make the
+deposited metals adhere more firmly. Each cylinder has a platinum wire
+fused to the upper circumference to connect with a clamp from which a
+wire leads to the proper pole of the battery. The smaller cylinder is
+generally the negative electrode on which the copper is deposited. The
+framework carrying the clamps is arranged so that a number of
+determinations may be made at one time, the wires from the clamps
+running from a rheostat, so arranged that currents of any strength may
+be used simultaneously. The cylinder, having been carefully weighed, is
+placed in position, the beaker containing the solution is adjusted, and
+the current passed until all the copper is precipitated. This generally
+requires from two to twelve hours. The cylinders are then removed from
+the solution and washed with distilled water, the one holding the
+deposited copper being washed with alcohol, dried and weighed; the
+increase in weight represents the copper contents of the ore. The
+deposited copper should be firmly adherent and bright rosy red in
+colour. Silver, arsenic and cadmium, if present, are precipitated with
+the copper and affect the accuracy of the results; they should be
+removed by special methods.
+
+Volumetric methods are more expeditious and require less apparatus. The
+potassium cyanide method is based on the fact that, when potassium
+cyanide is added to an ammoniacal solution of a salt of copper, the
+insoluble copper cyanide is formed, the end of the reaction being
+indicated by the disappearance of the blue colour of the solution. One
+gramme of the ore is treated in a flask with a mixture of nitric and
+sulphuric acids and evaporated until all the nitric acid is expelled.
+After cooling a little, water is added, and then a few grammes of
+aluminium foil free from copper. On this foil the copper in the solution
+is all precipitated by electrolytic action in a few minutes, and the
+aluminium is dissolved by the addition of an excess of sulphuric acid.
+Water is added, and as soon as the gangue and copper particles have
+settled the clear solution is decanted, and the residue washed several
+times in the same way. The copper is then dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric
+acid; if silver is present a drop or two of hydrochloric acid is added,
+the solution diluted to about 50 cc., and filtered. To the filtrate (or,
+if no silver is present, to the diluted nitric acid solution) 10 cc. of
+ammonia are added, and a standard solution of potassium cyanide is run
+in from a burette until the blue colour has nearly disappeared. The
+solution is filtered to get rid of the precipitate, and the titration is
+finished in the nearly clear nitrate, which should be always about 200
+cc. in volume. The titration is complete when the blue colour is so
+faint that it is almost imperceptible after the flask has been
+vigorously shaken. The potassium cyanide solution is standardized by
+dissolving 0.5 gramme of pure copper in 5 cc. of nitric acid, diluting,
+adding 10 cc. of ammonia, and titrating exactly as described above.
+
+When potassium iodide is added to a solution of cupric acetate, the
+reaction Cu(C2H3O2)2 + 2KI = CuI + 2K(C2H3O2) + I takes place; that is,
+for each atom of copper one atom of iodine is liberated. If a solution
+of sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite) is added to this solution,
+hydriodic acid, sodium iodide and tetrathionate are formed; and if a
+little starch solution has been added, the end of the reaction is
+indicated by the disappearance of the blue colour, due to the iodide of
+starch. The amount of iodine liberated is therefore a measure of the
+copper in the solution, and when the sodium thiosulphate has been
+carefully standardized the method is extremely accurate. The ore is
+treated as described in the cyanide method until the copper precipitated
+by the aluminium foil has been washed and dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric
+acid; then 0.25 gramme of potassium chlorate is added, and the solution
+boiled nearly dry to oxidize any arsenic present to arsenic acid. The
+solution is cooled, 50 cc. water added, then 5 cc. ammonia, and the
+solution is boiled for five minutes. Next 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid
+are added, the solution cooled, and 5 cc. of a solution of potassium
+iodide (300 grammes to the litre) and the standard solution of sodium
+thiosulphate run in from a burette until the brown colour has nearly
+disappeared. A few drops of starch solution are then added, and when the
+blue colour has nearly vanished a drop or two of methyl orange makes the
+end reaction very sharp. The thiosulphate solution is standardized by
+dissolving 0.3 to 0.5 gramme of pure copper in 3 cc. of nitric acid,
+adding 50 cc. of water and 5 cc. of ammonia, and titrating as above
+after the addition of 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid and 5 cc. of the
+potassium iodide solution.
+
+_Iron._--The methods used in the assay for iron are volumetric, and are
+all based on the property possessed by certain reagents of oxidizing
+iron from the ferrous to the ferric state. Two salts are in common use
+for this purpose, potassium permanganate and potassium bichromate. It is
+necessary in the first place, after the ore is in solution, to reduce
+all the iron to the ferrous condition; then the carefully standardized
+solution of the oxidizing reagent is added until all the iron is in the
+ferric state, the volume of the standard solution used being the measure
+of the iron contained in the ore. The end of the reaction when potassium
+permanganate is employed is known by the change in colour of the
+solution. As the solution of potassium permanganate, which is deep red
+in colour, is dropped into the colourless iron solution, it is quickly
+decolorized while the iron solution gradually assumes a yellowish tinge,
+the first drop of the permanganate solution in excess giving it a pink
+tint. With potassium bichromate solution, which is yellow, the iron
+solution becomes green from the chromium chloride or sulphate formed,
+and the end of the reaction is determined by removing a drop of the
+solution on the stirring-rod and adding it to a drop of a dilute
+solution of potassium ferricyanide on a white tile. So long as the
+solution contains a ferrous salt, the drop on the tile changes to blue;
+hence the absence of a blue coloration indicates the complete oxidation
+of all the ferrous salt and the end of the reaction. One gramme of ore
+is usually taken for assay and treated in a small flask or beaker with
+10 cc. of hydrochloric acid. All the iron in the ore generally dissolves
+upon heating, and a white residue is left. Occasionally this residue
+contains a small amount of iron in a difficultly soluble form; in that
+case the solution is slightly diluted with water and filtered into a
+larger flask. The residue in the filter is ignited and fused with a
+little sodium carbonate and nitrate, or with sodium peroxide. The
+product is treated with water, filtered, and the residue dissolved in
+hydrochloric acid and added to the main solution. This solution, which
+should not exceed 50 cc. or 75 cc. in volume, contains the iron in the
+ferric state and is ready for reduction.
+
+In the reduction by metallic zinc, about 3 grammes of granulated or
+foliated zinc are placed in the flask, which is closed with a small
+funnel; when the iron is reduced, add 10 cc. of sulphuric acid, and as
+soon as all the zinc is dissolved the solution is ready for titration.
+In the reduction by stannous chloride the solution of the ore in the
+flask is heated to boiling, and a strong solution of stannous chloride
+is added until the solution is completely decolorized; then 60 cc. of a
+solution of mercuric chloride (50 grammes to the litre) are run in and
+the contents of the flask poured into a dish containing 600 cc. of water
+and 60 cc. of a solution containing 200 grammes of manganous sulphate, 1
+litre of phosphoric acid (1.3 sp. gr.), 400 cc. of sulphuric acid, and
+1600 cc. of water. The solution is then ready for titration with the
+standard permanganate solution.
+
+The permanganate or bichromate solution is standardized by dissolving
+0.5 of a gramme of pure iron wire in a flask, in hydrochloric acid,
+oxidizing it with a little potassium chlorate, boiling off all traces of
+chlorine, deoxidizing by one of the methods described above, and
+titrating with the solution. As the wire always contains impurities, the
+absolute amount of iron in the wire must be determined and the
+correction made accordingly. Pure oxalic acid may also be used, which,
+in the presence of sulphuric acid, is oxidized by the standard solution
+according to the reaction:--
+
+  5(H2C2O42H2O) + 3H2SO4 + 2KMnO4 = 10CO2 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 18H2O.
+
+The reaction in case of ferrous sulphate is:--
+
+  10FeSO4 + 2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 = 5Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O;
+
+that is, the same amount of potassium permanganate is required to
+oxidize 5 molecules of oxalic acid that is necessary to oxidize 10
+molecules of iron in the form of ferrous sulphate to ferric sulphate, or
+63 parts by weight of oxalic acid equal 56 parts by weight of metallic
+iron. Ammonium ferrous sulphate may also be used; it contains
+one-seventh of its weight of iron.     (A. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSEGAI, or ASSAGAI (from Berber-Arab _as-zahayah_, through Portuguese
+_azagaia_), a weapon for throwing or hurling, a light spear or javelin
+made of wood and pointed with iron, particularly the spear used by the
+Zulu and other Kaffir tribes of South Africa. In addition to the
+long-handled assegai there is a shorter weapon for use at close
+quarters.
+
+
+
+
+ASSELIJN, HANS (1610-1660), Dutch painter, was born at Diepen, near
+Amsterdam. He received instruction from Esaias Vandevelde (1587-1630),
+and distinguished himself particularly in landscape and animal painting,
+though his historical works and battle pieces are also admired. He
+travelled much in France and Italy, and modelled his style greatly after
+Bamboccio (Peter Laer). He was one of the first Dutch painters who
+introduced a fresh and clear manner of painting landscapes in the style
+of Claude Lorraine, and his example was speedily followed by other
+artists. Asselijn's pictures were in high estimation at Amsterdam, and
+several of them are in the museums of that city. Twenty-four, painted in
+Italy, were engraved.
+
+
+
+
+ASSEMANI, the name of a Syrian Maronite family of famous Orientalists.
+
+1. JOSEPH SIMON, a Maronite of Mount Lebanon, was born in 1687. When
+very young he was sent to the Maronite college in Rome, and was
+transferred thence to the Vatican library. In 1717 he was sent to Egypt
+and Syria to search for valuable MSS., and returned with about 150 very
+choice ones. The success of this expedition induced the pope to send him
+again to the East in 1735, and he returned with a still more valuable
+collection. On his return he was made titular archbishop of Tyre and
+librarian of the Vatican library. He instantly began to carry into
+execution most extensive plans for editing and publishing the most
+valuable MS. treasures of the Vatican. His two great works are the
+_Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana rec. manuscr. codd. Syr.,
+Arab., Pers., Turc., Hebr., Samarit., Armen., Aethiop., Graec., Aegypt.,
+Iber., et Malab., jussu et munif. Clem. XI._ (Rome, 1719-1728), 9 vols.
+folio, and _Ephraemi Syri opera omnia quae extant, Gr., Syr., et Lat._,
+6 vols. folio (Rome, 1737-1746). Of the _Bibliotheca_ the first three
+vols. only were completed. The work was to have been in four parts--(1)
+Syrian and allied MSS., orthodox, Nestorian and Jacobite; (2) Arabian
+MSS., Christian and Mahommedan; (3) Coptic, Aethiopic, Persian and
+Turkish MSS.; and (4) Syrian and Arabian MSS. not distinctively
+theological; only the first part was completed, but extensive
+preparations were made for the others. There is a German abridgment by
+A.F. Pfeiffer.
+
+2. JOSEPH ALOYSIUS, brother of Joseph Simon, and professor of Oriental
+languages at Rome. He died in 1782. Besides aiding his brother in his
+literary labours, he published, in 1749-1760, _Codex Liturgicus
+Ecclesiae Universae in xv. libris_ (this is incomplete), and _Comment.
+de Catholicis sive Patriarchis Chaldaeorum et Nestorianorum_ (Rome,
+1775).
+
+3. STEPHEN EVODIUS, nephew of Joseph Simon and Joseph Aloysius, was the
+chief assistant of his uncle Joseph Simon in his work in the Vatican
+library. He was titular archbishop of Apamea in Syria, and held several
+rich prebends in Italy. His literary labours were very extensive. His
+two most important works were a description of certain valuable MSS. in
+his _Bibliotheae Mediceo-Laurentianae et Palatinae codd. manuscr.
+Orientalium Catalogus_ (Flor. 1742), fol., and his _Acta SS. Martyrum
+Orientalium._ He made several translations from the Syrian, and in
+conjunction with his uncle he began the _Bibliothecae Apostol. Vatic.
+codd. manusc. Catal., in tres partes distributus._ Only three vols. were
+published, and the fire in the Vatican library in 1768 consumed the
+manuscript collections which had been prepared for the continuation of
+the work.
+
+4. SIMON, grandnephew of Joseph Simon, was born at Tripoli in 1752, and
+was professor of Oriental languages in Padua. He died in 1820. He is
+best known by his masterly detection of the literary imposture of Vella,
+which claimed to be a history of the Saracens in Syria.
+
+
+
+
+ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL, the term used in English law for an assembly of
+three or more persons with intent to commit a crime by force, or to
+carry out a common purpose (whether lawful or unlawful), in such a
+manner or in such circumstances as would in the opinion of firm and
+rational men endanger the public peace or create fear of immediate
+danger to the tranquillity of the neighbourhood. In the Year Book of the
+third year of Henry VII.'s reign assemblies were referred to as not
+punishable unless _in terrorem populi domini regis_. It has been
+suggested (Criminal Code Commission, 1879) that legislation first became
+necessary at a time when it was usual for those landed proprietors who
+were on bad terms with one another to go to market at the head of bands
+of armed retainers (Statute of Northampton, 1328, 2 Edw. III. c. 3). An
+assembly, otherwise lawful, is not made unlawful if those who take part
+in it know beforehand that there will probably be organized opposition
+to it, and that it may cause a breach of the peace (_Beatty v.
+Gillbanks_, 1882, 9 Q.B.D. 308). All persons may, and must if called
+upon to do so, assist in dispersing an unlawful assembly (_Redford v.
+Birley_, 1822, 1 St. Tr. n.s. 1215; _R. v. Pinney_, 1831, 3 St. Tr. n.s.
+11). An assembly which is lawful cannot be rendered unlawful by
+proclamation unless the proclamation is one authorized by statute (_R.
+v. Fursey_, 1833, 3 St. Tr. n.s. 543, 567; _R. v. O'Connell_, 1831, 2
+St. Tr. n.s. 629, 656; see also the Prevention of Crimes [Ireland] Act
+1887). Meetings for training or drilling, or military movements, are
+unlawful assemblies unless held under lawful authority from the crown,
+the lord-lieutenant, or two justices of the peace (Unlawful Drilling Act
+1820, s. 11).
+
+An unlawful assembly which has made a motion towards its common purpose
+is termed a _rout_, and if the unlawful assembly should proceed to carry
+out its purpose, e.g. begin to demolish a particular enclosure, it
+becomes a riot (q.v.). All three offences are misdemeanours in English
+law, punishable by fine and imprisonment. The common law as to unlawful
+assembly extends to Ireland, subject to the special legislation referred
+to under the title RIOT. The law of Scotland includes unlawful assembly
+under the same head as rioting.
+
+_British Dominions Abroad._--The law of the British colonies as a
+general rule as to unlawful assemblies follows the common law of
+England. The definitions in the Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, s. 79)
+and Queensland (1899, s. 61) are substantially the same as the
+common-law definition above given. Under the Indian Penal Code (s. 141)
+an assembly of five or more persons is designated an unlawful assembly
+if the common object of the persons composing that assembly is--(1) to
+overawe by criminal force, or show of criminal force, the legislative or
+executive government of India, or the government of any presidency or
+any lieutenant-governor, or any public servant in the exercise of the
+lawful power of such public servant; (2) to resist the execution of any
+law or of any legal process; (3) to commit any mischief or "criminal
+trespass" or other offence; (4) by means of criminal force or show of
+criminal force to any person, to take or obtain possession of any
+property, or to deprive any person of the enjoyment of a right of way,
+or of the use of water, or other corporeal right of which he is in
+possession or enjoyment, or to enforce any right or supposed right; or
+(5) by means of criminal force or show of criminal force, to compel any
+person to do what he is not legally bound to do, or to omit to do what
+he is legally entitled to do (see Mayne, _Ind. Cr. Law_, ed. 1896, p.
+480). In South Africa and Mauritius the law on this subject is derived
+from the Roman Dutch and French law (see RIOT.)
+
+_United States._--The common-law definition of unlawful assembly is
+accepted in the United States subject to the special legislation of the
+constituent states. The New York Penal Code (s. 451) declares that
+whenever three or more persons being assembled attempt or threaten any
+act tending towards a breach of the peace or injury to person or
+property, or any unlawful act, such assembly is unlawful (see Bishop,
+_Amer. Crim. Law_, 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. s. 534, vol. ii. s. 1256).
+
+
+
+
+ASSEN, the capital of the province of Drente, Holland, 16 m. by rail S.
+of Groningen, at the junction of the two canals which run north and
+south to Groningen and Meppel respectively. Pop. (1900) 11,329. It is
+partly surrounded by a small forest belonging to the state. Assen
+possesses schools (a gymnasium and burgher school), a chamber of
+commerce, a museum of antiquities and a court-house. Peat-cutting forms
+a considerable industry. Many prehistoric remains found in the
+neighbourhood are in the museum at Leiden. Until the 19th century Assen
+was a small place built round the convent in which Otto II. (of Lippe),
+bishop of Utrecht, was murdered after being taken prisoner at Koevorden
+in 1237.
+
+
+
+
+ASSER, or ASSERIUS MENEVENSIS (d. c. 910), English bishop, and author
+of a life of Alfred the Great, was a native of the western part of
+Wales, and was related to Nobis, bishop of St David's. He became a monk
+at St David's, and having acquired some reputation for learning, he was
+invited by King Alfred to his court. The king met the monk at Denu
+(probably East or West Dean, near Seaford in Sussex), but Asser did not
+at once accept the invitation of Alfred, and returned to Wales to
+consult his colleagues. He then agreed to spend six months of each year
+with the king and six months in his own land; but his first stay at the
+royal court extended to eight months, and it is probable that the
+annual visit to Wales was curtailed if not altogether discontinued. It
+is difficult to fix the date of Asser's arrival in England, but it was
+probably about 885. He assisted the king in his studies, received from
+him the monasteries of Congresbury and Banwell, and sometime later
+"Exeter and its diocese in Saxonland and Cornwall." He became bishop of
+Sherborne before 900, and his death is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon
+Chronicle under the date 910, although it is possible that it occurred a
+year or two earlier. The scanty details of Asser's life are taken from
+his biography of Alfred, from which it is inferred that he was
+acquainted with one or two Frankish biographies, and possibly had
+visited the continent of Europe.
+
+Asser's work, _Annales rerum gestarum Alfredi magni_, was written about
+893, and consists of a chronicle of English history from 849 to 887, and
+an account of Alfred's life, largely drawn from personal knowledge, down
+to 887. The only manuscript of which there is any record dates from
+about 1000, and was destroyed by fire in 1731. From this manuscript an
+edition was printed in 1574 under the direction of Matthew Parker,
+archbishop of Canterbury; but this contained many interpolations and
+alterations which were copied by subsequent editors. The text has since
+been the subject of careful study, and the edition edited by W.H.
+Stevenson (Oxford, 1904) distinguishes between the original work of
+Asser and the later additions. Some doubt has been cast upon the
+authenticity of the work, especially by T. Wright in the _Biographia
+Britannica literaria_ (London, 1842), who ascribes the life to a monk of
+St Neots; but the latest scholarship regards it as the work of Asser,
+although all the difficulties which surround the authorship have not
+been removed. The life was largely used by subsequent chroniclers, among
+others by Florence of Worcester, Simeon of Durham, Roger of Hoveden, and
+William of Malmesbury.
+
+  See W.H. Stevenson, Introduction to Asser's _Life of King Alfred_
+  (Oxford, 1904); R. Pauli, Introduction to _König Aelfred_ (Berlin,
+  1851).
+
+
+
+
+ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. _assessare_, to sit beside, to judge), a term
+expressing either an official valuation of income or property for
+purposes of taxation, or the amount so determined (see TAXATION and
+VALUATION). It is also applied to the amount of damages fixed by a jury
+in a court of law (see DAMAGES).
+
+An _assessment committee_ is a statutory committee appointed under the
+Union Assessment Acts 1862, 1880, for the purpose of making out the
+valuation lists upon which the poor-law rate is based.
+
+An _assessment policy_, in life insurance, is a policy issued at a fixed
+premium, the excess of which over the portion necessary to meet current
+claims and expenses goes to form a reserve fund which is devoted to
+various forms of benefit for the policy-holders. See INSURANCE and
+FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.
+
+
+
+
+ASSESSOR (Lat. _assessare_, _assidere_, to sit by), a Roman term
+originally applied to a trained lawyer who sat beside a governor of a
+province or other magistrate, to instruct him in the administration of
+the laws (see Roll, _De assessoribus magistratuum Romanorum_, Leipzig,
+1872). The system is still exemplified in Scotland, where it is usual in
+the larger towns for municipal magistrates, in the administration of
+their civil jurisdiction, to have the aid of professional assessors. In
+England, by the Judicature Act 1873, the court of appeal and the High
+Court may in any cause or matter call in the aid of assessors. The
+Patents Act 1907 makes special provision for assessors in patent and
+trade-mark cases. By the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1891 the House
+of Lords may, in appeals in admiralty actions, call in the aid of
+assessors, while in the admiralty division of the High Court it is usual
+for the Elder Brethren of Trinity House to assist as nautical assessors.
+In admiralty cases in the county courts, too, the judge is frequently
+assisted by assessors of "nautical skill and experience" (County Court
+Admiralty Jurisdiction Act 1868). In the ecclesiastical courts assessors
+assist the bishop in proceedings under the Church Discipline Act 1840,
+s. 11, while under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, s. 2, they assist the
+chancellor in determining questions of fact. By the Appellate
+Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14, the king in council may make rules for the
+attendance of archbishops and bishops as assessors in the hearing of
+ecclesiastical cases by the judicial committee of the privy council.
+
+The term "assessor" is also very generally applied to persons appointed
+to ascertain and fix the value of rates, taxes, &c., and in this sense
+the word is used in the United States.
+
+In France and in all European countries where the civil law system
+prevails, the term _assesseur_ is applied to those assistant judges who,
+with a president, compose a judicial court.
+
+In Germany an _Assessor_, or _Beisitzer_, is a member of the legal
+profession who has passed four years in actual practice and become
+qualified for the position of a judge.
+
+
+
+
+ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. _assetz_, mod. Fr. _assez_, "enough"), in
+English law, strictly the property of a debtor in the hands of his
+representative sufficient for the satisfaction of his creditors or
+legatees. Thus the property of a bankrupt is termed his assets and is
+the fund out of which his liabilities must be paid. All property of the
+debtor is assets, and it is not necessary that it should have been
+reduced into possession by him.
+
+The creditors of a debtor are either secured or unsecured. A secured
+creditor, e.g. a mortgagee, has a prior claim to be paid his debt out of
+his security. If on realization of the security there is a balance after
+paying the debt, such balance becomes assets for the unsecured
+creditors; if there is a deficit, then the creditor becomes an unsecured
+creditor for such deficit. The unsecured creditors were formerly divided
+into creditors by specialty and by simple contract, the first being
+creditors secured by instrument under seal who ranked in priority to
+simple contract creditors. But by Hinde Palmer's Act [the Executors Act]
+1869 all unsecured creditors rank alike.
+
+Assets are divisible into legal assets and equitable assets, and the
+former class is again divisible into assets real and personal. These
+distinctions, though formerly of great importance, have now lost most of
+their meaning, but it is necessary briefly to describe the nature of
+these divisions and their consequences. The distinction between assets
+legal and equitable depends entirely upon the remedy open to the
+creditor to recover his debt and in no way upon the nature of the
+property from which the debt is sought to be recovered. If the creditor
+had to sue the executor of a debtor at law to obtain payment out of the
+property, that property was legal assets; but if the only remedy open to
+the creditor to get at the property was to bring an action in chancery
+for the administration of the estate, then the assets were equitable.
+
+Legal assets, as has been said, were divided into real and personal
+assets. The personal assets were those which devolved _virtute officii_
+on the executor or administrator; such assets are since Hinde Palmer's
+Act available equally for specialty and simple contract creditors. The
+real assets consisted of those descending to the heir or devised to a
+devisee, and were at law only liable for specialty debts. However, by
+the Land Transfer Act 1897 it is provided that the real estate of a
+deceased shall devolve upon the executor and "shall be administered in
+the same manner ... and with the same incidents as if it were personal
+estate." The distinction, therefore, between assets real and personal
+has practically ceased to exist, and only continues in regard to such
+property as is not included in the act, the most important of which is
+land held in copyhold.
+
+The equitable assets were treated otherwise. In the eyes of equity all
+unsecured creditors stand upon the same footing, and a creditor suing
+for administration of the estate sued on behalf of himself and all other
+creditors of the estate, and the distinction between specialty and
+simple contract creditors was ignored. Land was not at law liable to
+satisfy simple contract creditors; but if a testator expressly charged
+it with payment of his debts or devised it to his executors upon trust
+to pay his debts, equity treated it as equitable assets and so made it
+available to satisfy simple contract creditors; and finally by an act of
+1833 it was provided that real estate should in all cases be assets to
+be administered by equity for the benefit of simple contract creditors
+as well as creditors by specialty. It will be seen therefore that,
+generally speaking, all creditors have now the same remedies against the
+executors either at law or in equity. The only property as to which
+these distinctions at all survive is that not touched by the Land
+Transfer Act 1897.
+
+The act of 1833 just mentioned does not, however, deal with legacies,
+which continue to be payable only out of personalty unless they are
+expressly charged upon the realty by the testator; it has been contended
+that the effect of the Land Transfer Act 1897 has been to alter this and
+make the realty assets for the purpose of paying legacies, but this view
+is believed to be unsound.
+
+It is necessary for the representative so to distribute the assets that
+any fund primarily liable shall bear its proper burden, and that as far
+as possible all debts and legacies may be paid; this is said to be
+"marshalling the assets," and a few examples of the principal cases of
+marshalling will make this clear. If the personalty is exhausted in
+satisfying the creditors the legatees are left without a fund from which
+to be paid. But inasmuch as the creditor could have got paid out of the
+realty, as well as the personalty, it is not fair that the legatee
+should suffer by the creditor's choice, and he will therefore get
+payment from the real estate. So again if one legacy is charged upon the
+real estate and another is not, then if the former be paid out of the
+personalty the latter will stand in its place and be paid from the real
+estate.
+
+Finally it shall be noticed that an insolvent estate may be administered
+in bankruptcy. In such a case the law of bankruptcy regulates the order
+in which the assets are divided among the creditors (see BANKRUPTCY),
+but by the Judicature Act 1875, it is provided that an insolvent estate
+may be administered in the chancery division, and in such a case "the
+same rules shall prevail and be observed as to the respective rights of
+secured and unsecured creditors and as to the debts and liabilities
+provable and as to the valuation of annuities and future and contingent
+liabilities respectively as may be in force for the time being under the
+law of bankruptcy." This clause must be construed strictly, and it is
+only in the three cases specifically mentioned that the rules of
+bankruptcy will be imported into the administration of an insolvent
+estate by the chancery division.
+
+In a less strict sense, the term "assets," or "an asset," is used
+derivatively as a synonym for any property, or as opposed to
+"liabilities." Cecil Rhodes once spoke of the British flag as a "great
+commercial asset" in South Africa, meaning merely that the imperial
+connexion was a source of strength and credit.
+
+
+
+
+ASSIDEANS (the Anglicized form, derived through the Greek, of the Hebrew
+_Hasidim_, "the pious"), the name of a party or sect which stood out
+against the Hellenization of the Jews in the 2nd century B.C. After the
+massacre of those who fled from the forces of Antiochus Epiphanes and
+would not resist on the sabbath, Mattathias (or Judas) decided to set
+aside the law and was joined by a company of Assideans, brave men of
+Israel every one, who offered themselves willingly for the law (1 Macc.
+ii. 42, cf. 2 Macc. viii. 1). On the appointment of Alcimus (162 B.C.),
+"a descendant of Aaron" as high-priest, "the Assideans were the first
+who sought peace" (1 Macc. vii. 13 f.); but the treacherous murder of
+sixty of them (ib. 16) threw them back into the arms of Judas. According
+to 2 Macc. xiv., Alcimus identified them with the whole party of the
+rebels, of which they were only one, though the most important, section.
+
+  See Schurer, _Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes_, i. 203; art. in
+  _Jewish Encyclopaedia_, s.v. "Hasidim" (S.M. Dubnow).     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIGNATS (from Lat. _assignatus_, assigned), a form of paper-money
+issued in France from 1789 to 1796. Assignats were so termed, as
+representing land _assigned_ to the holders.
+
+The financial strait of the French government in 1789 was extreme. Coin
+was scarce, loans were not taken up, taxes had ceased to be productive,
+and the country was threatened with imminent bankruptcy. In this
+emergency assignats were issued to provide a substitute for a metallic
+currency. They were originally of the nature of mortgage bonds on the
+national lands. These lands consisted of the church property
+confiscated, on the motion of Mirabeau, by the Constituent Assembly on
+the 2nd of November 1789, and the crown lands, which had been taken over
+by the nation on the 7th of October (see FRENCH REVOLUTION).
+
+The assignats were first to be paid to the creditors of the state. With
+these the creditors could purchase national land, the assignats having,
+for this purpose, the preference over other forms of money. If the
+creditor did not care to purchase land, it was supposed that he could
+obtain the face-value for them from those who desired land. Those
+assignats which were returned to the state as purchase-money were to be
+cancelled, and the whole issue, it was argued, would consequently
+disappear as the national lands were distributed.
+
+A first issue was made of 400,000,000 francs' worth of assignats, each
+note being of 100 francs' value and bearing interest daily at a rate of
+5%. They were to be redeemed by the product of the sales, and from
+certain other sources, at the rate of 120,000,000 francs in 1791,
+100,000,000 francs in 1792, 80,000,000 francs in 1793 and 1794, and the
+surplus in 1795. The success of the issue was undoubted, and, possibly,
+if the assignats had been restricted, as Mirabeau at first desired, to
+the extent of one-half the value of the lands sold, they would not have
+shared the usual fate of inconvertible paper money. Mirabeau was a
+strenuous advocate of the assignats. "They represent," he said, "real
+property, the most secure of all possessions, the soil on which we
+tread." "There cannot be a greater error than the fear so generally
+prevalent as to the over-issue of assignats ... reabsorbed progressively
+in the purchase of the national domains, this paper-money can never
+become redundant."
+
+In 1790 the interest was reduced to 3%, and as the treasury had again
+become exhausted, a further issue was decided upon; it was also decreed
+that the assignats were to be accepted as legal tender, all public
+departments being instructed to receive them as the equivalent of
+metallic money. This second issue amounted to 800,000,000 francs and
+carried no interest. It was solemnly declared in the decree authorizing
+the issue that the maximum issue was never to exceed twelve hundred
+millions. This pledge, however, was soon broken, and further issues
+brought the total up to 3,750,000,000 francs. The consequence of these
+further issues was instant depreciation, and the note of 100 francs
+nominal value sank to less than 20 francs coin. Recourse was then had to
+protective legislation. The first step was to decree the penalty of six
+years' imprisonment against any person who should sell specie for a more
+considerable quantity of assignats, or who should stipulate a different
+price for commodities according as the payment was to be made in specie
+or in assignats. For the second offence the penalty was to be twenty
+years' imprisonment (August 1, 1793), for which the death penalty was
+ultimately substituted (May 10, 1794). This severe provision was,
+however, repealed after the fall of Robespierre. Notwithstanding these
+precautions, the value of assignats still declined, till the proportion
+to specie had become that of six to one. Then came the passing by the
+Convention on the 3rd of May 1793 of the absurd "maximum." The decree
+required all farmers and corn-dealers to declare the quantity of corn in
+their possession and to sell it only in recognized markets. No person
+was to be allowed to lay in more than one month's supply. A maximum
+price was fixed, above which no one was to buy or sell under severe
+penalties. These measures were soon stultified by further issues, and by
+June 1794 the total number of assignats aggregated nearly 8,000,000,000,
+of which only 2,464,000,000 had returned to the treasury and been
+destroyed. The extension of the "maximum" to all commodities only
+increased the confusion. Trade was paralysed and all manufacturing
+establishments were closed down. Attempts by the Convention to increase
+the value of the assignats were of no avail. Too many causes operated in
+favour of their depreciation: the enormous issue, the uncertainty as to
+their value if the Revolution should fail, the relation they bore to
+both specie and commodities, which retained their value and refused to
+be exchanged for a money of constantly diminishing purchasing power.
+Even between the assignats themselves there were differences. The royal
+assignats, which had been issued under Louis XVI., had depreciated less
+than the republican ones. They were worth from 8 to 15% more, a fact due
+to the hope that in case of a counter-revolution they would be less
+likely to be discredited.
+
+The Directory was guilty of even greater abuses in dealing with the
+assignats. By 1796 the issues had reached the enormous figure of
+45,500,000,000 francs, and even this gigantic total was swollen still
+more by the numerous counterfeits introduced into France from the
+neighbouring countries. The assignats had now become totally
+valueless--the abolition of the "maximum" the previous year (1795) had
+produced no effect, and, though, by various payments into the treasury,
+the total number had been reduced to about 24,000,000,000 francs, their
+face-value was about 30 to 1 of coin. At this value they were converted
+into 800,000,000 francs of land-warrants, or _mandats territoriaux_,
+which were to constitute a mortgage on all the lands of the republic.
+These _mandats_ were no more successful than the assignats, and even on
+the day of their issue were at a discount of 82%. They had an existence
+of six months, and were finally received back by the state at about the
+seventieth part of their face-value in coin.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L.A. Thiers, _Histoire de la révolution française_,
+  gives a full and graphic account of the assignats, the causes of their
+  depreciation, &c.; J. Garnier, _Traité des Finances_ (1862); J.
+  Bresson, _Histoire financičre de la France_ (1829); R. Stourm, _Les
+  Finances de l'ancien régime et de la révolution_ (1885); F.A. Walker,
+  _Money_ (1891); Henry Higgs, in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol.
+  viii. (1904).     (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIGNMENT, ASSIGNATION, ASSIGNEE (from Lat. _assignare_, to mark out),
+terms which, as derivatives of the verb "to assign," are of frequent
+technical use in law. To assign is to make over, and the term is
+generally used to express a transference by writing, in
+contradistinction to a transference by actual delivery. In England the
+usual expression is assignment, in Scotland it is assignation. The
+person making over is called the _assignor_ or _cedent_; the recipient,
+the _assign_ or _assignee_. An assignee may be such either _by deed_, as
+when a lessee assigns his lease to another, or _in law_, as when
+property devolves upon an executor. The law as to assignment in
+connexion with each particular subject, as the assignment of a chose in
+action, assignment in contract, of dower, of errors, of a lease, &c.,
+will be found under the respective headings. In a colloquial sense,
+"assignation" means a secretly contrived meeting between lovers.
+
+
+
+
+ASSINIBOIA, a name formerly applied to two districts of Canada, but not
+now held by any. (1) A district formed in 1835 by the Hudson's Bay
+Company, having in it Fort Garry at the junction of the Red and
+Assiniboine rivers in Rupert's Land, North America. It extended over a
+circular area, with a radius of 50 m. from Fort Garry. It was governed
+by a local council nominated by the Hudson's Bay Company. It ceased to
+exist when Rupert's Land was transferred to Canada in 1870. (2) A
+district of the North-west Territories, which was given definite
+existence by an act of the Dominion parliament in 1875. Assiniboia
+extended from the western boundary of Manitoba (99° W. in 1875, and 101°
+25' W. in 1881) to 111° W., and from 49° N. to 52° N. The name was a
+misnomer, as it barely touched the Assiniboine river. To the north of
+the district lay the district of Saskatchewan, so that when the two were
+united by the Dominion act of 1905, they were somewhat changed in
+boundaries and the name Saskatchewan was given to the new province. The
+derivation of Assiniboia is from two Ojibway words, _assini_ meaning a
+stone, and the termination "to cook by roasting"; from these came a name
+first applied to a Dakota or Sioux tribe living on the Upper Red river;
+afterwards when this tribe separated from the Dakotas, its name was
+given to the branch of the Red river which the tribe visited, the river
+being known as the Assiniboine and the tribe as Assiniboin.
+
+
+
+
+ASSINIBOIN ("Stone-Cookers"), a tribe of North American Indians of
+Siouan stock. Their name (see above) is said to refer to their method of
+boiling water by dropping red-hot stones into it. Their former range was
+between the Missouri and the middle Saskatchewan on both sides of the
+Canadian frontier. In 1904 there were 1234 in the United States, all on
+reservations in Montana; and in 1902 there were 1371 in Canada.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+ASSISE (from the Fr., derived from Lat. _assidere_, to sit beside), a
+geological term for two or more beds of rock united by the occurrence of
+the same characteristic species or genera.
+
+
+
+
+ASSISI (anc. _Asisium_), a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in
+the province of Perugia, 15 m. E.S.E. by rail from the town of Perugia.
+Pop. (1901) town, 5338; commune, 17,240. The town occupies a fine
+position on a mountain (1345 ft. above sea-level) with a view over the
+valleys of the Tiber and Topino. It is mainly famous in connexion with
+St Francis, who was born here in 1182, and returned to die in 1226. The
+Franciscan monastery and the lower and upper church of St Francis were
+begun immediately after his canonization in 1228, and completed in 1253,
+being fine specimens of Gothic architecture. The crypt was added in
+1818, when the sarcophagus containing his remains was discovered. The
+lower church contains frescoes by Cimabue, Giotto and others, the most
+famous of which are those over the high altar by Giotto, illustrating
+the vows of the Franciscan order; while the upper church has frescoes
+representing scenes from the life of St Francis (probably by Giotto and
+his contemporaries) on the lower portion of the walls of the nave, and
+scenes from Old and New Testament history by pupils of Cimabue on the
+upper. The church of Santa Chiara (St Clare), the foundress of the Poor
+Clares, with its massive lateral buttresses, fine rose-window, and
+simple Gothic interior, was begun in 1257, four years after her death.
+It contains the tomb of the saint and 13th-century frescoes and
+pictures. Santa Maria Maggiore is also a good Gothic church. The
+cathedral (San Rufino) has a fine façade with three rose-windows of
+1140; the interior was modernized in 1572. The town is dominated by the
+medieval castle (1655 ft.), built by Cardinal Albornoz (1367) and added
+to by Popes Pius II. and Paul III. Two miles to the east in a ravine
+below Monte Subasio is the hermitage _delle Carceri_ (2300 ft.), partly
+built, partly cut out of the solid rock, given to St Francis by
+Benedictine monks as a place of retirement. Below the town to the
+south-west, close to the station, is the large pilgrimage church of
+Santa Maria degli Angeli, begun in 1569 by Pope Pius V., with Vignola as
+architect; but not completed until 1640. It contains the original
+oratory of St Francis and the cell in which he died. Adjacent is the
+garden in which the saint's thornless roses bloom in May. Half a mile
+outside the town to the south-east is the convent of San Damiano,
+erected by St Francis, of which St Clare was first abbess.
+
+In the early middle ages Assisi was subject to the dukes of Spoleto; but
+in the 11th century it seems to have been independent. It became
+involved, however, in the disputes of Guelphs and Ghibellines, and was
+frequently at war with Perugia. It was sacked by Perugia and the papal
+troops in 1442, and even after that continued to be the prey of
+factions. The place is now famous as a resort of pilgrims, and is also
+important for the history of Italian art. The poet Metastasio was born
+here in 1698.
+
+  See L. Duff-Gordon, _Assisi_ ("Mediaeval Towns" series, London, 1900).
+  For ancient history see ASISIUM.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIUT, or SIUT, capital of a province of Upper Egypt of the same name,
+and the largest and best-built town in the Nile Valley south of Cairo,
+from which it is distant 248 m. by rail. The population rose from 32,000
+in 1882 to 42,000 in 1900. Assiut stands near the west bank of the Nile
+across which, just below the town, is a barrage, completed in 1902,
+consisting of an open weir, 2733 ft. long, and over 100 bays or sluices,
+each 16˝ ft. wide, which can be opened or closed at will. At the western
+end of the barrage begins the Ibrahimia canal, the feeder of the Bahr
+Yusuf, the largest irrigation canal of Egypt. The Ibrahimia canal is
+skirted by a magnificent embankment planted with shady trees leading
+from the river to the town. There are several bazaars, baths and
+handsome mosques, one noted for its lofty minaret, and here the American
+Presbyterian mission has established a college for both sexes. Assiut is
+famous for its red and black pottery and for ornamental wood and ivory
+work, which find a ready market all over Egypt. It is one of the chief
+centres of the Copts. Here also is the northern terminus of the caravan
+route across the desert, which, passing through the Kharga oasis, goes
+south-west to Darfur. It is known as the Arbain, or forty days road,
+from the time occupied on the journey. Assiut (properly Asyut) is the
+successor of the ancient Lycopolis (Eg. Siöout), capital of the 13th
+nome of Upper Egypt. Here were worshipped two canine gods (see ANUBIS),
+Ophoďs (Wepwoi) being the principal god of the city, while Anubis
+apparently presided over the necropolis. No ruins are visible, the
+mounds of the old city being for the most part hidden under modern
+buildings; but the slopes of the limestone hills behind it are pierced
+with an infinity of rock-cut tombs, some of which were large and
+decorated with sculptures, paintings and long inscriptions. The
+archaeological commission of the _Description de l'Égypte_ visited them
+in 1799, when the walls of many of the large tombs were still almost
+intact; in the first half of the 19th century (and to some extent later)
+an immense amount of destruction was caused by blasting for stone. Three
+of the tombs illustrate one of the darkest periods in Egypt's history,
+when the princes of Siut played a leading part in the struggle between
+Heracleopolis and Thebes (Dyns. IX.-XI.); another, of the XIIth Dynasty,
+contains a remarkable inscription detailing the contracts made by the
+nomarch with the priests of the temples of Ophoďs and Anubis for
+perpetual services at his tomb (see Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt,
+Historical Documents_, vol. i. pp. 179, 258). Remains of the mummies of
+dogs and similar animals sacred to these deities are scattered among the
+débris on the hillside in abundance. Lycopolis was the birthplace of
+Plotinus, the founder of Neo-Platonism (A.D. 205-270). From the 4th
+century onwards its grottoes were the dwellings of Christian hermits,
+amongst whom John of Lycopolis was the most celebrated.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIZE, or ASSISE (Lat. _assidere_, to sit beside; O. Fr. _assire_, to
+sit, _assis_, seated), a legal term, meaning literally a "session," but
+in fact, as Littleton has styled it, a _nomen aequivocum_, meaning
+sometimes a jury, sometimes the sittings of a court, and sometimes the
+ordinances of a court or assembly.
+
+It originally signified the form of trial by a jury of sixteen persons,
+which eventually superseded the barbarous judicial combat; this jury was
+named the grand assize and was sworn to determine the right of seisin of
+land (see EVIDENCE). The grand assize was abolished in 1833; but the
+term assize is still applicable to the jury in criminal causes in
+Scotland.
+
+In the only sense in which the word is not now almost obsolete, assize
+means the periodical session of the judges of the High Court of Justice,
+held in the various counties of England, chiefly for the purposes of
+gaol delivery and trying causes at _nisi prius_. Previous to Magna Carta
+(1215) writs of assize had all to be tried at Westminster, or to await
+trial in the locality in which they had originated at the septennial
+circuit of the justices in eyre; but, by way of remedy for the great
+consequent delay and inconvenience, it was provided by this celebrated
+act that the assizes of _mort d'ancestor_ and _novel disseisin_ should
+be tried annually by the judges in every county. By successive
+enactments, the civil jurisdiction of the justices of assize was
+extended, and the number of their sittings increased, till at last the
+necessity of repairing to Westminster for judgment in civil actions was
+almost obviated to country litigants by an act, passed in the reign of
+Edward I., which provided that the writ summoning the jury to
+Westminster should also appoint a time and place for hearing such causes
+within the county of their origin. The date of the alternative summons
+to Westminster was always subsequent to the former date, and so timed as
+to fall in the vacation preceding the Westminster term, and thus
+"_Unless before_," or _nisi prius_, issues came to be dealt with by the
+judges of assize before the summons to Westminster could take effect.
+The _nisi prius_ clause, however, was not then introduced for the first
+time. It occurs occasionally in writs of the reign of Henry III. The
+royal commissions to hold the assizes are--(1) general, (2) special. The
+general commission is issued twice a year to the judges of the High
+Court of Justice, and two judges are generally sent on each circuit. It
+covers commissions--(1) of oyer and terminer, by which they are
+empowered to deal with treasons, murders, felonies, &c. This is their
+largest commission; (2) of _nisi prius_ (q.v.) (3) of gaol delivery,
+which requires them to try every prisoner in gaol, for whatsoever
+offence committed; (4) of the peace, by which all justices must be
+present at their county assizes, or else suffer a fine. Special
+commissions are granted for inquest in certain causes and crimes. See
+also the articles CIRCUIT; JURY.
+
+Assizes, in the sense of ordinances or enactments of a court or council
+of state, as the "assize of bread and ale," the "assize of Clarendon,"
+the "assize of arms," are important in early economic history. As early
+as the reign of John the observance of the _assisae venalium_ was
+enforced, and for a period of 500 years thereafter it was considered no
+unimportant part of the duties of the legislature to regulate by fixed
+prices, for the protection of the lieges, the sale of bread, ale, fuel,
+&c. (see ADULTERATION). Sometimes in city charters the right to assize
+such articles is specially conceded. Regulations of this description
+were beneficial in the repression of fraud and adulteration. Assizes are
+sometimes used in a wider legislative connexion by early chroniclers and
+historians--the "assisae of the realme," e.g. occasionally meaning the
+organic laws of the country. For the "assizes of Jerusalem" see
+CRUSADES.
+
+The term assize, originally applying to an assembly or court, became
+transferred to actions before the court or the writs by which they were
+instituted. The following are the more important.
+
+_Assize of darrien presentment_, or last presentation, was a writ
+directed to the sheriff to summon an assize or jury to enquire who was
+the last patron that presented to a church then vacant, of which the
+plaintiff complained that he was deforced or unlawfully deprived by the
+defendant. It was abolished in 1833 and the action of _quare impedit_
+(q.v.) substituted. But by the Common Law Procedure Act 1860, no _quare
+impedit_ can be brought, so that an action in the king's bench of the
+High Court was substituted for it.
+
+Assize of _mort d'ancestor_ was a writ which lay where a plaintiff
+complained of an "abatement" or entry upon his freehold, effected by a
+stranger on the death of the plaintiff's father, mother, brother,
+sister, uncle, aunt, &c. It was abolished in 1833.
+
+Assize of _novel disseisin_ was an action to recover lands of which the
+plaintiff had been "disseised" or dispossessed. It was abolished in
+1833. See Pollock and Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law._
+
+_Assize, clerk of_, an officer "who writes all things judicially done by
+the justices of assizes in their circuits." He has charge of the
+commission, and takes recognizances, records, judgments and sentences,
+grants certificates of conviction, draws up orders, &c. By the Clerks of
+Assize Act 1869 he must either have been for three years a barrister or
+solicitor in actual practice, or have acted for three years in the
+capacity of subordinate officer of a clerk of assize on circuit.
+
+_United States._--There are no assize courts in the United States; it is
+not the custom for supreme court judges of the states to go on circuit,
+but the judges of the United States Supreme Court do sit as members of
+the United States circuit courts in the several states periodically
+throughout the year. These courts are not assize courts, but are federal
+as distinguished from state courts, and have a special and limited
+jurisdiction. In the several states the highest court is divided into
+departments, in each of which there are courts presided over by supreme
+court judges residing in that department, thus avoiding the assize court
+or circuit-going system.
+
+
+
+
+ASSMANNSHAUSEN, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine and the railway from
+Frankfort-on-Main to Niederlahnstein. Pop. 1100. It has a lithium
+spring, baths and a _Kurhaus_, and is famed for its red wine
+(Assmannshäuser), which resembles light Burgundy. From here a railway
+ascends the Niederwald.
+
+
+
+
+ASSOCIATE (Lat. _associatus_, from _ad_, to, and _sociare_ to join). one
+who is united with another, and so generally a companion--in particular
+a subordinate member of an institution or society, as an associate of
+the Royal Academy, or one holding a degree in a learned society lower
+than that of fellow. In English law the associates are officers of the
+supreme court, whose duties are to draw up the list of causes, enter
+verdicts, hand the records to the parties, &c., and generally to conduct
+the business of trials. By the Judicature (Officers) Act 1879 they were
+styled masters of the supreme court, but the office is now amalgamated
+with the crown office department, of which they are clerks.
+
+
+
+
+ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, or MENTAL ASSOCIATION, a term used in psychology
+to express the conditions under which representations arise in
+consciousness, and also for a principle put forward by an important
+historical school of thinkers to account generally for the facts of
+mental life. Modern physiological psychology has so altered the approach
+to this subject that much of the older discussion has become antiquated,
+but it may be recapitulated here for historical purposes.
+
+  _Earlier Theory._--In the long and erudite Note D**, appended by Sir
+  W. Hamilton to his edition of Reid's Works, many anticipations of
+  modern statements on association are cited from the works of ancient
+  or medieval thinkers; and for Aristotle, in particular, the glory is
+  claimed of having at once originated the doctrine and practically
+  brought it to perfection.[1] As translated by Hamilton, but without
+  his interpolations, the classical passage from the _De Memoria et
+  Reminiscentia_ runs as follows:--
+
+  "When, therefore, we accomplish an act of reminiscence, we pass
+  through a certain series of precursive movements, until we arrive at a
+  movement on which the one we are in quest of is habitually consequent.
+  Hence, too, it is that we hunt through the mental train, excogitating
+  from the present or some other, and from similar or contrary or
+  coadjacent. Through this process reminiscence takes place. For the
+  movements are, in these cases, sometimes at the same time, sometimes
+  parts of the same whole, so that the subsequent movement is already
+  more than half accomplished."
+
+  The passage is obscure, but it does at all events indicate the various
+  principles commonly termed contiguity, similarity and contrast.
+  Similar principles are stated by Zeno the Stoic, by Epicurus (see
+  Diog. Laert. vii. § 52, x. § 32), and by St Augustine (_Confessions_,
+  x. e. 19). Aristotle's doctrine received a more or less intelligent
+  expansion and illustration from the ancient commentators and the
+  schoolmen, and in the still later period of transition from the age of
+  scholasticism to the time of modern philosophy, prolonged in the works
+  of some writers far into the 17th century, Hamilton adduced not a few
+  philosophical authorities who gave prominence to the general fact of
+  mental association--the Spaniard Ludovicus Vives (1492-1540)
+  especially being most exhaustive in his account of memory.
+
+  In Hobbes's psychology much importance is assigned to what he called,
+  variously, the succession, sequence, series, consequence, coherence,
+  train of imaginations or thoughts in mental discourse. But not before
+  Hume is there express question as to what are the distinct principles
+  of association. John Locke had, meanwhile, introduced the phrase
+  "Association of Ideas" as the title of a supplementary chapter
+  incorporated with the fourth edition of his _Essay_, meaning it,
+  however, only as the name of a principle accounting for the mental
+  peculiarities of individuals, with little or no suggestion of its
+  general psychological import. Of this last Hume had the strongest
+  impression; he reduced the principles of association to
+  three--Resemblance, Contiguity in time and place, Cause and (or)
+  Effect. Dugald Stewart put forward Resemblance, Contrariety, and
+  Vicinity in time and place, though he added, as another obvious
+  principle, accidental coincidence in the sounds of words, and further
+  noted three other cases of relation, namely, Cause and Effect, Means
+  and End, Premisses and Conclusion, as holding among the trains of
+  thought under circumstances of special attention. Reid, preceding
+  Stewart, was rather disposed to make light of the subject of
+  association, vaguely remarking that it seems to require no other
+  original quality of mind but the power of habit to explain the
+  spontaneous recurrence of trains of thinking, when become familiar by
+  frequent repetition (_Intellectual Powers_, p. 387).
+
+  Hamilton's own theory of mental reproduction, suggestion or
+  association is a development, greatly modified, of the doctrine
+  expounded in his _Lectures on Metaphysics_ (vol. ii. p. 223, seq.),
+  which reduced the principles of association first to two--Simultaneity
+  and Affinity, and these further to one supreme principle of
+  Redintegration or Totality. In the ultimate scheme he posits no less
+  than four general laws of mental succession concerned in reproduction:
+  (1) _Associability_ or possible co-suggestion (all thoughts of the
+  same mental subject are associable or capable of suggesting each
+  other); (2) _Repetition_ or direct remembrance (thoughts coidentical
+  in modification, but differing in time, tend to suggest each other);
+  (3) _Redintegration_, direct remembrance or reminiscence (thoughts
+  once coidentical in time, are, however, different as mental modes,
+  again suggestive of each other, and that in the mutual order which
+  they originally held); (4) _Preference_ (thoughts are suggested not
+  merely by force of the general subjective relation subsisting between
+  themselves, they are also suggested in proportion to the relation of
+  interest, from whatever source, in which they stand to the individual
+  mind). Upon these follow, as special laws:--A, Primary--modes of the
+  laws of Repetition and Redintegration--(1) law of Similars (Analogy,
+  Affinity); (2) law of Contrast; (3) law of Coadjacency (Cause and
+  Effect, &c.); B, Secondary--modes of the law of Preference, under the
+  law of Possibility--(1) laws of Immediacy and Homogeneity; (2) law of
+  Facility.
+
+  _The Associationist School._--This name is given to the English
+  psychologists who aimed at explaining all mental acquisitions, and the
+  more complex mental processes generally under laws not other than
+  those which have just been set out as determining simple reproduction.
+  Hamilton, though professing to deal with reproduction only, formulates
+  a number of still more general laws of mental succession--law of
+  Succession, law of Variation, law of Dependence, law of Relativity or
+  Integration (involving law of Conditioned), and, finally, law of
+  Intrinsic or Objective Relativity--as the highest to which human
+  consciousness is subject; but it is in a sense quite different that
+  the psychologists of the so-called Associationist School intend their
+  appropriation of the principle or principles commonly signalized. As
+  far as can be judged from imperfect records, they were anticipated to
+  some extent by the experientialists of ancient times, both Stoic and
+  Epicurean (cf. Diogenes Laertius, as above). In the modern period,
+  Hobbes is the first thinker of permanent note to whom this doctrine
+  may be traced. Though, in point of fact, he took anything but an
+  exhaustive view of the phenomena of mental succession, yet, after
+  dealing with trains of imagination, or what he called mental
+  discourse, he sought in the higher departments of intellect to explain
+  reasoning as a discourse in words, dependent upon an arbitrary system
+  of marks, each associated with, or standing for, a variety of
+  imaginations; and, save for a general assertion that reasoning is a
+  reckoning--otherwise, a compounding and resolving--he had no other
+  account of knowledge to give. The whole emotional side of mind, or, in
+  his language, the passions, he, in like manner, resolved into an
+  expectation of consequences, based on past experience of pleasures and
+  pains of sense. Thus, though he made no serious attempt to justify his
+  analysis in detail, he is undoubtedly to be classed with the
+  associationists of the next century. They, however, were wont to trace
+  their psychological theory no further back than to Locke's _Essay_.
+  Bishop Berkeley was driven to posit expressly a principle of
+  suggestion or association in these terms:--"That one idea may suggest
+  another to the mind, it will suffice that they have been observed to
+  go together, without any demonstration of the necessity of their
+  coexistence, or so much as knowing what it is that makes them so to
+  coexist" (_New Theory of Vision_, § 25); and to support the obvious
+  application of the principle to the case of the sensations of sight
+  and touch before him, he constantly urged that association of sound
+  and sense of language which the later school has always put in the
+  foreground, whether as illustrating the principle in general or in
+  explanation of the supreme importance of language for knowledge. It
+  was natural, then, that Hume, coming after Berkeley, and assuming
+  Berkeley's results, though he reverted to the larger inquiry of Locke,
+  should be more explicit in his reference to association; but he was
+  original also, when he spoke of it as a "kind of attraction which in
+  the mental world will be found to have as extraordinary effects as in
+  the natural, and to show itself in as many and as various forms"
+  (_Human Nature_, i. 1, § 4). Other inquirers about the same time
+  conceived of association with this breadth of view, and set themselves
+  to track, as psychologists, its effects in detail.
+
+  David Hartley in his _Observations on Man_, published in 1749 (eleven
+  years after the _Human Nature_, and one year after the better-known
+  _Inquiry_, of Hume), opened the path for all the investigations of
+  like nature that have been so characteristic of English psychology. A
+  physician by profession, he sought to combine with an elaborate theory
+  of mental association a minutely detailed hypothesis as to the
+  corresponding action of the nervous system, based upon the suggestion
+  of a vibratory motion within the nerves thrown out by Newton in the
+  last paragraph of the _Principia_. So far, however, from promoting the
+  acceptance of the psychological theory, this physical hypothesis
+  proved to have rather the opposite effect, and it began to be dropped
+  by Hartley's followers (as F. Priestley, in his abridged edition of
+  the _Observations_, 1775) before it was seriously impugned from
+  without. When it is studied in the original, and not taken upon the
+  report of hostile critics, who would not, or could not understand it,
+  no little importance must still be accorded to the first attempt, not
+  seldom a curiously felicitous one, to carry through that parallelism
+  of the physical and psychical, which since then has come to count for
+  more and more in the science of mind. Nor should it be forgotten that
+  Hartley himself, for all his paternal interest in the doctrine of
+  vibrations, was careful to keep separate from its fortunes the cause
+  of his other doctrine of mental association. Of this the point lay in
+  no mere restatement, with new precision, of a principle of coherence
+  among "ideas," but in its being taken as a clue by which to follow
+  the progressive development of the mind's powers. Holding that mental
+  states could be scientifically understood only as they were analysed,
+  Hartley sought for a principle of synthesis to explain the complexity
+  exhibited not only in trains of representative images, but alike in
+  the most involved combinations of reasonings and (as Berkeley had
+  seen) in the apparently simple phenomena of objective perception, as
+  well as in the varied play of the emotions, or, again, in the manifold
+  conscious adjustments of the motor system. One principle appeared to
+  him sufficient for all, running, as enunciated for the simplest case,
+  thus: "Any sensations A, B, C, &c., by being associated with one
+  another a sufficient number of times, get such a power over the
+  corresponding ideas (called by Hartley also vestiges, types, images)
+  _a, b, c_, &c., that any one of the sensations A, when impressed
+  alone, shall be able to excite in the mind _b, c_, &c., the ideas of
+  the rest." To render the principle applicable in the cases where the
+  associated elements are neither sensations nor simple ideas of
+  sensations, Hartley's first care was to determine the conditions under
+  which states other than these simplest ones have their rise in the
+  mind, becoming the matter of ever higher and higher combinations. The
+  principle itself supplied the key to the difficulty, when coupled with
+  the notion, already implied in Berkeley's investigations, of a
+  coalescence of simple ideas of sensation into one complex idea, which
+  may cease to bear any obvious relation to its constituents. So far
+  from being content, like Hobbes, to make a rough generalization to all
+  mind from the phenomena of developed memory, as if these might be
+  straightway assumed, Hartley made a point of referring them, in a
+  subordinate place of their own, to his universal principle of mental
+  synthesis. He expressly put forward the law of association, endued
+  with such scope, as supplying what was wanting to Locke's doctrine in
+  its more strictly psychological aspect, and thus marks by his work a
+  distinct advance on the line of development of the experiential
+  philosophy.
+
+  The new doctrine received warm support from some, as Law and
+  Priestley, who both, like Hume and Hartley himself, took the principle
+  of association as having the like import for the science of mind that
+  gravitation had acquired for the science of matter. The principle
+  began also, if not always with direct reference to Hartley, yet,
+  doubtless, owing to his impressive advocacy of it, to be applied
+  systematically in special directions, as by Abraham Tucker (1768) to
+  morals, and by Archibald Alison (1790) to aesthetics. Thomas Brown (d.
+  1820) subjected anew to discussion the question of theory. Hardly less
+  unjust to Hartley than Reid or Stewart had been, and forward to
+  proclaim all that was different in his own position, Brown must yet be
+  ranked with the associationists before and after him for the
+  prominence he assigned to the associative principle in
+  sense-perception (what he called external affections of mind), and for
+  his reference of all other mental states (internal affections) to the
+  two generic capacities or susceptibilities of Simple and Relative
+  Suggestion. He preferred the word Suggestion to Association, which
+  seemed to him to imply some prior connecting process, whereof there
+  was no evidence in many of the most important cases of suggestion, nor
+  even, strictly speaking, in the case of contiguity in time where the
+  term seemed least inapplicable. According to him, all that could be
+  assumed was a general constitutional tendency of the mind to exist
+  successively in states that have certain relations to each other, of
+  itself only, and without any external cause or any influence previous
+  to that operating at the moment of the suggestion. Brown's chief
+  contribution to the general doctrine of mental association, besides
+  what he did for the theory of perception, was, perhaps, his analysis
+  of voluntary reminiscence and constructive imagination--faculties that
+  appear at first sight to lie altogether beyond the explanatory range
+  of the principle. In James Mill's _Analysis of the Phenomena of the
+  Human Mind_ (1829), the principle, much as Hartley had conceived it,
+  was carried out, with characteristic consequence, over the
+  psychological field. With a much enlarged and more varied conception
+  of association, Alexander Bain re-executed the general psychological
+  task, while Herbert Spencer revised the doctrine from the new point of
+  view of the evolution-hypothesis. John Stuart Mill made only
+  occasional excursions into the region of psychology proper, but
+  sought, in his _System of Logic_ (1843), to determine the conditions
+  of objective truth from the point of view of the associationist
+  theory, and, thus or otherwise being drawn into general philosophical
+  discussion, spread wider than any one before him its repute.
+
+  The Associationist School has been composed chiefly of British
+  thinkers, but in France also it has had distinguished representatives.
+  Of these it will suffice to mention Condillac, who professed to
+  explain all knowledge from the single principle of association
+  (_liaison_) of ideas, operating through a previous association with
+  signs, verbal or other. In Germany, before the time of Kant, mental
+  association was generally treated in the traditional manner, as by
+  Wolff. Kant's inquiry into the foundations of knowledge, agreeing in
+  its general purport with Locke's, however it differed in its critical
+  procedure, brought him face to face with the newer doctrine that had
+  been grafted on Locke's philosophy; and to account for the fact of
+  synthesis in cognition, in express opposition to associationism, as
+  represented by Hume, was, in truth, his prime object, starting, as he
+  did, from the assumption that there was that in knowledge which no
+  mere association of experiences could explain. To the extent,
+  therefore, that his influence prevailed, all inquiries made by the
+  English associationists were discounted in Germany. Notwithstanding,
+  under the very shadow of his authority a corresponding, if not
+  related, movement was initiated by J.F. Herbart. Peculiar, and widely
+  different from anything conceived by the associationists, as Herbart's
+  metaphysical opinions were, he was at one with them, and at variance
+  with Kant, in assigning fundamental importance to the psychological
+  investigation of the development of consciousness, nor was his
+  conception of the laws determining the interaction and flow of mental
+  presentations and representations, when taken in its bare
+  psychological import, essentially different from theirs. In F.E.
+  Beneke's psychology also, and in more recent inquiries conducted
+  mainly by physiologists, mental association has been understood in its
+  wider scope, as a general principle of explanation.
+
+  The associationists differ not a little among themselves in the
+  statement of their principle, or, when they adduce several principles,
+  in their conception of the relative importance of these. Hartley took
+  account only of Contiguity, or the repetition of impressions
+  synchronous or immediately successive; the like is true of James Mill,
+  though, incidentally, he made an express attempt to resolve the
+  received principle of Similarity, and through this the other principle
+  of Contrast, into his fundamental law--law of Frequency, as he
+  sometimes called it, because upon frequency, in conjunction with
+  vividness of impressions, the strength of association, in his view,
+  depended. In a sense of his own, Brown also, while accepting the
+  common Aristotelian enumeration of principles, inclined to the opinion
+  that "all suggestion may be found to depend on prior coexistence, or
+  at least on such proximity as is itself very probably a modification
+  of coexistence," provided account be taken of "the influence of
+  emotions and other feelings that are very different from ideas, as
+  when an analogous object suggests an analogous object by the influence
+  of an emotion which each separately may have produced before, and
+  which is, therefore, common to both." To the contrary effect, Spencer
+  maintained that the fundamental law of all mental association is that
+  presentations aggregate or cohere with their like in past experience,
+  and that, besides this law, there is in strictness no other, all
+  further phenomena of association being incidental. Thus in particular,
+  he would have explained association by Contiguity as due to the
+  circumstance of imperfect assimilation of the present to the past in
+  consciousness. A. Bain regarded Contiguity and Similarity logically,
+  as perfectly distinct principles, though in actual psychological
+  occurrence blending intimately with each other, contiguous trains
+  being started by a first (it may be, implicit) representation through
+  Similarity, while the express assimilation of present to past in
+  consciousness is always, or tends to be, followed by the revival of
+  what was presented in contiguity with that past.
+
+  The highest, philosophical interest, as distinguished from that which
+  is more strictly psychological, attaches to the mode of mental
+  association called Inseparable. The coalescence of mental states noted
+  by Hartley, as it had been assumed by Berkeley, was farther formulated
+  by James Mill in these terms:--
+
+  "Some ideas are by frequency and strength of association so closely
+  combined that they cannot be separated; if one exists, the other
+  exists along with it in spite of whatever effort we make to disjoin
+  them."--(_Analysis of the Human Mind_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 93.)
+
+  J.S. Mill's statement is more guarded and particular:--
+
+  "When two phenomena have been very often experienced in conjunction,
+  and have not, in any single instance, occurred separately either in
+  experience or in thought, there is produced between them what has been
+  called inseparable, or, less correctly, indissoluble, association; by
+  which is not meant that the association must inevitably last to the
+  end of life--that no subsequent experience or process of thought can
+  possibly avail to dissolve it; but only that as long as no such
+  experience or process of thought has taken place, the association is
+  irresistible; it is impossible for us to think the one thing disjoined
+  from the other."--(_Examination of Hamilton's Philosophy_, 2nd ed. p.
+  191.)
+
+  It is chiefly by J.S. Mill that the philosophical application of the
+  principle has been made. The first and most obvious application is to
+  so-called necessary truths--such, namely, as are not merely analytic
+  judgments but involve a synthesis of distinct notions. Again, the same
+  thinker sought to prove Inseparable Association the ground of belief
+  in an external objective world. The former application, especially, is
+  facilitated, when the experience through which the association is
+  supposed to be constituted is understood as cumulative in the race,
+  and transmissible as original endowment to individuals--endowment that
+  may be expressed either, subjectively, as latent intelligence, or,
+  objectively, as fixed nervous connexions. Spencer, as before
+  suggested, is the author of this extended view of mental association.
+
+  _Modern Criticism._--Of recent years the associationist theory has
+  been subjected to searching criticism, and it has been maintained by
+  many writers that the laws are both unsatisfactorily expressed and
+  insufficient to explain the facts. Among the most vigorous and
+  comprehensive of these investigations is that of F.H. Bradley in his
+  _Principles of Logic_ (1883). Having admitted the psychological fact
+  of mental association, he attacks the theories of Mill and Bain
+  primarily on the ground that they purport to give an account of mental
+  life as a whole, a metaphysical doctrine of existence. According to
+  this doctrine, mental activity is ultimately reducible to particular
+  feelings, impressions, ideas, which are disparate and unconnected,
+  until chance Association brings them together. On this assumption the
+  laws of Association naturally emerge in the following form:--(1) The
+  _law of Contiguity._--"Actions, sensations and states of feeling,
+  occurring together or in close connexion, tend to grow together, or
+  cohere, in such a way that, when any one of them is afterwards
+  presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea"
+  (A. Bain, _Senses and Intellect_, p. 327). (2) The _law of
+  Similarity._--"Present actions, sensation, thoughts or emotions tend
+  to revive their like among previous impressions or states" (A. Bain,
+  _ibid._ 457. Compare J.S. Mill, _Logic_, ii. p. 440, 9th ed.). The
+  fundamental objection to (1) is that ideas and impressions once
+  experienced do not recur; they are particular existences, and, as
+  such, do not persevere to recur or be presented. So Mill is wrong in
+  speaking of two impressions being "frequently experienced." Bradley
+  claims thus to reduce the law to "When we have experienced (or even
+  thought of) several pairs of impressions (simultaneous or successive),
+  which pairs are like one another; then whenever an idea occurs which
+  is like all the impressions on one side of these pairs, it tends to
+  excite an idea which is like all the impressions on the other side."
+  This statement is destructive of the title of the law, because it
+  appears that what were contiguous (the impressions) are not
+  associated, and what are associated (the ideas) were not contiguous;
+  in other words, the association is not due to contiguity at all.
+
+  Proceeding to the law of Similarity (which in Mill's view is at the
+  back of association by contiguity), and having made a similar
+  criticism of its phrasing, Bradley maintains that it involves an even
+  greater absurdity; if two ideas are to be recognized as similar, they
+  must both be present in the mind; if one is to call up the other, one
+  must be absent. To the obvious reply that the similarity is recognized
+  _ex post facto_, and not while the former idea is being called up,
+  Bradley replies simply that such a view reduces the law to the mere
+  statement of a phenomenon and deprives it of any explanatory value,
+  though he hardly makes it clear in what sense this necessarily
+  invalidates the law from a psychological point of view. He further
+  points out with greater force that in point of fact mere similarity is
+  not the basis of ordinary cases of mental reproduction, inasmuch as in
+  any given instance there is more difference than similarity between
+  the ideas associated.
+
+  Bradley himself bases association on identity plus contiguity:--"Any
+  part of a single state of mind tends, if reproduced, to re-instate the
+  remainder," or "any element tends to reproduce those elements with
+  which it has formed one state of mind." This law he calls by the name
+  "redintegration," understood, of course, in a sense different from
+  that in which Hamilton used it. The radical difference between this
+  law and those of Mill and Bain is that it deals not with particular
+  units of thoughts but with universals or identity between individuals.
+  In any example of such reproduction the universal appears in a
+  particular form which is more or less different from that in which it
+  originally existed.
+
+  _Psychophysical Researches._--Bradley's discussion deals with the
+  subject purely from the metaphysical side, and the total result
+  practically is that association occurs only between universals. From
+  the point of view of empirical psychologists Bradley's results are
+  open to the charge which he made against those who impugned his view
+  of the law of similarity, namely that they are merely a statement--not
+  in any real sense an explanation. The relation between the mental and
+  the physical phenomena of association has occupied the attention of
+  all the leading psychologists (see PSYCHOLOGY). William James holds
+  that association is of "objects" not of "ideas," is between "things
+  thought of"--so far as the word stands for an effect. "So far as it
+  stands for a cause it is between processes in the brain." Dealing with
+  the law of Contiguity he says that the "most natural way of accounting
+  for it is to conceive it as a result of the laws of habit in the
+  nervous system; in other words to ascribe it to a physiological
+  cause." Association is thus due to the fact that when a nerve current
+  has once passed by a given way, it will pass more easily by that way
+  in future; and this fact is a physical fact. He further seeks to
+  maintain the important deduction that the only primary or ultimate law
+  of association is that of neural habit.
+
+  The objections to the associationist theory are summed up by G.F.
+  Stout (_Analytic Psychol._, vol. ii. pp. 47 seq.) under three heads.
+  Of these the first is that the theory as stated, e.g. by Bain, lays
+  far too much stress on the mere connexion of elements hitherto
+  entirely separate; whereas, in fact, every new mental state or
+  synthesis consists in the development or modification of a
+  pre-existing state or psychic whole. Secondly, it is quite false to
+  regard an association as merely an aggregate of disparate units; in
+  fact, the _form_ of the new idea is quite as important as the elements
+  which it comprises. Thirdly, the phraseology used by the
+  associationists seems to assume that the parts that go to form the
+  whole retain their identity unimpaired; in fact, each part or element
+  is _ipso facto_ modified by the very fact of its entering into such
+  combination.
+
+  The experimental methods now in vogue have to a large extent removed
+  the discussion of the whole subject of association of ideas, depending
+  in the case of the older writers on introspection, into a new sphere.
+  In such a work as E.B. Titchener's _Experimental Psychology_ (1905),
+  association is treated as a branch of the study of mental reactions,
+  of which association reactions are one division.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See PSYCHOLOGY; and the works of Bradley, Stout, and
+  James, above quoted, and general works on psychology: articles in
+  _Mind_ (passim); A. Bain, _Senses and Intellect_ (4th ed., 1894), and
+  in _Mind_, xii. (1887) pp. 237-249; John Watson, _An Outline of
+  Philosophy_ (1898); H. Höffding, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng. trans.,
+  Lond., 1900), _Psychologie in Umrissen auf Grundlage der Erfahrung_
+  (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893); Jas. Sully, _The Human Mind_ (1892), and
+  _Outlines of Psych._ (Lond., 1892); E.B. Titchener, _Outline of
+  Psych._ (New York, 1896), and in his trans. of O. Külpe's _Outlines of
+  Psych._ (New York, 1895,); Jas. Ward in _Mind_, viii. (1883), xii.
+  (1887), new series ii. (1893), iii. (1894); G.T. Ladd, _Psychology,
+  Descriptive and Explanatory_ (Lond., 1894); C.L.C. Morgan, _Introd. to
+  Comparative Psych._ (Lond., 1894); W. Wundt, _Princip. of Physiol.
+  Psych._ (Eng. trans., 1904), _Human and Animal Psych._ (Eng. trans.,
+  1894), pp. 282-307; _Outlines of Psych._ (Eng. trans., 1897); E.
+  Claparčde, _L'Association des idées_ (1903). For associationism in
+  Greek philosophy see J.I. Beare, _Greek Theories of Elementary
+  Cognition_ (Oxford, 1906), part iii. §§ 14, 43 seq.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There are, however, distinct anticipations of the theory in Plato
+    (_Phaedo_), as part of the doctrine of [Greek: anamnaesis]; thus we
+    find the idea of Simmias recalled by the picture of Simmias
+    (similarity), and that of a friend by the sight of the lyre on which
+    he played (contiguity).
+
+
+
+
+ASSONANCE (from Lat. _adsonare_ or _assonare_, to sound to or answer
+to), a term defined, in its prosodical sense, as "the corresponding or
+riming of one word with another in the accented vowel and those which
+follow it, but not in the consonants" (_New English Dictionary_,
+Oxford). In other words, assonance is an improper or imperfect form of
+rhyme, in which the ear is satisfied with the incomplete identity of
+sound which the vowel gives without the aid of consonants. Much rustic
+or popular verse in England is satisfied with assonance, as in such
+cases as
+
+  "And pray who gave thee that jolly red _nose_?
+   Cinnamon, Ginger, Nutmeg and _Cloves_,"
+
+where the agreement between the two _o's_ permits the ear to neglect the
+discord between _s_ and _v_. But in English these instances are the
+result of carelessness or blunted ear. It is not so in several
+literatures, such as in Spanish, where assonance is systematically
+cultivated as a literary ornament. It is an error to confound
+alliteration,--which results from the close juxtaposition of words
+beginning with the same sound or letter,--and assonance, which is the
+repetition of the same vowel-sound in a syllable at points where the ear
+expects a rhyme. The latter is a more complicated and less primitive
+employment of artifice than the former, although they have often been
+used to intensify the effect of each other in a single couplet.
+Assonance appears, nevertheless, to have preceded rhyme in several of
+the European languages, and to have led the way towards it. It is
+particularly observable in the French poetry which was composed before
+the 12th century, and it reached its highest point in the "Chanson de
+Roland," where the sections are distinguished by the fact that all the
+lines in a _laisse_ or stanza close with the same vowel-sound. When the
+ear of the French became more delicate, and pure rhyme was introduced,
+about the year 1120, assonance almost immediately retired before it and
+was employed no more, until recent years, when several French poets have
+re-introduced assonance in order to widen the scope of their effects of
+sound. It held its place longer in Provençal and some other Romance
+literatures, while in Spanish it has retained its absolute authority
+over rhyme to the present day. It has been observed that in the Romance
+languages the ear prefers the correspondence of vowels, while in the
+Teutonic languages the preference is given to consonants. This
+distinction is felt most strongly in Spanish, where the satisfaction in
+_rimas asonantes_ is expressed no less in the most elaborate works of
+the poets and dramatists than in the rough ballads of the people. The
+nature of the language here permits the full value of the corresponding
+vowel-sounds to be appreciated, whereas in English--and even in German,
+where, however, a great deal of assonant poetry exists--the divergence
+of the consonants easily veils or blunts the similarity of sound.
+Various German poets of high merit, and in particular Tieck and Heine,
+have endeavoured to obviate this difficulty, but without complete
+success. Occasionally they endeavour, as English rhymers have done, to
+mix pure rhyme with assonance, but the result of this in almost all
+cases is that the assonances, &c., which make a less strenuous appeal to
+the ear, are drowned and lost in the stress of the pure rhymes. Like
+alliteration, assonance is a very frequent and very effective ornament
+of prose style, but such correspondence in vowel-sound is usually
+accidental and involuntary, an instinctive employment of the skill of
+the writer. To introduce it with a purpose, as of course must be done in
+poetry, has always been held to be a most dangerous practice in prose.
+Assonance as a conscious art, in fact, is scarcely recognized as
+legitimate in English literature.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUAN, or ASWAN, a town of Upper Egypt on the east bank of the Nile,
+facing Elephantine Island below the First Cataract, and 590 m. S. of
+Cairo by rail. It is the capital of a province of the same name--the
+southernmost province of Egypt. Population (1907) 16,128. The principal
+buildings are along the river front, where a broad embankment has been
+built. Popular among Europeans as a winter health resort and tourist
+centre, Assuan is provided with large modern hotels (one situated on
+Elephantine Island), and there is an English church. South-east of the
+railway station are the ruins of a temple built by Ptolemy Euergetes,
+and still farther south are the famous granite quarries of Syene. On
+Elephantine Island are an ancient nilometer and other remains, including
+a granite gateway built under Alexander the Great at the temple of the
+local ram-headed god Chnubis or Chnumis (Eg. Khnum), perhaps on account
+of his connexion with Ammon (q.v.); two small but very beautiful temples
+of the XVIIIth Dynasty were destroyed there about 1820. In the hill on
+the opposite side of the river are tombs of the VIth to XIIth dynasties,
+opened by Lord Grenfell in 1885-1886. The inscriptions show that they
+belonged to frontier-prefects whose expeditions into Nubia, &c., are
+recorded in them. Three and a half miles above the town, at the
+beginning of the Cataract, the Assuan Dam stretches across the Nile.
+This great engineering work was finished in December 1902 (see
+IRRIGATION: _Egypt_; and NILE). Above the dam the Nile presents the
+appearance of a vast lake. Consequent on the rise of the water-level
+several islands have been wholly and others partly submerged, among the
+latter Philae (q.v.). On the east bank opposite Philae is the village of
+Shellal, southern terminus of the Egyptian railway system and the
+starting point of steamers for the Sudan.
+
+In ancient times the chief city, called Yeb, capital of the frontier
+nome, the first of the Upper Country, was on the island of Elephantine,
+guarding the entrance to Egypt. But, owing to the cataract, the main
+route for traffic with the south was by land along the eastern shore.
+Here, near the granite quarries--whence was obtained the material for
+many magnificent monuments--there grew up another city, at first
+dependent on and afterwards successor to the island town. This city was
+called _Swan_, the Mart, whence came the Greek _Syene_ and Arabic
+_Aswan_. Syene is twice mentioned (as Seveneh) in the prophecies of
+Ezekiel, and papyri, discovered on the island, and dated in the reigns
+of Artaxerxes and Darius II, (464-404 B.C.), reveal the existence of a
+colony of Jews, with a temple to Yahu (Yahweh, Jehovah), which had been
+founded at some time before the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses in 523
+B.C. They also mention the great frontier garrison against the
+Ethiopians, referred to by Herodotus. Syene was one of the bases used by
+Eratosthenes in his calculations for the measurement of the earth. In
+Roman times Syene was strongly garrisoned to resist the attacks of the
+desert tribes. Thither, in virtual banishment, Juvenal was sent as
+prefect by Domitian. In the early days of Christianity the town became
+the seat of a bishopric, and numerous ruins of Coptic convents are in
+the neighbourhood. Syene appears also to have flourished under its first
+Arab rulers, but in the 12th century was raided and ruined by Bedouin
+and Nubian tribes. On the conquest of Egypt by the Turks in the 16th
+century, Selim I. placed a garrison here, from whom, in part, the
+present townsmen descend. As the southern frontier town of Egypt proper,
+Assuan in times of peace was the entrepôt of a considerable trade with
+the Sudan and Abyssinia, and in 1880 its trade was valued at Ł2,000,000
+annually. During the Mahdia (1884-1898) Assuan was strongly garrisoned
+by Egyptian and British troops. Since the defeat of the khalifa at
+Omdurman and the fixing (1899) of the Egyptian frontier farther south,
+the military value of Assuan has declined.
+
+  For the Jewish colony see A.H. Sayce and A.E. Cowley, _Aramaic Papyri
+  discovered at Assuan_ (Oxford, 1906); E. Sachau, _Drei Aramaische
+  papyrus-Urkunden aus Elephantine_ (Berlin, 1907). For the dam see W.
+  Willcocks, _The Nile Reservoir Dam at Assuan_ (London, 1901).
+       (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUMPSIT ("he has undertaken," from Lat. _assumere_), a word applied to
+an action for the recovery of damages by reason of the breach or
+non-performance of a simple contract, either express or implied, and
+whether made orally or in writing. _Assumpsit_ was the word always used
+in pleadings by the plaintiff to set forth the defendant's undertaking
+or promise, hence the name of the action. Claims in actions of
+_assumpsit_ were ordinarily divided into (a) common or _indebitatus
+assumpsit_, brought usually on an implied promise, and (b) special
+_assumpsit_, founded on an express promise. _Assumpsit_ as a form of
+action became obsolete after the passing of the Judicature Acts 1873 and
+1875. (See further CONTRACT; PLEADING and TORT.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF. The feast of the "Assumption of the blessed Virgin
+Mary" (Lat. _festum assumptionis, dormitionis, depositionis, pausationis
+B. V. M._; Gr. [Greek: koimaesis] or [Greek: analaephis taes theotokou])
+is a festival of the Christian Church celebrated on the 15th of August,
+in commemoration of the miraculous ascent into heaven of the mother of
+Christ. The belief on which this festival rests has its origin in
+apocryphal sources, such as the [Greek: eis taen koimaesin taes
+uperagias despoinaes] ascribed to the Apostle John, and the _de transitu
+Mariae_, assigned to Melito, bishop of Sardis, but actually written
+about A.D. 400. Pope Gelasius I. (492-496) included them in the list of
+apocryphal books condemned by the _Decretum de libris recipiendis et non
+recipiendis_; but they were accepted as authentic by the
+pseudo-Dionysius (_de nominbus divinis c. 3_), whose writings date
+probably from the 5th century, and by Gregory of Tours (d. 593 or 594).
+The latter in his _De gloria martyrum_ (i. 4) gives the following
+account of the miracle: As all the Apostles were watching round the
+dying Mary, Jesus appeared with His angels and committed the soul of His
+Mother to the Archangel Michael. Next day, as they were carrying the
+body to the grave, Christ again appeared and carried it with Him in a
+cloud to heaven, where it was reunited with the soul. This story is much
+amplified in the account given by St John of Damascus in the homilies
+_In dormitionem Mariae_, which are still read in the Roman Church as the
+lesson during the octave of the feast. According to this the patriarchs
+and Adam and Eve also appear at the death-bed, to praise their daughter,
+through whom they had been rescued from the curse of God; a Jew who
+touches the body loses both his hands, which are restored to him by the
+Apostles; and the body lies three days in the grave without corruption
+before it is taken up into heaven.
+
+The festival is first mentioned by St Andrew of Crete (c. 650), and,
+according to the Byzantine historian Nicephorus Callistus (_Hist.
+Eccles._ xvii. 28), was first instituted by the Emperor Maurice in A.D.
+582. From the East it was borrowed by Rome, where there is evidence of
+its existence so early as the 7th century. In the Gallican Church it was
+only adopted at the same time as the Roman liturgy. But though the
+festival thus became incorporated in the regular usage of the Western
+Church, the belief in the resurrection and bodily assumption of the
+Virgin has never been defined as a dogma and remains a "pious opinion,"
+which the faithful may reject without imperilling their immortal souls,
+though not apparently--to quote Melchior Cano (_De Locis Theolog._ xii.
+10)--without "insolent temerity," since such rejection would be contrary
+to the common agreement of the Church. By the reformed Churches,
+including the Church of England, the festival is not observed, having
+been rejected at the Reformation as being neither primitive nor founded
+upon any "certain warrant of Holy Scripture."
+
+  See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3), s. "Maria"; Mgr. L.
+  Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., London, 1904); Wetzer and
+  Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, s. "Marienfeste"; The _Catholic
+  Encyclopaedia_ (London and New York, 1907, &c.), s. "Apocrypha,"
+  "Assumption."
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR (Auth. Vers. _Asshur_), a Hebrew name, occurring in many passages
+of the Old Testament, for the land and dominion of Assyria.[1] The
+_country_ of Assyria, which in the Assyro-Babylonian literature is known
+as _mat Assur_ (_ki_), "land of Assur," took its name from the ancient
+city of _Assur_, situated at the southern extremity of Assyria proper,
+whose territory, soon after the first Assyrian settlement, was bounded
+on the N. by the Zagros mountain range in what is now Kurdistan and on
+the S. by the lower Zab river. The kingdom of Assyria, which was the
+outgrowth of the primitive settlement on the site of the city of Assur,
+was developed by a probably gradual process of colonization in the rich
+vales of the middle Tigris region, a district watered by the Tigris
+itself and also by several tributary streams, the chief of which was the
+lower Zab.[2]
+
+It seems quite evident that the _city_ of Assur was originally founded
+by Semites from Babylonia at quite an early, but as yet undetermined
+date. In the prologue to the law-code of the great Babylonian monarch
+Khammurabi (c. 2250 B.C.), the cities of Nineveh and Assur are both
+mentioned as coming under that king's beneficent influence. Assur is
+there called _A-usar_ (_ki_),[3] in which combination the ending _-ki_
+("land territory") proves that even at that early period there was a
+province of Assur more extensive than the city proper. It is probable
+that this non-Semitic form _A-usar_ means "well watered region,"[4] a
+most appropriate designation for the river settlements of Assyria. The
+problem as to the meaning of the name Assur is rendered all the more
+confusing by the fact that the city and land are also called _Assur_ (as
+well as _A-usar_), both by the Khammurabi records[5] and generally in
+the later Assyrian literature. Furthermore, the god- and country-name
+_Assur_ also occurs at a late date in Assyrian literature in the forms
+_An-sar, An-sar_ (_ki_), which form[6] was presumably read _Assur_. In
+the Creation tablet, the heavens personified collectively were indicated
+by this term _An-sar_, "host of heaven," in contradistinction to the
+earth = _Ki-sar_, "host of earth." In view of this fact, it seems highly
+probable that the late writing _An-sar_ for _Assur_ was a more or less
+conscious attempt on the part of the Assyrian scribes to identify the
+peculiarly Assyrian deity _Asur_ (see ASSUR, the god, below) with the
+Creation deity An-sar. On the other hand, there is an epithet _Asir_ or
+Ashir ("overseer") applied to several gods and particularly to the deity
+_Asur_, a fact which introduced a third element of confusion into the
+discussion of the name _Assur_. It is probable then that there is a
+triple popular etymology in the various forms of writing the name
+_Assur_; viz. _A-usar_,[7] _An-sar_ and the stem _asaru_, all of which
+is quite in harmony with the methods followed by the ancient
+Assyro-Babylonian philologists.[8]
+
+  See also A.H. Layard, _Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and
+  Babylon_ (1853); G. Smith, _Assyrian Discoveries_ (1875); R.W. Rogers,
+  _History of Babylonia and Assyria_, i. 297; ii. 13; ii. 30, 76, 102;
+  J.F. M'Curdy, _History, Prophecy and the Monuments_, §§ 74, 171 f.,
+  247, 258, 283; 57, 59 f. (on the god).     (J. D. Pr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name Assur is not connected with the Asshur of 1 Chron. ii.
+    24; ii. 45. Note that it is customary to spell the god-name _Asur_
+    and the country-name _Assur_.
+
+  [2] Cf. Rassam, _Asshur and the Land of Nimrod_, 250-251, and many
+    other works.
+
+  [3] Robert Harper, _Code of Hammurabi_, pp. 6-7, lines 55-58.
+
+  [4] Thus already Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 252. The
+    element _a_ means "water," and in _u-sar_ it is probable that _u_
+    also means "water," while _sar_ is "park, district." See Prince,
+    _Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon_, s.v. _usar_.
+
+  [5] The name appears as _As-sur_ (_ki_) and _As-su-ur_ (_ki_). See
+    King, _Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi_, iv. p. 23, obv. 27;
+    and Nägel, _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_, iv. p. 404; also _Cun. Texts
+    from Bab. Tablets_, vi. pl. 19, line 7.
+
+  [6] Meissner-Rost, _Bauinschrift Sanheribs_, K. 5413a; K. 1306, rev.
+    16.
+
+  [7] See on this entire subject, Morris Jastrow, Jr., _Journal Amer.
+    Orient. Soc._, xxiv. pp. 282-311; also _Die Religion Bab. u. Assyr._,
+    pp. 207 ff.
+
+  [8] On the philological methods of the ancient Babylonian priesthood,
+    see Prince, _Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon_, Introduction.
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR, the primitive capital of Assyria, now represented by the mounds
+of Kaleh Sherghat (Qal'at Shergat) on the west bank of the Tigris,
+nearly midway between the Upper and Lower Zab. It is still doubtful (see
+discussion on the name in the preceding article) whether the national
+god of Assyria took his name from that of the city or whether the
+converse was the case. It is most probable, however, that it was the
+city which was deified (see Sayce, _Religion of Ancient Egypt and
+Babylonia_, 1902, pp. 366, 367). Sir A.H. Layard, through his assistant
+Hormuzd Rassam, devoted two or three days to excavating on the site, but
+owing to the want of pasturage and the fear of Bedouin attacks he left
+the spot after finding a broken clay cylinder containing the annals of
+Tiglath-Pileser I., and for many years no subsequent efforts were made
+to explore it. In 1904, however, a German expedition under Dr W. Andrae
+began systematic excavations, which have led to important results. The
+city originally grew up round the great temple of the god Assur, the
+foundation of which was ascribed to the High-priest Uspia. For many
+centuries Assur and the surrounding district, which came accordingly to
+be called the land of Assur (_Assyria_), were governed by high-priests
+under the suzerainty of Babylonia. With the decay of the Babylonian
+power the high-priests succeeded in making themselves independent kings,
+and Assur became the capital of an important kingdom. It was already
+surrounded by a wall of crude brick, which rested on stone foundations
+and was strengthened at certain points by courses of burnt brick. A deep
+moat was dug outside it by Tukulti-Inaristi or Tukulti-Masu (about 1270
+B.C.), and it was further defended on the land side by a _salkhu_ or
+outwork. In the 15th century B.C. it was considerably extended to the
+south in order to include a "new town" which had grown up there. The
+wall was pierced by "the gate of Assur," "the gate of the Sun-god," "the
+gate of the Tigris," &c., and on the river side was a quay of burnt
+brick and limestone cemented with bitumen. The temples were in the
+northern part of the city, together with their lofty towers, one of
+which has been excavated. Besides the temple of Assur there was another
+great temple dedicated to Anu and Hadad, as well as the smaller
+sanctuaries of Bel, Ishtar, Merodach and other deities. After the rise
+of the kingdom, palaces were erected separate from the temples; the
+sites of those of Hadad-nirari I., Shalmaneser I., and Assur-nazir-pal
+have been discovered by the German excavators, and about a dozen more
+are referred to in the inscriptions. Even after the rise of Nineveh as
+the capital of the kingdom and the seat of the civil power, Assur
+continued to be the religious centre of the country, where the king was
+called on to reside when performing his priestly functions. The city
+survived the fall of Assyria, and extensive buildings as well as tombs
+of the Parthian age have been found upon the site.
+
+  See _Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft_ (1904-1906).
+       (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR, ASUR, or ASHUR, the chief god of Assyria, was originally the
+patron deity of the city of Assur on the Tigris, the ancient capital of
+Assyria from which as a centre the authority of the _patesis_ (as the
+rulers were at first called) spread in various directions. The history
+of Assyria (q.v.) can now be traced back approximately to 2500 B.C.,
+though it does not rise to political prominence until c. 2000 B.C. The
+name of the god is identical with that of the city, though an older form
+A-shir, signifying "leader," suggests that a differentiation between the
+god and the city was at one time attempted. Though the origin of the
+form Ashur (or Assur) is not certain, it is probable that the name of
+the god is older than that of the city (see discussion on the name
+above).
+
+The title _Ashir_ was given to various gods in the south, as Marduk and
+Nebo, and there is every reason to believe that it represents a direct
+transfer with the intent to emphasize that Assur is the "leader" or head
+of the pantheon of the north. He is in fact to all intents and purposes
+of the north. Originally like Marduk a solar deity with the winged
+disk--the disk always typifying the sun--as his symbol, he becomes as
+Assyria develops into a military power a god of war, indicated by the
+attachment of the figure of a man with a bow to the winged disk.[1]
+While the cult of the other great gods and goddesses of Babylonia was
+transferred to Assyria, the worship of Assur so overshadowed that of the
+rest as to give the impression of a decided tendency towards the
+absorption of all divine powers by the one god. Indeed, the other gods,
+Sin, Shamash (Samas), Adad, Ninib and Nergal, and even Ea, take on the
+warlike traits of Assur in the epithets and descriptions given of them
+in the annals and votive inscriptions of Assyrian rulers to such an
+extent as to make them appear like little Assurs by the side of the
+great one. Marduk alone retains a large measure of his independence as a
+concession on the part of the Assyrians to the traditions of the south,
+for which they always manifested a profound respect. Even during the
+period that the Assyrian monarchs exercised complete sway over the
+south, they rested their claims to the control of Babylonia on the
+approval of Marduk, and they or their representatives never failed to
+perform the ceremony of "taking the hand" of Marduk, which was the
+formal method of assuming the throne in Babylonia. Apart from this
+concession, it is Assur who pre-eminently presides over the fortunes of
+Assyria.[2] In his name, and with his approval as indicated by
+favourable omens, the Assyrian armies march to battle. His symbol is
+carried into the thick of the fray, so that the god is actually present
+to grant assistance in the crisis, and the victory is with becoming
+humility invariably ascribed by the kings "to the help of Assur." With
+the fall of Assyria the rule of Assur also comes to an end, whereas it
+is significant that the cult of the gods of Babylonia--more particularly
+of Marduk--survives for several centuries the loss of political
+independence through Cyrus' capture of Babylonia in 539 B.C. The name of
+Assur's temple at Assur, represented by the mounds of Kaleh Sherghat,
+was known as E-khar-sag-gal-kur-kurra, i.e. "House of the great mountain
+of the lands." Its exact site has been determined by excavations
+conducted at Kaleh Sherghat since 1903 by the German Oriental Society.
+The name indicates the existence of the same conception regarding sacred
+edifices in Assyria as in Babylonia, where we find such names as E-Kur
+("mountain house") for the temple of Bel (q.v.) at Nippur, and E-Saggila
+("lofty house") for Marduk's (q.v.) temple at Babylon and that of Ea
+(q.v.) at Eridu, and in view of the general dependence of Assyrian
+religious beliefs as of Assyrian culture in general, there is little
+reason to doubt that the name of Assur's temple represents a direct
+adaptation of such a name as E-Kur, further embellished by epithets
+intended to emphasize the supreme control of the god to whom the edifice
+was dedicated. The foundation of the edifice can be traced back to Uspia
+(Ushpia), c. 2000 B.C., and may turn out to be even older. Besides the
+chief temple, the capital contained temples and chapels to Anu, Adad,
+Ishtar, Marduk, Gula, Sin, Shamash, so that we are to assume the
+existence of a sacred precinct in Assur precisely as in the religious
+centres of the south. On the removal of the seat of residence of the
+Assyrian kings to Calah (c. 1300 B.C.), and then in the 8th century to
+Nineveh, the centre of the Assur cult was likewise transferred, though
+the sanctity of the old seat at Assur continued to be recognized. At
+Nineveh, which remained the capital till the fall of the Assyrian empire
+in 606 B.C., Assur had as his rival Ishtar, who was the real patron
+deity of the place, but a reconciliation was brought about by making
+Ishtar the consort of the chief god. The combination was, however, of an
+artificial character, and the consciousness that Ishtar was in reality
+an independent goddess never entirely died out. She too, like Assur, was
+viewed as a war deity, and to such an extent was this the case that at
+times it would appear that she, rather than Assur, presided over the
+fortunes of the Assyrian armies.     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Prince, _Journ. Bibl. Lit._, xxii. 35.
+
+  [2] As essentially a _national_ god, he is almost identical in
+    character with the early Yahweh of Israel. See Sayce, Hibbert
+    Lectures, _Religion of Ancient Babylonia_, p. 129.
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR-BANI-PAL ("Assur creates a son"), the _grand monarque_ of Assyria,
+was the prototype of the Greek Sardanapalus, and appears probably in the
+corrupted form of Asnapper in Ezra iv. 10. He had been publicly
+nominated king of Assyria (on the 12th of Iyyar) by his father
+Esar-haddon, some time before the latter's death, Babylonia being
+assigned to his twin-brother Samas-sum-yukin, in the hope of gratifying
+the national feeling of the Babylonians. After Esar-haddon's death in
+668 B.C. the first task of Assur-bani-pal was to finish the Egyptian
+campaign. Tirhakah, who had reoccupied Egypt, fled to Ethiopia, and the
+Assyrian army spent forty days in ascending the Nile from Memphis to
+Thebes. Shortly afterwards Necho, the satrap of Sais, and two others
+were detected intriguing with Tirhakah; Necho and one of his companions
+were sent in chains to Nineveh, but were there pardoned and restored to
+their principalities. Tirhakah died 667 B.C., and his successor Tandaman
+(Tanuat-Amon) entered Upper Egypt, where a general revolt against
+Assyria took place, headed by Thebes. Memphis was taken by assault and
+the Assyrian troops driven out of the country. Tyre seems to have
+revolted at the same time. Assur-bani-pal, however, lost no time in
+pouring fresh forces into the revolted province. Once more the Assyrian
+army made its way up the Nile, Thebes was plundered, and its temples
+destroyed, two obelisks being carried to Nineveh as trophies (see Nahum
+iii. 8). Meanwhile the siege of insular Tyre was closely pressed; its
+water-supply was cut off, and it was compelled to surrender.
+Assur-bani-pal was now at the height of his power. The land of the Manna
+(Minni), south-east of Ararat, had been wasted, its capital captured by
+the Assyrians, and its king reduced to vassalage. A war with Teumman of
+Elam had resulted in the overthrow of the Elamite army; the head of
+Teumman was sent to Nineveh, and another king, Umman-igas, appointed by
+the Assyrians. The kings of Cilicia and the Tabal offered their
+daughters to the harem of Assur-bani-pal; embassies came from Ararat,
+and even Gyges of Lydia despatched envoys to "the great king" in the
+hope of obtaining help against the Cimmerians. Suddenly the mighty
+empire began to totter. The Lydian king, finding that Nineveh was
+helpless to assist him, turned instead to Egypt and furnished the
+mercenaries with whose help Psammetichus drove the Assyrians out of the
+country and suppressed his brother satraps. Egypt was thus lost to
+Assyria for ever (660 B.C.). In Babylonia, moreover, discontent was
+arising, and finally Samas-sum-yukin put himself at the head of the
+national party and declared war upon his brother. Elamite aid was
+readily forthcoming, especially when stimulated by bribes, and the Arab
+tribes joined in the revolt. The resources of the Assyrian empire were
+strained to their utmost. But thanks in some measure to the intestine
+troubles in Elam, the Babylonian army and its allies were defeated and
+driven into Babylon, Sippara, Borsippa and Cutha. One by one the cities
+fell, Babylon being finally starved into surrender (648 B.C.) after
+Samas-sum-yukin had burnt himself in his palace to avoid falling into
+the conqueror's hands. It was now the turn of the Arabs, some of whom
+had been in Babylon during the siege, while others had occupied
+themselves in plundering Edom, Moab and the Hauran. Northern Arabia was
+traversed by the Assyrian forces, the Nabataeans were almost
+exterminated, and the desert tribes terrorized into order. Elam was
+alone left to be dealt with, and the last resources of the empire were
+therefore expended in preventing it from ever being again a thorn in the
+Assyrian side.
+
+But the effort had exhausted Assyria. Drained of men and resources it
+was no longer able to make head against the Cimmerian and Scythian
+hordes who now poured over western Asia. The Cimmerian Dugdamme
+(Lygdamis in Strabo i. 3, 16), whom Assur-bani-pal calls "a limb of
+Satan," after sacking Sardis, had been slain in Cilicia, but other
+Scythian invaders came to take his place. When Assur-bani-pal died in
+626 (?) B.C. his empire was already in decay, and within a few years the
+end came. He was luxurious and indolent, entrusting the command of his
+armies to others whose successes he appropriated, cruel and
+superstitious, but a magnificent patron of art and literature. The great
+library of Nineveh was to a considerable extent his creation, and
+scribes were kept constantly employed in it copying the older tablets of
+Babylonia, though unfortunately their patron's tastes inclined rather to
+omens and astrology than to subjects of more modern interest. The
+library was contained in the palace that he built on the northern side
+of the mound of Kuyunjik and lined with sculptured slabs which display
+Assyrian art at its best. Whether Kandalanu (Kinela-danos), who became
+viceroy of Babylonia after the suppression of the revolt, was
+Assur-bani-pal under another name, or a different personage, is still
+doubtful (see SARDANAPALUS).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--George Smith, _History of Assurbanipal_ (1871); S.A.
+  Smith, _Die Keilschrifttexte Asurbanipals_ (1887-1889); P. Jensen in
+  E. Schrader's _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, ii. (1889); J.A.
+  Knudtzon, _Assyrische Gebete an den Sonnengott_ (1893); C. Lehmann,
+  _Schamashschumukin_ (1892).     (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUS [mod. _Behram_], an ancient Greek city of the Troad, on the
+Adramyttian Gulf. The situation is one of the most magnificent in all
+the Greek lands. The natural cleavage of the trachyte into joint planes
+had already scarped out shelves which it was comparatively easy for
+human labour to shape; and so, high up this cone of trachyte, the Greek
+town of Assus was built, tier above tier, the summit of the crag being
+crowned with a Doric temple of Athena. The view from the summit is very
+beautiful and of great historical interest. In front is Lesbos, one of
+whose towns, Methymna, is said to have sent forth the founders of Assus,
+as early, perhaps, as 1000 or 900 B.C. The whole south coast-line of the
+Troad is seen, and in the south-east the ancient territory of Pergamum,
+from whose masters the possession of Assus passed to Rome by the bequest
+of Attalus III. (133 B.C.). The great heights of Ida rise in the east.
+Northward the Tuzla is seen winding through a rich valley. This valley
+was traversed by the road which St Paul must have followed when he came
+overland from Alexandria Troas to Assus, leaving his fellow-travellers
+to proceed by sea. The north-west gateway, to which this road led, is
+still flanked by two massive towers, of Hellenic work. On the shore
+below, the ancient mole can still be traced by large blocks under the
+clear water. Assus affords the only harbour on the 50 m. of coast
+between Cape Lectum and the east end of the Adramyttian Gulf; hence it
+must always have been the chief shipping-place for the exports of the
+southern Troad. The great natural strength of the site protected it
+against petty assailants; but, like other towns in that region, it has
+known many masters--Lydians, Persians, the kings of Pergamum, Romans and
+Ottoman Turks. From the Persian wars to about 350 B.C. Assus enjoyed at
+least partial independence. It was about 348-345 B.C. that Aristotle
+spent three years at Assus with Hermeas, an ex-slave who had succeeded
+his former master Eubulus as despot of Assus and Atarneus. Aristotle has
+left some verses from an invocation to Arete (Virtue), commemorating the
+worth of Hermeas, who had been seized by Persian treachery and put to
+death.
+
+Under its Turkish name of Behram, Assus is still the commercial port of
+the southern Troad, being the place to which loads of valonia are
+conveyed by camels from all parts of the country. Explorations were
+conducted at Assus in 1881-1883 by Mr J.T. Clarke for the Archaeological
+Institute of America. The main object was to clear the Doric temple of
+Athena, built about 470 B.C. This temple is remarkable for a sculptured
+architrave which took the place of the ordinary frieze. The scenes are
+partly mythological (labours of Heracles), partly purely heraldic.
+Eighteen panels were transported to the Louvre in 1838; other fragments
+rewarded the Americans, and a scientific ground-plan was drawn. The
+well-preserved Hellenistic walls were also studied.
+
+  See J.T. Clarke, _Assos_, 2 vols., 1882 and 1898 (Papers of Arch.
+  Inst. of America, i. ii.); and authorities under TROAD.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSYRIA. The two great empires, Assyria and Babylon, which grew up on
+the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, can be separated as little
+historically as geographically. From the beginning their history is
+closely intertwined; and the power of the one is a measure of the
+weakness of the other. This interdependence of Assyrian and Babylonian
+history was recognized by ancient writers, and has been confirmed by
+modern discovery. But whereas Assyria takes the first place in the
+classical accounts to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of
+the inscriptions has proved that the converse was really the case, and
+that, with the exception of some seven or eight centuries, Assyria might
+be described as a province or dependency of Babylon. Not only was
+Babylonia the mother country, as the tenth chapter of Genesis explicitly
+states, but the religion and culture, the literature and the characters
+in which it was contained, the arts and the sciences of the Assyrians
+were derived from their southern neighbours. They were similar in race
+and language. (See BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.)
+
+
+
+
+AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH (1778-1841), German philosopher and
+philologist, was born at Gotha. Educated there and at the university of
+Jena, he became privat-docent at Jena in 1802. In 1805 he became
+professor of classical literature in the university of Landshut, where
+he remained till 1826, when it was transferred to Munich. There he lived
+till his death on the 31st of October 1841. In recognition of his work
+he was made an aulic councillor and a member of the Bavarian Academy of
+Sciences. He is known principally for his work during the last
+twenty-five years of his life on the dialogues of Plato. His _Platon's
+Leben und Schriften_ (1816) was the first of those critical inquiries
+into the life and works of Plato which originated in the _Introductions_
+of Schleiermacher and the historical scepticism of Niebuhr and Wolf.
+Distrusting tradition, he took a few of the finest dialogues as his
+standard, and from internal evidence denounced as spurious not only
+those which are generally admitted to be so (_Epinomis, Minos, Theages,
+Arastae, Clitophon, Hipparchus, Eryxias, Letters and Definitions_), but
+also the _Meno, Euthydemus, Charmides, Lysis, Laches, First and Second
+Alcibiades, Hippias Major and Minor, Ion, Euthyphro, Apology, Crito_,
+and even (against Aristotle's explicit assertion) _The Laws_. The
+genuine dialogues he divides into three series:--(1) the earliest,
+marked chiefly by the poetical and dramatic element, i.e. _Protagoras,
+Phaedrus, Gorgias, Phaedo_; (2) the second, marked by dialectic
+subtlety, i.e. _Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, Parmenides, Cratylus_;
+(3) the third group, combining both qualities harmoniously, i.e. the
+_Philebus, Symposium, Republic, Timaeus, Critias_. The work was followed
+by a complete edition of Plato's works (11 vols., 1819-1832) with a
+Latin translation and commentary. His last work was the _Lexicon
+Platonicum_ (3 vols., 1834-1839), which is both valuable and
+comprehensive. In his works on aesthetics he combined the views of
+Schelling with those of Winckelmann, Lessing, Kant, Herder, Schiller and
+others. His histories of philosophy are marked more by critical
+scholarship than by originality of thought, though they are interesting
+as asserting the now familiar principle that the history of philosophy
+is not the history of opinions, but of reason as a whole; he was among
+the first to attempt to formulate a principle of the development of
+thought. Beside his works on Plato, he wrote, on aesthetics, _System der
+Kunstlehre_ (1805) and _Grundriss der Aesthetik_ (1807); on the history
+of philosophy, _Grundlinien der Philosophie_ (1807, republished 1809,
+but soon forgotten), _Grundriss einer Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1807
+and 1825), and _Hauptmomente der Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1829); in
+philology, _Grundlinien der Philologie_ (1808), and _Grundlinien der
+Grammatik, Hermeneutik und Kritik_ (1808).
+
+
+
+
+ASTARA, a port of Russian Transcaucasia, government of Baku, on the
+Caspian, in 38° 27' N. lat. and 48° 53' E. long., on the river of the
+same name, which forms the frontier between Persia and Russia. Russian
+merchandize is landed there and forwarded to Azerbáiján and Tabriz via
+Ardebil.
+
+
+
+
+ASTARABAD, a province of Persia bounded N. by the Caspian Sea and
+Russian Transcaspian, S. by the Elburz Mountains, W. by Mazandaran, and
+E. by Khorasan. The country, mountainous in its southern portion,
+possesses extensive forests, fertile valleys, producing rice, wheat and
+other grains in abundance, and rich pasturages. The soil, even with
+little culture, is exceedingly productive, owing to the abundance of
+water which irrigates and fertilizes it. But while the province in many
+parts presents a landscape of luxuriant beauty, it is a prey to the
+ravages of disease, principally malarial fevers due to the extensive
+swamps formed by waters stagnating in the forests, and to the frequent
+incursions of the Goklan and Yomut Turkomans, who have their
+camping-grounds in the northern part of the province, and until about
+1890 plundered caravans sometimes at the very gates of Astarabad city,
+and carried people off into slavery and bondage. The province has a
+population of about 100,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about Ł30,000.
+The inhabitants, notwithstanding the unhealthiness of their climate, are
+a strong and athletic race, belying their yellow and sickly appearance.
+The province has the following bulúk (administrative divisions):--(1)
+Astarabad town; (2) Astarabad rustak (villages); (3) Sadan rustak; (4).
+Anazan; (5) Katúl; (6) Findarisk, with Kuhsar and Nodeh; (7) Shahkuh
+Sávar.
+
+ASTARABAD, the capital of the province, is situated on the Astar, a
+small tributary of the Kara Su (Black river), which flows into the
+Caspian Sea 20 m. W. of the city, and about 18 m. S. of the Gurgan
+river, in 36° 51' N. lat. and 54° 26' E. long. It is surrounded by a mud
+wall about 30 ft. in height and about 3˝ m. in circuit, but much of the
+enclosed space is occupied by gardens, mounds of refuse, and ruins. At
+one time of greater size, it was reduced by Nadir Shah within its
+present limits. Astarabad owes its origin to Yazid ibn Mohallab, who
+occupied the province early in the 8th century for Suleiman, the seventh
+of the Omayyad caliphs (715-717), and was destroyed by Timur (Tamerlane)
+in 1384. Jonas Hanway, the philanthropist (d. 1786), visited the place
+in 1744, and attempted to open a direct trade through it between Europe
+and central Asia. Owing to the noxious exhalations of the surrounding
+forests the town is so extremely unhealthy during the hot weather as to
+have acquired the title of the "Abode of the Plague." It has post and
+telegraph offices, and a population of about 10,000. Since 1890 the
+Turkomans who impeded trade by their perpetual raids have been kept more
+in check, and with the decrease of insecurity the commercial activity of
+Astarabad has increased considerably.
+
+
+
+
+ASTARTE, a Semitic goddess whose name appears in the Bible as
+Ashtoreth.[1] She is everywhere the great female principle, answering to
+the Baal of the Canaanites and Phoenicians[2] and to the Dagon of the
+Philistines. She had temples at Sidon and at Tyre (whence her worship
+was transplanted to Carthage), and the Philistines probably venerated
+her at Ascalon (1 Sam. xxxi. 10). Solomon built a high-place for her at
+Jerusalem which lasted until the days of King Josiah (1 Kings xi. 5; 2
+Kings xxiii. 13), and the extent of her cult among the Israelites is
+proved as much by the numerous biblical references as by the frequent
+representations of the deity turned up on Palestinian soil.[3] The
+Moabites formed a compound deity, Ashtar-Chemosh (see MOAB), and the
+absence of the feminine termination occurs similarly in the Babylonian
+and Assyrian prototype Ishtar. The old South Arabian phonetic equivalent
+'Athtar is, however, a male deity. Another compound, properly of mixed
+sex, appears in the Aramaean Atargatis ('At[t]ar-'athe), worn down to
+Derketo, who is specifically associated with sacred pools and fish
+(Ascalon, Hierapolis-Mabog). (See ATARGATIS.)
+
+The derivation of the name Ishtar is uncertain, and the original
+attributes of the goddess are consequently unknown. She assumes various
+local forms in the old Semitic world, and this has led to consequent
+fusion and identification with the deities of other nations. As the
+great nature-goddess, the attributes of fertility and reproduction are
+characteristically hers, as also the accompanying immorality which
+originally, perhaps, was often nothing more than primitive magic. As
+patroness of the hunt, later identification with Artemis was inevitable.
+Hence the consequent fusion with Aphrodite, Artemis, Diana, Juno and
+Venus, and the action and reaction of one upon the other in myth and
+legend. Her star was the planet Venus, and classical writers give her
+the epithet Caelestis and Urania. Whether Astarte was also a lunar
+goddess has been questioned. As the female counterpart of the Phoenician
+Baal (viewed as a sun-god), and on the testimony of late writers
+(Lucian, Herodian) that she was represented with horns, the place-name
+Ashteroth-Karnaim in Gilead ("Ashteroth of the horns") has been
+considered ample proof in favour of the theory. But it is probable that
+the horns were primarily ram's horns,[4] and that Astarte the
+moon-goddess is due to the influence of the Egyptian Isis and Hathor.
+Robertson Smith, too, argues that Astarte was originally a
+sheep-goddess, and points to the interesting use of "Astartes of the
+flocks" (Deut. vii. 13, see the comm.) to denote the offspring. To
+nomads, Astarte may well have been a sheep-goddess, but this, if her
+earliest, was not her only type, as is clear from the sacred fish of
+Atargatis, the doves of Ascalon (and of the Phoenician sanctuary of
+Eryx), and the gazelle or antelope of the goddess of love (associated
+also with the Arabian Athtar).
+
+  The literature is vast; see G.A. Barton, _Amer. Journ. of Sem. Lang._
+  vols. ix. x., and his _Semitic Origins_; Driver, Hastings' _Dict.
+  Bible_, i. pp. 167-171; Zimmern, _Keilinschr. und das alte Test.ł_
+  pp. 420 sqq.; Lagrange, _Études d. Relig. Sem._ pp. 123-140; and the
+  articles ADONIS, APHRODITE, ARTEMIS, BAAL.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The vocalization suggests the Heb. bosheth, "shame"; see BAAL.
+
+  [2] Add also the Hittites; for Sutekh, the Egyptian equivalent of the
+    male partner, see W.M. Müller, _Mitt. d. vorderasiat. Gesell._
+    (1902), v. pp. 11, 38. Astarte was introduced also into Egypt and had
+    her temple at Memphis. See also S.A. Cook, _Religion of Ancient
+    Palestine, Index_, s.v.
+
+  [3] Such figurines are in a sense the prototypes of the Venus of
+    Medici. On the influence of her cult upon that of the Virgin Mary,
+    see Rösch, _Studien u. Krit._ (1888), pp. 265 sqq.
+
+  [4] A model of an Astarte with ram's horns was unearthed by R.A.S.
+    Macalister at Gezer (_Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statement_, 1903, p.
+    227 with figure facing).
+
+
+
+
+ASTELL, MARY (1668-1731), English author, was born at
+Newcastle-upon-Tyne. She was instructed by her uncle, a clergyman, in
+Latin and French, logic, mathematics and natural philosophy. In her
+twentieth year she went to London, where she continued her studies. She
+published, in 1697, a work entitled _A Serious Proposal to the Ladies,
+wherein a Method is offered for the Improvement of their Minds_. With
+the same end in view she elaborated a scheme for a ladies' college,
+which was favourably entertained by Queen Anne, and would have been
+carried out had not Bishop Burnet interfered. The most important of her
+other works was _The Christian Religion, as professed by a Daughter of
+the Church of England_, published in 1705.
+
+
+
+
+ASTER (Gr. [Greek: astaer], a star), the name of a genus of plants,
+given from the fact of the flowers having a radiated or star-like
+appearance (see below). The Greek word also provides many derivatives:
+e.g. _asterism_ (Gr. [Greek: asterismos]), a constellation (q.v.);
+_asteroid_ (Gr. [Greek: astero-eidaes], star-like), an alternative name
+for planetoids or minor planets (see PLANET).
+
+The genus of composite plants named aster (natural order _Compositae_)
+is found largely in North America, and scattered sparingly over Asia,
+Europe and South America. They are usually herbaceous perennials; their
+flowers arranged in numerous heads (_capitula_) recall those of the
+daisy, whence they are popularly known in England as Michaelmas daisies,
+since many are in bloom about that time. They are valuable plants in a
+garden, the various species flowering from late summer right on to
+November or December. The only British species is _Aster Tripolium_,
+found abundantly in saline marshes near the sea. One of the species,
+_Aster alpinus_, grows at a considerable height on the mountains of
+Europe. Some of them, such as _Aster spectabilis_ of North America, are
+very showy. They are mostly easy to cultivate in ordinary garden soil,
+and are readily propagated by dividing the roots in early spring. The
+following are some of the better known forms:--_A. alpinus_, barely 1
+ft. high, and _A. Amellus_, 1˝ ft., with its var. _bessarabicus_, have
+broadish blunt leaves and large starry bluish flowers; _A. longifolius_
+var. _formosus_, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; _A. acris_, 2 to 3 ft., with
+blue flowers in August; _A. ericoides_, 3 ft., with heath-like leaves
+and masses of small white flowers; _A. puniceus_, 4 to 6 ft., blue or
+rosy-lilac; _A. turbinellus_, 2 to 3 ft., mauve-coloured, are showy
+border plants; and _A. Novae-Angliae_, 5 to 6 ft., rosy-violet; _A.
+Novi-Belgii_, 3 to 6 ft., pale blue; _A. laevis_, 2 to 6 ft.,
+blue-lilac; and _A. grandiflorus_, 3 ft., violet, are especially useful
+from their late-flowering habit.
+
+The China aster (_Callistephus chinensis_) is also a member of the order
+_Compositae_. It is a hardy annual, a native of China, which by
+cultivation has yielded a great variety of forms. Some of the best for
+ornamental gardening are the chrysanthemum-flowered, the
+paeony-flowered, the crown or cockade, the comet, and the globe-quilled.
+Crown asters have a white centre, and dark crimson or purple
+circumference, and are very beautiful. The colours range from white and
+blush through pink and rose to crimson, and from lilac through blue to
+purple, in various shades. They should be sown early in March in pans,
+in a gentle heat, the young plants being quickly transferred to a cool
+pit, and there pricked out in rich soil as soon as large enough, and
+eventually planted out in the garden in May or June, in soil which has
+been well worked and copiously manured, where they grow from 8 to 18
+in. high, and flower towards the end of summer. They also make handsome
+pot plants for the conservatory.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERIA, or STAR-STONE (from Gr. [Greek: astaer], star), a name applied
+to such ornamental stones as exhibit when cut _en cabochon_ a luminous
+star. The typical asteria is the star-sapphire, generally a bluish-grey
+corundum, milky or opalescent, with a star of six rays. (See SAPPHIRE.)
+In red corundum the stellate reflexion is less common, and hence the
+star-ruby occasionally found with the star-sapphire in Ceylon is among
+the most valued of "fancy stones." When the radiation is shown by yellow
+corundum, the stone is called star-topaz. Cymophane, or chatoyant
+chrysoberyl, may also be asteriated. In all these cases the asterism is
+due to the reflexion of light from twin-lamellae or from fine tubular
+cavities or thin enclosures definitely arranged in the stone. The
+_astrion_ of Pliny is believed to have been our moonstone, since it is
+described as a colourless stone from India having within it the
+appearance of a star shining with the light of the moon. All star-stones
+were formerly regarded with much superstition.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERID, a group of starfish. They are the starfish proper, and have the
+typical genus _Asterias_ (see STARFISH).
+
+
+
+
+ASTERISK (from Gr. [Greek: asteriskos], a little star), the sign * used
+in typography. The word is also used in its literal meaning in old
+writers, and as a description of an ornamental form (star-shaped) in one
+of the utensils in the Greek Church.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERIUS, of Cappadocia, sophist and teacher of rhetoric in Galatia, was
+converted to Christianity about the year 300, and became the disciple of
+Lucian, the founder of the school of Antioch. During the persecution
+under Maximian (304) he relapsed into paganism, and thus, though
+received again into the church by Lucian and supported by the Eusebian
+party, never attained to ecclesiastical office. He is best known as an
+able defender of the semi-Arian position, and was styled by Athanasius
+the "advocate" of the Arians. His chief work was the _Syntagmation_, but
+he wrote many others, including commentaries on the Gospels, the Psalms,
+and Romans. He attended many synods, and we last hear of him at the
+synod of Antioch in 341.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERIUS, bishop of Amasia, in Pontus, c. 400. He was partly
+contemporary with the emperor Julian (d. 363) and lived to a great age.
+His fame rests chiefly on his _Homilies_, which were much esteemed in
+the Eastern Church. Most of these have been lost, but twenty-one are
+given in full by Migne (_Patrol. Ser. Gr._ xl. 164-477), and there are
+fragments of others in Photius (_Cod._ 271). Asterius was a man of much
+culture, and his works are a valuable contribution to our knowledge of
+the history of preaching.
+
+
+
+
+ASTHMA (Gr. [Greek: asthma], gasping, whence [Greek: asthmaino], I gasp
+for breath), a disorder of respiration characterized by severe paroxysms
+of difficult breathing (_dyspnoea_) usually followed by a period of
+complete relief, with recurrence of the attacks at more or less frequent
+intervals. The term is often loosely employed in reference to states of
+embarrassed respiration, which are plainly due to permanent organic
+disease of the respiratory organs (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_).
+
+The attacks occur quite suddenly, and in some patients at regular, in
+others at irregular intervals. They are characterized by extreme
+difficulty both in inspiration and expiration, but especially in the
+latter, the chest becoming distended and the diaphragm immobile. In the
+case of "pure," "idiopathic" or "nervous" asthma, there is no fever or
+other sign of inflammation. But where the asthma is secondary to disease
+of some organ of the body, the symptoms will depend largely on that
+organ and the disease present. Such secondary forms may be bronchitic,
+cardiac, renal, peptic or thymic.
+
+The mode of onset differs very markedly in different cases. In some the
+attack begins quite suddenly and without warning, but in others various
+sensations well known to the patient announce that an attack is
+imminent. According to the late Dr Hyde Salter the commonest warning is
+that of an intense desire for sleep, so overpowering that though the
+patient knows his only chance of warding off the attack is to keep
+awake, he is yet utterly unable to fight against his drowsiness. Among
+other patients, however, a condition of unwonted mental excitement
+presages the attack. Again the secondary forms of the disease may be
+ushered in by flatulence, constipation and loss of appetite, and a
+symptom which often attends the onset, though it is not strictly
+premonitory, is a profuse diuresis, the urine being watery and nearly
+colourless, as in the condition of hysterical diuresis. In the majority
+of instances the attack begins during the night, sometimes abruptly but
+often by degrees. The patient may or may not be aware that his asthma is
+threatening. A few hours after midnight he is aroused from sleep by a
+sense of difficult breathing. In some cases this is a slowly increasing
+condition, not becoming acute for some hour or more. But in others the
+attack is so sudden, so severe, that the patient springs from his bed
+and makes his way at once to an open window, apparently struggling for
+breath. Most asthmatics have some favourite attitude which best enables
+them to use all the auxiliary muscles of respiration in their struggle
+for breath, and this attitude they immediately assume, and guard fixedly
+until the attack begins to subside. The picture is characteristic and a
+very painful one to watch. The face is pale, anxious, and it may be
+livid. The veins of the forehead stand out, the eyes bulge, and
+perspiration bedews the face. The head is fixed in position, and
+likewise the powerful muscles of the back to aid the attempt at
+respiration. The breath is whistling and wheezing, and if it becomes
+necessary for the patient to speak, the words are uttered with great
+difficulty. If the chest be watched it is seen to be almost motionless,
+and the respirations may become extraordinarily slowed. Inspiration is
+difficult as the chest is already over-distended, but expiration is an
+even far greater struggle. The attack may last any time from an hour to
+several days, and between the attacks the patient is usually quite at
+ease. But notwithstanding the intensely distressing character of the
+attacks, asthma is not one of the diseases that shorten life.
+
+In the child, asthma is usually periodic in its recurrence, but as he
+ages it tends to become more erratic in both its manifestations and time
+of appearance. Also, though at first it may be strictly "pure" asthma,
+later in life it becomes attended by chronic bronchitis, which in its
+turn gives rise to emphysema.
+
+As to the underlying cause of the disease, one has only to read the many
+utterly different theories put forward to account for it, to see how
+little is really known. But it has now been clearly shown that in the
+asthmatic state the respiratory centre is in an unstable and excitable
+condition, and that there is a morbid connexion between this and some
+part of the nasal apparatus. Dr Alexander Francis has shown, however,
+that the disease is not directly due to any mechanical obstruction of
+the nasal passages, and that the nose comparatively rarely supplies the
+immediate exciting cause of the asthmatic attack. Paroxysmal sneezing is
+another form in which asthma may show itself, and, curiously enough,
+this form occurs more frequently in women, asthma of the more recognized
+type in men. In infants and young children paroxysmal bronchitis is
+another form of the same disease. Dr James Goodhart notes the connexion
+between asthma and certain skin troubles, giving cases of the
+alternation of asthma and psoriasis, and also of asthma and eczema. The
+disease occurs in families with a well-marked neurotic inheritance, and
+twice as frequently in men as in women. The immediate cause of an attack
+may be anything or nothing. Dr Hyde Salter notes that 80% of cases in
+the young date from an attack of whooping cough, bronchitis or measles.
+
+In the general treatment of asthma there are two methods of dealing with
+the patient, either that of hardening the individual, widening his range
+of accommodation, and thus making him less susceptible, or that of
+modifying and adapting the environment to the patient. These two methods
+correspond to the two methods of drug treatment, tonic or sedative.
+During the last few years the method of treatment first used by Dr
+Alexander Francis has come into prominence. His plan is to restore the
+stability of the respiratory centre, by cauterizing the septal mucous
+membrane, and combining with this general hygienic measures. In his own
+words the operation, which is entirely painless and insignificant, is
+performed as follows:--"After painting one side of the septum nasi with
+a few drops of cocaine and resorcin, I draw a line with a
+galvano-cautery point from a spot opposite the middle turbinated body,
+forwards and slightly downwards for a distance of rather less than half
+an inch. In about one week's time I repeat the operation on the other
+side." In his monograph on the subject, he classifies a large number of
+cases treated in this manner, most of which resulted in complete relief,
+some in very great improvement, and a very few in slight or no relief.
+
+
+
+
+ASTI (anc. _Hasta_), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
+province of Alessandria, situated on the Tanaro; it is 22 m. W. by rail
+from Alessandria. Pop. (1901) town, 19,787; commune, 41,047. Asti has
+still numerous medieval towers, a fine Gothic cathedral of the 14th
+century, the remains of a Christian basilica of the 6th century, and the
+octagonal baptistery of S. Pietro (11th century). It was the birthplace
+of the poet Vittorio Alfieri. In ancient times it manufactured pottery.
+It is now famous for its sparkling wine (_Asti spumante_), and is a
+considerable centre of trade.
+
+
+
+
+ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY, BARON (1570-1652), royalist commander in the
+English Civil War, came of a Norfolk family. In 1598 he joined Counts
+Maurice and Henry of Orange in the Netherlands, where he served with
+distinction, and afterwards fought under the elector palatine Frederick
+V. and Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War. He was evidently
+thought highly of by the states-general, for when he was absent, serving
+under the king of Denmark, his company in the Dutch army was kept open
+for him. Returning to England with a well-deserved reputation, he was in
+the employment of Charles I. in various military capacities. As
+"sergeant-major," or general of the infantry, he went north in 1639 to
+organize the defence against the expected Scottish invasion. Here his
+duties were as much diplomatic as military, as the discontent which
+ended in the Civil War was now coming to a head. In the ill-starred
+"Bishops' War," Astley did good service to the cause of the king, and he
+was involved in the so-called "Army Plot." At the outbreak of the Great
+Rebellion (1642) he at once joined Charles, and was made major-general
+of the foot. His characteristic battle-prayer at Edgebill has become
+famous: "O Lord, Thou knowest how busy I must be this day. If I forget
+Thee, do not forget me. March on, boys!" At Gloucester he commanded a
+division, and at the first battle of Newbury he led the infantry of the
+royal army. With Hopton, in 1644, he served at Arundel and Cheriton. At
+the second battle of Newbury he made a gallant and memorable defence of
+Shaw House. He was made a baron by the king, and at Naseby he once more
+commanded the main body of the foot. He afterwards served in the west,
+and with 1500 men fought stubbornly but vainly the last battle for the
+king at Stow-on-the-Wold (March 1646). His remark to his captors has
+become as famous as his words at Edgehill, "You have now done your work
+and may go play, unless you will fall out amongst yourselves." His
+scrupulous honour forbade him to take any part in the Second Civil War,
+as he had given his parole at Stow-on-the-Wold; but he had to undergo
+his share of the discomforts that were the lot of the vanquished
+royalists. He died in February 1651/2. The barony became extinct in
+1668.
+
+
+
+
+ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE, Bart. (1828-1894), English soldier and
+sportsman, was a descendant of Lord Astley, and son of the 2nd baronet
+(cr. 1821). From 1848 to 1859 he was in the army, serving in the Crimean
+War and retiring as lieutenant-colonel. He married an heiress in 1858,
+and thenceforth devoted himself to horse-racing, pugilism and sport in
+general. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1873, and from 1874 to 1880
+was Conservative M.P. for North Lincolnshire. He was a popular figure on
+the turf, being familiarly known as "the Mate," and won and lost large
+sums of money. Just before his death, on the 10th of October 1894, he
+published some entertaining reminiscences, under the title of _Fifty
+Years of my Life_.
+
+
+
+
+ASTON, ANTHONY (fl. 1712-1731), English actor and dramatist, began to be
+known on the London stage in the early years of the 18th century. He had
+tried the law and other professions, which he finally abandoned for the
+theatre. He had some success as a dramatic author, writing _Love in a
+Hurry_, performed in Dublin about 1709, and _Pastora, or the Coy
+Shepherdess_, an opera (1712). For many years he toured the English
+provinces with his wife and son, producing pieces which he himself
+wrote, or medleys from various plays fitted together with songs and
+dialogues of his own.
+
+
+
+
+ASTON MANOR, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Warwickshire,
+England, adjoining Birmingham on the north-east. Pop. (1901) 77,326.
+There are extensive manufactures, including those of motors and cycles
+with their accessories, also paper-mills, breweries, &c., and the
+population is largely industrial. Aston Hall, erected by Sir Thomas
+Holte in 1618-1635, is an admirable architectural example of its period,
+built of red brick. It stands in a large park, the whole property being
+acquired by the corporation of Birmingham in 1864, when the mansion
+became a museum and art gallery. It contains the panelling of a room
+from the house of Edmund Hector, which formerly stood in Old Square,
+Birmingham, where Dr Samuel Johnson was a frequent visitor. Aston Lower
+Grounds, adjoining the park, contain an assembly hall, and the playing
+field of the Aston Villa Football Club, where the more important games
+are witnessed by many thousands of spectators. Aston Manor was
+incorporated in 1903. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
+corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
+960 acres.
+
+
+
+
+ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1763-1848), American merchant, was born at the
+village of Walldorf, near Heidelberg, Germany, on the 17th of July 1763.
+Until he was sixteen he worked in the shop of his father, a butcher; he
+then joined an elder brother in London, and there for four years was
+employed in the piano and flute factory of an uncle, of the firm of
+Astor & Broadwood. In 1783 he emigrated to America, and settled in New
+York, whither one of his brothers had previously gone. On the voyage he
+became acquainted with a fur-trader, by whose advice he devoted himself
+to the same business, buying furs directly from the Indians, preparing
+them at first with his own hands for the market, and selling them in
+London and elsewhere at a great profit. He was also the agent in New
+York of the firm of Astor & Broadwood. By his energy, industry and sound
+judgment he gradually enlarged his operations, did business in all the
+fur markets of the world, and amassed an enormous fortune,--the largest
+up to that time made by any American. He devoted many years to carrying
+out a project for organizing the fur trade from the Great Lakes to the
+Pacific Ocean, and thence by way of the Hawaiian Islands to China and
+India. In 1811 he founded at the mouth of the Columbia river a
+settlement named after him Astoria, which was intended to serve as the
+central depot; but two years later the settlement was seized and
+occupied by the English. The incidents of this undertaking are the theme
+of Washington Irving's _Astoria_. A series of disasters frustrated the
+gigantic scheme. Astor made vast additions to his wealth by investments
+in real estate in New York City, and erected many buildings there,
+including the hotel known as the Astor House. The last twenty-five years
+of his life were spent in retirement in New York City, where he died on
+the 29th of March 1848, his fortune then being estimated at about
+$30,000,000. He made various charitable bequests by his will, and among
+them a gift of $50,000 to found an institution, opened as the "Astor
+House" in 1854, for the education of poor children and the relief of the
+aged and the destitute in his native village in Germany. His chief
+benefaction, however, was a bequest of $400,000 for the foundation and
+endowment of a public library in New York City, since known as the Astor
+library, and since 1895 part of the New York public library.
+
+  See Parton's _Life of John Jacob Astor_ (New York, 1865).
+
+His eldest son, WILLIAM BACKHOUSE ASTOR (1792-1875), inherited the
+greater part of his father's fortune, and chiefly by judicious
+investments in real estate greatly increased it. He was sometimes known
+as the "Landlord of New York." Under his direction the building for the
+Astor library was erected, and to the library he gave about $550,000,
+including a bequest of $200,000. His son, JOHN JACOB ASTOR (1822-1890),
+was also well known as a capitalist and philanthropist, giving liberally
+to the Astor library.
+
+The son of the last named, WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR (1848-   ), served in
+the New York assembly in 1877, and in the state senate in 1880-81. He
+was United States minister to Italy from 1882 to 1885. He published two
+romances, _Valentine_ (1885) and _Sforza_ (1889). His wealth, arising
+from property in New York, where also he built the New Netherland hotel
+and the Waldorf hotel, was enormous. In 1890 he removed to England, and
+in 1899 was naturalized. In 1893 he became proprietor of the _Pall Mall
+Gazette_, and afterwards started the _Pall Mall Magazine_.
+
+
+
+
+ASTORGA, EMANUELE D' (1681-1736), Italian musical composer, was born at
+Naples on the 11th of December 1681. No authentic account of Astorga's
+life can be successfully constructed from the obscure and confusing
+evidence that has been until now handed down, although historians have
+not failed to indulge many pleasant conjectures. According to some of
+these, his father, a baron of Sicily, took an active part in the attempt
+to throw off the Spanish yoke, but was betrayed by his own soldiers and
+publicly executed. His wife and son were compelled to be spectators of
+his fate; and such was the effect upon them that his mother died on the
+spot, and Emanuele fell into a state of gloomy despondency, which
+threatened to deprive him of reason. By the kindness of the princess
+Ursini, the unfortunate young man was placed in a convent at Astorga, in
+Leon, where he completed a musical education which is said to have been
+begun in Palermo under Francesco Scarlatti. Here he recovered his
+health, and his admirable musical talents were cultivated under the best
+masters. On the details of this account no reliance can safely be
+placed, nor is there any certainty that in 1703 he entered the service
+of the duke of Parma. Equally untrustworthy is the story that the duke,
+suspecting an attachment between hi? niece Elizabeth Farnese and
+Astorga, dismissed the musician. The established facts concerning
+Astorga are indeed few enough. They are: that the opera _Dafne_ was
+written and conducted by the composer in Barcelona in 1709; that he
+visited London, where he wrote his _Stabat Mater_, possibly for the
+society of "Antient Musick"; that it was performed in Oxford in 1713;
+that in 1712 he was in Vienna, and that he retired at an uncertain date
+to Bohemia, where he died on the 21st of August 1736, in a castle which
+had been given to him in the domains of Prince Lobkowitz, in Raudnitz.
+Astorga deserves remembrance for his dignified and pathetic _Stabat
+Mater_, and for his numerous chamber-cantatas for one or two voices. He
+was probably the last composer to carry on the traditions of this form
+of chamber-music as perfected by Alessandro Scarlatti.
+
+
+
+
+ASTORGA, a city of N.W. Spain, in the province of Leon; situated near
+the right bank of the river Tuerto, and at the junction of the
+Salamanca-Corunna and Leon-Astorga railways. Pop. (1900) 5573. Astorga
+was the Roman Asturica Augusta, a provincial capital, and the
+meeting-place of four military roads. Though sacked by the Goths in the
+5th century, and later by the Moors, it is still surrounded by massive
+walls of Roman origin. A ruined castle, near the city, recalls its
+strategic importance in the 8th century, when Asturias, Galicia and Leon
+were the headquarters of resistance to the Moors. Astorga has been the
+see of a bishop since the 3rd century, and was formerly known as the
+City of Priests, from the number of ecclesiastics resident within its
+walls. Its Gothic cathedral dates from the 15th century. The city
+confers the title of marquis on the Osorio family, the ruins of whose
+palace, sacked in 1810 by the French, are still an object of interest.
+
+  For the history, especially the ecclesiastical history, of Astorga,
+  see the anonymous _Historia de la ciudad de Astorga_ (Valladolid,
+  1840); with _Fundación de la ... iglesia ... de Astorga_, by P.A.
+  Ezpeleta (Madrid, 1634); and _Fundación, nombre y armas de ...
+  Astorga_, by P. Junco (Pamplona, 1635).
+
+
+
+
+ASTORIA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Clatsop county,
+Oregon, U.S.A., on the Columbia river, 8 m. from its mouth. Pop. (1890)
+6184; (1900) 8381, of whom 3779 were foreign-born (many being Finns,--a
+Finnish weekly was established here in 1905), and 601 were Chinese;
+(1910, census) 9599. It is served by the Astoria & Columbia River
+railroad (Northern Pacific System), and by several coastwise and foreign
+steamship lines (including that of the Oregon Railway & Navigation Co.).
+The river here is about 6 m. wide, and the city has a water-front of
+about 5 m. and a deep, spacious and placid harbour. By dredging and the
+construction of jetties the Federal government has since 1885 greatly
+improved the channel at the mouth of the river. The business portion of
+the city occupies the low ground of the river bottom; the residence
+portion is on the hillsides overlooking the harbour. Astoria is the port
+of entry for the Oregon Customs District, Oregon; in 1907 its imports
+were valued at $21,262, and its exports at $329,103. The city is
+especially important as a salmon fishing and packing centre (cod,
+halibut and smaller fish also being abundant); it has also an extensive
+lumber trade, important lumber manufactories, pressed brick and
+terra-cotta factories, and dairy interests. In 1905 the value of the
+factory product was $3,092,628 (of which $1,759,871 was the value of
+preserved and canned fish), being an increase of 41.8% in five years.
+Astoria is the oldest American settlement in the Columbia Valley. It was
+founded in 1811, as a depot for the fur trade, by John Jacob Astor, in
+whose honour it was named. It was seized by the British in 1813, but was
+restored in 1818. In 1821, while occupied by the North-West Fur Company,
+it was burned and practically abandoned, only a few settlers remaining.
+It was chartered as a city in 1876.
+
+  See Washington Irving's _Astoria; or Anecdotes of an Enterprise beyond
+  the Rocky Mountains_ (Philadelphia, 1836).
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAEA, in Greek legend, the "star maiden," daughter of Zeus and
+Themis, or of Astraeus the Titan and Eos, in which case she is
+identified with Dike. During the golden age she remained among men
+distributing blessings, but when the iron (or bronze) age came on, she
+was forced to withdraw, being the last of the goddesses to quit the
+earth. In the heavens she is amongst the signs of the zodiac as the
+constellation Virgo. She is usually represented with a pair of scales
+and a crown of stars.
+
+  Ov. _Met._ i. 150; Juv. vi. 19; Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 96.
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAGAL (from the Gr. [Greek: astragalos], the ankle-joint), an
+architectural term for a convex moulding. This term is generally applied
+to small mouldings, "torus" (q.v.) to large ones of the same form. The
+Lesbian astragal referred to by Vitruvius, bk. iv. ch. vi., was in all
+probability an astragal carved with a bead and reel enrichment.
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAKHAN, a government of S.E. Russia, on the lower Volga, bounded N.
+by the governments of Samara and Saratov, W. by Saratov and the
+government of the Don Cossacks, S. by Stavropol and Terek, and E. by the
+Caspian Sea and the government of the Urals. Area, 91,327 sq. m., of
+which 6730 sq. m. belong to the delta of the Volga and its brackish
+lagoons, and 62,290 sq. m. are covered by the Kalmuck and Kirghiz
+Steppes. The surface is a low-lying plain, except that in the west the
+Ergeni Hills (500-575 ft.) form the water-parting between the Volga
+basin and that of the Don. The climate is very hot and dry, the average
+temperature for the year being 50° Fahr., for January 21°, and for July
+78°, rainfall 7.3 in., but often there is no rain at all in the summer.
+Pop. (1897) 1,005,460, of whom 132,383 were urban. The Kalmucks (138,580
+in 1897) and Kirghiz (260,000) are semi-nomads. In addition to them the
+population includes nearly 44,000 Tatars, 4270 Armenians, with Poles and
+Jews. Fishing off the mouth of the Volga gives occupation to 50,000
+persons; the fish, chiefly herrings and sturgeon, together with the
+caviare prepared from the latter, are sold for the most part at
+Nizhniy-Novgorod. Over 300,000 tons of salt are extracted annually from
+the lakes, principally those of Baskunchak and Elton. Cattle-breeding is
+an important industry. Market-gardening (mustard, water-melons, fruit)
+is on the increase; but pure agriculture is relatively not much
+developed. The government is divided into five districts, the chief
+towns of which are Astrakhan, Enotayevsk (pop. 2810 in 1897),
+Krasnyi-yar (4680), Chernyi-yar (5140), and Tsarev (8900). The
+Kalmucks and Kirghiz have their own local administrations, and so have
+the Astrakhan Cossacks (25,600).
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAKHAN, a town of E. Russia, capital of the government of Astrakhan,
+on the left bank of the main channel of the Volga, 50 m. from the
+Caspian Sea, in 46° 21' N. lat. and 48° 5' E. long. Since the growth of
+the petroleum industry of Baku and the construction of the Transcaspian
+railway, Astrakhan has become an important commercial centre, exporting
+fish, caviare, sugar, metals, naphtha, cottons and woollens, and
+importing grain, cotton, fruit and timber, to the aggregate value of
+Ł8,250,000 with foreign countries and of Ł14,500,000 with the interior
+of Russia. The town gives its name to the "fur" called "astrakhan," the
+skin of the new-born Persian lamb, and so to an imitation in rough
+woollen cloth. There is some tanning, shipbuilding and brewing, and
+making of soap, tar and machinery. Astrakhan is the chief port on the
+Caspian Sea and the headquarters of the Russian Caspian fleet. The city
+consists of (1) the _kreml_ or citadel (1550), crowning a hill, on which
+stand also the spacious brick cathedral containing the tombs of two
+Georgian princes, the archbishop's palace and the monastery of the
+Trinity; (2) the Byelogorod or White Town, containing the administrative
+offices and the bazaars; and (3) the suburbs, where most of the
+population resides. The buildings in the first two quarters are of
+stone, in the third of wood, irregularly arranged along unpaved, dirty
+streets. The city is the see of a Greek Catholic archbishop and of an
+Armenian archbishop, and contains a Lamaist monastery, as well as
+technical schools, an ichthyological museum, the Peter museum, with
+ethnographical, archaeological and natural history collections, a
+botanical garden, an ecclesiastical seminary, and good squares and
+public gardens, one of which is adorned with a statue (1884) of
+Alexander II. Vineyards surround the city. Astrakhan was anciently the
+capital of a Tatar state, and stood some 7 m. farther north. After this
+was destroyed by the Mongol prince Timur the Great in 1395, the existing
+city was built. The Tatars were expelled about 1554 by Ivan IV. of
+Russia. In 1569 the city was besieged by the Turks, but they were
+defeated with great slaughter by the Russians. In 1670 it was seized by
+the rebel Stenka Razin; early in the following century Peter the Great
+constructed here a shipbuilding yard and made Astrakhan the base for his
+hostilities against Persia, and later in the same century Catherine II.
+accorded the city important industrial privileges. In 1702, 1718 and
+1767, it suffered severely from fires; in 1719 was plundered by the
+Persians; and in 1830 the cholera swept away a large number of its
+people. In the middle ages the city was known also as Jitarkhan and
+Ginterkhan. Pop. (1867) 47,839; (1900) 121,580. Eight miles above
+Astrakhan, on the right bank of the Volga, are the ruins of two ancient
+cities superimposed one upon the other. In the upper, which may
+represent the city of Balanjar (Balansar, Belenjer), have been found
+gold and silver coins struck by Mongol rulers, as well as ornaments in
+the same metals. The older and scantier underlying ruins are supposed to
+be those of the once large and prosperous city of Itil or Atel (Etel,
+Idl) of the Arab geographers, a residence of the khan of the Khazars,
+destroyed by the Russians in 969.     (P. A. K.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTROLABE (from Gr. [Greek: astron], star, and [Greek: labein], to
+take), an instrument used not only for stellar, but for solar and lunar
+altitude-taking. The principle of the astrolabe is explained in fig. 2.
+There were two kinds,--spherical and planispheric. The earliest forms
+were "armillae" and spherical. Gradually, from Eratosthenes to Tycho,
+Hipparchus playing the most important part among ancient astronomers,
+the complex astrolabe was evolved, large specimens being among the chief
+observatory instruments of the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries; while
+small ones were in use among travellers and learned men, not only for
+astronomical, but for astrological and topographical purposes. Nearly
+every one of the modern instruments used for the observations of
+physical astronomy is a part of the perfected astrolabe. A collection of
+circles such as is the armillary sphere, if each circle were fitted with
+a view-tube, might be considered a complete astrolabe. Tycho's armillae
+were astrolabes. In fact the modern equatorial, and the altitude and
+azimuth circle are astrolabes in the strictest and oldest meaning of the
+term; and Tycho in one of his astrolabes came so near the modern
+equatorial that it may be taken as the first of the kind.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE.
+
+FIG. 1.--PERSIAN ASTROLABE (c. 1712) INSCRIBED IN ARABIC.
+
+  FRONT, showing the _Rete_ or _Spider_, a network of star pointers.
+  Beneath the _Rete_, in a hollow, are four thin brass discs, called
+  Tables or Climates, engraved with projections of the sphere for
+  different latitudes.
+
+  BACK, showing graduations, parallelogram for measuring heights; and
+  other tables, together with the _Rule_ with sights (A) held by a
+  moveable pin (B), known as the _Horse_ or _Wedge_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Principle of the Astrolabe. If a solid circle be
+fixed in any one position and a tube be pivoted on its centre so as to
+move; and if the line C D be drawn upon the circle pointing towards any
+object Q in the heavens which lies in the plane of the circle, by
+turning the tube A B towards any other object P in the plane of the
+circle, the angle BOD will be the angle subtended by the two objects P
+and Q at the eye.]
+
+[Illustration: From _Exercises_, by T. Blundeville.
+
+FIG. 3.--Mariner's Astrolabe, A.D. 1594. Made of brass, or of heavy
+wood: it varied in size from a few inches to 1 ft. in diameter.]
+
+The two forms of the planispheric astrolabe most widely known and used
+in the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries were: (1) the _portable
+astrolabe_ shown in fig. 1 (Plate). This originated in the East, and was
+in early use in India, Persia and Arabia, and was introduced into Europe
+by the Arabs, who had perfected it--perhaps as early as A.D. 700. It
+combines the planisphere and armillae of Hipparchus and others, and the
+theodolite of Theon, and was usually of brass, varying in diameter from
+a couple of inches to a foot or more. It was used for taking the
+altitudes of sun, moon and stars; for calculating latitude; for
+determining the points of the compass, and time; for ascertaining
+heights of mountains, &c.; and for construction of horoscopes. The
+instrument was a marvel of convenience and ingenuity, and was called
+"the mathematical jewel." Nevertheless it passed out of use, because
+incapable of any great precision.
+
+(2) The _mariner's astrolabe_, fig. 3, was adapted from that of
+astronomers by Martin Behaim, c. 1480. This was the instrument used by
+Columbus. With the tables of the sun's declination then available, he
+could calculate his latitude by meridian altitudes of the sun taken with
+his astrolabe. The mariner's astrolabe was superseded by John Hadley's
+quadrant of 1731.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Chaucer, _Treatise on the Astrolabe_ (Skeat's edition of
+  Chaucer); J.J. Stöffler, _Elucidatio Fabrice ususque Astrolabii_, &c.;
+  Thomas Blundeville, _His Exercises_ (1594); F. Ritter, _Astrolabium_;
+  W.H. Morley, _Description of Astrolabe of Shah Husain_; M.L. Huggins,
+  "The Astrolabe" (_Astrophysical Journal_, 1894); _Penny Cyclopaedia_,
+  article "Astrolabe;" R. Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_.
+       (M. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTROLOGY, the ancient art or science of divining the fate and future of
+human beings from indications given by the positions of the stars (sun,
+moon and planets). The belief in a connexion between the heavenly bodies
+and the life of man has played an important part in human history. For
+long ages astronomy and astrology (which might be called astromancy, on
+the same principle as "chiromancy") were identified; and a distinction
+is made between "natural astrology," which predicts the motions of the
+heavenly bodies, eclipses, &c., and "judicial astrology," which studies
+the influence of the stars on human destiny. Isidore of Seville (d. 636)
+is one of the first to distinguish between astronomy and astrology; nor
+did astronomy begin to rid itself of astrology till the 16th century,
+when, with the system of Copernicus, the conviction that the earth
+itself is one of the heavenly bodies was finally established. The study
+of astromancy and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found in a
+developed form among the ancient Babylonians, and directly or indirectly
+through the Babylonians spread to other nations. It came to Greece about
+the middle of the 4th century B.C., and reached Rome before the opening
+of the Christian era. In India and China astronomy and astrology are
+largely reflections of Greek theories and speculations; and similarly
+with the introduction of Greek culture into Egypt, both astronomy and
+astrology were actively cultivated in the region of the Nile during the
+Hellenistic and Roman periods. Astrology was further developed by the
+Arabs from the 7th to the 13th century, and in the Europe of the 14th
+and 15th centuries astrologers were dominating influences at court.
+
+Even up to the present day men of intellectual eminence like Dr Richard
+Garnett have convinced themselves that astromancy has a foundation of
+truth, just as there are still believers in chiromancy or other forms of
+divination. Dr Garnett ("A.G. Trent") insisted indeed that it was a
+mistake to confuse astrology with fortune-telling, and maintained that
+it was a "physical science just as much as geology," depending like them
+on ascertained facts, and grossly misrepresented by being connected with
+magic. Dr Garnett himself looked upon the study of biography in relation
+to the casting of horoscopes as an empirical investigation, but it is
+difficult in practice to keep the distinction clear, to judge by
+present-day text-books such as those of Dr Wilde (_Primer of Astrology_,
+&c.). Dr Wilde insists on there being "nothing incongruous with the laws
+of nature in the theory that the sun, moon and stars influence men's
+physical bodies and conditions, seeing that man is made up of a physical
+part of the earth." There is an obvious tendency, however, for
+astromancy to be employed, like palmistry, as a means of imposing on the
+ignorant and credulous. How far the more serious claim is likely to be
+revived in connexion with the renewal of research into the "occult"
+sciences generally, it is still too early to speculate; and it has to be
+recognized that such a point of view is opposed to the generally
+established belief that astrology is either mere superstition or
+absolute imposture, and that its former vogue was due either to
+deception or to the tyranny of an unscientific environment. But if the
+progress of physical science has not prevented the rehabilitation of
+much of ancient alchemy by the later researches into chemical change,
+and if psychology now finds a place for explanations of spiritualism and
+witchcraft which involve the admission of the empirical facts under a
+new theory (as in the case of the divining-rod, &c.), it is at least
+conceivable that some new synthesis might once more justify part at all
+events of ancient and medieval astromancy, to the extent of admitting
+the empirical facts where provable, and substituting for the supposed
+influence of the stars as such, some deeper theory which would be
+consistent with an application to other forms of prophecy, and thus
+might reconcile the possibility of dipping into futurity with certain
+interrelations of the universe, different indeed from those assumed by
+astrological theory, but underlying and explaining it. If this is ever
+accomplished it will need the patient investigation of a number of
+empirical observations by competent students unbiassed by any _parti
+pris_--a difficult set of conditions to obtain; and even then no
+definite results may be achieved.
+
+The history of astrology can now be traced back to ancient Babylonia,
+and indeed to the earliest phases of Babylonian history, i.e. to about
+3000 B.C. In Babylonia as well as in Assyria as a direct offshoot of
+Babylonian culture (or as we might also term it "Euphratean" culture),
+astrology takes its place in the official cult as one of the two chief
+means at the disposal of the priests (who were called _bare_ or
+"inspectors") for ascertaining the will and intention of the gods, the
+other being through the inspection of the liver of the sacrificial
+animal (see OMEN). Just as this latter method of divination rested on a
+well-defined theory, to wit, that the liver was the seat of the soul of
+the animal and that the deity in accepting the sacrifice identified
+himself with the animal, whose "soul" was thus placed in complete accord
+with that of the god and therefore reflected the mind and will of the
+god, so astrology is based on a theory of divine government of the
+world, which in contrast to "liver" divination assumes at the start a
+more scientific or pseudo-scientific aspect. This theory must be taken
+into consideration as a factor in accounting for the persistent hold
+which even at the present day astrology still maintains on many minds.
+Starting with the indisputable fact that man's life and happiness are
+largely dependent upon phenomena in the heavens, that the fertility of
+the soil is dependent upon the sun shining in the heavens as well as
+upon the rains that come from heaven, that on the other hand the
+mischief and damage done by storms and inundations, to both of which the
+Euphratean Valley was almost regularly subject, were to be traced
+likewise to the heavens, the conclusion was drawn that all the great
+gods had their seats in the heavens. In that early age of culture known
+as the "nomadic" stage, which under normal conditions precedes the
+"agricultural" stage, the moon cult is even more prominent than sun
+worship, and with the moon and sun cults thus furnished by the "popular"
+faith it was a natural step for the priests, who correspond to the
+"scientists" of a later day, to perfect a theory of a complete accord
+between phenomena observed in the heavens and occurrences on earth.
+
+If moon and sun, whose regular movements conveyed to the more intelligent
+minds the conception of the reign of law and order in the universe as
+against the more popular notion of chance and caprice, were divine
+powers, the same held good of the planets, whose movements, though more
+difficult to follow, yet in the course of time came to be at least
+partially understood. Of the planets five were recognized--Jupiter,
+Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Mars--to name them in the order in which they
+appear in the older cuneiform literature; in later texts Mercury and
+Saturn change places. These five planets were identified with the great
+gods of the pantheon as follows:--Jupiter with Marduk (q.v.), Venus with
+the goddess Ishtar (q.v.), Saturn with Ninib (q.v.), Mercury with Nebo
+(q.v.), and Mars with Nergal (q.v.). The movements of the sun, moon and
+five planets were regarded as representing the activity of the five gods
+in question, together with the moon-god Sin (q.v.) and the sun-god
+Shamash (q.v.), in preparing the occurrences on earth. If, therefore, one
+could correctly read and interpret the activity of these powers, one knew
+what the gods were aiming to bring about. The Babylonian priests
+accordingly applied themselves to the task of perfecting a system of
+interpretation of the phenomena to be observed in the heavens, and it was
+natural that the system was extended from the moon, sun and five planets
+to the more prominent and recognizable fixed stars. That system involved
+not merely the movements of the moon, sun and planets, but the
+observation of their relative position to one another and to all kinds of
+peculiarities noted at any point in the course of their movements: in the
+case of the moon, for instance, the exact appearance of the new crescent,
+its position in the heavens, the conditions at conjunction and
+opposition, the appearance of the horns, the halo frequently seen with
+the new moon, which was compared to a "cap," the ring round the full
+moon, which was called a "stall" (i.e. "enclosure"), and more of the
+like. To all these phenomena some significance was attached, and this
+significance was naturally intensified in the case of such a striking
+phenomenon as an eclipse of the moon. Applying the same method of careful
+observation to the sun and planets, and later to some of the
+constellations and to many of the fixed stars, it will be apparent that
+the body of observations noted must have grown in the course of time to
+large and indeed to enormous proportions, and correspondingly the
+interpretations assigned to the nearly endless variations in the
+phenomena thus observed. The interpretations themselves were based (as in
+the case of divination through the liver) chiefly on two factors:--(1) on
+the recollection or on written records of what in the past had taken
+place when the phenomenon or phenomena in question had been observed, and
+(2) association of ideas--involving sometimes merely a play upon
+words--in connexion with the phenomenon or phenomena observed. Thus if on
+a certain occasion the rise of the new moon in a cloudy sky was followed
+by victory over an enemy or by abundant rain, the sign in question was
+thus proved to be a favourable one and its recurrence would be regarded
+as a good omen, though the prognostication would not necessarily be
+limited to the one or the other of those occurrences, but might be
+extended to apply to other circumstances. On the other hand, the
+appearance of the new moon earlier than was expected was regarded as an
+unfavourable omen--prognosticating in one case defeat, in another death
+among cattle, in a third bad crops--not necessarily because these events
+actually took place after such a phenomenon, but by an application of the
+general principle resting upon association of ideas whereby anything
+premature would suggest an unfavourable occurrence. A thin halo seen
+above the new moon was pictured as a cap, and the association between
+this and the symbol of royalty, which was a conical-shaped cap, led to
+interpreting the phenomenon as an indication that the ruler would have a
+successful reign. In this way a mass of traditional interpretation of all
+kinds of observed phenomena was gathered, and once gathered became a
+guide to the priests for all times.
+
+Astrology in this its earliest stage is, however, marked by two
+characteristic limitations. In the first place, the movements and
+position of the heavenly bodies point to such occurrences as are of
+public import and affect the general welfare. The individual's interests
+are not in any way involved, and we must descend many centuries and pass
+beyond the confines of Babylonia and Assyria before we reach that phase
+which in medieval and modern astrology is almost exclusively dwelt
+upon--genethliology or the individual horoscope. In Babylonia and
+Assyria the cult centred largely and indeed almost exclusively in the
+public welfare and the person of the king, because upon his well-being
+and favour with the gods the fortunes of the country were dependent in
+accordance with the ancient conception of kingship (see J.G. Frazer,
+_The Early History of Kingship_). To some extent, the individual came in
+for his share in the incantations and in the purification ritual through
+which one might hope to rid oneself of the power of the demons and of
+other evil spirits, but outside of this the important aim of the priests
+was to secure for the general benefit the favour of the gods, or, as a
+means of preparing oneself for what the future had in store, to
+ascertain in time whether that favour would be granted in any particular
+instance or would be continued in the future. Hence in "liver"
+divination, as in astrology, the interpretations of the signs noted all
+have reference to public affairs and events and not to the individual's
+needs or desires. In the second place, the astronomical knowledge
+presupposed and accompanying early Babylonian astrology is essentially
+of an empirical character. While in a general way the reign of law and
+order in the movements of the heavenly bodies was recognized, and indeed
+must have exercised an influence at an early period in leading to the
+rise of a methodical divination that was certainly of a much higher
+order than the examination of an animal's liver, yet the importance that
+was laid upon the endless variations in the form of the phenomena and
+the equally numerous apparent deviations from what were regarded as
+normal conditions, prevented for a long time the rise of any serious
+study of astronomy beyond what was needed for the purely practical
+purposes that the priests as "inspectors" of the heavens (as they were
+also the "inspectors" of the sacrificial livers) had in mind. True, we
+have, probably as early as the days of Khammurabi, i.e. c. 2000 B.C.,
+the combinations of prominent groups of stars with outlines of pictures
+fantastically put together, but there is no evidence that prior to 700
+B.C. more than a number of the constellations of our zodiac had become
+part of the current astronomy. The theory of the ecliptic as
+representing the course of the sun through the year, divided among
+twelve constellations with a measurement of 30° to each division, is
+also of Babylonian origin, as has now been definitely proved; but it
+does not appear to have been perfected until after the fall of the
+Babylonian empire in 539 B.C. Similarly, the other accomplishments of
+Babylonian astronomers, such as their system or rather systems of moon
+calculations and the drawing up of planetary tablets, belong to this
+late period, so that the golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not
+to the remote past, as was until recently supposed, but to the Seleucid
+period, i.e. after the advent of the Greeks in the Euphrates Valley.
+From certain expressions used in astrological texts that are earlier
+than the 7th century B.C. it would appear, indeed, that the beginnings
+at least of the calculation of sun and moon eclipses belong to the
+earlier period, but here, too, the chief work accomplished was after 400
+B.C., and the defectiveness of early Babylonian astronomy may be
+gathered from the fact that as late as the 6th century B.C. an error of
+almost an entire month was made by the Babylonian astronomers in the
+attempt to determine through calculation the beginning of a certain
+year.
+
+The researches of Bouché-Leclercq, Cumont and Boll have enabled us to
+fix with a considerable degree of definiteness the middle of the 4th
+century B.C. as the period when Babylonian astrology began its triumphal
+march to the west, invading the domain of Greek and Roman culture and
+destined to exercise a strong hold on all nations and groups--more
+particularly in Egypt--that came within the sphere of Greek and Roman
+influence. It is rather significant that this spread of astrology should
+have been concomitant with the intellectual impulse that led to the rise
+of a genuine scientific phase of astronomy in Babylonia itself, which
+must have weakened to some extent the hold that astrology had on the
+priests and the people. The advent of the Persians, bringing with them a
+conception of religion of a far higher order than Babylonian-Assyrian
+polytheism (see ZOROASTER), must also have acted as a disintegrating
+factor in leading to the decline of the old faith in the Euphrates
+Valley, and we thus have the interesting though not entirely exceptional
+phenomenon of a great civilization bequeathing as a legacy to posterity
+a superstition instead of a real achievement. "Chaldaean wisdom" became
+among Greeks and Romans the synonym of divination through the planets
+and stars, and it is not surprising that in the course of time to be
+known as a "Chaldaean" carried with it frequently the suspicion of
+charlatanry and of more or less wilful deception. The spread of
+astrology beyond Babylonia is thus concomitant with the rise of a truly
+scientific astronomy in Babylonia itself, which in turn is due to the
+intellectual impulse afforded by the contact with new forms of culture
+from both the East and the West.
+
+In the hands of the Greeks and of the later Egyptians both astrology and
+astronomy were carried far beyond the limits attained by the
+Babylonians, and it is indeed a matter of surprise to observe the
+harmonious combination of the two fields--a harmony that seems to grow
+more complete with each age, and that is not broken until we reach the
+threshold of modern science in the 16th century. To the Greek astronomer
+Hipparchus belongs the credit of the discovery (c. 130 B.C.) of the
+theory of the precession of the equinoxes, for a knowledge of which
+among the Babylonians we find no definite proof; but such a signal
+advance in pure science did not prevent the Greeks from developing in a
+most elaborate manner the theory of the influence of the planets upon
+the fate of the individual. The endeavour to trace the horoscope of the
+individual from the position of the planets and stars at the time of
+birth (or, as was attempted by other astrologers, at the time of
+conception) represents the most significant contribution of the Greeks
+to astrology. The system was carried to such a degree of perfection that
+later ages made but few additions of an essential character to the
+genethliology or drawing up of the individual horoscope by the Greek
+astrologers. The system was taken up almost bodily by the Arab
+astronomers, it was embodied in the Kabbalistic lore of Jews and
+Christians, and through these and other channels came to be the
+substance of the astrology of the middle ages, forming, as already
+pointed out, under the designation of "judicial astrology," a
+pseudo-science which was placed on a perfect footing of equality with
+"natural astrology" or the more genuine science of the study of the
+motions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies.
+
+Partly in further development of views unfolded in Babylonia, but
+chiefly under Greek influences, the scope of astrology was enlarged
+until it was brought into connexion with practically all of the known
+sciences, botany, chemistry, zoology, mineralogy, anatomy and medicine.
+Colours, metals, stones, plants, drugs and animal life of all kinds were
+associated with the planets and placed under their tutelage. In the
+system that passes under the name of Ptolemy, Saturn is associated with
+grey, Jupiter with white, Mars with red, Venus with yellow, while
+Mercury, occupying a peculiar place in Greek as it did in Babylonian
+astrology (where it was at one time designated as _the_ planet _par
+excellence_), was supposed to vary its colour according to changing
+circumstances. The sun was associated with gold, the moon with silver,
+Jupiter with electrum, Saturn with lead, Venus with copper, and so on,
+while the continued influence of astrological motives is to be seen in
+the association of quicksilver, upon its discovery at a comparatively
+late period, with Mercury, because of its changeable character as a
+solid and a liquid. In the same way stones were connected with both the
+planets and the months; plants, by diverse association of ideas, were
+connected with the planets, and animals likewise were placed under the
+guidance and protection of one or other of the heavenly bodies. By this
+curious process of combination the entire realm of the natural sciences
+was translated into the language of astrology with the single avowed
+purpose of seeing in all phenomena signs indicative of what the future
+had in store. The fate of the individual, as that feature of the future
+which had a supreme interest, led to the association of the planets with
+parts of the body. Here, too, we find various systems devised, in part
+representing the views of different schools, in part reflecting
+advancing conceptions regarding the functions of the organs in man and
+animals. In one system the seat of Mercury, representing divine
+intelligence as the source of all knowledge--a view that reverts to
+Babylonia where Nebo (corresponding to Mercury) was regarded as the
+divine power to whom all wisdom is due--was placed in the liver as the
+primeval seat of the soul (see OMEN), whereas in other systems this
+distinction was assigned to Jupiter or to Venus. Saturn, taking in Greek
+astrology the place at the head of the planets which among the
+Babylonians was accorded to Jupiter-Marduk, was given a place in the
+brain, which in later times was looked upon as the centre of soul-life;
+Venus, as the planet of the passion of love, was supposed to reign
+supreme over the genital organs, the belly and the lower limbs; Mars, as
+the violent planet, is associated with the bile, as well as with the
+blood and kidneys. Again, the right ear is associated with Saturn, the
+left ear with Mars, the right eye in the case of the male with the sun
+and the left eye with the moon, while in the case of the female it was
+just the reverse. From the planets the same association of ideas was
+applied to the constellations of the zodiac, which in later phases of
+astrology are placed on a par with the planets themselves, so far as
+their importance for the individual horoscope is concerned. The fate of
+the individual in this combination of planets with the zodiac was made
+dependent not merely upon the planet which happened to be rising at the
+time of birth or of conception, but also upon its local relationship to
+a special sign or to certain signs of the zodiac. The zodiac was
+regarded as the prototype of the human body, the different parts of
+which all had their corresponding section in the zodiac itself. The head
+was placed in the first sign of the zodiac--the Ram; and the feet in the
+last sign--the Fishes. Between these two extremes the other parts and
+organs of the body were distributed among the remaining signs of the
+zodiac, the neck being assigned to the Bull, the shoulders and arms to
+the Gemini (or twins), the breast to Cancer, the flanks to Leo, the
+bladder to Virgo, the buttocks to the Balance, the pubis to the
+Scorpion, the thighs to Sagittarius, the knees to Capricorn, and the
+limbs to Aquarius. Not content with this, we find the late Egyptian
+astrologers setting up a correspondence between the thirty-six _decani_
+recognized by them and the human body, which is thus divided into
+thirty-six parts; to each part a god was assigned as a controlling
+force. With human anatomy thus connected with the planets, with
+constellations, and with single stars, medicine became an integral part
+of astrology, or, as we might also put it, astrology became the handmaid
+of medicine. Diseases and disturbances of the ordinary functions of the
+organs were attributed to the influence of planets or explained as due
+to conditions observed in a constellation or in the position of a star;
+and an interesting survival of this bond between astrology and medicine
+is to be seen in the use up to the present time of the sign of Jupiter,
+which still heads medicinal prescriptions, while, on the other hand, the
+influence of planetary lore appears in the assignment of the days of the
+week to the planets, beginning with Sunday, assigned to the sun, and
+ending with Saturday, the day of Saturn. Passing on into still later
+periods, Saturn's day was associated with the Jewish sabbath, Sunday
+with the Lord's Day, Tuesday with Tiw, the god of war, corresponding to
+Mars of the Romans and to the Nergal of the Babylonians. Wednesday was
+assigned to the planet Mercury, the equivalent of the Germanic god
+Woden; Thursday to Jupiter, the equivalent of Thor; and Friday to Friga,
+the goddess of love, who is represented by Venus among the Romans and
+among the Babylonians by Ishtar. Astrological considerations likewise
+already regulated in ancient Babylonia the distinction of lucky and
+unlucky days, which passing down to the Greeks and Romans (_dies fasti_
+and _nefasti_) found a striking expression in Hesiod's _Works and Days_.
+Among the Arabs similar associations of lucky and unlucky days directly
+connected with the influence of the planets prevailed through all times,
+Tuesday and Wednesday, for instance, being regarded as the days for
+blood-letting, because Tuesday was connected with Mars, the lord of war
+and blood, and Wednesday with Mercury, the planet of humours. Even in
+modern times travellers relate how, when an auspicious day has been
+proclaimed by the astrologers, the streets of Bagdad may be seen running
+with blood from the barbers' shops.
+
+It is unnecessary here to give a detailed analysis of the methods of
+judicial astrology as an art, or directions for the casting of a
+horoscope, or "nativity," i.e. a map of the heavens at the hour of
+birth, showing, according to the Ephemeris, the position of the heavenly
+bodies, from which their influence may be deduced. Each of the twelve
+signs of the zodiac (q.v.) is credited with its own characteristics and
+influence, and is the controlling sign of its "house of life." The sign
+exactly rising at the moment of birth is called the ascendant. The
+benevolent or malignant influence of each planet, together with the sun
+and moon, is modified by the sign it inhabits at the nativity; thus
+Jupiter in one house may indicate riches, fame in another, beauty in
+another, and Saturn similarly poverty, obscurity or deformity. The
+calculation is affected by the "aspects," i.e. according as the planets
+are near or far as regards one another (in conjunction, in semi-sextile,
+semi-square, sextile, quintile, square, trine, sesqui-quadrate,
+bi-quintile, opposition or parallel acclination). Disastrous signs
+predominate over auspicious, and the various effects are combined in a
+very elaborate and complicated manner.
+
+Judicial astrology, as a form of divination, is a concomitant of natural
+astrology, in its purer astronomical aspect, but mingled with what is
+now considered an unscientific and superstitious view of world-forces.
+In the _Janua aurea reserata quatuor linguarum_ (1643) of J.A. Comenius
+we find the following definition:--"_Astronomus siderum meatus seu motus
+considerat: Astrologus eorundem efficaciam, influxum, et effectum_."
+Kepler was more cautious in his opinion; he spoke of astronomy as the
+wise mother, and astrology as the foolish daughter, but he added that
+the existence of the daughter was necessary to the life of the mother.
+Tycho Brahe and Gassendi both began with astrology, and it was only
+after pursuing the false science, and finding it wanting, that Gassendi
+devoted himself to astronomy. In their numerous allusions to the subtle
+mercury, which the one makes when treating of a means of measuring time
+by the efflux of the metal, and the other in a treatise on the transit
+of the planet, we see traces of the school in which they served their
+first apprenticeship. Huygens, moreover, in his great posthumous work,
+_Cosmotheoros, seu de terris coelestibus_, shows himself a more exact
+observer of astrological symbols than Kircher himself in his _Iter
+exstaticum_. Huygens contends that between the inhabitants of different
+planets there need not be any greater difference than exists between men
+of different types on the earth. "There are on the earth," continues
+this rational interpreter of the astrologers and chiromancers, "men of
+cold temperament who would thrive in Saturn, which is the farthest
+planet from the sun, and there are other spirits warm and ardent enough
+to live in Venus."
+
+Those were indeed strange times, according to modern ideas, when
+astrologers were dominant by the terror they inspired, and sometimes by
+the martydom they endured when their predictions were either too true or
+too false. Faith, to borrow their own language, was banished to Virgo,
+and rarely shed her influence on men. Cardan (1501-1576), for instance,
+hated Luther, and so changed his birthday in order to give him an
+unfavourable horoscope. In Cardan's times, as in those of Augustus, it
+was a common practice for men to conceal the day and hour of their
+birth, till, like Augustus, they found a complaisant astrologer. But, as
+a general rule, medieval and Renaissance astrologers did not give
+themselves the trouble of reading the stars, but contented themselves
+with telling fortunes by faces. They practised chiromancy (see
+PALMISTRY), and relied on afterwards drawing a horoscope to suit. As
+physiognomists (see PHYSIOGNOMY) their talent was undoubted, and
+according to Vanini there was no need to mount to the house-top to cast
+a nativity. "Yes," he says, "I can read his face; by his hair and his
+forehead it is easy to guess that the sun at his birth was in the sign
+of Libra and near Venus. Nay, his complexion shows that Venus touches
+Libra. By the rules of astrology he could not lie."
+
+A few salient facts may be added concerning the astrologers and their
+predictions, remarkable either for their fulfilment or for the ruin and
+confusion they brought upon their authors. We may begin with one taken
+from Bacon's _Essay of Prophecies_:--"When I was in France, I heard from
+one Dr Pena, that the queen mother, who was given to curious arts,
+caused the king her husband's nativitie to be calculated, under a false
+name; and the astrologer gave a judgment, that he should be killed in a
+duell; at which the queene laughed, thinking her husband to be above
+challenges and duels; but he was slaine, upon a course at tilt, the
+splinters of the staffe of Mongomery going in at his bever." A favourite
+topic of the astrologers of all countries has been the immediate end of
+the world. As early as 1186 the earth had escaped one threatened
+cataclysm of the astrologers. This did not prevent Stöffler from
+predicting a universal deluge for the year 1524--a year, as it turned
+out, distinguished for drought. His aspect of the heavens told him that
+in that year three planets would meet in the aqueous sign of Pisces. The
+prediction was believed far and wide, and President Aurial, at Toulouse,
+built himself a Noah's ark--a curious realization, in fact, of Chaucer's
+merry invention in the _Miller's Tale_.
+
+Tycho Brahe was from his fifteenth year devoted to astrology, and
+adjoining his observatory at Uranienburg the astronomer-royal of Denmark
+had a laboratory built in order to study alchemy, and it was only a few
+years before his death that he finally abandoned astrology. We may here
+notice one very remarkable prediction of the master of Kepler. That he
+had carefully studied the comet of 1577 as an astronomer, we may gather
+from his adducing the very small parallax of this comet as disproving
+the assertion of the Aristotelians that a solid sphere enveloped the
+heavens. But besides this, we find him in his character of astrologer
+drawing a singular prediction from the appearance of this comet. It
+announced, he tells us, that in the north, in Finland, there should be
+born a prince who should lay waste Germany and vanish in 1632. Gustavus
+Adolphus, it is well known, was born in Finland, overran Germany, and
+died in 1632. The fulfilment of the details of this prophecy suggests
+that Tycho Brahe had some basis of reason for his prediction. Born in
+Denmark of a noble Swedish family, a politician, as were all his
+contemporaries of distinction, Tycho, though no conjuror, could foresee
+the advent of some great northern hero. Moreover, he was doubtless well
+acquainted with a very ancient tradition, that heroes generally came
+from the northern frontiers of their native land, where they are
+hardened and tempered by the threefold struggle they wage with soil,
+climate and barbarian neighbours.
+
+Kepler explained the double movement of the earth by the rotation of the
+sun. At one time the sun presented its friendly side, which attracted
+one planet, sometimes its adverse side, which repelled it. He also
+peopled the planets with souls and genii. He was led to his three great
+laws by musical analogies, just as William Herschel afterwards passed
+from music to astronomy. Kepler, who in his youth made almanacs, and
+once prophesied a hard winter, which came to pass, could not help
+putting an astrological interpretation on the disappearance of the
+brilliant star of 1572, which Tycho had observed. Theodore Beza thought
+that this star, which in December 1573 equalled Jupiter in brilliancy,
+predicted the second coming of Christ. Astronomers were only then
+beginning to study variable and periodic stars, and disturbances in that
+part of the heavens, which had till then, on the authority of Aristotle,
+been regarded as incorruptible, combined with the troubles of the times,
+must have given a new stimulus to belief in the signs in heaven.
+Montaigne (_Essais_, lib. i. chap, x.) relates a singular episode in the
+history of astrology. Charles V. and Francis I., who both bid for the
+friendship of the infamous Aretino, surnamed the divine, both likewise
+engaged astrologers to fight their battles. In Italy those who
+prophesied the ruin of France were sure to be listened to. These
+prophecies affected the public funds much as telegrams do nowadays. "At
+Rome," Montaigne tells us, "a large sum of money was lost on the Change
+by this prognostication of our ruin." The marquis of Saluces,
+notwithstanding his gratitude to Francis I. for the many favours he had
+received, including his marquisate, of which the brother was despoiled
+for his benefit, was led in 1536 to betray his country, being scared by
+the glorious prophecies of the ultimate success of Charles V. which were
+then rife. The influence of the Medici made astrologers popular in
+France. Richelieu, on whose council was Jacques Gaffarel (1601-1681),
+the last of the Kabbalists, did not despise astrology as an engine of
+government. At the birth of Louis XIV. a certain Morin de Villefranche
+was placed behind a curtain to cast the nativity of the future autocrat.
+A generation back the astrologer would not have been hidden behind a
+curtain, but have taken precedence of the doctor. La Bruyčre dares not
+pronounce against such beliefs, "for there are perplexing facts affirmed
+by grave men who were eye-witnesses." In England William Lilly and
+Robert Fludd were both dressed in a little brief authority. The latter
+gives us elaborate rules for the detection of a thief, and tells us that
+he has had personal experience of their efficacy. "If the lord of the
+sixth house is found in the second house, or in company with the lord of
+the second house, the thief is one of the family. If Mercury is in the
+sign of the Scorpion he will be bald, &c." Francis Bacon abuses the
+astrologers of his day no less than the alchemists, but he does so
+because he has visions of a reformed astrology and a reformed alchemy.
+Sir Thomas Browne, too, while he denies the capacity of the astrologers
+of his day, does not venture to dispute the reality of the science. The
+idea of the souls of men passing at death to the stars, the blessedness
+of their particular sphere being assigned them according to their
+deserts (the metempsychosis of J. Reynaud), may be regarded as a
+survival of religious astrology, which, even as late as Descartes's day,
+assigned to the angels the task of moving the planets and the stars.
+Joseph de Maistre believed in comets as messengers of divine justice,
+and in animated planets, and declared that divination by astrology is
+not an absolutely chimerical science. Lastly, we may mention a few
+distinguished men who ran counter to their age in denying stellar
+influences. Aristarchus of Samos, Martianus Capella (the precursor of
+Copernicus), Cicero, Favorinus, Sextus Empiricus, Juvenal, and in a
+later age Savonarola and Pico della Mirandola, and La Fontaine, a
+contemporary of the neutral La Bruyčre, were all pronounced opponents of
+astrology.
+
+In England Swift may fairly claim the credit of having given the
+death-blow to astrology by his famous squib, entitled _Prediction for
+the Year 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq._ He begins, by professing
+profound belief in the art, and next points out the vagueness and the
+absurdities of the philomaths. He then, in the happiest vein of parody,
+proceeds to show them a more excellent way:--"My first prediction is but
+a trifle, yet I mention it to show how ignorant these sottish pretenders
+to astrology are in their own concerns: it refers to Partridge the
+almanac-maker. I have consulted the star of his nativity by my own
+rules, and find he will infallibly die upon the 29th of March next about
+eleven at night of a raging fever. Therefore I advise him to consider of
+it and settle his affairs in time." Then followed a letter to a person
+of quality giving a full and particular account of the death of
+Partridge on the very day and nearly at the hour mentioned. In vain the
+wretched astrologer protested that he was alive, got a literary friend
+to write a pamphlet to prove it, and published his almanac for 1709.
+Swift, in his reply, abused him for his want of manners in giving a
+gentleman the lie, answered his arguments _seriatim_, and declared that
+the evidence of the publication of another almanac was wholly
+irrelevant, "for Gadbury, Poor Robin, Dove and Way do yearly publish
+their almanacs, though several of them have been dead since before the
+Revolution." Nevertheless a field is found even to this day for almanacs
+of a similar type, and for popular belief in them.
+
+To astrological politics we owe the theory of heaven-sent rulers,
+instruments in the hands of Providence, and saviours of society.
+Napoleon, as well as Wallenstein, believed in his star. Many passages in
+the older English poets are unintelligible without some knowledge of
+astrology. Chaucer wrote a treatise on the astrolabe; Milton constantly
+refers to planetary influences; in Shakespeare's _King Lear_, Gloucester
+and Edmund represent respectively the old and the new faith. We still
+_contemplate_ and consider; we still speak of men as _jovial_,
+_saturnine_ or _mercurial_; we still talk of the _ascendancy_ of genius,
+or a _disastrous_ defeat. In French _heur_, _malheur_, _heureux_,
+_malheureux_, are all derived from the Latin _augurium_; the expression
+_né sous une mauvaise étoile_, born under an evil star, corresponds
+(with the change of _étoile_ into _astre_) to the word _malôtru_, in
+Provençal _malastrue_; and _son étoile pâlit_, his star grows pale,
+belongs to the same class of illusions. The Latia _ex augurio_ appears
+in the Italian _sciagura_, _sciagurato_, softened into _sciaura_,
+_sciaurato_, wretchedness, wretched. The influence of a particular
+planet has also left traces in various languages; but the French and
+English _jovial_ and the English _saturnine_ correspond rather to the
+gods who served as types in chiromancy than to the planets which bear
+the same names. In the case of the expressions _bien_ or _mal luné_,
+well or ill mooned, _avoir un quartier de lune dans la tetę_, to have
+the quarter of the moon in one's head, the German _mondsüchtig_ and the
+English _moonstruck_ or _lunatic_, the fundamental idea lies in the
+strange opinions formerly held about the moon.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the history of astrology with its affinities to
+  astronomy on the one hand, and to other forms of popular belief on the
+  other, the following works out of a large number that might be
+  mentioned are specially recommended:--A. Bouché-Leclercq,
+  _L'Astrologie grecque_ (Paris, 1899), with a full bibliography; Franz
+  Boll, _Sphaera_ (Leipzig, 1903); Franz Cumont, _Catalogus Codicum
+  Astrologorum Graecorum_ (Brussels, 1898; 7 parts published up to
+  1909); Franz Boll, "Die Erforschung der antiken Astrologie" (in _Neue
+  Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum_, Band xxi. Heft 2, pp.
+  103-126); Franz Cumont, _Les Religions orientates dans le paganisme
+  romain_ (Paris, 1907) (ch. vii. "L'Astrologie et la magie"); Alfred
+  Maury, _La Magie et l'astrologie ŕ l'antiquité et au moyen âge_ (4th
+  ed., Paris, 1877); R.C. Thompson, _Reports of the Magicians and
+  Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon_ (2 vols., London, 1900); F.X.
+  Kugler, _Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel_ (Freiburg, 1907;--to be
+  completed in 4 vols.); Ch. Virolleaud, _L'Astrologie chaldéenne_
+  (Paris, 1905--to be completed in 8 parts--transliteration and
+  translations of cuneiform texts); Jastrow, _Religion Babyloniens und
+  Assyriens_ (Parts 13 and 14); also certain sections in
+  Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité_ (Paris,
+  1879), vol. i. pp. 205-257; in Marcellin Berthelot, _Les Origines de
+  l'alchimie_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-56; Ferd. Höfer, _Histoire de
+  l'astronomie_ (Paris, 1846), pp. 1-90; in Rudolf Wolf, _Geschichte der
+  Astronomie_ (Munich, 1877), ch. i. See also the article by Ernst Riess
+  on Astrology in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896). For modern and
+  practical astrology the following works may be found useful in
+  different ways: E.M. Bennett, _Astrology_ (New York, 1894); J.M.
+  Pfaff, _Astrologie_ (Bamberg, 1816); G. Wilde, _Chaldaean Astrology up
+  to date_ (1901); R. Garnett ("A.G. Trent"), "The Soul and the Stars,"
+  in the _University Magazine_, 1880 (reprinted in Dobson and Wilde,
+  _Natal Astrology_, 1893); Abel Haatan, _Traité d'astrologie
+  judiciaire_ (Paris, 1825); Fomalhaut, _Manuel d'astrologie sphérique
+  el judiciaire_ (Paris, 1897).     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTRONOMY (from Gr. [Greek: astron], a star, and [Greek: nemein], to
+classify or arrange). The subject matter of astronomical science,
+considered in its widest range, comprehends all the matter of the
+universe which lies outside the limit of the earth's atmosphere. The
+seeming anomaly of classifying as a single branch of science all that we
+know in a field so wide, while subdividing our knowledge of things on
+our own planet into an indefinite number of separate sciences, finds its
+explanation in the impossibility of subjecting the matter of the heavens
+to that experimental scrutiny which yields such rich results when
+applied to matter which we can handle at will. Astronomy is of necessity
+a science of observation in the pursuit of which experiment can directly
+play no part. It is the most ancient of the sciences because, before the
+era of experiment, it was the branch of knowledge which could be most
+easily systematized, while the relations of its phenomena to day and
+night, times and seasons, made some knowledge of the subject a necessity
+of social life. In recent times it is among the more progressive of the
+sciences, because the new and improved methods of research now at
+command have found in its cultivation a field of practically unlimited
+extent, in which the lines of research may ultimately lead to a
+comprehension of the universe impossible of attainment before our time.
+
+The field we have defined is divisible into at least two parts, that of
+Astronomy proper, or "Astrometry," which treats of the motions, mutual
+relations and dimensions of the heavenly bodies; and that of
+Astrophysics (q.v.), which treats of their physical constitution. While
+it is true that the instruments and methods of research in these two
+branches are quite different in their details, there is so much in
+common in the fundamental principles which underlie their application,
+that it is unprofitable to consider them as completely distinct
+sciences.
+
+Speaking in the most comprehensive way, and making an exception of the
+ethereal medium (see AETHER), which, being capable of experimental
+study, is not included in the subject of astronomy, we may say that the
+great masses of matter which make up the universe are of two kinds:--(1)
+incandescent bodies, made visible to us by their own light; (2) dark
+bodies, revolving round them or round each other. These dark bodies are
+known to us in two ways: (a) by becoming visible through reflecting the
+light from incandescent bodies in their neighbourhood, (b) by their
+attraction upon such bodies.
+
+The incandescent bodies are of two classes: stars and nebulae. Among the
+stars our sun is to be included, as it has no properties which
+distinguish it from the great mass of stars except our proximity to it.
+The stars are supposed to be generally spherical, like the sun, in form,
+and to have fairly well-defined boundaries; while the nebulae are
+generally irregular in outline and have no well-defined limits. It is,
+however, probable that the one class runs into the other by
+imperceptible gradations. In the relation of the universe to us there is
+yet another separation of its bodies into two classes, one comprising
+the solar system, the other the remainder of the universe. The former
+consists of the sun and the bodies which move round it. Considered as a
+part of the universe, our solar system is insignificant in extent,
+though, for obvious reasons, great in practical importance to us, and in
+the facility with which we may gain knowledge relating to it.
+
+Referring to special articles, SOLAR SYSTEM, STAR, SUN, MOON, &c. for a
+description of the various parts of the universe, we confine ourselves,
+at present, to setting forth a few of the most general modern
+conceptions of the universe. As to extent, it may be said, in a general
+way, that while no definite limits can be set to the possible extent of
+the universe, or the distance of its farthest bodies, it seems probable,
+for reasons which will be given under STAR, that the system to which the
+stars that we see belong, is of finite extent.
+
+As the incandescent bodies of the universe are visible by their own
+light, the problem of ascertaining their existence and position is
+mainly one of seeing, and our facilities for attacking it have
+constantly increased with the improvement of our optical appliances. But
+such is not the case with the dark bodies. Such a body can be made known
+to us only when in the neighbourhood of an incandescent body; and even
+then, unless its mass or its dimensions are considerable, it will evade
+all the scrutiny of our science. The question of the possible number and
+magnitude of such bodies is therefore one that does not admit of
+accurate investigation. We can do no more than balance vague estimates
+of probability. What we do know is that these bodies vary widely in
+size. Those known to be revolving round certain of the stars are far
+larger in proportion to their central bodies than our planets are in
+respect to the sun; for were it otherwise we should never be able to
+detect their existence. At the other extreme we know that innumerable
+swarms of minute bodies, probably little more than particles, move round
+the sun in orbits of every degree of eccentricity, making themselves
+known to us only in the exceptional cases when they strike the earth's
+atmosphere. They then appear to us as "shooting stars" (see METEOR).
+
+A general idea of the relation of the solar system to the universe may
+be gained by reflecting that the average distance between any two
+neighbouring stars is several thousand times the extent of the solar
+system. Between the orbit of Neptune and the nearest star known to us is
+an immense void in which no bodies are yet known to exist, except
+comets. But although these sometimes wander to distances considerably
+beyond the orbit of Neptune, it is probable that the extent of the void
+which separates our system from the nearest star is hundreds of times
+the distance of the farthest point to which a comet ever recedes.
+
+We may conclude this brief characterization of astronomy with a
+statement and classification of the principal lines on which
+astronomical researches are now pursued. The most comprehensive problem
+before the investigator is that of the constitution of the universe. It
+is known that, while infinite diversity is found among the bodies of the
+universe, there are also common characteristics throughout its whole
+extent. In a certain sense we may say that the universe now presents
+itself to the thinking astronomer, not as a heterogeneous collection of
+bodies, but as a unified whole. The number of stars is so vast that
+statistical methods can be applied to many of the characters which they
+exhibit--their spectra, their apparent and absolute luminosity, and
+their arrangement in space. Thus has arisen in recent times what we may
+regard as a third branch of astronomical science, known as _Stellar
+Statistics_. The development of this branch has infused life and
+interest into what might a few years ago have been regarded as the most
+lifeless mass of figures possible, expressing merely the positions and
+motions of innumerable individual stars, as determined by generations of
+astronomical observers. The development of this new branch requires
+great additions to this mass, the product of perhaps centuries of work
+on the older lines of the science. To the statistician of the stars,
+catalogues of spectra, magnitude, position and proper motions are of the
+same importance that census tables are to the student of humanity. The
+measurement of the speed with which the individual stars are moving
+towards or from our system is a work of such magnitude that what has yet
+been done is scarcely more than a beginning. The discovery by improved
+optical means, and especially by photography, of new bodies of our
+system so small that they evaded all scrutiny in former times, is still
+going on, but does not at present promise any important generalization,
+unless we regard as such the conclusion that our solar system is a more
+complex organism than was formerly supposed.
+
+One characteristic of astronomy which tends to make its progress slow
+and continuous arises out of the general fact that, except in the case
+of motions to or from us, which can be determined by a single
+observation with the spectroscope, the motion of a heavenly body can be
+determined only by comparing its position at two different epochs. The
+interval required between these two epochs depends upon the speed of the
+motion. In the case of the greater number of the fixed stars this is so
+slow that centuries may have to elapse before motion can be deduced.
+Even in the case of the planets, the variations in the form and position
+of the orbits are so slow that long periods of observation are required
+for their correct determination.
+
+The process of development is also made slow and difficult by the great
+amount of labour involved in deriving the results of astronomical
+observations. When an astronomer has made an observation, it still has
+to be "reduced," and this commonly requires more labour than that
+involved in making it. But even this labour may be small compared with
+that of the theoretical astronomer, who, in the future, is to use the
+result as the raw material of his work. The computations required in
+such work are of extreme complexity, and the labour required is still
+further increased by the fact that cases are rather exceptional in which
+the results reached by one generation will not have to be revised and
+reconstructed by another; processes which may involve the repetition of
+the entire work. We may, in fact, regard the fabric of astronomical
+science as a building in the construction of which no stone can be added
+without a readjustment of some of the stones on which it has to rest.
+Thus it comes about that the observer, the computer, and the
+mathematician have in astronomical science a practically unlimited field
+for the exercise of their powers.
+
+In treating so comprehensive a subject we may naturally distinguish
+between what we know of the universe and the methods and processes by
+which that knowledge is acquired. The former may be termed general, and
+the latter practical, astronomy. When we descend more minutely into
+details we find these two branches of the subject to be connected by
+certain principles, the application of which relates to both subjects.
+Considering as general or descriptive astronomy a description of the
+universe as we now understand it, the other branches of the subject
+generally recognized are as follows:--
+
+_Geometrical_ or _Spherical Astronomy_, by the principles of which the
+positions and the motions of the heavenly bodies are defined.
+
+_Theoretical Astronomy_, which may be considered as an extension of
+geometrical astronomy and includes the determination of the positions
+and motions of the heavenly bodies by combining mathematical theory with
+observation. Modern theoretical astronomy, taken in the most limited
+sense, is based upon _Celestial Mechanics_, the science by which, using
+purely deductive mechanical methods, the laws of motion of the heavenly
+bodies are derived by deductive methods from their mutual gravitation
+towards each other.
+
+_Practical Astronomy_, which comprises a description of the instruments
+used in astronomical observation, and of the principles and methods
+underlying their application.
+
+
+_Spherical or Geometrical Astronomy._
+
+In astronomy, as in analytical geometry, the position of a point is
+defined by stating its distance and its direction from a point of
+reference taken as known. The numerical quantities by which the distance
+and direction, and therefore the position, are defined, are termed
+_co-ordinates_ of the point. The latter are measured or defined with
+regard to a fixed system of lines and planes, which form the basis of
+the system.
+
+  The following are the fundamental concepts of such a system.
+
+  (a) An origin or point of reference. The points most generally taken
+  for this purpose in astronomical practice are the following:--
+
+  (1) The position of a point of observation on the earth's surface. We
+  conceive its position to be that occupied by an observer. The position
+  of a heavenly body is then defined by its direction and distance from
+  the supposed observer.
+
+  (2) The centre of the earth. This point, though it can never be
+  occupied by an observer, is used because the positions of the heavenly
+  bodies in relation to it are more readily computed than they can be
+  from a point on the earth's surface.
+
+  (3) The centre of the sun.
+
+  (4) In addition to these three most usual points, we may, of course,
+  take the centre of a planet or that of a star in order to define the
+  position of bodies in their respective neighbourhoods.
+
+  Co-ordinates referred to a point of observation as the origin are
+  termed "apparent," those referred to the centre of the earth are
+  "geocentric," those referred to the centre of the sun, "heliocentric."
+
+  (b) The next concept of the system is a fundamental plane, regarded as
+  fixed, passing through the origin. In connexion with it is an axis
+  perpendicular to it, also passing through the origin. We may consider
+  the axis and the plane as a single concept, the axis determining the
+  plane, or the plane the axis. The fundamental concepts of this class
+  most in use are:--
+
+  (1) When a point on the earth's surface is taken as the origin, the
+  fundamental axis may be the direction of gravity at that point. This
+  direction defines the vertical line. The fundamental plane which it
+  determines is horizontal and is termed the plane of the horizon. Such
+  a plane is realized in the surface of a liquid, a basin of
+  quicksilver, for example.
+
+  (2) When the centre of the earth is taken as origin, the most natural
+  fundamental axis is that of the earth's rotation. This axis cuts the
+  earth's surface at the North and South Poles. The fundamental plane
+  perpendicular to it is the plane of the equator. This plane intersects
+  the earth's surface in the terrestrial equator. Co-ordinates referred
+  to this system are termed equatorial. A system of equatorial
+  co-ordinates may also be used when the origin is on the earth's
+  surface. The fundamental axis, instead of being the earth's axis
+  itself, is then a line parallel to it, and the fundamental plane is
+  the plane passing through the point, and parallel to the plane of the
+  equator.
+
+  (3) In the system of heliocentric co-ordinates, the plane in which the
+  earth moves round the sun, which is the plane of the ecliptic, is
+  taken as the fundamental one. The axis of the ecliptic is a line
+  perpendicular to this plane.
+
+  (c) The third concept necessary to complete the system is a fixed line
+  passing through the origin, and lying in the fundamental plane. This
+  line defines an initial direction from which other directions are
+  counted.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  The geometrical concepts just defined are shown in fig. 1. Here O is
+  the origin, whatever point it may be; OZ is the fundamental axis
+  passing through it. In order to represent in the figure the position
+  of the fundamental plane, we conceive a circle to be drawn round O,
+  lying in that plane. This circle, projected in perspective as an
+  ellipse, is shown in the figure. OX is the fixed initial line by which
+  directions are to be defined.
+
+  Now let P be any point in space, say the centre of a heavenly body.
+  Conceive a perpendicular PQ to be dropped from this point on the
+  fundamental plane, meeting the latter in the point Q; PQ will then be
+  parallel to OZ. The co-ordinates of P will then be the following three
+  quantities:--
+
+  (1) The length of the line OP, or the distance of the body from the
+  origin, which distance is called the radius vector of the body.
+
+  (2) The angle XOQ which the projection of the radius vector upon the
+  fundamental plane makes with the initial line OX. This angle is called
+  the Longitude, Right Ascension or Azimuth of the body, in the various
+  systems of co-ordinates. We may term it in a general way the
+  longitudinal co-ordinate.
+
+  (3) The angle QOP, which the radius vector makes with the fundamental
+  plane. This we may call the latitudinal co-ordinate. Instead of it is
+  frequently used the complementary angle ZOP, known as the polar
+  distance of the body. Since ZOQ is a right angle, it follows that the
+  sum of the polar distance and the latitudinal co-ordinates is always
+  90°. Either may be used for astronomical purposes.
+
+  It is readily seen that the position of a heavenly body is completely
+  defined when these co-ordinates are given.
+
+  One of the systems of co-ordinates is familiar to every one, and may
+  be used as a general illustration of the method. It is our system of
+  defining the position of a point on the earth's surface by its
+  latitude and longitude. Regarding O (fig. 1) as the centre of the
+  earth, and P as a point on the earth's surface, a city for example, it
+  will be seen that OZ being the earth's axis, the circle MN will be the
+  equator. The initial line OX then passes through the foot of the
+  perpendicular dropped from Greenwich upon the plane of the equator,
+  and meets the surface at N. The angle QOP is the latitude of the place
+  and the angle NOQ its longitude. The longitudes and latitudes thus
+  defined are geocentric, and the latitude is slightly different from
+  that in ordinary use for geographic purposes. The difference arises
+  from the oblateness of the earth, and need not be considered here.
+
+  The conception of the co-ordinates we have defined is facilitated by
+  introducing that of the celestial sphere. This conception is embodied
+  in our idea of the vault of heaven, or of the sky. Taking as origin
+  the position of an observer, the direction of a heavenly body is
+  defined by the point in which he sees it in the sky; that is to say,
+  on the celestial sphere. Imagining, as we may well do, that the radius
+  of this sphere is infinite--then every direction, whatever the origin,
+  may be represented by a point on its surface. Take for example the
+  vertical line which is embodied in the direction of the plumb line.
+  This line, extended upwards, meets the celestial sphere in the zenith.
+  The earth's axis, continued indefinitely upwards, meets the sphere in
+  a point called the Celestial Pole. This point in our middle latitudes
+  is between the zenith and the north horizon, near a certain star of
+  the second magnitude familiarly known as the Pole Star. As the earth
+  revolves from west to east the celestial sphere appears to us to
+  revolve in the opposite direction, turning on the line joining the
+  Celestial Poles as on a pivot.
+
+  As we conceive of the sky, it does not consist of an entire sphere but
+  only as a hemisphere bounded by the horizon. But we have no difficulty
+  in extending the conception below the horizon, so that the earth with
+  everything upon it is in the centre of a complete sphere. The two
+  parts of this sphere are the visible hemisphere, which is above the
+  horizon, and the invisible, which is below it. Then the plumb line not
+  only defines the zenith as already shown, but in a downward direction
+  it defines the nadir, which is the point of the sphere directly below
+  our feet. On the side of this sphere opposite to the North Celestial
+  is the South Pole, invisible in the Northern Terrestrial Hemisphere
+  but visible in the Southern one.
+
+  The relation of geocentric to apparent co-ordinates depends upon the
+  latitude of the observer. The changes which the aspect of the heaven
+  undergoes, as we travel North and South, are so well known that they
+  need not be described in detail here; but a general statement of them
+  will give a luminous idea of the geometrical co-ordinates we have
+  described. Imagine an observer starting from the North Pole to travel
+  towards the equator, carrying his zenith with him. When at the pole
+  his zenith coincides with the celestial pole, and as the earth
+  revolves on its axis, the heavenly bodies perform their apparent
+  diurnal revolutions in horizontal circles round the zenith. As he
+  travels South, his zenith moves along the celestial sphere, and the
+  circles of diurnal rotation become oblique to the horizon. The
+  obliquity continually increases until the observer reaches the
+  equator. His zenith is then in the equator and the celestial poles are
+  in the North and South horizon respectively. The circles in which the
+  heavenly bodies appear to revolve are then vertical. Continuing his
+  journey towards the south, the north celestial pole sinks below the
+  horizon; the south celestial pole rises above it; or to speak more
+  exactly, the zenith of the observer approaches that pole. The circles
+  of diurnal revolution again become oblique. Finally, at the south pole
+  the circles of diurnal revolution are again apparently horizontal, but
+  are described in a direction apparently (but not really) the reverse
+  of that near the north pole. The reader who will trace out these
+  successive concepts and study the results of his changing positions
+  will readily acquire the notions which it is our subject to define.
+
+  We have next to point out the relation of the co-ordinates we have
+  described to the annual motion of the earth around the sun. In
+  consequence of this motion the sun appears to us to describe annually
+  a great circle, called the ecliptic, round the celestial sphere, among
+  the stars, with a nearly uniform motion, of somewhat less than 1° in a
+  day. Were the stars visible in the daytime in the immediate
+  neighbourhood of the sun, this motion could be traced from day to day.
+  The ecliptic intersects the celestial equator at two opposite points,
+  the equinoxes, at an angle of 23° 27'. The vernal equinox is taken as
+  the initial point on the sphere from which co-ordinates are measured
+  in the equatorial and ecliptic systems. Referring to fig. 1, the
+  initial line OX is defined as directed toward the vernal equinox, at
+  which point it intersects the celestial sphere.
+
+  The following is an enumeration of the co-ordinates which we have
+  described in the three systems:--
+
+      APPARENT SYSTEM.
+
+    Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Altitude or Zenith Distance.
+    Longitudinal    "                    Azimuth.
+
+      EQUATORIAL SYSTEM.
+
+    Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Declination or Polar Distance.
+    Longitudinal    "                    Right Ascension.
+
+      ECLIPTIC SYSTEM.
+
+    Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Latitude or Ecliptic Polar Distance.
+    Longitudinal    "                    Longitude.
+
+
+  _Relation of the Diurnal Motion to Spherical Co-ordinates._--The
+  vertical line at any place being the fundamental axis of the apparent
+  system of co-ordinates, this system rotates with the earth, and so
+  seems to us as fixed. The other two systems, including the vernal
+  equinox, are fixed on the celestial sphere, and so seem to us to
+  perform a diurnal revolution from east towards west. Regarding the
+  period of the revolution as 24 hours, the apparent motion goes on at
+  the rate of 15° per hour. Here we have to make a distinction of
+  fundamental importance between the diurnal motions of the sun and of
+  the stars. Owing to the unceasing apparent motion of the sun toward
+  the east, the interval between two passages of the same star over the
+  meridian is nearly four minutes less than the interval between
+  consecutive passages of the sun. The latter is the measure of the day
+  as used in civil life. In astronomical practice is introduced a day,
+  termed "sidereal," determined, not by the diurnal revolution of the
+  sun, but of the stars. The year, which comprises 365.25 solar days,
+  contains 366.25 sidereal days. The latter are divided into sidereal
+  hours, minutes and seconds as the solar day is. The conception of a
+  revolution through 360° in 24 hours is applicable to each case. The
+  sun apparently moves at the rate of 15° in a solar hour; the stars at
+  the rate of 15° in a sidereal hour. The latter motion leads to the
+  use, in astronomical practice, of time instead of angle, as the unit
+  in which the right ascensions are to be expressed. Considering the
+  position of the vernal equinox, and also of a star on the celestial
+  sphere, it will be seen that the interval between the transits of
+  these two points across the meridian may be used to measure the right
+  ascension of a star, since the latter amounts to 15° for every
+  sidereal hour of this interval. For example, if the right ascension of
+  a star is exactly 15°, it will pass the meridian one sidereal hour
+  after the vernal equinox. For the relations thus arising, and their
+  practical applications, see TIME, MEASUREMENT OF.
+
+
+_Theoretical Astronomy._
+
+Theoretical Astronomy is that branch of the science which, making use of
+the results of astronomical observations as they are supplied by the
+practical astronomer, investigates the motions of the heavenly bodies.
+In its most important features it is an offshoot of celestial mechanics,
+between which and theoretical astronomy no sharp dividing line can be
+drawn. While it is true that the one is concerned altogether with
+general theories, it is also true that these theories require
+developments and modifications to apply them to the numberless problems
+of astronomy, which we may place in either class.
+
+  Among the problems of theoretical astronomy we may assign the first
+  place to the determination of orbits (q.v.), which is auxiliary to the
+  prediction of the apparent motions of a planet, satellite or star. The
+  computations involved in the process, while simple in some cases, are
+  extremely complex in others. The orbit of a newly-discovered planet or
+  comet may be computed from three complete observations by well-known
+  methods in a single day. From the resulting elements of the orbit the
+  positions of the body from day to day may be computed and tabulated in
+  an ephemeris for the use of observers. But when definitive results as
+  to the orbits are required, it is necessary to compute the
+  perturbations produced by such of the major planets as have affected
+  the motions of the body. With this complicated process is associated
+  that of combining numerous observations with a view of obtaining the
+  best definitive result. Speaking in a general way, we may say that
+  computations pertaining to the orbital revolutions of double stars, as
+  well as the bodies of our solar system, are to a greater or less
+  extent of the classes we have described. The principal modification is
+  that, up to the present time, stellar astronomy has not advanced so
+  far that a computation of the perturbations in each case of a system
+  of stars is either necessary or possible, except in exceptional cases.
+
+
+_Celestial Mechanics_.
+
+Celestial Mechanics is, strictly speaking, that branch of applied
+mathematics which, by deductive processes, derives the laws of motion of
+the heavenly bodies from their gravitation towards each other, or from
+the mutual action of the parts which form them. The science had its
+origin in the demonstration by Sir Isaac Newton that Kepler's three laws
+of planetary motion, and the law of gravitation, in the case of two
+bodies, could be mutually derived from each other. A body can move round
+the sun in an elliptic orbit having the sun in its focus, and describing
+equal areas in equal times, only under the influence of a force directed
+towards the sun, and varying inversely as the square of the distance
+from it. Conversely, assuming this law of attraction, it can be shown
+that the planets will move according to Kepler's laws.
+
+Thus celestial mechanics may be said to have begun with Newton's
+_Principia_. The development of the science by the successors of Newton,
+especially Laplace and Lagrange, may be classed among the most striking
+achievements of the human intellect. The precision with which the path
+of an eclipse is laid down years in advance cannot but imbue the minds
+of men with a high sense of the perfection reached by astronomical
+theories; and the discovery, by purely mathematical processes, of the
+changes which the orbits and motions of the planets are to undergo
+through future ages is more impressive the more fully one apprehends the
+nature of the problem. The purpose of the present article is to convey a
+general idea of the methods by which the results of celestial mechanics
+are reached, without entering into those technical details which can be
+followed only by a trained mathematician. It must be admitted that any
+intelligent comprehension of the subject requires at least a grasp of
+the fundamental conceptions of analytical geometry and the infinitesimal
+calculus, such as only one with some training in these subjects can be
+expected to have. This being assumed, the hope of the writer is that the
+exposition will afford the student an insight into the theory which may
+facilitate his orientation, and convey to the general reader with a
+certain amount of mathematical training a clear idea of the methods by
+which conclusions relating to it are drawn. The non-mathematical reader
+may possibly be able to gain some general idea, though vague, of the
+significance of the subject.
+
+  The fundamental hypothesis of the science assumes a system of bodies
+  in motion, of which the sun and planets may be taken as examples, and
+  of which each separate body is attracted toward all the others
+  according to the law of Newton. The motion of each body is then
+  expressed in the first place by Newton's three laws of motion (see
+  MOTION, LAWS OF, and MECHANICS). The first step in the process shows
+  in a striking way the perfection of the analytic method. The
+  conception of force is, so to speak, eliminated from the conditions of
+  the problem, which is reduced to one of pure kinematics. At the
+  outset, the position of each body, considered as a material particle,
+  is defined by reference to a system of co-ordinate axes, and not by
+  any verbal description. Differential equations which express the
+  changes of the co-ordinates are then constructed. The process of
+  discovering the laws of motion of the particle then consists in the
+  integration of these equations. Such equations can be formed for a
+  system of any number of bodies, but the process of integration in a
+  rigorous form is possible only to a limited extent or in special
+  cases.
+
+  The problems to be treated are of two classes. In one, the bodies are
+  regarded as material particles, no account being taken of their
+  dimensions. The earth, for example, may be regarded as a particle
+  attracted by another more massive particle, the sun. In the other
+  class of problems, the relative motion of the different parts of the
+  separate bodies is considered; for example, the rotation of the earth
+  on its axis, and the consequences of the fact that those parts of a
+  body which are nearer to another body are more strongly attracted by
+  it. Beginning with the first branch of the subject, the fundamental
+  ideas which it is our purpose to convey are embodied in the simple
+  case of only two bodies, which we may call the sun and a planet. In
+  this case the two bodies really revolve round their common centre of
+  gravity; but a very slight modification of the equations of motion
+  reduces them to the relative motion of the planet round the sun,
+  regarding the moving centre of the latter as the origin of
+  co-ordinates. The motion of this centre, which arises from the
+  attraction of the planet on the sun, need not be considered.
+
+  In the actual problems of celestial mechanics three co-ordinates
+  necessarily enter, leading to three differential equations and six
+  equations of solution. But the general principles of the problem are
+  completely exemplified with only two bodies, in which case the motion
+  takes place in a fixed plane. By taking this plane, which is that of
+  the orbit in which the planet performs its revolution, as the plane of
+  xy, we have only two co-ordinates to consider. Let us use the
+  following notation:
+
+  x, y, the co-ordinates of the planet relative to the sun as the origin.
+
+  M, m, the masses of the attracting bodies, sun and planet.
+
+  r, the distance apart of the two bodies, or the radius vector of m
+  relative to M. This last quantity is analytically defined by the
+  equation--
+
+    r˛ = x˛ + y˛
+
+  t, the time, reckoned from any epoch we choose.
+
+  The differential equations which completely determine the changes in
+  the co-ordinates x and y, or the motion of m relative to M, are:--
+
+    d˛x     (M + m)x
+    --- = - --------
+    dt˛        rł
+
+    d˛y     (M + m)y
+    --- = - --------
+    dt˛        rł
+
+  These formulae are worthy of special attention. They are the
+  expression in the language of mathematics of Newton's first two laws
+  of motion. Their statement in this language may be regarded as
+  perfect, because it completely and unambiguously expresses the naked
+  phenomena of the motion. The equations do this without expressing any
+  conception, such as that of force, not associated with the actual
+  phenomena. Moreover, as a third advantage, these expressions are
+  entirely free from those difficulties and ambiguities which are met
+  with in every attempt to express the laws of motion in ordinary
+  language. They afford yet another great advantage in that the
+  derivation of the results requires only the analytic operations of the
+  infinitesimal calculus.
+
+  The power and spirit of the analytic method will be appreciated by
+  showing how it expresses the relations of motion as they were
+  conceived geometrically by Newton and Kepler. It is quite evident that
+  Kepler's laws do not in themselves enable us to determine the actual
+  motion of the planets. We must have, in addition, in the case of each
+  special planet, certain specific facts, viz. the axes and eccentricity
+  of the ellipse, and the position of the plane in which it lies.
+  Besides these, we must have given the position of the planet in the
+  orbit at some specified moment. Having these data, the position of the
+  planet at any other time may be geometrically constructed by Kepler's
+  laws. The third law enables us to compute the time taken by the radius
+  vector to sweep over the entire area of the orbit, which is identical
+  with the time of revolution. The problem of constructing successive
+  radii vectores, the angles of which are measured off from the radius
+  vector of the body at the original given position, is then a geometric
+  one, known as Kepler's problem.
+
+  In the analytic process these specific data, called elements of the
+  orbit, appear as arbitrary constants, introduced by the process of
+  integration. In a case like the present one, where there are two
+  differential equations of the second order, there will be four such
+  constants. The result of the integration is that the co-ordinates x
+  and y and their derivatives as to the time, which express the
+  position, direction of motion and speed of the planet at any moment,
+  are found as functions of the four constants and of the time. Putting
+
+    a, b, c, d,
+
+  for the constants, the general form of the solution will be
+
+    x = f1(a, b, c, d, t)
+    y = f2(a, b, c, d, t)                (2)
+
+  From these may be derived by differentiation as to t the velocities
+
+    dx/dt = f'1(a, b, c, d, t) = x'
+    dy/dt = f'2(a, b, c, d, t) = y'      (3)
+
+  The symbols x' and y' are used for brevity to mean the velocities
+  expressed by the differential coefficients. The arbitrary constants,
+  a, b, c and d, are the elements of the orbit, or any quantities from
+  which these elements can be obtained. We note that, in the actual
+  process of integration, no geometric construction need enter.
+
+  [Illustration: fig. 2.]
+
+  Let us next consider the problem in another form. Conceive that
+  instead of the orbit of the planet, there is given a position P (fig.
+  2), through which the planet passed at an assigned moment, with a
+  given velocity, and in a given direction, represented by the
+  arrowhead. Logically these data completely determine the orbit in
+  which the planet shall move, because there is only one such orbit
+  passing through P, a planet moving in which would have the given
+  speed. It follows that the elements of the orbit admit of
+  determination when the co-ordinates of the planet at an assigned
+  moment and their derivatives as to time are given. Analytically the
+  elements are determined from these data by solving the four equations
+  just given, regarding a, b, c and d as unknown quantities, and x, y,
+  x', y' and t as given quantities. The solution of these equations
+  would lead to expressions of the form
+
+    a = [phi]1(x, y, x', y', t)
+    b = [phi]2(x, y, x', y', t)          (4)
+      &c.  &c.
+
+  one for each of the elements.
+
+  The general equations expressing the motion of a planet considered as
+  a material particle round a centre of attraction lead to theorems the
+  more interesting of which will now be enunciated.
+
+  (1) The motion of such a planet may take place not only in an ellipse
+  but in any curve of the second order; an ellipse, hyperbola, or
+  parabola, the latter being the bounding curve between the other two. A
+  body moving in a parabola or hyperbola would recede indefinitely from
+  its centre of motion and never return to it. The ellipse is therefore
+  the only closed orbit.
+
+  (2) The motion takes place in accord with Kepler's laws, enunciated
+  elsewhere.
+
+  (3) _Whewell's theorem_: if a point R be taken at a distance from the
+  sun equal to the major axis of the orbit of a planet and, therefore,
+  at double the mean distance of the planet, the speed of the latter at
+  any point is equal to the speed which a body would acquire by falling
+  from the point R to the actual position of the planet. The speed of
+  the latter may, therefore, be expressed as a function of its radius
+  vector at the moment and of the major axis of its orbit without
+  introducing any other elements into the expression. Another corollary
+  is that in the case of a body moving in a parabolic orbit the velocity
+  at any moment is that which would be acquired by the body in falling
+  from an infinite distance to the place it occupies at the moment.
+
+  (4) If a number of bodies are projected from any point in space with
+  the same velocity, but in various directions, and subjected only to
+  the attraction of the sun, they will all return to the point of
+  projection at the same moment, although the orbits in which they move
+  may be ever so different.
+
+  (5) At each distance from the sun there is a certain velocity which a
+  body would have if it moved in a circular orbit at that distance. If
+  projected with this velocity in any direction the point of projection
+  will be at the end of the minor axis of the orbit, because this is the
+  only point of an ellipse of which the distance from the focus is equal
+  to the semi-major axis of the curve, and therefore the only point at
+  which the distance of the body from the sun is equal to its mean
+  distance.
+
+  (6) The relation between the periodic time of a planet and its mean
+  distance, approximately expressed by Kepler's third law, follows very
+  simply from the laws of centrifugal force. It is an elementary
+  principle of mechanics that this force varies directly as the product
+  of the distance of the moving body from the centre of motion into the
+  square of its angular velocity. When bodies revolve at different
+  distances around a centre, their velocities must be such that the
+  centrifugal force of each shall be balanced by the attraction of the
+  central mass, and therefore vary inversely as the square of the
+  distance. If M is the central mass, n the angular velocity, and a the
+  distance, the balance of the two forces is expressed by the equation
+
+    an˛ = M/a˛,
+
+  whence ałn˛ = M, a constant.
+
+  The periodic time varying inversely as n, this equation expresses
+  Kepler's third law. This reasoning tacitly supposes the orbit to be a
+  circle of radius a, and the mass of the planet to be negligible. The
+  rigorous relation is expressed by a slight modification of the law.
+  Putting M and m for the respective masses of the sun and planet, a for
+  the semi-major axis of the orbit, and n for the mean angular motion in
+  unit of time, the relation then is
+
+    ałn˛ = M + m.
+
+  What is noteworthy in this theorem is that this relation depends only
+  on the sum of the masses. It follows, therefore, that were any portion
+  of the mass of the sun taken from it, and added to the planet, the
+  relation would be unchanged. Kepler's third law therefore expresses
+  the fact that the mass of the sun is the same for all the planets, and
+  deviates from the truth only to the extent that the masses of the
+  latter differ from each other by quantities which are only a small
+  fraction of the mass of the sun.
+
+  _Problem of Three Bodies._--As soon as the general law of gravitation
+  was fully apprehended, it became evident that, owing to the attraction
+  of each planet upon all the others, the actual motion of the planets
+  must deviate from their motion in an ellipse according to Kepler's
+  laws. In the _Principia_ Newton made several investigations to
+  determine the effects of these actions; but the geometrical method
+  which he employed could lead only to rude approximations. When the
+  subject was taken up by the continental mathematicians, using the
+  analytical method, the question naturally arose whether the motions of
+  three bodies under their mutual attraction could not be determined
+  with a degree of rigour approximating to that with which Newton had
+  solved the problem of two bodies. Thus arose the celebrated "problem
+  of three bodies." Investigation soon showed that certain integrals
+  expressing relations between the motions not only of three but of any
+  number of bodies could be found. These were:--
+
+  First, the law of the conservation of the centre of gravity. This
+  expresses the general fact that whatever be the number of the bodies
+  which act upon each other, their motions are so related that the
+  centre of gravity of the entire system moves in a straight line with a
+  constant velocity. This is expressed in three equations, one for each
+  of the three rectangular co-ordinates.
+
+  Secondly, the law of conservation of areas. This is an extension of
+  Kepler's second law. Taking as the radius vector of each body the line
+  from the body to the common centre of gravity of all, the sum of the
+  products formed by multiplying each area described, by the mass of the
+  body, remains a constant. In the language of theoretical mechanics,
+  the moment of momentum of the entire system is a constant quantity.
+  This law is also expressed in three equations, one for each of the
+  three planes on which the areas are projected.
+
+  Thirdly, the entire _vis viva_ of the system or, as it is now called,
+  the energy, which is obtained by multiplying the mass of each body
+  into half the square of its velocity, is equal to the sum of the
+  quotients formed by dividing the product of every pair of the masses,
+  taken two and two, by their distance apart, with the addition of a
+  constant depending on the original conditions of the system. In the
+  language of algebra putting m1, m2, m3, &c. for the masses of the
+  bodies, r_1.2, r_1.3, r_2.3, &c. for their mutual distances apart;
+  v1, v2, v3, &c., for the velocities with which they are moving at any
+  moment; these quantities will continually satisfy the equation
+
+                              m1m2    m1m3    m2m3
+    ˝(m1v˛1 + m2v˛2 + ...) = ----- + ----- + ----- + ... + a constant.
+                             r_1.2   r_1.3   r_2.3
+
+  The theorems of motion just cited are expressed by seven integrals, or
+  equations expressing a law that certain functions of the variables and
+  of the time remain constant. It is remarkable that although the seven
+  integrals were found almost from the beginning of the investigation,
+  no others have since been added; and indeed it has recently been shown
+  that no others exist that can be expressed in an algebraic form. In
+  the case of three bodies these do not suffice completely to define the
+  motion. In this case, the problem can be attacked only by methods of
+  approximation, devised so as to meet the special conditions of each
+  case. The special conditions which obtain in the solar system are such
+  as to make the necessary approximation theoretically possible however
+  complex the process may be. These conditions are:--(1) The smallness
+  of the masses of the planets in comparison with that of the sun, in
+  consequence of which the orbit of each planet deviates but slightly
+  from an ellipse during any one revolution; (2) the fact that the
+  orbits of the planets are nearly circular, and the planes of their
+  orbits but slightly inclined to each other. The result of these
+  conditions is that all the quantities required admit of development in
+  series proceeding according to the powers of the eccentricities and
+  inclinations of the orbits, and the ratio of the masses of the several
+  planets to the mass of the sun.
+
+  _Perturbations of the Planets._--Kepler's laws do not completely
+  express the motion of a planet around a central body, except when no
+  force but the mutual attraction of the two bodies comes into play.
+  When one or more other bodies form a part of the system, their action
+  produces deviations from the elliptic motion, which are called
+  _perturbations_. The problem of determining the perturbations of the
+  heavenly bodies is perhaps the most complicated with which the
+  mathematical astronomer has to grapple; and the forms under which it
+  has to be studied are so numerous that they cannot be easily arranged
+  under any one head. But there is one conception of perturbations of
+  such generality and elegance that it forms the common base of all
+  those methods of determining these deviations which have high
+  scientific interest. This conception is embodied in the method of
+  "variation of elements," originally due to J.L. Lagrange. The simplest
+  method of presenting it starts with the second view of the elliptic
+  motion already set forth.
+
+  We have shown that, when the position of a planet and the direction
+  and speed of its motion at a certain instant are given, the elements
+  of the orbit can be determined. We have supposed this to be done at a
+  certain point P of the orbit, the direction and speed being expressed
+  by the variables x, y, x' and y'. Now, consider the values of these
+  same variables expressing the position of the planet at a second point
+  Q, and the speed with which it passes that point. With this position
+  and speed the elements of the orbit can again be determined. Since the
+  orbit is unchanged so long as no disturbing force acts, it follows
+  that the elements determined by means of the two sets of values of the
+  variables are in this case the same. In a word, although the position
+  and speed of the planet and the direction of its motion are constantly
+  changing, the values of the elements determined from these variables
+  remain constant. This fact is fully expressed by the equations (4)
+  where we have constants on one side of the equation equal to functions
+  of the variables on the other. Functions of the variables possessing
+  this property of remaining constant are termed _integrals_.
+
+  Now let the planet be subjected to any force additional to that of the
+  sun's attraction,--say to the attraction of another planet. To fix the
+  ideas let us suppose that the additional attraction is only an impulse
+  received at the moment of passing the point P. The first effect will
+  evidently be to change either the velocity or the direction in which
+  the planet is moving at the moment, or both. If, with the changed
+  velocity we again compute the elements they will be different from the
+  former elements. But, if the impulse is not repeated, these new
+  elements will again remain invariable. If repeated, the second impulse
+  will again change the elements, and so on indefinitely. It follows
+  that, if we go on computing the elements a, b, c, d from the actual
+  values of x, y, x' and y', at each moment when the planet is subject
+  to the attraction of another body, they will no longer be invariable,
+  but will slowly vary from day to day and year to year. These ever
+  varying elements represent an ever varying elliptic orbit,--not an
+  orbit which the planet actually describes through its whole course,
+  but an ideal one in which it is moving at each instant, and which
+  continually adjusts itself to the actual motion of the planet at the
+  instant. This is called the _osculating_ orbit.
+
+  The essential principle of Lagrange's elegant method consists in
+  determining the variations of this osculating ellipse, the
+  co-ordinates and velocities of the planet being ignored in the
+  determination. This may be done because, since the elements and
+  co-ordinates completely determine each other, we may concentrate our
+  attention on either, ignoring the other. The reason for taking the
+  elements as the variables is that they vary very slowly, a property
+  which facilitates their determination, since the variations may be
+  treated as small quantities, of which the squares and products may be
+  neglected in a first solution. In a second solution the squares and
+  products may be taken account of, and so on as far as necessary.
+
+  If the problem is viewed from a synthetic point of view, the stages of
+  its solution are as follows. We first conceive of the planets as
+  moving in invariable elliptic orbits, and thus obtain approximate
+  expressions for their positions at any moment. With these expressions
+  we express their mutual action, or their pull upon each other at any
+  and every moment. This pull determines the variations of the ideal
+  elements. Knowing these variations it becomes possible to represent by
+  integration the value of the elements as algebraic expressions
+  containing the time, and the elements with which we started. But the
+  variations thus determined will not be rigorously exact, because the
+  pull from which they arise has been determined on the supposition that
+  the planets are moving in unvarying orbits, whereas the actual pull
+  depends on the actual position of the planets. Another approximation
+  is, therefore, to be made, when necessary, by correcting the
+  expression of the pull through taking account of the variations of the
+  elements already determined, which will give a yet nearer
+  approximation to the truth. In theory these successive approximations
+  may be carried as far as we please, but in practice the labour of
+  executing each approximation is so great that we are obliged to stop
+  when the solution is so near the truth that the outstanding error is
+  less than that of the best observations. Even this degree of precision
+  may be impracticable in the more complex cases.
+
+  The results which are required to compare with observations are not
+  merely the elements, but the co-ordinates. When the varying elements
+  are known these are computed by the equations (2) because, from the
+  nature of the algebraic relations, the slowly varying elements are
+  continuously determined by the equations (4), which express the same
+  relations between the elements and the variables as do the equations
+  (2) and (3). This method is, therefore, in form at least, completely
+  rigorous. There are some cases in which it may be applied unchanged.
+  But commonly it proves to be extremely long and cumbrous, and
+  modifications have to be resorted to. Of these modifications the most
+  valuable is one conceived by P.A. Hansen. A certain mean elliptic
+  orbit, as near as possible to the actual varying orbit of the planet,
+  is taken. In this orbit a certain fictitious planet is supposed to
+  move according to the law of elliptic motion. Comparing the longitudes
+  of the actual and the fictitious planet the former will sometimes be
+  ahead of the latter and sometimes behind it. But in every case, if at
+  a certain time t, the actual planet has a certain longitude, it is
+  certain that at a very short interval dt before or after t, the
+  fictitious planet will have this same longitude. What Hansen's method
+  does is to determine a correction dt such that, being applied to the
+  actual time t, the longitude of the fictitious planet computed for the
+  time t + dt, will give the longitude of the true planet at the time t.
+  By a number of ingenious devices Hansen developed methods by which dt
+  could be determined. The computations are, as a general rule, simpler,
+  and the algebraic expressions less complex, than when the computations
+  of the longitude itself are calculated. Although the longitude of the
+  fictitious planet at the fictitious time is then equal to that of the
+  true planet at the true time, their radii vectores will not be
+  strictly equal. Hansen, therefore, shows how the radius vector is
+  corrected so as to give that of the true planet.
+
+  In all that precedes we have considered only two variables as
+  determining the position of the planet, the latter being supposed to
+  move in a plane. Although this is true when there are any number of
+  bodies moving in the same plane, the fact is that the planets move in
+  slightly different planes. Hence the position of the plane of the
+  orbit of each planet is continually changing in consequence of their
+  mutual action. The problem of determining the changes is, however,
+  simpler than others in perturbations. The method is again that of the
+  variation of elements. The position and velocity being given in all
+  three co-ordinates, a certain osculating plane is determined for each
+  instant in which the planet is moving at that instant. This plane
+  remains invariable so long as no third body acts; when it does act the
+  position of the plane changes very slowly, continually rotating round
+  the radius vector of the planet as an instantaneous axis of rotation.
+
+  _Secular and Periodic Variations._--When, following the preceding
+  method, the variations of the elements are expressed in terms of the
+  time, they are found to be of two classes, _periodic_ and _secular_.
+  The first depend on the mean longitudes of the planets, and always
+  tend back to their original values when the planets return to their
+  original positions in their orbits. The others are, at least through
+  long periods of time, continually progressive.
+
+  A luminous idea of the nature of these two classes of variation may be
+  gained by conceiving of the motion of a ship, floating on an ocean
+  affected by a long ground swell. In consequence of the swell, the ship
+  is continually pitching in a somewhat irregular way, the oscillations
+  up and down being sometimes great and sometimes small. An observer on
+  board of her would notice no motion except this. But, suppose the tide
+  to be rising. Then, by continued observation, extended over an hour or
+  more, it will be found that, in the general average, the ship is
+  gradually rising, so that two different kinds of motion are
+  superimposed on each other. The effect of the rising tide is in the
+  nature of a secular variation, while the pitching is periodic.
+
+  But the analogy does not end here. If the progressive rise of the ship
+  be watched for six hours or more, it will be found gradually to cease
+  and reverse its direction. That is to say, making abstraction of the
+  pitching, the ship is slowly rising and falling in a total period of
+  nearly twelve hours, while superimposed upon this slow motion is a
+  more rapid motion due to the waves. It is thus with the motions of the
+  planets going through their revolutions. Each orbit continually
+  changes its form and position, sometimes in one direction and
+  sometimes in another. But when these changes are averaged through
+  years and centuries it is found that the average orbit has a secular
+  variation which, for a number of centuries, may appear as a very slow
+  progressive change in one direction only. But when this change is more
+  fully investigated, it is found to be really periodic, so that after
+  thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of thousands of years, its
+  direction will be reversed and so on continually, like the rising and
+  falling tide. The orbits thus present themselves to us in the words of
+  a distinguished writer as "Great clocks of eternity which beat ages as
+  ours beat seconds."
+
+  The periodic variations can be represented algebraically as the
+  resultant of a series of harmonic motions in the following way: Let L
+  be an angle which is increasing uniformly with the time, and let n be
+  its rate of increase. We put L0 for its value at the moment from which
+  the time is reckoned. The general expression for the angle will then
+  be
+
+    L = nt + L0.
+
+  Such an angle continually goes through the round of 360° in a definite
+  period. For example, if the daily motion is 5°, and we take the day as
+  the unit of time, the round will be completed in 72 days, and the
+  angle will continually go through the value which it had 72 days
+  before. Let us now consider an equation of the form
+
+    U = a sin (nt + L0).
+
+  The value of U will continually oscillate between the extreme values
+  +a and -a, going through a series of changes in the same period in
+  which the angle nt + L0 goes through a revolution. In this case the
+  variation will be simply periodic.
+
+  The value of any element of the planet's motion will generally be
+  represented by the sum of an infinite series of such periodic
+  quantities, having different periods. For example
+
+    U = a sin (nt + L0) + b sin (mt + L1) + c sin (kt + L2) &c.
+
+  In this case the motion of U, while still periodic, is seemingly
+  irregular, being much like that of a pitching ship, which has no one
+  unvarying period.
+
+  In the problems of celestial mechanics the angles within the
+  parentheses are represented by sums or differences of multiples of the
+  mean longitudes of the planets as they move round their orbits. If l
+  be the mean longitude of the planet whose motion we are considering,
+  and l' that of the attracting planet affecting it, the periodic
+  inequalities of the elements as well as of the co-ordinates of the
+  attracted planet, may be represented by an infinite series of terms
+  like the following:--
+
+    a sin (l' - l) + b sin (2l' - l) + c sin (l' - 2l) + &c.
+
+  Here the coefficients of l and l' may separately take all integral
+  values, though as a general rule the coefficients a, b, c, &c.
+  diminish rapidly when these coefficients become large, so that only
+  small values have to be considered.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+  The most interesting kind of periodic inequalities are those known as
+  "terms of long period." A general idea both of their nature and of
+  their cause will be gained by taking as a special case one celebrated
+  in the history of the subject--the great inequality between Jupiter
+  and Saturn. We begin by showing what the actual fact is in the case of
+  these two planets. Let fig. 3 represent the two orbits, the sun being
+  at C. We know that the period of Jupiter is nearly twelve years, and
+  that of Saturn a little less than thirty years. It will be seen that
+  these numbers are nearly in the ratio of 2 to 5. It follows that the
+  motions of the mean longitudes are nearly in the same proportion
+  reversed. The annual motion of Jupiter is nearly 30°, that of Saturn a
+  little more than 12°. Let us now consider the effect of this relation
+  upon the configurations and relations of the two planets. Let the line
+  CJ represent the common direction of the two planets from the sun when
+  they are in conjunction, and let us follow the motions until they
+  again come into conjunction. This will occur along a line CR1, making
+  an angle of nearly 240° with CJ. At this point Saturn will have moved
+  240° and Jupiter an entire revolution + 240°, making 600°. These two
+  motions, it will be seen, are in the proportion 5:2. The next
+  conjunction will take place along CS1, and the third after the initial
+  one will again take place near the original position JQ, Jupiter
+  having made five revolutions and Saturn two.
+
+  The result of these repetitions is that, during a number of
+  revolutions, the special mutual actions of the two planets at these
+  three points of their orbits repeat themselves, while the actions
+  corresponding to the three intermediate arcs are wanting. Thus it
+  happens that if the mutual actions are balanced through a period of a
+  few revolutions only there is a small residuum of forces corresponding
+  to the three regions in question, which repeats itself in the same
+  way, and which, if it continued indefinitely, would entirely change
+  the forms of the two orbits. But the actual mean motions deviate
+  slightly from the ratio 2:5, and we have next to show how this
+  deviation results in an ultimate balancing of the forces. The annual
+  mean motions, with the corresponding combinations, are as follows:--
+
+    Jupiter:--n  = 30°.349043
+     Saturn:--n' = 12°.221133
+             2n  = 60°.69809
+             5n' = 61°.10567
+       5n' - 2n  =  0°.40758
+
+  If we make a more accurate computation of the conjunctions from these
+  data, we shall find that, in the general mean, the consecutive
+  conjunctions take place when each planet has moved through an entire
+  number of revolutions + 242.7°. It follows that the third conjunction
+  instead of occurring exactly along the line CQ1 occurs along CQ2,
+  making an angle of nearly 8° with CQ1. The successive conjunctions
+  following will be along CR2, CS2, CQ3, &c., the law of progression
+  being obvious.
+
+  The balancing of the series of forces will not be complete until the
+  respective triplets of conjunctions have filled up the entire space
+  between them. This will occur when the angle whose annual motion is
+  5n' - 2n has gone through 360°. From the preceding value of 5n' - 2n
+  we see that this will require a little more than 883 years. The result
+  of the continued action of the two planets upon each other is that
+  during half of this period the motion of one planet is constantly
+  retarded and of the other constantly accelerated, while during the
+  other half the effects are reversed. There is thus in the case of each
+  planet an oscillation of the mean longitude which increases it and
+  then diminishes it to its original value at the end of the period of
+  883 years.
+
+  The longitudes, latitudes and radii vectores of a planet, being
+  algebraically expressed as the sum of an infinite periodic series of
+  the kind we have been describing, it follows that the problem of
+  finding their co-ordinates at any moment is solved by computing these
+  expressions. This is facilitated by the construction of tables by
+  means of which the co-ordinates can be computed at any time. Such
+  tables are used in the offices of the national Ephemerides to
+  construct ephemerides of the several planets, showing their exact
+  positions in the sky from day to day.
+
+  We pass now to the second branch of celestial mechanics viz. that in
+  which the planets are no longer considered as particles, but as
+  rotating bodies of which the dimensions are to be taken into account.
+  Such a body, in free space, not acted on by any force except the
+  attraction of its several parts, will go on rotating for ever in an
+  invariable direction. But, in consequence of the centrifugal force
+  generated by the rotation, it assumes a spheroidal form, the
+  equatorial regions bulging out. Such a form we all know to be that of
+  the earth and of the planets rotating on their axes. Let us study the
+  effect of this deviation from the spherical form upon the attraction
+  exercised by a distant body.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+  We begin with the special case of the earth as acted upon by the sun
+  and moon. Let fig. 4 represent a section of the earth through its axis
+  AB, ECQ being a diameter of the equator. Let the dotted lines show the
+  direction of the distant attracting body. The point E, being more
+  distant than C, will be attracted with less force, while Q will be
+  attracted with a greater force than will the centre C. Were the force
+  equal on every point of the earth it would have no influence on its
+  rotation, but would simply draw its whole mass toward the attracting
+  body. It is therefore only the _difference_ of the forces on different
+  parts of the earth that affects the rotation.
+
+  Let us, therefore, divide the attracting forces at each point into two
+  parts, one the average force, which we may call F, and which for our
+  purpose may be regarded as equal to the force acting at C; the others
+  the residual forces which we must superimpose upon the average force F
+  in order that the combination may be equal to the actual force. It is
+  clear that at Q this residual force as represented by the arrow will
+  be in the same direction as the actual force. But at E, since the
+  actual force is less than F, the residual force must tend to diminish
+  F, and must, therefore, act toward the right, as shown by the arrow.
+  These residual forces tend to make the whole earth turn round the
+  centre C in a clockwise direction. If nothing modified this tendency
+  the result would be to bring the points E and Q into the dotted lines
+  of the attraction. In other words the equator would be drawn into
+  coincidence with the ecliptic. Here, however, the same action comes
+  into play, which keeps a rotating top from falling over. (See
+  GYROSCOPE and MECHANICS.) For the same reason as in the case of the
+  gyroscope the actual motion of the earth's axis is at right angles to
+  the line joining the earth and the attracting centre, and without
+  going into the details of the mathematical processes involved, we may
+  say that the ultimate mean effect will be to cause the pole P of the
+  earth to move at right angles to the circle joining it to the pole of
+  the ecliptic. Were the position of the latter invariable, the
+  celestial pole would move round it in a circle. Actually the curve in
+  which it moves is nearly a circle; but the distance varies slightly
+  owing to the minute secular variation in the position of the ecliptic,
+  caused by the action of the planets. This motion of the celestial pole
+  results in a corresponding revolution of the equinox around the
+  celestial sphere. The rate of motion is slightly variable from century
+  to century owing to the secular motion of the plane of the ecliptic.
+  Its period, with the present rate of motion, would be about 26,000
+  years, but the actual period is slightly indeterminate from the cause
+  just mentioned.
+
+  The residual force just described is not limited to the case of an
+  ellipsoidal body. It will be seen that the reasoning applies to the
+  case of any one body or system of bodies, the dimensions of which are
+  not regarded as infinitely small compared with the distance of the
+  attracting body. In all such cases the residual forces virtually tend
+  to draw those portions of the body nearest the attracting centre
+  toward the latter, and those opposite the attracting centre away from
+  it. Thus we have a tide-producing force tending to deform the body,
+  the action of which is of the same nature as the force producing
+  precession. It is of interest to note that, very approximately, this
+  deforming force varies inversely as the cube of the distance of the
+  attracting body.
+
+  The action of the sun upon the satellites of the several planets and
+  the effects of this action are of the same general nature. For the
+  same reason that the residual forces virtually act in opposite
+  directions upon the nearer and more distant portions of a planet they
+  will virtually act in the case of a satellite. When the latter is
+  between its primary and the sun, the attraction of the latter tends to
+  draw the satellite away from the primary. When the satellite is in the
+  opposite direction from the sun, the same action tends to draw the
+  primary away from the satellite. In both cases, relative to the
+  primary, the action is the same. When the satellite is in quadrature
+  the convergence of the lines of attraction toward the centre of the
+  sun tends to bring the two bodies together. When the orbit of the
+  satellite is inclined to that of the primary planet round the sun, the
+  action brings about a change in the plane of the orbit represented by
+  a rotation round an axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit of
+  the primary. If we conceive a pole to each of these orbits, determined
+  by the points in which lines perpendicular to their planes intersect
+  the celestial sphere, the pole of the satellite orbit will revolve
+  around the pole of the planetary orbit precisely as the pole of the
+  earth does around the pole of the ecliptic, the inclination of the two
+  orbits remaining unchanged.
+
+  If a planet rotates on its axis so rapidly as to have a considerable
+  ellipticity, and if it has satellites revolving very near the plane of
+  the equator, the combined actions of the sun and of the equatorial
+  protuberances may be such that the whole system will rotate almost as
+  if the planes of revolution of the satellites were solidly fixed to
+  the plane of the equator. This is the case with the seven inner
+  satellites of Saturn. The orbits of these bodies have a large
+  inclination, nearly 27°, to the plane of the planet's orbit. The
+  action of the sun alone would completely throw them out of these
+  planes as each satellite orbit would rotate independently; but the
+  effect of the mutual action is to keep all of the planes in close
+  coincidence with the plane of the planet's equator.
+
+  _Literature._--The modern methods of celestial mechanics may be
+  considered to begin with Joseph Louis Lagrange, whose theory of the
+  variation of elements is developed in his _Mécanique analytique_. The
+  practical methods of computing perturbations of the planets and
+  satellites were first exhaustively developed by Pierre Simon Laplace
+  in his _Mécanique céleste_. The only attempt since the publication of
+  this great work to develop the various theories involved on a uniform
+  plan and mould them into a consistent whole is that of de Pontécoulant
+  in _Théorie analytique du systčme du monde_ (1829-46, Paris). An
+  approximation to such an attempt is that of F.F. Tisserand in his
+  _Traité de mécanique céleste_ (4 vols., Paris). This work contains a
+  clear and excellent résumé of the methods which have been devised by
+  the leading investigators from the time of Lagrange until the present,
+  and thus forms the most encyclopaedic treatise to which the student
+  can refer.
+
+  Works less comprehensive than this are necessarily confined to the
+  elements of the subject, to the development of fundamental principles
+  and general methods, or to details of special branches. An elementary
+  treatise on the subject is F.R. Moulton's _Introduction to Celestial
+  Mechanics_ (London, 1902). Other works with the same general object
+  are H.A. Resal, _Mécanique céleste_; and O.F. Dziobek, _Theorie der
+  Planetenbewegungen_. The most complete and systematic development of
+  the general principles of the subject, from the point of view of the
+  modern mathematician, is found in J.H. Poincaré, _Les Méthodes
+  nouvelles de la mécanique céleste_ (3 vols., Paris, 1899, 1892, 1893).
+  Of another work of Poincaré, _Leçons de mécanique céleste_, the first
+  volume appeared in 1905.
+
+
+_Practical Astronomy._
+
+Practical Astronomy, taken in its widest sense, treats of the
+instruments by which our knowledge of the heavenly bodies is acquired,
+the principles underlying their use, and the methods by which these
+principles are practically applied. Our knowledge of these bodies is of
+necessity derived through the medium of the light which they emit; and
+it is the development and applications of the laws of light which have
+made possible the additions to our stock of such knowledge since the
+middle of the 19th century.
+
+  At the base of every system of astronomical observation is the law
+  that, in the voids of space, a ray of light moves in a right line. The
+  fundamental problem of practical astronomy is that of determining by
+  measurement the co-ordinates of the heavenly bodies as already
+  defined. Of the three co-ordinates, the radius vector does not admit
+  of direct measurement, and must be inferred by a combination of
+  indirect measurements and physical theories. The other two
+  co-ordinates, which define the direction of a body, admit of direct
+  measurement on principles applied in the construction and use of
+  astronomical instruments.
+
+  In the first system of co-ordinates already described the fundamental
+  axis is the vertical line or direction of gravity at the point of
+  observation. This is not the direction of gravity proper, or of the
+  earth's attraction, but the resultant of this attraction combined with
+  the centrifugal force due to the earth's rotation on its axis. The
+  most obvious method of realizing this direction is by the plumb-line.
+  In our time, however, this appliance is replaced by either of two
+  others, which admit of much more precise application. These are the
+  basin of mercury and the spirit-level. The surface of a liquid at rest
+  is necessarily perpendicular to the direction of gravity, and
+  therefore horizontal. Considered as a curved surface, concentric with
+  the earth, a tangent plane to such a surface is the plane of the
+  horizon. The problem of measuring from an axis perpendicular to this
+  plane is solved on the principle that the incident and reflected rays
+  of light make equal angles with the perpendicular to a reflecting
+  surface. It follows that if PO (fig. 5) is the direction of a ray,
+  either from a heavenly body or from a terrestrial point, impinging at
+  O upon the surface of quicksilver, and reflected in the direction OR,
+  the vertical line is the bisector OZ, of the angle POR. If the point P
+  is so adjusted over the quicksilver that the ray is reflected back on
+  its own path, P and R lying on the same line above O, then we know
+  that the line PO is truly vertical. The zenith-distance of an object
+  is the angle which the ray of light from it makes with the vertical
+  direction thus defined.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  To show the principle involved in the spirit-level let MN (fig. 6) be
+  the tube of such a level, fixed to an axis OZ on which it may revolve.
+  If this axis is so adjusted that in the course of a revolution around
+  it the bubble of the level undergoes no change of position, we know
+  that the axis is truly vertical. Any slight deviation from verticality
+  is shown by the motion of the bubble during the revolution, which can
+  be measured and allowed for. The level may not be actually attached to
+  an axis, a revolution of 180° being effected round an imaginary
+  vertical axis by turning the level end for end. The motion of the
+  bubble then measures double the inclination of this imaginary axis, or
+  the deviation of a cylinder on which the level may rest from
+  horizontality.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The problem of determining the zenith distance of a celestial object
+  now reduces itself to that of measuring the angle between the
+  direction of the object and the direction of the vertical line
+  realized in one of these ways. This measurement is effected by a
+  combination of two instruments, the telescope and the graduated
+  circle. Let OF (fig. 7) be a section of the telescope, MN being its
+  object glass. Let the parallel dotted lines represent rays of light
+  emanating from the object to be observed, which, for our purpose, we
+  regard as infinitely distant, a star for example. These rays come to a
+  focus at a point F lying in the focal plane of the telescope. In this
+  plane are a pair of cross threads or spider lines which, as the
+  observer looks into the telescope, are seen as AB and CD (fig. 8). If
+  the telescope is so pointed that the image of the star is seen in
+  coincidence with the cross threads, as represented in fig. 8, then we
+  know that the star is exactly in the line of sight of the telescope,
+  defined as the line joining the centre of the object glass, and the
+  point of intersection of the cross threads. If the telescope is moved
+  around so that the images of two distant points are successively
+  brought into coincidence with the cross threads, we know that the
+  angle between the directions of these points is equal to that through
+  which the telescope has been turned. This angle is measured by means
+  of a graduated circle, rigidly attached to the tube of the telescope
+  in a plane parallel to the line of sight. When the telescope is turned
+  in this plane, the angular motion of the line of sight is equal to
+  that through which the circle has turned.
+
+  Stripped of all unnecessary adjuncts, and reduced to a geometric form,
+  the ideal method by which the zenith distance of a heavenly body is
+  determined by the combination which we have described is as
+  follows:--Let OP (fig. 9) be the direction of a celestial body at
+  which a telescope, supplied with a graduating circle, is pointed. Let
+  OZ be an axis, as nearly vertical as it can easily be set, round which
+  the entire instrument may revolve through 180°. After the image of
+  the body is brought into coincidence with the cross threads, the
+  instrument is turned through 180° on the axis, which results in the
+  line of sight of the telescope pointing in a certain direction OQ,
+  determined by the condition QOZ = ZOP. The telescope is then a second
+  time pointed at the object by being moved through the angle QOP.
+  Either of the angles QOZ and ZOP is then one half that through which
+  the telescope has been turned, which may be measured by a graduated
+  circle, and which is the zenith distance of the object measured from
+  the direction of the axis OZ. This axis may not be exactly vertical.
+  Its deviation from the vertical line is determined by the motion of
+  the bubble of a spirit-level rigidly attached either to the axis, or
+  to the telescope. Applying this deviation to the measured arc, the
+  true zenith distance of the body is found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  When the basin of quicksilver is used, the telescope, either before or
+  after being directed toward P, is pointed directly downwards, so that
+  the observer mounting above it looks through it into the reflecting
+  surface. He then adjusts the instrument so that the cross threads
+  coincide with their images reflected from the surface of the
+  quicksilver. The angular motion of the telescope in passing from this
+  position to that when the celestial object is in the line of sight is
+  the distance (ND) of the body from the nadir. Subtracting 90° from
+  (ND) gives the altitude; and subtracting (ND) from 180° gives the
+  zenith distance.
+
+  In the measurement of equatorial co-ordinates, the polar distance is
+  determined in an analogous way. We determine the apparent position of
+  an object near the pole on the celestial sphere at any moment, and
+  again at another moment, twelve hours later, when, by the diurnal
+  motion, it has made half a revolution. The angle through the celestial
+  pole, between these two positions, is double the polar distance. The
+  pole is the point midway between them. This being ascertained by one
+  or more stars near it, may be used to determine by direct measurements
+  the polar distances of other bodies.
+
+  The preceding methods apply mainly to the latitudinal co-ordinate. To
+  measure the difference between the longitudinal co-ordinates of two
+  objects by means of a graduated circle the instruments must turn on an
+  axis parallel to the principal axis of the system of co-ordinates, and
+  the plane of the graduated circle must be at right angles to that
+  axis, and, therefore, parallel to the principal co-ordinate plane. The
+  telescope, in order that it may be pointed in any direction, must
+  admit of two motions, one round the principal axis, and the other
+  round an axis at right angles to it. By these two motions the
+  instrument may be pointed first at one of the objects and then at the
+  other. The motion of the graduated circle in passing from one pointing
+  to the other is the measure of the difference between the longitudinal
+  co-ordinates of the two objects.
+
+  In the equatorial system this co-ordinate (the right ascension) is
+  measured in a different way, by making the rotating earth perform the
+  function of a graduated circle. The unceasing diurnal motion of the
+  image of any heavenly body relative to the cross threads of a
+  telescope makes a direct accurate measure of any co-ordinate except
+  the declination almost impossible. Before the position of a star can
+  be noted, it has passed away from the cross threads. This troublesome
+  result is utilized and made a means of measurement. Right ascensions
+  are now determined, not by measuring the angle between one star and
+  another, but, by noting the time between the transits of successive
+  stars over the meridian. The difference between these times, when
+  reduced to an angle, is the difference of the right ascensions of the
+  stars. The principle is the same as that by which the distance between
+  two stations may be determined by the time required for a train moving
+  at a uniform known speed to pass from one station to the other. The
+  uniform speed of the diurnal motion is 15° per hour. We have already
+  mentioned that in astronomical practice right ascensions are expressed
+  in time, so that no multiplication by 15 is necessary.
+
+  Measures made on the various systems which we have described give the
+  apparent direction of a celestial object as seen by the observer. But
+  this is not the true direction, because the ray of light from the
+  object undergoes refraction in passing through the atmosphere. It is
+  therefore necessary to correct the observation for this effect. This
+  is one of the most troublesome problems in astronomy because, owing to
+  the ever varying density of the atmosphere, arising from differences
+  of temperature, and owing to the impossibility of determining the
+  temperature with entire precision at any other point than that
+  occupied by the observer, the amount of refraction must always be more
+  or less uncertain. The complexity of the problem will be seen by
+  reflecting that the temperature of the air inside the telescope is not
+  without its effect. This temperature may be and commonly is somewhat
+  different from that of the observing room, which, again, is commonly
+  higher than the temperature of the air outside. The uncertainty thus
+  arising in the amount of the refraction is least near the zenith, but
+  increases more and more as the horizon is approached.
+
+  The result of astronomical observations which is ordinarily wanted is
+  not the direction of an object from the observer, but from the centre
+  of the earth. Thus a reduction for parallax is required. Having
+  effected this reduction, and computed the correction to be applied to
+  the observation in order to eliminate all known errors to which the
+  instrument is liable, the work of the practical astronomer is
+  completed.
+
+  The instruments used in astronomical research are described under
+  their several names. The following are those most used in
+  astrometry:--
+
+  The equatorial telescope (q.v.) is an instrument which can be directed
+  to any point in the sky, and which derives its appellation from its
+  being mounted on an axis parallel to that of the earth. By revolving
+  on this axis it follows a star in its diurnal motion, so that the star
+  is kept in the field of view notwithstanding that motion.
+
+  Next in extent of use are the transit instrument and the meridian
+  circle, which are commonly united in a single instrument, the transit
+  circle (q.v.), known also as the meridian circle. This instrument
+  moves only in the plane of the meridian on a horizontal east and west
+  axis, and is used to determine the right ascensions and declinations
+  of stars. These two instruments or combinations are a necessary part
+  of the outfit of every important observatory. An adjunct of prime
+  importance, which is necessary to their use, is an accurate clock,
+  beating seconds.
+
+  _Use of Photography._--Before the development of photography, there
+  was no possible way of making observations upon the heavenly bodies
+  except by the eye. Since the middle of the 19th century the system of
+  photographing the heavenly bodies has been introduced, step by step,
+  so that it bids fair to supersede eye observations in many of the
+  determinations of astronomy. (See PHOTOGRAPHY: _Celestial_.)
+
+  The field of practical astronomy includes an extension which may be
+  regarded as making astronomical science in a certain sense universal.
+  The science is concerned with the heavenly bodies. The earth on which
+  we live is, to all intents and purposes, one of these bodies, and, so
+  far as its relations to the heavens are concerned, must be included in
+  astronomy. The processes of measuring great portions of the earth, and
+  of determining geographical positions, require both astronomical
+  observations proper, and determinations made with instruments similar
+  to those of astronomy. Hence geodesy may be regarded as a branch of
+  practical astronomy.     (S. N.)
+
+
+_History of Astronomy._
+
+  Origin of the science.
+
+A practical acquaintance with the elements of astronomy is indispensable
+to the conduct of human life. Hence it is most widely diffused among
+uncivilized peoples, whose existence depends upon immediate and
+unvarying submission to the dictates of external nature. Having no
+clocks, they regard instead the face of the sky; the stars serve them
+for almanacs; they hunt and fish, they sow and reap in correspondence
+with the recurrent order of celestial appearances. But these, to the
+untutored imagination, present a mystical, as well as a mechanical
+aspect; and barbaric familiarity with the heavens developed at an early
+age, through the promptings of superstition, into a fixed system of
+observation. In China, Egypt and Babylonia, strength and continuity were
+lent to this native tendency by the influence of a centralized
+authority; considerable proficiency was attained in the arts of
+observation; and from millennial stores of accumulated data, empirical
+rules were deduced by which the scope of prediction was widened and its
+accuracy enhanced. But no genuine science of astronomy was founded until
+the Greeks sublimed experience into theory.
+
+
+  Chinese astronomy.
+
+Already, in the third millennium B.C., equinoxes and solstices were
+determined in China by means of culminating stars. This is known from
+the orders promulgated by the emperor Yao about 2300 B.C., as recorded
+in the _Shu Chung_, a collection of documents antique in the time of
+Confucius (550-478 B.C.). And Yao was merely the renovator of a system
+long previously established. The _Shu Chung_ further relates the tragic
+fate of the official astronomers, Hsi and Ho, put to death for
+neglecting to perform the rites customary during an eclipse of the sun,
+identified by Professor S.E. Russell[1] with a partial obscuration
+visible in northern China 2136 B.C. The date cannot be far wrong, and it
+is by far the earliest assignable to an event of the kind. There is,
+however, no certainty that the Chinese were then capable of predicting
+eclipses. They were, on the other hand, probably acquainted, a couple
+of millenniums before Meton gave it his name, with the nineteen-year
+cycle, by which solar and lunar years were harmonized;[2] they
+immemorially made observations in the meridian; regulated time by
+water-clocks, and used measuring instruments of the nature of armillary
+spheres and quadrants. In or near 1100 B.C., Chou Kung, an able
+mathematician, determined with surprising accuracy the obliquity of the
+ecliptic; but his attempts to estimate the sun's distance failed
+hopelessly as being grounded on belief in the flatness of the earth.
+From of old, in China, circles were divided into 365ź parts, so that the
+sun described daily one Chinese degree; and the equator began to be
+employed as a line of reference, concurrently with the ecliptic,
+probably in the second century B.C. Both circles, too, were marked by
+star-groups more or less clearly designated and defined. Cometary
+records of a vague kind go back in China to 2296 B.C.; they are
+intelligible and trustworthy from 611 B.C. onward. Two instruments
+constructed at the time of Kublai Khan's accession in 1280 were still
+extant at Peking in 1881. They were provided with large graduated
+circles adapted for measurements of declination and right ascension, and
+prove the Chinese to have anticipated by at least three centuries some
+of Tycho Brahe's most important inventions.[3] The native astronomy was
+finally superseded in the 17th century by the scientific teachings of
+Jesuit missionaries from Europe.
+
+
+  Egyptian astronomy.
+
+Astrolatry was, in Egypt, the prelude to astronomy. The stars were
+observed that they might be duly worshipped. The importance of their
+heliacal risings, or first visible appearances at dawn, for the purposes
+both of practical life and of ritual observance, caused them to be
+systematically noted; the length of the year was accurately fixed in
+connexion with the annually recurring Nile-flood; while the curiously
+precise orientation of the Pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of
+the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in
+the third millennium B.C. The constellational system in vogue among the
+Egyptians appears to have been essentially of native origin; but they
+contributed little or nothing to the genuine progress of astronomy.
+
+
+  Babylonian astronomy.
+
+With the Babylonians the case was different, although their science
+lacked the vital principle of growth imparted to it by their successors.
+From them the Greeks derived their first notions of astronomy. They
+copied the Babylonian asterisms, appropriated Babylonian knowledge of
+the planets and their courses, and learned to predict eclipses by means
+of the "Saros." This is a cycle of 18 years 11 days, or 223 lunations,
+discovered at an unknown epoch in Chaldaea, at the end of which the moon
+very nearly returns to her original position with regard as well to the
+sun as to her own nodes and perigee. There is no getting back to the
+beginning of astronomy by the shores of the Euphrates. Records dating
+from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.) imply that even then the
+varying aspects of the sky had been long under expert observation. Thus
+early, there is reason to suppose, the star-groups with which we are now
+familiar began to be formed. They took shape most likely, not through
+one stroke of invention, but incidentally, as legends developed and
+astrological persuasions became defined.[4] The zodiacal series in
+particular seem to have been reformed and reconstructed at wide
+intervals of time (see ZODIAC). Virgo, for example, is referred by P.
+Jensen, on the ground of its harvesting associations, to the fourth
+millennium B.C., while Aries (according to F.K. Ginzel) was interpolated
+at a comparatively recent time. In the main, however, the constellations
+transmitted to the West from Babylonia by Aratus and Eudoxus must have
+been arranged very much in their present order about 2800 B.C. E.W.
+Maunder's argument to this effect is unanswerable.[5] For the space of
+the southern sky left blank of stellar emblazonments was necessarily
+centred on the pole; and since the pole shifts among the stars through
+the effects of precession by a known annual amount, the ascertainment of
+any former place for it virtually fixes the epoch. It may then be taken
+as certain that the heavens described by Aratus in 270 B.C. represented
+approximately observations made some 2500 years earlier in or near north
+latitude 40°.
+
+In the course of ages, Babylonian astronomy, purified from the
+astrological taint, adapted itself to meet the most refined needs of
+civil life. The decipherment and interpretation by the learned Jesuits,
+Fathers Epping and Strassmeier, of a number of clay tablets preserved in
+the British Museum, have supplied detailed knowledge of the methods
+practised in Mesopotamia in the 2nd century B.C.[6] They show no trace
+of Greek influence, and were doubtless the improved outcome of an
+unbroken tradition. How protracted it had been, can be in a measure
+estimated from the length of the revolutionary cycles found for the
+planets. The Babylonian computers were not only aware that Venus returns
+in almost exactly eight years to a given starting-point in the sky, but
+they had established similar periodic relations in 46, 59, 70 and 83
+years severally for Mercury, Saturn, Mars and Jupiter. They were
+accordingly able to fix in advance the approximate positions of these
+objects with reference to ecliptical stars which served as fiducial
+points for their determination. In the Ephemerides published year by
+year, the times of new moon were given, together with the calculated
+intervals to the first visibility of the crescent, from which the
+beginning of each month was reckoned; the dates and circumstances of
+solar and lunar eclipses were predicted; and due information was
+supplied as to the forthcoming heliacal risings and settings,
+conjunctions and oppositions of the planets. The Babylonians knew of the
+inequality in the daily motion of the sun, but misplaced by 10° the
+perigee of his orbit. Their sidereal year was 4˝^m too long,[7] and they
+kept the ecliptic stationary among the stars, making no allowance for
+the shifting of the equinoxes. The striking discovery, on the other
+hand, has been made by the Rev. F.X. Kugler[8] that the various periods
+underlying their lunar predictions were identical with those heretofore
+believed to have been independently arrived at by Hipparchus, who
+accordingly must be held to have borrowed from Chaldaea the lengths of
+the synodic, sidereal, anomalistic and draconitic months.
+
+
+  Greek astronomy. Thales.
+
+  Pythagoras.
+
+  Heraclides.
+
+A steady flow of knowledge from East to West began in the 7th century
+B.C. A Babylonian sage named Berossus founded a school about 640 B.C. in
+the island of Cos, and perhaps counted Thales of Miletus (c. 639-548)
+among his pupils. The famous "eclipse of Thales" in 585 B.C. has not, it
+is true, been authenticated by modern research;[9] yet the story told by
+Herodotus appears to intimate that a knowledge of the Saros, and of the
+forecasting facilities connected with it, was possessed by the Ionian
+sage. Pythagoras of Samos (fl. 540-510 B.C.) learned on his travels in
+Egypt and the East to identify the morning and evening stars, to
+recognize the obliquity of the ecliptic, and to regard the earth as a
+sphere freely poised in space. The tenet of its axial movement was held
+by many of his followers--in an obscure form by Philolaus of Crotona
+after the middle of the 5th century B.C., and more explicitly by
+Ecphantus and Hicetas of Syracuse (4th century B.C.), and by Heraclides
+of Pontus. Heraclides, who became a disciple of Plato in 360 B.C.,
+taught in addition that the sun, while circulating round the earth, was
+the centre of revolution to Venus and Mercury.[10] A genuine
+heliocentric system, developed by Aristarchus of Samos (fl. 280-264
+B.C.), was described by Archimedes in his _Arenarius_, only to be set
+aside with disapproval. The long-lived conception of a series of
+crystal spheres, acting as the vehicles of the heavenly bodies, and
+attuned to divine harmonies, seems to have originated with Pythagoras
+himself.
+
+
+  Eudoxus.
+
+The first mathematical theory of celestial appearances was devised by
+Eudoxus of Cnidus (408-355 B.C.).[11] The problem he attempted to solve
+was so to combine uniform circular movements as to produce the resultant
+effects actually observed. The sun and moon and the five planets were,
+with this end in view, accommodated each with a set of variously
+revolving spheres, to the total number of 27. The Eudoxian or
+"homocentric" system, after it had been further elaborated by Callippus
+and Aristotle, was modified by Apollonius of Perga (fl. 250-220 B.C.)
+into the hypothesis of deferents and epicycles, which held the field for
+1800 years as the characteristic embodiment of Greek ideas in astronomy.
+Eudoxus further wrote two works descriptive of the heavens, the
+_Enoptron_ and _Phaenomena_, which, substantially preserved in the
+_Phaenomena_ of Aratus (fl. 270 B.C.), provided all the leading features
+of modern stellar nomenclature.
+
+
+  School of Alexandria.
+
+  Aristarchus.
+
+Greek astronomy culminated in the school of Alexandria. It was, soon
+after its foundation, illustrated by the labours of Aristyllus and
+Timocharis (c. 320-260 B.C.), who constructed the first catalogue giving
+star-positions as measured from a reference-point in the sky. This
+fundamental advance rendered inevitable the detection of precessional
+effects. Aristarchus of Samos observed at Alexandria 280-264 B.C. His
+treatise on the magnitudes and distances of the sun and moon, edited by
+John Wallis in 1688, describes a theoretically valid method for
+determining the relative distances of the sun and moon by measuring the
+angle between their centres when half the lunar disk is illuminated; but
+the time of dichotomy being widely indeterminate, no useful result was
+thus obtainable. Aristarchus in fact concluded the sun to be not more
+than twenty times, while it is really four hundred times farther off
+than our satellite. His general conception of the universe was
+comprehensive beyond that of any of his predecessors.
+
+
+  Eratosthenes.
+
+Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.), a native of Cyrene, was summoned from
+Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euergetes to take charge of the royal
+library. He invented, or improved armillary spheres, the chief
+implements of ancient astrometry, determined the obliquity of the
+ecliptic at 23° 51' (a value 5' too great), and introduced an effective
+mode of arc-measurement. Knowing Alexandria and Syene to be situated
+5000 stadia apart on the same meridian, he found the sun to be 7° 12'
+south of the zenith at the northern extremity of this arc when it was
+vertically overhead at the southern extremity, and he hence inferred a
+value of 252,000 stadia for the entire circumference of the globe. This
+is a very close approximation to the truth, if the length of the unit
+employed has been correctly assigned.[12]
+
+
+  Hipparchus
+
+Among the astronomers of antiquity, two great men stand out with
+unchallenged pre-eminence. Hipparchus and Ptolemy entertained the same
+large organic designs; they worked on similar methods; and, as the
+outcome, their performances fitted so accurately together that between
+them they re-made celestial science. Hipparchus fixed the chief data of
+astronomy--the lengths of the tropical and sidereal years, of the
+various months, and of the synodic periods of the five planets;
+determined the obliquity of the ecliptic and of the moon's path, the
+place of the sun's apogee, the eccentricity of his orbit, and the moon's
+horizontal parallax; all with approximate accuracy. His loans from
+Chaldaean experts appear, indeed, to have been numerous; but were
+doubtless independently verified. His supreme merit, however, consisted
+in the establishment of astronomy on a sound geometrical basis. His
+acquaintance with trigonometry, a branch of science initiated by him,
+together with his invention of the planisphere, enabled him to solve a
+number of elementary problems; and he was thus led to bestow especial
+attention upon the position of the equinox, as being the common point of
+origin for measures both in right ascension and longitude. Its steady
+retrogression among the stars became manifest to him in 130 B.C., on
+comparing his own observations with those made by Timocharis a century
+and a half earlier; and he estimated at not less than 36" (the true
+value being 50") the annual amount of "precession."
+
+The choice made by Hipparchus of the geocentric theory of the universe
+decided the future of Greek astronomy. He further elaborated it by the
+introduction of "eccentrics," which accounted for the changes in orbital
+velocity of the sun and moon by a displacement of the earth, to a
+corresponding extent, from the centre of the circles they were assumed
+to describe. This gave the elliptic inequality known as the "equation of
+the centre," and no other was at that time obvious. He attempted no
+detailed discussion of planetary theory; but his catalogue of 1080
+stars, divided into six classes of brightness, or "magnitudes," is one
+of the finest monuments of antique astronomy. It is substantially
+embodied in Ptolemy's _Almagest_ (see PTOLEMY).
+
+
+  Ptolemy.
+
+An interval of 250 years elapsed before the constructive labours of
+Hipparchus obtained completion at Alexandria. His observations were
+largely, and somewhat arbitrarily, employed by Ptolemy. Professor
+Newcomb, who has compiled an instructive table of the equinoxes
+severally observed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy, with their errors deduced
+from Leverrier's solar tables, finds palpable evidence that the
+discrepancies between the two series were artificially reconciled on the
+basis of a year 6^m too long, adopted by Ptolemy on trust from his
+predecessor. He nevertheless holds the process to have been one that
+implied no fraudulent intention.
+
+
+  Arab astronomers.
+
+The Ptolemaic system was, in a geometrical sense, defensible; it
+harmonized fairly well with appearances, and physical reasonings had not
+then been extended to the heavens. To the ignorant it was recommended by
+its conformity to crude common sense; to the learned, by the wealth of
+ingenuity expended in bringing it to perfection. The _Almagest_ was the
+consummation of Greek astronomy. Ptolemy had no successor; he found only
+commentators, among the more noteworthy of whom were Theon of Alexandria
+(fl. A.D. 400) and his daughter Hypatia (370-415). With the capture of
+Alexandria by Omar in 641, the last glimmer of its scientific light
+became extinct, to be rekindled, a century and a half later, on the
+banks of the Tigris. The first Arabic translation of the _Almagest_ was
+made by order of Harun al-Rashid about the year 800; others followed,
+and the Caliph al-Mamun built in 829 a grand observatory at Bagdad. Here
+Albumazar (805-885) watched the skies and cast horoscopes; here Tobit
+ben Korra (836-901) developed his long unquestioned, yet misleading
+theory of the "trepidation" of the equinoxes; Abd-ar-rahman al-Suf
+(903-986) revised at first hand the catalogue of Ptolemy;[13] and
+Abulwefa (939-998), like al-Sufi, a native of Persia, made continuous
+planetary observations, but did not (as alleged by L. Sédillot)
+anticipate Tycho Brahe's discovery of the moon's variation. Ibn Junis
+(c. 950-1008), although the scene of his activity was in Egypt, falls
+into line with the astronomers of Bagdad. He compiled the Hakimite
+Tables of the planets, and observed at Cairo, in 977 and 978, two solar
+eclipses which, as being the first recorded with scientific
+accuracy,[14] were made available in fixing the amount of lunar
+acceleration. Nasir ud-din (1201-1274) drew up the Ilkhanic Tables, and
+determined the constant of precession at 51". He directed an observatory
+established by Hulagu Khan (d. 1265) at Maraga in Persia, and equipped
+with a mural quadrant of 12 ft. radius, besides altitude and azimuth
+instruments. Ulugh Beg (1394-1449), a grandson of Tamerlane, was the
+illustrious personification of Tatar astronomy. He founded about 1420 a
+splendid observatory at Samarkand, in which he re-determined nearly all
+Ptolemy's stars, while the Tables published by him held the primacy for
+two centuries.[15]
+
+
+  Moorish Astronomy.
+
+  European Astronomy.
+
+  Purbach.
+
+  Walther.
+
+Arab astronomy, transported by the Moors to Spain, flourished
+temporarily at Cordova and Toledo. From the latter city the Toletan
+Tables, drawn up by Arzachel in 1080, took their name; and there also
+the Alfonsine Tables, published in 1252, were prepared under the
+authority of Alphonso X. of Castile. Their appearance signalized the
+dawn of European science, and was nearly coincident with that of the
+_Sphaera Mundi_, a text-book of spherical astronomy, written by a
+Yorkshireman, John Holywood, known as Sacro Bosco (d. 1256). It had an
+immense vogue, perpetuated by the printing-press in fifty-nine editions.
+In Germany, during the 15th century, a brilliant attempt was made to
+patch up the flaws in Ptolemaic doctrine. George Purbach (1423-1461)
+introduced into Europe the method of determining time by altitudes
+employed by Ibn Junis. He lectured with applause at Vienna from 1450;
+was joined there in 1452 by Regiomontanus (q.v.); and was on the point
+of starting for Rome to inspect a manuscript of the _Almagest_ when he
+died suddenly at the age of thirty-eight. His teachings bore fruit in
+the work of Regiomontanus, and of Bernhard Walther of Nuremberg
+(1430-1504), who fitted up an observatory with clocks driven by weights,
+and developed many improvements in practical astronomy.
+
+
+  Copernicus.
+
+Meantime, a radical reform was being prepared in Italy. Under the
+searchlights of the new learning, the dictatorship of Ptolemy appeared
+no more inevitable than that of Aristotle; advanced thinkers like
+Domenico Maria Novara (1454-1504) promulgated _sub rosa_ what were
+called Pythagorean opinions; and they were eagerly and fully
+appropriated by Nicolaus Copernicus during his student-years (1496-1505)
+at Bologna and Padua. He laid the groundwork of his heliocentric theory
+between 1506 and 1512, and brought it to completion in _De
+Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium_ (1543). The colossal task of remaking
+astronomy on an inverted design was, in this treatise, virtually
+accomplished. Its reasonings were solidly founded on the principle of
+the relativity of motion. A continuous shifting of the standpoint was in
+large measure substituted for the displacements of the objects viewed,
+which thus acquired a regularity and consistency heretofore lacking to
+them. In the new system, the sphere of the fixed stars no longer
+revolved diurnally, the earth rotating instead on an axis directed
+towards the celestial pole. The sun too remained stationary, while the
+planets, including our own globe, circulated round him. By this means,
+the planetary "retrogradations" were explained as simple perspective
+effects due to the combination of the earth's revolutions with those of
+her sister orbs. The retention, however, by Copernicus of the antique
+postulate of uniform circular motion impaired the perfection of his
+plan, since it involved a partial survival of the epicyclical machinery.
+Nor was it feasible, on this showing, to place the sun at the true
+centre of any of the planetary orbits; so that his ruling position in
+the midst of them was illusory. The reformed scheme was then by no means
+perfect. Its simplicity was only comparative; many outstanding anomalies
+compromised its harmonious working. Moreover, the absence of sensible
+parallaxes in the stellar heavens seemed inconsistent with its validity;
+and a mobile earth outraged deep-rooted prepossessions. Under these
+disadvantageous circumstances, it is scarcely surprising that the
+heliocentric theory, while admired as a daring speculation, won its way
+slowly to acceptance as a truth.
+
+
+  Observatory of Cassel.
+
+The _Tabulae Prutenicae_, calculated on Copernican principles by Erasmus
+Reinhold (1511-1553), appeared in 1551. Although they represented
+celestial movements far better than the Alfonsine Tables, large
+discrepancies were still apparent, and the desirability of testing the
+novel hypothesis upon which they were based by more refined observations
+prompted a reform of methods, undertaken almost simultaneously by the
+landgrave William IV. of Hesse-Cassel (1532-1592), and by Tycho Brahe.
+The landgrave built at Cassel in 1561 the first observatory with a
+revolving dome, and worked for some years at a star-catalogue finally
+left incomplete. Christoph Rothmann and Joost Bürgi (1552-1632) became
+his assistants in 1577 and 1579 respectively; and through the skill of
+Bürgi, time-determinations were made available for measuring right
+ascensions. At Cassel, too, the altitude and azimuth instrument is
+believed to have made its first appearance in Europe.[16]
+
+
+  Tycho Brahe.
+
+Tycho's labours were both more strenuous and more effective. He
+perfected the art of pre-telescopic observation. His instruments were on
+a scale and of a type unknown since the days of Nasir ud-din. At
+Augsburg, in 1569, he ordered the construction of a 19-ft. quadrant, and
+of a celestial globe 5 ft. in diameter; he substituted equatorial for
+zodiacal armillae, thus definitively establishing the system of
+measurements in right ascension and declination; and improved the
+graduation of circular arcs by adopting the method of "transversals." By
+these means, employed with consummate skill, he attained an
+unprecedented degree of accuracy, and as an incidental though valuable
+result, demonstrated the unreality of the supposed trepidation of the
+equinoxes.
+
+
+  Kepler.
+
+No more congruous arrangement could have been devised than the
+inheritance by Johann Kepler of the wealth of materials amassed by Tycho
+Brahe. The younger man's genius supplied what was wanting to his
+predecessor. Tycho's endowments were of the practical order; yet he had
+never designed his observations to be an end in themselves. He thought
+of them as means towards the end of ascertaining the true form of the
+universe. His range of ideas was, however, restricted; and the attempt
+embodied in his ground-plan of the solar system to revive the ephemeral
+theory of Heraclides failed to influence the development of thought.
+Kepler, on the contrary, was endowed with unlimited powers of
+speculation, but had no mechanical faculty. He found in Tycho's ample
+legacy of first-class data precisely what enabled him to try, by the
+touchstone of fact, the successive hypotheses that he imagined; and his
+untiring patience in comparing and calculating the observations at his
+disposal was rewarded by a series of unique discoveries. He long adhered
+to the traditional belief that all celestial revolutions must be
+performed equably in circles; but a laborious computation of seven
+recorded oppositions of Mars at last persuaded him that the planet
+travelled in an ellipse, one focus of which was occupied by the sun.
+Pursuing the inquiry, he found that its velocity was uniform with
+respect to no single point within the orbit, but that the areas
+described, in equal times, by a line drawn from the sun to the planet
+were strictly equal. These two principles he extended, by direct proof,
+to the motion of the earth; and, by analogy, to that of the other
+planets. They were published in 1609 in _De Motibus Stellae Martis_. The
+announcement of the third of "Kepler's Laws" was made ten years later,
+in _De Harmonice Mundi_. It states that the squares of the periods of
+circulation round the sun of the several planets are in the same ratio
+as the cubes of their mean distances. This numerical proportion, as
+being a necessary consequence of the law of gravitation, must prevail in
+every system under its sway. It does in fact prevail among the
+satellite-families of our acquaintance, and presumably in stellar
+combinations as well. Kepler's ineradicable belief in the existence of
+some such congruity was derived from the Pythagorean idea of an
+underlying harmony in nature; but his arduous efforts for its
+realization took a devious and fantastic course which seemed to give
+little promise of their surprising ultimate success. The outcome of his
+discoveries was, not only to perfect the geometrical plan of the solar
+system, but to enhance very materially the predicting power of
+astronomy. The Rudolphine Tables (Ulm, 1627), computed by him from
+elliptic elements, retained authority for a century, and have in
+principle never been superseded. He was deterred from research into the
+orbital relations of comets, by his conviction of their perishable
+nature. He supposed their tails to result from the action of solar rays,
+which, in traversing their mass, bore off with them some of their
+subtler particles to form trains directed away from the sun. And through
+the process of waste thus set on foot, they finally dissolved into the
+aether, and expired "like spinning insects." (_De Cometis; Opera_, ed.
+Frisch, t. vii. p. 110.) This remarkable anticipation of the modern
+theory of light-pressure was suggested to him by his observations of the
+great comets of 1618.
+
+The formal astronomy of the ancients left Kepler unsatisfied. He aimed
+at finding out the cause as well as the mode of the planetary
+revolutions; and his demonstration that the planes in which they are
+described all pass through the sun was an important preliminary to a
+physical explanation of them. But his efforts to supply such an
+explanation were rendered futile by his imperfect apprehension of what
+motion is in itself. He had, it is true, a distinct conception of a
+force analogous to that of gravity, by which cognate bodies tended
+towards union. Misled, however, into identifying it with magnetism, he
+imagined circulation in the solar system to be maintained through the
+material compulsion of fibrous emanations from the sun, carried round by
+his axial rotation. Ignorance regarding the inertia of matter drove him
+to this expedient. The persistence of movement seemed to him to imply
+the persistence of a moving power. He did not recognize that motion and
+rest are equally natural, in the sense of requiring force for their
+alteration. Yet his rationale of the tides in _De Motibus Stellae_ is
+not only memorable as an astonishing forecast of the principle of
+reciprocal attraction in the proportion of mass, but for its bold
+extension to the earth of the lunar sphere of influence.
+
+Galileo Galilei, Kepler's most eminent contemporary, took a foremost
+part in dissipating the obscurity that still hung over the very
+foundations of mechanical science. He had, indeed, precursors and
+co-operators. Michel Varo of Geneva wrote correctly in 1584 on the
+composition of forces; Simon Stevin of Bruges (1548-1620) independently
+demonstrated the principle; and G.B. Benedetti expounded in his
+_Speculationum Liber_ (Turin, 1585) perfectly clear ideas as to the
+nature of accelerated motion, some years in advance of Galileo's
+dramatic experiments at Pisa. Yet they were never assimilated by Kepler;
+while, on the other hand, the laws of planetary circulation he had
+enounced were strangely ignored by Galileo. The two lines of inquiry
+remained for some time apart. Had they at once been made to coalesce,
+the true nature of the force controlling celestial movements should have
+been quickly recognized. As it was, the importance of Kepler's
+generalizations was not fully appreciated until Sir Isaac Newton made
+them the corner-stone of his new cosmic edifice.
+
+
+  Galileo.
+
+Galileo's contributions to astronomy were of a different quality from
+Kepler's. They were easily intelligible to the general public: in a
+sense, they were obvious, since they could be verified by every
+possessor of one of the Dutch perspective-instruments, just then in
+course of wide and rapid distribution. And similar results to his were
+in fact independently obtained in various parts of Europe by Christopher
+Scheiner at Ingolstadt, by Johann Fabricius at Osteel in Friesland, and
+by Thomas Harriot at Syon House, Isleworth. Galileo was nevertheless by
+far the ablest and most versatile of these early telescopic observers.
+His gifts of exposition were on a par with his gifts of discernment.
+What he saw, he rendered conspicuous to the world. His sagacity was
+indeed sometimes at fault. He maintained with full conviction to the end
+of his life a grossly erroneous hypothesis of the tides, early adopted
+from Andrea Caesalpino; the "triplicate" appearance of Saturn always
+remained an enigma to him; and in regarding comets as atmospheric
+emanations he lagged far behind Tycho Brahe. Yet he unquestionably ranks
+as the true founder of descriptive astronomy; while his splendid
+presentment of the laws of projectiles in his dialogue of the "New
+Sciences" (Leiden, 1638) lent potent aid to the solid establishment of
+celestial mechanics.
+
+
+  Gravitational Astronomy.
+
+  Bacon.
+
+  Descartes.
+
+  Newton.
+
+  Euler, Clairault, D'Alembert.
+
+The accumulation of facts does not in itself constitute science.
+Empirical knowledge scarcely deserves the name. _Vere scire est per
+causas scire._ Francis Bacon's prescient dream, however, of a living
+astronomy by which the physical laws governing terrestrial relations
+should be extended the highest heavens, had long to wait for
+realization. Kepler divined its possibility; but his thoughts, derailed
+(so to speak) by the false analogy of magnetism, brought him no farther
+than to the rough draft of the scheme of vortices expounded in detail by
+René Descartes in his _Principia Philosophiae_ (1644). And this was a
+Descartes _cul-de-sac._ The only practicable road struck aside from it.
+The true foundations of a mechanical theory of the heavens were laid by
+Kepler's discoveries, and by Galileo's dynamical demonstrations; its
+construction was facilitated by the development of mathematical methods.
+The invention of logarithms, the rise of analytical geometry, and the
+evolution of B. Cavalieri's "indivisibles" into the infinitesimal
+calculus, all accomplished during the 17th century, immeasurably widened
+the scope of exact astronomy. Gradually, too, the nature of the problem
+awaiting solution came to be apprehended. Jeremiah Horrocks had some
+intuition, previously to 1639, that the motion of the moon was
+controlled by the earth's gravity, and disturbed by the action of the
+sun. Ismael Bouillaud (1605-1694) stated in 1645 the fact of planetary
+circulation under the sway of a sun-force decreasing as the inverse
+square of the distance; and the inevitableness of this same "duplicate
+ratio" was separately perceived by Robert Hooke, Edmund Halley and Sir
+Christopher Wren before Newton's discovery had yet been made public. He
+was the only man of his generation who both recognized the law, and had
+power to demonstrate its validity. And this was only a beginning. His
+complete achievement had a twofold aspect. It consisted, first, in the
+identification, by strict numerical comparisons, of terrestrial gravity
+with the mutual attraction of the heavenly bodies; secondly, in the
+following out of its mechanical consequences throughout the solar
+system. Gravitation was thus shown to be the sole influence governing
+the movements of planets and satellites; the figure of the rotating
+earth was successfully explained by its action on the minuter particles
+of matter; tides and the procession of the equinoxes proved amenable to
+reasonings based on the same principle; and it satisfactorily accounted
+as well for some of the chief lunar and planetary inequalities. Newton's
+investigations, however, were very far from being exhaustive. Colossal
+though his powers were, they had limits; and his work could not but
+remain unterminated, since it was by its nature interminable. Nor was it
+possible to provide it with what could properly be called a sequel. The
+synthetic method employed by him was too unwieldy for common use. Yet no
+other was just then at hand. Mathematical analysis needed half a century
+of cultivation before it was fully available for the arduous tasks
+reserved for it. They were accordingly taken up anew by a band of
+continental inquirers, primarily by three men of untiring energy and
+vivid genius, Leonhard Euler, Alexis Clairault, and Jean le Rond
+d'Alembert. The first of the outstanding gravitational problems with
+which they grappled was the unaccountably rapid advance of the lunar
+perigee. But the apparent anomaly disappeared under Euler's powerful
+treatment in 1749, and his result was shortly afterwards still further
+assured by Clairault. The subject of planetary perturbations was next
+attacked. Euler devised in 1753 a new method, that of the "variation of
+parameters," for their investigation, and applied it to unravel some of
+the earth's irregularities in a memoir crowned by the French Academy in
+1756; while in 1757, Clairault estimated the masses of the moon and
+Venus by their respective disturbing effects upon terrestrial movements.
+But the most striking incident in the history of the verification of
+Newton's law was the return of Halley's comet to perihelion, on the 12th
+of March 1759, in approximate accordance with Clairault's calculation of
+the delays due to the action of Jupiter and Saturn. Visual proof was
+thus, it might be said, afforded of the harmonious working of a single
+principle to the uttermost boundaries of the sun's dominion.
+
+
+  Lagrange.
+
+These successes paved the way for the higher triumphs of Joseph Louis
+Lagrange and of Pierre Simon Laplace. The subject of the lunar
+librations was treated by Lagrange with great originality in an essay
+crowned by the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1764; and he filled up the
+lacunae in his theory of them in a memoir communicated to the Berlin
+Academy in 1780. He again won the prize of the Paris Academy in 1766
+with an analytical discussion of the movements of Jupiter's satellites
+(_Miscellanea_, Turin Acad. t. iv.); and in the same year expanded
+Euler's adumbrated method of the variation of parameters into a highly
+effective engine of perturbational research. It was especially adapted
+to the tracing out of "secular inequalities," or those depending upon
+changes in the orbital elements of the bodies affected by them, and
+hence progressing indefinitely with time; and by its means, accordingly,
+the mechanical stability of the solar system was splendidly demonstrated
+through the successive efforts of Lagrange and Laplace. The proper share
+of each in bringing about this memorable result is not easy to
+apportion, since they freely imparted and profited by one another's
+advances and improvements; it need only be said that the fundamental
+proposition of the invariability of the planetary major axes laid down
+with restrictions by Laplace in 1773, was finally established by
+Lagrange in 1776; while Laplace in 1784 proved the subsistence of such a
+relation between the eccentricities of the planetary orbits on the one
+hand, and their inclinations on the other, that an increase of either
+element could, in any single case, proceed only to a very small extent.
+The system was thus shown, apart from unknown agencies of subversion, to
+be constructed for indefinite permanence. The prize of the Berlin
+Academy was, in 1780, adjudged to Lagrange for a treatise on the
+perturbations of comets, and he contributed to the Berlin Memoirs,
+1781-1784, a set of five elaborate papers, embodying and unifying his
+perfected methods and their results.
+
+
+  Laplace.
+
+The crowning trophies of gravitational astronomy in the 18th century
+were Laplace's explanations of the "great inequality" of Jupiter and
+Saturn in 1784, and of the "secular acceleration" of the moon in 1787.
+Both irregularities had been noted, a century earlier, by Edmund Halley;
+both had, since that time, vainly exercised the ingenuity of the ablest
+mathematicians; both now almost simultaneously yielded their secret to
+the same fortunate inquirer. Johann Heinrich Lambert pointed out in 1773
+that the motion of Saturn, from being retarded, had become accelerated.
+A periodic character was thus indicated for the disturbance; and Laplace
+assigned its true cause in the near approach to commensurability in the
+periods of the two planets, the cycle of disturbance completing itself
+in about 900 (more accurately 929˝) years. The lunar acceleration, too,
+obtains ultimate compensation, though only after a vastly protracted
+term of years. The discovery, just one hundred years after the
+publication of Newton's _Principia_, of its dependence upon the slowly
+varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit signalized the removal of the
+last conspicuous obstacle to admitting the unqualified validity of the
+law of gravitation. Laplace's calculations, it is true, were inexact. An
+error, corrected by J.C. Adams in 1853, nearly doubled the value of the
+acceleration deducible from them; and served to conceal a discrepancy
+with observation which has since given occasion to much profound
+research (see MOON).
+
+The _Mécanique céleste_, in which Laplace welded into a whole the items
+of knowledge accumulated by the labours of a century, has been termed
+the "Almagest of the 18th century" (Fourier). But imposing and complete
+though the monument appeared, it did not long hold possession of the
+field. Further developments ensued. The "method of least squares," by
+which the most probable result can be educed from a body of
+observational data, was published by Adrien Marie Legendre in 1806, by
+Carl Friedrich Gauss in his _Theoria Motus_ (1809), which described also
+a mode of calculating the orbit of a planet from three complete
+observations, afterwards turned to important account for the recapture
+of Ceres, the first discovered asteroid (see PLANETS, MINOR). Researches
+into rotational movement were facilitated by S.D. Poisson's application
+to them in 1809 of Lagrange's theory of the variation of constants;
+Philippe de Pontécoulant successfully used in 1829, for the prediction
+of the impending return of Halley's comet, a system of "mechanical
+quadratures" published by Lagrange in the Berlin Memoirs for 1778; and
+in his _Théorie analytique du systčme du monde_ (1846) he modified and
+refined general theories of the lunar and planetary revolutions. P.A.
+Hansen in 1829 (_Astr. Nach._ Nos. 166-168, 179) left the beaten track
+by choosing time as the sole variable, the orbital elements remaining
+constant. A.L. Cauchy published in 1842-1845 a method similarly
+conceived, though otherwise developed; and the scope of analysis in
+determining the movements of the heavenly bodies has since been
+perseveringly widened by the labours of Urbain J.J. Leverrier, J.C.
+Adams, S. Newcomb, G.W. Hill, E.W. Brown, H. Gyldén, Charles Delaunay,
+F. Tisserand, H. Poincaré and others too numerous to mention. Nor were
+these abstract investigations unaccompanied by concrete results. Sir
+George Airy detected in 1831 an inequality, periodic in 240 years,
+between Venus and the earth. Leverrier undertook in 1839, and concluded
+in 1876, the formidable task of revising all the planetary theories and
+constructing from them improved tables. Not less comprehensive has been
+the work carried out by Professor Newcomb of raising to a higher grade
+of perfection, and reducing to a uniform standard, all the theories and
+constants of the solar system. His inquiries afford the assurance of a
+nearly exact conformity among its members to strict gravitational law,
+only the moon and Mercury showing some slight, but so far unexplained,
+anomalies of movement. The discovery of Neptune in 1846 by Adams and
+Leverrier marked the first solution of the "inverse problem" of
+perturbations. That is to say, ascertained or ascertainable effects were
+made the starting-point instead of the goal of research.
+
+
+  Descriptive and practical astronomy.
+
+  Bayer.
+
+  Gassendi.
+
+  Horrocks.
+
+  Huygens.
+
+  Gascoigne.
+
+  Hevelius.
+
+Observational astronomy, meanwhile, was advancing to some extent
+independently. The descriptive branch found its principle of development
+in the growing powers of the telescope, and had little to do with
+mathematical theory; which, on the contrary, was closely allied, by
+relations of mutual helpfulness, with practical astronomy, or
+"astrometry." Meanwhile, the elementary requirement of making visual
+acquaintance with the stellar heavens was met, as regards the unknown
+southern skies, when Johann Bayer published at Nuremberg in 1603 a
+celestial atlas depicting twelve new constellations formed from the rude
+observations of navigators across the line. In the same work, the
+current mode of star-nomenclature by the letters of the Greek alphabet
+made its appearance. On the 7th of November 1631 Pierre Gassendi watched
+at Paris the passage of Mercury across the sun. This was the first
+planetary transit observed. The next was that of Venus on the 24th of
+November (O.S.) 1639, of which Jeremiah Horrocks and William Crabtree
+were the sole spectators. The improvement of telescopes was prosecuted
+by Christiaan Huygens from 1655, and promptly led to his discoveries of
+the sixth Saturnian moon, of the true shape of the Saturnian appendages,
+and of the multiple character of the "trapezium" of stars in the Orion
+nebula. William Gascoigne's invention of the filar micrometer and of the
+adaptation of telescopes to graduated instruments remained submerged for
+a quarter of a century in consequence of his untimely death at Marston
+Moor (1644). The latter combination had also been ineffectually proposed
+in 1634 by Jean Baptiste Morin (1583-1656); and both devices were
+recontrived at Paris about 1667, the micrometer by Adrien Auzout (d.
+1691), telescopic sights (so-called) by Jean Picard (1620-1682), who
+simultaneously introduced the astronomical use of pendulum-clocks,
+constructed by Huygens eleven years previously. These improvements were
+ignored or rejected by Johann Hevelius of Danzig, the author of the last
+important star-catalogue based solely upon naked-eye determinations.
+He, nevertheless, used telescopes to good purpose in his studies of
+lunar topography, and his designations for the chief mountain-chains and
+"seas" of the moon have never been superseded. He, moreover, threw out
+the suggestion (in his _Cometographia_, 1668) that comets move round the
+sun in orbits of a parabolic form.
+
+
+  The Paris observatory.
+
+  G.D. Cassini
+
+  Römer.
+
+The establishment, in 1671 and 1676 respectively, of the French and
+English national observatories at once typified and stimulated progress.
+The Paris institution, it is true, lacked unity of direction. No
+authoritative chief was assigned to it until 1771. G.D. Cassini, his son
+and his grandson were only _primi inter pares_. Claude Perrault's
+stately edifice was equally accessible to all the more eminent members
+of the Academy of Sciences; and researches were, more or less
+independently, carried on there by (among others) Philippe de la Hire
+(1640-1718), G.F. Maraldi (1665-1729), and his nephew, J.D. Maraldi,
+Jean Picard, Huygens, Olaus Römer and Nicolas de Lacaille. Some of the
+best instruments then extant were mounted at the Paris observatory. G.D.
+Cassini brought from Rome a 17-ft. telescope by G. Campani, with which
+he discovered in 1671 Iapetus, the ninth in distance of Saturn's family
+of satellites; Rhea was detected in 1672 with a glass by the same maker
+of 34-ft. focus; the duplicity of the ring showed in 1675; and, in 1684,
+two additional satellites were disclosed by a Campani telescope of 100
+ft. Cassini, moreover, set up an altazimuth in 1678, and employed from
+about 1682 a "parallactic machine," provided with clockwork to enable it
+to follow the diurnal motion. Both inventions have been ascribed to
+Olaus Römer, who used but did not claim them, and must have become
+familiar with their principles during the nine years (1672-1681) spent
+by him at the Paris observatory. Römer, on the other hand, deserves full
+credit for originating the transit-circle and the prime vertical
+instrument; and he earned undying fame by his discovery of the finite
+velocity of light, made at Paris in 1675 by comparing his observations
+of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites at the conjunctions and
+oppositions of the planet.
+
+
+  Flamsteed.
+
+The organization of the Greenwich observatory differed widely from that
+adopted at Paris. There a fundamental scheme of practical amelioration
+was initiated by John Flamsteed, the first astronomer royal, and has
+never since been lost sight of. Its purpose is the attainment of so
+complete a power of prediction that the places of the sun, moon and
+planets may be assigned without noticeable error for an indefinite
+future time. Sidereal inquiries, as such, made no part of the original
+programme in which the stars figured merely as points of reference. But
+these points are not stationary. They have an apparent precessional
+movement, the exact amount of which can be arrived at only by prolonged
+and toilsome enquiries. They have besides "proper motions," detected in
+1718 by E. Halley in a few cases, and since found to prevail
+universally. Further, James Bradley discovered in 1728 the annual
+shifting of the stars due to the aberration of light (see ABERRATION),
+and in 1748, the complicating effects upon precession of the "nutation"
+of the earth's axis. Hence, the preparation of a catalogue recording the
+"mean" positions of a number of stars for a given epoch involves
+considerable preliminary labour; nor do those positions long continue to
+satisfy observation. They need, after a time, to be corrected, not only
+systematically for precession, but also empirically for proper motion.
+Before the stars can safely be employed as route-marks in the sky, their
+movements must accordingly be tabulated, and research into the method of
+such movements inevitably follows. We perceive then that the fundamental
+problems of sidereal science are closely linked up with the elementary
+and indispensable procedures of celestial measurement.
+
+The history of the Greenwich observatory is one of strenuous efforts for
+refinement, stimulated by the growing stringency of theoretical
+necessities. Improved practice, again, reacted upon theory by bringing
+to notice residual errors, demanding the correction of formulae, or
+intimating neglected disturbances. Each increase of mechanical skill
+claims a corresponding gain in the subtlety of analysis; and vice versa.
+And this kind of interaction has gone on ever since Flamsteed
+reluctantly furnished the "places of the moon," which enabled Newton to
+lay the foundations of lunar theory.
+
+
+  Halley.
+
+  Bradley.
+
+  Bliss.
+
+  Maskelyne.
+
+  Pond.
+
+  Airy.
+
+Edmund Halley, the second astronomer royal, devoted most of his official
+attention to the moon. But his plan of attack was not happily chosen; he
+carried it out with deficient instrumental means; and his administration
+(1720-1742) remained comparatively barren. That of his successor, though
+shorter, was vastly more productive. James Bradley chose the most
+appropriate tasks, and executed them supremely well, with the
+indispensable aid of John Bird (1700-1776), who constructed for him an
+8-ft. quadrant of unsurpassed quality. Bradley's store of observations
+has accordingly proved invaluable. Those of 3222 stars, reduced by F.W.
+Bessel in 1818, and again with masterly insight by Dr A. Auwers in 1882,
+form the true basis of exact astronomy, and of our knowledge of proper
+motions. Those relating to the moon and planets, corrected by Sir George
+Airy, 1840-1846, form part of the standard materials for discussing
+theories of movement in the solar system. The fourth astronomer royal,
+Nathaniel Bliss, provided in two years a sequel of some value to
+Bradley's performance. Nevil Maskelyne, who succeeded him in 1764, set
+on foot, in 1767, the publication of the _Nautical Almanac_, and about
+the same time had an achromatic telescope fitted to the Greenwich mural
+quadrant. The invention, perfected by John Dollond in 1757, was long
+debarred from becoming effective by difficulties in the manufacture of
+glass, aggravated in England by a heavy excise duty levied until 1845.
+More immediately efficacious was the innovation made by John Pond
+(astronomer royal, 1811-1836) of substituting entire circles for
+quadrants. He further introduced, in 1821, the method of duplicate
+observations by direct vision and by reflection, and by these means
+obtained results of very high precision. During Sir George Airy's long
+term of office (1836-1881) exact astronomy and the traditional purposes
+of the royal observatory were promoted with increased vigour, while the
+scope of research was at the same time memorably widened. Magnetic,
+meteorological, and spectroscopic departments were added to the
+establishment; electricity was employed, through the medium of the
+chronograph, for the registration of transits; and photography was
+resorted to for the daily automatic record of the sun's condition.
+
+
+  Wargentin.
+
+  Lacaille.
+
+  Tobias Mayer.
+
+  Lalande.
+
+Meanwhile, advances were being made in various parts of the continent of
+Europe. Peter Wargentin (1717-1783), secretary to the Swedish Academy of
+Sciences, made a special study of the Jovian system. James Bradley had
+described to the Royal Society on the 2nd of July 1719 the curious
+cyclical relations of the three inner satellites; and their period of
+437 days was independently discovered by Wargentin, who based upon it in
+1746 a set of tables, superseded only by those of J.B.J. Delambre in
+1792. Among the fruits of the strenuous career of Nicolas Louis de
+Lacaille were tables of the sun, in which terms depending upon planetary
+perturbations were, for the first time, introduced (1758); an extended
+acquaintance with the southern heavens; and a determination of the
+moon's parallax from observations made at opposite extremities of an arc
+of the meridian 85° in length. Tobias Mayer of Göttingen (1723-1762)
+originated the mode of adjusting transit-instruments still in vogue;
+drew up a catalogue of nearly a thousand zodiacal stars (published
+posthumously in 1775); and deduced the proper motions of eighty stars
+from a comparison of their places as given by Olaus Romer in 1706 with
+those obtained by himself in 1756. He executed besides a chart and forty
+drawings of the moon (published at Göttingen in 1881), and calculated
+lunar tables from a skilful development of Euler's theory, for which a
+reward of Ł3000 was in 1765 paid to his widow by the British government.
+They were published by the Board of Longitude, together with his solar
+tables, in 1770. The material interests of navigation were in these
+works primarily regarded; but the imaginative side of knowledge had
+also potent representatives during the latter half of the 18th century.
+In France, especially, the versatile activity of J.J. Lalande
+popularized the acquisitions of astronomy, and enforced its demands; and
+he had a German counterpart in J.E. Bode.
+
+
+  Distance of the sun.
+
+Between the time of Aristarchus and the opposition of Mars in 1672, no
+serious attempt was made to solve the problem of the sun's distance. In
+that year, however, Jean Richer at Cayenne and G.D. Cassini at Paris
+made combined observations of the planet, which yielded a parallax for
+the sun of 9.5", corresponding to a mean radius for the terrestrial
+orbit of 87,000,000 m. This result, though widely inaccurate, came much
+nearer to the truth than any previously obtained; and it instructively
+illustrated the feasibility of concerted astronomical operations at
+distant parts of the earth. The way was thus prepared for availing to
+the full of the opportunities for a celestial survey offered by the
+transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769. They had been signalized by E.
+Halley in 1716; they were later insisted upon by Lalande; an enthusiasm
+for co-operation was evoked, and the globe, from Siberia to Otaheite,
+was studded with observing parties. The outcome, nevertheless,
+disappointed expectation. The instants of contact between the limbs of
+the sun and planet defied precise determination. Optical complications
+fatally impeded sharpness of vision, and the phenomena took place in a
+debateable borderland of uncertainty. J.F. Encke, it is true, derived
+from them in 1822-1824 what seemed an authentic parallax of 8.57",
+implying a distance of 95,370,000 m.; but the confidence it inspired was
+finally overthrown in 1854 by P.A. Hansen's announcement of its
+incompatibility with lunar theory. An appeal then lay to the 19th
+century pair of transits in 1874 and 1882; but no peremptory decision
+ensued; observations were marred by the same optical evils as before.
+Their upshot, however, had lost its essential importance; for a fresh
+series of investigations based on a variety of principles had already
+been started. Leverrier, in 1858, calculated a value of 8.95" for the
+solar parallax (equivalent to a distance of 91,000,000 m.) from the
+"parallactic inequality" of the moon; Professor Newcomb, using other
+forms of the gravitational method, derived in 1895 a parallax of 8.76".
+Again, since the constant of aberration defines the ratio between the
+velocity of light and the earth's orbital speed, the span of the
+terrestrial circuit, in other words, the distance of the sun, is
+immediately deducible from known values of the first two quantities. The
+rate of light-transmission was accordingly made the subject of an
+elaborate set of experiments by Professor Newcomb in 1880-1882; and the
+result, taken in connexion with the aberration-constant as determined at
+Pulkowa, yielded a solar parallax of 8.79", or a distance (in round
+numbers) of 93,000,000 m. But the direct or geometrical mode of attack
+has still the preference over any of the indirect plans. Sir David Gill
+derived a highly satisfactory value of 8.78" for the long-sought
+constant from the opposition of Mars in 1877, and from combined
+heliometer observations at five observatories in 1888-1889 of the minor
+planets Iris, Victoria and Sappho, the apparently definitive value of
+8.80" (equivalent distance, 92,874,000 m.). But an unlooked-for fresh
+opportunity was afforded by the discovery in 1898 of the singularly
+circumstanced minor planet Eros, which occasionally approaches the earth
+more nearly than any other heavenly body except the moon. The opposition
+of November 1900, though only moderately favourable, could not be
+neglected; an international photographic campaign was organized at Paris
+with the aid of 58 observatories; and the voluminous collected data
+imply, so far as they have been discussed, a parallax for the sun a
+little greater than 8.8". (See also PARALLAX.)
+
+
+  Reflecting telescopes.
+
+  William Herschel.
+
+  Sir John Herschel.
+
+  Lord Rosse.
+
+The first specimen of a reflecting telescope was constructed by Isaac
+Newton in 1668. It was of what is still called "Newtonian" design, and
+had a speculum 2 in. in diameter. Through the skill of John Hadley
+(1682-1743) and James Short of Edinburgh (1710-1768) the instrument
+unfolded, in the ensuing century, some of its capabilities, which the
+labours of William Herschel enormously enhanced. Between 1774 and 1789
+he built scores of specula of continually augmented size, up to a
+diameter of 4 ft., the optical excellence of which approved itself by a
+crowd of discoveries. Uranus (q.v.) was recognized by its disk on the
+13th of March 1781; two of its satellites, Oberon and Titania, disclosed
+themselves on the 11th of January 1787; while with the giant 48-in.
+mirror, used on the "front-view" plan, Mimas and Enceladus, the
+innermost Saturnian moons, were brought to view on the 28th of August
+and the 17th of September 1789. These were incidental trophies;
+Herschel's main object was the exploration of the sidereal heavens. The
+task, though novel and formidable, was executed with almost incredible
+success. Charles Messier (1730-1817) had catalogued in 1781 103 nebulae;
+Herschel discovered 2500, laid down the lines of their classification,
+divined the laws of their distribution, and assigned their place in a
+scheme of development. The proof supplied by him in 1802 that coupled
+stars mutually circulate threw open a boundless field of research; and
+he originated experimental inquiries into the construction of the
+heavens by systematically collecting and sifting stellar statistics. He,
+moreover, definitively established, in 1783, the fact and general
+direction of the sun's movement in space, and thus introduced an element
+of order into the maze of stellar proper motions. Sir John Herschel
+continued in the northern, and extended to the southern hemisphere, his
+father's work. The third earl of Rosse mounted, at Parsonstown in 1845,
+a speculum 6 ft. in diameter, which afforded the first indications of
+the spiral structure shown in recent photographs to be the most
+prevalent characteristic of nebulae. Down to near the close of the 19th
+century, both the use and the improvement of reflectors were left mainly
+in British hands; but the gift of the "Crossley" instrument in 1895, to
+the Lick observatory, and its splendid subsequent performances in
+nebular photography, brought similar tools of research into extensive
+use among American astronomers; and they are now, for many of the
+various purposes of astrophysics, strongly preferred to refractors.
+
+
+  Giuseppe Piazzi.
+
+  Max Wolf.
+
+Acquaintance with the asteroidal family began as the 19th century
+opened. On the 1st of January 1801 Giuseppe Piazzi (1746-1826)
+discovered Ceres, at Palermo, while engaged in collecting materials for
+his star-catalogues. A prolonged succession of similar events followed.
+But in the mode of detecting these swarming bodies, a typical change was
+made on the 22nd of December 1891, when Dr Max Wolf of Heidelberg
+photographically captured No. 323. Repetitions of the feat are now
+counted by the score.
+
+
+  Lassell.
+
+  Bond.
+
+  Hall.
+
+  Barnard.
+
+  Perrine.
+
+  W.H. Pickering.
+
+Practical astronomy was only secondarily concerned with the addition of
+Neptune, on the 23rd of September 1846, to the company of known planets;
+but William Lassell's discovery of its satellite, on the 10th of October
+following, was a consequence of the perfect figure and high polish of
+his 2-ft. speculum. With the same instrument, he further detected, on
+the 19th of September 1848, Hyperion, the seventh of Saturn's
+attendants, and, on the 24th of October 1851, Ariel and Umbriel, the
+interior moons of Uranus. Simultaneously with Lassell, on the opposite
+shore of the Atlantic, W.C. Bond identified Hyperion; and he perceived,
+on the 15th of November 1850, Saturn's dusky ring, independently
+observed, a fortnight later, by W.R. Dawes, at Wateringbury in Kent.
+With the Washington 26-in. refractor, on the 11th of August 1877,
+Professor Asaph Hall descried the moons of Mars, Deimos and Phobos; and
+a minute light-speck, noticed by Professor E.E. Barnard in the close
+neighbourhood of Jupiter on the 9th of September 1892, proved
+representative of a small inner satellite, invisible with less perfect
+and powerful instruments than the Lick 36-in. achromatic. The Jovian
+system has been reinforced by three remote and extremely faint members,
+two photographed by Professor C.D. Perrine with the Crossley reflector
+in 1904-1905, and the third at Greenwich in 1908; and a pair of
+Saturnian moons, designated Phoebe and Themis, were tracked out by
+Professor W.H. Pickering, in 1898 and 1905 respectively, amid the
+thicket of stars imprinted on negatives taken at Arequipa with the Bruce
+24-in. doublet lens. This raises to 26 the number of discovered
+satellites in the solar system.
+
+
+  Comets.
+
+  Meteors.
+
+Cometary science has ramified in unexpected ways during the last hundred
+years. The establishment of a class of "short-period" comets by the
+computations of J.F. Encke in 1819, and of Wilhelm von Biela in 1826,
+led to the theory of their "capture" by the great planets, for which a
+solid mathematical basis was provided by H. Newton, F. Tisserand and O.
+Callandreau. An argument for the aboriginal connexion of comets with the
+solar system, founded by R.C. Carrington in 1860 upon their
+participation in its translatory movement, was more fully developed by
+L. Fabry in 1893; and the close orbital relationships of cometary
+groups, accentuated by the pursuit of each other along nearly the same
+track by the comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882, singularly illustrated the
+probable vicissitudes of their careers. The most remarkable event,
+however, in the recent history of cometary astronomy was its
+assimilation to that of meteors, which took unquestionable cosmical rank
+as a consequence of the Leonid tempest of November 1833. The affinity of
+the two classes of objects became known in 1866 through G.V.
+Schiaparelli's announcement that the orbit of the bright comet of 1862
+agreed strictly with the elliptic ring formed by the circulating Perseid
+meteors; and three other cases of close coincidence were soon afterwards
+brought to light. Tebbutt's comet in 1881 was the first to be
+satisfactorily photographed. The study of such objects is now carried on
+mainly through the agency of the sensitive plate. The photographic
+registration of meteor-trails, too, has been lately attempted with
+partial success. The full realization of the method will doubtless
+provide adequate data for the detailed investigation of meteoric paths.
+
+
+  Sidereal astronomy.
+
+  Star catalogues.
+
+The progress of science during the 19th century had no more distinctive
+feature than the rapid growth of sidereal astronomy (see STAR). Its
+scope, wide as the universe, can be compassed no otherwise than by
+statistical means, and the collection of materials for this purpose
+involves most arduous preliminary labour. The multitudinous enrolment of
+stars was the first requisite. Only one "catalogue of precision"--Nevil
+Maskelyne's of 36 fundamental stars--was available in 1800. J.J.
+Lalande, however, published in 1801, in his _Histoire céleste_, the
+approximate places of 47,390 from a re-observation of which the great
+Paris catalogue (1887-1892) has been compiled. A valuable catalogue of
+about 7600 stars was issued by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1814; Stephen
+Groombridge determined 4239 at Blackheath in 1806-1816; while through
+the joint and successive work of F.W. Bessel and W.A. Argelander, exact
+acquaintance was made with 90,000, a more general acquaintance with the
+324,000 stars recorded in the _Bonn Durchmusterung_ (1859-1862). The
+southern hemisphere was subsequently reviewed on a similar duplicate
+plan by E. Schönfeld (1828-1891) at Bonn, by B.A. Gould and J.M. Thome
+at Córdoba. Moreover, the imposing catalogue set on foot in 1865 at
+thirteen observatories by the German astronomical society has recently
+been completed; and adjuncts to it have, from time to time, been
+provided in the publications of the royal observatories at Greenwich and
+the Cape of Good Hope, and of national, imperial and private
+establishments in the United States and on the continent of Europe. But
+in the execution of these protracted undertakings, the human eye has
+been, to a large and increasing extent, superseded by the camera.
+Photographic star-charting was begun by Sir David Gill in 1885, and the
+third and concluding volume of the _Cape Photographic Durchmusterung_
+appeared in 1900. It gives the co-ordinates of above 450,000 stars,
+measured by Professor J.C. Kapteyn at Groningen on plates taken by C.
+Ray Woods at the Cape observatory. And this comprehensive work was
+merely preparatory to the International Catalogue and Chart, the
+production of which was initiated by the resolutions of the Paris
+Photographic Congress of 1887. Eighteen observatories scattered north
+and south of the equator divided the sky among them; and the outcome of
+their combined operations aimed at the production of a catalogue of at
+least 2,000,000 strictly determined stars, together with a colossal map
+in 22,000 sheets, showing stars to the fourteenth magnitude, in numbers
+difficult to estimate. (Sea PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL.)
+
+
+  Photometric catalogues.
+
+The arrangement of the stars in space can be usefully discussed only in
+connexion with their apparent light-power, or "magnitude." Photometric
+catalogues, accordingly, form an indispensable part of stellar
+statistics; and their construction has been zealously prosecuted. The
+_Harvard Photometry_ of 4260 lucid stars was issued by Professor E.C.
+Pickering in 1884, the _Uranometria Nova Oxoniensis_, giving the
+relative lustre of 2784 stars, by C. Pritchard in 1885. The instrument
+used at Harvard was a "meridian photometer," constructed on the
+principle of polarization; while the "method of extinctions," by means
+of a wedge of neutral-tinted glass, served for the Oxford
+determinations. At Potsdam, some 17,000 stars have been measured by
+C.H.G. Müller and P.F.F. Kempf with a polarizing photometer; but by far
+the most comprehensive work of the kind is the Harvard _Photometric
+Durchmusterung_ (1901-1903), embracing all stars to 7.5 magnitude, and
+extended to the southern pole by measurements executed at Arequipa. The
+embarrassing subject of photographic photometry has also been attacked
+by Professor Pickering. The need is urgent of fixing a scale, and
+defining standards of actinic brightness; but it has not yet been
+successfully met.
+
+
+  Double stars.
+
+The investigation of double stars was carried on from 1819 to 1850 with
+singular persistence and ability at Dorpat and Pulkowa by F.G.W. Struve,
+and by his son and successor, O.W. Struve. The high excellence of the
+data collected by them was a combined result of their skill, and of the
+vast improvement in refracting telescopes due to the genius of Joseph
+Fraunhofer (1787-1826). Among the inheritors of his renown were Alvan
+Clark and Alvan G. Clark of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts; and the superb
+definition of their great achromatics rendered practicable the division
+of what might have been deemed impossibly close star-pairs. These
+facilities were remarkably illustrated by Professor S.W. Burnham's
+record of discovery, which roused fresh enthusiasm for this line of
+inquiry by compelling recognition of the extraordinary profusion
+throughout the heavens of compound objects. Discoveries with the
+spectroscope have ratified and extended this conclusion.
+
+
+  Stellar parallax.
+
+Only spurious star-parallaxes had claimed the attention of astronomers
+until F.W. Bessel announced, in December 1838, the perspective yearly
+shifting of 61 Cygni in an ellipse with a mean radius of about one-third
+of a second. Thomas Henderson (1798-1844) had indeed measured the larger
+displacements of [alpha] Centauri at the Cape in 1832-1833, but delayed
+until 1839 to publish his result. Out of several hundred stars since
+then examined, seventy or eighty have yielded fairly accurate, though
+very small parallaxes. But this amount of knowledge, however valuable in
+itself, is utterly inadequate to the needs of sidereal research; and
+various attempts have accordingly been made, chiefly by Professors J.C.
+Kapteyn and Simon Newcomb, to estimate, through the analysis of their
+proper motions, the "mean parallax" of stars assorted by magnitude. And
+the data thus arrived at are reassuringly self-consistent. A wide
+photographic survey, by which parallaxes might be secured wholesale, has
+further been recommended by Kapteyn; but is unlikely to be undertaken in
+the immediate future.
+
+
+  Proper motions.
+
+The exhaustive ascertainment of stellar parallaxes, combined with the
+visible facts of stellar distribution, would enable us to build a
+perfect plan of the universe in three dimensions. Its perfection would,
+nevertheless, be undermined by the mobility of all its constituent
+parts. Their configuration at a given instant supplies no information as
+to their configuration hereafter unless the mode and laws of their
+movements have been determined. Hence, one of the leading inducements
+to the construction of exact and comprehensive catalogues has been to
+elicit, by comparisons of those for widely separated epochs, the proper
+motions of the stars enumerated in them. Little was known on the subject
+at the beginning of the 19th century. William Herschel founded his
+determination in 1783 of the sun's route in space upon the movements of
+thirteen stars; and he took into account those of only six in his second
+solution of the problem in 1805. But in 1837 Argelander employed 390
+proper motions as materials for the treatment of the same subject; and
+L. Struve had at his disposal, in 1887, no less than 2800. From the
+re-observation of Lalande's stars, after the lapse of not far from a
+century, J. Bossert was enabled to deduce 2675 proper motions, published
+at Paris in four successive memoirs, 1887-1902; and the sum-total of
+those ascertained probably now exceeds 6000. Yet this number, although
+it represents a portentous expenditure of labour, is insignificant
+compared with the multitude of the stellar throng; nor had any general
+tendency been discerned to regulate what seemed casual flittings until
+Professor Kapteyn, in 1904, adverted to the prevalence among all the
+brighter stars of opposite stream-flows towards two "vertices" situated
+in the Milky Way (see STAR). The assured general fact as regards the
+direction of stellar movements was that they included a common
+parallactic element due to the sun's translation. And it is by the
+consideration of this partial accordance in motion that the advance
+through space of the solar system has been ascertained.
+
+
+  Astrophysics.
+
+  Spectrum analysis.
+
+The apex of the sun's way was fixed by Professor Newcomb in 1898 at a
+point about 4° S. of the brilliant star Vega; but was shifted nearly 7°
+to the S.W. by J.C. Kapteyn's inquiry in 1901; so that the range of
+uncertainty as to its position continues unsatisfactorily wide. The
+speed with which our system progresses is, on the other hand, fairly
+well known. It cannot differ much from 12˝ m. a second, the rate
+assigned to it by Professor W.W. Campbell in 1902. He employed in his
+discussion the radial velocities of 280 stars, spectroscopically
+determined; and the upshot signally exemplified the community of
+interests between the rising science of astrophysics and the ancient
+science of astrometry. Their characteristic purposes are, nevertheless,
+entirely different. The positions of the heavenly bodies in space, and
+the changes of those positions with time, constitute the primary subject
+of investigation by the elder school; while the new astronomy concerns
+itself chiefly with the individual peculiarities of suns and planets,
+with their chemistry, physical habitudes and modes of luminosity. Its
+distinctive method is spectrum analysis, the invention and development
+of which in the 19th century have fundamentally altered the purpose and
+prospects of celestial inquiries.
+
+
+  Wollaston.
+
+  Fraunhofer.
+
+  Kirchhoff.
+
+  Chemistry of the sun.
+
+A beam of sunlight admitted into a darkened room through a narrow
+aperture, and there dispersed into a vario-tinted band by the
+interposition of a prism, is not absolutely continuous. Dr W.H.
+Wollaston made the experiment in 1802, and perceived the spaces of
+colour to be interrupted by seven obscure gaps, which took the shape of
+lines owing to his use of rectangular slit. He thus caught a preliminary
+glimpse of the "Fraunhofer lines," so called because Joseph Fraunhofer
+brought them into prominent notice by the diligence and insight of his
+labours upon them in 1814-1815. He mapped 324, chose out nine, which he
+designated by the letters of the alphabet, to be standards of
+measurement for the rest, and ascertained the coincidence in position
+between the double yellow ray derived from the flame of burning sodium
+and the pair of dark lines named by him "D" in the solar spectrum. There
+ensued forty-five years of groping for a law which should clear up the
+enigma of the solar reversals. Partial anticipations abounded. The vital
+heart of the matter was barely missed by W.A. Miller in 1845, by L.
+Foucault in 1849, by A.J. Ĺngström in 1853, by Balfour Stewart in 1858;
+while Sir George Stokes held the solution of the problem in the hollow
+of his hand from 1852 onward. But it was the synthetic genius of Gustav
+Kirchhoff which first gave unity to the scattered phenomena, and finally
+reconciled what was elicited in the laboratory with what was observed in
+the sun. On the 15th of December 1859 he communicated to the Berlin
+Academy of Sciences the principle which bears his name. Its purport is
+that glowing vapours similarly circumstanced absorb the identical
+radiations which they emit. That is to say, they stop out just those
+sections of white light transmitted through them which form their own
+special luminous badges. Moreover, if the white light come from a source
+at a higher temperature than theirs, the sections, or lines, absorbed by
+them show dark against a continuous background. And this is precisely
+the case with the sun. Kirchhoff's principle, accordingly, not only
+afforded a simple explanation of the Fraunhofer lines, but availed to
+found a far-reaching science of celestial chemistry. Thousands of the
+dark lines in the solar spectrum agree absolutely in wave-length with
+the bright rays artificially obtained from known substances, and
+appertaining to them individually. These substances must then exist near
+the sun. They are in fact suspended in a state of vapour between our
+eyes and the photosphere, the dazzling prismatic radiance of which they,
+to a minute extent, intercept, thus writing their signatures on the
+coloured scroll of dispersed sunshine. By persistent research,
+powerfully aided by the photographic camera and by the concave gratings
+invented by H.A. Rowland (1848-1901) in 1882, about forty terrestrial
+elements have been identified in the sun. Among them, iron, sodium,
+magnesium, calcium and hydrogen are conspicuous; but it would be rash to
+assert that any of the seventy forms of matter provisionally enumerated
+in text-books are wholly absent from his composition.
+
+
+  Solar eclipses.
+
+Solar physics has profited enormously by the abolition of glare during
+total eclipses. That of the 8th of July 1842 was the first to be
+efficiently observed; and the luminous appendages to the sun disclosed
+by it were such as to excite startled attention. Their investigation has
+since been diligently prosecuted. The corona was photographed at
+Königsberg during the totality of the 28th of July 1851; similar records
+of the red prominences, successively obtained by Father Angelo Secchi
+and Warren de la Rue, as the shadow-track crossed Spain on the 18th of
+July 1860, finally demonstrated their solar status. The Indian eclipse
+of the 18th of August 1868 supplied knowledge of their spectrum, found
+to include the yellow ray of an exotic gas named by Sir Norman Lockyer
+"helium." It further suggested, to Lockyer and P. Janssen separately,
+the spectroscopic method of observing these objects in daylight. Under
+cover of an eclipse visible in North America on the 7th of August 1869,
+the bright green line of the corona was discerned; and Professor C.A.
+Young caught the "flash spectrum" of the reversing layer, at the moment
+of second contact, at Xerez de la Frontera in Spain, on the 22nd of
+December 1870. This significant but evanescent phenomenon, which
+represents the direct emissions of a low-lying solar envelope, was
+photographed by William Shackleton on the occasion of an eclipse in
+Novaya Zemlya on the 9th of August 1896; and it has since been
+abundantly registered by exposures made during the obscurations of 1898,
+1900, 1901 and 1905. A singular and unlooked-for result of eclipse-work
+has been to include the corona within the scope of solar periodicity.
+Heinrich Schwabe established, in 1851, the cyclical variation, in eleven
+years, of spot-frequency; terrestrial magnetic disturbances manifestly
+obeyed the same law; and the peculiar winged aspect of the corona
+disclosed by the eclipse of the 29th of July 1878, at an epoch of
+minimum sun-spots, intimated to A.C. Ranyard a theory of coronal types,
+changing concurrently with the fluctuations of spot-activity. This was
+amply verified at subsequent eclipses.
+
+
+  Prominence photography.
+
+The photography of prominences was, after some preliminary trials by
+C.A. Young and others, fully realized in 1891 by Professor George E.
+Hale at Chicago, and independently by Henri Deslandres at Paris. The
+pictures were taken, in both cases, with only one quality of light; the
+violet ray of calcium, the remaining superfluous beams being eliminated
+by the agency of a double slit. The last-named expedient had been
+described by Janssen in 1867. Hale devised on the same principle the
+"spectroheliograph," an instrument by which the sun's disk can be
+photographed in calcium-light by imparting a rapid movement to its image
+relatively to the sensitive plate; and the method has proved in many
+ways fruitful.
+
+
+  Stellar spectroscopy.
+
+The likeness of the sun to the stars has been shown by the spectroscope
+to be profound and inherent. Yet the general agreement of solar and
+stellar chemistry does not exclude important diversities of detail.
+Fraunhofer was the pioneer in this branch. He observed, in 1823, dark
+lines in stellar spectra which Kirchhoff's discovery supplied the means
+of interpreting. The task, attempted by G.B. Donati in 1860, was
+effectively taken in hand, two years later, by Angelo Secchi, William
+Huggins and Lewis M. Rutherfurd. There ensued a general classification
+of the stars by Secchi into four leading types, distinguished by
+diversities of spectral pattern; and the recognition by Huggins of a
+considerable number of terrestrial elements as present in stellar
+atmospheres. Nebular chemistry was initiated by the same investigator
+when, on the 29th of August 1864, he observed the bright-line spectrum
+of a planetary nebula in Draco. About seventy analogous objects,
+including that in the Sword of Orion, were found by him to give light of
+the same quality; and thus after seventy-three years, verification was
+brought to William Herschel's hypothesis of a "shining fluid" diffused
+through space, the possible raw material of stars. In 1874, Dr H.C.
+Vogel published a modification of Secchi's scheme of stellar
+diversities, and gave it organic meaning by connecting spectral
+differences with advance in "age." And in 1895, he set apart, as in the
+earliest stage of growth, a new class of "helium stars," supposed to
+develop successively into Sirian, solar, Antarian, or alternatively into
+carbon stars.
+
+
+  Spectra of comets.
+
+On the 5th of August 1864, G.B. Donati analysed the light of a small
+comet into three bright bands. Sir William Huggins repeated the
+experiment on Winnecke's comet in 1868, obtained the same bands, and
+traced them to their origin from glowing carbon-vapour. A photograph of
+the spectrum of Tebbutt's comet, taken by him on the 24th of June 1881,
+showed radiations of shorter wave-lengths but identical source, and in
+addition, a percentage of reflected solar light marked as such by the
+presence of some well-known Fraunhofer lines. Further experience has
+generalized these earlier results. The rule that comets yield
+carbon-spectra has scarcely any exceptions. The usual bands were,
+however, temporarily effaced in the two brilliant apparitions of 1882 by
+vivid rays of sodium and iron, emitted during the excitement of
+perihelion-passage.
+
+
+  Progress in spectrography.
+
+The adoption, by Sir William Huggins in 1876, of gelatine or dry plates
+in celestial photography was a change of decisive import. For it made
+long exposures possible; and only with long exposures could autographic
+impressions be secured of such faint objects as nebulae, telescopic
+comets, and the immense majority of stars, or of the dim ranges of
+stellar and nebular spectra. The first conspicuous triumph of the new
+"spectrographic" art thus established was the record by Huggins in 1879
+of the dispersed light of several "white" or Sirian stars, in which the
+chief traits of absorption were the rhythmical series of hydrogen-lines,
+then memorably discovered. Again by Sir William Huggins, the spectrum of
+the Orion nebula was photographed on the 7th of March 1882; and the
+method has gradually become nearly exclusive in the study of nebular
+emanations. The "Draper Catalogue" of 10,351 stellar spectra was
+published by Professor E.C. Pickering in 1890. The materials for it were
+rapidly accumulated by the use of an objective prism, that is, of a
+prism placed in front of, instead of behind the object-lens, by which
+means the spectra of all the stars in the field, to the number often of
+many score, imprinted themselves simultaneously on the sensitive plate.
+The progress of this survey was marked by a number of important
+discoveries of "new" and variable stars and of spectroscopic binaries,
+mainly through the acumen of Mrs Williamina Paton Fleming of Harvard
+College in scrutinizing the negatives forming the data for the great
+catalogue.
+
+
+  Doppler's principle.
+
+The principle that the refrangibility of light is altered by end-on
+motion was enunciated by Christian Doppler of Prague in 1842. The pitch
+of a steam-whistle quite obviously rises and falls as the engine to
+which it is attached approaches and recedes from a stationary auditor;
+and light-pulses are modified like sound-waves by velocity in the line
+of sight. They are crowded together and therefore rendered shorter and
+more frequent by the advance of their source, but drawn apart and
+lengthened by its recession. These effects vary with the rate of motion,
+which they consequently serve to measure; and they are produced
+indifferently by movements of the spectator or of the light-source. But
+Doppler's idea that they might be detected by colour-change was entirely
+illusory. It would apply only if the spectrum had no infra-red and
+ultraviolet extensions. These, however, since they share the general
+lengthening or shortening of wave-length through motion, are thereby
+shifted, to a certain definite extent, into visibility, and so produce
+accurate chromatic compensation. Integrated light, accordingly, tells
+nothing about velocity; but analysed light does, when it includes bright
+or dark rays the normal positions of which are known. The distinction
+was pointed out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848. By comparison with their
+analogues in the laboratory it can be determined whether, in which
+direction, and how much, lines of recognized origin are displaced in the
+spectra of the heavenly bodies. This subtle mode of research was made
+available by Sir William Huggins in 1868. He employed it, with an
+outcome of striking promise, to measure the radial speed of some of the
+brighter stars. In the following year, Sir Norman Lockyer was enabled to
+prove, by its means, the extraordinary vehemence of chromospheric
+disturbances, the bright prominence-rays in his spectroscope betraying,
+through their opposite shiftings, movements and counter-movements up to
+120 m. a second; while its validity and refinement were, in 1871,
+vouched for by H.C. Vogel's observations on the 9th of June 1871, of
+differences due to the sun's rotation in the refrangibility of
+Fraunhofer lines derived respectively from the east and west limbs.
+Stellar line-of-sight work, however, made no satisfactory progress
+until, in 1888, Vogel changed the _venue_ from the eye to the camera. A
+high degree of precision in measurement thus became attainable, and has
+since been fully attained. Not only the grosser facts concerning radial
+velocity, but variations in it so small as a mile, or less, per second,
+have been recorded and interpreted in terms of deep meaning. For the
+investigation of the general scheme of sidereal structure, the
+multiplication of results of the kind is indispensable. But as yet, the
+recessional or approaching movements of only a few hundred stars have
+been registered; and this store of information is scanty indeed compared
+with the needs of research. How the stars really move in space, and how
+the sun travels among them, can be ascertained only with the aid of
+materials collected by the spectrograph, which has now fortunately been
+brought to comply with the arduous conditions of exactitude requisite
+for collaboration with the transit instrument and its allies, the clock
+and chronograph. And here, to their great mutual advantage, the old and
+the new astronomies meet and join forces.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R. Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_ (1852); Sir G.
+  Cornewall Lewis, _An Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the
+  Ancients_ (1862); J.B.J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. ancienne; Hist.
+  de l'astr. au moyen âge; Hist. de l'astr. moderne; Hist, de l'astr. au
+  XVIII^e sičcle_; J.S. Bailly, _Histoire de l'astronomie_ (5 vols.,
+  1775-1787); J.F. Weidler, _Historia Astronomiae_ (1741); J.H. Mädler,
+  _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_ (1873); R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
+  Astronomie_ (1876); _Handbuch der Astronomie_ (1890-1892); W. Whewell,
+  _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_; A.M. Clerke, _Hist. of Astronomy
+  during the 19th Century_ (4th ed., 1903); A. Berry, _Hist. of
+  Astronomy_ (1898); J.K. Schaubach, _Geschichte der griechischen
+  Astronomie bis auf Eratosthenes_ (1802); Th. H. Martin, "Mémoire sur
+  l'histoire des hypotheses astronomiques," _Mémoires de l'lnstitut_, t.
+  xxx. (Paris, 1881); P. Tannery, _Recherches sur l'histoire de
+  l'astronomie ancienne_ (1893); O. Gruppe, _Die kosmischen Systeme der
+  Griechen_ (1851); G.V. Schiaparelli, _I Precursori del Copernico_
+  (1873); _Le Sfere Omocentriche di Eudosso_ (1875); P. Jensen,
+  _Kosmologie der Babylonier_ (1890); F.X. Kugler, _Die babylonische
+  Mondrechnung_ (1900); J. Epping and J.N. Strassmeier, _Astronomisches
+  aus Babylon_ (1889); F.K. Ginzel, _Die astronomischen Kenntnisse der
+  Babylonier_ (1901); C.L. Ideler, _Historische Untersuchungen über die
+  astronomischen Beobachtungen der Alten_ (1806); _Handbuch der math.
+  Chronologie_ (2 vols., 1825-1826); _Untersuchungen über den Ursprung
+  der Sternnamen_ (1809); G. Costard, _History of Astronomy_ (1767); J.
+  Narrien, _An Historical Account of the Origin and Progress of
+  Astronomy_ (1833); J.L.E. Dreyer, _Hist. of the Planetary Systems_
+  (1906); G.W. Hill, "Progress of Celestial Mechanics," _The
+  Observatory_, vol. xix. (1896).     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _The Observatory_, Nos. 231-234, 1895.
+
+  [2] _Observations of Comets_, translated from the Chinese _Annals_ by
+   John Williams, F.S.A. (1871).
+
+  [3] J.L.E. Dreyer, _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._ vol. iii. No. 7 (December
+   1881).
+
+  [4] F.K. Ginzel, "Die astronomischen Kenntnisse der Babylonier," C.F.
+    Lehmann, _Beiträge zur alten Geschichte_, Heft i. p. 6 (1901).
+
+  [5] _Knowledge and Scientific News_, vol. i. pp. 2, 228.
+
+  [6] _Astronomisches aus Babylon_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1889).
+
+  [7] Ginzel, loc. cit. Heft ii. p. 204.
+
+  [8] _Die babylonische Mondrechnung_, p. 50 (1900).
+
+  [9] S. Newcomb, _Astr. Nach._ No. 3682; P.H. Cowell, _Month. Notices
+    Roy. Astr. Soc._ lxv. 867.
+
+  [10] G.V. Schiaparelli, _I Precursori del Copernico_, pp. 23-28,
+    Pubbl. del R. Osservatorio di Brera, No. iii. (1873).
+
+  [11] G.V. Schiaparelli, _I Precursori del Copernico_, pp. 23-28,
+    Pubbl. del R. Osservatorio di Brera, No. ix.
+
+  [12] Marie. _Hist. des sciences_, t. i. p. 79; P. Tannery, _Hist. de
+    l'astronomie ancienne_, ch. v. p. 115.
+
+  [13] Published by H.C. Schjellerup in a French translation (St
+    Petersburg, 1874).
+
+  [14] Newcomb, _Researches on the Motion of the Moon_, Washington
+    Observations for 1875, Appendix ii. p. 20.
+
+  [15] F. Baily, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, vol. xiii. p. 19.
+
+  [16] J.L.E. Dreyer, _Life of Tycho Brahe_, p. 321.
+
+
+
+
+ASTROPALIA (classical _Astypalaea_), an island, with good harbours, in
+the south part of the Aegean, situated in 36.5° N. and immediately west
+of 26.5° E. It was colonized by Megara, and its constitution and
+buildings are known from numerous inscriptions. The Roman emperors
+recognized it as a free state, and in the middle ages it was called
+_Stampalia_, and belonged to the noble Venetian family of Quirini. It
+was taken by the Turks in the 16th century, and is now noted for its
+sponges. The customs and dress of the people, who speak a patois of
+romaic origin, are interesting.
+
+
+
+
+ASTROPHYSICS, the branch of astronomical science which treats of the
+physical constitution of the heavenly bodies. So long as these bodies
+could be known to men only as points or disks of light in the sky, no
+such science was possible. Even later, when the telescope was the only
+instrument of research, knowledge on this subject was confined to the
+appearances presented by the planets, supplemented by more or less
+probable inferences as to the nature of their surfaces. When, in the
+third quarter of the 19th century, spectrum analysis was applied to the
+light coming to us from the heavenly bodies, a new era in astronomical
+science was opened up of such importance that the body of knowledge
+revealed by this method has sometimes been termed the "new astronomy."
+The development of the method has been greatly assisted by photography,
+while the application of photometric measurements has been a powerful
+auxiliary in the work. It has thus come about that astrophysics owes its
+recent development, and its recognition as a distinct branch of
+astronomical science, to the combination of the processes involved in
+the three arts of spectroscopy, photography and photometry. The most
+general conclusions reached by this combination may be summed up as
+follows:--
+
+1. The heavenly bodies are composed of like matter with that which we
+find to make up our globe. The sun and stars are found to contain the
+more important elements with which chemistry has made us acquainted.
+Iron, calcium and hydrogen may be especially mentioned as three familiar
+chemical elements which enter largely into the constitution of all the
+matter of the heavens. It would be going too far to say that all the
+elements known to us exist in the sun or the stars; nor is the question
+whether the rarer ones can or cannot be found there of prime importance.
+The general fact of identity in the main constituents is the one of most
+fundamental importance. It would be going too far in the other direction
+to claim that all the elements which compose the heavenly bodies are
+found on the earth. There are many lines in the spectra of the stars, as
+well as of the nebulae, which are not certainly identified with those
+belonging to any elements known to our chemistry. The recent discoveries
+growing out of the investigation of newly discovered forms of radiation
+lead to the conclusion that the question of the forms of matter in the
+stars has far wider range than the simple question whether any given
+element is or is not found outside our earth. The question is rather
+that of the infinity of forms that matter may assume, including that
+most attenuated form found in the nebulae, which seem to be composed of
+matter more refined than even the atoms supposed to make up the matter
+around us.
+
+2. The second conclusion is that, as a general rule, the incandescent
+heavenly bodies are not masses of solid or liquid matter as formerly
+assumed, but mainly masses either of gas, or of substances gaseous in
+their nature, so compressed by the gravitation of their superincumbent
+parts toward a common centre that their properties combine those of the
+three forms of matter known to us. We have strong reason to believe that
+even the sun, though much denser than the general average of the stars,
+may possibly be characterized as gaseous rather than solid.
+Probabilities also seem to favour the view that this may, to a certain
+extent, be true of the four great planets of our system. The case of
+bodies like our earth and Mars, which are solid either superficially or
+throughout, is probably confined to the smaller bodies of the universe.
+
+3. A third characteristic which seems to belong to the great bodies of
+the universe is the very high temperature of their interior. With a
+modification to be mentioned presently, we may regard them as intensely
+hot bodies, probably at a temperature higher than any we can produce by
+artificial means, of which the superficial portions have cooled off by
+radiation into space. A modification in this proposition which may
+hereafter be accepted involves an extension of our ideas of temperature,
+and leads us to regard the interior heat of the heavenly bodies as due
+to a form of molecular activity similar to that of which radium affords
+so remarkable an instance. This modification certainly avoids many
+difficulties connected with the question of the interior heat of the
+earth, sun, Jupiter and probably all the larger heavenly bodies.
+
+A limit is placed on our knowledge of astrophysics which, up to the
+present time, we have found no means of overstepping. This is imposed
+upon us by the fact that it is only when matter is in a gaseous form
+that the spectroscope can give us certain knowledge as to its physical
+condition. So long as bodies are in the solid state the light which they
+emit, though different in different substances, has no characteristic so
+precisely marked that detailed conclusions can be drawn as to the nature
+of the substance emitting it. Even in a liquid form, the spectrum of any
+kind of matter is less characteristic than that of gas. Moreover, a
+gaseous body of uniform temperature, and so dense as to be
+non-transparent, does not radiate the characteristic spectrum of the gas
+of which it is composed. Precise conclusions are possible only when a
+gaseous body is transparent through and through, so that the gas emits
+its characteristic rays--or when the rays from an incandescent body of
+any kind pass through a gaseous envelope at a temperature lower than
+that of the body itself. In this case the revelations of the
+spectroscope relate only to the constitution of the gaseous envelope,
+and not to the body below the envelope, from which the light emanates.
+The outcome of this drawback is that our knowledge of the chemical
+constitution of the stars and planets is still confined to their
+atmospheres, and that conclusions as to the constitution of the interior
+masses which form them must be drawn by other methods than the
+spectroscopic one.
+
+When the spectroscope was first applied in astronomy, it was hoped that
+the light reflected from living matter might be found to possess some
+property different from that found in light reflected from non-living
+matter, and that we might thus detect the presence of life on the
+surface of a planet by a study of its spectrum; but no hope of this kind
+has so far been realized.
+
+We have, in this brief view of the subject, referred mainly to the
+results of spectrum analysis. Growing out of, but beyond this method is
+the beginning of a great branch of research which may ultimately explain
+many heretofore enigmatical phenomena of nature. The discovery of
+radio-activity may, by explaining the interior heat of the great bodies
+of the universe, solve a difficulty which since the middle of the 19th
+century has been discussed by physicists and geologists--that of
+reconciling the long duration which geologists claim for the crust of
+the earth with the period during which physicists have deemed it
+possible that the sun should have radiated heat. Evidence is also
+accumulating to show that the sun and stars are radio-active bodies, and
+that emanations proceeding from the sun, and reaching the earth, have
+important relations to the phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism and the
+Aurora.
+
+The subject of Astrophysics does not admit of so definite a subdivision
+as that of Astrometry. The conclusions which researches relating to it
+have so far reached are treated in the articles STAR; SUN; COMET;
+NEBULA; AURORA POLARIS, &c.     (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTRUC, JEAN (1684-1766), French physician and Biblical critic, was born
+on the 19th of March 1684 at Sauve, in Languedoc. He graduated in
+medicine at Montpellier in 1703, and in 1710 he was appointed to the
+chair of anatomy at Toulouse, which he retained till 1717, when he
+became professor of medicine at Montpellier. Subsequently he was
+appointed successively superintendent of the mineral waters of Languedoc
+(1721), first physician to the king of Poland (1729), and regius
+professor of medicine at Paris (1731). He died on the 5th of May 1766 at
+Paris. Of his numerous works, that on which his fame principally rests
+is the treatise entitled _De Morbis Venereis libri sex_, 1736. In
+addition to other medical works he published anonymously _Conjectures
+sur les mémoires originaux dont il parait que Moyse s'est servi pour
+composer le livre de la Genčse_, (1753), in which he pointed out that
+two main sources can be traced in the book of Genesis; and two
+dissertations on the immateriality and immortality of the soul, 1755.
+
+  See Hauck, _Realencyk. f. prot. Theol._, 1897, vol. ii. pp. 162-170.
+
+
+
+
+ASTURA, formerly an island, now a peninsula, on the coast of Latium,
+Italy, 7 m. S.E. of Antium, at the S.E. extremity of the Bay of Antium.
+The name also belongs to the river which flowed into the sea immediately
+to the S.E., at the mouth of which there was, according to Strabo, an
+anchorage. The medieval castle of the Frangipani, in which Conradin of
+Swabia vainly sought refuge after the battle of Tagliacozza in 1268, is
+built upon the foundations of a very large villa, of _opus reticulatum_
+with later additions in brickwork, and with a small harbour attached to
+it on the south-east. Remains of buildings also exist behind the sand
+dunes, which possibly mark the line of the channel which separated the
+island from the mainland, and these may have belonged to the
+post-station on the Via Severiana. As far as can be seen at present,
+there are remains of only one villa on the island itself;[1] but along
+the coast a mile to the north-west a line of villas begins, which
+continues as far as Antium. To the south-east, on the other hand,
+remains are almost entirely absent, and this portion of the coast seems
+to have been as sparsely populated in Roman times as it is now. The
+island seems to have existed as such in the time of Pope Honorius III.
+Astura was the site of a favourite villa of Cicero, whither he retired
+on the death of his daughter Tullia in 453 B.C. It appears to have been
+unhealthy even in Roman times; according to Suetonius, both Augustus and
+Tiberius contracted here the illnesses which proved fatal to them.
+
+  See T. Ashby, in _Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome_ (1905), p.
+  207.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Servius, in speaking of it as _oppidum_, must be referring to the
+    post-station.
+
+
+
+
+ASTURIAS, an ancient province and principality of northern Spain,
+bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Old Castile, S. by Leon
+and W. by Galicia. Pop. (1900) 627,069; area, 4205 sq. m. By the
+division of Spain in 1833, the province took the name of Oviedo, though
+not to the exclusion, in ordinary usage, of the older designation. A
+full description of its modern condition is therefore given under the
+heading OVIEDO; the present article being confined to an account of its
+physical features, its history, and the resultant character of its
+inhabitants. Asturias consists of a portion of the northern slope of the
+Cantabrian Mountains, and is covered in all directions with offshoots
+from the main chain, by which it is almost completely shut in on the
+south. The higher summits, which often reach a height of 7000-8000 ft.,
+are usually covered with snow until July or August, and the whole region
+is one of the wildest and most picturesque parts of Spain. Until the
+first railway was opened, in the middle of the 19th century, few of the
+passes across the mountains were practicable for carriages, and most of
+them are difficult even for horses. A narrow strip of level moorland,
+covered with furze and rich in deposits of peat, coal and amber,
+stretches inland, from the edge of the sheer cliffs which line the
+coast, to the foot of the mountains. The province is watered by numerous
+streams and rivers, which have hollowed out deep valleys; but owing to
+the narrowness of the level tract, their courses are short, rapid and
+subject to floods. The most important is the Nalon or Pravia, which
+receives the waters of the Caudal, the Trubia and the Narcea, and has a
+course of 62 m.; after it rank the Navia and the Sella. The estuaries of
+these rivers are rarely navigable, and along the entire littoral, a
+distance of 130 m., the only important harbours are at Gijón and Avilés.
+
+A country so rugged, and so isolated by land and sea, naturally served
+as the last refuge of the older races of Spain when hard pressed by
+successive invaders. Before the Roman conquest, the Iberian tribe of
+Astures had been able to maintain itself independent of the
+Carthaginians, and to extend its territory as far south as the Douro. It
+was famous for its wealth in horses and gold. About 25 B.C., the Romans
+subjugated the district south of the Cantabrians, to which they gave the
+name of Augustana. Their capital was Asturica Augusta, the modern
+Astorga, in Leon. The warlike mountaineers of the northern districts,
+known as Transmontana, never altogether abandoned their hostility to the
+Romans, whose rule was ended by the Visigothic conquest, late in the 5th
+century. In 713, two years after the defeat and death of Roderick, the
+last Visigothic king, all Spain, except Galicia and Asturias, fell into
+the hands of the Moors. One of the surviving Christian leaders, Pelayo
+the Goth, took refuge with three hundred followers in the celebrated
+cave of Covadonga, or Cobadonga, near Cangas de Onís, and from this
+hiding-place undertook the Christian reconquest of Spain. The Asturians
+chose him as their king in 718, and although Galicia was lost in 734,
+the Moors proved unable to penetrate into the remoter fastnesses held by
+the levies of Pelayo. After his death in 737, the Asturians continued to
+offer the same heroic resistance, and ultimately enabled the people of
+Galicia, Leon and Castile to recover their liberty. The title of prince
+of Asturias, conferred on the heir-apparent to the crown of Spain, dates
+from 1388, when it was first bestowed on a Castilian prince. The title
+of count of Covadonga is assumed by the kings of Spain. In modern times
+Asturias formed a captaincy-general, divided into Asturias d'Oviedo,
+which corresponds with the limits of the ancient principality, and
+Asturias de Santillana, which now constitutes the western half of
+Santander.
+
+Owing to their almost entire immunity from any alien domination except
+that of the Romans and Goths, the Asturians may perhaps be regarded as
+the purest representatives of the Iberian race; while their dialect
+(_linguaje bable_) is sometimes held to be closely akin to the parent
+speech from which modern Castilian is derived. It is free from Moorish
+idioms, and, like Galician and Portuguese it often retains the original
+Latin _f_ which Castilian changes into _h_. In physique, the Asturians
+are like the Galicians, a people of hardy mountaineers and fishermen,
+finely built, but rarely handsome, and with none of the grace of the
+Castilian or Andalusian. Unlike the Galicians, however, they are
+remarkable for their keen spirit of independence, which has been
+fostered by centuries of isolation. Despite the harsh land-laws and
+grinding taxation which prevent them, with all their industry and
+thrift, from securing the freehold of the patch of ground cultivated by
+each peasant family, the Asturians regard themselves as the aristocracy
+of Spain. This pride in their land, race and history they preserve even
+when, as often happens, they emigrate to other parts of the country or
+to South America, and earn their living as servants, water-carriers, or,
+in the case of the women, as nurses. They make admirable soldiers and
+sailors, but lack the enterprise and commercial aptitude of the Basques
+and Catalans; while they are differentiated from the inhabitants of
+central and southern Spain by their superior industry, and perhaps their
+lower standard of culture. It is, on the whole, true that by the
+exclusion of the Moors they lost their opportunity of playing any
+conspicuous part in the literary and artistic development of Spain. One
+class of the Asturians deserving special mention is that of the nomad
+cattle-drovers known as Baqueros or Vaqueros, who tend their herds on
+the mountains of Leitariegos in summer, and along the coast in winter;
+forming a separate caste, with distinctive customs, and rarely or never
+intermarrying with their neighbours.
+
+  For the modern condition of the principality (including climate, fauna
+  and flora), see S. Canals, _Asturias: informancion sobre su presente
+  estado_ (Madrid, 1900); and G. Casal, _Memorias de historia natural y
+  médica, de Asturias_ (Oviedo, 1900). For the history and antiquities,
+  there is much that is valuable in _Asturias monumental, epigráfica y
+  diplomática_, &c., by C.M. Vigil (Madrid, 1887)--folio, with maps and
+  illustrations. See also F. de Aramburu y Zuloaga, _Monografia de
+  Asturias_ (Oviedo, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+ASTYAGES, the last king of the Median empire. In the inscriptions of
+Nabonidus the name is written Ishtuvegu (cylinder from Abu Habba V R 64,
+col. 1, 32; Annals, published by Pinches, _Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch_. vii.
+col. 2, 2). According to Herodotus, he was the son of Cyaxares and
+reigned thirty-five years (584-550 B.C.); his wife was Aryenis, the
+daughter of Alyattes of Lydia (Herod, i. 74). About his reign we know
+little, as the narrative of Herodotus, which makes Cyrus the grandson of
+Astyages by his daughter Mandane, is merely a legend; the figure of
+Harpagus, who as general of the Median army betrays the king to Cyrus,
+alone seems to contain an historical element, as Harpagus and his family
+afterwards obtained a high position in the Persian empire. From the
+inscriptions of Nabonidus we learn that Cyrus, king of Anshan (Susiana),
+began war against him in 553 B.C.; in 550, when Astyages marched against
+Cyrus, his troops rebelled, and he was taken prisoner. Then Cyrus
+occupied and plundered Ecbatana. The captive king was treated fairly by
+Cyrus (Herod, i. 130), and according to Ctesias (_Pers_. 5, cf. Justin
+i. 6) made satrap of Hyrcania, where he was afterwards slain by Oebares
+against the will of Cyrus, who gave him a splendid funeral. Alexander
+Polyhistor and Abydenus in their excerpts from Berossus, which Eusebius
+(_Chron_. i. pp. 29 and 37) and Syncellus (p. 396) have preserved, give
+the name Astyages to the Median king who reigned in the time of the fall
+of Nineveh (606 B.C.), and became father-in-law of Nebuchadrezzar. This
+is evidently a mistake; the name ought to be Cyaxares (in the fragments
+of the Jewish history of Alexander Polyhistor, in Euseb. _Praep. Ev_.
+ix. 39, the name is converted into Astibaras, who, according to the
+unhistorical list of Ctesias, was the father of Astyages), and there is
+no reason to invent an earlier king Astyages I., as some modern authors
+have done. The Armenian historians render the name Astyages by Ashdahak,
+i.e. Azhi Dahaka (Zohak), the mythical king of the Iranian epics, who
+has nothing whatever to do with the historical king of the Medes.
+     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTYLAR (from Gr. á-, privative, and [Greek: stylos], a column), an
+architectural term given to a class of design in which neither columns
+nor pilasters are used for decorative purposes; thus the Ricardi and
+Strozzi palaces in Florence are astylar in their design, in
+contradistinction to Palladio's palaces at Vicenza, which are columnar.
+
+
+
+
+ASUNCIÓN (NUESTRA SENORA DE LA ASUNCIÓN), a city and port of Paraguay,
+and capital of the republic, on the left bank of the Paraguay river in
+25° 16' 04" S., 57° 42' 40" W., and 970 m. above Buenos Aires. Pop.
+(est. in 1900) 52,000. The port is connected with Buenos Aires and
+Montevideo by regular lines of river steamers, which are its only means
+of trade communication with the outer world, and with the inland town of
+Villa Rica (95 m.) by a railway worked by an English company. The city
+faces upon a curve in the river bank forming what is called the Bay of
+Asunción, and is built on a low sandy plain, rising to pretty hillsides
+overlooking the bay and the low, wooded country of the Chaco on the
+opposite shore. The general elevation is only 253 ft. above sea-level.
+Asunción is laid out on a regular plan, the credit for which is largely
+due to Dictator Francia; the principal streets are paved and lighted by
+gas and electricity; and telephone and street-car services are
+maintained. The climate is hot but healthful, the mean annual
+temperature being about 72° F. The city is the seat of a bishopric
+dating from 1547, and contains a large number of religious edifices. It
+has a national college and public library, but no great progress in
+education has been made. The most prominent edifice in the city is the
+palace begun by the younger Lopez, which is now occupied by a bank.
+There are some business edifices and residences of considerable
+architectural merit, but the greater part are small and inconspicuous, a
+majority of the residences being thatched, mud-walled cabins.
+Considerable progress was made during the last two decades of the 19th
+century, however, notwithstanding misgovernment and the extreme poverty
+of the people. Asunción was founded by Ayolas in 1335, and is the oldest
+permanent Spanish settlement on the La Plata. It was for a long time the
+seat of Spanish rule in this region, and later the scene of a bitter
+struggle between the church authorities and Jesuits. Soon after the
+declaration of independence in 1811, the city fell under the despotic
+rule of Dr Francia, and then under that of the elder and younger Lopez,
+through which its development was greatly impeded. It was captured and
+plundered by the Brazilians in 1869, and has been the theatre of several
+revolutionary outbreaks since then, one of which (1905) resulted in a
+blockade of several months' duration.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+
+
+ASVINS, in Hindu mythology, twin deities of light. After Indra, Agni and
+Soma, they are the most prominent divinities in the Rig-Veda, and have
+more than fifty entire hymns addressed to them. Their exact attributes
+are obscure. They appear to be the spirits of dawn, the earliest
+bringers of light in the morning sky; they hasten on in the clouds
+before Dawn and prepare the way for her. In some hymns they are called
+sons of the sun; in others, children of the sky; in others, offspring of
+the ocean. They are youngest of the gods, bright lords of lustre,
+honey-hued. They are inseparable. The sole purpose of one hymn is to
+compare them with different twin objects, such as eyes, hands, feet and
+wings. They have a common wife, Surya. They are physicians, protectors
+of the weak and old, especially of elderly unmarried women. They are the
+friends of lovers, and bless marriages and make them fruitful.
+
+  See A.A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+ASYLUM (from Gr. [Greek: a-], privative, and [Greek: sulae], right of
+seizure), a place of refuge. In ancient Greece, an asylum was an
+"inviolable" refuge for persons fleeing from pursuit and in search of
+protection. In a general sense, all Greek temples and altars were
+inviolable, that is, it was a religious crime to remove by force any
+person or thing once under the protection of a deity. But it was only in
+the case of a small number of temples that this protecting right of a
+deity was recognized with common consent. Such were the sanctuaries of
+Zeus Lycaeus in Arcadia, of Poseidon in the island of Calauria, and of
+Apollo at Delos, they were, however, numerous in Asia Minor. They
+guaranteed absolute security to the suppliant within their limits. The
+right of sanctuary, originally possessed by all temples, appears to have
+become limited to a few in consequence of abuses of it. Asylums in this
+sense were peculiar to the Greeks. The asylum of Romulus (Livy i. 8),
+which was probably the altar of Veiovis, cannot be considered as such.
+Under Roman dominion, the rights of existing Greek sanctuaries were at
+first confirmed, but their number was considerably reduced by Tiberius.
+Under the Empire, the statues of the emperors and the eagles of the
+legions were made refuges against acts of violence. Generally speaking,
+the classes of persons who claimed the rights of asylum were slaves who
+had been maltreated by their masters, soldiers defeated and pursued by
+the enemy, and criminals who feared a trial or who had escaped before
+sentence was passed. (See treatises _De Asylis Graecis_, by Förster,
+1847; Jaenisch, 1868; Barth, 1888.)
+
+With the establishment of Christianity, the custom of asylum or
+sanctuary (q.v.) became attached to the church or churchyard. In modern
+times the word asylum has come to mean an institution providing shelter
+or refuge for any class of afflicted or destitute persons, such as the
+blind, deaf and dumb, &c., but more particularly the insane. (See
+INSANITY.)
+
+
+
+
+ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. _droit d'asile_; Ger. _Asylrecht_), in
+international law, the right which a state possesses, by virtue of the
+principle that every independent state is sole master within its
+boundaries, of allowing fugitives from another country to enter or
+sojourn upon its territory. Extradition (q.v.) treaties are undertakings
+between states curtailing the exercise of the right of asylum in respect
+of refugees from justice, but the conditions therein laid down
+invariably show that nations regard the maintenance of this right of
+asylum as intimately connected with their right of independent action,
+however weak as states they may be, on their own soil. The neutral right
+to grant asylum to belligerent forces is now governed by articles 57, 58
+and 59 of the regulations annexed to the Hague Convention of the 29th
+of July 1899, relating to the Laws and Customs of War on Land. (See
+WAR.)     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+ATACAMA, a province of northern Chile, bounded N. and S. respectively by
+the provinces of Antofagasta and Coquimbo, and extending from the
+Pacific coast E. to the Argentine boundary line. It has an area of
+30,729 sq. m., lying in great part within the Atacama desert region (see
+below), and a population (1902) of 71,446. The silver and copper mines
+of the province are numerous, some of them ranking among the most
+productive known, but the majority are worked with limited capital and
+on a small scale. The silver ore was first discovered in 1832 by a
+shepherd at a place which bears his name, Juan Godoi. The nitrate and
+borax deposits are extensive and productive, and common salt is a
+natural product of large areas in the elevated desert regions of the
+Andes. The exports include copper and silver and their ores, nitrate of
+soda, borax, guano and other minerals in small quantities. The capital,
+Copiapó (est. pop. 8991 in 1902), is situated on a small river of the
+same name 37 m. from the coast and 51 m. south-east by rail from
+Caldera, the principal port of this great mining district. Before 1842,
+when guano began to attract notice as an exportable product, Atacama was
+considered as Bolivian territory, and Coquimbo the extreme northern
+province of Chile. In that year Chile decided to explore the desert
+coast, and in 1843 that part of the desert extending north to the 26th
+parallel was organized into the province of Atacama.
+
+
+
+
+ATACAMA, DESERT OF, an arid, barren and saline region of western South
+America, covering the greater part of the Chilean provinces of Atacama
+and Antofagasta, the Argentine territory of Los Andes, and the
+south-western corner of the Bolivian department of Potosí. The higher
+elevations are known as the Puna de Atacama, which is practically a
+continuation southward of the great _puna_ region of Peru and Bolivia.
+It is a broken, mountainous region, volcanic in places, saline in
+others, and ranges from 7000 to 13,500 ft. in general elevation. Its
+culminating ridges are marked by an irregular line of peaks and extinct
+volcanoes extending north by east from about 28° S. into southern
+Bolivia. On the eastern side, occasional rainfalls occur and streams
+from the snow-clads peaks produce some slight displays of fertility, but
+the general aspect of the plateaus, which are dry and cold in winter and
+in summer are swept by rainstorms and covered by occasional tufts of
+coarse grass, is barren and forbidding. They are also broken by great
+saline lagoons and dry salt basins. This region forms the Argentine
+territory of Los Andes and is habitable in places. On the western slope
+the land descends gradually to the Pacific, being broken into great
+basins, or terraces, by mountainous ridges in its higher elevations,
+widening out into gently-sloping sandy plains below, famous for their
+nitrate deposits, and terminating on the coast with sharply-sloping
+bluffs, having an elevation of 800 to 1500 ft., and looking from the sea
+like a range of flat-topped hills. This desolate region, which is
+rainless and absolutely barren, and was considered worthless for three
+and a half centuries, is now a treasure-house of mineral wealth,
+abounding in copper, silver, lead, nickel, cobalt, iron, nitrates and
+borax. It is occupied by many mining settlements, and includes some of
+the most productive copper and silver mines of the world.
+
+  See L. Darapsky, "Zur Geographic der Puna de Atacama," _Zeits. Ges.
+  Erdk. zu Berlin_, 1899; G.E. Church, "South America: an Outline of its
+  Physical Geography," _Geographical Journal_, 1901; John Ball, _Notes
+  of a Naturalist in South America_ (London, 1887); F. O'Driscoll, "A
+  Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic," _Geographical
+  Journal_, 1904.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+
+
+ATACAMITE, a mineral found originally in the desert of Atacama, and
+named by D. de Gallizen in 1801. It is a cupric oxychloride, having the
+formula CuCl2ˇ3Cu(OH)2, and crystallizing in the orthorhombic system.
+Its hardness is about 3 and its specific gravity 3.7, while its colour
+presents various shades of green, usually dark. Atacamite is a
+comparatively rare mineral, formed in some cases by the action of
+sea-water on various copper-ores, and occurring also as a volcanic
+product on Vesuvian lavas. Some of the finest crystals have been yielded
+by the copper-mines of South Australia, especially at Wallaroo. It
+occurs also, with malachite, at Bembe, near Ambriz, in West Africa. From
+one of its localities in Chile, Los Remolinos, it was termed Remolinite
+by Brooke and Miller. Atacamite, in a pulverulent state, was formerly
+used as a pounce under the name of "Peruvian green sand," and was known
+in Chile as arsenillo.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+ATAHUALLPA (_atahu_, Lat. _virtus_, and _allpa_, sweet), "the last of
+the Incas" (or Yncas) of Peru, was the son of the ruler Huayna Capac, by
+Pacha, the daughter of the conquered sovereign of Quito. His brother
+Huascar succeeded Huayna Capac in 1527; for, as Atahuallpa was not
+descended on both sides from the line of Incas, Peruvian law considered
+him illegitimate. He obtained, however, the kingdom of Quito. A jealous
+feeling soon sprang up between him and Huascar, who insisted that Quito
+should be held as a dependent province of his empire. A civil war broke
+out between the brothers, and, about the time when the Spanish conqueror
+Pizarro was beginning to move inland from the town of San Miguel,
+Huascar had been defeated and thrown into prison, and Atahuallpa had
+become Inca. Pizarro set out in September 1532, and made for Caxamarca,
+where the Inca was. Messengers passed frequently between them, and the
+Spaniards on their march were hospitably received by the inhabitants. On
+the 15th of November, Pizarro entered Caxamarca, and sent his brother
+and Ferdinando de Soto to request an interview with the Inca. On the
+evening of the next day, Atahuallpa entered the great square of
+Caxamarca, accompanied by some five or six thousand men, who were either
+unarmed or armed only with short clubs and slings concealed under their
+dresses. Pizarro's artillery and soldiers were planted in readiness in
+the streets opening off the square. The interview was carried on by the
+priest Vicente de Valverde, who addressed the Inca through an
+interpreter. He stated briefly and dogmatically the principal points of
+the Christian faith and the Roman Catholic policy, and concluded by
+calling upon Atahuallpa to become a Christian, obey the commands of the
+pope, give up the administration of his kingdom, and pay tribute to
+Charles V., to whom had been granted the conquest of these lands. To
+this extraordinary harangue, which from its own nature and the faults of
+the interpreter must have been completely unintelligible, the Inca at
+first returned a very temperate answer. He pointed out what seemed to
+him certain difficulties in the Christian religion, and declined to
+accept as monarch of his dominions this Charles, of whom he knew
+nothing. He then took a bible from the priest's hands, and, after
+looking at it, threw it violently from him, and began a more impassioned
+speech, in which he exposed the designs of the Spaniards, and upbraided
+them with the cruelties they had perpetrated. The priest retired, and
+Pizarro at once gave the signal for attack. The Spaniards rushed out
+suddenly, and the Peruvians, astonished and defenceless, were cut down
+in hundreds. Pizarro himself seized the Inca, and in endeavouring to
+preserve him alive, received, accidentally, on his hand the only wound
+inflicted that day on a Spaniard. Atahuallpa, thus treacherously
+captured, offered an enormous sum of money as a ransom, and fulfilled
+his engagement; but Pizarro still detained him, until the Spaniards
+should have arrived in sufficient numbers to secure the country. While
+in captivity, Atahuallpa gave secret orders for the assassination of his
+brother Huascar, and also endeavoured to raise an army to expel the
+invaders. His plans were betrayed, and Pizarro at once brought him to
+trial. He was condemned to death, and, as being an idolater, to death by
+fire. Atahuallpa, however, professed himself a Christian, received
+baptism, and his sentence was then altered into death by strangulation
+(August 29, 1533). His body was afterwards burned, and the ashes
+conveyed to Quito. (See also PERU: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+ATALANTA, in Greek legend, the name of two Greek heroines, (1) The
+Arcadian Atalanta was the daughter of Iasius or Iasion and Clymene. At
+her birth, she had been exposed on a hill, her father having expected a
+son. At first she was suckled by a she-bear, and then saved by huntsmen,
+among whom she grew up to be skilled with the bow, swift, and fond of
+the chase, like the virgin goddess Artemis. At the Calydonian boar-hunt
+her arrows were the first to hit the monster, for which its head and
+hide were given her by Meleager. At the funeral games of Pelias, she
+wrestled with Peleus, and won. For a long time she remained true to
+Artemis and rejected all suitors, but Meilanion at last gained her love
+by his persistent devotion. She was the mother of Parthenopaeus, one of
+the Seven against Thebes (Apollodorus iii. 9; Hyginus, _Fab._ 99). (2)
+The Boeotian Atalanta was the daughter of Schoeneus. She was famed for
+her running, and would only consent to marry a suitor who could outstrip
+her in a race, the consequence of failure being death. Hippomenes,
+before starting, had obtained from Aphrodite three golden apples, which
+he dropped at intervals, and Atalanta, stopping to pick them up, fell
+behind. Both were happy at the result; but forgetting to thank the
+goddess for the apples, they were led by her to a religious crime, and
+were transformed into lions by the goddess Cybele (Ovid, _Metam._ x.
+560; Hyginus, _Fab._ 185). The characteristics of these two heroines
+(frequently confounded) point to their being secondary forms of the
+Arcadian Artemis.
+
+
+
+
+ATARGATIS, a Syrian deity, known to the Greeks by a shortened form of
+the name, Derketo (Strabo xvi. c. 785; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 23. 81),
+and as Dea Syria, or in one word Deasura (Lucian, _de Dea Syria_). She
+is generally described as the "fish-goddess." The name is a compound of
+two divine names; the first part is a form of the Himyaritic _'Athlar_,
+the equivalent of the Old Testament _Ashtoreth_, the Phoenician
+_Astarte_ (q.v.), with the feminine ending omitted (Assyr. _Ishtar_);
+the second is a Palmyrene name _'Athe_ (_i.e. tempus opportunum_), which
+occurs as part of many compounds. As a consequence of the first half of
+the name, Atargatis has frequently, though wrongly, been identified with
+Astarte. The two deities were, no doubt, of common origin, but their
+cults are historically distinct. In 2 Macc. xii. 26 we find reference to
+an Atargateion or Atergateion (temple of Atargatis) at Carnion in Gilead
+(cf. 1 Macc. v. 43), but the home of the goddess was unquestionably not
+Palestine, but Syria proper, especially at Hierapolis (q.v.), where she
+had a great temple. From Syria her worship extended to Greece, Italy and
+the furthest west. Lucian and Apuleius give descriptions of the
+beggar-priests who went round the great cities with an image of the
+goddess on an ass and collected money. The wide extension of the cult is
+attributable largely to Syrian merchants; thus we find traces of it in
+the great seaport towns; at Delos especially numerous inscriptions have
+been found bearing witness to its importance. Again we find the cult in
+Sicily, introduced, no doubt, by slaves and mercenary troops, who
+carried it even to the farthest northern limits of the Roman empire. In
+many cases, however, Atargatis and Astarte are fused to such an extent
+as to be indistinguishable. This fusion is exemplified by the Carnion
+temple, which is probably identical with the famous temple of Astarte at
+Ashtaroth-Karnaim.
+
+Atargatis appears generally as the wife of Hadad (Baal). They are the
+protecting deities of the community. Atargatis, in the capacity of
+[Greek: polionchos], wears a mural crown, is the ancestor of the royal
+house, the founder of social and religious life, the goddess of
+generation and fertility (hence the prevalence of phallic emblems), and
+the inventor of useful appliances. Not unnaturally she is identified
+with the Greek Aphrodite. By the conjunction of these many functions,
+she becomes ultimately a great Nature-Goddess, analogous to Cybele and
+Rhea (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS); in one aspect she typifies the
+function of water in producing life; in another, the universal
+mother-earth (Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 23); in a third (influenced, no
+doubt, by Chaldaean astrology), the power of destiny. The legends are
+numerous and of an astrological character, intended to account for the
+Syrian dove-worship and abstinence from fish (see the story in Athenaeus
+viii. 37, where Atargatis is derived from [Greek: ates Gatidos] "without
+Gatis,"--a queen who is said to have forbidden the eating of fish). Thus
+Diodorus Siculus, using Ctesias, tells how she fell in love with a youth
+who was worshipping at the shrine of Aphrodite, and by him became the
+mother of Semiramis, the Assyrian queen, and how in shame she flung
+herself into a pool at Ascalon or Hierapolis and was changed into a fish
+(W. Robertson Smith in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ ii., 1887). In another story
+she was hatched from an egg found by some fish in the Euphrates and by
+them thrust on the bank where it was hatched by a dove; out of gratitude
+she persuaded Jupiter to transfer the fish to the Zodiac (cf. Ovid,
+_Fast._ ii. 459-474, _Metam._ v. 331).
+
+  See articles _s.v._ in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._ (1897), by W.
+  Baudissin; and Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc._; Fr. Baethgen, _Beiträge
+  zur Semit. Religiongesch._ (1888); R. Pietschmann, _Gesch. der
+  Phönizier_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+ATAULPHUS (the Latinized form of the Gothic Ataulf, "Father-wolf," from
+_atta_, father, and _vulfs_, wolf; mod. Germ. Adolf, Latinized as
+Adolphus, the form used by Gibbon for the subject of this article), king
+of the Goths (d. 415). On the death of Alaric (q.v.) his followers
+acclaimed his brother-in-law Ataulphus as king. In 412 he quitted Italy
+and led his army across the Alps into Gaul. Here he fought against some
+of the usurpers who threatened the throne of Honorius; he made some sort
+of compact with that emperor and, in 414, he married his sister
+Placidia, who had been since the siege of Rome a captive in the camp of
+the Goths. The ex-emperor Attalus danced at the marriage festival, which
+was celebrated with great pomp at Narbonne. In 415 Ataulphus crossed the
+Pyrenees into Spain and died at Barcelona, being assassinated by a
+groom. The most important fact in his history is his confession,
+recorded by Orosius, that he saw the inability of his countrymen to rear
+a civilized or abiding kingdom, and that consequently his aim should be
+to build on Roman foundations and blend the two nations into one.
+
+
+
+
+ATAVISM (from Lat. _atavus_, a great-great-great-grandfather or
+ancestor), the term given in biology to the reproduction in a living
+person or animal of the characteristics of an ancestor more remote than
+its parents (see HEREDITY). Loosely used, it connotes a reversion to an
+earlier type. Individuals reproduce unexpectedly the traits of earlier
+ancestors, and ethnologists and criminologists frequently explain by
+"atavism" the occurrence of degenerate species of man; but the whole
+subject is complicated by other possible explanations of such phenomena,
+included in the scientific study of normal "variation."
+
+
+
+
+ATBARA (_Bahr-el-Aswad_, or Black River), the most northern affluent of
+the river Nile, N.E. Africa. It rises in Abyssinia to the N.W. of Lake
+Tsana, unites its waters with a number of other rivers which also rise
+in the Abyssinian highlands, and flows north-west 800 m. till its
+junction at Ed Damer with the Nile (q.v.). The battle of the Atbara,
+fought near Nakheila, a place on the north bank of the river about 30 m.
+above Ed Damer, on the 8th of April 1898, between the khalifa's forces
+under Mahmud and Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener's
+Anglo-Egyptian army, resulted in the complete defeat of the Mahdists and
+the capture of their leader, and paved the way for the decisive battle
+of Omdurman on the 2nd of September following (see EGYPT: _Military
+Operations_).
+
+
+
+
+ATCHISON, a city and the county-seat of Atchison county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
+on the west bank of the Missouri river, which is navigable at this point
+but is utilized comparatively little for commerce. Pop. (1890) 13,963;
+(1900) 15,722, of whom 2508 were of negro descent and 1308 were
+foreign-born; (1910) 16,429. Atchison is served by the Atchison, Topeka
+& Santa Fé, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is the seat of
+Midland College (Lutheran, 1887), St Benedict's College (Roman Catholic,
+1858) for boys, Mt. Scholastics Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls, and
+Western Theological Seminary (Evangelical-Lutheran, 1893); a state
+soldiers' orphans' home is also located here. Atchison's situation and
+transportation facilities make it an important supply-centre, its trade
+in grains and live-stock being particularly large; it has large railway
+machine shops, and its principal manufactures are flour, furniture,
+lumber, hardware and drugs. The value of the city's factory products
+increased from $2,093,469 in 1900 to $4,052,274 in 1905, or 93.6%.
+Atchison was founded in 1854 by pro-slavery partisans, and was named in
+honour of their leader, David Rice Atchison, a United States senator.
+The city was quickly surpassed by Leavenworth in commercial importance,
+and during the Kansas struggle was never of great political importance.
+Its first city charter was granted in 1858. The Atchison _Globe_
+(established 1878) is one of the best-known of western papers.
+
+
+
+
+ATE, in Greek mythology, the personification of criminal folly, the
+daughter of Zeus and Eris (Strife). She misled even Zeus to take a hasty
+oath, whereby Heracles became subject to Eurystheus. Zeus thereupon cast
+her by the hair out of Olympus, whither she did not return, but remained
+on earth, working evil and mischief (_Iliad_, xix. 91). She is followed
+by the Litae (Prayers), the old and crippled daughters of Zeus, who are
+able to repair the evil done by her (_Iliad_, ix. 502). In later times
+Ate is regarded as the avenger of sin (Sophocles, _Antigone_, 614, 625).
+
+  See J. Girard, _Le Sentiment religieux en Grčce_ (1869); J.F. Scherer,
+  _De Graecorum Ates Notione atque Indole_ (1858); E. Berch, _Bedeutung
+  der Ate bei Aeschylos_ (1876); C. Lehrs, _Populare Aufsatze aus dem
+  Alterthum_ (1875); L. Schmidt, _Die Ethik der alten Griechen_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+ATELLA, an ancient Oscan town of Campania, 9 m. N. of Naples and 9 m. S.
+of Capua, on the road between the two. It was a member of the Campanian
+confederation, and shared the fortunes of Capua, but remained faithful
+to Hannibal for a longer time; the great part of the inhabitants, when
+they could no longer resist the Romans, were transferred by him to
+Thurii, and the town was reoccupied in 211 by the Romans, who settled
+the exiled inhabitants of Nuceria there. The fate of Atella at the end
+of the war, when the latter were able to return to their own city, is
+unknown. Cicero was in friendly relations with it, and exerted influence
+that it might retain its property in Gaul, so that it is obvious that it
+had then recovered municipal rights. The town is mainly famous as the
+cradle of early Roman comedy, the _Fabulae Atellanae_ (see below). Some
+remains of the town still exist, including a tower of the city wall in
+brick.
+
+  See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), p. 379.
+
+
+
+
+ATELLANAE FABULAE ("Atellan fables"), the name of a sort of popular
+comedy amongst the ancient Romans. The name is derived from Atella, an
+Oscan town in Campania; for this reason, and from their being also
+called _Osci Ludi_, it has been supposed that they were of Oscan origin
+and introduced at Rome after Campania had been deprived of its
+independence. It seems highly improbable that they were performed in the
+Oscan language. Mommsen, however, rejects their Oscan origin altogether;
+he regards them as purely Latin, the scene merely being laid at Atella
+to avoid causing offence by placing it at Rome or one of the Latin
+cities. These plays, or rather sketches, contained humorous descriptions
+of country as contrasted with town life, and found their subjects
+amongst the lower classes of the people. The subjects alone were decided
+upon before the performance began; the dialogue was improvised as it
+proceeded. The Atellanae contained certain stock characters, like the
+Italian harlequinades: Maccus (the fool), Bucco (fat-chaps), Pappus
+(daddy), Dossennus (sharper); monsters and bogeys like Manducus, Pytho,
+Lamia also made their appearance. The performers were the sons of Roman
+citizens, who did not lose their rights as citizens, and were allowed to
+serve in the army: professional actors were excluded. The simple prose
+dialogues were probably varied by songs in the rude Saturnian metre: the
+language was that of the common people, accompanied by lively
+gesticulation and movements. They were characterized by coarseness and
+obscenity. In the time of Sulla a literary form was given to the
+Atellanae by Pomponius of Bononia and Novius, who made them regular
+written comedies. Living persons seem to have been attacked, and even
+the doings of the gods and heroes of mythology burlesqued. From this
+time the Atellanae were used as after-pieces and performed by
+professional actors. In 46 B.C. they were ousted by the mimes, but
+regained popularity during the reign of Tiberius (chiefly owing to a
+certain Mummius), until they were definitely superseded by and merged in
+the mimes. They held their ground in the small towns and villages of
+Italy during the last days of the empire; they probably lingered on into
+the middle ages, and were the origin of the Italian _Commedie dell'
+arte._
+
+  The scanty fragments of Pomponius and Novius are collected in
+  Ribbeck's _Comicorum Romanorum Reliquiae_; see also Munk, _De Fabulis
+  Atellanis_ (1840); and art. LATIN LITERATURE.
+
+
+
+
+ATESTE (mod. _Este, q.v._), an ancient town of Venetia, at the southern
+foot of the Euganean hills, 43 ft. above sea-level; 22 m. S.W. of
+Patavium (Padua). The site was occupied in very early times, as the
+discoveries since 1882 show. Large cemeteries have been excavated, which
+show three different periods from the 8th century B.C. down to the Roman
+domination. In the first period (Italic) cremation burials closely
+approximating to the Villanova type are found; in the second[1]
+(Venetian) the tombs are constructed of blocks of stone, and _situlae_
+(bronze buckets), sometimes decorated with elaborate designs, are
+frequently used to contain the cinerary urns; in the third (Gallic),
+which begins during the 4th century B.C., though cremation continues,
+the tombs are much poorer, the ossuaries being of badly baked rough
+clay, and show traces of Gallic influence, and characteristics of the
+La-Tčne civilization. The many important objects found in these
+excavations are preserved in the local museum. See G. Ghirardini in
+_Notizie degli Scavi; Monumenti dei Lincei_, ii. (1893) 161 seq., vii.
+(1897) 5 seq., x. (1901) 5 seq.; _Atti del Congresso Internazionale di
+Scienze Storiche_ (Rome, 1904), v. 279 seq. Inscriptions show that the
+national language asserted its existence even after Ateste came into the
+hands of the Romans. When this occurred is not known; boundary stones of
+135 B.C. exist, which divide the territory of Ateste from that of
+Patavium and of Vicetia, showing that the former extended from the
+middle of the Euganean hills to the Atesis (mod. _Adige_, from which
+Ateste no doubt took its name, and on which it once stood). After the
+battle of Actium, Augustus settled veterans from various of his legions
+in this territory, Ateste being thenceforth spoken of as a colony. It
+appears to have furnished many recruits, especially for the _cohortes
+urbanae_. It appears but little in history, though its importance is
+vouched for by numerous inscriptions, the majority of which belong to
+the early Empire.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This is by some authorities divided into two.
+
+
+
+
+ATH, or AATH, an ancient town of the province of Hainaut, Belgium,
+situated on the left bank of the Dender. Pop. (1890) 9868; (1904)
+11,201. Formerly it was fortified, but after the change in the defensive
+system of Belgium in 1858 the fortress was dismantled and its ramparts
+superseded by boulevards. Owing to a fire caused by lightning its fine
+church of St Julien, dating from the 14th century, which had escaped
+serious injury during many wars, was destroyed in 1817 (since rebuilt).
+This left the Tour Burbant as its sole relic of the middle ages. This
+tower formed part of the _donjon_ of the fortress erected by Baldwin
+IV., count of Hainaut, about the year 1150. Near Ath is the fine castle
+of Beloeil, the ancient seat of the princely family of Ligne. Ath is
+famous for its gild of archers, whose butts are erected on the plain of
+the Esplanade in the centre of the town. The town militia has the
+privilege of being armed with bows and crossbows. Ath is also well known
+in Hainaut for its annual fęte called _le jour de ducasse--ducasse_
+being the Walloon word for kermesse (fęte). On this occasion a
+procession escorting figures of two giants, Goliath, called locally
+Goyasse, and Samson, forms the chief feature of the celebration. The
+emperor Joseph II. stopped it for its "idolatrous" character, but this
+act was one of the causes of the Brabant revolution of 1789. The
+procession, revived in 1790, was again stopped by the French republicans
+five years later, but was revived under the Empire, and has flourished
+ever since.
+
+
+
+
+ATHABASCA (_Athiapescow_), or ELK, a river and lake Of the province of
+Alberta, Canada. The river rises in the Rocky Mountains near the
+Yellowhead Pass in 52° 10' N. and 117° 10' W., and flows north-east as
+far as Athabasca Landing, and thence north into Lake Athabasca. It is
+740 m. long and has a number of important tributaries, including the
+McLeod, Pembina, Lesser Slave, which drains the lake of that name, and
+Clearwater. Athabasca lake is 195 m. long, west to east, from 20 to 32
+m. wide has an area of 3085 sq. m., and is 690 ft. above the sea. It
+discharges its waters northward by Slave river and the Mackenzie system
+to the Arctic Ocean. On its north shore the country is high and rocky;
+on the south, sandy and barren. Shallow draught steamers navigate the
+lake and river, and Lesser Slave lake and river, with one
+interruption--at Grand Rapids near the mouth of the Clearwater river.
+
+
+
+
+ATHALARIC (516-534), king of the Ostrogoths, grandson of Theodoric,
+became king of the Ostrogoths in Italy on his grandfather's death (526).
+As he was only ten years old, the regency was assumed by his mother
+Amalasuntha (q.v.). The murmurs of the Gothic nobles procured for their
+young sovereign too early emancipation from the schoolroom. He drank
+heavily, and indulged in vicious excesses which ruined his constitution.
+He died on the 2nd of October 534.
+
+
+
+
+ATHALIAH, in the Bible, the daughter of Ahab, and wife of Jehoram, king
+of Judah. After the death of Ahaziah, her son she usurped the throne and
+reigned for six years. She is said to have massacred all the members of
+the royal house of Judah (2 Kings xi. 1-3), but a similar atrocity is
+also ascribed to Jehu (2 Kings x. 12-14); with both notices contrast 2
+Chron. xxi. 17. The sole survivor Joash was concealed in the temple by
+his aunt, Jehosheba, wife of the priest Jehoida (2 Chron. xxii. 11)
+These organized a revolution in favour of Joash, and caused Athaliah and
+her adherents to be put to death (2 Kings xi.; 2 Chron. xxii. 10-12,
+xxiii., xxiv. 7).
+
+The story of Athaliah forms the subject of one of Racine's best
+tragedies. It has been musically treated by Handel and Mendelssohn.
+
+
+
+
+ATHAMAS, in Greek mythology, king of the Minyae in Boeotian Orchomenus,
+son of Aeolus, king of Thessaly, or of Minyas. His first wife was
+Nephele, the cloud-goddess, by whom he had two children, Phrixus and
+Helle (see ARGONAUTS). Athamas and his second wife Ino were said to have
+incurred the wrath of Hera, because Ino had brought up Dionysus, the son
+of her sister Semele, as a girl, to save his life. Athamas went mad, and
+slew one of his sons, Learchus; Ino, to escape the pursuit of her
+frenzied husband, threw herself into the sea with her other son
+Melicertes. Both were afterwards worshipped as marine divinities, Ino as
+Leucothea, Melicertes as Palaemon (_Odyssey_ v. 333). Athamas, with the
+guilt of his son's murder upon him, was obliged to flee from Boeotia. He
+was ordered by the oracle to settle in a place where he should receive
+hospitality from wild beasts. This he found at Phthiotis in Thessaly,
+where he surprised some wolves eating sheep; on his approach they fled,
+leaving him the bones. Athamas, regarding this as the fulfilment of the
+oracle, settled there and married a third wife, Themisto. The spot was
+afterwards called the Athamanian plain (Apollodorus i. 9; Hyginus,
+_Fab_. 1-5; Ovid, _Metam._ iv. 416, _Fasti_, vi. 485; Valerius Flaccus
+i. 277).
+
+According to a local legend, Athamas was king of Halos in Phthiotis from
+the first (Schol. on Apoll. Rhodius ii. 513). After his attempt on the
+life of Phrixus, which was supposed to have succeeded, the Phthiots were
+ordered to sacrifice him to Zeus Laphystius, in order to appease the
+anger of the gods. As he was on the point of being put to death,
+Cytissorus, a son of Phrixus, suddenly arrived from Aea with the news
+that Phrixus was still alive. Athamas's life was thus saved, but the
+wrath of the gods was unappeased, and pursued the family. It was
+ordained that the eldest born of the race should not enter the
+council-chamber; if he did so, he was liable to be seized and sacrificed
+if detected (Herodotus vii. 197). The legend of Athamas is probably
+founded on a very old custom amongst the Minyae--the sacrifice of the
+first-born of the race of Athamas to Zeus Laphystius. The story formed
+the subject of lost tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and
+other Greek and Latin dramatists.
+
+
+
+
+ATHANAGILD (d. 547) became king of the Visigoths (in Spain) in 534,
+having invoked the aid of the emperor Justinian for his revolt against
+his predecessor Agila. Athanagild, when himself king, vainly tried to
+oust his late allies from the footing which they had gained in Spain,
+nor were the Greeks finally expelled from Spain till seventy years
+later. Athanagild himself is chiefly remembered for the tragic fortunes
+of his daughters Brunechildis and Gavleswintha, who married two Frankish
+brother kings, Sigebert and Chilperic. Athanagild died ("peacefully," as
+the annalist remarks) in 547.
+
+
+
+
+ATHANARIC (d. 381), a ruler of the Visigoths from about 366 to 380. He
+bore the title not of king but of judge, a title which may be compared
+with that of ealdorman among the Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain.
+Athanaric waged, from 367 to 369, an unsuccessful war with the emperor
+Valens, and the peace by which the war was ended was ratified by the
+Roman and Gothic rulers meeting on a barge in mid-stream of the Danube.
+Athanaric was a harsh and obstinate heathen, and his short reign was
+chiefly famous for his brutal persecution of his Christian
+fellow-countrymen. In 376 he was utterly defeated by the Huns, who a few
+years before had burst into Europe. The bulk of the Visigothic people
+sought refuge within the Empire in the region now known as Bulgaria, but
+Athanaric seems to have fled into Transylvania. Being attacked there by
+two Ostrogothic chiefs he also, in 381, sought the protection of the
+Roman emperor. Theodosius I. received him courteously, and he was
+profoundly impressed by the glories of Constantinople, but on the
+fifteenth day after his arrival he died, and was honoured by the emperor
+with a magnificent funeral.
+
+
+
+
+ATHANASIUS (293-373), bishop of Alexandria and saint, one of the most
+illustrious defenders of the Christian faith, was born probably at
+Alexandria. Of his family and of his early education nothing can be said
+to be known. According to the legend, the boy is said to have once
+baptized some of his playmates and thereupon to have been taken into his
+house by Bishop Alexander, who recognized the validity of this
+proceeding. It is certain that Athanasius was young when he took orders,
+and that he must soon have entered into close relations with his bishop,
+whom, after the outbreak of the Arian controversy, he accompanied as
+archdeacon to the council of Nicaea. In the sessions and discussions of
+the council he could take no part; but in unofficial conferences he took
+sides vigorously, according to his own evidence, against the Arians, and
+was certainly not without influence. He had already, before the opening
+of the Council, defined his personal attitude towards the dogmatic
+problem in two essays, _Against the Gentiles_ and _On the Incarnation_,
+without, however, any special relation to the Arian controversy.
+
+The essay _On the Incarnation_ is the _locus classicus_ for the
+presentation of the teaching of the ancient church on the subject of
+salvation. In this the great idea that God himself had entered into
+humanity becomes dominant. The doom of death under which mankind had
+sighed since Adam's fall could only then be averted, when the immortal
+Word of God ([Greek: Logos]) assumed a mortal body, and, by yielding
+this to death for the sake of all, abrogated once for all the law of
+death, of which the power had been spent on the body of the Lord. Thus
+was rendered possible the leading back of mankind to God, of which the
+sure pledge lies in the grace of the resurrection of Christ. Athanasius
+would hear of no questioning of this religious mystery. In the catchword
+_Homousios_, which had been added to the creed at Nicaea, he too
+recognized the best formula for the expression of the mystery, although
+in his own writings he made but sparing use of it. He was in fact less
+concerned with the formula than with the content. Arians and Semi-Arians
+seemed to him to be pagans, who worship the creature, instead of the God
+who created all things, since they teach two gods, one having no
+beginning, the other having a beginning in Time and therefore of the
+same nature as the heathen gods, since, like them, he is a creature.
+Athanasius has no terms for the definition of the Persons in the one
+"Divine" ([Greek: to theion]), which are in their substance one; and yet
+he is certain that this "Divine" is not mere abstraction, but something
+truly personal: "They are One," so he wrote later in his _Discourses
+against the Arians_. "not as though the unity were torn into two parts,
+which outside the unity would be nothing, nor as though the unity bore
+two names, so that one and the same is at one time Father and then his
+own Son, as the heretic Sabellius imagined. But they are two, for the
+Father is Father, and the Son is not the same, but, again, the Son is
+Son, and not the Father himself. But their Nature ([Greek: physis]) is
+one, for the Begotten is not dissimilar ([Greek: anomoios]) to the
+Begetter, but his image, and everything that is the Father's is also the
+Son's."
+
+Five months after the return from the council of Nicaea Bishop Alexander
+died; and on the 8th of February 326 Athanasius, at the age of
+thirty-three, became his successor. The first years of his episcopate
+were tranquil; then the storms in which the remainder of his life was
+passed began to gather round him. The council had by no means composed
+the divisions in the Church which the Arian controversy had provoked.
+Arius himself still lived, and his friend Eusebius of Nicomedia rapidly
+regained influence over the emperor Constantine. The result was a demand
+made by the emperor that Arius should be readmitted to communion.
+Athanasius stood firm, but many accusers soon rose up against one who
+was known to be under the frown of the imperial displeasure. He was
+charged with cruelty, even with sorcery and murder. It was reported that
+a bishop of the Meletian party (see MELETIUS) in the Thebaid, of the
+name of Arsenius, had been unlawfully put to death by him. He was easily
+able to clear himself of these charges; but the hatred of his enemies
+was not relaxed, and in the summer of 335 he was peremptorily ordered to
+appear at Tyre, where a council had been summoned to sit in judgment
+upon his conduct. There appeared plainly a predetermination to condemn
+him, and he fled from Tyre to Constantinople to appeal to the emperor
+himself. Refused at first a hearing, his perseverance was at length
+rewarded by the emperor's assent to his reasonable request that his
+accusers should be brought face to face with him in the imperial
+presence. Accordingly the leaders of the council, the most conspicuous
+of whom were Eusebius of Nicomedia and his namesake of Caesarea, were
+summoned to Constantinople. Here they did not attempt to repeat their
+old charges, but found a more effective weapon to their hands in a new
+charge of a political kind--that Athanasius had threatened to stop the
+Alexandrian corn-ships bound for Constantinople. It is very difficult to
+understand how far there was truth in the persistent accusations made
+against the prince-bishop of Alexandria. Probably there was in the very
+greatness of his character and the extent of his popular influence a
+certain species of dominance which lent a colour of truth to some of the
+things said against him. On the present occasion his accusers succeeded
+at once in arousing the imperial jealousy. Without obtaining a hearing,
+he was banished at the end of 335 to Trčves in Gaul. This was the first
+banishment of Athanasius, which lasted about one year and a half. It was
+brought to a close by the death of Constantine, and the accession as
+emperor of the West of Constantine II., who, in June 337, allowed
+Athanasius to return to Alexandria.
+
+He reached his see on the 23rd of November 337, and, as he himself has
+told us, "the people ran in crowds to see his face; the churches were
+full of rejoicing; thanksgivings were everywhere offered up; the
+ministers and clergy thought the day the happiest in their lives." But
+this period of happiness was destined to be short-lived. His position as
+bishop of Alexandria placed him, not under his patron Constantine, but
+under Constantius, another son of the elder Constantine, who had
+succeeded to the throne of the East. He in his turn fell, as his father
+had done in later years, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia,
+who in the latter half of 339 was transferred to the see of
+Constantinople, the new seat of the imperial court. A second expulsion
+of Athanasius was accordingly resolved upon. The old accusations against
+him were revived, and he was further charged with having set at naught
+the decision of a council. On the 18th of March 339 the exarch of Egypt
+suddenly confronted Athanasius with an imperial edict, by which he was
+deposed and a Cappadocian named Gregory was nominated bishop in his
+place. On the following day, after tumultuous scenes, Athanasius fled,
+and four days later Gregory was installed by the aid of the soldiery. On
+the first opportunity, Athanasius went to Rome, to "lay his case before
+the church." A synod assembled at Rome in the autumn of 340, and the
+great council--probably that which met at Sardica in 342 or 343, where
+the Orientals refused to meet the representatives of the Western
+church--declared him guiltless. This decision, however, had no immediate
+effect in favour of Athanasius. Constantius continued for some time
+implacable, and the bold action of the Western bishops only incited the
+Arian party in Alexandria to fresh severities. But the death of the
+intruder Gregory, on the 26th of June 345, opened up a way of
+reconciliation. Constantius decided to yield to the importunity of his
+brother Constans, who had succeeded Constantine II. in the West; and the
+result was the restoration of Athanasius for the second time, on the
+21st of October 346. Again he returned to Alexandria amid the
+enthusiastic demonstrations of the populace, which is described by
+Gregory of Nazianzus, in his panegyric on Athanasius, as streaming forth
+like "another Nile" to meet him afar off as he approached the city.
+
+The six years of his residence in the West had given Athanasius the
+opportunity of displaying a momentous activity. He made long journeys in
+Italy, in Gaul, and as far as Belgium. Everywhere he laboured for the
+Nicene faith, and the impression made by his personality was so great
+that to hold fast the orthodox faith and to defend Athanasius were for
+many people one and the same thing. This was shown when, after the death
+of the emperor Constans, Constantius became sole ruler of East and West.
+With the help of counsellors more subtle than discerning, the emperor,
+with the object of uniting the various parties in the Church at any
+cost, sought for the most colourless possible formula of belief, which
+he hoped to persuade all the bishops to accept. As his efforts remained
+for years fruitless, he used force. "My will is your guiding-line," he
+exclaimed in the summer of 355 to the bishops who had assembled at Milan
+in response to his orders. A series of his most defiant opponents had to
+go into banishment, Liberius of Rome, Hilarius of Poitiers and Hosius of
+Corduba, the last-named once the confidant of Constantine and the actual
+originator of the _Homousios_, and now nearly a hundred years old. At
+length came the turn of Athanasius, now almost the sole upholder of the
+banner of the Nicene creed in the East. Several attempts to expel him
+failed owing to the attitude of the populace. On the night of the
+8th-9th of February 356, however, when the bishop was holding the
+Vigils, soldiers and police broke into the church of Theonas. Athanasius
+himself has described the scene for us: "I was seated upon my chair, the
+deacon was about to read the psalm, the people to answer, 'For his mercy
+endureth for ever.' The solemn act was interrupted; a panic arose." The
+bishop, who was at first unwilling to save himself, until he knew that
+his faithful followers were in safety, succeeded in escaping, leaving
+the town and finding a hiding-place in the country. The solitudes of
+Upper Egypt, where numerous monasteries and hermitages had been planted,
+seem at this time to have been his chief shelter. In this case, benefit
+was repayed by benefit, for Athanasius during his episcopate had been a
+zealous promoter of asceticism and monachism. With Anthony the hermit
+and Pachomius the founder of monasteries, he had maintained personal
+relations, and the former he had commemorated in his _Life of Anthony_.
+During his exile his time was occupied in writing on behalf of his
+cause, and to this period belong some of his most important works, above
+all the great _Orations or Discourses against the Arians_, which furnish
+the best exposition of his theological principles.
+
+During his absence the see of Alexandria was left without a pastor. It
+is true that George of Cappadocia had taken his place; but he could only
+maintain himself for a short while (February 357-October 358). The great
+majority of the population remained faithful to the exile. At length, in
+November 361, the way was opened to him for his return to his see by the
+death of Constantius. Julian, who succeeded to the imperial throne,
+professed himself indifferent to the contentions of the Church, and gave
+permission to the bishops exiled in the late reign to return home. Among
+others, Athanasius availed himself of this permission, and in February
+362 once more seated himself upon his throne, amid the rejoicings of
+the people. He had begun his episcopal labours with renewed ardour, and
+assembled his bishops in Alexandria to decide various important
+questions, when an imperial mandate again--for the fourth time--drove
+him from his place of power. The faithful gathered around him weeping.
+"Be of good heart," he said, "it is but a cloud: it will pass." His
+forecast proved true; for within a few months Julian had closed his
+brief career of pagan revival. As early as September 363, Athanasius was
+able to travel to Jovian, the new emperor, who had sent him a letter
+praising his Christian fidelity and encouraging him to resume his work.
+He returned to Alexandria on the 20th of February 364. With the emperor
+he continued to maintain friendly relations; but the period of repose
+was short. In the spring of 365, after the accession of Valens to the
+throne, troubles again arose. Athanasius was once more compelled to seek
+safety from his persecutors in concealment (October 365), which lasted,
+however, only for four months. In February 366 he resumed his episcopal
+labours, in which he henceforth remained undisturbed. On the 2nd of May
+373, having consecrated one of his presbyters as his successor, he died
+quietly in his own house.
+
+Athanasius was a man of action, but he also knew how to use his pen for
+the furtherance of his cause. He left a large number of writings, which
+cannot of course be compared with those of an Origen, a Basil, or a
+Gregory of Nyssa. Athanasius was no systematic theologian. All his
+treatises are occasional pieces, born of controversy and intended for
+controversial ends. The interest in abstract exposition of clearly
+formulated theological ideas is everywhere subordinate to the polemical
+purpose. But all these writings are instinct with a living personal
+faith, and serve for the defence of the cause; for it was not about
+words that he was contending. Even those who do not sympathize with the
+cause which Athanasius steadfastly defended cannot but admire his
+magnanimous and heroic character. If he was imperious in temper and
+inflexible in his conception of the Christian faith, he possessed a
+great heart and a great intellect, inspired with an enthusiastic
+devotion to Christ. As a theologian, his main distinction was his
+zealous advocacy of the essential divinity of Christ. Christianity in
+its Arian conception would have evaporated in a new polytheism. To have
+set a dam against this process with the whole force of a mighty
+personality constitutes the importance of Athanasius in the world's
+history. It is with good reason that the Church honours him as the
+"Great," and as the "Father of Orthodoxy."
+
+  The best edition of the works of Athanasius is the so-called Maurine
+  edition of Bernard de Montfaucon in 3 vols. (Paris, 1698); this was
+  enlarged in the 3rd edition by Giustiniani (4 vols., Padua, 1777), and
+  is printed in this form in Migne's _Patrologia_, vols. xxv.-xxviii. An
+  English translation of selections, with excellent introductions to the
+  several writings, was published by Archibald Robertson in the _Library
+  of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, second series, vol. 4 (Oxford
+  and New York, 1892). There is no biography satisfactory from the
+  modern point of view. Studies preliminary to such a biography began to
+  be published by E. Schwartz in his essays, "Zur Geschichte des
+  Athanasius" (in the _Nachrichten der koniglichen Gesellschaft der
+  Wissenschaften zu Göttingen_, 1904, &c.). The life of Athanasius,
+  however, is so completely intertwined with the history of his time
+  that it is permissible to refer, for a knowledge of him, to the
+  general descriptions which will be found at the close of the article
+  ARIUS. Of the older literature, Tillemont's _Mémoires pour servir ŕ
+  l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers sičcles_, vols. vi. and
+  viii., are still a mine of material for the historian. Of the newer
+  literature the following deserve to be read:--Johann Adam Mohler,
+  _Athanasius der Grosse und die Kirche seiner Zeit_, 2 vols. (2nd ed.,
+  Mainz, 1844); and Fr. Boehringer, "Arius und Athanasius," _Die Kirche
+  Christi und ihre Zeugen_, vol. i. part 2 (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1874).
+       (G. K.)
+
+
+
+
+ATHAPASCAN, a widely distributed linguistic stock of North American
+Indians, the chief tribes included being the Chippewyan, Navajo, Apache,
+Jicarilla, Lipan, Hupa and Wailaki. The Athapascan family is
+geographically divided into Northern, Pacific and Southern. The Northern
+division (Tinneh or Déné) is about Alaska, and the Yukon and Mackenzie
+rivers,--the eponymous "Athabasca" tribe living round Lake Athabasca, in
+the province of Alberta in Canada. The Pacific division covers a strip
+of territory, some 400 m. in length, from Oregon southwards into
+California. The Southern division includes Arizona and New Mexico, parts
+of Utah, Colorado, Kansas and Texas, and the northern part of Mexico.
+The typical tribes are those of the Northern division.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+ATHARVA VEDA, the fourth book of the Vedas, the ancient scriptures of
+the Brahman religion. Like the other Vedas it is divided into Samhita,
+Brahmanas and Upanishads, representing the spiritual element and its
+magical and nationalistic development. The mantras or sayings composing
+the Samhita of the Atharva Veda differ from those of the other Vedas by
+being in the form of spells rather than prayers or hymns, and seem to
+indicate a stage of religion lower than that of the Rig Veda.
+
+
+
+
+ATHEISM (from Gr. [Greek: a-], privative, and [Greek: theos], God),
+literally a system of belief which denies the existence of God. The term
+as generally used, however, is highly ambiguous. Its meaning varies (a)
+according to the various definitions of deity, and especially (b)
+according as it is (i.) deliberately adopted by a thinker as a
+description of his own theological standpoint, or (ii.) applied by one
+set of thinkers to their opponents. As to (a), it is obvious that
+atheism from the standpoint of the Christian is a very different
+conception as compared with atheism as understood by a Deist, a
+Positivist, a follower of Euhemerus or Herbert Spencer, or a Buddhist.
+But the ambiguities arising from the points of view described in (b) are
+much more difficult both intellectually and in their practical social
+issues. Thus history shows how readily the term has been used in the
+most haphazard manner to describe even the most trivial divergence of
+opinion concerning points of dogma. In other words, "atheism" has been
+used generally by the orthodox adherents of one religion, or even of a
+single sect, for all beliefs which are different or even differently
+expressed. It is in fact in these cases, like "heterodoxy," a term of
+purely negative significance, and its intellectual value is of the
+slightest. The distinction between the terms "religion" and "magic" is,
+in a similar way, often due merely to rivalry between the adherents of
+two or more mutually exclusive religions brought together in the same
+community. When the psalmist declares that "the fool hath said in his
+heart, there is no God," he probably does not refer to theoretical
+denial, but to a practical disbelief in God's government of human
+affairs, shown in disobedience to moral laws. Socrates was charged with
+"not believing in the gods the city believes in." The cry of the heathen
+populace in the Roman empire against the Christians was "Away with the
+atheists! To the lions with the Christians!" The ground for the charge
+was probably the lack of idolatry in all Christian worship. Spinoza, for
+whom God alone existed, was persecuted as an atheist. A common
+designation of Knox was "the atheist," although it was to him "matter of
+satisfaction that our most holy religion is founded on faith, not on
+reason."
+
+In its most scientific and serious usage the term is applied to that
+state of mind which does not find deity (i.e. either one or many gods)
+in or above the physical universe. Thus it has been applied to certain
+primitive savages, who have been thought (e.g. by Lord Avebury in his
+_Prehistoric Times_) to have no religious belief; it is, however, the
+better opinion that there are no peoples who are entirely destitute of
+some rudimentary religious belief. In the second place, and most
+usually, it is applied to a purely intellectual, metaphysical disbelief
+in the existence of any god, or of anything supernatural. In this
+connexion it is usual to distinguish three types of atheism:--the
+_dogmatic_, which denies the existence of God positively; the
+_sceptical_, which distrusts the capacity of the human mind to discover
+the existence of God; and the _critical_, which doubts the validity of
+the theistic argument, the proofs for the existence of God. That the
+first type of atheism exists, in spite of the denials of those who
+favour the second or the third, may be proved by the utterances of men
+like Feuerbach, Flourens or Bradlaugh. "There is no God," says
+Feuerbach, "it is clear as the sun and as evident as the day that there
+is no God, and still more that there can be none." With greater passion
+Flourens declares "Our enemy is God. Hatred of God is the beginning of
+wisdom. If mankind would make true progress, it must be on the basis of
+atheism." Bradlaugh maintained against Holyoake that he would fight
+until men respected the name "atheist." The answer to dogmatic atheism,
+that it implies infinite knowledge, has been well stated in John
+Foster's _Essays_, and restated by Chalmers in his _Natural Theology_,
+and its force is recognized in Holyoake's careful qualification of the
+sense in which secularism accepts atheism, "always explaining the term
+atheist to mean 'not seeing God' visually or inferentially, never
+suffering it to be taken for anti-theism, that is, hating God, denying
+God--as _hating_ implies personal knowledge as the ground of dislike,
+and _denying_ implies infinite knowledge as the ground of disproof." But
+dogmatic atheism is rare compared with the sceptical type, which is
+identical with agnosticism (q.v.) in so far as it denies the capacity of
+the mind of man to form any conception of God, but is different from it
+in so far as the agnostic merely holds his judgment in suspense, though,
+in practice, agnosticism is apt to result in an attitude towards
+religion which is hardly distinguishable from a passive and unaggressive
+atheism. The third or critical type may be illustrated by _A Candid
+Examination of Theism_ by "Physicus" (G.J. Romanes), in which the writer
+endeavours to establish the weakness of the proofs for the existence of
+God, and to substitute for theism Spencer's physical explanation of the
+universe, and yet admits how unsatisfying to himself the new position
+is. "When at times I think, as think at times I must, of the appalling
+contrast between the hallowed glory of that creed which once was mine,
+and the lonely mystery of existence as now I find it--at such times I
+shall ever feel it impossible to avoid the sharpest pang of which my
+nature is susceptible."
+
+Atheism has to meet the protest of the heart as well as the argument of
+the mind of mankind. It must be judged not only by theoretical but by
+practical arguments, in its relations either to the individual or to a
+society. Voltaire himself, speaking as a practical man rather than as a
+metaphysician, declared that if there were no God it would be necessary
+to invent one; and if the analysis is only carried far enough it will be
+found that those who deny the existence of God (in a conventional sense)
+are all the time setting up something in the nature of deity by way of
+an ideal of their own, while fighting over the meaning of a word or its
+conventional misapplication.
+
+
+
+
+ATHELM (d. 923), English churchman, is said to have been a monk of
+Glastonbury before his elevation in 909 to the see of Wells, of which he
+was the first occupant. In 914 he became archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+
+
+
+ATHELNEY, a slight eminence of small extent in the low level tract about
+the junction of the rivers Tone and Parrett in Somersetshire, England.
+It was formerly isolated by marshes and accessible only by boat or
+artificial causeway, and under these conditions it gained its historical
+fame as the retreat of King Alfred in 878-879 when he was unable to
+withstand the incursions of the Danes. After regaining his throne he
+founded a monastery here in gratitude for the retreat afforded him by
+the island; no traces of it exist above ground, but remains have been
+excavated. There was also found here, in 1693, the celebrated Alfred
+jewel, bearing his name, and preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at
+Oxford. An inscribed pillar commemorating the king was set up in 1801.
+The name of Athelney signifies the Isle of Princes (A.S.
+_AEthelingaea_). Athelney is a railway station on a branch of the Great
+Western line.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia,
+Pallas Athene, Pallas), one of the most important goddesses in Greek
+mythology. With Zeus and Apollo, she forms a triad which represents the
+embodiment of all divine power. No satisfactory derivation of the name
+Athena has been given[1]; Pallas, at first an epithet, but after Pindar
+used by itself, may possibly be connected with [Greek: pallakhe]
+("maiden"). Athena has been variously described as the pure aether, the
+storm-cloud, the dawn, the twilight; but there is little evidence that
+she was regarded as representing any of the physical powers of nature,
+and it is better to endeavour to form an idea of her character and
+attributes from a consideration of her cult-epithets and ritual.
+According to the legend, her father Zeus swallowed his wife Metis
+("counsel"), when pregnant with Athena, since he had been warned that
+his children by her might prove stronger than himself and dethrone him.
+Hephaestus (or Prometheus) subsequently split open his head with a
+hatchet, and Athena sprang forth fully armed, uttering a loud shout of
+victory (Hesiod, _Theogony_, 886; Pindar, _Olympia_, vii. 35). In Crete
+she was said to have issued from a cloud burst asunder by Zeus.
+According to Roscher, the manner of her birth represents the storm-cloud
+split by lightning; Farnell (_Cults of the Greek States_, i. p. 285)
+sees in it an indication that, as the daughter of Metis, Athena was
+already invested with a mental and moral character, and explains the
+swallowing of Metis (for which compare the story of Cronus and his
+children) by the desire to attribute an extraordinary birth to one in
+whom masculine traits predominated. In another account (as [Greek:
+Tritogeneia]) she is the daughter of the river Triton, to which various
+localities were assigned, and wherever there was a river (or lake) of
+that name, the inhabitants claimed that she was born there. It is
+probable that the name originated in Boeotia (C.O. Müller, _Geschichten
+hellenischer Stamme_, i. pp. 351-357; but see Macan on Herodotus, iv.
+180), whence it was conveyed by colonists to Cyrene and thence to Libya,
+where there was a river Triton. Here some local divinity, a daughter of
+Poseidon, connected with the water and also of a warlike character, was
+identified by the colonists with their own Athena. In any case, it is
+fairly certain that Tritogeneia means "water-born," although an old
+interpretation derived it from [Greek: trito], a supposed Boeotian word
+meaning "head," which further points to the name having originated in
+Boeotia. Roscher suggests that the localization of her birthplace in the
+extreme west points to the western sea, the home of cloud and storm.
+
+In Homer Athena already appears as the goddess of counsel, of war, of
+female arts and industries, and the protectress of Greek cities, this
+last aspect of her character being the most important and pronounced.
+Hence she is called [Greek: polias], [Greek: poliouchos], in many Greek
+states, and is frequently associated with [Greek: Zeus polieus]. The
+most celebrated festival of the city-goddess was the Panathenaea at
+Athens and other places. Other titles of kindred meaning are [Greek:
+archegeris] ("founder") and [Greek: tanachais], the protectress of the
+Achaean league. At Athens she presided over the phratries or clans, and
+was known as [Greek: apatouria] and [Greek: fratria], and sacrifice was
+offered to her at the festival Apaturia. The title [Greek: meter], given
+her by the inhabitants of Elis, whose women, according to the legend,
+she had blessed with abundance of children, seems at variance with the
+generally-recognized conception of her as [Greek: parthenos]; but
+[Greek: meter] may bear the same meaning as [Greek: kourotrophos], the
+fosterer of the young, in harmony with her aspect as protectress of
+civic and family life. At Alalcomenae, near the Tritonian lake in
+Boeotia, she was [Greek: alalkomeneis] ("defender"). Her temple, which
+was pillaged by Sulla, contained an ivory image, which was said to have
+fallen from heaven. The inhabitants claimed that the goddess was born
+there and brought up by a local hero Alalcomeneus. Her images, called
+Palladia, which guarded the heights (cf. her epithets [Greek: acria,
+kranaia]), represented her with shield uplifted, brandishing her spear
+to keep off the foe. The cult of Athena Itonia, whose earliest seat
+appears to have, been amongst the Thessalians, who used her name as a
+battle-cry, made its way to Coronea in Boeotia, where her sanctuary was
+the seat of the Pamboeotian confederacy. The meaning of Itonia is
+obscure: Dümmler connects it with [Greek: iteones], the "willow-beds" on
+the banks of the river Coralios (the river of the maiden, i.e. Athena);
+Jebb (on Bacchylides, _fr._ xi. 2) suggests a derivation from [Greek:
+ienai], the goddess of the "onset." At Thebes she was worshipped as
+Athena Onka or Onga, of equally uncertain derivation (possibly from
+[Greek: ogkos], "a height"). Peculiar to Arcadia is the title Athena
+Alea, probably = "warder off of evil," although others explain it as =
+"warmth," and see in it an allusion to her physical nature as one of the
+powers of light. Farnell (_Cults_, p. 275) points out that at the same
+time she is certainly looked upon as in some way connected with the
+health-divinities, since in her temple she is grouped with Asclepius and
+Hygieia (see HYGIEIA).
+
+She already appears as the goddess of counsel ([Greek: poluboulos]) in
+the _Iliad_ and in Hesiod. The Attic bouleutae took the oath by Athena
+Boulaia; at Sparta she was [Greek: agoraia], presiding over the popular
+assemblies in the market-place; in Arcadia [Greek: mechanitis] the
+discoverer of devices. The epithet [Greek: pronoia] ("forethought") is
+due, according to Farnell, to a confusion with [Greek: pronaia],
+referring to a statue of the goddess standing "before a shrine," and
+arose later (probably spreading from Delphi), some time after the
+Persian wars, in which she repelled a Persian attack on the temples "by
+divine forethought"; another legend attributes the name to her skill in
+assisting Leto at the birth of Apollo and Artemis. With this aspect of
+her character may be compared the Hesiodic legend, according to which
+she was the daughter of Metis. Her connexion with the trial of Orestes,
+the introduction of a milder form of punishment for justifiable
+homicide, and the institution of the court [Greek: to epi Palladio],
+show the important part played by her in the development of legal ideas.
+
+The protectress of cities was naturally also a goddess of war. As such
+she appears in Homer and Hesiod and in post-Homeric legend as the slayer
+of the Gorgon and taking part in the battle of the giants. On numerous
+monuments she is represented as [Greek: areia], "the warlike," [Greek:
+nikephoros], "bringer of victory," holding an image of Nike (q.v.) in
+her outstretched hand (for other similar epithets see Roscher's
+_Lexikon_). She was also the goddess of the arts of war in general;
+[Greek: stoicheia], she who draws up the ranks for battle, [Greek:
+zosteria], she who girds herself for the fray. Martial music (cp.
+[Greek: Athene salpinx], "trumpet") and the Pyrrhic dance, in which she
+herself is said to have taken part to commemorate the victory over the
+giants, and the building of war-ships were attributed to her. She
+instructed certain of her favourites in gymnastics and athletics, as a
+useful training for war. The epithets [Greek: ippia], [Greek:
+chalinitis], [Greek: damasippos], usually referred to her as goddess of
+war-horses, may perhaps be reminiscences of an older religion in which
+the horse was sacred to her. As a war-goddess, she is the embodiment of
+prudent and intelligent tactics, entirely different from Ares, the
+personification of brute force and rashness, who is fitly represented as
+suffering defeat at her hands. She is the patroness and protectress of
+those heroes who are distinguished for their prudence and caution, and
+in the Trojan War she sides with the more civilized Greeks.
+
+The goddess of war develops into the goddess of peace and the pursuits
+connected with it. She is prominent as the promoter of agriculture in
+Attic legend. The Athenian hero Erechtheus (Erichthonius), originally an
+earth-god, is her foster-son, with whom she was honoured in the
+Erechtheum on the Acropolis. Her oldest priestesses, the
+dew-sisters--Aglauros, Herse, Pandrosos--signify the fertilization of
+the earth by the dew, and were probably at one time identified with
+Athena, as surnames of whom both Aglauros and Pandrosos are found. The
+story of the voluntary sacrifice of the Attic maiden Aglauros on behalf
+of her country in time of war (commemorated by the ephebi taking the
+oath of loyalty to their country in her temple), and of the leap of the
+three sisters over the Acropolis rock (see ERECHTHEUS), probably points
+to an old human sacrifice. Athena also gave the Athenians the
+olive-tree, which was supposed to have sprung from the bare soil of the
+Acropolis, when smitten by her spear, close to the horse (or spring of
+water) produced by the trident of Poseidon, to which he appealed in
+support of his claim to the lordship of Athens. She is also connected
+with Poseidon in the legend of Erechtheus, not as being in any way akin
+to the former in nature or character, but as indicating the contest
+between an old and a new religion. This god, whose worship was
+introduced into Athens at a later date by the Ionian immigrants, was
+identified with Erechtheus-Erichthonius (for whose birth Athena was in a
+certain sense responsible), and thus was brought into connexion with the
+goddess, in order to effect a reconciliation of the two cults. Athena
+was said to have invented the plough, and to have taught men to tame
+horses and yoke oxen. Various arts were attributed to her--shipbuilding,
+the goldsmith's craft, fulling, shoemaking and other branches of
+industry. As early as Homer she takes especial interest in the
+occupations of women; she makes Hera's robe and her own peplus, and
+spinning and weaving are often called "the works of Athena." The custom
+of offering a beautifully woven peplus at the Panathenaic festival is
+connected with her character as Ergane the goddess of industry.[2] As
+patroness of the arts, she is associated with Hephaestus (one of her
+titles is [Greek: Ephaistia]) and Prometheus, and in Boeotia she was
+regarded as the inventress of the flute. According to Pindar, she
+imitated on the flute the dismal wail of the two surviving Gorgons after
+the death of Medusa. The legend that Athena, observing in the water the
+distortion of her features caused by playing that instrument, flung it
+away, probably indicates that the Boeotians whom the Athenians regarded
+with contempt, used the flute in their worship of the Boeotian Athena.
+The story of the slaying of Medusa by Athena, in which there is no
+certain evidence that she played a direct part, explained by Roscher as
+the scattering of the storm-cloud, probably arose from the fact that she
+is represented as wearing the Gorgon's head as a badge.
+
+As in the case of Aphrodite and Apollo, Roscher in his _Lexikon_ deduces
+all the characteristics of Athena from a single conception--that of the
+goddess of the storm or the thunder-cloud (for a discussion of such
+attempts see Farnell, _Cults_, i. pp. 3, 263). There seems little reason
+for regarding her as a nature-goddess at all, but rather as the
+presiding divinity of states and cities, of the arts and industries--in
+short, as the goddess of the whole intellectual side of human life.
+
+Except at Athens, little is known of the ceremonies or festivals which
+attended her worship. There we have the following. (1) The ceremony of
+the _Three Sacred Ploughs_, by which the signal for seed-time was given,
+apparently dating from a period when agriculture was one of the chief
+occupations of her worshippers. (2) The _Procharisteria_ at the end of
+winter, at which thanks were offered for the germination of the seed.
+(3) The _Scirophoria_, with a procession from the Acropolis to the
+village of Skiron, in the height of summer, the priests who were to
+entreat her to keep off the summer heat walking under the shade of
+parasols ([Greek: skyron]) held over them; others, however, connect the
+name with [Greek: skiros] ("gypsum"), perhaps used for smearing the
+image of the goddess. (4) The _Oschophoria_, at the vintage season, with
+races among boys, and a procession, with songs in praise of Dionysus and
+Ariadne. (5) The _Chalkeia_ (feast of smiths), at which the birth of
+Erechtheus and the invention of the plough were celebrated. (6) The
+_Plynteria_ and _Callynteria_, at which her ancient image and peplus in
+the Erechtheum and the temple itself were cleaned, with a procession in
+which bunches of figs (frequently used in lustrations) were carried. (7)
+The _Arrhephoria_ or _Errephoria_ (perhaps = _Ersephoria_,
+"dew-bearing"), at which four girls, between seven and eleven years of
+age, selected from noble families, carried certain unknown sacred
+objects to and from the temple of Aphrodite "in the gardens" (see J.E.
+Harrison, _Classical Review_, April 1889). (8) The _Panathenaea_, at
+which the new robes for the image of he goddess were carried through the
+city, spread like a sail on a mast. The reliefs of the frieze of the
+cella of the Parthenon enable us to form an idea of the procession.
+Athletic games, open to all who traced their nationality to Athens, were
+part of this festival. Mention should also be made of the Argive
+ceremony, at which the _xoanon_ (ancient wooden statue) of Athena was
+washed in the river Inachus, a symbol of her purification after the
+Gigantomachia.
+
+The usual attributes of Athena were the helmet, the aegis, the round
+shield with the head of Medusa in the centre, the lance, an olive
+branch, the owl, the cock and the snake. Of these the aegis, usually
+explained as a storm-cloud, is probably intended as a battle-charm, like
+the Gorgon's head on the shield and the faces on the shields of Chinese
+soldiers; the owl probably represents the form under which she was
+worshipped in primitive times, and subsequently became her favourite
+bird (the epithet [Greek: glaukopis], meaning "keen-eyed" in Homer, may
+have originally signified "owl-faced"); the snake, a common companion of
+the earth deities, probably refers to her connexion with
+Erechtheus-Erichthonius.
+
+As to artistic representations of the goddess, we have first the rude
+figure which seems to be a copy of the Palladium; secondly, the still
+rude, but otherwise more interesting, figures of her, as e.g. when
+accompanying heroes, on the early painted vases; and thirdly, the type
+of her as produced by Pheidias, from which little variation appears to
+have been made. Of his numerous statues of her, the three most
+celebrated were set up on the Acropolis. (1) Athena _Parthenos_, in the
+Parthenon. It was in ivory and gold, and 30 ft. high. She was
+represented standing, in a long tunic; on her head was a helmet,
+ornamented with sphinxes and griffins; on her breast was the aegis,
+fringed with serpents and the Gorgon's head in centre. In her right hand
+was a Nike or winged victory, while her left held a spear, which rested
+on a shield on which were represented the battles of the Amazons with
+the giants. (2) A colossal statue said to have been formed from the
+spoils taken at Marathon, the so-called Athena _Promachos_. (3) Athena
+_Lemnia_, so called because it had been dedicated by the Athenian
+cleruchies in Lemnos. In this she was represented without arms, as a
+brilliant type of virgin beauty. The two last statues were of bronze.
+From the time of Pheidias calm earnestness, self-conscious might, and
+clearness of intellect were the main characteristics of the goddess. The
+eyes, slightly cast down, betoken an attitude of thoughtfulness; the
+forehead is clear and open; the mouth indicates firmness and resolution.
+The whole suggests a masculine rather than a feminine form.
+
+From Greece the worship of Athena extended to Magna Graecia, where a
+number of temples were erected to her in various places. In Italy proper
+she was identified with Minerva (q.v.).
+
+  See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_; W.H. Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquités_ (s.v. "Minerva"); L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_;
+  W.H. Roscher, "Die Grundbedeutung der Athene," in _Nektar und
+  Ambrosia_ (1883); F.A. Voigt, "Beiträge zur Mythologie des Ares und
+  Athena," in _Leipziger Studien_, iv. (1881); L.R. Farnell, _The Cults
+  of the Greek States_, i. (1896); J.E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the
+  Study of Greek Religion_ (1903), for the festivals especially; O.
+  Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. (1907). In the article GREEK
+  ART, fig. 21 represents Athena in the act of striking a prostrate
+  giant; fig. 38 a statuette of Athena Parthenos, a replica of the work
+  of Pheidias.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] O. Gruppe (_Griechische Mythologie_, ii. p. 1194) thinks that it
+    probably means "without mother's milk," either in an active or in a
+    passive sense "not giving suck," or "unsuckled," in her character as
+    the virgin goddess, or as springing from the head of Zeus. In support
+    of this view he refers to Hesychius [Greek: thaenion gala] and a
+    passage in Athenagoras (_Legatio pro Christianis_, 17), where it is
+    stated that Athena was sometimes called [Greek: Athela] or [Greek:
+    Athele]. For Pallas, he prefers the old etymology from [Greek: palla]
+    (to "shake"), rather in the sense of "earth-shaker" than
+    "lance-brandisher."
+
+  [2] According to J.E. Harrison in Classical Review (June 1894),
+    Athena Ergane is the goddess of the fruits of the field and the
+    procreation of children.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENAEUM, a name originally applied in ancient Greece ([Greek:
+Athaenaion]) to buildings dedicated to Athena, and specially used as the
+designation of a temple in Athens, where poets and men of learning were
+accustomed to meet and read their productions. The academy for the
+promotion of learning which the emperor Hadrian built (about A.D. 135)
+at Rome, near the Forum, was also called the Athenaeum. Poets and
+orators still met and discussed there, but regular courses of
+instruction were given by a staff of professors in rhetoric,
+jurisprudence, grammar and philosophy. The institution, later called
+Schola Romana, continued in high repute till the 5th century. Similar
+academies were also founded in the provinces and at Constantinople by
+the emperor Theodosius II. In modern times the name has been applied to
+various academies, as those of Lyons and Marseilles, and the Dutch high
+schools; and it has become a very general designation for literary
+clubs. It is also familiar as the title of several literary periodicals,
+notably of the London literary weekly founded in 1828.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENAEUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and grammarian,
+flourished about the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 3rd century
+A.D. Suidas only tells us that he lived "in the times of Marcus"; but
+the contempt with which he speaks of Commodus (died 192) shows that he
+survived that emperor. Athenaeus himself states that he was the author
+of a treatise on the _thratta_--a kind of fish mentioned by Archippus
+and other comic poets--and of a history of the Syrian kings, both of
+which works are lost. We still possess the _Deipnosophistae_, which may
+mean dinner-table philosophers or authorities on banquets, in fifteen
+books. The first two books, and parts of the third, eleventh and
+fifteenth, are only extant in epitome, but otherwise we seem to possess
+the work entire. It is an immense storehouse of miscellaneous
+information, chiefly on matters connected with the table, but also
+containing remarks on music, songs, dances, games, courtesans. It is
+full of quotations from writers whose works have not come down to us;
+nearly 800 writers and 2500 separate writings are referred to by
+Athenaeus; and he boasts of having read 800 plays of the Middle Comedy
+alone. The plan of the _Deipnosophistae_ is exceedingly cumbrous, and is
+badly carried out. It professes to be an account given by the author to
+his friend Timocrates of a banquet held at the house of Laurentius (or
+Larentius), a scholar and wealthy patron of art. It is thus a dialogue
+within a dialogue, after the manner of Plato, but a conversation of
+sufficient length to occupy several days (though represented as taking
+place in one) could not be conveyed in a style similar to the short
+conversations of Socrates. Among the twenty-nine guests are Galen and
+Ulpian, but they are all probably fictitious personages, and the
+majority take no part in the conversation. If Ulpian is identical with
+the famous jurist, the _Deipnosophistae_ must have been written after
+his death (228); but the jurist was murdered by the praetorian guards,
+whereas Ulpian in Athenaeus dies a natural death. The conversation
+ranges from the dishes before the guests to literary matters of every
+description, including points of grammar and criticism; and they are
+expected to bring with them extracts from the poets, which are read
+aloud and discussed at table. The whole is but a clumsy apparatus for
+displaying the varied and extensive reading of the author. As a work of
+art it can take but a low rank, but as a repertory of fragments and
+morsels of information it is invaluable.
+
+  Editio princeps, Aldine, 1524; Casaubon, 1597-1600; Schweighäuser,
+  1801-1807; Dindorf, 1827; Meineke, 1859-1867; Kaibel, 1887-1890;
+  English translation by Yonge in Bohn's _Classical Library_.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENAGORAS, a Christian apologist of the 2nd century A.D., was,
+according to an emendator of the Paris Codex 451 of the 11th century, a
+native of Athens. The only sources of information regarding him are a
+short notice by Philip of Side, in Pamphylia (c. A.D. 420), and the
+inscription on his principal work. Philip--or rather the compiler who
+made excerpts from him--says that he was at the head of an Alexandrian
+school (the catechetical), that he lived in the time of Hadrian and
+Antoninus, to whom he addressed his _Apology_, and that Clement of
+Alexandria was his pupil; but these statements are more than doubtful.
+The inscription on the work describes it as the "Embassy of Athenagoras,
+the Athenian, a philosopher and a Christian concerning the Christians,
+to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus,
+&c." This statement has given rise to considerable discussion, but from
+it and internal evidence the date of the _Apology_ ([Greek: Presbeia
+peri Christianon]) may be fixed at about A.D. 177. Athenagoras is also
+the author of a discourse on the resurrection of the body, which is not
+authenticated otherwise than by the titles on the various manuscripts.
+In the _Apology_, after contrasting the judicial treatment of Christians
+with that of other accused persons, he refutes the accusations brought
+against the Christians of atheism, eating human flesh and
+licentiousness, and in doing so takes occasion to make a vigorous and
+skilful attack on pagan polytheism and mythology. The discourse on the
+resurrection answers objections to the doctrine, and attempts to prove
+its truth from considerations of God's purpose in the creation of man,
+His justice and the nature of man himself. Athenagoras is a powerful and
+clear writer, who strives to comprehend his opponents' views and is
+acquainted with the classical writers. He used the _Apology_ of Justin,
+but hardly the works of Aristides or Tatian. His theology is strongly
+tinged with Platonism, and this may account for his falling into
+desuetude. His discussion of the Trinity has some points of speculative
+interest, but it is not sufficiently worked out; he regards the Son as
+the Reason or Wisdom of the Father, and the Spirit as a divine
+effluence. On some other points, as the nature of matter, the
+immortality of the soul and the principle of sin, his views are
+interesting.
+
+  EDITIONS.--J.C. Th. Eg. de Otto, _Corpus Apol. Christ. Saec._ II. vol.
+  vii. (Jena, 1857); E. Schwartz in _Texte und Untersuchungen_, iv. 2
+  (Leipzig, 1891).
+
+  TRANSLATIONS.--Humphreys (London, 1714); B.P. Pratten (_Ante-Nic.
+  Fathers_, Edinburgh, 1867).
+
+  LITERATURE.--A. Harnack, _Gesch. der altchr. Litt._ pp. 526-558, and
+  similar works by O. Bardenhewer and A. Ehrhard; Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyk._; G. Krüger, _Early Chr. Lit._ p. 130 (where additional
+  literature is cited). In 1559 and 1612 appeared in French a work on
+  _True and Perfect Love_, purporting to be a translation from the Greek
+  of Athenagoras; it is a palpable forgery.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENODORUS, the name of two Stoic philosophers of the 1st century B.C.,
+who have frequently been confounded.
+
+1. ATHENODORUS CANANITES (c. 74 B.C.-A.D. 7), so called from his
+birthplace Canana near Tarsus (not Cana in Cilicia nor Canna in
+Lycaonia), was the son of one Sandon, whose name indicates Tarsian
+descent, not Jewish as many have held. He was a personal friend of
+Strabo, from whom we derive our knowledge of his life. He taught the
+young Octavian (afterwards Augustus) at Apollonia, and was a pupil of
+Posidonius at Rhodes. Subsequently he appears to have travelled in the
+East (Petra and Egypt) and to have made himself famous by lecturing in
+the great cities of the Mediterranean. Writing in 50 B.C., Cicero speaks
+of him with the highest respect (cf. _Ep. ad. Att._, xvi. 11. 4, 14. 4),
+a fact which enables us to fix the date of his birth as not later than
+about 74. His influence over Augustus was strong and lasting. He
+followed him to Rome in 44, and is said to have criticized him with the
+utmost candour, bidding him repeat the letters of the alphabet before
+acting on an angry impulse. In later years he was allowed by Augustus to
+return to Tarsus in order to remodel the constitution of the city after
+the degenerate democracy which had misgoverned it under Boethus. He
+succeeded (c. 15-10 B.C.) in setting up a timocratic oligarchy in the
+imperial interest (see TARSUS). Sir W.M. Ramsay is inclined to attribute
+to the influence of Athenodorus the striking resemblances which can be
+established between Seneca and Paul, the latter of whom must certainly
+have been acquainted with his teachings. According to Eusebius and
+Strabo he was a learned scientist for his day, and some attribute to him
+a history of Tarsus. He helped Cicero in the composition of the _De
+Officiis_. His works are not certainly known, and none are extant. (See
+Sir W.M. Ramsay in the _Expositor_, September 1906, pp. 268 ff.)
+
+2. ATHENODORUS CORDYLION, also of Tarsus, was keeper of the library at
+Pergamum, and was an old man in 47 B.C. In his enthusiasm for Stoicism
+he used to cut out from Stoic writings passages which seemed to him
+unsatisfactory. He also settled in Rome, where he died in the house of
+the younger Cato.
+
+  Among others of the name may be mentioned (3) ATHENODORUS OF TEOS, who
+  played the cithara at the wedding of Alexander the Great and Statira
+  at Susa (324 B.C.); (4) a Greek physician of the 1st century A.D., who
+  wrote on epidemic diseases; and two sculptors, of whom (5) one
+  executed the statues of Apollo and Zeus which the Spartans dedicated
+  at Delphi after Aegospotami; and (6) the other was a son of Alexander
+  of Rhodes, whom he helped in the Laocoon group.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENRY, a market town of county Galway, Ireland, 14 m. inland (E.) from
+Galway on the Midland Great Western main line. Pop. (1901) 853. Its name
+is derived from _Ath-na-riogh_, the ford of kings; and it grew to
+importance after the Anglo-Norman invasion as the first town of the
+Burgs and Berminghams. The walls were erected in 1211 and the castle in
+1238, and the remains of both are noteworthy. A Dominican monastery was
+founded with great magnificence by Myler de Bermingham in 1241, and was
+repaired by the Board of Works in 1893. Of the Franciscan monastery of
+1464 little is left. The town returned two members to the Irish
+parliament from the time of Richard II. to the Union; but it never
+recovered from the wars of the Tudor period, culminating in a successful
+siege by Red Hugh O'Donnell in 1596.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENS [[Greek: Athaenai], _Athenae_, modern colloquial Greek [Greek:
+Athaena]], the capital of the kingdom of Greece, situated in 23° 44' E.
+and 37° 58' N., towards the southern end of the central and principal
+plain of Attica. The various theories with regard to the origin of the
+name are all somewhat unconvincing; it is conceivable that, with the
+other homonymous Greek towns, such as Athenae Diades in Euboea, [Greek:
+Athaenai] may be connected etymologically with [Greek: anthos], a flower
+(cf. _Firenze_, Florence); the patron goddess, Athena, was probably
+called after the place of her cult.
+
+
+I. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES
+
+The Attic plain, [Greek: to pedion], slopes gently towards the coast of
+the Saronic Gulf on the south-west; on the east it is overlooked by
+Mount Hymettus (3369 ft.); on the north-east by Pentelicus or Brilessus
+(3635 ft.) from which, in ancient and modern times, an immense quantity
+of the finest marble has been quarried; on the north-west by Parnes
+(4636 ft.), a continuation of the Boeotian Cithaeron, and on the west by
+Aegaleus (1532 ft.), which descends abruptly to the bay of Salamis. In
+the centre of the plain extends from north-east to south-west a series
+of low heights, now known as Turcovuni, culminating towards the south in
+the sharply pointed Lycabettus (1112 ft.), now called Hagios Georgios
+from the monastery which crowns its summit. Lycabettus, the most
+prominent feature in the Athenian landscape, directly overhung the
+ancient city, but was not included in its walls; its peculiar shape
+rendered it unsuitable for fortification. The Turcovuni ridge, probably
+the ancient Anchesmus, separates the valley of the Cephisus on the
+north-west from that of its confluent, the Ilissus, which skirted the
+ancient city on the south-west. The Cephisus, rising in Pentelicus,
+enters the sea at New Phalerum; in summer it dwindles to an
+insignificant stream, while the Ilissus, descending from Hymettus, is
+totally dry, probably owing to the destruction of the ancient forests on
+both mountains, and the consequent denudation of the soil. Separated
+from Lycabettus by a depression to the south-west, through which flows a
+brook, now a covered drain (probably to be identified with the
+Eridanus), stands the remarkable oblong rocky mass of the Acropolis (512
+ft.), rising precipitously on all sides except the western; its summit
+was partially levelled in prehistoric times, and the flat area was
+subsequently enlarged by further cutting and by means of retaining
+walls. Close to the Acropolis on the west is the lower rocky eminence of
+the Areopagus, [Greek: Areios pagos] (377 ft.), the seat of the famous
+council; the name (see also AREOPAGUS) has been connected with Ares,
+whose temple stood on the northern side of the hill, but is more
+probably derived from the [Greek: Apai] or Eumenides, whose sanctuary
+was formed by a cleft in its north-eastern declivity. Farther west of
+the Acropolis are three elevations; to the north-west the so-called
+"Hill of the Nymphs" (341 ft.), on which the modern Observatory stands;
+to the west the Pnyx, the meeting-place of the Athenian democracy (351
+ft.), and to the south-west the loftier Museum Hill (482 ft.), still
+crowned with the remains of the monument of Philópappus. A cavity, a
+little to the west of the Observatory Hill, is generally supposed to be
+the ancient Barathron or place of execution. To the south-east of the
+Acropolis, beyond the narrow valley of the Ilissus, is the hill Ardettus
+(436 ft.). The distance from the Acropolis to the nearest point of the
+sea coast at Phalerum is a little over 3 m.
+
+
+  Influence of the geographical position.
+
+The natural situation of Athens was such as to favour the growth of a
+powerful community. For the first requisites of a primitive
+settlement--food supply and defence--it afforded every advantage. The
+Attic plain, notwithstanding the lightness of the soil, furnished an
+adequate supply of cereals; olive and fig groves and vineyards were
+cultivated from the earliest times in the valley of the Cephisus, and
+pasturage for sheep and goats was abundant. The surrounding rampart of
+mountains was broken towards the north-east by an open tract stretching
+between Hymettus and Pentelicus towards Marathon, and was traversed by
+the passes of Decelea, Phylé and Daphné on the north and north-west, but
+the distance between these natural passages and the city was sufficient
+to obviate the danger of surprise by an invading land force. On the
+other hand Athens, like Corinth, Megara and Argos, was sufficiently far
+from the sea to enjoy security against the sudden descent of a hostile
+fleet. At the same time the relative proximity of three natural
+harbours, Peiraeus, Zea and Munychia, favoured the development of
+maritime commerce and of the sea power which formed the basis of
+Athenian hegemony. The climate is temperate, but liable to sudden
+changes; the mean temperature is 63°.1 F., the maximum (in July) 99°.01,
+the minimum (in January) 31°.55. The summer heat is moderated by the
+sea-breeze or by cool northerly winds from the mountains (especially in
+July and August). The clear, bracing air, according to ancient writers,
+fostered the intellectual and aesthetic character of the people and
+endowed them with mental and physical energy. For the architectural
+embellishment of the city the finest building material was procurable
+without difficulty and in abundance; Pentelicus forms a mass of white,
+transparent, blue-veined marble; another variety, somewhat similar in
+appearance, but generally of a bluer hue, was obtained from Hymettus.
+For ordinary purposes grey limestone was furnished by Lycabettus and the
+adjoining hills; limestone from the promontory of Acté (the so-called
+"poros" stone), and conglomerate, were also largely employed. For the
+ceramic art admirable material was at hand in the district north-west of
+the Acropolis. For sculpture and various architectural purposes white,
+fine-grained marble was brought from Paros and Naxos. The main drawback
+to the situation of the city lay in the insufficiency of its
+water-supply, which was supplemented by an aqueduct constructed in the
+time of the Peisistratids and by later water-courses dating from the
+Roman period. A great number of wells were also sunk and rain-water was
+stored in cisterns.
+
+
+    Sources for Athenian topography.
+
+  For the purposes of scientific topography observation of the natural
+  features and outlines is followed by exact investigation of the
+  architectural structures or remnants, a process demanding high
+  technical competence, acute judgment and practical experience, as well
+  as wide and accurate scholarship. The building material and the manner
+  of its employment furnish evidence no less important than the
+  character of the masonry, the design and the modes of ornamentation.
+  The testimony afforded by inscriptions is often of decisive
+  importance, especially that of commemorative or votive tablets or of
+  boundary-stones found _in situ_; the value of this evidence is, on the
+  other hand, sometimes neutralized owing to the former removal of
+  building material already used and its incorporation in later
+  structures. Thus sepulchral inscriptions have been found on the
+  Acropolis, though no burials took place there in ancient times. In the
+  next place comes the evidence derived from the whole range of ancient
+  literature and specially from descriptions of the city or its
+  different localities. The earliest known description of Athens was
+  that of Diodorus, [Greek: ho periaegtes], who lived in the second half
+  of the 4th century B.C. Among his successors were Polemon of Ilium
+  (beginning of 2nd century B.C.), whose great [Greek: kosmikae
+  periaegaesis] gave a minute account of the votive offerings on the
+  Acropolis and the tombs on the Sacred Way; and Heliodorus (second half
+  of the 2nd century) who wrote fifteen volumes on the monuments of
+  Athens. Of these and other works of the earliest topographers only
+  some fragments remain. In the period between A.D. 143 and 159
+  Pausanias visited Athens at a time when the monuments of the great age
+  were still in their perfection and the principal embellishments of the
+  Roman period had already been completed. The first thirty chapters of
+  his invaluable _Description of Greece_ ([Greek: periaegaesis taes
+  Hellados]) are devoted to Athens, its ports and environs. Pausanias
+  makes no claim to exhaustiveness; he selected what was best worth
+  noticing ([Greek: ta axiologotata]). His account, drawn up from notes
+  taken in the main from personal observation, possesses an especial
+  importance for topographical research, owing to his method of
+  describing each object in the order in which he saw it during the
+  course of his walks. His accuracy, which has been called in question
+  by some scholars, has been remarkably vindicated by recent excavations
+  at Athens and elsewhere. The list of ancient topographers closes with
+  Pausanias. The literature of succeeding centuries furnishes only
+  isolated references; the more important are found in the scholia on
+  Aristophanes, the lexicons of Hesychius, Photius and others, and the
+  _Etymologicum Magnum_. The notices of Athens during the earlier middle
+  ages are scanty in the extreme. In 1395 Niccola da Martoni, a pilgrim
+  from the Holy Land, visited Athens and wrote a description of a
+  portion of the city. Of the work of Cyriac of Ancona, written about
+  1450, only some fragments remain, which are well supplemented by the
+  contemporaneous description of the capable observer known as the
+  "Anonymous of Milan." Two treatises in Greek by unknown writers belong
+  to the same period. The Dutchman Joannes Meursius (1579-1639) wrote
+  three disquisitions on Athenian topography. The conquest by Venice in
+  1687 led to the publication of several works in that city, including
+  the descriptions of De la Rue and Fanelli and the maps of Coronelli
+  and others. The systematic study of Athenian topography was begun in
+  the 17th century by French residents at Athens, the consuls Giraud and
+  Chataignier and the Capuchin monks. The visit of the French physician
+  Jacques Spon and the Englishman, Sir George Wheler or Wheeler
+  (1650-1723), fortunately took place before the catastrophe of the
+  Parthenon in 1687; Spon's _Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grčce et
+  du Levant_, which contained the first scientific description of the
+  ruins of Athens, appeared in 1678; Wheler's _Journey into Greece_, in
+  1682. A period of British activity in research followed in the 18th
+  century. The monumental work of James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who
+  spent three years at Athens (1751-1754), marked an epoch in the
+  progress of Athenian topography and is still indispensable to its
+  study, owing to the demolition of ancient buildings which began about
+  the middle of the 18th century. To this period also belong the labours
+  of Richard Pococke and Richard Dalton, Richard Chandler, E.D. Clarke
+  and Edward Dodwell. The great work of W.M. Leake (_Topography of
+  Athens and the Demi_, 2nd ed., 1841) brought the descriptive
+  literature to an end and inaugurated the period of modern scientific
+  research, in which German archaeologists have played a distinguished
+  part.
+
+
+    Recent research.
+
+  Recent investigation has thrown a new and unexpected light on the art,
+  the monuments and the topography of the ancient city. Numerous and
+  costly excavations have been carried out by the Greek government and
+  by native and foreign scientific societies, while accidental
+  discoveries have been frequently made during the building of the
+  modern town. The museums, enriched by a constant inflow of works of
+  art and inscriptions, have been carefully and scientifically arranged,
+  and afford opportunities for systematic study denied to scholars of
+  the past generation. Improved means of communication have enabled many
+  acute observers to apply the test of scrutiny on the spot to theories
+  and conclusions mainly based on literary evidence; five foreign
+  schools of archaeology, directed by eminent scholars, lend valuable
+  aid to students of all nationalities, and lectures are frequently
+  delivered in the museums and on the more interesting and important
+  sites. The native archaeologists of the present day hold a recognized
+  position in the scientific work; the patriotic sentiment of former
+  times, which prompted their zeal but occasionally warped their
+  judgment, has been merged in devotion to science for its own sake, and
+  the supervision of excavations, as well as the control of the
+  art-collections, is now in highly competent hands. Athens has thus
+  become a centre of learning, a meeting-place for scholars and a basis
+  for research in every part of the Greek world. The attention of many
+  students has naturally been concentrated on the ancient city, the
+  birthplace of European art and literature, and a great development of
+  investigation and discussion in the special domain of Athenian
+  archaeology has given birth to a voluminous literature. Many theories
+  hitherto universally accepted have been called in question or proved
+  to be unsound: the views of Leake, for instance, have been challenged
+  on various points, though many of his conclusions have been justified
+  and confirmed. The supreme importance of a study of Greek antiquities
+  on the spot, long understood by scholars in Europe and in America, has
+  gradually come to be recognized in England, where a close attention to
+  ancient texts, not always adequately supplemented by a course of local
+  study and observation, formerly fostered a peculiarly conservative
+  attitude in regard to the problems of Greek archaeology. Since the
+  foundation of the German Institute in 1874, Athenian topography has to
+  a large extent become a speciality of German scholars, among whom
+  Wilhelm Dörpfeld occupies a pre-eminent position owing to his great
+  architectural attainments and unrivalled local knowledge. Many of his
+  bold and novel theories have provoked strenuous opposition, while
+  others have met with general acceptance, except among scholars of the
+  more conservative type.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Athens.]
+
+
+  The early citadel.
+
+_Prehistoric Athens._--Numerous traces of the "Mycenaean" epoch have
+recently been brought to light in Athens and its neighbourhood. Among
+the monuments of this age discovered in the surrounding districts are
+the rock-hewn tombs of Spata, accidentally revealed by a landslip in
+1877, and domed sepulchre at Menidí, near the ancient Acharnae,
+excavated by Lolling in 1879. Other "Mycenaean" landmarks have been laid
+bare at Eleusis, Thoricus, Halae and Aphidna. These structures, however,
+are of comparatively minor importance in point of dimensions and
+decoration; they were apparently designed as places of sepulture for
+local chieftains, whose domains were afterwards incorporated in the
+Athenian realm by the [Greek: synoikismos] (synoecism) attributed to
+Theseus. The situation of the Acropolis, dominating the surrounding
+plain and possessing easy communication with the sea, favoured the
+formation of a relatively powerful state--inferior, however, to Tiryns
+and Mycenae; the myths of Cecrops, Erechtheus and Theseus bear witness
+to the might of the princes who ruled in the Athenian citadel, and here
+we may naturally expect to find traces of massive fortifications
+resembling in some degree those of the great Argolid cities. Such in
+fact have been brought to light by the modern excavations on the
+Acropolis (1885-1889). Remains of primitive polygonal walls which
+undoubtedly surrounded the entire area have been found at various points
+a little within the circuit of the existing parapet. The best-preserved
+portions are at the eastern extremity, at the northern side near the
+ancient "royal" exit, and at the south-western angle. The course of the
+walls can be traced with a few interruptions along the southern side. On
+the northern side are the foundations of a primitive tower and other
+remains, apparently of dwelling-houses, one of which may have been the
+[Greek: pukinos domos Erthaeos] mentioned by Homer (_Od_. vii. 81).
+Among the foundations were discovered fragments of "Mycenaean" pottery.
+The various approaches to the citadel on the northern side--the rock-cut
+flight of steps north-east of the Erechtheum (q.v.), the stairs leading
+to the well Clepsydra, and the intermediate passage supposed to have
+furnished access to the Persians--are all to be attributed to the
+primitive epoch. Two pieces of polygonal wall, one beneath the bastion
+of Nike Apteros, the other in a direct line between the Roman gateway
+and the door of the Propylaea, are all that remain of the primitive
+defences of the main entrance.
+
+
+  The Pelasgicum.
+
+These early fortifications of the Acropolis, ascribed to the primitive
+non-hellenic Pelasgi, must be distinguished from the Pelasgicum Or
+Pelargicum, which was in all probability an encircling wall, built round
+the base of the citadel and furnished with nine gates from which it
+derived the name of Enneapylon. Such a wall would be required to protect
+the clusters of dwellings around the Acropolis as well as the springs
+issuing from the rock, while the gates opening in various directions
+would give access to the surrounding pastures and gardens. This view,
+which is that of E. Curtius, alone harmonizes with the statement of
+Herodotus (vi. 137) that the wall was "around" ([Greek: peri]) the
+Acropolis, and that of Thucydides (ii. 17) that it was "beneath"
+([Greek: hypo]) the fortress. Thus it would appear that the citadel had
+an outer and an inner line of defence in prehistoric times. The space
+enclosed by the outer wall was left unoccupied after the Persian wars in
+deference to an oracular response apparently dictated by military
+considerations, the maintenance of an open zone being desirable for the
+defence of the citadel. A portion of the outer wall has been recognized
+in a piece of primitive masonry discovered near the Odeum of Herodes
+Atticus; other traces will probably come to light when the northern and
+eastern slopes of the Acropolis have been completely explored. Leake,
+whom Frazer follows, assumed the Pelasgicum to be a fortified space at
+the western end of the Acropolis; this view necessitates the assumption
+that the nine gates were built one within the other, but early antiquity
+furnishes no instance of such a construction; Dörpfeld believes it to
+have extended from the grotto of Pan to the sacred precinct of
+Asclepius. The well-known passage of Lucian (_Piscator_, 47) cannot be
+regarded as decisive for any of the theories advanced, as any portion of
+the old _enceinte_ dismantled by the Persians may have retained the name
+in later times. The Pelasgic wall enclosed the spring Clepsydra, beneath
+the north-western corner of the Acropolis, which furnished a
+water-supply to the defenders of the fortress. The spring, to which a
+staircase leads down, was once more included in a bastion during the War
+of Independence by the Greek chief Odysseus.
+
+
+  The Pnyx.
+
+To the "Pelasgic" era may perhaps be referred (with Curtius and
+Milchhöfer) the immense double terrace on the north-eastern slope of the
+Pnyx (395 ft. by 212), the upper portion of which is cut out of the
+rock, while the lower is enclosed by a semicircular wall of massive
+masonry; the theory of these scholars, however, that the whole precinct
+was a sanctuary of the Pelasgian Zeus cannot be regarded as proved, nor
+is it easy to abandon the generally received view that this was the
+scene of the popular assemblies of later times, notwithstanding the
+apparent unsuitability of the ground and the insufficiency of room for a
+large multitude. These difficulties are met by the assumption that the
+semicircular masonry formed the base of a retaining-wall which rose to a
+considerable height, supporting a theatre-like structure capable of
+seating many thousand persons. The masonry may be attributed to the 5th
+century; the chiselling of the immense blocks is not "Cyclopean."
+Projecting from the upper platform at the centre of the chord of the
+semicircular area is a cube of rock, 11 ft. square and 5 ft. high,
+approached on either side by a flight of steps leading to the top; this
+block, which Curtius supposes to have been the primitive altar of Zeus
+[Greek: Hupsistos], may be safely identified with the orators' bema,
+[Greek: ho lithos en tae Pykni] (Aristoph. _Pax_, 680). Plutarch's
+statement that the Thirty Tyrants removed the bema so as to face the
+land instead of the sea is probably due to a misunderstanding. Other
+cubes of rock, apparently altars, exist in the neighbourhood. There can
+be little doubt that the Pnyx was the seat of an ancient cult; the
+meetings of the Ecclesia were of a religious character and were preceded
+by a sacrifice to Zeus [Greek: Agoraios]; nor is it conceivable that,
+but for its sacred associations, a site would have been chosen so
+unsuitable for the purposes of a popular assembly as to need the
+addition of a costly artificial auditorium.
+
+
+  Rock-dwellings and tombs.
+
+The Pnyx, the Hill of the Nymphs and the Museum Hill are covered with
+vestiges of early settlements which extend to a considerable distance
+towards the south-east in the direction of Phalerum. They consist of
+chambers of various sizes, some of which were evidently human
+habitations, together with cisterns, channels, seats, steps, terraces
+and quadrangular tombs, all cut in the rock. This neighbourhood was held
+by Curtius to have been the site of the primeval rock city, [Greek:
+kranaa polis] (Aristoph. _Ach_. 75), anterior to the occupation of the
+Acropolis and afterwards abandoned for the later settlement. It seems
+inconceivable, however, that any other site should have been preferred
+by the primitive settlers to the Acropolis, which offered the greatest
+advantages for defence; the Pnyx, owing to its proximity to the centres
+of civic life, can never have been deserted, and that portion which lay
+within the city walls must have been fully occupied when Athens was
+crowded during the Peloponnesian War. Some of the rock chambers
+originally intended for tombs were afterwards converted, perhaps under
+pressure of necessity, into habitations, as in the case of the so-called
+"Prison of Socrates," which consists of three chambers horizontally
+excavated and a small round apartment of the "beehive" type. The remains
+on the Pnyx and its neighbourhood cannot all be assigned to one epoch,
+the prehistoric age. The dwellings do not correspond in size or details
+with the undoubtedly prehistoric abodes on the Acropolis. In view of the
+ancient law which forbade burial within the city, the tombs within the
+circuit of the city walls must either be earlier than the time of
+Themistocles or several centuries later; in the similar rock-tombs on
+the neighbouring slopes of the Acropolis and Areopagus both Mycenaean
+and Dipylon pottery have been found. But the numerous vertically
+excavated tombs outside the walls are of late date and belong for the
+most part to the Roman period.
+
+
+  The Areopagus.
+
+The Areopagus is now a bare rock possessing few architectural traces.
+The legend of its occupation by the Amazons (Aeschylus, _Eum_. 681 seq.)
+may be taken as indicating its military importance for an attack on the
+Acropolis; the Persians used it as a _point d'appui_ for their assault.
+The seat of the old oligarchical council and court for homicide was
+probably on its eastern height. Here were the altar of Athena Areia and
+two stones, the [Greek: lithos Ybreos], on which the accuser, and the
+[Greek: lithos Anaideias], on which the accused, took their stand.
+Beneath, at the north-eastern corner, is the cleft which formed the
+sanctuary of the [Greek: Semnai], or Erinyes. There is no reason for
+disturbing the associations connected with this spot as the scene of St
+Paul's address to the Athenians (E. Gardner, _Anc. Athens_, p. 505).
+
+_Hellenic Period._--While modern research has added considerably to our
+knowledge of prehistoric Athens, a still greater light has been thrown
+on the architecture and topography of the city in the earlier historic
+or "archaic" era, the subsequent age of Athenian greatness, and the
+period of decadence which set in with the Macedonian conquest; the first
+extends from the dawn of history to 480-479 B.C., when the city was
+destroyed by the Persians; the second, or classical, age closes in 322
+B.C., when Athens lost its political independence after the Lamian War;
+the third, or Hellenistic, in 146 B.C., when the state fell under Roman
+protection. We must here group these important epochs together, as
+distinguished from the later period of Roman rule, and confine ourselves
+to a brief notice of their principal monuments and a record of the
+discoveries by which they have been illustrated in recent years.
+
+
+  The city in the "archaic" era.
+
+The earliest settlement on the Acropolis was doubtless soon increased by
+groups of dwellings at its base, inhabited by the dependents of the
+princes who ruled in the stronghold. These habitations would naturally
+in the first instance lie in close proximity to the western approach;
+after the building of the Pelasgicum they seem to have extended beyond
+its walls towards the south and south-west--towards the sea and the
+waters of the Ilissus. The district thus occupied sloped towards the sun
+and was sheltered by the Acropolis from the prevailing northerly winds.
+The Thesean synoecism led to the introduction of new cults and the
+foundation of new shrines partly on the Acropolis, partly in the
+inhabited district at its base both within and without the wall of the
+Pelasgicum. Some of the shrines in this region are mentioned by
+Thucydides in a passage which is of capital importance for the
+topography of the city at this period (ii. 15). By degrees the inhabited
+area began to comprise the open ground to the north-west, the nearer
+portion of the later Ceramicus, or "potters' field" (afterwards divided
+by the walls of Themistocles into the Inner and Outer Ceramicus), and
+eventually extended to the north and east of the citadel, which, by the
+beginning of the 5th century B.C., had become the centre of a circular
+or wheel-shaped city, [Greek: polios trochoeideos akra karaena] (Oracle
+_apud_ Herod, vii. 140). To this enlarged city was applied, probably
+about the second half of the 6th century, the special designation
+[Greek: to aste], which afterwards distinguished Athens from its port,
+the Peiracus; the Acropolis was already [Greek: e polis] (Thucyd. ii.
+15). The city is supposed to have been surrounded by a wall before the
+time of Solon, the existence of which may be deduced from Thucydides'
+account of the assassination of Hipparchus (vi. 57), but no certain
+traces of such a wall have been discovered; the materials may have been
+removed to build the walls of Themistocles.
+
+
+  The Agora.
+
+The centre of commercial and civic life of the older group of
+communities, as of the greater city of the classical age, was the Agora
+or market. Here were the various public buildings, which, when the power
+of the princes on the citadel was transferred to the archons, formed the
+offices of the administrative magistracy. The site of the primitive
+Agora ([Greek: archaia agora]) was probably in the hollow between the
+Acropolis and the Pnyx, which formed a convenient meeting-place for the
+dwellers on the north and south sides of the fortress as well as for its
+inhabitants. In the time of the Peisistratids the Agora was enlarged so
+as to extend over the Inner Ceramicus on the north-west, apparently
+reaching the northern declivities of the Areopagus and the Acropolis on
+the south. After the Persian Wars the northern portion was used for
+commercial, the southern for political and ceremonial purposes. In the
+southern were the Orchestra, where the Dionysiac dances took place, and
+the famous statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton by Antenor which were
+carried away by Xerxes; also the Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the
+Gods, the Bouleuterium, or council-chamber of the Five Hundred, the
+Prytaneum, the hearth of the combined communities, where the guests of
+the state dined, the temple of the Dioscuri, and the Tholus, or Skias, a
+circular stone-domed building in which the Prytaneis were maintained at
+the public expense; in the northern were the Leocorium, where Hipparchus
+was slain, the [Greek: stoa basilikae], the famous [Greek: stoa
+poikilae], where Zeno taught, and other structures. The Agora was
+commonly described as the "Ceramicus," and Pausanias gives it this name;
+of the numerous buildings which he saw here scarcely a trace remains;
+their position, for the most part, is largely conjectural, and the exact
+boundaries of the Agora itself are uncertain. What are perhaps the
+remains of the [Greek: stoa basilikae], in which the Archon Basileus
+held his court and the Areopagus Council sat in later times, were
+brought to light in the winter of 1897-1898, when excavations were
+carried out on the eastern slope of the "Theseum" hill. Here was found a
+rectangular structure resembling a temple, but with a side door to the
+north; it possessed a portico of six columns. The north slope of the
+Areopagus, where a number of early tombs were found, was also explored,
+and the limits of the Agora on the south and north-west were
+approximately ascertained. A portion of the main road leading from the
+Dipylon to the Agora was discovered.
+
+
+  The Enneacrunus.
+
+In 1892 Dörpfeld began a series of excavations in the district between
+the Acropolis and the Pnyx with the object of determining the situation
+of the buildings described by Pausanias as existing in the neighbourhood
+of the Agora, and more especially the position of the Enneacrunus
+fountain. The Enneacrunus has hitherto been generally identified with
+the spring Callirrhoe in the bed of the Ilissus, a little to the
+south-east of the Olympieum; it is apparently, though not explicitly,
+placed by Thucydides (ii. 15) in proximity to that building, as well as
+the temple of Dionysus [Greek: en limnais] and other shrines, the
+temples of Zeus Olympius and of Ge and the Pythium, which he mentions as
+situated mainly to the south of the Acropolis. On the other hand,
+Pausanias (i. 14. 1), who never deviates without reason from the
+topographical order of his narrative, mentions the Enneacrunus in the
+midst of his description of certain buildings which were undoubtedly in
+the region of the Agora, and unless he is guilty of an unaccountable
+digression the Enneacrunus which he saw must have lain west of the
+Acropolis. It is now generally agreed that the Agora of classical times
+covered the low ground between the hill of the "Theseum," the Areopagus
+and the Pnyx; and Pausanias, in the course of his description, appears
+to have reached its southern end. The excavations revealed a main road
+of surprisingly narrow dimensions winding up from the Agora to the
+Acropolis. A little to the south-west of the point where the road turns
+towards the Propylaca was found a large rock-cut cistern or reservoir
+which Dörpfeld identifies with the Enneacrunus. The reservoir is
+supplied by a conduit of 6th-century tiles connected with an early stone
+aqueduct, the course of which is traceable beneath the Dionysiac theatre
+and the royal garden in the direction of the Upper Ilissus. These
+elaborate waterworks were, according to Dörpfeld, constructed by the
+Peisistratids in order to increase the supply from the ancient spring
+Callirrhoe; the fountain was furnished with nine jets and henceforth
+known as Enneacrunus. This identification has been hotly contested by
+many scholars, and the question must still be regarded as undecided. An
+interesting confirmation of Dörpfeld's view is furnished by the map of
+Guillet and Coronelli, published in 1672, in which the Enneacrunus is
+depicted as a well with a stream of running water in the neighbourhood
+of the Pnyx. The fact that spring water is not now found in this
+locality is by no means fatal to the theory; recent engineering
+investigations have shown that much of the surface water of the Attic
+plain has sunk to a lower level. In front of the reservoir is a small
+open space towards which several roads converge; close by is a
+triangular enclosure of polygonal masonry, in which were found various
+relics relating to the worship of Dionysus, a very ancient wine-press
+([Greek: laenos]) and the remains of a small temple. Built over this
+early precinct, which Dörpfeld identifies with the Dionysium [Greek: en
+limnais], or Lenaeum, is a basilica-shaped building of the Roman period,
+apparently sacred to Bacchus; in this was found an inscription
+containing the rules of the society of the Iobacchi. There is an
+obvious difficulty in assuming that [Greek: limnai], in the sense of
+"marshes," existed in this confined area, but stagnant pools may still
+be seen here in winter. Dörpfeld's identification of the Dionysium,
+[Greek: en limnais] cannot be regarded as proved; his view that another
+Pythium and another Olympieum existed in this neighbourhood is still
+less probable; but the inconclusiveness of these theories does not
+necessarily invalidate his identification of the Enneacrunus, with
+regard to the position of which the language of Thucydides is far from
+clear. Another enclosure, a little to the south, is proved by an
+inscription to have been a sanctuary of the hitherto unknown hero
+Amynos, with whose cult those of Asclepius and the hero Dexion were here
+associated; under the name Dexion, the poet Sophocles is said to have
+been worshipped after his death. The whole district adjoining the
+Areopagus was found to have been thickly built over; the small, mean
+dwelling-houses intersected by narrow, crooked lanes convey a vivid idea
+of the contrast between the modest private residences and the great
+public structures of the ancient city.
+
+
+  The Academy and Lyceum.
+
+The age of the Peisistratids (560-511 B.C.) marked an era in the history
+of Athenian topography. The greatest of their foundations, the temple of
+Olympian Zeus, will be referred to later. Among the monuments of their
+rule, in addition to the enlarged Agora and the Enneacrunus, were the
+Academy and perhaps the Lyceum. The original name of the Academy may
+have been Hecademia, from Hecademus, an early proprietor (but see
+ACADEMY, GREEK). The famous seat of the Platonic philosophy was a
+gymnasium enlarged as a public park by Cimon; it lay about a mile to the
+north-west of the Dipylon Gate, with which it was connected by a street
+bordered with tombs. The Lyceum, where Aristotle taught, was originally
+a sanctuary of Apollo Lyceius. Like the Academy, it was an enclosure
+with a gymnasium and garden; it lay to the east of the city beyond the
+Diocharean Gate.
+
+
+  The Acropolis before the Persian wars.
+
+Little was known of the buildings on the Acropolis in the pre-Persian
+period before the great excavations of 1885-1888, which rank among the
+most surprising achievements of modern research. The results of these
+operations, which were conducted by the Archaeological Society under the
+direction of Kavvadias and Kawerau, must be summarized with the utmost
+brevity. The great deposits of sculpture and pottery now unearthed,
+representing all that escaped from the the ravages of the Persians and
+the burning of the ancient shrines, afford a startling revelation of the
+development of Greek art in the 7th and 6th centuries. Numbers of
+statues--among them a series of draped and richly-coloured female
+figures--masterpieces of painted pottery, only equalled by the Attic
+vases found in Magna Grecia and Etruria, and numerous bronzes, were
+among the treasures of art now brought to light. All belong to the
+"archaic" epoch; only a few remains of the greater age were found,
+including some fragments of sculptures from the Parthenon and
+Erechtheum. We are principally concerned, however, with the results
+which add to our knowledge of the topography and architecture of the
+Acropolis. The entire area of the summit was now thoroughly explored,
+the excavations being carried down to the surface of the rock, which on
+the southern side was found to slope outwards to a depth of about 45 ft.
+In the lower strata were discovered the remnants of Cyclopean or
+prehistoric architecture already mentioned. Of later date, perhaps, are
+the limestone polygonal retaining walls on the west front, which
+extended on either side of the early entrance. Of these a portion may
+probably be attributed to the Peisistratids, in whose time the Acropolis
+once more became the stronghold of a despotism. Its fortifications,
+though not increased, were apparently strengthened by the Tyrants. To
+its embellishment they probably contributed the older ornamental
+entrance, facing south-west, the precursor of the greater structure of
+Mnesicles (see PROPYLAEA) and the colonnade of the "Hecatompedon," or
+earlier temple of Athena, at this time the only large sacred edifice on
+the citadel. The name was subsequently applied to the cella, or eastern
+chamber, of the Parthenon, which is exactly 100 ft. long, and also
+became a popular designation of the temple itself.
+
+
+  The old temple of Athena.
+
+The ancient Hecatompedon may in all probability be identified with an
+early temple, also 100 ft. long, the foundations of which were pointed
+out in 1885 by Dörpfeld on the ground immediately adjoining the south
+side of the Erechtheum. On this spot was apparently the primitive
+sanctuary of Athena, the rich temple [Greek: pion naeos] of Homer (_Il._
+ii. 549), in which the cult of the goddess was associated with that of
+Erechtheus; the Homeric temple is identified by Furtwängler with the
+"compact house of Erechtheus" (_Od_. vii. 81), which, he holds, was not
+a royal palace, but a place of worship, and traces of it may perhaps be
+recognized in the fragments of prehistoric masonry enclosed by the
+existing foundations. The foundations seem to belong to the 7th century,
+except those of the colonnade, which was possibly added by Peisistratus.
+According to Dörpfeld, this was the "old temple" of Athena Polias,
+frequently mentioned in literature and inscriptions, in which was housed
+the most holy image [Greek: xoanon] of the goddess which fell from
+heaven; it was burnt, but not completely destroyed, during the Persian
+War, and some of its external decorations were afterwards built into the
+north wall of the Acropolis; it was subsequently restored, he thinks,
+with or without its colonnade--in the former case a portion of the
+peristyle must have been removed when the Erechtheum was built so as to
+make room for the porch of the maidens; the building was set on fire in
+406 B.C. (Xen. _Hell._ i. 6. 1), and the conflagration is identical with
+that mentioned by Demosthenes (_In Timocr._ xxiv. 155); its
+"opisthodomos" served as the Athenian treasury in the 5th and 4th
+centuries; the temple is the [Greek: archaios neos taes Poliados]
+mentioned by Strabo (ix. 16), and it was still standing in the time of
+Pausanias, who applies to it the same name (i. 27. 3). The conclusion
+that the foundations are those of an old temple burnt by the Persians
+has been generally accepted, but other portions of Dörpfeld's
+theory--more especially his assumption that the temple was restored
+after the Persian War--have provoked much controversy. Thus J.G. Frazer
+maintains the hitherto current theory that the earlier temple of Athena
+and Erechtheus was on the site of the Erechtheum; that the Erechtheum
+inherited the name [Greek: archaios neos] from its predecessor, and that
+the "opisthodomos" in which the treasures were kept was the west chamber
+of the Parthenon; Furtwängler and Milchhöfer hold the strange view that
+the "opisthodomos" was a separate building at the east end of the
+Acropolis, while Penrose thinks the building discovered by Dörpfeld was
+possibly the Cecropeum. E. Curtius and J.W. White, on the other hand,
+accept Dörpfeld's identification, but believe that only the western
+portion of the temple or opisthodomos was rebuilt after the Persian War.
+Admitting the identification, we may perhaps conclude that the temple
+was repaired in order to provide a temporary home for the venerated
+image and other sacred objects; no traces of a restoration exist, but
+the walls probably remained standing after the Persian conflagration.
+The removal of the ancient temple was undoubtedly intended when the
+Erechtheum was built, but superstition and popular feeling may have
+prevented its demolition and the removal of the [Greek: xoanon] to the
+new edifice. The temple consisted of an eastern cella with pronaos;
+behind this was the opisthodomos, divided into three chambers--possibly
+treasuries--with a portico at the western end. The peristyle, if we
+compare the measurements of the stylobate with those of the drums built
+into the wall of the Acropolis, may be concluded to have consisted of
+six Doric columns at the ends and twelve at the sides. In one of the
+pediments was a gigantomachy, of which some fragments have been
+recovered.
+
+
+  The grottoes of Pan and Apollo.
+
+In 1896 excavations with the object of exploring the whole northern and
+eastern slopes of the Acropolis were begun by Kavvadias. The pathway
+between the citadel and the Areopagus was found to be so narrow that it
+is certain the Panathenaic procession cannot have taken this route to
+the Acropolis. On the north-west rock the caves known as the grottoes of
+Pan and Apollo were cleared out; these consist of a slight high-arched
+indentation immediately to the east of the Clepsydra and a double and
+somewhat deeper cavern a little farther to the east. In the first
+mentioned are a number of niches in which [Greek: pinakes] (votive
+tablets) were placed: some of these, inscribed with dedications to
+Apollo, have been discovered. The whole locality was the seat of the
+ancient cult of this deity, afterwards styled "Hypacraeus," with which
+was associated the legend of Creüsa and the birth of Ion. The worship of
+Pan was introduced after the Persian wars, in consequence of an
+apparition seen by Pheidippides, the Athenian courier, in the mountains
+of Arcadia. Another cave more to the west was revealed by the demolition
+of the bastion of Odysseus. To the east a much deeper and hitherto
+unknown cavern has been revealed, which Kavvadias identifies with the
+grotto of Pan. Close to it are a series of steps hewn in the rock which
+connect with those discovered in 1886 within the Acropolis wall. Farther
+east is an underground passage leading eastward to a cave supposed to be
+the sanctuary of Aglaurus where the ephebi took the oath; with this
+passage is connected a secret staircase leading up through a cleft in
+the rock to the precinct of the Errephori on the Acropolis. It is
+conceivable that the priestesses employed this exit when descending on
+their mysterious errand.
+
+
+  The classical period: the walls of Themistocles.
+
+In the fifty years between the Persian and the Peloponnesian wars
+architecture and plastic art attained their highest perfection in
+Athens. The almost complete destruction of the buildings on the
+Acropolis and in the lower city, among them many temples and shrines
+which religious sentiment might otherwise have preserved, facilitated
+the realization of the magnificent architectural designs of
+Themistocles, Cimon and Pericles, while the rapid growth of the Athenian
+empire provided the state with the necessary means for the execution of
+these sumptuous projects. Of the great monuments of this epoch few
+traces remain except on the Acropolis. After the departure of the
+Persians the first necessity was the reconstruction of the defences of
+the city and the citadel. The walls of the city, now built under the
+direction of Themistocles, embraced a larger area than the previous
+circuit, with which they seem to have coincided at the Dipylon Gate on
+the north-west where the Sacred Way to Eleusis was joined by the
+principal carriage route to the Peiraeus and the roads to the Academy
+and Colonus. The other more important gates were the Peiraic and Melitan
+on the west; the Itonian on the south leading to Phalerum, the Diomean
+and Diocharean on the east, and the Acharnian on the north. The wall,
+which was strengthened with numerous towers, enclosed the quarters of
+Collytus on the north, Melite on the west, Limnae on the south-west and
+south, and Diomea on the east. The scanty traces which remain have not
+been systematically excavated except in the neighbourhood of the
+Dipylon; the discovery of sepulchral tablets built into the masonry
+illustrates the statement of Thucydides with regard to the employment of
+such material in the hasty construction of the walls. The circuit has
+been practically ascertained in its general lines, though not in
+details; it is given by Thucydides (ii. 13. 7) as 43 stades (about 5˝
+m.) exclusive of the portion between the points of junction with the
+long walls extending to the Peiraeus, but the whole circumference cannot
+have exceeded 37 stades. Possibly Thucydides, who in the passage
+referred to is dealing with the question of defence, included a portion
+of the contiguous long walls in his measurement; this explanation
+derives probability from his underestimate of the length of the long
+walls.
+
+
+  The "Long Walls".
+
+The design of connecting Athens with the Peiraeus by long parallel walls
+is ascribed by Plutarch to Themistocles. The "Long Walls" ([Greek: ta
+makra teichae, ta skelae]) consisted of (1) the "North Wall" ([Greek: to
+boreion teichos]), (2) the "Middle" or "South Wall" ([Greek: to dia
+mesou teichos], Plato, _Gorg._ 555 [Epsilon]; [Greek: to notion
+teichos]); and (3) the "Phaleric Wall" ([Greek: to Phalaerikon teichos];
+The north and Phaleric walls were perhaps founded by Cimon, and were
+completed about 457 B.C. in the early administration of Pericles; the
+middle wall was built about 445 B.C. The lines of the north and middle
+walls have been ascertained from the remnants still existing in the 18th
+century and the scantier traces now visible. The north wall, leaving the
+city circuit at a point near the modern Observatory, ran from north-east
+to south-west near the present road to the Peiraeus, until it reached
+the Peiraeus walls a little to the east of their northernmost bend. The
+middle wall, beginning south of the Pnyx near the Melitan Gate,
+gradually approached the northern wall and, following a parallel course
+at an interval of 550 ft., diverged to the east near the modern New
+Phalerum and joined the Peiraeus walls on the height of Munychia where
+they turn inland from the sea. The course of the Phaleric wall has been
+much disputed. The widely-received view of Curtius that it ran to Cape
+Kolias (now Old Phalerum) on the east of the Phaleric bay is not
+accepted by recent topographers. The exigencies of the defensive system
+planned by Themistocles could only have been satisfied by a juncture of
+the Phaleric wall with that of the Peiraeus. The existence of any third
+wall was denied by Leake, according to whose theory the southern
+parallel wall would be identical with the Phaleric. The language of
+Thucydides, however, seems decisive with regard to the existence of
+three walls. The Phaleric wall, branching from the city circuit at some
+point farther east than the middle or south wall, may have followed the
+ridge of the Sikelia heights, where some traces of fortifications
+remain, and then traversed the Phalerum plain till it reached the
+Peiraeus defences at a point a little to the north-west of their
+junction with the middle wall. The Phaleric wall, proving indefensible,
+was abandoned towards the close of the Peloponnesian war; with the other
+two walls it was completely destroyed after the surrender of the city,
+and was not rebuilt when they were restored by Conon in 393 B.C. The
+parallel walls fell into decay, during the Hellenistic period, and
+according to Strabo (ix. 396) were once more demolished by Sulla.
+
+
+  The Peiraeus.
+
+The great advantages which the Peiraic promontory with its three natural
+harbours offered for purposes of defence and commerce were first
+recognized by Themistocles, in whose archonship (493 B.C.) the
+fortifications of the Peiraeus were begun. Before his time the Athenians
+used as a port the roadstead of Phalerum at the north-eastern corner of
+Phalerum bay partly sheltered by Cape Kolias. As soon as the building of
+the city walls had been completed, Themistocles resumed the construction
+of the Peiraeus defences, which protected the larger harbour of
+Cantharus on the west and the smaller ports of Zea and Munychia
+(respectively south-west and south-east of the Munychia heights),
+terminating in moles at their entrances and enclosing the entire
+promontory on the land and sea sides except a portion of the south-west
+shore of the peninsula of Acte. The walls, built of finely compacted
+blocks, were about 10 ft. in thickness and upwards of 60 ft. in height,
+and were strengthened by towers. The town was laid out at great expense
+in straight, broad streets, intersecting each other at right angles, by
+the architect Hippodamus of Miletus in the time of Pericles. In the
+centre was the Agora of Hippodamus; on the western margin of the
+Cantharus harbour extended the emporium, or Digma, the centre of
+commercial activity, flanked by a series of porticoes; at its northern
+end, near the entrance to the inner harbour, was another Agora, on the
+site of the modern market-place, and near it the [Greek: makra stoa],
+the corn depot of the state. This inner and shallower harbour, perhaps
+the [Greek: kophos limaen], was afterwards excluded from the town
+precinct by the walls of Conon, which traversing its opening on an
+embankment ([Greek: to dia meson choma]) ran round the outer shore of
+the western promontory of Eëtionea, previously enclosed, with some space
+to the north-west, by the wider circuit of Themistocles. In the harbours
+of Zea and Munychia traces may be seen of the remarkable series of
+galley-slips in which the Athenian fleet was built and repaired. The
+galley-slips around Zea were roofed by a row of gables supported by
+stone columns, each gable sheltering two triremes. Among the other
+noteworthy buildings of the Peiraeus were the arsenal ([Greek:
+skeuothaekae]) of Philo and the temples of Zeus Soter, the patron god of
+the sailors, of the Cnidian Artemis, built by Cimon, and of Artemis
+Munychia, situated near the fort on the Munychia height; traces of a
+temple of Asclepius, of two theatres and of a hippodrome remain. The
+fine marble lion of the classical period which stood at the mouth of the
+Cantharus harbour gave the Peiraeus its medieval and modern names of
+Porto Leone and Porto Draco; it was carried away to Venice by Morosini.
+
+
+  The Dipylon and Ceramicus.
+
+In 1870 the Greek Archaeological Society undertook a series of
+excavations in the Outer Ceramicus, which had already been partially
+explored by various scholars. The operations, which were carried on at
+intervals till 1890, resulted in the discovery of the Dipylon Gate, the
+principal entrance of ancient Athens. The Dipylon consists of an outer
+and an inner gate separated by an oblong courtyard and flanked on either
+side by towers; the gates were themselves double, being each composed of
+two apertures intended for the incoming and outgoing traffic. An opening
+in the city wall a little to the south-west, supposed to have been the
+Sacred Gate ([Greek: iera pylae]), was in all probability an outlet for
+the waters of the Eridanus. This stream, which has hitherto been
+regarded as the eastern branch of the Ilissus rising at Kaesariane, has
+been identified by Dörpfeld with a brook descending from the south slope
+of Lycabettus and conducted in an artificial channel to the
+north-western end of the city, where it made its exit through the walls,
+eventually joining the Ilissus. The channel was open in Greek times, but
+was afterwards covered by Roman arches; it appears to have served as the
+main drain of the city. Between this outlet and the Dipylon were found a
+boundary-stone, inscribed [Greek: oros Kerameikou], which remains in its
+place, and the foundations of a large rectangular building, possibly the
+Pompeium, which may have been a robing-room for the processions which
+passed this way. On either side of the Dipylon the walls of
+Themistocles, faced on the outside by a later wall, have been traced for
+a considerable distance. The excavation of the outlying cemetery
+revealed the unique "Street of the Tombs" and brought to light a great
+number of sepulchral monuments, many of which remain _in situ_.
+Especially noteworthy are the _stelae_ (reliefs) representing scenes of
+leave-taking, which, though often of simple workmanship, are
+characterized by a touching dignity and restraint of feeling. In this
+neighbourhood were found a great number of tombs containing vases of all
+periods, which furnish a marvellous record of the development of Attic
+ceramic art. A considerable portion of the district remains unexplored.
+
+
+  The Acropolis of the classical period: its fortifications and area.
+
+The Acropolis had been dismantled as a fortress after the expulsion of
+Hippias; its defenders against the Persians found it necessary to erect
+a wooden barricade at its entrance. The fortifications were again
+demolished by the Persians, after whose departure the existing north
+wall was erected in the time of Themistocles; many columns, metopes and
+other fragments from the buildings destroyed by the Persians were built
+into it, possibly owing to haste, as in the case of the city walls, but
+more probably with the design of commemorating the great historic
+catastrophe, as the wall was visible from the Agora. The fine walls of
+the south and east sides were built by Cimon after the victory of the
+Eurymedon, 468 B.C.; they extend considerably beyond the old Pelasgic
+circuit, the intervening space being filled up with earth and the débris
+of the ruined buildings so as to increase the level space of the summit.
+On the northern side Cimon completed the wall of Themistocles at both
+ends and added to its height; the ground behind was levelled up on this
+side also, the platform of the Acropolis thus receiving its present
+shape and dimensions. The staircase leading down to the sanctuary of
+Aglaurus was enclosed in masonry. At the south-western corner, on the
+right of the approach to the old entrance, a bastion of early masonry
+was encased in a rectangular projection which formed a base for the
+temple of Nike. The great engineering works of Cimon provided a suitable
+area for the magnificent structures of the age of Pericles.
+
+
+  The monuments on the Acropolis.
+
+The greater monuments of the classical epoch on the Acropolis are
+described in separate articles (see PARTHENON, ERECHTHEUM, PROPYLAEA).
+Next in interest to these noble structures is the beautiful little
+temple of Athena Nike, wrongly designated Nike Apteros (Wingless
+Victory), standing on the bastion already mentioned; it was begun after
+450 B.C. and was probably finished after the outbreak of the
+Peloponnesian War. The temple, which is entirely of Pentelic marble, is
+amphiprostyle tetrastyle, with fluted Ionic columns, on a stylobate of
+three steps; its length is 27 ft., its breadth 18˝ ft., and its total
+height, from the apex of the pediment to the bottom of the steps, 23 ft.
+The frieze, running round the entire building, represents on its eastern
+side a number of deities, on its northern and southern sides Greeks
+fighting with Persians, and on its western side Greeks fighting with
+Greeks. Before the east front was the altar of Athena Nike. The
+irregularly shaped precinct around the temple was enclosed by a
+balustrade about 3 ft. 2 in. in height, decorated on the outside with
+beautiful reliefs representing a number of winged Victories engaged in
+the worship of Athena. The elaborate treatment of the drapery enveloping
+these female figures suggests an approach to the mannerism of later
+times; this and other indications point to the probability that the
+balustrade was added in the latter years of the Peloponnesian War. The
+temple was still standing in 1676; some eight years later it was
+demolished by the Turks, and its stones built into a bastion; on the
+removal of the bastion in 1835 the temple was successfully reconstructed
+by Ross with the employment of little new material. At either corner of
+the Propylaea entrance were equestrian statues dedicated by the Athenian
+knights; the bases with inscriptions have lately been recovered. From
+the inner exit of the Propylaea a passage led towards the east along the
+north side of the Parthenon; almost directly facing the entrance was the
+colossal bronze statue of Athena (afterwards called Athena Promachos) by
+Pheidias, probably set up by Cimon in commemoration of the Persian
+defeat. The statue, which was 30 ft. high, represented the goddess as
+fully armed; the gleam of her helmet and spear could be seen by the
+mariners approaching from Cape Sunium (Pausanias i. 28). On both sides
+of the passage were numerous statues, among them that of Athena Hygeďa,
+set up by Pericles to commemorate the recovery of a favourite slave who
+was injured during the building of the Parthenon, a colossal bronze
+image of the wooden horse of Troy, and Myron's group of Marsyas with
+Athena throwing away her flute. Another statue by Myron, the famous
+Perseus, stood near the precinct of Artemis Brauronia. In this sacred
+enclosure, which lay between the south-eastern corner of the Propylaea
+and the wall of Cimon, no traces of a temple have been found. Adjoining
+it to the east are the remains of a large rectangular building, which
+was apparently fronted by a colonnade; this has been identified with the
+[Greek: Chalkothaekae], a storehouse of bronze implements and arms,
+which was formerly supposed to lie against the north wall near the
+Propylaea. Beyond the Parthenon, a little to the north-east, was the
+great altar of Athena, and near it the statue and altar of Zeus Polieus.
+With regard to the buildings on the east end of the Acropolis, where the
+present museums stand, no certainty exists; among the many statues here
+were those of Xanthippus, the father of Pericles, and of Anacreon.
+Immediately west of the Erechtheum is the Pandroseum or temenos of
+Pandrosos, the daughter of Cecrops, the excavation of which has revealed
+no traces of the temple ([Greek: naos]) seen here by Pausanias (i. 27).
+The site of this precinct, in which the sacred olive tree of Athena
+grew, has been almost certainly fixed by an inscription found in the
+bastion of Odysseus. At its north-western extremity is a platform of
+levelled rock which may have supported the altar of Zeus Hypsistus.
+Farther west, along the north wall of the Acropolis, is the space
+probably occupied by the abode and playground of the Errephori. Between
+this precinct and the Propylaea were a number of statues, among them the
+celebrated heifer of Myron, and perhaps his Erechtheus; the Lemnian
+Athena of Pheidias, and his effigy of his friend Pericles.
+
+
+  The city in the classical period.
+
+The reconstruction of the city after its demolition by the Persians was
+not carried out on the lines of a definite plan like that of the
+Peiraeus. The houses were hastily repaired, and the narrow, crooked
+streets remained; the influence of Themistocles, who aimed at
+transferring the capital to the Peiraeus, was probably directed against
+any costly scheme of restoration, except on the Acropolis. The period of
+Cimon's administration, however, especially the interval between his
+victory on the Eurymedon and his ostracism (468-461 B.C.), was marked by
+great architectural activity in the lower city as well as on the
+citadel. To his time may be referred many of the buildings around the
+Agora (probably rebuilt on the former sites) and elsewhere, and the
+passage, or [Greek: dromos], from the Agora to the Dipylon flanked by
+long porticos. The Theseum or temple of Theseus, which lay to the east
+of the Agora near the Acropolis, was built by Cimon: here he deposited
+the bones of the national hero which he brought from Scyros about 470
+B.C. The only building in the city which can with certainty be assigned
+to the administration of Pericles is the Odeum, beneath the southern
+declivity of the Acropolis, a structure mainly of wood, said to have
+been built in imitation of the tent of Xerxes: it was used for musical
+contests and the rehearsal of plays. Of the various temples in which
+statues by Pheidias, Alcamenes and other great sculptors are known to
+have been placed, no traces have yet been discovered; excavation has not
+been possible in a large portion of the lower city, which has always
+been inhabited. The only extant structures of the classical period are
+the Hephaesteum, the Dionysiac theatre, and the choragic monument of
+Lysicrates. The remains of a small Ionic temple which were standing by
+the Ilissus in the time of Stuart have disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: The Acropolis.]
+
+
+  The Hephaesteum or Theseum.
+
+The Hephaesteum, the so-called Theseum, is situated on a slight
+eminence, probably the Colonus Agoraeus, to the west of the Agora. The
+best preserved Greek temple in the world, it possesses no record of its
+origin; the style of its sculptures and architecture leads to the
+conclusion that it was built about the same time as the Parthenon; it
+seems to have been finished by 421 B.C. It has been known as the Theseum
+since the middle ages, apparently because some of its sculptures
+represent the exploits of Theseus, but the Theseum was an earlier
+sanctuary on the east of the Agora (see above). The building has been
+supposed by Curtius, Wachsmuth and others to be the Heracleum in Melite,
+but its identification with the temple of Hephaestus and Athena seen in
+this neighbourhood by Pausanias (i. 14. 6), though not established, may
+be regarded as practically certain, notwithstanding the difficulty
+presented by the subjects of the sculptures, which bear no relation to
+Hephaestus. The temple is a Doric peripteral hexastyle _in antis_, with
+13 columns at the sides; its length is 104 ft., its breadth 45˝ ft., its
+height, to the top of the pediment, 33 ft. The sculptures of the
+pediments have been completely lost, but their design has been
+ingeniously reconstructed by Sauer. The frieze of the entablature
+contains sculptures only in the metopes of the east front and in those
+of the sides immediately adjoining it; the frontal metopes represent the
+labours of Heracles, the lateral the exploits of Theseus. As in the
+Parthenon, there is a sculptured zophoros above the exterior of the
+cella walls; this, however, extends over the east and west fronts only
+and the east ends of the sides; the eastern zophoros represents a
+battle-scene with seated deities on either hand, the western a
+centauromachia. The temple is entirely of Pentelic marble, except the
+foundations and lowest step of the stylobate, which are of Peiraic
+stone, and the zophoros of the cella, which is in Parian marble. The
+preservation of the temple is due to its conversion into a church in the
+middle ages.
+
+
+  The Dionysiac theatre and Asclepieum.
+
+The Dionysiac theatre, situated beneath the south side of the Acropolis,
+was partly hollowed out from its declivity. The representation of plays
+was perhaps transferred to this spot from the early Orchestra in the
+Agora at the beginning of the 5th century B.C.; it afterwards superseded
+the Pnyx as the meeting-place of the Ecclesia. The site, which had been
+accurately determined by Leake, was explored by Strack in 1862, and the
+researches subsequently undertaken by the Greek Archaeological Society
+were concluded in 1879. It was not, however, till 1886 that traces of
+the original circular Greek orchestra were pointed out by Dörpfeld. The
+arrangements of the stage and orchestra as we now see them belong to
+Roman times; the _cavea_ or auditorium dates from the administration of
+the orator Lycurgus (337-323 B.C.), and nothing is left of the theatre
+in which the plays of Sophocles were acted save a few small remnants of
+polygonal masonry. These, however, are sufficient to mark out the
+circuit of the ancient orchestra, on which the subsequently built
+proscenia encroached. The oldest stage-building was erected in the time
+of Lycurgus; it consisted of a rectangular hall with square projections
+([Greek: paraskenia]) on either side; in front of this was built in
+late Greek or early Roman times a stage with a row of columns which
+intruded upon the orchestra space; a later and larger stage, dating from
+the time of Nero, advanced still farther into the orchestra, and this
+was finally faced (probably in the 3rd century A.D.) by the "bema" of
+Phaedrus, a platform-wall decorated with earlier reliefs, the slabs of
+which were cut down to suit their new position. The remains of two
+temples of Dionysus have been found adjoining the stoa of the theatre,
+and an altar of the same god adorned with masks and festoons; the
+smaller and earlier temple probably dates from the 6th century B.C., the
+larger from the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 4th century.
+
+Immediately west of the theatre of Dionysus is the sacred precinct of
+Asclepius, which was excavated by the Archaeological Society in
+1876-1878. Here were discovered the foundations of the celebrated
+Asclepieum, together with several inscriptions and a great number of
+votive reliefs offered by grateful invalids and valetudinarians to the
+god of healing. Many of the reliefs belong to the best period of Greek
+art. A Doric colonnade with a double row of columns was found to have
+extended along the base of the Acropolis for a distance of 54 yds.;
+behind it in a chamber hewn in the rock is the sacred well mentioned by
+Pausanias. The colonnade was a place of resort for the patients; a large
+building close beneath the rock was probably the abode of the priests.
+
+
+  The choragic monument of Lysicrates.
+
+The beautiful choragic monument of Lysicrates, dedicated in the
+archonship of Euaenetus (335-334 B.C.), is the only survivor of a number
+of such structures which stood in the "Street of the Tripods" to the
+east of the Dionysiac theatre, bearing the tripods given to the
+successful choragi at the Dionysiac festival. It owes its preservation
+to its former inclusion in a Capuchin convent. The monument consists of
+a small circular temple of Pentelic marble, 21˝ ft. in height and 9 ft.
+in diameter, with six engaged Corinthian columns and a sculptured
+frieze, standing on a rectangular base of Peiraic stone. The delicately
+carved convex roof, composed of a single block, was surmounted by the
+tripod. The spirited reliefs of the frieze represent the punishment of
+the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dionysus and their transformation into
+dolphins. Another choragic monument was that of Thrasyllus, which faced
+a cave in the Acropolis rock above the Dionysiac theatre. A portion of
+another, that of Nicias, was used to make the late Roman gate of the
+Acropolis. In one of these monuments was the famous Satyr of Praxiteles.
+
+
+  The Cynosarges.
+
+The Cynosarges, from earliest times a sanctuary of Heracles, later a
+celebrated gymnasium and the school of Antisthenes the Cynic, has
+hitherto been generally supposed to have occupied the site of the
+Monastery of the Asomati on the eastern slope of Lycabettus; its
+situation, however, has been fixed by Dörpfeld at a point a little to
+the south of the Olympieum, on the left bank of the Ilissus. Here a
+series of excavations, carried out by the British School in 1896-1897
+under the direction of Cecil Smith, revealed the foundations of an
+extensive Greek building, the outlines of which correspond with those of
+a gymnasium; it possessed a large bath or cistern, and was flanked on
+two sides by water-courses. An Ionic capital found here possibly
+belonged to the palaestra. The identification, however, cannot be
+regarded as certain in the absence of inscriptions.
+
+
+  The Hellenistic period: the Stoa of Attalus.
+
+With the loss of political liberty the age of creative genius in
+Athenian architecture came to a close. The era of decadence, of honorary
+statues and fulsome inscriptions, began. The embellishments which the
+city received during the Hellenistic and Roman periods were no longer
+the artistic expression of the religious and political life of a great
+commonwealth; they were the tribute paid to the intellectual renown of
+Athens by foreign potentates or dilettanti, who desired to add their
+names to the list of its illustrious citizens and patrons. Among the
+first of these benefactions was the great gymnasium of Ptolemy, built in
+the neighbourhood of the Agora about 250 B.C. Successive princes of the
+dynasty of Pergamum interested themselves in the adornment of the city:
+Attalus I. set up a number of bronze statues on the Acropolis; Eumenes
+II. built the long portico west of the Dionysiac theatre, which was
+excavated and identified in 1877; Attalus II. erected the magnificent
+Stoa near the Agora, the remains of which were completely laid bare in
+1898-1902 and have been identified by an inscription. The Stoa consisted
+of a series of 21 chambers, probably shops, faced by a double colonnade,
+the outer columns being of the Doric order, the inner unfluted, with
+lotus-leaf capitals; it possessed an upper storey fronted with Ionic
+columns.
+
+
+  The Olympieum.
+
+The greatest monument, however, of the Hellenistic period is the
+colossal Olympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, "unum in terris inchoatum
+pro magnitudine dei" (Livy xli. 20), the remains of which stand by the
+Ilissus to the south-east of the Acropolis. The foundations of a temple
+were laid on the site--probably that of an ancient sanctuary-by
+Peisistratus, but the building in its ultimate form was for the greater
+part constructed under the auspices of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, king of
+Syria, by the Roman architect Cossutius in the interval between 174 B.C.
+and 164 B.C., the date of the death of Antiochus. The work was then
+suspended and its proposed resumption in the time of Augustus seems not
+to have been realized; finally, in A.D. 129, the temple was completed
+and dedicated by Hadrian, who set up a chryselephantine statue of Zeus
+in the cella. The substructure was excavated in 1883 by F.C. Penrose,
+who proved the correctness of Dörpfeld's theory that the building was
+octostyle; its length was 318 ft., its breadth 132 ft. With the
+exception of the foundations and two lower steps of the stylobate, it
+was entirely of Pentelic marble, and possessed 104 Corinthian columns,
+56 ft. 7 in. in height, of which 48 stood in triple rows under the
+pediments and 56 in double rows at the sides; of these, 16 remained
+standing in 1852, when one was blown down by a storm. Fragments of Doric
+columns and foundations were discovered, probably intended for the
+temple begun by Peisistratus, the orientation of which differed slightly
+from that of the later structure. The peribolos, a large artificial
+platform supported by a retaining wall of squared Peiraic blocks with
+buttresses, was excavated in 1898 without important results; it is to be
+hoped that the stability of the columns has not been affected by the
+operations.
+
+
+  The Horologium of Andronicus.
+
+_The Roman Period._--After 146 B.C. Athens and its territory were
+included in the Roman province of Achaea. Among the earlier buildings of
+this period is the Horologium of Andronicus of Cyrrhus (the "Tower of
+the Winds"), still standing near the eastern end of the Roman Agora. The
+building may belong to the 2nd or 1st century B.C.; it is mentioned by
+Varro (_De re rust_. iii. 5. 17), and therefore cannot be of later date
+than 35 B.C. It is an octagonal marble structure, 42 ft. in height and
+26 ft. in diameter; the eight sides, which face the points of the
+compass, are furnished with a frieze containing inartistic figures in
+relief representing the winds; below it, on the sides facing the sun,
+are the lines of a sun-dial. The building was surmounted by a
+weathercock in the form of a bronze Triton; it contained a water-clock
+to record the time when the sun was not shining.
+
+
+  Monuments of the Roman period.
+
+The capture and sack of Athens by Sulla (March 1, 86 B.C.) seems to have
+involved no great injury to its architectural monuments beyond the
+burning of the Odeum of Pericles; a portion of the city wall was razed,
+the groves of the Academy and Lyceum were cut down, and the Peiraeus,
+with its magnificent arsenal and other great buildings, burnt to the
+ground. After this catastrophe the benefactors of Athens were for the
+most part Romans; the influence of Greek literature and art had begun to
+affect the conquering race. The New, or Roman, Agora to the north of the
+Acropolis, perhaps mainly an oil market, was constructed after the year
+27 B.C. Its dimensions were practically determined by excavation in
+1890-1891. It consisted of a large open rectangular space surrounded by
+an Ionic colonnade into which opened a number of shops or storehouses.
+The eastern gate was adorned with four Ionic columns on the outside and
+two on the inside, the western entrance being the well-known Doric
+portico of Athena Archegetis with an inscription recording its erection
+from donations of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The whole conclave may be
+compared with the enclosed bazaars or khans of Oriental cities which are
+usually locked at night. The Agrippeum, a covered theatre, derived its
+name from Vipsanius Agrippa, whose statue was set up, about 27 B.C.,
+beneath the north wing of the Acropolis propylaea, on the high
+rectangular base still remaining. At the eastern end of the Acropolis a
+little circular temple of white marble with a peristyle of 9 Ionic
+columns was dedicated to Rome and Augustus; its foundations were
+discovered during the excavations of 1885-1888. The conspicuous monument
+which crowns the Museum Hill was erected as the mausoleum of Antiochus
+Philopappus of Commagene, grandson of Antiochus Epiphanes, in A.D.
+114-116. Excavations carried out in 1898-1899 showed that the structure
+was nearly square; the only portion remaining is the slightly curved
+front, with three niches between Corinthian pilasters; in the central
+niche is the statue of Philopappus.
+
+
+  Novae Athenae: the buildings of Hadrian.
+
+The emperor Hadrian was the most lavish of all the benefactors of
+Athens. Besides completing the gigantic Olympieum he enlarged the
+circuit of the city walls to the east, enclosing the area now covered by
+the royal public gardens and the Constitution Square. This was the City
+of Hadrian (Hadrianapolis) or New Athens (Novae Athenae); a handsome
+suburb with numerous villas, baths and gardens; some traces remain of
+its walls, which, like those of Themistocles, were fortified with
+rectangular towers. An ornamental entrance near the Olympieum, the
+existing Arch of Hadrian, marked the boundary between the new and the
+old cities. The arch is surmounted by a triple attic with Corinthian
+columns; the frieze above the keystone bears, on the north-western side,
+the inscription [Greek: aid eis Athaenai Thaeseos hae prin polis] and on
+the south-eastern, [Greek: aid eis Hadrianou kai onchi Thaeseos polis].
+One of the principal monuments of Hadrian's munificence was the
+sumptuous library, in all probability a vast rectangular enclosure,
+immediately north of the New Agora, the eastern side of which was
+explored in 1885-1886. A portion of its western front, adorned with
+monolith unfluted Corinthian columns, is still standing--the familiar
+"Stoa of Hadrian"; another well-preserved portion, with six pilasters,
+runs parallel to the west side of Aeolus Street. The interior consisted
+of a spacious court surrounded by a colonnade of 100 columns, into which
+five chambers opened at the eastern end. A portico of four fluted
+Corinthian columns on the western side formed the entrance to the
+quadrangle. This cloistered edifice may be identified with the library
+of Hadrian mentioned by Pausanias; the books were, perhaps, stored in a
+square building which occupied a portion of the central area. Strikingly
+similar in design and construction is a large quadrangular building, the
+foundations of which were discovered by the British School near the
+presumed Cynosarges; this may perhaps be the Gymnasium of Hadrian, which
+Pausanias tells us also possessed 100 columns. A Pantheon and temples of
+Hera and Zeus Panhellenius were likewise built by Hadrian; the aqueduct,
+which he began, was completed by Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161); it was
+repaired in 1861-1869 and is still in use.
+
+
+  The Stadium and Odeum of Herodes Atticus.
+
+The Stadium, in which the Panathenaic Games were held, was first laid
+out by the orator Lycurgus about 330 B.C. It was an oblong structure
+filling a natural depression near the left bank of the Ilissus beneath
+the eastern declivity of the Ardettus hill, the parallel sides and
+semicircular end, or [Greek: sphendonae] around the arena being
+partially excavated from the adjoining slopes. The immense building,
+however, which was restored in 1896 and the following years, was that
+constructed in Pentelic marble about A.D. 143 by Tiberius Claudius
+Herodes Atticus, a wealthy Roman resident, whose benefactions to the
+city rivalled those of Hadrian. The seats, rising in tiers, as in a
+theatre, accommodated about 44,000 spectators; the arena was 670 ft. in
+length and 109 ft. in breadth. The Odeum, built beneath the south-west
+slope of the Acropolis after A.D. 161 by Herodes Atticus in memory of
+his wife Regilla, is comparatively well preserved; it was excavated in
+1848 and in 1857-1858. The plan is that of the conventional Roman
+theatre; the semicircular auditorium, which seated some 5000 persons,
+is, like that of the Dionysiac theatre, partly hollowed from the rock.
+The orchestra is paved with marble squares. The façade, in Peiraic
+stone, displays three storeys of arched windows. The whole building was
+covered with a cedar roof. The Stadium had been already completed and
+the Odeum had not yet been built when Pausanias visited Athens; these
+buildings were the last important additions to the architectural
+monuments of the ancient city.     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+II. THE MODERN CITY
+
+At the conclusion of the Greek War of Independence, Athens was little
+more than a village of the Turkish type, the poorly built houses
+clustering on the northern and eastern slopes of the Acropolis. The
+narrow crooked lanes of this quarter still contrast with the straight,
+regularly laid-out streets of the modern city, which extends to the
+north-west, north and east of the ancient citadel. The greater
+commercial advantages offered by Nauplia, Corinth and Patras were
+outweighed by the historic claims of Athens in the choice of a capital
+for the newly founded kingdom, and the seat of government was
+transferred hither from Nauplia in 1833. The new town was, for the most
+part, laid out by the German architect Schaubert. It contains several
+squares and boulevards, a large public garden, and many handsome public
+and private edifices. A great number of the public institutions owe
+their origin to the munificence of patriotic Greeks, among whom Andreas
+Syngros and George Averoff may be especially mentioned. The royal
+palace, designed by Friedrich von Gärtner (1792-1847), is a tasteless
+structure; attached to it is a beautiful garden laid out by Queen
+Amalia, which contains a well-preserved mosaic floor of the Roman
+period. On the south-east is the newly built palace of the crown prince.
+The Academy, from designs by Theophil Hansen (1813-1891), is constructed
+of Pentelic marble in the Ionic style: the colonnades and pediments are
+richly coloured and gilded, and may perhaps convey some idea of the
+ancient style of decoration. Close by is the university, with a
+colonnade adorned with paintings, and the Vallianean library with a
+handsome Doric portico of Pentelic marble. The observatory, which is
+connected with the university, stands on the summit of the Hill of the
+Nymphs; like the Academy, it was erected at the expense of a wealthy
+Greek, Baron Sina of Vienna. In the public garden is the Zappeion, a
+large building with a Corinthian portico, intended for the display of
+Greek industries; here also is a monument to Byron, erected in 1896. The
+Boule, or parliament-house, possesses a considerable library. Other
+public buildings are the Polytechnic Institute, built by contributions
+from Greeks of Epirus, the theatre, the Arsakeion (a school for girls),
+the Varvakeion (a gymnasium), the military school ([Greek: scholae
+enelpidon]), and several hospitals and orphanages. The cathedral, a
+large, modern structure is devoid of architectural merit, but some of
+the smaller, ancient, Byzantine churches are singularly interesting and
+beautiful. Among private residences, the mansion built by Dr Schliemann,
+the discoverer of Troy, is the most noteworthy; its decorations are in
+the Pompeian style.
+
+
+  Museums.
+
+The museums of Athens have steadily grown in importance with the
+progress of excavation. They are admirably arranged, and the remnants of
+ancient art which they contain have fortunately escaped injudicious
+restoration. The National Museum, founded in 1866, is especially rich in
+archaic sculptures and in sepulchral and votive reliefs. A copy of the
+Diadumenos of Polyclitus from Delos, and temple sculptures from
+Epidaurus and the Argive Heraeum, are among the more notable of its
+recent acquisitions. It also possesses the famous collection of
+prehistoric antiquities found by Schliemann at Tiryns and Mycenae, other
+"Mycenaean" objects discovered at Nauplia and in Attica, as well as the
+still earlier remains excavated by Tsountas in the Cyclades and by the
+British School at Phylakopi in Melos; terra-cottas from Tanagra and Asia
+Minor; bronzes from Olympia, Delphi and elsewhere, and numerous painted
+vases, among them the unequalled white _lekythi_ from Athens and
+Eretria. The Epigraphical Museum contains an immense number of
+inscriptions arranged by H.G. Lolling and A. Wilhelm of the Austrian
+Institute. The Acropolis Museum (opened 1878) possesses a singularly
+interesting collection of sculptures belonging to the "archaic" period
+of Greek art, all found on the Acropolis; here, too, are some fragments
+of the pedimental statues of the Parthenon and several reliefs from its
+frieze, as well as the slabs from the balustrade of the temple of Nike.
+The Polytechnic Institute contains a museum of interesting objects
+connected with modern Greek life and history. In the Academy is a
+valuable collection of coins superintended by Svoronos. Of the private
+collections those of Schliemann and Karapanos are the most interesting:
+the latter contains works of art and other objects from Dodona. There is
+a small museum of antiquities at the Peiraeus.
+
+
+  Scientific institutions.
+
+Owing to the numbers and activity of its institutions, both native and
+foreign, for the prosecution of research and the encouragement of
+classical studies, Athens has become once more an international seat of
+learning. The Greek Archaeological Society, founded in 1837, numbers
+some distinguished scholars among its members, and displays great
+activity in the conduct of excavations. Important researches at
+Epidaurus, Eleusis, Mycenae, Amyclae and Rhamnus may be numbered among
+its principal undertakings, in addition to the complete exploration of
+the Acropolis and a series of investigations in Athens and Attica. The
+French École d'Athčnes, founded in 1846, is under the scientific
+direction of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres. Among its
+numerous enterprises have been the extensive and costly excavations at
+Delos and Delphi, which have yielded such remarkable results. The
+monuments of the Byzantine epoch have latterly occupied a prominent
+place in its investigations. The German Archaeological Institute,
+founded in 1874, has carried out excavations at Thebes, Lesbos, Pares,
+Athens and elsewhere; it has also been associated in the great
+researches at Olympia, Pergamum and Troy, and in many other important
+undertakings. The British School, founded in 1886, has been unable,
+owing to insufficient endowment, to work on similar lines with the
+French and German institutions; it has, however, carried out extensive
+excavations at Megalopolis and in Melos, as well as researches at Abae,
+in Athens (presumed site of the Cynosarges), in Cyprus, at Naucratis and
+at Sparta. It has also participated in the exploration of Cnossus and
+other important sites in Crete. The American School, founded in 1882, is
+supported by the principal universities of the United States. In
+addition to researches at Sicyon, Plataea, Eretria and elsewhere, it has
+undertaken two works of capital importance--the excavation of the Argive
+Heraeum and of ancient Corinth. An Austrian Archaeological Institute was
+founded in 1898.
+
+
+  Industry and commerce.
+
+Notwithstanding certain disadvantages inherent in its situation, the
+trade and manufactures of Athens have considerably increased in recent
+years. Industrial and commercial activity is mainly centred at the
+Peiraeus, where cloth and cotton mills, 45 cognac distilleries, 14 steam
+flour mills, 8 soap manufactories, 13 shipbuilding and engineering
+works, chair manufactories, dye works, chemical works, tanneries and a
+dynamite factory have been established. The shipbuilding and engineering
+trades are active and advancing. The export trade is, however,
+inconsiderable, as the produce of the local industries is mainly
+absorbed by home consumption. The principal exports are wine, cognac and
+marble from Pentelicus. As a place of import, the Peiraeus surpasses
+Patras, Syra and all the other Greek maritime towns, receiving about 53%
+of all the merchandise brought into Greece. The principal imports are
+coal, grain, manufactured articles and articles of luxury. The total
+value of exports in 1904 was Ł459,565; of imports, Ł2,459,278. The
+number of ships entered and cleared in 1905 was 5020 with a tonnage of
+5,796,590 tons, of which 416, with a tonnage of 609,822 tons, were
+British.
+
+
+  The Peiraeus.
+
+The Peiraeus, which had never revived since its destruction by the
+Romans in 86 B.C., was at the beginning of the 19th century a small
+fishing village known as Porto Leone. When Athens became the capital in
+1833 the ancient name of its port was revived, and since that time piers
+and quays have been constructed, and spacious squares and broad regular
+streets have been laid out. The town now possesses an exchange, a large
+theatre, a gymnasium, a naval school, municipal buildings and several
+hospitals and charitable institutions erected by private munificence.
+The harbour, in which ships of all nations may be seen, as well as great
+numbers of the picturesque sailing craft engaged in the coasting trade,
+is somewhat difficult of access to larger vessels, but has been improved
+by the construction of new breakwaters and dry docks. The port and the
+capital are now connected by railway with Corinth and the principal
+towns of the Morea; the line opening up communication with northern
+Greece and Thessaly, when its proposed connexion with the Continental
+railway system has been effected, will greatly enhance the importance of
+the Peiraeus, already one of the most flourishing commercial towns in
+the Levant.
+
+
+  Population.
+
+The population of Athens has rapidly increased. In 1834 it was below
+5000; in 1870 it was 44,510; in 1879, 63,374; in 1889, 107,251; in 1896,
+111,486. The Peiraeus, which in 1834 possessed only a few hundred
+inhabitants, in 1879 possessed 21,618; in 1889, 34,327; in 1896, 43,848.
+The total population of Athens in 1907 was 167,479 and of Peiraeus
+67,982.     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+III. HISTORY
+
+1. _The Prehistoric Period._--The history of primitive Athens is
+involved in the same obscurity which enshrouds the early development of
+most of the Greek city-states. The Homeric poems scarcely mention
+Attica, and the legends, though numerous, are rarely of direct
+historical value. In the Minoan epoch Athens is proved by the
+archaeological remains to have been a petty kingdom scarcely more
+important than many other Attic communities, yet enjoying a more
+unbroken course of development than the leading states of that period.
+This accords with the cherished tradition which made the Athenians
+children of the soil, and free from admixture with conquering tribes.
+Many legends, however, and the later state organization, point to an
+immigration of an "Ionian" aristocracy in late Mycenaean days. These
+Ionian newcomers are almost certainly responsible for the absorption of
+the numerous independent communities of Attica into a central state of
+Athens under a powerful monarchy (see THESEUS), for the introduction of
+new cults, and for the division of the people into four tribes whose
+names--Geleontes, Hopletes, Argadeis and Aegicoreis--recur in several
+true Ionian towns. This centralization of power (_Synoecism_), to which
+many Greek peoples never attained, laid the first foundations of
+Athenian greatness. But in other respects the new constitution tended to
+arrest development. When the monarchy was supplanted in the usual Greek
+fashion by a hereditary nobility--a process accomplished, according to
+tradition, between about 1000 and 683 B.C.--all power was appropriated
+by a privileged class of Eupatridae (q.v.); the Geomori and Demiurgi,
+who formed the bulk of the community, enjoyed no political rights. It
+was to their control over the machinery of law that the Eupatridae owed
+their predominance. The aristocratic council of the Areopagus (q.v.)
+constituted the chief criminal court, and nominated the magistrates,
+among whom the chief archon (q.v.) passed judgment in family suits,
+controlled admission to the genos or clan, and consequently the
+acquisition of the franchise. This system was further supported by
+religious prescriptions which the nobles retained as a corporate secret.
+Assisted no doubt by their judicial control, the Eupatridae also tended
+to become sole owners of the land, reducing the original freeholders or
+tenants to the position of serfs. During this period Athens seems to
+have made little use of her militia, commanded by the polemarch, or of
+her navy, which was raised in special local divisions known as
+Naucraries (see NAUCRARY); hence no military _esprit de corps_ could
+arise to check the Eupatrid ascendancy. Nor did the commons obtain
+relief through any commercial or colonial enterprises such as those
+which alleviated social distress in many other Greek states. The first
+attack upon the aristocracy proceeded from a young noble named Cylon,
+who endeavoured to become tyrant about 630 B.C. The people helped to
+crush this movement; yet discontent must have been rife among them, for
+in 611 the Eupatrids commissioned Draco (q.v.), a junior magistrate, to
+draft and publish a code of criminal law. This was a notable concession,
+by which the nobles lost that exclusive legal knowledge which had formed
+one of their main instruments of oppression.
+
+2. _The Rise of Athens._--A still greater danger grew out of the
+widespread financial distress, which was steadily driving many of the
+agricultural population into slavery and threatened the entire state
+with ruin. After a protracted war with the neighbouring Megarians had
+accentuated the crisis the Eupatridae gave to one of their number, the
+celebrated Solon (q.v.), free power to remodel the whole state (594). By
+his economic legislation Solon placed Athenian agriculture once more
+upon a sound footing, and supplemented this source of wealth by
+encouraging commercial enterprise, thus laying the foundation of his
+country's material prosperity. His constitutional reforms proved less
+successful, for, although he put into the hands of the people various
+safeguards against oppression, he could not ensure their use in
+practice. After a period of disorder and party-feud among the nobles the
+new constitution was superseded in fact, if not in form, by the
+autocratic rule of Peisistratus (q.v.), and his sons Hippias and
+Hipparchus. The age of despotism, which lasted, with interruptions, from
+560 to 510, was a period of great prosperity for Athens. The rulers
+fostered agriculture, stimulated commerce and industry (notably the
+famous Attic ceramics), adorned the city with public works and temples,
+and rendered it a centre of culture. Their vigorous foreign policy first
+made Athens an Aegean power and secured connexions with numerous
+mainland powers. Another result of the tyranny was the weakening of the
+undue influence of the nobles and the creation of a national Athenian
+spirit in place of the ancient clan-feeling.
+
+The equalization of classes was already far advanced when towards the
+end of the century a nobleman of the Alcmaeonid family, named
+Cleisthenes (q.v.), who had taken the chief part in the final expulsion
+of the tyrants, acquired ascendancy as leader of the commons. The
+constitution which he promulgated (508/7) gave expression to the change
+of political feeling by providing a national basis of franchise and
+providing a new state organization. By making effective the powers of
+the Ecclesia (Popular Assembly) the Boule (Council) and Heliaea,
+Cleisthenes became the true founder of Athenian democracy.
+
+This revolution was accompanied by a conflict with Sparta and other
+powers. But a spirit of harmony and energy now breathed within the
+nation, and in the ensuing wars Athens worsted powerful enemies like
+Thebes and Chalcis (506). A bolder stroke followed in 500, when a force
+was sent to support the Ionians in revolt against Persia and took part
+in the sack of Sardis. After the failure of this expedition the
+Athenians apparently became absorbed in a prolonged struggle with Aegina
+(q.v.). In 493 the imminent prospect of a Persian invasion brought into
+power men like Themistocles and Miltiades (qq.v.), to whose firmness
+and insight the Athenians largely owed their triumph in the great
+campaign of 490 against Persia. After a second political reaction, the
+prospect of a second Persian war, and the naval superiority of Aegina
+led to the assumption of a bolder policy. In 483 Themistocles overcame
+the opposition of Aristides (q.v.), and passed his famous measure
+providing for a large increase of the Athenian fleet. In the great
+invasion of 480-479 the Athenians displayed an unflinching resolution
+which could not be shaken even by the evacuation and destruction of
+their native city. Though the traditional account of this war
+exaggerates the services of Athens as compared with the other champions
+of Greek independence, there can be no doubt that the ultimate victory
+was chiefly due to the numbers and efficiency of the Athenian fleet, and
+to the wise policy of her great statesman Themistocles (see SALAMIS,
+PLATAEA).
+
+3. _Imperial Athens._--After the Persian retreat and the reoccupation of
+their city the Athenians continued the war with unabated vigour. Led by
+Aristides and Cimon they rendered such prominent service as to receive
+in return the formal leadership of the Greek allies and the presidency
+of the newly formed Delian League (q.v.). The ascendancy acquired in
+these years eventually raised Athens to the rank of an imperial state.
+For the moment it tended to impair the good relations which had
+subsisted between Athens and Sparta since the first days of the Persian
+peril. But so long as Cimon's influence prevailed the ideal of "peace at
+home and the complete humiliation of Persia" was steadily unheld.
+Similarly the internal policy of Athens continued to be shaped by the
+conservatives. The only notable innovations since the days of
+Cleisthenes had been the reduction of the archonship to a routine
+magistracy appointed partly by lot (487), and the rise of the ten
+elective strategi (generals) as chief executive officers (see
+STRATEGUS). But the triumph of the navy in 480 and the great expansion
+of commerce and industry had definitely shifted the political centre of
+gravity from the yeoman class of moderate democrats to the more radical
+party usually stigmatized as the "sailor rabble." Though Themistocles
+soon lost his influence, his party eventually found a new leader in
+Ephialtes and after the failure of Cimon's foreign policy (see CIMON)
+triumphed over the conservatives. The year 461 marks the reversal of
+Athenian policy at home and abroad. By cancelling the political power of
+the Areopagus and multiplying the functions of the popular law-courts,
+Ephialtes abolished the last checks upon the sovereignty of the commons.
+His successor, Pericles, who commonly ranked as the "completer of the
+democracy," merely developed the full democracy so as to secure its
+effectual as well as its theoretical supremacy. The foreign policy of
+Athens was now directed towards an almost reckless expansion (see
+PERICLES). The unparalleled success of the Athenian arms at this period
+extended the bounds of empire to their farthest limits. Besides securing
+her Aegean possessions and her commerce by the defeat of Corinth and
+Aegina, her last rivals on sea, Athens acquired an extensive dominion in
+central Greece and for a time quite overshadowed the Spartan land-power.
+The rapid loss of the new conquests after 447 proved that Athens lacked
+a sufficient land-army to defend permanently so extensive a frontier.
+Under the guidance of Pericles the Athenians renounced the unprofitable
+rivalry with Sparta and Persia, and devoted themselves to the
+consolidation and judicious extension of their maritime influence.
+
+The years of the supremacy of Pericles (443-429) are on the whole the
+most glorious in Athenian history. In actual extent of territory the
+empire had receded somewhat, but in point of security and organization
+it now stood at its height. The Delian confederacy lay completely under
+Athenian control, and the points of strategic importance were largely
+held by cleruchies (q.v.; see also PERICLES) and garrisons. Out of a
+citizen body of over 50,000 freemen, reinforced by mercenaries and
+slaves, a superb fleet exceeding 300 sail and an army of 30,000 drilled
+soldiers could be mustered. The city itself, with its fortifications
+extending to the port of Peiraeus, was impregnable to a land attack. The
+commerce of Athens extended from Egypt and Colchis to Etruria and
+Carthage, and her manufactures, which attracted skilled operatives from
+many lands, found a ready sale all over the Mediterranean. With tolls,
+and the tribute of the Delian League, a fund of 9700 talents
+(Ł2,300,000) was amassed in the treasury.
+
+Yet the material prosperity of Athens under Pericles was less notable
+than her brilliant attainments in every field of culture. Her
+development since the Persian wars had been extremely rapid, but did not
+reach its climax till the latter part of the century. No city ever
+adorned herself with such an array of temples, public buildings and
+works of art as the Athens of Pericles and Pheidias. Her achievements in
+literature are hardly less great. The Attic drama of the period produced
+many great masterpieces, and the scientific thought of Europe in the
+departments of logic, ethics, rhetoric and history mainly owes its
+origin to a new movement of Greek thought which was largely fostered by
+the patronage of Pericles himself. Besides producing numerous men of
+genius herself Athens attracted all the great intellects of Greece. The
+brilliant summary of the historian Thucydides in the famous Funeral
+Speech of Pericles (delivered in 430), in which the social life, the
+institutions and the culture of his country are set forth as a model,
+gives a substantially true picture of Athens in its greatest days.
+
+This brilliant epoch, however, was not without its darker side. The
+payment for public service which Pericles had introduced may have
+contributed to raise the general level of culture of the citizens, but
+it created a dangerous precedent and incurred the censure of notable
+Greek thinkers. Moreover, all this prosperity was obtained at the
+expense of the confederates, whom Athens exploited in a somewhat selfish
+and illiberal manner. In fact it was the cry of "tyrant city" which went
+furthest to rouse public opinion in Greece against Athens and to bring
+on the Peloponnesian War (q.v.) which ruined the Athenian empire
+(431-404). The issue of this conflict was determined less by any
+intrinsic superiority on the part of her enemies than by the blunders
+committed by a people unable to carry out a consistent foreign policy on
+its own initiative, and served since Pericles by none but selfish or
+short-sighted advisers. It speaks well for the patriotic devotion and
+discipline of her commons that Athens, weakened by plague and military
+disasters, should have withstood for so long the blows of her numerous
+enemies from without, and the damage inflicted by traitors within her
+walls (see ANTIPHON, THERAMENES).
+
+4. _The Fourth Century_--After the complete defeat of Athens by land and
+sea, it was felt that her former services on behalf of Greece and her
+high culture should exempt her from total ruin. Though stripped of her
+empire, Athens obtained very tolerable terms from her enemies. The
+democratic constitution, which had been supplanted for a while by a
+government of oligarchs, but was restored in 403 after the latter's
+misrule had brought about their own downfall (see CRITIAS, THERAMENES,
+THRASYBULUS), henceforth stood unchallenged by the Greeks. Indeed the
+spread of democracy elsewhere increased the prestige of the Athenian
+administration, which had now reached a high pitch of efficiency.
+Athenian art and literature in the 4th century declined but slightly
+from their former standard; philosophy and oratory reached a standard
+which was never again equalled in antiquity and may still serve as a
+model. In the wars of the period Athens took a prominent part with a
+view to upholding the balance of power, joining the Corinthian League in
+395, and assisting Thebes against Sparta after 378, Sparta against
+Thebes after 369. Her generals and admirals, Conon, Iphicrates,
+Chabrias, Timotheus, distinguished themselves by their military skill,
+and partially recovered their country's predominance in the Aegean,
+which found expression in the temporary renewal of the Delian League
+(q.v.). By the middle of the century Athens was again the leading power
+in Greece. When Philip of Macedon began to grow formidable she seemed
+called upon once more to champion the liberties of Greece. This ideal,
+when put forward by the consummate eloquence of Demosthenes and other
+orators, created great enthusiasm among the Athenians, who at times
+displayed all their old vigour in opposing Philip, notably in the
+decisive campaign of 338. But these outbursts of energy were too
+spasmodic, and popular opinion repeatedly veered back in favour of the
+peace-party. With her diminished resources Athens could not indeed hope
+to cope with the great Macedonian king; however much we may sympathize
+with the generous ambition of the patriots, we must admit that in the
+light of hard facts their conduct appears quixotic.
+
+5. _The Hellenistic Period._--Philip and Alexander, who sincerely
+admired Athenian culture and courted a zealous co-operation against
+Persia, treated the conquered city with marked favour. But the people
+would not resign themselves to playing a secondary part, and watched for
+every opportunity to revolt. The outbreak headed by Athens after
+Alexander's death (323) led to a stubborn conflict with Macedonia. After
+his victory the regent Antipater punished Athens by the loss of her
+remaining dependencies, the proscription of her chief patriots, and the
+disfranchisement of 12,000 citizens. The Macedonian garrison which was
+henceforth stationed in Attic territory prevented the city from taking a
+prominent part in the wars of the Diadochi. Cassander placed Athens
+under the virtual autocracy of Demetrius of Phalerum (317-307), and
+after the temporary liberation by Demetrius Poliorcetes (306-300),
+secured his interests through a dictator named Lachares, who lost the
+place again to Poliorcetes after a siege (295). After a vain attempt to
+expel the garrison in 287, the Athenians regained their liberty while
+Macedonia was thrown into confusion by the Celts, and in 279 rendered
+good service against the invaders of the latter nation with a fleet off
+Thermopylae. When Antigonus Gonatas threatened to restore Macedonian
+power in Greece, the Athenians, supported perhaps by the king of Egypt,
+formed a large defensive coalition; but in the ensuing "Chremonidean
+War" (266-263) a naval defeat off Andros led to their surrender and the
+imposition of a Macedonian garrison. The latter was finally withdrawn in
+229 by the good offices of Aratus (q.v.). At this period Athens was
+altogether overshadowed in material strength by the great Hellenistic
+monarchies and even by the new republican leagues of Greece; but she
+could still on occasion display great energy and patriotism. The
+prestige of her past history had now perhaps attained its zenith. Her
+democracy was respected by the Macedonian kings; the rulers of Egypt,
+Syria, and especially of Pergamum, courted her favour by handsome
+donations of edifices and works of art, to which the citizens replied by
+unbecoming flattery, even to the extent of creating new tribes named
+after their benefactors. If Athens lost her supremacy in the fields of
+science and scholarship to Alexandria, she became more than ever the
+home of philosophy, while Menander and the other poets of the New Comedy
+made Athenian life and manners known throughout the civilized world.
+
+6. _Relations with the Roman Republic._--In 228 Athens entered into
+friendly intercourse with Rome, in whose interest she endured the
+desperate attacks of Philip V. of Macedonia (200-199). In return for
+help against King Perseus she acquired some new possessions, notably the
+great mart of Delos, which became an Athenian cleruchy (166). By her
+treacherous attack upon the frontier-town of Oropus (156) Athens
+indirectly brought about the conflict between Rome and the Achaean
+League which resulted in the eventual loss of Greek independence, but
+remained herself a free town with rights secured by treaty. In spite of
+the favours displayed by Rome, the more radical section of the people
+began to chafe at the loss of their international importance. This
+discontent was skilfully fanned by Mithradates the Great at the outset
+of his Roman campaigns. His emissary, the philosopher Aristion, induced
+the people to declare war against Rome and to place him in chief
+command. The town with its port stood a long siege against Sulla, but
+was stormed in 86. The conqueror allowed his soldiers to loot, but
+inflicted no permanent punishment upon the people. This war left Athens
+poverty-stricken and stripped of her commerce: her only importance now
+lay in the philosophical schools, which were frequented by many young
+Romans of note (Cicero, Atticus, Horace, &c.). Greek became fashionable
+at Rome, and a visit to Athens a sort of pilgrimage for educated Romans
+(cf. Propertius iv. 21: "Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor
+Athenas"). In the great civil wars Athens sided with Pompey and held out
+against Caesar's lieutenants, but received a free pardon "in
+consideration of her great dead." Similarly the triumvirs after Philippi
+condoned her enthusiasm for the cause of Brutus. Antony repeatedly made
+Athens his headquarters and granted her several new possessions,
+including Eretria and Aegina--grants which Octavian subsequently
+revoked.
+
+7. _The Roman Empire._--Under the new settlement Athens remained a free
+and sovereign city--a boon which she repaid by zealous Caesar-worship,
+for the favours bestowed upon her tended to pauperize her citizens and
+to foster their besetting sin of calculating flattery. Hadrian displayed
+his special fondness for the city by raising new buildings and relieving
+financial distress. He amended the constitution in some respects, and
+instituted a new national festival, the Panhellenica. In the period of
+the Antonines the endowment of professors out of the imperial treasury
+gave Athens a special status as a university town. Her whole energies
+seem henceforth devoted to academic pursuits; the military training of
+her youth was superseded by courses in philosophy and rhetoric; the
+chief organs of administration, the revived Areopagus and the senior
+Strategus, became as it were an education office. Save for an incursion
+by Goths in A.D. 267 and a temporary occupation by Alaric in 395, Athens
+spent the remaining centuries of the ancient world in quiet prosperity.
+The rhetorical schools experienced a brilliant revival under Constantine
+and his successors, when Athens became the _alma mater_ of many notable
+men, including Julian, Libanius, Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus, and in
+her professors owned the last representatives of a humane and moralized
+paganism. The freedom of teaching was first curtailed by Theodosius I.;
+the edict of Justinian (529), forbidding the study of philosophy, dealt
+the death-blow to ancient Athens.
+
+  The authorities for the history of ancient Athens will mostly be found
+  under GREECE: _History_, and the various biographies. The following
+  books deal with special periods or subjects only:--(1) _Early Athens_:
+  W. Warde Fowler, _The City-State_, ch. vi. (London, 1893). (2) _The
+  fifth and fourth centuries_: the "Constitution of Athens," ascribed to
+  Xenophon; W. Oncken, _Athen und Hellas_ (Leipzig, 1865); U. v.
+  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Aus Kydathen_ (Berlin, 1880); L. Whibley,
+  _Political Parties at Athens_ (Cambridge, 1889); G. Gilbert, _Beiträge
+  zur inneren Geschichte Athens_ (Leipzig, 1877); J. Beloch, _Die
+  attische Politik seit Perikles_ (Leipzig, 1884). (3) _The Hellenistic
+  and Roman periods_: J.P. Mahaffy, _Greek Life and Thought_, from 323
+  to 146 (London, 1887), chs. v., vi., xvii.; A. Holm, _Greek History_
+  (Eng. trans., London, 1898), iv. chs. vi. and xxiii.;
+  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Antigonos von Karystos_ (Berlin, 1881), pp.
+  178-291; W. Capes, _University Life in Ancient Athens_ (London, 1877);
+  A. Dumont, _Essai sur l'Ephebie attique_ (Paris, 1875). (4) _The Latin
+  rule_: G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford ed., 1877), vol. iv. ch.
+  vi. (5) _Constitutional History_: The Aristotelian "Constitution of
+  Athens"; U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Aristoteles und Athen_
+  (Berlin and Leipzig, 1893), vol. ii.; G. Gilbert, _Greek
+  Constitutional Antiquities_ (Eng. trans., London, 1895), pp. 95-453;
+  A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional History_ (Oxford,
+  1896), ch. vi.; J.W. Headlam, _Election by Lot at Athens_ (Cambridge,
+  1891). (6) _Finance and statistics_: A. Boeckh, _The Public Economy of
+  the Athenians_ (Eng. trans., London, 1828); Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen
+  zur alten Geschichte_ (Halle, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 149-195. (7)
+  _Inscriptions: Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum_, with supplements
+  (Berlin, 1873-1895). (8) _Coins_: B.V. Head, _Historia Numorum_
+  (Oxford, 1887), pp. 309-328.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+8. _Byzantine Period._--The city now sank into the position of a
+provincial Byzantine town. Already it had been robbed of many of its
+works of art, among them the Athena Promachos and the Parthenos of
+Pheidias, for the adornment of Constantinople, and further spoliation
+took place when the church of St Sophia was built in A.D. 532. The
+Parthenon, the Erechtheum, the "Theseum" and other temples were
+converted into Christian churches and were thus preserved throughout the
+middle ages. The history of Athens for the next four centuries is almost
+a blank; the city is rarely mentioned by the Byzantine chronicles of
+this period. The emperor Constantine II. spent some months here in A.D.
+662-663. In 869 the see of Athens became an archbishopric. In 995 Attica
+was ravaged by the Bulgarians under their tsar Samuel, but Athens
+escaped; after the defeat of Samuel at Belasitza (1014) the emperor
+Basil II., who blinded 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, came to Athens and
+celebrated his triumph by a thanksgiving service in the Parthenon
+(1018). From the Runic description on the marble lion of the Peiraeus it
+has been inferred that Harold Hardrasda and the Norsemen in the service
+of the Byzantine emperors captured the Peiraeus in 1040, but this
+conclusion is not accepted by Gregorovius (bk. i. pp. 170-172). Like the
+rest of Greece, Athens suffered greatly from the rapacity of its
+Byzantine administrators. The letters of Acominatus, archbishop of
+Athens, towards the close of the 12th century, bewail the desolate
+condition of the city in language resembling that of Jeremiah in regard
+to Jerusalem.
+
+9. _Period of Latin Rule: 1204-1458._--After the Latin conquest of
+Constantinople in 1204, Otho de la Roche was granted the lordship of
+Athens by Boniface of Montferrat, king of Thessalonica, with the title
+of Megaskyr ([Greek: megas kyrios]= great lord). His nephew and
+successor, Guy I., obtained the title duke of Athens from Louis IX. of
+France in 1258. On the death of Guy II., last duke of the house of la
+Roche, in 1308, the duchy passed to his cousin, Walter of Brienne. He
+was expelled in 1311 by his Catalonian mercenaries; the mutineers
+bestowed the duchy "of Athens and Neopatras" on their leader, Roger
+Deslaur, and, in the following year, on Frederick of Aragon, king of
+Sicily. The Sicilian kings ruled Athens by viceroys till 1385, when the
+Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli, lord of Corinth, defeated the Catalonians
+and seized the city. Nerio, who received the title of duke from the king
+of Naples, founded a new dynasty. His palace was in the Propylaea; the
+lofty "Tower of the Franks," which adjoined the south wing of that
+building, was possibly built in his time. This interesting historical
+monument was demolished by the Greek authorities in 1874,
+notwithstanding the protests of Penrose, Freeman and other scholars. The
+Acciajuoli dynasty lasted till June 1458, when the Acropolis after a
+stubborn resistance was taken by the Turks under Omar, the general of
+the sultan Mahommed II., who had occupied the lower city in 1456. The
+sultan entered Athens in the following month; he was greatly struck by
+its ancient monuments and treated its inhabitants with comparative
+leniency.
+
+10. _Period of Turkish Rule: 1458-1833._--After the Turkish conquest
+Athens disappeared from the eyes of Western civilization. The principal
+interest of the following centuries lies in the researches of successive
+travellers, who may be said to have rediscovered the city, and in the
+fate of its ancient monuments, several of which were still in fair
+preservation at the beginning of this period. The Parthenon was
+transformed into a mosque; the existing minaret at its south-western
+corner was built after 1466. The Propylaea served as the residence of
+the Turkish commandant and the Erechtheum as his harem. In 1466 the
+Venetians succeeded in occupying the city, but failed to take the
+Acropolis. About 1645 a powder magazine in the Propylaea was ignited by
+lightning and the upper portion of the structure was destroyed. Under
+Francesco Morosini the Venetians again attacked Athens in September
+1687; a shot fired during the bombardment of the Acropolis caused a
+powder magazine in the Parthenon to explode, and the building was rent
+asunder. After capturing the Acropolis the Venetians employed material
+from its ancient edifices in repairing its walls. They withdrew in the
+following year, when the Turks set fire to the city. The central
+sculptures of the western pediment of the Parthenon, which Morosini
+intended to take to Venice, were unskilfully detached by his workmen,
+and falling to the ground were broken to pieces. Several ancient
+monuments were sacrificed to provide material for a new wall with which
+the Turks surrounded the city in 1778.
+
+During the 18th century many works of art, which still remained _in
+situ_, fell a prey to foreign collectors. The removal to London in 1812
+of most of the remaining sculptures of the Parthenon by Lord Elgin
+possibly rescued many of them from injury in the period of warfare which
+followed. In 1821 the Greek insurgents surprised the city, and in 1822
+captured the Acropolis. Athens again fell into the hands of the Turks in
+1826, who bombarded and took the Acropolis in the following year; the
+Erechtheum suffered greatly, and the monument of Thrasyllus was
+destroyed. The Turks remained in possession of the Acropolis till 1833,
+when Athens was chosen as the capital of the newly established kingdom
+of Greece; since that date the history of the city forms part of that of
+modern Greece. (See GREECE: _History, modern_.)
+
+  GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.-W.M. Leake, _Topography of Athens and the Demi_
+  (2nd ed., London, 1841); C. Wachsmuth, _Die Stadt Athen im Alterthum_
+  (vol. i., Leipzig, 1874; vol. ii. part i., Leipzig, 1890); E. Burnouf,
+  _La Ville et l'acropole d'Athčnes aux diverses époques_ (Paris, 1877);
+  F.C. Penrose, _Principles of Athenian Architecture_ (London, 1888);
+  J.E. Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_ (London,
+  1890); E. Curtius and A. Milchhöfer, _Stadtgeschichte von Athen_
+  (Berlin, 1891); H. Hitzig and H. Blümner, _Pausanias_ (text and
+  commentary; vol. i., Berlin, 1896); J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias_
+  (translation and commentary; 6 vols., London, 1898. The commentary on
+  Pausanias' description of Athens, contained in vol. ii. with
+  supplementary notes in vol. v., is an invaluable digest of recent
+  researches); H. Omont, _Athčnes au XVII^e sičcle_ (Paris, 1898, with
+  plans and views of the town and acropolis and drawings of the
+  sculptures of the Parthenon); J.H. Middleton and E.A. Gardner, _Plans
+  and Drawings of Athenian Buildings_ (London, 1900); E.A. Gardner,
+  _Ancient Athens_ (London, 1902); W. Judeich, _Topographie von Athen_
+  (Munich, 1905; forming vol. iii. part ii. second half, in 3rd edition
+  of I. von Müller's _Handbuch der klass. Altertumswissenschaft_). The
+  history of excavations on the Acropolis is summarized in M.L. d'Ooge,
+  _Acropolis of Athens_ (1909); see also A. Bötticher, _Die Akropolis
+  von Athen_ (Berlin, 1888); O. Jahn, _Pausaniae descriptio arcis
+  Athenarum_ (Bonn, 1900); A. Furtwängler, _Masterpieces of Greek
+  Sculpture_ (appendix; London, 1895); A. Milchhöfer, _Über die alten
+  Burgheiligtümer in Athen_ (Kiel, 1899). For the Parthenon, A.
+  Michaelis, _Der Parthenon_ (texts and plates, Leipzig, 1871); L.
+  Magne, _Le Parthénon_ (Paris, 1895); J. Durm, _Der Zustand der antiken
+  athenischen Bauwerken_ (Berlin, 1895); F.C. Penrose in _Journal of
+  Royal Institute of British Architects_ for 1897; N.M. Balanos in
+  [Greek: Ephemeris tes kyberneseos] (Athens, August 25, 1898). For the
+  Dionysiac theatre, A.E. Haigh, _The Attic Theatre_ (Oxford, 1889); W.
+  Dörpfeld and E. Reisch, _Das griechische Theater_ (Athens, 1896);
+  Puchstein, _Die griechische Bühne_ (Berlin, 1901). For the "Theseum,"
+  B. Sauer, _Das sogenannte Theseion_ (Leipzig, 1899). For the Peiraeus,
+  E.I. Angelopoulos, [Greek: Peri Peiraios kai tun limenou] (Athens,
+  1898). For the Attic Demes, A. Milchhöfer, _Untersuchungen über die
+  Demenordnung des Kleisthenes_ (in transactions of Berlin Academy,
+  Berlin, 1892); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie der class.
+  Altertumswissenschaft_ (supplement, part i., article "Athenai";
+  Stuttgart, 1903). For the controversies respecting the Agora, the
+  Enneacrunus and the topography of the town in general, see W.
+  Dörpfeld, _passim_ in _Athenische Mittheilungen_; C. Wachsmuth, "Neue
+  Beiträge zur Topographie von Athen," in _Abhandlungen der sächsischen
+  Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig, 1897). A. Milchhöfer, "Zur
+  Topographie von Athen," in _Berlin. philol. Wochenschrift_ (1900),
+  Nos. 9, 11, 12. For the Byzantine and medieval periods, William
+  Miller, _Latins in the Levant_ (London, 1908); F. Gregorovius,
+  _Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1889). Periodical Literature. _Mittheilungen des kais. deutsch. arch.
+  Instituts_ (Athens, from 1876); _Bulletin de correspondance
+  hellénique_ (Athens, from 1877); _Papers of the American School_ (New
+  York, 1882-1897); _Annual of the British School_ (London, from 1894);
+  _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (London, from 1880); _American Journal
+  of Archaeology_ (New York, from 1885); _Jahrbuch des kais. deutsch.
+  arch. Instituts_ (Berlin, from 1886). The best maps are those in _Die
+  Karten van Attika_, published with explanatory text by the German
+  Archaeological Institute (Berlin, 1881). See also Baedeker's _Greece_
+  (London, 1895); Murray's _Greece and the Ionian Islands_ (London,
+  1900); Guide Joanne, vol. i. _Athčnes et ses environs_ (Paris, 1896);
+  Meyer's _Turkei und Griechenländer_ (5th ed., 1901).     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ATHENS, a city and the county-seat of Clarke county, Georgia, U.S.A., in
+the N.E. part of the state, about 73 m. E. by N. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890)
+8639; (1900) 10,245, of whom 5190 were negroes and only 114 were
+foreign-born; (1910, census) 14,913. It is served by the Georgia, the
+Central of Georgia, the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line and the
+Gainesville Midland railways. Athens is an important educational centre.
+It was founded in 1801 as the seat of the university of Georgia, which
+had been chartered in 1785. Franklin College, the academic department of
+the university, was opened in 1801, and afterwards the State College of
+Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (the School of Science, 1872), the State
+Normal School (co-educational, 1891), the School of Pharmacy (1903), the
+University Summer School (1903), the School of Forestry (1906), and the
+Georgia State College of Agriculture (1906), also branches of the
+university, were established at Athens, and what had been the Lumpkin
+Law School (incorporated in 1859) became the law department of the
+university in 1867. Branches of the university not in Athens are: the
+North Georgia Agricultural College (established in 1871; became a part
+of the university in 1872), at Dahlonega; the medical department, at
+Augusta (1873; founded as the Georgia Medical College in 1829); the
+Georgia School of Technology (1885), at Atlanta; the Georgia Normal and
+Industrial College for Girls (1889), at Milledgeville; and the Georgia
+Industrial College for Colored Youth (1890), near Savannah. At Athens
+also are several secondary schools, and the Lucy Cobb Institute (for
+girls), opened in 1858 and named in honour of a daughter of its founder,
+Gen. T.R.R. Cobb (1823-1862). The city has various manufactures, the
+most important being fertilizers, cotton goods, and cotton-seed oil and
+cake; the value of the total factory product in 1905 was $1,158,205, an
+increase of 70.9% in five years. Athens was chartered as a city in 1872.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENS, a village and the county-seat of Athens county, Ohio, U.S.A., in
+the township of Athens, on the Hocking river, about 76 m. E.S.E. of
+Columbus. Pop. (1890) 2620; (1900) 3066; (1910) 5463; of the township
+(1910) 10,156. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, the
+Toledo & Ohio Central (Ohio Central Lines), and the Hocking Valley
+railways. The village is built on rolling ground rising about 70 ft.
+above the river (which nearly encircles it), and commands views of some
+of the most beautiful scenery in the state. There are several ancient
+mounds in the vicinity. Athens is the seat of Ohio University
+(co-educational), a state institution established in 1804, and having in
+1908 a college of liberal arts, a state normal college (1902), a
+commercial college, a college of music and a state preparatory school.
+In 1908 the University had 53 instructors and 1386 students. South of
+the village, and occupying a fine situation, is a state hospital for the
+insane. In the vicinity there are many coal mines, and among the
+manufactures are bricks, furniture, veneered doors, and shirts. The
+municipality operates the water-works. When the Ohio Company, through
+Manasseh Cutler, obtained from congress their land in what is now Ohio,
+it was arranged that the income from two townships was to be set aside
+"for the support of a literary institution." In 1795 the townships
+(Athens and Alexander) were located and surveyed, and in 1800 Rufus
+Putnam and two other commissioners, appointed by the Territorial
+legislature, laid out a town, which was also called Athens. Settlers
+slowly came; the town became the county-seat in 1805, was incorporated
+as a village in 1811, and was re-incorporated in 1828.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Slice 7, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 7
+       "Arundel, Thomas" to "Athens"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 4, 2010 [EBook #34209]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SLICE 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+One typographical error has been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME II SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Arundel, Thomas to Athens</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ARUNDEL, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">ASSAB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ARUNDEL</a> (town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">ASSAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR, THOMAS ARUNDELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">ASSAMESE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ARUSIANUS MESSIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ARVAL BROTHERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">ASSARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ARVALS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">ASSASSIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ARVERNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">ASSAULT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ARYAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">ASSAYE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ARYA SAMAJ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">ASSAYING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ARYTENOID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">ASSEGAI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ARZAMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">ASSELIJN, HANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">AS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">ASSEMANI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ASA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ASAFETIDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">ASSEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ASAF-UD-DOWLAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">ASSER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ASAPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">ASSESSMENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ASBESTOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">ASSESSOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ASBJÖRNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">ASSETS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ASBURY, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">ASSIDEANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ASBURY PARK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">ASSIGNATS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ASCALON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">ASSIGNMENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ASCANIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">ASSINIBOIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">ASCENSION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">ASSINIBOIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">ASSISE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ASCETICISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">ASSISI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ASCHAFFENBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">ASSIUT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ASCHAM, ROGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">ASSIZE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">ASCHERSLEBEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">ASSMANNSHAUSEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">ASCIANO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">ASSOCIATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">ASCITANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ASCITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">ASSONANCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">ASCLEPIADES</a> (Greek physician)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">ASSUAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">ASCLEPIADES</a> (of Samos)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">ASSUMPSIT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ASCLEPIODOTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">ASSUR</a> (land of Assyria)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">ASCOLI PICENO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">ASSUR</a> (capital of Assyria)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">ASSUR</a> (god of Assyria)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ASCOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">ASSUR-BANI-PAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ASCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">ASSUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ASELLI, GASPARO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">ASSYRIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ASGILL, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ASH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">ASTARA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">A&lsquo;SH&#256;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">ASTARABAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ASHANTI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">ASTARTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ASH&lsquo;AR&#298;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">ASTELL, MARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ASHBOURNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">ASTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">ASHBURNHAM, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">ASTERIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">ASTERID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">ASTERISK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ASHBURTON</a> (river)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">ASTERIUS</a> (of Cappadocia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">ASHBURTON</a> (town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">ASTERIUS</a> (bishop of Amasia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ASHBY, TURNER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">ASTHMA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">ASTI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">A-SHE-HO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">ASHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">&rsquo;ASHER BEN-YEHIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">ASTON, ANTHONY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">ASHEVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">ASTON MANOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">ASHFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">ASTOR, JOHN JACOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">&lsquo;ASHI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">ASTORGA, EMANUELE D&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">ASHINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">ASTORGA</a> (city)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">&rsquo;ASHKENAZI, SEBI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">ASTORIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">ASHLAND</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">ASTRAEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">ASHLAND</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">ASTRAGAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">ASHLAND</a> (Virginia, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">ASTRAKHAN</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">ASHLAND</a> (Wisconsin, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">ASTRAKHAN</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">ASHLAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">ASTROLABE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">ASTROLOGY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">ASHMOLE, ELIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">ASTRONOMY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">ASHRAF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">ASTROPALIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">ASHREF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">ASTROPHYSICS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">ASHTABULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">ASTRUC, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">ASTURA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">ASTURIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">ASH WEDNESDAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">ASTYAGES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">ASHWELL, LENA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">ASTYLAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">ASIA</a> (continent)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">ASUNCIÓN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">ASIA</a> (Roman province)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">ASVINS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">ASIA MINOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">ASYLUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">ASIENTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">ASYLUM, RIGHT OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">ASIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">ATACAMA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">ASISIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">ATACAMA, DESERT OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">ASKABAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">ATACAMITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">ASKAULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">ATAHUALLPA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">ASKE, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">ATALANTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">ASKEW, ANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">ATARGATIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">A&#7778;MA&lsquo;&#298;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">ATAULPHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">ASMARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">ATAVISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">ASMODEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">ATBARA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">ASMONEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">ATCHISON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">ASNIČRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">ATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">ASOKA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">ATELLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">ASOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">ATELLANAE FABULAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">ASOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">ATESTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">ASP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">ATH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">ASPARAGINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">ATHABASCA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">ASPARAGUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">ATHALARIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">ASPASIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">ATHALIAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">ASPASIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">ATHAMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">ASPEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">ATHANAGILD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">ASPENDUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">ATHANARIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">ASPER, AEMILIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">ATHANASIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">ASPER, HANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">ATHAPASCAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">ASPERGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">ATHARVA VEDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">ASPERN-ESSLING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">ATHEISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">ASPHALT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">ATHELM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">ASPHODEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">ATHELNEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">ASPHYXIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">ATHENA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">ASPIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">ATHENAEUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">ASPIDISTRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">ATHENAEUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">ASPIROTRICHACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">ATHENAGORAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">ATHENODORUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">ASPROMONTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">ATHENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">ATHENS</a> (Greece)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">ASS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">ATHENS</a> (Georgia, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">ASS, FEAST OF THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">ATHENS</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">ARUNDEL, THOMAS<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1353-1414), archbishop of Canterbury,
+was the third son of Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel and
+Warenne, by his second wife, Eleanor, daughter of Henry
+Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. His family was an old and
+influential one, and when Thomas entered the church his preferment
+was rapid. In 1373 he became archdeacon of Taunton,
+and in April 1374 was consecrated bishop of Ely. During the
+early years of the reign of King Richard II. he was associated
+with the party led by Thomas, duke of Gloucester, Henry, earl
+of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., and his own brother
+Richard, earl of Arundel, and in 1386 he was sent with Gloucester
+to Eltham to persuade Richard to return to parliament. This
+mission was successful, and Arundel was made lord chancellor
+in place of Michael de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and assisted to
+make peace between the king and the supporters of the commission
+of regency. In April 1388 he was made archbishop of York,
+and, when Richard declared himself of age in 1389, he gave up
+the office of chancellor, to which, however, he returned in 1391.
+During his second tenure of this office he removed the courts of
+justice from London to York, but they were soon brought back
+to the metropolis. In September 1396 he was translated from
+York to Canterbury, and again resigned the office of chancellor.
+He began his new rule by a vigorous attempt to assert his rights,
+warned the citizens of London not to withhold tithes, and decided
+appeals from the judgments of his suffragans during a thorough
+visitation of his province. In November 1396 he had officiated
+at the marriage of Richard and Isabella, daughter of Charles VI.,
+king of France, and his fall was the sequel of the king&rsquo;s sudden
+attack upon the lords appellant in 1397. After the arrest of
+Gloucester, Warwick and Arundel, the archbishop was impeached
+by the Commons with the king&rsquo;s consent, although Richard,
+who had not yet revealed his hostility, held out hopes of safety
+to him. He was charged with assisting to procure the commission
+of regency in derogation of the royal authority, and sentence
+of banishment was passed, forty days being given him during
+which to leave the realm. Towards the end of 1397 he started
+for Rome, and Pope Boniface IX., at the urgent request of the
+king, translated him to the see of St Andrews, a step which the
+pope afterwards confessed he repented bitterly. This translation
+virtually deprived Arundel of all authority, as St Andrews did
+not acknowledge Boniface. He then became associated with
+Henry of Lancaster, but did not return to England before 1399,
+and the account which Froissart gives telling how he was sent by
+the Londoners to urge Henry to come and assume the crown is
+thought to refer to his nephew and namesake, Thomas, earl of
+Arundel. Landing with Henry at Ravenspur, he accompanied
+him to the west. He took his place at once as archbishop of
+Canterbury, witnessed the abdication of Richard in the Tower
+of London, led the new king, Henry IV., to his throne in presence
+of the peers, and crowned him on the 13th of October 1399.</p>
+
+<p>The main work of his later years was the defence of the church,
+and the suppression of heresy. To put down the Lollards, he
+called a meeting of the clergy, pressed on the statute <i>de haeretico
+comburendo</i>, and passed sentence of degradation upon William
+Sawtrey. He resisted the attempt of the parliament of 1404 to
+disendow the church, but failed to induce Henry to pardon
+Archbishop Scrope in 1405. In 1407 he became chancellor for
+the fourth time, and in 1408 summoned a council at Oxford,
+which drew up constitutions against the Lollards. These he
+published in January 1409, and among them was one forbidding
+the translation of the Bible into English without the consent of
+the bishop of the diocese, or of a provincial synod. In 1411 he
+went on an embassy abroad, and in 1412 became chancellor
+again, his return to power being accompanied by a change in the
+foreign policy of Henry IV. In 1397 he had sought to vindicate
+his right of visitation over the university of Oxford, but the
+dispute remained unsettled until 1411 when a bull was issued by
+Pope John XXIII. recalling one issued by Pope Boniface IX.,
+which had exempted the university from the archbishop&rsquo;s
+authority. In 1413 he took a leading part in the proceedings
+against Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, and in the following
+year he died on the 19th of February, and was buried at Canterbury.
+A legend of a later age tells how, just before his death,
+he was struck dumb for preventing the preaching of the word of
+God.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authorities are T. Walsingham, <i>Historia Anglicana</i>, ed.
+by H.T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); <i>Eulogium historiarum sive
+temporis</i>, ed. by F.S. Haydon (London, 1858-1863); the Monk
+of Evesham, <i>Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.</i>, ed. by T. Hearne
+(Oxford, 1729); W.F. Hook, <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>,
+vol. iv. (London, 1860-1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARUNDEL,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
+Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 58 m.
+S.S.W. from London by the London, Brighton &amp; South Coast
+railway. Pop. (1901) 2739. It is pleasantly situated on the
+slope of a hill above the river Arun, which is navigable for small
+vessels to Littlehampton at the mouth, 6 m. south. From the
+summit of the hill rises Arundel Castle, which guarded the passage
+along the river through the hills. For its connexion with the
+title of earl of Arundel see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arundel, Earldom of</a></span>. A castle
+existed in the time of King Alfred, and at the time of the Conquest
+it was rebuilt by Roger de Montgomerie, but it was taken from
+his son, who rebelled against the reigning monarch, Henry I.
+In 1397 it was the scene of a conspiracy organized by the earl
+of Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury and duke of Gloucester,
+to dethrone Richard II. and murder the lords of his council, a
+plot which was discovered before it could be carried into execution.
+During the civil wars of the 17th century, the stronghold
+was frequently assaulted by the contending parties, and consequently
+greatly damaged; but it was restored by Charles, 11th
+duke of Norfolk (d. 1815), who made it what it now is, one of
+the most splendid baronial mansions in England. Extensive
+reconstruction, in the style of the 13th century, was undertaken
+towards the close of the 19th century. The town, according
+to the whimsical etymology shown on the corporation seal, takes
+its name from <i>hirondelle</i> (a swallow). The town hall is a castellated
+building, presented to the corporation by the duke of
+Norfolk. The church of St Nicholas, founded about 1375, is
+Perpendicular with a low tower rising from the centre. In the
+north aisle of the chancel there are several ancient monuments of
+the earls of Arundel. The church is otherwise remarkable for
+its reredos and iron work. The chancel is the property of the
+duke of Norfolk and is screened from the rest of the building,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span>
+although in 1880 this exercise of right by the owner was made
+the subject of an action at law and subsequent appeal. The
+Roman Catholic church of St Philip Neri was built by the duke
+of Norfolk (1873). Some remains of a <i>Maison Dieu,</i> or hospital,
+erected in the time of Richard II., still exist. The borough is
+under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2053 acres.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first mention of Arundel (Harundell) comes as early as 877,
+when it was left by King Alfred in his will to his nephew Ćthelm.
+In the time of Edward the Confessor the town seems to have consisted
+of the mill and a fortification or earthwork which was probably
+thrown up by Alfred as a defence against the Danes; but it had
+increased in importance before the Conquest, and appears in Domesday
+as a thriving borough and port. It was granted by the Conqueror
+to Roger de Montgomery, who built the castle on the site of the
+ancient earthwork. From very early times markets were held
+within the borough on Thursday and Saturday, and in 1285 Richard
+Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, obtained a grant of two annual fairs on
+the 14th of May and the 17th of December. The borough returned
+two members to parliament from 1302 to 1832 when the Reform
+Act reduced the membership to one; in 1868 it was disfranchised
+altogether. There are no early charters extant, but in 1586 Elizabeth
+acknowledged the right of the mayor and burgesses to be a body
+corporate and to hold a court for pleas under forty shillings, two
+weekly markets and four annual fairs&mdash;which rights they claimed
+to have exercised from time immemorial. James II. confirmed in
+1688 a charter given two years before, and incorporated the borough
+under the title of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 burgesses. The
+town was half destroyed by fire in 1338, but was soon rebuilt.
+Arundel was formerly a thriving seaport, and in 1813 was connected
+by canal with London.</p>
+
+<p>See M.A. Tierney, <i>The History and Antiquities of the Castle and
+Town of Arundel</i> (London, 1834);
+<i>Victoria County History&mdash;Sussex.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR, THOMAS ARUNDELL,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st
+Baron</span> (<i>c.</i> 1562-1639), son of Sir Mathew Arundell of Wardour
+Castle in Wiltshire, a member of the ancient family of Arundells
+of Lanherne in Cornwall, and of Margaret, daughter of Sir Henry
+Willoughby, was born about 1562. In 1579 he was personally
+recommended by Queen Elizabeth to the emperor Rudolph II.
+He greatly distinguished himself while serving with the imperial
+troops against the Turks in Hungary, and at the siege of Gran or
+Esztergom on the 13th of August 1595, he captured the enemy&rsquo;s
+banner with his own hand. He was created by Rudolph II. a
+count of the Holy Roman Empire in December 1595, and returned
+to England after suffering shipwreck and barely preserving his
+life in January 1596. His assumption of the foreign title created
+great jealousy among the English peers, who were wont to give a
+precedence by courtesy to foreign nobles, and he incurred the
+resentment of his father, who objected to his superior rank and
+promptly disinherited him. The queen, moreover, was seriously
+displeased, declared that &ldquo;as chaste wives should have no glances
+but for their own spouses, so should faithful subjects keep their
+eyes at home and not gaze upon foreign crowns,&rdquo; and committed
+him to the Fleet immediately on his arrival, while she addressed
+a long letter of remonstrance on the subject to the emperor.
+Arundell remained under arrest till April, when he was liberated
+after an examination. In April 1597, however, he was again
+confined, but declared innocent of any charge save that of
+&ldquo;practising to contrive the justification of his vain title with
+Ministers beyond the seas.&rdquo; In December he was liberated and
+placed under the care of his father, but next year he was again
+arrested and accused of a conspiracy against the government.
+His petitions for a licence to undertake an expedition by sea,
+wherein he declared &ldquo;his end was honour which some base
+minds call ambition,&rdquo; were refused, but in 1599 he was apparently
+again restored to favour. On the 4th of May 1605 he was
+created by James I. Baron Arundell of Wardour, but fell again
+under temporary suspicion at the time of the Gunpowder Plot.
+In 1623 he once more got into trouble by championing the cause
+of the recusants, of whom he was himself one, on the occasion of
+the visit of the Spanish envoys, and he was committed to custody,
+and in 1625 all the arms were removed by the government from
+Wardour Castle. After the accession of Charles I. he was
+pardoned, and attended the sittings of the House of Lords. He
+was indicted in the king&rsquo;s bench about the year 1627 for not
+paying some contribution, and in 1632 he was accused of harbouring
+a priest. In 1637 he was declared exempt from the
+recusancy laws by the king&rsquo;s order, but in 1639 he again
+petitioned for relief. The same year he paid Ł500 in lieu of
+attending the king at York. He died on the 7th of November
+1639. Arundell was an earnest Roman Catholic, but the suspicions
+of the government as to his loyalty were probably unfounded
+and stifled a career destined by nature for successful
+adventure. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry Wriothesley,
+2nd earl of Southampton, by whom besides other children
+he had Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron; and (2) Anne,
+daughter of Miles Philipson, by whom he had several daughters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Henry Arundell</span>, 3rd Baron Arundell of Wardour (<i>c.</i> 1607-1694),
+son of Thomas, 2nd baron, and of Blanche, daughter of
+Edward, earl of Worcester, was born on the 21st of July 1607,
+and succeeded on his father&rsquo;s death in 1643 to the family title
+and estates. A strong royalist and Roman Catholic, he supported
+the king&rsquo;s cause, and distinguished himself in 1644 by the recapture
+of his castle at Wardour from the parliamentarians, who
+had taken it in the previous year in spite of his mother&rsquo;s brave
+defence of the place. In 1648 he was one of the delinquents
+exempted from pardon in the proposals sent to Charles in the
+Isle of Wight. His estates had been confiscated, but he was
+permitted about 1653 to compound for them in the sum of
+Ł35,000. In 1652, in consequence of his being second at a duel
+in which one of the combatants was killed, he was arrested, and
+tried in 1653; he pleaded his peerage, but the privilege was
+disallowed as the House of Lords had been abolished. At the
+Restoration he regained possession of the family estates, and in
+1663 was made master of the horse to Henrietta Maria. He was
+one of the few admitted to the king&rsquo;s confidence concerning the
+projects for the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion and
+the alliance with France. In 1669 he took part in the secret
+council assembled by Charles II., and in October was sent to
+France, ostensibly for the funeral of Henrietta Maria, but in
+reality to negotiate with Louis XIV. the agreement which took
+shape in 1670 in the treaties of Dover (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles II</a></span>.). In
+1676 he was privy to James&rsquo;s negotiations with Rome through
+Coleman. He was accused in 1678 by Titus Oates of participation
+in the popish plot, and was one of the five Roman Catholic
+peers arrested and imprisoned in the Tower in October, found
+guilty by the Middlesex grand jury of high treason, and
+impeached subsequently by the parliament. Lord Stafford was
+found guilty and executed in December 1680, but after the
+perpetration of this injustice the proceedings were interrupted,
+and the three surviving peers were released on bail on the 12th
+of February 1684. On the 22nd of May 1685, after James II.&rsquo;s
+accession, the charge was annulled, and on the 1st of June 1685
+they obtained their full liberty. In February 1686, with other
+Roman Catholics, Arundell urged upon the king the removal
+of his mistress, Lady Dorchester, on account of her strong
+Protestantism. In spite of his religion he was made a privy councillor
+in August 1686, and keeper of the privy seal in 1687, being
+excused from taking the oaths by the king&rsquo;s dispensation. He
+presented the thanks of the Roman Catholics to James in June
+1687 for the declaration of indulgence. His public career ended
+with the abdication of the king, and he retired to Breamore, the
+family residence since the destruction of Wardour Castle. He
+died on the 28th of December 1694. He was the author of five
+religious poems said to be composed during his confinement in
+the Tower in 1679, published the same year and reprinted in
+<i>A Collection of Eighty-six Loyal Poems</i> in 1685. His piety and
+benevolence to his unfortunate co-religionists were conspicuous.
+Evelyn calls him &ldquo;very good company&rdquo; and he was a noted
+sportsman, the Quorn pack being descended from his pack of
+hounds at Breamore. He married Cecily, daughter of Sir Henry
+Compton, by whom besides other children he had Thomas, who
+succeeded him as 4th baron.</p>
+
+<p>The barony is still held in the Arundell family, which has
+never ceased to be Roman Catholic. The 14th baron (b. 1859)
+was a direct descendent of the 6th.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARUSIANUS MESSIUS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Messus</span>, Latin grammarian,
+flourished in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was the author of a small
+extant work <i>Exempla Elocutionum,</i> dedicated to Olybrius and
+Probinus, consuls for the year 395. It contains an alphabetical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span>
+list, chiefly of verbs admitting more than one construction, with
+examples from each of the four writers, Virgil, Sallust, Terence
+and Cicero. Cassiodorus, the only writer who mentions Arusianus,
+refers to it by the term Quadriga.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, vii.; Suringar, <i>Historia
+Critica Scholiastarum Latinorum</i> (1834-1835); Van der Hoeven,
+<i>Specimen Literarium</i> (1845).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARVAL BROTHERS<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (Fratres Arvales), in Roman antiquities,
+a college or priesthood, consisting of twelve members, elected
+for life from the highest ranks in Rome, and always apparently,
+during the empire, including the emperor. Their chief duty was
+to offer annually public sacrifice for the fertility of the fields
+(Varro, <i>L. L.</i> v. 85). It is generally held that the college was
+founded by Romulus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acca Larentia</a></span>). This legend probably
+arose from the connexion of Acca Larentia, as <i>mater Larum</i>,
+with the Lares who had a part in the religious ceremonies of the
+Arvales. But apart from this, there is proof of the high antiquity
+of the college, which was said to have been older than Rome itself,
+in the verbal forms of the song with which, down to late times,
+a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which is still
+preserved. It is clear also that, while the members were themselves
+always persons of distinction, the duties of their office were
+held in high respect. And yet it is singular that no mention of
+them occurs in Cicero or Livy, and that altogether literary
+allusions to them are very scarce. On the other hand, we possess
+a long series of the <i>acta</i> or minutes of their proceedings, drawn
+up by themselves, and inscribed on stone. Excavations, commenced
+in the 16th century and continued to the 19th, in the
+grove of the Dea Dia about 5 m. from Rome, have yielded 96 of
+these records from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14 to 241. The brotherhood appears
+to have languished in obscurity during the republic, and
+to have been revived by Augustus. In his time the college
+consisted of a master (<i>magister</i>), a vice-master (<i>promagister</i>),
+a <i>flamen</i>, and a <i>praetor</i>, with eight ordinary members, attended
+by various servants, and in particular by four chorus boys, sons
+of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore a wreath of
+corn, a white fillet and the praetexta. The election of members
+was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a
+flamen, was himself elected for one year. The great annual
+festival which they had to conduct was held in honour of the
+anonymous Dea Dia, who was probably identical with Ceres.
+It occupied three days in May. The ceremony of the first day
+took place in Rome itself, in the house of the magister or his
+deputy, or on the Palatine in the temple of the emperors, where
+at sunrise fruits and incense were offered to the goddess. A
+sumptuous banquet took place, followed by a distribution of
+doles and garlands. On the second and principal day of the
+festival the ceremonies were conducted in the grove of the Dea
+Dia. They included a dance in the temple of the goddess, at
+which the song of the brotherhood was sung, in language so
+antiquated that it was hardly intelligible (see the text and
+translation in Mommsen, <i>Hist, of Rome</i>, bk. i. ch. xv.) even to
+Romans of the time of Augustus, who regarded it as the oldest
+existing document in their mother-tongue. Especial mention
+should be made of the ceremony of purifying the grove, which
+was held to be defiled by the felling of trees, the breaking of a
+bough or the presence of any iron tools, such as those used by
+the lapidary who engraved the records of the proceedings on
+stone. The song and dance were followed by the election of
+officers for the next year, a banquet and races. On the third day
+the sacrifice took place in Rome, and was of the same nature as
+that offered on the first day. The Arvales also offered sacrifice
+and solemn vows on behalf of the imperial family on the 3rd of
+January and on other extraordinary occasions. The brotherhood
+is said to have lasted till the time of Theodosius. The British
+Museum contains a bust of Marcus Aurelius in the dress of a
+Frater Arvalis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Marini, <i>Atti e Monumenti de&rsquo; Fratri Arvali</i> (1795); Hoffmann,
+<i>Die A.</i> (1858): Oldenberg, <i>De Sacris Fratrum A</i>. (1875);
+Bergk, <i>Das Lied der Arvalbrüder</i> (1856); Bréal, &ldquo;Le Chant des
+Arvals&rdquo; in <i>Mém. de la Soc. de Linguistique</i> (1881); Edon,
+<i>Nouvelle Étude sur le Chant Lémural</i> (1884); <i>Corpus
+Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, vi. 2023-2119; Henzen, <i>Acta Fratrum
+Arvalium</i> (1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARVALS,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> <span class="sc">Arvels</span> or <span class="sc">Arthels</span> (O. Norse <i>Arfr</i>, inheritance,
+and <i>öl</i>, A.S. Ale, a banquet), primarily the funeral dinner, and
+later, especially in the north of England, a thin, light, sweet cake,
+spiced with cinnamon and nutmeg, served to the poor at such
+feasts. The funeral meal was called the Arvel-dinner. The
+custom seems to have been to hold on such occasions an informal
+inquest, when the corpse was publicly exposed, to exculpate the
+heir and those entitled to the property of the dead from all
+accusations of foul play.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARVERNI,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the name of an ancient Gaulish tribe in the
+Auvergne, which still bears its name. It resisted Caesar longer
+than most of Gaul; when once vanquished it adopted Roman
+civilization readily. Its tribal deity, the god of the mountain,
+the Puy de Dôme, rechristened in Roman phrase Mercurius
+Dumias, was famous far beyond its territory. Part of his temple
+has been excavated recently.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARYAN,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a term which has been used in a confusing variety
+of significations by different philologists. By Max Müller
+especially it was employed as a convenient short term for the
+whole body of languages more commonly known as Indo-European
+(<i>q.v.</i>) or Indo-Germanic. In the same way Max Müller
+used Aryas as a general term for the speakers of such languages,
+as in his book published in 1888, <i>Biographies of Words and the
+Home of the Aryas</i>. &ldquo;Aryas are those who speak Aryan languages,
+whatever their colour, whatever their blood. In calling
+them Aryas we predicate nothing of them except that the
+grammar of their language is Aryan&rdquo; (p. 245). It is to be
+observed, therefore, that Max Müller is careful to avoid any
+ethnological signification. The Aryas are those who speak
+Aryan without regard to the question whether Aryan is their
+<i>hereditary</i> language or not. As he says still more definitely
+elsewhere in the same work (p. 120), &ldquo;I have declared again and
+again that if I say Aryas, I mean neither blood nor bones, nor
+hair nor skull; I mean simply those who speak an Aryan
+language. The same applies to Hindus, Greeks, Romans
+Germans, Celts and Slaves. When I speak of them I commit
+myself to no anatomical characteristics. The blue-eyed and
+fair-haired Scandinavians may have been conquerors or conquered,
+they may have adopted the language of their darker
+lords or their subjects, or vice versa. I assert nothing beyond
+their language when I call them Hindus, Greeks, Romans,
+Germans, Celts and Slaves; and in that sense, and in that sense
+only, do I say that even the blackest Hindus represent an earlier
+stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians....
+To me an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan
+blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist
+who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic
+grammar.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From the popularity of Max Müller&rsquo;s works on comparative
+philology this is the use of the word which is most familiar to
+the general public. The arguments in support of this use are
+set forth by him in the latter part of lecture vi. of the <i>Lectures
+on the Science of Language</i> (first series) and as an appendix to
+chap. vii. of the final edition (i. pp. 291 ff.). The Sanskrit usage
+of the word is fully illustrated by him from the early Sanskrit
+writings in the article &ldquo;Aryan&rdquo; in the ninth edition of this
+encyclopaedia. From the earliest occurrences of the word it is
+clear that it was used as a national name not only in India but
+also in Bactria and Persia (in Sanskrit <i>árya</i>- and <i>&#257;rya</i>, in Zend
+<i>airya</i>-, in Old Persian <i>ariya</i>-). That it is in any way connected
+with a Sanskrit word for earth, <i>ira</i>, as Max Müller asserts, is far
+from certain. As Spiegel remarks (<i>Die arische Periode</i>, p. 105),
+though it is easy enough to connect the word with a root <i>ar</i>-,
+there are several roots of that form which have different meanings,
+and there is no certain criterion whereby to decide to which of
+them it is related. Nor are the other connexions for the word
+outside this group free from doubt. It is, however, certain that
+the connexion with <i>Erin</i> (Ireland), which Pictet in his article
+&ldquo;Iren and Arier&rdquo; (Kuhn and Schleicher&rsquo;s <i>Beiträge</i>, i. 1858,
+pp. 81 ff.) sought to establish, is impossible (Whitley Stokes in
+Max Müller&rsquo;s <i>Lectures</i>, 1891, i. pp. 299 f.), though the word may
+have the same origin as the <i>Ario</i>- of names like <i>Ariovistus</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span>
+which is found in both Celtic and Germanic words (Uhlenbeck,
+<i>Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch der altindischen Sprache,</i>
+s.v.). The name of Armenia (Old Persian <i>Armina-</i>), which has
+often been connected, is of uncertain origin. Within Sanskrit
+itself probably two words have to be distinguished: (1) <i>árya</i>,
+the origin of Aryan, from which the usual term <i>&#257;rya</i> is a
+derivative; (2) <i>aryá</i>, which frequently appears in the <i>Rig Veda</i> as
+an epithet of deities. In many passages, however, <i>aryás</i> may
+equally well be the genitive of <i>arí</i>, which is explained as &ldquo;active,
+devoted, pious.&rdquo; Even in this word probably two originally
+separate words have to be distinguished, for the further meanings
+which Grassmann in his dictionary to the <i>Rig Veda</i> attaches
+to it, viz. &ldquo;greedy&rdquo; (for treasure and for battle), &ldquo;godless,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;enemy,&rdquo; seem more appropriately to be derived from the same
+source as the Greek <span class="grk" title="eri-s">&#7956;&#961;&#953;-&#962;</span>, &ldquo;strife.&rdquo; The word <i>árya-</i> is not
+found as a national name in the <i>Rig Veda</i>, but appears in the
+<i>V&#257;jasaneyi-sainhita</i>, where it is explained by Mah&#299;dhara as
+<i>Vaisya-</i>, a cultivator or a man of the third among the original
+four classes of the population. So in the <i>Atharva Veda</i> (iv. 20. 4;
+xix. 62. 1) it is contrasted with the &#346;udra or fourth class (Spiegel,
+<i>Arische Periode</i>, p. 102). In the <i>Avesta, airya-</i> is found both as
+adjective and substantive in the sense of Aryan, but no light is
+thrown upon the history of the word. Darius describes himself
+in an inscription as of Aryan stock, <i>D&#257;raya<span class="sp">h</span>va<span class="sp">h</span>u&#353; ariya<span class="sp">h</span>&#269;iv<span class="sp">r</span>a<span class="sp">h</span></i>.
+In the <i>Avesta</i> the derivative <i>airyana-</i> is also found in the sense
+of Aryan. In both India and Persia a word is found (Skt.
+<i>aryaman-</i>; Zend <i>airya<span class="sp">h</span>man-</i>) which is apparently of the same origin.
+In both Sanskrit and Zend it means something like &ldquo;comrade&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;bosom friend,&rdquo; but in Zend is used of the priestly or highest
+class. In Sanskrit, besides this use in which it is contrasted
+with the <i>D&#257;sa</i> or <i>D&#257;syu</i>, the enemies, the earlier inhabitants, the
+word is often used for the bridegroom&rsquo;s spokesman, and in both
+languages is also employed as the name of a divine being. In the
+<i>Rig Veda, Aryaman-</i> as a deity is most frequently coupled with
+Mitra and Varuna (Grassmann, <i>Wörterbuch</i>, s.v.); in Zend,
+according to Bartholomae (<i>Altiranisches Wörterbuch</i>, s.v.), from
+the earliest literature, the Gathas, there is nothing definite to be
+learnt regarding <i>Airyaman</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the origin of <i>arya-</i>, however, it is clear that it is a
+word with dignified associations, by which the peoples belonging
+to the Eastern section of the Indo-Europeans were proud to call
+themselves. It is now used uniformly by scholars to indicate
+the Eastern branch as a whole, a compound, <i>Indo-Aryan</i>, being
+employed for that part of the Eastern branch which settled in
+India to distinguish them from the Iranians (<i>Iran</i> is of the same
+origin), who remained in Bactria and Persia, while <i>Aryo-Indian</i>
+is sometimes employed to distinguish the Indian people of this
+stock from the Dravidian and other stocks which also inhabit
+parts of the Indian peninsula. Of the stages in the occupation
+of the Iranian table-land by the Aryan people nothing is known,
+the people themselves having apparently no tradition of a time
+when they did not hold these territories (Spiegel, <i>Arische Periode</i>,
+p. 319). Though the Hindus have no tradition of their invasion
+of India, it is certain that they are not an indigenous people,
+and, if they are not, it is clear that they could have come in no
+other direction save from the other side of the Hindu Kush. At
+the period of their earliest literature, which may be assigned
+roughly to about 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they were still settled in the valley
+of the Indus, and at this time the separation probably had not
+long taken place, the Eastern portion of the stock having pushed
+their way along the Kabul valley into the open country of the
+Indus. According to Professor E.W. Hopkins (<i>India Old and
+New</i>, 1901, p. 31) the <i>Rig Veda</i> was composed in the district
+about Umballa. He argues that the people must have been then
+to the west of the great rivers, otherwise the dawn could not be
+addressed as one who &ldquo;in shining light, before the wind arises,
+comes gleaming over the waters, making good paths.&rdquo; The
+vocabulary is still largely the same; whole sentences can be
+transliterated from one language to the other merely by making
+regular phonetic changes and without the variation of a single
+word (for examples see Bartholomae, <i>Handbuch der altiranischen
+Dialekte</i>, 1883, p. v.; Williams Jackson, <i>Avesta Grammar</i>, 1892,
+pp. xxxi. f.; <i>Grundriss der iranischen Philologie</i>, 1895, i. p. 1).
+It is noteworthy that it is those who remain behind whose
+language has undergone most change.</p>
+
+<p>By four well-marked characteristics the Aryan group is easily
+distinguishable from the other Indo-European languages. (1)
+By the confusion of original <i>e</i> and <i>o</i>, both long and short, with
+the original long and short <i>a</i> sound; (2) the short schwa-sound &#601;
+is represented here, and in this group only, by <i>i</i> (<i>pita</i>, &ldquo;father,&rdquo;
+as compared with <span class="grk" title="pataer">&#960;&#945;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>, &amp;c.); (3) original <i>s</i> after <i>i</i>, <i>u</i> and some
+consonants becomes &#7779;; (4) the genitive plural of stems ending
+in a vowel has a suffix-<i>n&#257;m</i> borrowed by analogy from the stems
+ending in <i>-n</i> (Skt. <i>ásv&#257;n&#257;m</i>, &ldquo;of horses&rdquo;; Zend <i>asp&#257;n&#257;m</i>;
+Old Persian <i>asp&#257;n&#257;m</i>). The distinctions between Sanskrit and
+Iranian are also clear, (1) The Aryan voiced aspirates <i>gh, dh, bh,</i>
+which survive in Sanskrit, are confused in Iranian with original
+<i>g, d, b,</i> and further changes take place in the language of the
+later parts of the Avesta; (2) the Aryan breathed aspirates
+<i>kh, th, ph,</i> except in combination with certain consonants,
+become spirants in Iranian; (3) Aryan <i>s</i> becomes <i>h</i> initially
+before vowels in Iranian and also in certain cases medially,
+Iranian in these respects resembling Greek (cf. Skt. <i>saptá</i>;
+Zend <i>hapta</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="hepta">&#7953;&#960;&#964;&#940;</span>, &ldquo;seven&rdquo;); (4) in Zend there are many
+vowel changes which it does not share with Old Persian. Some
+of these arise from the umlaut or epenthesis which is so prevalent,
+and which we have already seen in <i>airya-</i> as compared with the
+Skt. <i>árya</i>. In other respects the languages are remarkably alike,
+the only striking difference being in the numeral &ldquo;one&rdquo;&mdash;Skt.
+<i>eka-</i>; Zend <i>aeva-</i>; Old Persian <i>aiva-</i>, where the Iranian group
+has the same stem as that seen in the Greek <span class="grk" title="oi(f)o-s">&#959;&#7990;(<i>F</i>)&#959;-&#962;</span>, &ldquo;alone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For the subdivisions of the two groups see the articles on
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Language</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>. Dr Grierson
+has shown in his monograph on &ldquo;The Pisaca Languages of
+North-Western India&rdquo; (Royal Asiatic Society, 1906) that there
+is good reason for regarding various dialects of the north-western
+frontier (Kafiristan, Chitral, Gilgit, Dardistan) as a separate
+group descended from Aryan but independent of either Sanskrit
+or Iranian.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the separation of the Aryan from the other
+Indo-European languages is not yet clear (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European
+Languages</a></span>). Various attempts have been made, with little
+success, to identify fragments of unknown languages in cuneiform
+inscriptions with members of this group. The investigation has
+entered a new and more favourable stage as the result of the
+discoveries made by German excavators at Boghaz Keui (said
+to be identical with Herodotus&rsquo; Pteria in Cappadocia), where
+treaties between the king of the Hittites and the king of Mitanni,
+in the beginning of the 14th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, seem almost certainly
+to contain the names of the gods Mitra, Varuna and Indra,
+which belong to the early Aryan mythology (H. Winckler,
+<i>Mitteilungen der deutschen Orientgesellschaft</i>, No. 35; E. Meyer,
+<i>Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie</i>, 1908, pp. 14 ff.;
+<i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung</i>, 42, 1908, pp. 24 ff.).
+Still further light is to be expected when the vast collections of the
+German expedition to Turfan (Turkestan) have been sifted. Up
+to 1909 only a preliminary account had been given of Tocharish,
+a hitherto unknown Indo-European language, which is reported
+to be in some respects more akin to the Western groups than to
+Aryan. But further investigation is still required (see E. Sieg
+and W. Siegling, &ldquo;Tocharisch, die Sprache der Indoskythen,&rdquo; in
+<i>Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad.</i> (July 1908, pp. 915 ff.).</p>
+<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARYA SAMAJ,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a Hindu religious association with reforming
+tendencies, which was founded by a Guzerati Brahman named
+Dayanand Saraswati. This man was born of a Saivite family
+about 1825, but in early manhood grew dissatisfied with
+idol-worship. He undertook many pilgrimages and studied the Vedic
+philosophy in the hope of solving the old problem of the
+Buddha,&mdash;how to alleviate human misery and attain final liberation.
+About 1866, when he had begun to teach and to gather disciples,
+he first saw the Christian scriptures, which he vehemently
+assailed, and the <i>Rig Veda</i>, which he correspondingly exalted,
+though in the conception which he ultimately formed of God the
+former was much more influential than the latter. Dayanand&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span>
+treatment of the Vedas was peculiar, and consisted of
+reading into them his own beliefs and modern scientific
+discoveries. Thus he explains the <i>Yajna</i> (sacrificial cult) as &ldquo;the
+entertainment of the learned in proportion to their worth, the
+business of manufacture, the experiment and application of
+chemistry, physics and the arts of peace; the instruction of the
+people, the purification of the air, the nourishment of vegetables
+by the employment of the principles of meteorology, called
+<i>Agni-Notri</i> in Sanskrit.&rdquo; He denied that the <i>Vedas</i> warranted
+the caste system, but wished to retain the four grades as orders
+of learning to which admission should be won by examination.</p>
+
+<p>These views naturally met with scanty acceptance among the
+Brahmans to whom he introduced them, and Dayanand turned
+to the masses and established <i>Samajes</i> in various parts of India,
+the first being at Bombay in 1875. He chose the epithet Arya
+as being more dignified than the slightly contemptuous term
+Hindu. After a successful series of tours, during which he
+debated publicly with orthodox pundits and with Christian
+missionaries, he died at Ajmere in 1883.</p>
+
+<p>The Arya Samaj is not an eclectic system like the Brahma
+Samaj, which strives to find the common basis underlying all
+the great religions, and its narrower scope and corresponding
+intensity of conviction have won it a greater strength. It
+seemed to meet the feeling of many educated natives whose faith
+in current Hinduism was undermined, but who were predisposed
+against any foreign religious influence. Their patriotic ardour
+gladly seized on &ldquo;a view of the original faith of India that
+seemed to harmonize with all the discoveries of modern science
+and the ethics of European civilization,&rdquo; and they cheerfully
+supported their leader&rsquo;s strange polemic with the agnostic and
+rationalist literature of Europe. By 1890 their numbers had
+increased to 40,000, by 1900 to over 92,000. Divisions had,
+however, set in, especially a cleavage into the <i>Ghasi</i> or vegetarian,
+and the <i>Mansi</i> or flesh-eating sections. To the latter belong
+those Rajputs who though generally in sympathy with the
+movement declined to adhere to the tenet of the <i>Samaj</i> which
+forbade the destruction of animal life and the consumption of
+animal food. The age of admission to the Samaj is eighteen,
+and members are expected to contribute to its funds at least
+1% of their income.</p>
+
+<p>The ten articles of their creed may be summarized thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list f90">
+  <p>1. The source of all true knowledge is God.</p>
+
+  <p>2. God is &ldquo;all truth, all knowledge, all bliss, boundless, almighty,
+     just, merciful, unbegotten, without a beginning, incomparable,
+     the support and Lord of all, all-pervading, omniscient,
+     imperishable, immortal, eternal, holy, and the cause of the
+     universe; worship is due to him alone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>3. The medium of true knowledge is the <i>Vedas</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>4. and 5. The truth is to be accepted and to become the guiding
+     principle.</p>
+
+  <p>6. The object of the Samaj is to benefit the world by improving
+     its physical, social, intellectual and moral conditions.</p>
+
+  <p>7. Love and justice are the right guides of conduct.</p>
+
+  <p>8. Knowledge must be spread.</p>
+
+  <p>9. The good of others must be sought.</p>
+
+ <p>10. In general interests members must subordinate themselves to
+     the good of others; in personal interests they should retain
+     independence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The sixth clause comprehends a wide programme of reform,
+including abstinence from spirituous liquors and animal food,
+physical cleanliness and exercise, marriage reform, the promotion
+of female education, the abolition of caste and of idolatry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARYTENOID<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (or <i>arytaenoid</i>; from Gr. <span class="grk" title="arytaina">&#7936;&#961;&#973;&#964;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#945;</span>, a funnel or
+pitcher), a term, meaning funnel-shaped, applied to cartilages
+such as those of the larynx.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARZAMAS,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of, and 76 m.
+by rail S. of the town of, Nizhniy-Novgorod, on the Tesha river,
+at its junction with the Arsha. It is an important centre of
+trade, and has tanneries, oil, flour, tallow, dye, soap and iron
+works; knitting is an important domestic industry. Sheepskins
+and sail-cloth are articles of trade. The town has several
+churches. Pop. (1897) 10,591.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AS,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> the Roman unit of weight and measure, divided into
+12 <i>unciae</i> (whence both &ldquo;ounce&rdquo; and &ldquo;inch&rdquo;); its fractions
+being deunx <span class="spp">11</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>, dextrans <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span>, dodrans ž, bes <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, septunx <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>,
+semis ˝, quincunx <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>, triens <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, quadrans ź, sextans <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span>, sescuncia <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>,
+uncia <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>. <i>As</i> really denoted any integer or whole; whence the
+English word &ldquo;ace.&rdquo; The unit or <i>as</i> of weight was the <i>libra</i>
+(pound: = about 11<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> oz. avoirdupois); of length, <i>pes</i> (foot:
+= about 11<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> in.); of surface, <i>jugerum</i> (= about <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> acre); of
+measure, liquid <i>amphora</i> (about 5<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> gal.), dry <i>modius</i> (about
+<span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span> peck). In the same way <i>as</i> signified a whole inheritance;
+whence <i>heres ex asse</i>, the heir to the whole estate, <i>heres ex semisse</i>,
+heir to half the estate. It was also used in the calculation of
+rates of interest.</p>
+
+<p><i>As</i> was also the name of a Roman coin, which was of different
+weight and value at different periods (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>,
+§ <i>Roman</i>). The first introduction of coined money is ascribed to
+Servius Tullius. The old <i>as</i> was composed of the mixed metal
+<i>aes</i>, an alloy of copper, tin and lead, and was called <i>as libralis</i>,
+because it nominally weighed 1 &#8468; or 12 ounces (actually 10).
+Its original shape seems to have been an irregular oblong bar,
+which was stamped with the figure of a sheep, ox or sow. This,
+as well as the word <i>pecunia</i> for money (<i>pecus</i>, cattle), indicates
+the fact of cattle having been the earliest Italian medium of
+exchange. The value was indicated by little points or globules,
+or other marks. After the round shape was introduced, the one
+side was always inscribed with the figure of a ship&rsquo;s prow, and
+the other with the double head of Janus. The subdivisions of
+the <i>as</i> had also the ship&rsquo;s prow on one side, and on the other the
+head of some deity. The First Punic War having exhausted
+the treasury, the <i>as</i> was reduced to 2 oz. In the Second Punic
+War it was again reduced to half this weight, viz. to 1 oz.
+And lastly, by the Papirian law (89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) it was further reduced
+to the diminutive weight of half an ounce. It appears to have
+been still more reduced under Octavian, Lepidus and Antony,
+when its value was <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> of an ounce. Before silver coinage was
+introduced (269 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the value of the <i>as</i> was about 6d., in the
+time of Cicero less than a halfpenny. In the time of the emperor
+Severus it was again lowered to about <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">24</span> of an ounce. During
+the commonwealth and empire <i>aes grave</i> was used to denote the
+old as in contradistinction to the existing depreciated coin;
+while <i>aes rude</i> was applied to the original oblong coinage of
+primitive times.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASA,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> in the Bible, son (or, perhaps, rather brother) of Abijah,
+the son of Rehoboam and king of Judah (1 Kings xv. 9-24). Of
+his long reign, during which he was a contemporary of Baasha,
+Zimri and Omri of Israel, little is recorded with the exception
+of some religious reforms and conflicts with the first-named.
+Baasha succeeded in fortifying Ramah (<i>er-R&#257;m</i>), 5 m. north of
+Jerusalem, and Asa was compelled to use the residue of the
+temple-funds (cf. 1 Kings xiv. 26) to bribe the king of Damascus
+to renounce his league with Baasha and attack Israel. Galilee
+was invaded and Baasha was forced to return; the building
+material which he had collected at Ramah being used by Asa to
+fortify Geba, and Mizpah to the immediate north of Jerusalem.
+The Book of Chronicles relates a story of a sensational defeat of
+Zerah the &ldquo;Cushite,&rdquo; and a great religious revival in which Judah
+and Israel took part (2 Chron. xiv.-xv. 15) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronicles</a></span>).
+Asa was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Cushite&rdquo; may designate an Ethiopian or, more probably,
+an Arabian (Cush, the &ldquo;father&rdquo; of the Sabaeans, Gen. x. 7).
+&ldquo;If by Zerah the Ethiopian or Sabaean prince be meant, the
+only real difficulty of the narrative is removed. No king Zerah
+of Ethiopia is known at this period, nor does there seem to be
+room for such a person.&rdquo; (W.E. Barnes, <i>Cambridge Bible</i>,
+Chronicles, p. xxxi.). The identification with Osorkon I. or II.
+is scarcely tenable considering Asa&rsquo;s weakness; but inroads by
+desert hordes frequently troubled Judah, and if the tradition
+be correct in locating the battle at Mareshah it is probable that
+the invaders were in league with the Philistine towns. Similar
+situations recur in the reigns of Ahaz and Jehoram.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>, 208; S.A. Cook,
+<i>Expositor</i> (June 1906), p. 540 sq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASAFETIDA<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (<i>asa</i>, Lat. form of Persian <i>aza</i> = mastic, and
+fetidus, stinking, so called in distinction to <i>asa dulcis</i>, which was
+a drug highly esteemed among the ancients as <i>laser cyrenaicum</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span>
+and is supposed to have been a gummy exudation from <i>Thapsis
+garganica</i>), a gum-resin obtained principally from the root of
+<i>Ferula fetida,</i> and probably also from one or two other closely
+allied species of umbelliferous plants. It is produced in eastern
+Persia and Afghanistan, Herat and Kandahar being centres of
+the trade. <i>Ferula fetida</i> grows to a height of from 5 to 6 ft., and
+when the plant has attained the age of four years it is ready for
+yielding asafetida. The stems are cut down close to the root,
+and the juice flows out, at first of a milky appearance, but quickly
+setting into a solid resinous mass. Fresh incisions are made as
+long as the sap continues to flow, a period which varies according
+to the size and strength of the plant. A freshly-exposed surface
+of asafetida has a translucent, pearly-white appearance, but it
+soon darkens in the air, becoming first pink and finally reddish-brown.
+In taste it is acrid and bitter; but what peculiarly
+characterizes it is the strong alliaceous odour it emits, from
+which it has obtained the name asafetida, as well as its German
+name <i>Teufelsdreck</i> (devil&rsquo;s dung). Its odour is due to the presence
+of organic sulphur compounds. Asafetida is found in commerce
+in &ldquo;lump&rdquo; or in &ldquo;tear,&rdquo; the latter being the purer form.
+Medicinally, asafetida is given in doses of 5 to 15 grains and acts
+as a stimulant to the intestinal and respiratory tracts and to
+the nervous system. An enema containing it is useful in relieving
+flatus. It is sometimes useful in hysteria, which is essentially
+a lack of inhibitory power, as its nasty properties induce sufficient
+inhibitory power to render its readministration superfluous.
+It may also be used in an effervescing draught in cases of
+malingering, the drug &ldquo;repeating&rdquo; in the mouth and making
+the malingering not worth while. The gum-resin is relished as a
+condiment in India and Persia, and is in demand in France for
+use in cookery. In the regions of its growth the whole plant is
+used as a fresh vegetable, the inner portion of the full-grown stem
+being regarded as a luxury.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASAF-UD-DOWLAH,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> nawab wazir of Oudh from 1775 to 1797,
+was the son of Shuja-ud-Dowlah, his mother and grandmother
+being the begums of Oudh, whose spoliation formed one of the
+chief counts in the charges against Warren Hastings. When
+Shuja-ud-Dowlah died he left two million pounds sterling buried
+in the vaults of the zenana. The widow and mother of the
+deceased prince claimed the whole of this treasure under the
+terms of a will which was never produced. When Warren
+Hastings pressed the nawab for the payment of debt due to the
+Company, he obtained from his mother a loan of 26 lakhs of
+rupees, for which he gave her a <i>jagir</i> of four times the value;
+he subsequently obtained 30 lakhs more in return for a full
+acquittal, and the recognition of her <i>jagirs</i> without interference
+for life by the Company. These <i>jagirs</i> were afterwards confiscated
+on the ground of the begum&rsquo;s complicity in the rising
+of Chai Singh, which was attested by documentary evidence.
+The evidence now available seems to show that Warren Hastings
+did his best throughout to rescue the nawab from his own
+incapacity, and was inclined to be lenient to the begums.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Administration of Warren Hastings, 1772-1785,</i> by G.W.
+Forrest (1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASAPH,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> the eponym of the Asaphite gild of singers, one of the
+hereditary choirs that superintended the musical services of the
+temple at Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The names occur
+in the titles of certain Psalms, and the writer of the Book of
+Chronicles makes Asaph a seer (2 Chron. xxix. 30), contemporary
+with David and Solomon, and chief of the singers of his time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASBESTOS,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a fibrous mineral from Gr. <span class="grk" title="asbestos">&#7940;&#963;&#946;&#949;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, unquenchable,
+by transference, incombustible, in allusion to its power of
+resisting the action of fire. The word was applied by Dioscorides
+and other Greek authors to quicklime, but Pliny evidently used
+it in its modern sense. It was occasionally woven by the ancients
+into handkerchiefs, and, it has been said, into shrouds which were
+used in cremation to prevent the ashes of the corpse from
+mingling with the wood-ashes of the pyre.</p>
+
+<p>In different varieties of asbestos the fibres vary greatly in
+character. When silky and flexible they are sometimes known
+as mountain flax. The finer kinds are often termed amianthus
+(<i>q.v.</i>). When the fibres are naturally interwoven, so as to form
+a felted mass, the mineral passes under such trivial names as
+mountain leather, mountain cork, mountain paper, &amp;c. The
+asbestos formerly used in the arts was generally a fibrous form
+of some kind of amphibole, like tremolite, or anthophyllite,
+though occasionally perhaps a pyroxene. In recent years,
+however, most of the asbestos in the market is a fibrous variety
+of serpentine, known mineralogically as chrysotile, and probably
+some of the ancient asbestos was of this character (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amianthus</a></span>).
+Both minerals possess similar properties, so far as
+resistance to heat is concerned. The amphibole-asbestos, or
+hornblende-asbestos, is usually white or grey in colour, and may
+present great length of fibre, some of the Italian asbestos reaching
+exceptionally a length of 5 or 6 ft., but it is often harsh and
+brittle. The serpentine-asbestos occurs in narrow veins, yielding
+fibres of only 2 or 3 in. in length, but of great tensile strength:
+they are usually of a delicate silky lustre, very flexible and elastic,
+and of yellowish or greenish colour.</p>
+
+<p>The Canadian asbestos, which of all kinds is at present the
+most important industrially, occurs in a small belt of serpentine
+in the province of Quebec, principally near Black Lake and
+Thetford, where it was first recognized as commercially valuable
+about 1877. The rock is generally quarried, cobbed by hand,
+dried if necessary, crushed in rock-breakers, and then passed
+between rollers; it is reduced to a finer state of division by
+so-called fiberizers, and graded on a shaking screen, where the
+loosened fibres are sorted. The process varies in different mills.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States asbestos is worked only to a very limited
+extent. An amphibole-asbestos is obtained from Sall Mountain,
+Georgia; and asbestos has also been worked in the serpentine
+of Vermont. It occurs also in South Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts,
+Arizona and elsewhere. Dr G.P. Merrill has shown
+that some asbestos results from a process of shearing in the rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly asbestos was obtained almost exclusively from Italy
+and Corsica, and a large quantity is still yielded by Italian
+workings. This is mostly an amphibole. It is in some cases
+associated with nodules of green garnet known as &ldquo;seeds&rdquo;&mdash;
+<i>Semenze dell&rsquo; amianto.</i> Asbestos is widely distributed, but only
+in a few localities does it occur in sufficient abundance and purity
+to be worked commercially; it is found, for example, to a limited
+extent, at many localities in Tirol, Hungary and Russia;
+Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand. In the British
+Isles it is not unknown, being found among the old rocks of North
+Wales and in parts of Ireland. Byssolite or asbestoid is a blue
+or green fibrous amphibole from Dauphiny.</p>
+
+<p>The Asbestos Mountains in Griqualand West, Cape Colony,
+yield a blue fibrous mineral which is worked under the name of
+Cape asbestos. This is referable to the variety of amphibole
+called crocidolite (<i>q.v.</i>). It occurs in veins in slaty rocks,
+associated with jaspers and quartzites rich in magnetite and
+brown iron-ore. Their geological position is in the Griqua Town
+series, belonging to what are known in South Africa as the
+Pre-Cape rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Asbestos was formerly spun and woven into fabrics as a rare
+curiosity. Charlemagne is said to have possessed a tablecloth
+of this material, which when soiled was purified by being thrown
+into the fire. At a meeting of the Royal Society in 1676 a
+merchant from China exhibited a handkerchief of &ldquo;salamander&rsquo;s
+wool,&rdquo; or <i>linum asbesti.</i> By the Eskimos of Labrador asbestos
+has been used as a lamp-wick, and it received a similar application
+in some of the sacred lamps of antiquity. In recent times
+asbestos has been applied to a great variety of uses in the
+industrial arts, and its applications are constantly increasing.
+Its economic value depends not only on its power of withstanding
+a high temperature, but also on its low thermal conductivity
+and its partial resistance to the attack of acids: hence it is used
+for jacketing boilers and steam-pipes, and as a filtering medium
+for corrosive liquids. It has also come into use as an electric
+insulator. It is made into yarn, felt, millboard, &amp;c., and is
+largely employed as packing for joints, glands and stopcocks
+in machinery. Fire-proof sheathing and felt are used for flooring
+and roofing; fire-proof curtains have been made for the
+stage, and even clothing for firemen. Asbestos enters into the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span>
+composition of fire-proof cements, plasters and paints: it is used
+for packing safes; and is made into balls with fire-clay for gas-stoves.
+Various preparations of asbestos with other materials
+pass in trade under such names as uralite, salamandrite, asbestolith,
+gypsine, &amp;c. &ldquo;Asbestic&rdquo; is the name given to a Canadian
+product formed by crushing the serpentine rock containing thin
+seams of asbestos, and mixing the result with lime so as to form
+a plaster.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References</span>.&mdash;Fritz Cirkel, <i>Asbestos, its Occurrence, Exploitation
+and Uses</i> (Ottawa, 1905); J.H. Pratt and J.S. Diller in Annual Reports
+on Mineral Resources, U.S. Geol. Survey; G.P. Merrill, <i>The Non-metallic
+Minerals</i> (New York, 1904); R.H. Jones, <i>Asbestos and
+Asbestic</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASBJÖRNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1812-1885), and <b>MOE,
+JÖRGEN ENGEBRETSEN</b> (1813-1882), collectors of Norwegian
+folklore, so closely united in their life&rsquo;s work that it is unusual
+to name them apart. Asbjörnsen was born in Christiania on
+the 15th of January 1812; he belonged to an ancient family of
+the Gudbrandsdal, which is believed to have died with him.
+He became a student at the university in 1833, but as early as
+1832, in his twentieth year, he had begun to collect and write
+down all the fairy stories and legends which he could meet with.
+Later he began to wander on foot through the length and breadth
+of Norway, adding to his stores. Moe, who was born at Mo i
+Hole parsonage, in Sigdal Ringerike, on the 22nd of April 1813,
+met Asbjörnsen first when he was fourteen years of age. A close
+friendship began between them, and lasted to the end of their
+lives. In 1834 Asbjörnsen discovered that Moe had started
+independently on a search for the relics of national folklore; the
+friends eagerly compared results, and determined for the future to
+work in concert. By this time, Asbjörnsen had become by profession
+a zoologist, and with the aid of the university made a
+series of investigating voyages along the coasts of Norway,
+particularly in the Hardanger fjord. Moe, meanwhile, having
+left Christiania University in 1839, had devoted himself to the
+study of theology, and was making a living as a tutor in
+Christiania.  In his holidays he wandered through the mountains, in
+the most remote districts, collecting stories. In 1842-1843
+appeared the first instalment of the great work of the two friends,
+under the title of <i>Norwegian Popular Stories</i> (<i>Norske Folkeeventyr</i>),
+which was received at once all over Europe as a most valuable
+contribution to comparative mythology as well as literature.
+A second volume was published in 1844, and a new collection in
+1871. Many of the <i>Folkeeventyr</i> were translated into English
+by Sir George Dasent in 1859. In 1845 Asbjörnsen published,
+without help from Moe, a collection of Norwegian
+fairy tales (<i>huldreeventyr og folkesagn</i>). In 1856 the attention
+of Asbjörnsen was called to the deforestation of Norway,
+and he induced the government to take up this important
+question. He was appointed forest-master, and was sent
+by Norway to examine in various countries of the north of
+Europe the methods observed for the preservation of timber.
+From these duties, in 1876, he withdrew with a pension; he
+died in Christiania on the 6th of January 1885. From 1841 to
+1852 Moe travelled almost every summer through the southern
+parts of Norway, collecting traditions in the mountains. In
+1845 he was appointed professor of theology in the Military
+School of Norway. He had, however, long intended to take holy
+orders, and in 1853 he did so, becoming for ten years a resident
+chaplain in Sigdal, and then (1863) parish priest of Bragernes.
+He was moved in 1870 to the parish of Vestre Aker, near Christiania,
+and in 1875 he was appointed bishop of Christiansand.
+In January 1882 he resigned his diocese on account of failing
+health, and died on the following 27th of March. Moe has a special
+claim on critical attention in regard to his lyrical poems, of which
+a small collection appeared in 1850. He wrote little original
+verse, but in his slender volume are to be found many pieces of
+exquisite delicacy and freshness. Moe also published a delightful
+collection of prose stories for children, <i>In the Well and the Churn</i>
+(<i>I Bronde og i Kjćrnet</i>), 1851; and <i>A Little Christmas Present</i>
+(<i>En liden Juleegave</i>), 1860. Asbjörnsen and Moe had the advantage
+of an admirable style in narrative prose. It was usually
+said that the vigour came from Asbjörnsen and the charm from
+Moe, but the fact seems to be that from the long habit of writing
+in unison they had come to adopt almost precisely identical modes
+of literary expression.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASBURY, FRANCIS<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1745-1816), American clergyman, was
+born at Hamstead Bridge in the parish of Handsworth, near
+Birmingham, in Staffordshire, England, on the 20th of August
+1745. His parents were poor, and after a brief period of study in
+the village school of Barre, he was apprenticed at the age of
+fourteen to a maker of &ldquo;buckle chapes,&rdquo; or tongues. It seems
+probable that his parents were among the early converts of
+Wesley; at any rate, Francis became converted to Methodism
+in his thirteenth year, and at sixteen became a local preacher.
+He was a simple, fluent speaker, and was so successful that in
+1767 he was enrolled, by John Wesley himself, as a regular
+itinerant minister. In 1771 he volunteered for missionary work
+in the American colonies. When he landed in Philadelphia in
+October 1771, the converts to Methodism, which had been introduced
+into the colonies only three years before, numbered
+scarcely 300. Asbury infused new life into the movement, and
+within a year the membership of the several congregations was
+more than doubled. In 1772 he was appointed by Wesley
+&ldquo;general assistant&rdquo; in charge of the work in America, and
+although superseded by an older preacher, Thomas Rankin
+(1738-1810), in 1773, he remained practically in control. After
+the outbreak of the War of Independence, the Methodists, who
+then numbered several thousands, fell, unjustly, under suspicion
+of Loyalism, principally because of their refusal to take the
+prescribed oath; and many of their ministers, including Rankin,
+returned to England. Asbury, however, feeling his sympathies
+and duties to be with the colonies, remained at his post, and
+although often threatened, and once arrested, continued his
+itinerant preaching. The hostility of the Maryland authorities,
+however, eventually drove him into exile in Delaware, where he
+remained quietly, but not in idleness, for two years. In 1782
+he was reappointed to supervise the affairs of the Methodist
+congregations in America. In 1784 John Wesley, in disregard
+of the authority of the Established Church, took the radical step
+of appointing the Rev. Thomas Coke (1747-1814) and Francis
+Asbury superintendents or &ldquo;bishops&rdquo; of the church in the United
+States. Dr Coke was ordained at Bristol, England, in September,
+and in the following December, in a conference of the churches
+in America at Baltimore, he ordained and consecrated Asbury,
+who refused to accept the position until Wesley&rsquo;s choice had been
+ratified by the conference. From this conference dates the actual
+beginning of the &ldquo;Methodist Episcopal Church of the United
+States of America.&rdquo; To the upbuilding of this church Asbury
+gave the rest of his life, working with tireless devotion and
+wonderful energy. In 1785, at Abingdon, Maryland, he laid the
+corner-stone of Cokesbury College, the project of Dr Coke and
+the first Methodist Episcopal college in America; the college
+building was burned in 1795, and the college was then removed
+to Baltimore, where in 1796, after another fire, it closed, and in
+1816 was succeeded by Asbury College, which lived for about
+fifteen years. Every year Asbury traversed a large area,
+mostly on horseback. The greatest testimony to the work that
+earned for him the title of the &ldquo;Father of American Methodism&rdquo;
+was the growth of the denomination from a few scattered bands
+of about 300 converts and 4 preachers in 1771, to a thoroughly
+organized church of 214,000 members and more than 2000
+ministers at his death, which occurred at Spottsylvania,
+Virginia, on the 31st of March 1816.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Journals</i> (3 vols., New York, 1852), apart from their importance
+as a history of his life work, constitute a valuable commentary
+on the social and industrial history of the United States during the
+first forty years of their existence. Consult also F.W. Briggs,
+<i>Bishop Asbury</i> (London, 1874); W.P. Strickland, <i>The Pioneer
+Bishop; or, The Life and Times of Francis Asbury</i> (New York,
+1858); J.B. Wakeley, <i>Heroes of Methodism</i> (New York, 1856):
+W.C. Larrabee, <i>Asbury and His Co-Laborers</i> (2 vols., Cincinnati,
+1853); H.M. Du Bose, <i>Francis Asbury</i> (Nashville, Tenn., 1909);
+see also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Methodism</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASBURY PARK,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a city of Monmouth county, New Jersey,
+U.S.A., on the Atlantic Ocean, about 35 m. S. of New York City
+(50 m. by rail). Pop. (1900) 4148; (1905) 4526; (1910) 10,150.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span>
+It is served by the Central of New Jersey and the Pennsylvania
+railways, and by electric railway lines connecting it with other
+New Jersey coast resorts both north and south. Fresh-water
+lakes, one of which, Deal Lake, extends for some distance into
+the wooded country, form the northern and southern boundaries.
+It is one of the most popular seaside resorts on the Atlantic coast,
+its numerous hotels and cottages accommodating a summer
+population that approximates 50,000, and a large transient
+population in the autumn and winter months. There is an
+excellent beach, along which extends a board-walk about 1 m.
+long; the beach is owned and controlled by the municipality.
+The municipality owns and operates its water-works, water being
+obtained from artesian wells. Asbury Park was founded in 1869,
+was named in honour of the Rev. Francis Asbury, was incorporated
+as a borough in 1874, and was chartered as a city in 1897.
+In 1906 territory to the west with a population estimated at
+6000 was annexed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCALON,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> now <span class="sc">&lsquo;As&#7731;al&#257;n</span>, one of the five chief cities of
+the Philistines, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 12 m. N. of
+Gaza. The place is mentioned several times in the Tell
+el-Amarna correspondence. It revolted from Egypt on two
+occasions, but was reconquered, and a sculpture at Thebes
+depicts the storming of the city. Ascalon was a well-fortified
+town, and the seat of the worship of the fish-goddess Derketo.
+Though situated in the nominal territory of the tribe of Judah,
+it was never for any length of time in the possession of the
+Israelites. The only incident in its history recorded in the Bible
+(the spoliation by Samson, Judg. xiv. 19) may possibly have
+actually occurred at another place of the same name, in the hill
+country of Judaea. Sennacherib took it in 701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The
+conquest of Alexander hellenized its civilization, and after his
+time it became tributary alternately to Syria and Egypt. Herod
+the Great was a native of the city, and added greatly to its
+beauty; but it suffered severely in the later wars of the Romans
+and Jews. In the 4th century it again rose to importance;
+and till the 7th century, when it was conquered by the Moslems,
+it was the seat of a bishopric and a centre of learning. During
+the first crusade a signal victory was gained by the Christians in
+the neighbouring plain on the 15th of August 1099; but the city
+remained in the hands of the caliphs till 1157, when it was taken
+by Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, after a siege of five months.
+By Baldwin IV. it was given to his sister Sibylla, on her marriage
+with William of Montferrat in 1178. When Saladin (1187) had
+almost annihilated the Christian army in the plain of Tiberias,
+Ascalon offered but a feeble resistance to the victor. At first he
+repaired and strengthened its fortifications, but afterwards,
+alarmed at the capture of St Jean d&rsquo;Acre (Acre) by Richard
+C&oelig;ur de Lion in 1191, he caused it to be dismantled. It was
+restored in the following year by the English king, but only to
+be again abandoned. From this time Ascalon lost much of its
+importance, and at length, in 1270, its fortifications were almost
+totally destroyed by Sultan Bibars, and its port was filled up
+with stones. The place is now a desolate heap of ruins, with
+remains of its walls and fragments of granite pillars. The
+surrounding country is well watered and very fertile.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See a paper by Guthe, &ldquo;Die Ruinen Ascalons,&rdquo; in the <i>Zeitschrift</i>
+of the Deutsche Palastina-Verein, ii. 164 (translated in Palestine
+Exploration Fund <i>Quarterly Statement,</i> 1880, p. 182). See also
+C.R. Conder in the latter journal, 1875, p. 152.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCANIUS,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> in Roman legend, the son of Aeneas by Creüsa or
+Lavinia. From Livy it would appear that tradition recognized
+two sons of Aeneas called by this name, the one the son of his
+Trojan, the other of his Latin wife. According to the usual
+account, he accompanied his father to Italy on his flight from
+Troy. On the death of Aeneas, the government of Latium was
+left in the hands of Lavinia, Ascanius being too young to undertake
+it. After thirty years he left Lavinium, and founded Alba
+Longa. Ascanius was also called Ilus and Iulus, and the
+Julian gens claimed to be descended from him. Several more
+or less contradictory traditions may be found in Dionysius of
+Halicarnassus, Strabo and other writers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Virg. <i>Aen</i>. ii. 666; Livy i. 3; see also Klausen. <i>Aeneas und die
+Penaten</i> (1840).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCENSION,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> an island in the Atlantic Ocean, between 7° 53&prime;
+and 8° S., and 14° 18&prime; and 14° 26&prime; W., 800 m. N.W. of St Helena,
+about 7˝ m. in length and 6 in breadth, with an area of 38 sq. m.
+and a circumference of about 22 m. The island lies within the
+immediate influence of the south-east trade-wind. The lee side of
+the island is subject to the visitation of &ldquo;rollers,&rdquo; which break
+on the shore with very great violence. Ascension is a volcanic
+mass erected on a submarine platform. Numerous cones exist.
+Green Mountain, the principal elevation, is a huge elliptical
+crater, rising 2820 ft. above the sea, while the plains or table-lands
+surrounding it vary in height from 1200 to 2000 ft. On the
+north side they sweep gradually down towards the shore, but
+on the south they terminate in bold and lofty precipices. Steep
+and rugged ravines intersect the plains, opening into small bays
+or coves on the shore, fenced with masses of compact and cellular
+lava; and all over the island are found products of volcanic
+action. Ascension was originally destitute of vegetation save
+on the summit of Green Mountain, which owes its verdure to
+the mists which frequently enshroud it, but the lower hills have
+been planted with grasses and shrubs. The air is clear and light,
+and the climate remarkably healthy, notwithstanding the high
+temperature&mdash;the average day temperature on the shore being
+85° F., on Green Mountain 75° F. The average rainfall is about
+20 in., March and April being the rainy months. Ascension is
+noted for the number of turtles and turtle eggs found on its
+shores, the season lasting from December to May or June. The
+turtles are caught and kept in large ponds. The coasts abound
+with a variety of fish of excellent quality, of which the most
+important are the rock-cod, the cavalli, the conger-eel and the
+&ldquo;soldier.&rdquo; Numbers of sheep are bred on the island, and there
+are a few cattle and deer, besides goats and wild cats. Feathered
+game is abundant. Like St Helena, the island does not possess
+any indigenous vertebrate land fauna. The &ldquo;wideawake&rdquo;
+birds frequent the island in large numbers, and their eggs are
+collected and eaten. Beetles and land-shells are well represented.
+Flies, ants, mosquitoes, scorpions, centipedes and crickets abound.
+The flora includes purslane, rock roses and several species of
+ferns and mosses.</p>
+
+<p>The island was discovered by the Portuguese navigator, Joăo
+da Nova, on Ascension Day 1501, and was occasionally visited
+thereafter by ships. In 1701 William Dampier was wrecked on
+its coast, and during his detention discovered the only spring of
+fresh water the island contains. Ascension remained uninhabited
+till after the arrival of Napoleon at St Helena (1815), when it
+was taken possession of by the British government, who sent
+a small garrison thither. A settlement, named George Town
+(locally known as Garrison), was made on the north-west coast,
+water being obtained from &ldquo;Dampier&rsquo;s&rdquo; springs in the Green
+Mountain, 6 m. distant. The island is under the rule of the
+admiralty, and was likened by Darwin to &ldquo;a huge ship kept in
+first-rate order.&rdquo; It is governed by a naval captain borne on the
+books of the flagship of the admiral superintendent at Gibraltar.
+A depot of stores for the navy is maintained, but the island is used
+chiefly as a sanatorium. Ascension is connected by cable with
+Europe and Africa, and is visited once a month by mail steamers
+from the Cape. Formerly letters were left by passing ships in a
+crevice in one of the rocks. The population, about 300, consists
+of seamen, marines, and Krumen from Liberia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Africa Pilot</i>, part ii., 5th ed. (London, 1901); C. Darwin,
+<i>Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited during the
+Voyage of H.M.S. &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo;</i> (London, 1844); <i>Report of the Scientific
+Results of the Voyage of the &ldquo;Challenger,&rdquo;</i> vol. i. part 2 (London,
+1885); and <i>Six Months in Ascension</i>, by Mrs Gill (London, 1878), an
+excellent sketch of the island and its inhabitants. It was at Ascension
+that Mr, afterwards Sir, David Gill determined, in 1877, the
+solar parallax.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> one of the oecumenical festivals
+of the Christian Church, ranking in solemnity with those of
+Christmas, of Easter and of Pentecost. It is held forty days after
+Easter, or ten days before Whitsunday, in celebration of Christ&rsquo;s
+ascension into heaven forty days after the resurrection. It
+always falls on a Thursday, and the day is known as Ascension
+Day, or Holy Thursday. The festival is of great antiquity; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span>
+though there is no discoverable trace of it before the middle of
+the 4th century, subsequent references to it assume its long
+establishment. Thus St Augustine (<i>Ep.</i> 54 <i>ad Januar.</i>) mentions
+it as having been kept from time immemorial and as probably
+instituted by the apostles. Chrysostom, in his homily on the
+ascension, mentions a celebration of the festival in the church
+of Romanesia outside Antioch, and Socrates (<i>Hist. eccles.</i> vii. 26)
+records that in the year 390 the people of Constantinople &ldquo;of
+old custom&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="ex ethous">&#7952;&#958; &#7956;&#952;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>) celebrated the feast in a suburb of the
+city. As these two references suggest, the festival was associated
+with a professional pilgrimage, in commemoration of the passing
+of Christ and his apostles to the Mount of Olives; such a procession
+is described by Adamnan, abbot of Iona, as taking place
+at Jerusalem in the 7th century, when the feast was celebrated
+in the church on Mount Olivet (<i>de loc. sanct.</i> i. 22). The <i>Peregrinatio</i>
+of Etheria (Silvia), which dates from <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 385, says
+that the festival was held in the Church of the Nativity at
+Bethlehem (Duchesne, <i>Chr. Worship</i>, p. 515). In the West,
+however, in the middle ages, the procession with candles and
+banners outside the church was taken as symbolical of Christ&rsquo;s
+triumphant entry into heaven.</p>
+
+<p>In the East the festival is known as the <span class="grk" title="analaepsis">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#955;&#951;&#968;&#953;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;taking
+up,&rdquo; or <span class="grk" title="episozomenae">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#969;&#950;&#959;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;</span>, a term first used in the Cappadocian
+church, and of which the meaning has been disputed, but which
+probably signifies the feast &ldquo;of completed salvation.&rdquo; The
+word <i>ascensio</i>, adopted in the West, implies the ascension of
+Christ by his own power, in contradistinction to the <i>assumptio</i>,
+or taking up into heaven of the Virgin Mary by the power of God.</p>
+
+<p>In the Roman Catholic Church the most characteristic ritual
+feature of the festival is now the solemn extinction of the paschal
+candle after the Gospel at high mass. This candle, lighted at
+every mass for the forty days after Easter, symbolizes the
+presence of Christ with his disciples, and its extinction his parting
+from them. The custom dates from 1263, and was formerly
+confined to the Franciscans; it was prescribed for the universal
+church by the Congregation of Rites on the 19th of May 1697.
+Other customs, now obsolete, were formerly associated with the
+liturgy of this feast; <i>e.g.</i> the blessing of the new beans after the
+Commemoration of the Dead in the canon of the mass (Duchesne,
+p. 183). In some churches, during the middle ages, an image
+of Christ was raised from the altar through a hole in the roof,
+through which a burning straw figure representing Satan was
+immediately thrown down.</p>
+
+<p>In the Anglican Church Ascension Day and its octave continue
+to be observed as a great festival, for which a special
+preface to the consecration prayer in the communion service is
+provided, as in the case of Christmas, Easter, Whitsunday, and
+Trinity Sunday. The celebration of the Feast of the Ascension
+was also retained in the Lutheran churches as warranted by
+Holy Scripture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1900), s. <i>&rdquo;Himmelfahrtsfest&rdquo;</i>;
+L. Duchesne, <i>Christian Worship</i> (2nd Eng. ed., London, 1904);
+<i>The Catholic Encyclopaedia</i> (London and New York, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCETICISM,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> the theory and practice of bodily abstinence
+and self-mortification, generally religious. The word is derived
+from the Gr. verb <span class="grk" title="askeo">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#941;&#969;</span>, &ldquo;I practise,&rdquo; whence the noun <span class="grk" title="askaesis">&#7940;&#963;&#954;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>
+and the adjective <span class="grk" title="askaetikos">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>; and it embodies a metaphor taken
+from the ancient wrestling-place or palaestra, where victory
+rewarded those who had best trained their bodies. Not a few
+other technical terms of Greek philosophic asceticism, used in
+the first instance by Cynics and Neo-pythagoreans, and then
+continued among the Greek Jews and Christians, were metaphors
+taken from athletic contests&mdash;but only metaphors, for all
+asceticism, worthy of the name, has a moral purport, and is
+based on the eternal contrast of the proposition, &ldquo;This is right,&rdquo;
+with the proposition, &ldquo;That is pleasant.&rdquo; The ascetic instinct
+is probably as old as humanity, yet we must not forget that early
+religious practices are apt to be deficient in lofty spiritual meaning,
+many things being esteemed holy that are from a modern
+point of view trifling and even obscene. We may therefore
+expect in primitive asceticism to find many abstentions and
+much self-torture apparently valueless for the training of
+character and discipline of the feelings, which are the essence of
+any healthy asceticism. Nevertheless these non-moral <i>taboos</i> or
+restraints may have played a part in building up in us that
+faculty of preferring the larger good to the impulse of the moment
+which is the note of real civilization. Aristotle in his <i>Ethics</i>
+defines, as the barbarian&rsquo;s ideal of life, &ldquo;the living as one likes.&rdquo;
+Yet nothing is less true; for the savage, more than the civilized
+man, is tied down at every step with superstitious scruples and
+restrictions barely traceable in higher civilizations except as
+primitive survivals. It is not that savages are devoid of the
+ascetic instinct. It is on the contrary over-developed in them,
+but ill-informed and working in ways unessential or even morally
+harmful. It is the note of every great religious reformer, Moses,
+Buddha, Paul, Mani, Mahomet, St Francis, Luther, to enlighten
+and direct it to higher aims, substituting a true personal holiness
+for a ritual purity or <i>taboo</i>, which at the best was viewed as a
+kind of physical condition and contagion, inherent as well in
+things and animals as in man.</p>
+
+<p>It is useful, therefore, in a summary sketch of asceticism, to
+begin with the facts as they can be observed among less advanced
+races, or as mere survivals among people who have reached the
+level of genuine moral reflection; and from this basis to proceed
+to a consideration of self-denial consciously pursued as a method
+of ethical perfection. The latter is as a rule less cruel and
+rigorous than primitive forms of asceticism. Under this head
+fall the following:&mdash;Fasting, or abstention from certain meats
+and drinks; denial of sexual instinct; subjection of the body
+to physical discomforts, such as nakedness, vigils, sleeping on
+the bare ground, tattooing, deformation of skull, teeth, feet, &amp;c.,
+vows of silence to be observed throughout life or during pilgrim-ages,
+avoidance of baths, of hair-cutting and of clean raiment,
+living in a cave; actual self-infliction of pain, by scourging,
+branding, cutting with knives, wearing of hair shirts, fire-walking,
+burial alive, hanging up of oneself by hooks plunged into the
+skin, suspension of weights by such hooks to the tenderer parts
+of the body, self-mutilation and numerous other, often ingenious,
+modes of torture. Such customs repose on various superstitions;
+for example, the self-mutilation of the Galli or priests of Cybele
+was probably a magical ceremony intended to fertilize the soil
+and stimulate the crops. Others of the practices enumerated,
+probably the greater part of them, spring from demonological
+beliefs.</p>
+
+<p>Fasting (<i>q.v.</i>) is used in primitive asceticism for a variety of
+reasons, among which the following deserve notice. Certain
+animals and vegetables are <i>taboo</i>, <i>i.e.</i> too holy, or&mdash;what among
+Semites and others was the same thing&mdash;too defiling and unclean,
+to be eaten. Thus in Leviticus xi. the Jews are forbidden to
+eat animals other than cloven-footed ruminants; thus the
+camel, coney, hare and swine were forbidden; so also any water
+organisms that had not fins and scales, and a large choice of
+birds, including swan, pelican, stork, heron and hoopoe. All
+winged creeping things that have four feet were equally abominable.
+Lastly, the weasel, mouse and most lizards were <i>taboo</i>.
+All or nearly all of these were at one time totem animals among
+one or another of the Semitic tribes, and were not eaten because
+primitive men will not eat animals between which and themselves
+and their gods they believe a peculiar tie of kinship to exist.
+Men do not eat an animal for which they have a reverential
+dread, or if they eat it at all, it is only in a sacramental feast and
+in order to absorb into themselves its life and holy properties.
+Such abstinences as the above, though based on <i>taboo</i>, that is, on
+a reluctance to eat the totem or sacred animal, are yet ascetic
+in so far as they involve much self-denial. No flesh is more
+wholesome or succulent than beef, yet the Egyptians and
+Phoenicians, says Porphyry (<i>de Abst.</i> ii. 11), would rather eat
+human flesh than that of the cow, and so would two hundred and
+fifty millions of modern Hindus. The privation involved in
+abstention from the flesh of the swine, a <i>taboo</i> hardly less widespread, is obvious.</p>
+
+<p>Similar prohibitions are common in Africa, where fetish priests
+are often reduced to a diet of herbs and roots. That such dietary
+restrictions were merely ceremonial and superstitious, and not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span>
+intended to prevent the consumption of meats which would revolt
+modern tastes, is certain from the fact that the Levitical law
+freely allowed the eating of locusts, grasshoppers, crickets and
+cockroaches, while forbidding the consumption of rabbits, hares,
+storks, swine, &amp;c. The Pythagoreans were forbidden to eat beans.</p>
+
+<p>Another widespread reason for avoiding flesh diet altogether
+was the fear of absorbing the irrational soul of the animal,
+which especially resided in the blood. Hence the rule not to eat
+meats strangled, except in sacramental meals when the god
+inherent in the animal was partaken of. It is equally a soul or
+spirit in wine which inspires the intoxicated; the old Egyptian
+kings avoided wine at table and in libations, because it was the
+blood of rebels who had fought with the gods, and out of whose
+rotting bodies grew the vines; to drink the blood was to imbibe
+the soul of these rebels, and the frenzy of intoxication which
+followed was held to be possession by their spirits. The medieval
+Jews also held that there is a cardiac demon in wine which
+takes possession of drunken men; and the Mahommedan
+prohibition of wine-drinking is based on a similar superstition.
+The avoidance of wine, therefore, by Rechabites, Nazirites, Arab
+dervishes and Pythagoreans, and also of leaven in bread, is
+parallel to and explicable in the same way as abstention from
+flesh. Porphyry (<i>de Abst.</i> i. 19) acquaints us with another widespread
+scruple against flesh diet. It was this, that the souls of
+men transmigrated into animals, so that if you ate these, you
+might consume your own kind, cannibal-wise. Contemporary
+meat-eaters set themselves to combat this prejudice, and argued
+that it was a pious duty to kill animals and so release the human
+souls imprisoned. In the same tract Porphyry relates (ii. 48)
+how wizards acquired the mantic powers of certain birds, such
+as ravens and hawks, by swallowing their hearts. The soul of
+the bird, he explains, enters them with its flesh, and endows
+them with power of divination. The lover of wisdom, who is
+priest of the universal God, rather than risk the taking into
+himself of inferior souls and polluting demons, will abstain from
+eating animals. Such is Porphyry&rsquo;s argument.</p>
+
+<p>The same fear of imbibing the irrational soul of animals, and
+thereby reinforcing the lower appetites and instincts of the
+human being, inspired the vegetarianism of Apollonius of Tyana
+and of the Jewish Therapeutae, who in their sacred meals were
+careful to have a table free from blood-containing meats; and
+the fear of absorbing the animal&rsquo;s psychic qualities equally
+motived the Jewish and early Christian rule against eating
+things strangled. It was an early belief, which long survived
+among the Manichaean sects, that fish, being born in and of the
+waters, and without any sexual connexion on the part of other
+fishes are free from the taint which pollutes all animals <i>quae
+copulatione generantur</i>. Fish, therefore, unlike flesh, could be
+safely eaten. Here we have the origin of the Catholic rule of
+fasting, seldom understood by those who observe it. The same
+scruple against flesh-eating is conveyed in the beautiful
+confession, in the <i>Cretans</i> of Euripides, of one who had been initiated
+in the mysteries of Orpheus and became a &ldquo;Bacchos.&rdquo; The last
+lines of this, as rendered by Dr Gilbert Murray, are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Robed in pure white, I have borne me clean</p>
+<p class="i05">From man&rsquo;s vile birth and coffined clay,</p>
+<p class="i05">And exiled from my lips alway</p>
+<p class="i05">Touch of all meat where life hath been.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This Orphic fast from meat was only broken by an annual
+sacramental banquet, originally, perhaps, of human, but later of
+raw bovine flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The Manichaeans held that in every act of begetting, human or
+otherwise, a soul is condemned afresh to a cycle of misery by
+imprisonment in flesh&mdash;a thoroughly Indian notion, under the
+influence of which their perfect or elect ones scrupulously
+abstained from flesh. The prohibition of taking life, which
+they took over from the Farther East, in itself entailed fasting
+from flesh. A fully initiated Manichaean would not even cut his
+own salad, but employed a catechumen to commit on his behalf
+this act of murder, for which he subsequently shrived him.</p>
+
+<p>We come to a third widespread reason for fasting, common
+among savages. Famished persons are liable to morbid excitement,
+and fall into imaginative ecstasies, in the course of which
+they see visions and spectres, converse with gods and angels,
+and are the recipients of supernatural revelations. Accordingly
+King Saul &ldquo;ate no bread all the day nor all the night&rdquo; in which
+the witch of Endor revealed to him the ghost of Samuel. Weak
+and famished, he hardly wanted to eat the fatted calf when the
+vision was over. Among the North American Indians ecstatic
+fasting is regularly practised. A faster writes down his visions
+and revelations for a whole season. They are then examined by
+the elders of the tribe, and if events have verified them, he is
+recognized as a supernaturally gifted being, and rewarded with
+chieftaincy. All over the world fasting is a recognized mode of
+evoking, consulting and also of overcoming the spirit world.
+This is why the Zulus and other primitive races distrust a
+medicine man who is not an ascetic and lean with fasting. In
+the Semitic East it is an old belief that a successful fast in the
+wilderness of forty days and nights gives power over the Djinns.
+The Indian <i>yogi</i> fasts till he sees face to face all the gods of his
+Pantheon; the Indian magician fasts twelve days before producing
+rain or working any cure. The Bogomils fasted till they
+saw the Trinity face to face. From the first, fasting was practised
+in the church for similar reason. In the <i>Shepherd of Hermas</i> a
+vision of the church rewards frequent fasts and prayer; and it is
+related in extra-canonical sources that James the Less vowed
+that he would fast until he too was vouchsafed a vision of the
+risen Lord. After a long and rigorous fast the Lord appeared
+to him. Not a few saints were rewarded for their fasting by
+glimpses of the beatific vision. Dr Tylor writes on this point as
+follows (<i>Prim. Cult.</i> ii. 415): &ldquo;Bread and meat would have
+robbed the ascetic of many an angel&rsquo;s visit: the opening of the
+refectory door must many a time have closed the gates of heaven
+to his gaze.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among the Semites and Tatars worshippers lacerate themselves
+before the god. So in I Kings xviii. 28 the priests of Baal
+engaged in a rain-making ceremony, gashed themselves with
+knives and lances till the blood gushed out upon them. The
+Syriac word <i>ethkashshaph</i>, which means literally to &ldquo;cut
+oneself,&rdquo; is the regular equivalent of to &ldquo;make supplication.&rdquo;
+Among Greeks and Arabs, mourners also cut themselves with
+knives and scratched their faces; the Hebrew law forbade such
+mourning, and we find the prohibition repeated in many canons
+of the Eastern churches. At first sight these rites seem intended
+to call down the pity of heaven on man, but as Robertson Smith
+points out, their real import was by shedding blood on a holy
+stone or in a holy place to tie or renew a blood-bond between
+the God and his faithful ones. We have no clear information
+about the mind of the Flagellants, who in 1259, and again in
+1349, swarmed through the streets of European cities, naked
+and thrashing themselves, till the blood ran, with leather thongs
+and iron whips. They were penitents, and no doubt imbued
+with the ancient belief that without the shedding of blood there
+is no remission of sins.</p>
+
+<p>Asceticism then in its origin was usually not ascetic in a
+modern sense, that is, not ethical. It was rather of the nature
+of the savage <i>taboo</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), the outcome of totemistic beliefs or a
+mode of averting the contaminating presence of djinns and
+demons. Above all, fasting was a mode of preparing oneself
+for the sacramental eating of a sacred animal, and as such often
+assisted by use of purgatives and aperients. It was essential
+in the old Greek rites of averting the <i>Kęres</i> or djinns, the ill
+regulated ghosts who return to earth and molest the living, to
+abstain from flesh. The Pythagoreans and Orphic <i>mystae</i> so
+abstained all their life long, and Porphyry eloquently insists on
+such a discipline for all who &ldquo;are not content merely to talk
+about Reason, but are really intent on casting aside the body
+and living through Reason with Truth. Naked and without
+the tunic of the flesh these will enter the arena and strive in the
+Olympic contest of the soul.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is time to pass on to Buddhist asceticism, in its essence
+a more ethical and philosophical product than some of the
+forms so far considered. The keynote of Buddhist asceticism is
+deliverance from life and its inevitable suffering. Once at a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span>
+village where he rested the Blessed One (Buddha) addressed
+his brethren and said: &ldquo;It is through not understanding and
+grasping four Noble Truths, O brethren, that we have had to
+run so long, to wander so long in this weary path of transmigration,
+both you and I.&rdquo; These noble truths were about sorrow,
+its cause, its cessation and the path which leads to that cessation.
+Once they are grasped the craving for existence is rooted out,
+that which leads to renewed existence is destroyed, and there
+is no more birth. The Buddha believed he had a way of Truth,
+which if an elect disciple possessed he might say of himself,
+&ldquo;Hell is destroyed for me, and rebirth as an animal, or a ghost,
+or in any place of woe. I am converted, I am no longer liable
+to be reborn in a state of suffering, and am assured of final
+salvation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Suffering, said the sage in his great sermon at Benares, is
+inseparable from birth and old age. Sickness is suffering, so is
+death, so is union with the unloved, and separation from the
+loved; not to obtain what one desires is suffering; the entire
+fivefold clinging to the earthly is suffering. Its origin is the
+thirst for being which leads from birth to birth, together with
+lust and desire, which find gratification here and there; the
+thirst for pleasures, for being, for power. This thirst must be
+extinguished by complete annihilation of desire, by letting it
+go, expelling it, separating oneself from it, giving it no room.
+This extinction is achieved in eight ways, namely rectitude of
+faith, resolve, speech, action, living, effort, thought,
+self-concentration.</p>
+
+<p>In this gospel we must be done with the outer world, participation
+in which is not the self, yet means for the self birth
+and death, appetites, longings, emotions, change and suffering,
+pleasure and pain. He that has put off all lust and desire, all
+hope and fear, all will to exist as a sinful, because a sentient,
+being, has won to the heaven of extinction or Nirvana. He may
+still tread the earth, but he is a saint or Brahman, is in heaven,
+has quitted the transient and enjoys eternity.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the Buddha&rsquo;s gospel, as his most ancient scriptures
+enunciate it. Nirvana is constantly defined in them as supreme
+happiness. It is not even clear how far, if we interpret it strictly,
+this philosophy leaves any self to be happy. However this be,
+its practical expression is the life of the monk who has separated
+himself from the world. Five commandments must be observed
+by him who would even approach the higher life of saint and
+ascetic. They are these: to kill no living thing; not to lay
+hands on another&rsquo;s property; not to touch another&rsquo;s wife;
+not to speak what is untrue; not to drink intoxicating drinks.</p>
+
+<p>Though couched in the negative, these rules must be interpreted
+in the amplest and widest sense by all believers. The
+Order, however, which the would-be ascetic can enter by regular
+initiation, when he is twenty years of age, entails a discipline
+much more severe. He has gone forth from home into homelessness,
+and has not where to lay his head. He must eat only the
+morsels he gets by begging; must dress in such rags as he can
+pick up; must sleep under trees. Mendicancy is his recognized
+way of life. Furthermore, he must abstain all his life from
+sexual intercourse; he may not take even a blade of grass
+without permission of the owner; he must not kill even a worm
+or ant; he must not boast of his perfection. In practice the
+lives of Buddhist monks are not so squalid as these rules would
+lead us to suppose. Thanks to the reverent charity of the
+laymen, they do not live much worse than Benedictine monks;
+and the prohibition to live in houses does not extend to caves.
+Everywhere in India and Ceylon they hollowed out cells and
+churches in the cliffs and rocks, which are the wonder of the
+European tourist.</p>
+
+<p>But long before the advent of Buddhism, the hermit, or
+wandering beggar, was a familiar figure in India. No formal
+initiation was imposed on the would-be ascetic, save (in the case
+of young men) the duty to live at first in his teacher&rsquo;s house.
+One who had thus fulfilled the duties of the student order must
+&ldquo;go forth remaining chaste,&rdquo; says the <i>&#256;pastamba</i>, ii. 9. 8. He
+shall then &ldquo;live without a fire, without a house, without pleasures,
+without protection; remaining silent and uttering speech only
+on the occasion of the daily recitation of the Veda; begging so
+much food only in the village as will sustain his life, he shall
+wander about, neither caring for this world nor for heaven.
+He shall only wear clothes thrown away by others. Some
+declare that he shall even go naked. Abandoning truth and
+falsehood, pleasure and pain, the Vedas, this world and the next,
+he shall seek the Universal Soul, in knowledge of which standeth
+eternal salvation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such a life was specially recommended for one who has lived
+the life of a householder, and, having begotten sons according
+to the sacred law and offered sacrifices, desires in his old age to
+abandon worldly objects and direct his mind to final liberation.
+He leaves his wife, if she will not accompany him, and goes
+forth into the forest, committing her and his house to his sons.
+He must indeed take with him the sacred fire and implements
+for domestic sacrifice, but until death overtakes him he must
+wander silent, alone, possessing no hearth nor dwelling, begging
+his food in the villages, firm of purpose, with a potsherd for an
+alms bowl, the roots of trees for a dwelling, and clad in coarse
+worn out garments. &ldquo;Let him not desire to die, let him not
+desire to live; let him wait for his appointed time, as a servant
+waits for the payment of his wages. Let him drink water
+purified by straining with a cloth, let him utter speech purified
+by truth, let him keep his heart pure. Let him patiently bear
+hard words, let him not insult anybody, let him not become any
+one&rsquo;s enemy for the sake of this perishable body.... Let him
+reflect on the transmigrations of men, caused by their sinful
+deeds, on their falling into hell, and on their torments in the
+world of Yama.... A twice-born man who becomes an
+ascetic thus shakes off sin here below and reaches the highest
+Brahman&rdquo; (<i>Laws of Manu</i>, by G. Bühler, vi. 85).</p>
+
+<p>This old-world wisdom of the Hindus, a thousand years before
+our era, is worthily to be paralleled from the Manichaeism of
+about the year 400. Augustine has preserved (<i>contra Faustum</i>,
+v. 1) the portraiture of a Manichaean elect as drawn by himself:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I have given up father and mother, wife, children and all else
+that the gospel bids us, and do you ask if I accept the gospel?
+Are you then still ignorant of what the word gospel means? It is
+nothing else than the preaching and precept of Christ. I have cast
+away gold and silver, and have ceased to carry even copper in my
+belt, being content with my daily bread, nor caring for the morrow,
+nor anxious how my belly shall be filled or my body clothed; and
+do you ask me if I accept the gospel? You behold in me those
+beatitudes of Christ which make up the gospel, and you ask me if
+I accept it. You behold me gentle, a peacemaker, pure of heart,
+a mourner, hungering, thirsting, bearing persecutions and hatreds
+for righteousness&rsquo; sake, and do you doubt whether I accept the
+gospel.... All that was mine I have given up, father, mother,
+wife, children, gold, silver, eating, drinking, delights, pleasures.
+Deem this a sufficient answer to your question and deem yourself
+on the way to be blessed, if you have not been scandalized in me.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Greek Cynics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynics</a></span>) played a great part in the
+history of Asceticism, and they were so much the precursors of
+the Christian hermits that descriptions of them in profane
+literature have been mistaken for pictures of early monasticism.
+In striving to imitate the rugged strength and independence of
+their master Socrates, they went to such extremes as rather
+to caricature him. They affected to live like beggars, bearing
+staff and wallet, owning nothing, renouncing pleasures, riches,
+honours. For older thinkers like Plato and Aristotle the perfect
+life was that of the citizen and householder; but the Cynics
+were individualists, citizens of the world without loyalty or
+respect for the ancient city state, the decay of which was
+coincident with their rise. Their zeal for renunciation often
+extended not to pleasures, marriage and property alone, but to
+cleanliness, knowledge and good manners as well, and in this
+respect also they were the forerunners of later monks.</p>
+
+<p>Philo (20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 40) has left us many pictures of the life
+which to his mind impersonated the highest wisdom, and they
+are all inspired by the more respectable sort of cynicism, which
+had taken deep root among Greek Jews of the day. One such
+picture merits citation from his tract <i>On Change of Names</i> (vol.
+i. 583, ed. Mangey): &ldquo;All this company of the good and wise
+have of their own free will divested themselves of too copious
+wealth; nay, have spurned the things dear to the flesh. For of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span>
+good habit and lusty are athletes, since they have fortified
+against the soul the body which should be its servant; but the
+disciples of wisdom are pale and wasted, and in a manner reduced
+to skeletons, because they have sacrificed the whole of their
+bodily strength to the faculties of the soul.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His own favourite ascetics, the Therapeutae, whose chief
+centre was in Egypt, had renounced property and all its temptations,
+and fled, irrevocably abandoning brothers, children, wives,
+parents, throngs of kinsmen, intimacy of friends, the fatherlands
+where they were born and bred (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Therapeutae</a></span>). Here we
+have the ideal of early Christian renunciation at work, but apart
+from the influence of Jesus. In the pages of Epictetus the same
+ideal is constantly held up to us.</p>
+
+<p>In the Christian Church there was from the earliest age a
+leaning to excessive asceticism, and it needed a severe struggle
+on the part of Paul, and of the Catholic teachers who followed
+him, to secure for the baptized the right to be married, to own
+property, to engage in war and commerce, or to assume public
+office. One and all of the permanent institutions of society were
+condemned by the early enthusiasts, especially by those who
+looked forward to a speedy advent of the millennium, as alien to
+the kingdom of God and as impediments to the life of grace.</p>
+
+<p>Marriage and property had already been eschewed in the
+Jewish Essene and Therapeutic sects, and in Christianity the
+name of Encratite was given to those who repudiated marriage
+and the use of wine. They did not form a sect, but represented
+an impulse felt everywhere. In early and popular apocryphal
+histories the apostles are represented as insisting that their
+converts should either not contract wedlock or should dissolve
+the tie if already formed. This is the plot of the <i>Acts of Thecla</i>,
+a story which probably goes back to the first century. Repudiation
+of the tie by fervent women, betrothed or already wives,
+occasioned much domestic friction and popular persecution.
+In the Syriac churches, even as late as the 4th century, the married
+state seems to have been regarded as incompatible with the
+perfection of the initiated. Renunciation of the state of wedlock
+was anyhow imposed on the faithful during the lengthy, often
+lifelong, terms of penance imposed upon them for sins committed;
+and later, when monkery took the place, in a church become
+worldly, partly of the primitive baptism and partly of that
+rigorous penance which was the rebaptism and medicine of the
+lapsed, celibacy and virginity were held essential thereto, no
+less than renunciation of property and money-making.</p>
+
+<p>Together with the rage for virginity went the institution of
+<i>virgines subintroductae</i>, or of spiritual wives; for it was often
+assumed that the grace of baptism restored the original purity
+of life led by Adam and Eve in common before the Fall. Such
+rigours are encouraged in the <i>Shepherd of Hermas</i>, a book which
+emanated from Rome and up to the 4th century was read in
+church. They were common in the African churches, where they
+led to abuses which taxed the energy even of a Cyprian. They
+were still rife in Antioch in 260. We detect them in the Celtic
+church of St Patrick, and, as late as the 7th century, among the
+Celtic elders of the north of France. In the Syriac church as late
+as 340, such relations prevailed between the &ldquo;Sons and daughters
+of the Resurrection.&rdquo; It continued among the Albigenses and
+other dissident sects of the middle ages, among whom it served
+a double purpose; for their elders were thus not only able to
+prove their own chastity, but to elude the inquisitors, who were
+less inclined to suspect a man of the catharism which regarded
+marriage as the &ldquo;greater adultery&rdquo; (<i>maius adulterium</i>) if they
+found him cohabiting (in appearance at least) with a woman.
+There was hardly an early council, great or small, that did not
+condemn this custom, as well as the other one, still more painful
+to think of, of self-emasculation. In the Catholic church, however,
+common sense prevailed, and those who desired to follow the
+Encratite ideal repaired to the monasteries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;E.B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i> (London, 1903);
+Robertson Smith, <i>Religion of the Semites</i> (London, 1901); J.E.
+Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion</i>; F. Max Müller,
+<i>The Sacred Books of the East</i>; Victor Henry, <i>La Magie dans l&rsquo;Inde
+antique</i>; J.G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i> (London, 1900), and
+<i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i> (London, 1906); Georges Lafay, <i>Culte des
+divinitęs d&rsquo;Alexandrie</i> (Paris, 1884); Döllinger, <i>Sectengeschichte des
+Mittelalters</i> (Munich, 1890); Fr. Cumont, <i>Mysteries of Mithra</i>
+(Chicago, 1903); Zöckler, <i>Gesch. der Ascese</i> (1863). See also under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Purification</a></span>. Goldziher, &ldquo;De l&rsquo;ascetisme aux premiers temps
+de l&rsquo;Islam,&rdquo; in <i>Revue de l&rsquo;histoire des religions</i> (1898), p. 314;
+Muratori, <i>De Synisactis et Agapetis</i> (Pavia, 1709); Jas. Martineau,
+<i>Types of Ethical Theory</i> (Oxford, 1885); T.H. Green, <i>Prolegomena
+to Ethics</i> (Oxford, 1883); Franz Cumont, <i>Les Religions orientales
+dans le paganisme romain</i> (Paris, 1907); Porphyrius, <i>De Abstinentia</i>;
+Plutarchus, <i>De Carnium Esu</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCHAFFENBURG,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Bavaria, on the right bank of the Main, at its confluence with the
+Aschaff, near the foot of the Spessart, 26 m. by rail S.E. of
+Frankfort-On-Main. Pop. (1900) 18,091; (1905) 25,275. Its
+chief buildings are the Johannisburg, built (1605-1614) by
+Archbishop Schweikard of Cronberg, which contains a library
+with a number of <i>incunabula</i>, a collection of engravings and
+paintings; the <i>Stiftskirche</i>, or cathedral, founded in 980 by Otto
+of Bavaria, but dating in the main from the early 12th and the
+13th centuries, in which are preserved various monuments by
+the Vischers, and a sarcophagus, with the relics of St Margaret
+(1540); the Capuchin hospital; a theatre, which was formerly
+the house of the Teutonic order; and several mansions of the
+German nobility. The town, which has been remarkable for its
+educational establishments since the 10th century, has a
+gymnasium, lyceum, seminarium and other schools. There is an
+archaeological museum in the old abbey buildings. The graves
+of Klemens Brentano and his brother Christian (d. 1851) are in
+the churchyard; and Wilhelm Heinse is buried in the town.
+Coloured and white paper, ready-made clothing, cellulose,
+tobacco, lime and liqueurs are the chief manufactures, while
+a considerable export trade is done down the Main in wood,
+cattle and wine.</p>
+
+<p>Aschaffenburg, called in the middle ages Aschafaburg and also
+Askenburg, was originally a Roman settlement. The 10th and
+23rd Roman legions had their station here, and on the ruins of
+their <i>castrum</i> the Frankish mayors of the palace built a castle.
+Bonifacius erected a chapel to St Martin, and founded a
+Benedictine monastery. A stone bridge over the Main was built by
+Archbishop Willigis in 989. Adalbert increased the importance
+of the town in various ways about 1122. In 1292 a synod was
+held here, and in 1474 an imperial diet, preliminary to that of
+Vienna, in which the concordat was decided which has therefore
+been sometimes called the <i>Aschaffenburg Concordat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War,
+being held in turn by the various belligerents. In 1842-1849,
+King Louis built himself to the west of the town a country house,
+called the <i>Pompeianum</i>, from its being an imitation of the house
+of Castor and Pollux at Pompeii. In 1866 the Prussians inflicted
+a severe defeat on the Austrians in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>The principality of Aschaffenburg, deriving its name from the
+city, comprehended an area of 654 English sq. m. It formed part
+of the electorate of Mainz, and in 1803 was made over to the
+archchancellor, Archbishop Charles of Dalberg. In 1806 it was
+annexed to the grand-duchy of Frankfort; and in 1814 was
+transferred to Bavaria, in virtue of a treaty concluded on the
+19th of June between that power and Austria. With lower
+Franconia, it now forms a district of the kingdom of Bavaria.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCHAM, ROGER<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1515-1568), English scholar and writer,
+was born at Kirby Wiske, a village in the North Riding of
+Yorkshire, near Northallerton, about the year 1515. His name
+would be more properly spelt Askham, being derived, doubtless,
+from Askham in the West Riding. He was the third son of John
+Ascham, steward to Lord Scrope of Bolton. The family name
+of his mother Margaret is unknown, but she is said to have been
+well connected. The authority for this statement, as for most
+others concerning Ascham&rsquo;s early life, is Edward Grant, headmaster
+of Westminster, who collected and edited his letters and
+delivered a panegyrical oration on his life in 1576.</p>
+
+<p>Ascham was educated not at school, but in the house of Sir
+Humphry Wingfield, a barrister, and in 1533 speaker of the
+House of Commons, as Ascham himself tells us, in the <i>Toxophilus</i>,
+p. 120 (not, as by a mistake which originated with Grant and has
+been repeated ever since, Sir Anthony Wingfield, who was nephew
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span>
+of the speaker). Sir Humphry &ldquo;ever loved and used to have
+many children brought up in his house,&rdquo; where they were under
+a tutor named R. Bond. Their sport was archery, and Sir
+Humphry &ldquo;himself would at term times bring down from
+London both bows and shafts and go with them himself to the
+field and see them shoot.&rdquo; Hence Ascham&rsquo;s earliest English
+work, the <i>Toxophilus</i>, the importance which he attributed to
+archery in educational establishments, and probably the
+provision for archery in the statutes of St Albans, Harrow and
+other Elizabethan schools. From this private tuition Ascham
+was sent &ldquo;about 1530,&rdquo; at the age, it is said, of fifteen, to St
+John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, then the largest and most learned
+college in either university. Here he fell under the influence of
+John Cheke, who was admitted a fellow in Ascham&rsquo;s first year,
+and Sir Thomas Smith. His guide and friend was Robert
+Pember, &ldquo;a man of the greatest learning and with an admirable
+facility in the Greek tongue.&rdquo; On his advice he practised
+seriously the precept embodied in the saying, &ldquo;I know nothing
+about the subject, I have not even lectured on it,&rdquo; and &ldquo;to
+learn Greek more quickly, while still a boy, taught Greek to
+boys.&rdquo; In Latin he specially studied Cicero and Caesar. He
+became B.A. on the 18th of February 1534/5. Dr Nicholas
+Metcalfe was then master of the college, &ldquo;a papist, indeed, and
+yet if any young man given to the new learning as they termed
+it, went beyond his fellows,&rdquo; he &ldquo;lacked neither open praise,
+nor private exhibition.&rdquo; He procured Ascham&rsquo;s election to a
+fellowship, &ldquo;though being a new bachelor of arts, I chanced
+among my companions to speak against the Pope ... after
+grievous rebuke and some punishment, open warning was given
+to all the fellows, none to be so hardy, as to give me his voice at
+that election.&rdquo; The day of election Ascham regarded as his
+&ldquo;birthday,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the whole foundation of the poor learning I
+have and of all the furtherance that hitherto elsewhere I have
+obtained.&rdquo; He took his M.A. degree on the 3rd of July 1537.
+He stayed for some time at Cambridge taking pupils, among
+whom was William Grindal, who in 1544 became tutor to Princess
+Elizabeth. Ascham himself cultivated music, acquired fame
+for a beautiful handwriting, and lectured on mathematics.
+Before 1540, when the Regius professorship of Greek was
+established, Ascham &ldquo;was paid a handsome salary to profess the
+Greek tongue in public,&rdquo; and held also lectures in St John&rsquo;s
+College. He obtained from Edward Lee, then archbishop of
+York, a pension of Ł2 a year, in return for which Ascham
+translated Oecumenius&rsquo; Commentaries on the Pauline Epistles. But
+the archbishop, scenting heresy in some passage relating to the
+marriage of the clergy, sent it back to him, with a present indeed,
+but with something like a reprimand, to which Ascham answered
+with an assurance that he was &ldquo;no seeker after novelties,&rdquo; as
+his lectures showed. He was on safer ground in writing in
+1542-1543 a book, which he told Sir William Paget in the summer
+of 1544 was in the press, &ldquo;on the art of Shooting.&rdquo; This was
+no doubt suggested partly by the act of parliament 33 Henry
+VIII. c. 9, &ldquo;an acte for mayntenaunce of Artyllarie and debarringe
+of unlawful games,&rdquo; requiring every one under sixty, of good
+health, the clergy, judges, &amp;c., excepted, &ldquo;to use shooting in the
+long bow,&rdquo; and fixing the price at which bows were to be sold.
+Under the title of <i>Toxophilus</i> he presented it to Henry VIII. at
+Greenwich soon after his triumphant return from the capture of
+Boulogne, and promptly received a grant of a pension of Ł10 a
+year, equal to some Ł200 a year of our money. A novelty of the
+book was that the author had &ldquo;written this Englishe matter
+in the Englishe tongue for Englishe men,&rdquo; though he thought it
+necessary to defend himself by the argument that what &ldquo;the
+best of the realm think it honest to use&rdquo; he &ldquo;ought not to suppose
+it vile for him to write.&rdquo; It is a Platonic dialogue between Toxophilus
+and Philologus, and nowadays its chief interest lies in its
+incidental remarks. It may probably claim to have been the
+model for Izaak Walton&rsquo;s <i>Compleat Angler.</i></p>
+
+<p>From 1541, or earlier, Ascham acted as letter-writer to the
+university and also to his college. Perhaps the best specimen
+of his skill was the letter written to the protector Somerset in
+1548 on behalf of Sedbergh school, which was attached to St
+John&rsquo;s College by the founder, Dr Lupton, in 1525, and the
+endowment of which had been confiscated under the Chantries
+Act. In 1546 Ascham was elected public orator by the university
+on Sir John Cheke&rsquo;s retirement.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the beginning of the reign of Edward VI., Ascham
+made public profession of Protestant opinions in a disputation
+on the doctrine of the Mass, begun in his own college and then
+removed for greater publicity to the public schools of the
+university, where it was stopped by the vice-chancellor. Thereon
+Ascham wrote a letter of complaint to Sir William Cecil. This
+stood him in good stead. In January 1548, Grindal, the princess
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s tutor, died. Ascham had already corresponded with
+the princess, and in one of his letters says that he returns her
+pen which he has mended. Through Cecil and at the princess&rsquo;s
+own wish he was selected as her tutor against another candidate
+pressed by Admiral Seymour and Queen Katherine. Ascham
+taught Elizabeth&mdash;then sixteen years old&mdash;for two years, chiefly
+at Cheshunt. In a letter to Sturm, the Strassburg schoolmaster,
+he praises her &ldquo;beauty, stature, wisdom and industry. She
+talks French and Italian as well as English: she has often talked
+to me readily and well in Latin and moderately so in Greek.
+When she writes Greek and Latin nothing is more beautiful than
+her handwriting ... she read with me almost all Cicero and
+great part of Titus Livius: for she drew all her knowledge of
+Latin from those two authors. She used to give the morning
+to the Greek Testament and afterwards read select orations of
+Isocrates and the tragedies of Sophocles. To these I added
+St Cyprian and Melanchthon&rsquo;s Commonplaces.&rdquo; In 1550 Ascham
+quarrelled with Elizabeth&rsquo;s steward and returned to Cambridge.
+Cheke then procured him the secretaryship to Sir Richard
+Morrison (Moryson), appointed ambassador to Charles V. It
+was on his way to join Morrison that he paid his celebrated
+morning call on Lady Jane Grey at Bradgate, where he found
+her reading Plato&rsquo;s <i>Phaedo</i>, while every one else was out hunting.</p>
+
+<p>The embassy went to Louvain, where he found the university
+very inferior to Cambridge, then to Innsbruck and Venice.
+Ascham read Greek with the ambassador four or five days a week.
+His letters during the embassy, which was recalled on Mary&rsquo;s
+accession, were published in English in 1553, as a &ldquo;Report&rdquo;
+on Germany. Through Bishop Gardiner he was appointed Latin
+secretary to Queen Mary with a pension of Ł20 a year. His
+Protestantism he must have quietly sunk, though he told Sturm
+that &ldquo;some endeavoured to hinder the flow of Gardiner&rsquo;s
+benevolence on account of his religion.&rdquo; Probably his never
+having been in orders tended to his safety. On the 1st of June
+1554 he married Margaret Howe, whom he described as niece of
+Sir R. (? J., certainly not, as has been said, Henry) Wallop. By
+her he had two sons. From his frequent complaints of his
+poverty then and later, he seems to have lived beyond his income,
+though, like most courtiers, he obtained divers lucrative leases
+of ecclesiastical and crown property. In 1555 he resumed his
+studies with Princess Elizabeth, reading in Greek the orations of
+Aeschines and Demosthenes&rsquo; <i>De Corona</i>. Soon after Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+accession, on the 5th of October 1559, he was given, though a
+layman, the canonry and prebend of Wetwang in York minster.
+In 1563 he began the work which has made him famous,
+<i>The Scholemaster</i>. The occasion of it was, he tells us (though
+he is perhaps merely imitating Boccaccio), that during the
+&ldquo;great plague&rdquo; at London in 1563 the court was at Windsor,
+and there on the 10th of December he was dining with Sir
+William Cecil, secretary of state, and other ministers. Cecil
+said he had &ldquo;strange news; that divers scholars of Eaton be
+run away from the schole for fear of beating&rdquo;; and expressed
+his wish that &ldquo;more discretion was used by schoolmasters in
+correction than commonly is.&rdquo; A debate took place, the party
+being pretty evenly divided between floggers and anti-floggers,
+with Ascham as the champion of the latter. Afterwards Sir
+Richard Sackville, the treasurer, came up to Ascham and told
+him that &ldquo;a fond schoolmaster&rdquo; had, by his brutality, made him
+hate learning, much to his loss, and as he had now a young son,
+whom he wished to be learned, he offered, if Ascham would name
+a tutor, to pay for the education of their respective sons under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span>
+Ascham&rsquo;s orders, and invited Ascham to write a treatise on &ldquo;the
+right order of teaching.&rdquo; <i>The Scholemaster</i> was the result. It
+is not, as might be supposed, a general treatise on educational
+method, but &ldquo;a plaine and perfite way of teachyng children to
+understand, write and speake in Latin tong&rdquo;; and it was not
+intended for schools, but &ldquo;specially prepared for the private
+brynging up of youth in gentlemen and noblemens houses.&rdquo;
+The perfect way simply consisted in &ldquo;the double translation of
+a model book&rdquo;; the book recommended by this professional
+letter-writer being &ldquo;Sturmius&rsquo; <i>Select Letters of Cicero</i>.&rdquo; As a
+method of learning a language by a single pupil, this method
+might be useful; as a method of education in school nothing
+more deadening could be conceived. The method itself seems
+to have been taken from Cicero. Nor was the famous plea for
+the substitution of gentleness and persuasion for coercion and
+flogging in schools, which has been one of the main attractions
+of the book, novel. It was being practised and preached at that
+very time by Christopher Jonson (<i>c</i>. 1536-1597) at Winchester;
+it had been enforced at length by Wolsey in his statutes for his
+Ipswich College in 1528, following Robert Sherborne, bishop
+of Chichester, in founding Rolleston school; and had been repeatedly
+urged by Erasmus and others, to say nothing of William
+of Wykeham himself in the statutes of Winchester College in
+1400. But Ascham&rsquo;s was the first definite demonstration in
+favour of humanity in the vulgar tongue and in an easy style
+by a well-known &ldquo;educationist,&rdquo; though not one who had any
+actual experience as a schoolmaster. What largely contributed
+to its fame was its picture of Lady Jane Grey, whose love of
+learning was due to her finding her tutor a refuge from pinching,
+ear-boxing and bullying parents; some exceedingly good
+criticisms of various authors, and a spirited defence of English
+as a vehicle of thought and literature, of which it was itself an
+excellent example. The book was not published till after
+Ascham&rsquo;s death, which took place on the 23rd of December
+1568, owing to a chill caught by sitting up all night to finish a
+New Year&rsquo;s poem to the queen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His letters were collected and published in 1576, and went through
+several editions, the latest at Nuremberg in 1611; they were re-edited
+by William Elstob in 1703. His English works were edited
+by James Bennett with a life by Dr Johnson in 1771, reprinted in
+8vo in 1815. Dr Giles in 1864-1865 published in 4 vols. select letters
+with the <i>Toxophilus</i> and <i>Scholemaster</i> and the life by Edward Grant.
+<i>The Scholemaster</i> was reprinted in 1571 and 1589. It was edited
+by the Rev. J. Upton in 1711 and in 1743, by Prof. J.E.B. Mayor
+in 1863, and by Prof. Edward Arber in 1870. The <i>Toxophilus</i> was
+republished in 1571, 1589 and 1788, and by Prof. Edward Arber in
+1868 and 1902.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCHERSLEBEN,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Saxony, 36 m. by rail N.W. from Halle, and at the junction
+of lines to Cothen and Nienhagen. Pop. (1900) 27,245; (1905)
+27,876. It contains one Roman Catholic and four Protestant
+churches, a synagogue, a fine town-hall dating from the 16th
+century, and several schools. The discovery of coal in the
+neighbourhood stimulated and altered its industries. In addition
+to the manufacture of woollen wares, for which it has long been
+known, there is now extensive production of vinegar, paraffin,
+potash and especially beetroot-sugar; while the surrounding
+district, which was formerly devoted in great part to market-gardening,
+is now turned almost entirely into beetroot fields.
+There are also iron, zinc and chemical manufactures, and the
+cultivation of agricultural seeds is carried on. In the neighbourhood
+are brine springs and a spa (Wilhelmsbad). Aschersleben
+was probably founded in the 11th century by Count Esico of
+Ballenstedt, the ancestor of the house of Anhalt, whose grandson,
+Otto, called himself count of Ascania and Aschersleben, deriving
+the former part of the title from his castle in the neighbourhood
+of the town. On the death of Otto III. (1315) Aschersleben
+passed into the hands of the bishop of Halberstadt, and at the
+peace of 1648 was, with the bishopric, united to Brandenburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCIANO,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a town of Tuscany, in the province of Siena, 19 m.
+S.E. of the town of Siena by rail. Pop. (1901) 7618. It is
+surrounded by walls built by the Sienese in 1351, and has some
+14th-century churches with paintings of the same period. Six
+miles to the south is the large Benedictine monastery of Monte
+Oliveto Maggiore, founded in 1320, famous for the frescoes by
+Luca Signorelli (1497-1498) and Antonio Bazzi, called Sodoma
+(1505), in the cloister, illustrating scenes from the legend of St
+Benedict; the latter master&rsquo;s work is perhaps nowhere better
+represented than here. The church contains fine inlaid choir
+stalls by Fra Giovanni da Verona. The buildings, which are
+mostly of red brick, are conspicuous against the gray clayey and
+sandy soil. The monastery is described by Aeneas Sylvius
+Piccolomini (Pope Pius II.) in his <i>Commentaria</i>. Remains of
+Roman baths, with a fine mosaic pavement, were found within
+the town in 1898 (G. Pellegrini in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1899, 6).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCITANS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Ascitae</span>; from <span class="grk" title="askos">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, the Greek for a wine-skin),
+a peculiar sect of 2nd-century Christians (Montanists), who
+introduced the practice of dancing round a wine-skin at their
+meetings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCITES,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="askitaes">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> dropsical, from <span class="grk" title="askosaskos">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> <i>sc</i>.
+<span class="grk" title="nosos">&#957;&#972;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span> disease), the term in medicine applied to an effusion
+of non-inflammatory fluid within the peritoneum. It is not a
+disease in itself, but is one of the manifestations of disease
+elsewhere&mdash;usually in the kidneys, heart, or in connexion with
+the liver (portal obstruction). Portal obstruction is the
+commonest cause of well-marked ascites. It is produced by
+(1) diseases within the liver, as cirrhosis (usually alcoholic) and
+cancer; (2) diseases outside the liver, as cancer of stomach,
+duodenum or pancreas, causing pressure on the portal vein,
+or enlarged glands in the fissure of the liver producing the same
+effect. Ascites is one of the late symptoms in the disease, and
+precedes dropsy of the leg, which may come on later, due to
+pressure on the large veins in the abdominal cavity by the
+ascitic fluid. In ascites due to heart disease, the dropsy of the
+feet and legs precedes the ascites, and there will be a history of
+palpitation, shortness of breath, and perhaps cough. In the
+ascites of kidney troubles there will be a history of general
+oedema&mdash;puffiness of face and eyes on rising in the morning probably
+having attracted the attention of the patient or his friends
+previously. Other less common causes of ascites are chronic
+peritonitis, either tuberculous in the young, or due to cancer in
+the aged, and more rarely still pernicious anaemia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCLEPIADES,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> Greek physician, was born at Prusa in Bithynia
+in 124 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and flourished at Rome in the end of the 2nd century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> He travelled much when young, and seems at first to have
+settled at Rome as a rhetorician. In that profession he did not
+succeed, but he acquired great reputation as a physician. He
+founded his medical practice on a modification of the atomic or
+corpuscular theory, according to which disease results from an
+irregular or inharmonious motion of the corpuscles of the body.
+His remedies were, therefore, directed to the restoration of
+harmony, and he trusted much to changes of diet, accompanied
+by friction, bathing and exercise, though he also employed
+emetics and bleeding. He recommended the use of wine, and
+in every way strove to render himself as agreeable as possible
+to his patients. His pupils were very numerous, and the school
+formed by them was called the Methodical. Asclepiades died
+at an advanced age.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCLEPIADES,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> of Samos, epigrammatist and lyric poet, friend
+of Theocritus, flourished about 270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was the earliest
+and most important of the convivial and erotic epigrammatists.
+Only a few of his compositions are actual &ldquo;inscriptions&rdquo;;
+others sing the praises of the poets whom he specially
+admired, but the majority of them are love-songs. It is doubtful
+whether he is the author of all the epigrams (some 40 in number)
+which bear his name in the Greek Anthology. He possibly gave
+his name to the Asclepiadean metre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCLEPIODOTUS, G<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>reek military writer, flourished in the
+1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Nothing is known of him except that he was
+a pupil of Poseidonius the Stoic (d. 51 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). He is the supposed
+author of a treatise on Graeco-Macedonian tactics (<span class="grk" title="Taktika
+Kephalaia">&#932;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8048; &#922;&#949;&#966;&#940;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#945;</span>), which, however, is probably not his own work, but
+the skeleton outline of the lectures delivered by his master, who
+is known to have written a work on the subject.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1820-1907), Italian philologist;
+of Jewish family, was born at Görz at an early age showed a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span>
+marked linguistic talent. In 1854 he published his <i>Studii
+orientali e linguistici</i>, and in 1860 was appointed professor of
+philology at Milan. He made various learned contributions to
+the study of Indo-European and Semitic languages, and also of
+the gipsy language, but his special field was the Italian dialects.
+He founded the <i>Archivio glottologico italiano</i> in 1873, publishing
+in it his <i>Saggi Ladini</i>, and making it in succeeding years the
+great organ of original scholarship on this subject. He was
+universally recognized as the greatest authority on Italian
+linguistics, and his article in the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>
+(9th ed., revised for this edition) became the classic exposition
+in English. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>: <i>Language</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCOLI PICENO<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (anc. <i>Ausculum</i>) a town and episcopal see
+of the Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Ascoli Piceno,
+17 m. W. of Porto d&rsquo; Ascoli (a station on the coast railway, 56 m.
+S.S.E. of Ancona), and 53 m. S. of Ancona direct, situated on
+the S. bank of the Tronto (anc. <i>Truentus</i>) at its confluence with
+the Castellano, 500 ft. above sea-level, and surrounded by lofty
+mountains. Pop. (1901) town, 12,256; commune, 28,608. The
+Porta Romana is a double-arched Roman gate; adjacent are
+remains of the massive ancient city walls, in rectangular blocks
+of stone 2 ft. in height, and remains of still earlier fortifications
+have been found at this point (F. Barnabei in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>,
+1887, 252). The church of S. Gregorio is built into a Roman
+tetrastyle Corinthian temple, two columns of which and the
+<i>cella</i> are still preserved; the site of the Roman theatre can be
+distinguished; and the church and convent of the Annunziata
+(with two fine cloisters and a good fresco by Cola d&rsquo; Amatrice
+in the refectory) are erected upon large Roman substructures
+of concrete, which must have supported some considerable
+building. Higher up is the castle, which now shows no traces of
+fortifications older than medieval; it commands a fine view of
+the town and of the mountains which encircle it. The town
+has many good pre-Renaissance buildings; the picturesque
+colonnaded market-place contains the fine Gothic church of
+S. Francesco and the original Palazzo del Comune, now the
+prefecture (Gothic with Renaissance additions). The cathedral
+is in origin Romanesque,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> but has been much altered, and was
+stored in 1888 by Count Giuseppe Sacconi (1855-1905). The
+frescoes in the dome, of the same date, are by Cesare Mariani.
+The cope presented to the cathedral treasury by Pope Nicholas
+IV. was stolen in 1904, and sold to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, who
+generously returned it to the Italian government, and it was
+then placed for greater safety in the Galleria Corsini at Rome.
+The baptistery still preserves its ancient character; and the
+churches of S. Vittore and SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio are also
+good Romanesque buildings. The fortress of the Malatesta,
+constructed in 1349, has been in the main destroyed; the part
+of it which remains is now a prison. The present Palazzo
+Comunale, a Renaissance edifice, contains a fine museum,
+chiefly remarkable for the contents of prehistoric tombs found
+in the district (including good bronze fibulae, necklaces, amulets,
+&amp;c., often decorated with amber), and a large collection of
+acorn-shaped lead missiles (<i>glandes</i>) used by slingers, belonging
+to the time of the siege of Asculum during the Social War (89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+There is also a picture gallery containing works by local masters,
+Pietro Alamanni, Cola d&rsquo; Amatrice, Carlo Crivelli, &amp;c. The
+bridges across the ravines which defend the town are of considerable
+importance; the Ponte di Porta Cappucina is a very fine
+Roman bridge, with a single arch of 71 ft. span. The Ponte di
+Cecco (so named from Cecco d&rsquo; Ascoli), with two arches, is also
+Roman and belongs to the Via Salaria; the Ponte Maggiore
+and the Ponte Cartaro are, on the other hand, medieval, though
+the latter perhaps preserves some traces of Roman work. Near
+Ascoli is Castel Trosino, where an extensive Lombard necropolis
+of the 7th century was discovered in 1895; the contents of the
+tombs are now exhibited in the Museo Nazionale delle Terme
+at Rome (<i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1895, 35).</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Asculum was the capital of Picenum, and it
+occupied a strong position in the centre of difficult country.
+It was taken in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Romans, and the Via Salaria was
+no doubt prolonged thus far at this period; the distance from
+Rome is 120 m. It took a prominent part in the Social War
+against Rome, the proconsul Q. Servilius and all the Roman
+citizens within its walls being massacred by the inhabitants
+in 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was captured after a long siege by Pompeius
+Strabo in 89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The leader, Judacilius, committed suicide, the
+principal citizens were put to death, and the rest exiled. The
+Roman general celebrated his triumph on the 25th of December
+of that year. Caesar occupied it, however, as a strong position
+after crossing the Rubicon; and it received a Roman colony,
+perhaps under the triumvirs, and became a place of some importance.
+In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 301 it became the capital of Picenum Suburbicarium.
+In 545 it was taken by Totila, but is spoken of by
+Paulus Diaconus as the chief city of Picenum shortly afterwards.
+From the time of Charlemagne it was under the rule of its
+bishops, who had the title of prince and the right to coin money,
+until 1185, when it became a free republic. It had many struggles
+with Fermo, and in the 15th century came more directly under
+the papal sway.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Persichetti in <i>Romische Mitteilungen</i> (1903), 295 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The
+epithet distinguishes it from Ascoli Satriano (anc. <i>Ausculum</i>),
+which lies 19 m. S. of Foggia by rail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It
+contains a fine polyptych by Carlo Crivelli (1473).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (9 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 76; or <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+3-88), Roman grammarian and historian, was probably a native
+of Patavium (Padua). In his later years he resided at Rome,
+where he died, after having been blind for twelve years, at the
+age of eighty-five. During the reigns of Claudius and Nero he
+compiled for his sons, from various sources&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the Gazette (<i>Acta
+Publica</i>), shorthand reports or &ldquo;skeletons&rdquo; (<i>commentarii</i>) of
+Cicero&rsquo;s unpublished speeches, Tiro&rsquo;s life of Cicero, speeches and
+letters of Cicero&rsquo;s contemporaries, various historical writers, <i>e.g</i>.
+Varro, Atticus, Antias, Tuditanus and Fenestella (a contemporary
+of Livy whom he often criticizes)&mdash;historical commentaries on
+Cicero&rsquo;s speeches, of which only five, viz. <i>in Pisonem</i>, <i>pro Scauro</i>,
+<i>pro Milone</i>, <i>pro Cornelio</i> and <i>in toga Candida</i>, in a very mutilated
+condition, are preserved. In a note upon the speech <i>pro Scauro</i>,
+he speaks of Longus Caecina (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 57) as still living, while his
+words imply that Claudius (d. 54) was not alive. This statement,
+therefore, must have been written between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 54 and 57.
+These valuable notes, written in good Latin, relate chiefly to
+legal, historical and antiquarian matters. A commentary, of
+inferior Latinity and mainly of a grammatical character, on
+Cicero&rsquo;s Verrine orations, is universally regarded as spurious.
+Both works were found by Poggio in a MS. at St Gallen in 1416.
+This MS. is lost, but three transcripts were made by Poggio,
+Zomini (Sozomenus) of Pistoia and Bartolommeo da Montpulciano.
+That of Poggio is now at Madrid (Matritensis x. 81),
+and that of Zomini is in the Forteguerri library at Pistoia (No. 37).
+A copy of Bartolommeo&rsquo;s transcript exists in Florence (Laur.
+liv. 5). The later MSS. are derived from Poggio&rsquo;s copy. Other
+works attributed to Asconius were: a life of Sallust, a defence
+of Virgil against his detractors, and a treatise (perhaps a
+symposium in imitation of Plato) on health and long life.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions by Kiessling-Schöll (1875), and A.C. Clark (Oxford,
+1906), which contains a previously unpublished collation of Poggio&rsquo;s
+transcript. See also Madvig, <i>De Asconio Pediano</i> (1828).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCOT<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division
+of Berkshire, England, famous for its race-meetings. Pop. of
+parish of Ascot Heath (1901), 1927. The station on the Southwestern
+railway, 29 m. W.S.W. of London, is called Ascot and
+Sunninghill; the second name belonging to an adjacent township
+with a population (civil parish) of 4719. The race-course is
+on Ascot Heath, and was laid out by order of Queen Anne in
+1711, and on the 11th of August in that year the first meeting
+was held and attended by the queen. The course is almost
+exactly 2 m. in circumference, and the meetings are held in June.
+The principal race is that for the Ascot Gold Cup, instituted in
+1807. The meeting is one of the most fashionable in England,
+and is commonly attended by members of the royal family.
+The royal procession, for which the meeting is peculiarly famous,
+was initiated by George IV. in 1820.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Herod, <i>Royal Ascot</i> (London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASCUS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="askos">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, a bag), a botanical term for the membranous
+sacs containing the reproductive spores in certain
+lichens and fungi. Various compounds of the word are used,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>ascophorous</i>, producing asci; <i>ascospore</i>, the spore (or sporule)
+developed in the ascus; <i>ascogonium</i>, the organ producing it, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASELLI<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Asellius</span>, or <span class="sc">Asellio</span>], <b>GASPARO</b> (1581-1626),
+Italian physician, was born at Cremona about 1581, became
+professor of anatomy and surgery at Pavia, and practised at
+Milan, where he died in 1626. To him is due the discovery of
+the lacteal vessels, published in <i>De Lactibus</i> (Milan, 1627).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASGILL, JOHN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1659-1738), English writer, was born at
+Hanley Castle, in Worcestershire, in 1659. He was bred to the
+law, and gained considerable reputation in his profession,
+increased by two pamphlets&mdash;the first (1696) advocating the
+establishment of some currency other than the usual gold and
+silver, the second (1698) on a registry for titles of lands. In
+1699, when a commission was appointed to settle disputed claims
+in Ireland, he set out for that country, attracted by the hopes
+of practice. Before leaving London he put in the hands of the
+printer a tract, entitled <i>An Argument proving that, according to
+the Covenant of Eternal Life revealed in the Scripture, Man may
+be translated from hence into that Eternal Life without passing
+through Death</i> (1700). Coleridge has highly praised the &ldquo;genuine
+Saxon English,&rdquo; the &ldquo;irony&rdquo; and &ldquo;humour&rdquo; of this
+extraordinary pamphlet, which interpreted the relation between God
+and man by the technical rules of law, and insisted that, Christ
+having wiped out Adam&rsquo;s sin, the penalty of death must consequently
+be illegal for those who claim exemption. How far it
+was meant seriously was doubted at the time, and may be
+doubted now. But its fame preceded the author to Ireland,
+and was of material service in securing his professional success,
+so that he amassed money, purchased an estate, and married
+a daughter of the second Lord Kenmare. He was returned both
+to the Irish and English parliaments, but was expelled from
+both on account of his &ldquo;blasphemous&rdquo; pamphlet. He was also
+involved in money difficulties, and litigation about his Irish estate,
+and these circumstances may have had something to do with his
+trouble in parliament. In 1707 he was arrested for debt, and
+the remainder of his life was spent in the Fleet prison, or within
+the rules of the king&rsquo;s bench. He died in 1738. Asgill also
+wrote in 1714-1715 some pamphlets defending the Hanoverian
+succession against the claims of the Pretender.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASH<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span><a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Ger. <i>Esche</i>), a common name (Fr. <i>fréne</i>) given to certain
+trees. The common ash (<i>Fraxinus excelsior</i>) belongs to the
+natural order Oleaceae, the olive family, an order of trees and
+shrubs which includes lilac, privet and jasmine. The Hebrew
+word <i>Oren</i>, translated &ldquo;ash&rdquo; in Isaiah xliv. 14, cannot refer to
+an ash tree, as that is not a native of Palestine, but probably
+refers to the Aleppo pine (<i>Pinus halepensis</i>). The ash is a native
+of Great Britain and the greater part of Europe, and also extends
+to Asia. The tree is distinguished for its height and contour,
+as well as for its graceful foliage. It attains a height of from
+50 to 80 ft., and flowers in March and April, before the leaves
+are developed. The reddish flowers grow in clusters, but are
+not showy. They are naked, that is without sepals or petals,
+and generally imperfect, wanting either stamens or pistil. The
+large leaves, which are late in appearing, are pinnately compound,
+bearing four to seven pairs of gracefully tapering toothed leaflets
+on a slender stalk. The dry winged fruits, the so-called keys,
+are a characteristic feature and often remain hanging in bunches
+long after the leaves have fallen in autumn. The leaves fall
+early, but the greyish twigs and black buds render the tree
+conspicuous in winter and especially in early spring.</p>
+
+<p>The ash is in Britain next in value to the oak as a timber-tree.
+It requires a good deep loam with gravelly subsoil, and a situation
+naturally sheltered, such as the steep banks of glens, rivers or
+lakes; in cold and wet clay it does not succeed. As the value of
+the timber depends chiefly on its toughness and elasticity, it is
+best grown in masses where the soil is good; the trunk is thus
+drawn up free from large side-branches. The tree is easily
+propagated from seeds; it throws up strong root shoots. The
+ash requires much light, but grows rapidly, and its terminal
+shoots pierce easily through thickets of beech, with which it is
+often associated. Unmixed ash plantations are seldom satisfactory,
+because the foliage does not sufficiently cover the ground;
+but when mixed with beech it grows well, and attains great
+height and girth. Owing to the dense mass of roots which it
+sends out horizontally a little beneath the surface of the ground,
+the ash does much harm to vegetation beneath its shade, and
+is therefore obnoxious as a hedgerow tree. Coppice shoots yield
+excellent hop-poles, crates, hoops, whip-handles, &amp;c. The
+timber is much used for agricultural implements, and by coach-builders
+and wheelwrights.</p>
+
+<p>A variety of the common species, known as var. <i>heterophylla</i>,
+has simple leaves. It occurs wild in woods in Europe and
+England. Another variety of ash (<i>pendula</i>) is met with in which
+the branches are pendulous and weeping. Sometimes this
+variety is grafted on the tall stem of the common ash, so as to
+produce a pleasing effect. It is said that the weeping variety
+was first observed at Gamlingay, in Cambridgeshire. A variety
+(<i>crispa</i>) occurs with curled leaves, and another with warty stems
+and branches, called <i>verrucosa</i>. <i>F. Ornus</i> is the manna ash (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manna</a></span>), a handsome tree with greenish-white flowers and native
+in south Europe. In southern Europe there is a small-leaved
+ash, called <i>Fraxinus parvifolia</i>. <i>F. floribunda</i>, a large tree with
+terminal panicles of white flowers, is a native of the Himalayas.
+In America there are several species&mdash;such as <i>Fraxinus americana</i>,
+the white ash; <i>F. pubescens</i>, the red ash; and <i>F. sambucifolia</i>,
+the black ash.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;mountain ash&rdquo; belongs to a totally different family
+from the common ash. It is called <i>Pyrus Aucuparia</i>, and belongs
+to the natural order Rosaceae, and the tribe <i>Pomeae</i>, which
+includes also apples, pears, &amp;c. Its common name is probably
+due to its resemblance to the true ash, in its smooth grey bark,
+graceful ascending branches, and especially the form of the leaf,
+which is also pinnately compound but smaller than in the true
+ash. Its common name in Scotland is the rowan tree; it is
+well known by its clusters of white blossoms and succulent
+scarlet fruit. The name of poison ash is given to <i>Rhus venenata</i>,
+the North American poison elder or sumach, belonging to the
+Anacardiaceae (Cashew family). The bitter ash of the West
+Indies is <i>Simaruba excelsa</i>, which belongs to the natural order
+Simarubaceae. The Cape ash is <i>Ekebergia capensis</i>, belonging
+to the natural order Meliaceae, a large tree, a native of the Cape
+of Good Hope. The prickly ash, <i>Xanthoxylon Clava-Herculis</i>
+(nat. ord. Xanthoxyleae), a native of the south-eastern United
+States, is a small tree, the trunk of which is studded with corky
+tubercles, while the branches are armed with stout, sharp,
+brown prickles.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The homonym, ash or (pl.) ashes, the residue (of a body, &amp;c.)
+after burning, is a common Teutonic word, Ger. <i>Asche</i>, connected
+with the root found in Lat. <i>ardere</i>, to burn.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">A&lsquo;SH&#256;<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Maim&#363;n ibn Qais</span>], Arabian poet, was born before
+Mahomet, and lived long enough to accept the mission of the
+prophet. He was born in Manfuha, a village of al-Yem&#257;ma in
+the centre of Arabia, and became a wandering singer, passing
+through all Arabia from Hadramut in the south to al-H&#299;ra in
+the north, and naturally frequenting the annual fair at Okaz
+(Uk&#257;z). His love poems are devoted to the praise of Huraira,
+a black female slave. Even before the time of Mahomet he is
+said to have believed in the resurrection and last judgment,
+and to have been a monotheist. These beliefs may have been
+due to his intercourse with the bishop of Nejran (Najr&#257;n) and the
+&lsquo;Ib&#257;dites (Christians) of al-H&#299;ra. His poems were praised for
+their descriptions of the wild ass, for the praise of wine, for their
+skill in praise and satire, and for the varieties of metre employed.
+His best-known poem is that in praise of Mahomet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His poems have been collected from various sources in L. Cheikho&rsquo;s
+<i>Les Počtes arabes chrétiens</i> (Jesuit press, Beirut, 1890), pp. 357-399.
+His eulogy of Mahomet has been edited by H. Thorbecke, <i>Al A&#353;Sa&rsquo;s
+Lobgedicht auf Muhammad</i> (Leipzig, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHANTI,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a British possession in West Africa, bounded W.
+by the (French) Ivory Coast colony, N. by the British
+Protectorate known as Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (see
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span>
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span>), and E. by the river Volta (which separates it from
+the German colony of Togoland); the southern frontier is
+conterminous with the northern frontier of the (British) Gold
+Coast colony. It forms an irregular oblong, with a triangular
+projection (the country of the Adansi) southward. It has an
+area of 23,000 sq. m., and a population estimated (1907) at
+500,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Features; Flora and Fauna.</i>&mdash;A great part of Ashanti
+is covered with primeval and almost impenetrable forest.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+Many of the trees, chiefly silk-cotton and hardwood, attain
+splendid proportions, the bombax reaching a height of over 200
+ft., but the monotony is oppressive, and is seldom relieved by
+the sight of flowers, birds or beasts. Ferns are abundant, and
+the mimosa rises to heights of from 30 to 60 ft. All over the
+forest spread lianas, or monkey-ropes, their usual position being
+that of immense festoons hanging from tree to tree. To these
+lianas (species of which yield one kind of the rubber of commerce)
+is due largely the weird aspect of the forest. The country round
+the towns, however, is cultivated with care, the fields yielding
+in abundance grain, yams, vegetables and fruits. In the north-eastern
+districts the primeval forest gives place to park-like
+country, consisting of plains covered with high coarse grass,
+and dotted with occasional baobabs, as well as with wild plum,
+shea-butter, dwarf date, fan palms, and other small trees. Among
+the wild animals are the elephant (comparatively rare), the
+leopard, varieties of antelope, many kinds of monkeys and
+numerous venomous snakes. Crocodiles and two kinds of
+hippopotami, the ordinary and a pygmy variety, are found in
+the rivers. Of birds, parrots are the most characteristic. Insect
+life is abundant.</p>
+
+<p>About 25 m. south-east of Kumasi is Lake Busumchwi, the
+sacred lake of the Ashanti. It is surrounded by forest-clad hills
+some 800 ft. high, is nearly circular and has a maximum diameter
+of 6 m. The Black Volta, and lower down the Volta (<i>q.v.</i>), form
+the northern frontier, and various tributaries of the Volta,
+running generally in a northerly direction, traverse the eastern
+portion of the country. In the central parts are the upper
+courses of the Ofin and of some tributaries of the Prah. Farther
+west are the Tano and Bia rivers, which empty their waters into
+the Assini lagoon. In their course through Ashanti, the rivers,
+apart from the Volta, are navigable by canoes only. The
+elevation of the country is generally below 2000 ft., but it rises
+towards the north.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate, although unsuited to the prolonged
+residence of Europeans, is less unhealthy than that of the coast
+towns of West Africa. The water-supply is good and abundant.
+The rainy season lasts from the end of May until October;
+storms are frequent and violent. The mean temperature at
+Kumasi is 76° F., the mean annual rainfall 40 ins.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;The most probable tradition represents the
+Ashanti as deriving their origin from bands of fugitives, who in
+the 16th or 17th century were driven before the Moslem tribes
+migrating southward from the countries on the Niger and
+Senegal. Having obtained possession of a region of impenetrable
+forest, they defended themselves with a valour which, becoming
+part of their national character, raised them to the rank of a
+powerful and conquering nation. They are of the pure negro
+type, and are supposed to be originally of the same race as the
+Fanti, nearer the coast, and speak the same language. The
+separation of Fanti and Ashanti has been ascribed to a famine
+which drove the former south, and led them to live on <i>fan</i>, or
+herbs, while the latter subsisted on <i>san</i>, or Indian corn, &amp;c.,
+whence the names Fanti and Santi. The Ashanti are divided
+into a large number of tribes, of whom a dozen may be
+distinguished, namely, the Bekwai, Adansi, Juabin, Kokofu,
+Kumasi, Mampon, Nsuta, Nkwanta, Dadiassi, Daniassi, Ofinsu
+and Adjisu. Each tribe has its own king, but from the beginning
+of the 18th century the king of Kumasi was recognized as king
+paramount, and was spoken of as the king of Ashanti. As
+paramount king he succeeded to the &ldquo;golden stool,&rdquo; the symbol
+of authority among the Ashanti. After the deposition of
+Prempeh (1896) no king of Kumasi was chosen; Prempeh
+himself was never &ldquo;enstooled.&rdquo; The government of Ashanti
+was formerly a mixture of monarchy and military aristocracy.
+The confederate tribes were originally organized for purposes of
+war into six great divisions or clans, this organization developing
+into the main social fabric of the state. The chiefs of the clans,
+with a few sub-chiefs having hereditary rights, formed the King&rsquo;s
+Council, and the king, unless of exceptionally strong character,
+often exercised less power than the council of chiefs, each of
+whom kept his little court, making a profuse display of barbaric
+pomp. Land is held in common by the tribes, lands unallotted
+being attached to the office of head chief or king and called
+&ldquo;stool lands.&rdquo; Polygamy is practised by all who can afford it.
+It is stated by the early chroniclers that the king of Ashanti was
+bound to maintain the &ldquo;fetish&rdquo; number of 3333 wives; many
+of these, however, were employed in menial services. The
+crown descended to the king&rsquo;s brother, or his sister&rsquo;s son, not to
+his own offspring. The queen mother exercised considerable
+authority in the state, but the king&rsquo;s wives had no power. The
+system of human sacrifices, practised among the Ashanti until
+the closing years of the 19th century, was founded on a sentiment
+of piety towards parents and other connexions&mdash;the chiefs
+believing that the rank of their dead relatives in the future
+world would be measured by the number of attendants sent after
+them. There were two periods, called the great Adai and little
+Adai, at which human victims, chiefly prisoners of war or
+condemned criminals, were immolated. There is reason to
+believe that the extent of this practice was not so great as was
+currently reported.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few Mahommedans in Ashanti, most of them
+traders from other countries, and the Basel and Wesleyan
+missionaries have obtained some converts to Christianity; but
+the great bulk of the people are spirit-worshippers. Unlike many
+West African races, the Ashanti in general show a repugnance to
+the doctrines of Islam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Towns and Trade.</i>&mdash;Besides the capital, Kumasi (<i>q.v.</i>),
+with a population of some 6000, there are few important towns in
+Ashanti. Obuassi, in the south-west, is the centre of the gold-mining
+industry. Wam is on the western border, Nkoranza,
+Atabubu and Kintampo in the north. Kintampo is a town of
+some size and is about 130 m. north-east of Kumasi. It is the
+meeting-place of traders from the Niger countries and from
+the coast. Formerly one of the great slave and ivory marts
+of West Africa, it is now a centre of the kola-nut commerce
+and a depot for government stores. The Ashanti are skilful in
+several species of manufacture, particularly in weaving cotton.
+Their pottery and works in gold also show considerable skill.
+A large quantity of silver-plate and goldsmiths&rsquo; work of great
+value and considerable artistic elaboration was found in 1874
+in the king&rsquo;s palace at Kumasi, not the least remarkable
+objects being masks of beaten gold. The influence of Moorish
+art is perceptible.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetable products do not differ greatly from those found
+on the Gold Coast; the most important commercially is the
+rubber tree (<i>Funtumia elastica</i>). The nut of the kola tree
+is in great demand, and since 1905 many cocoa plantations have been
+established, especially in the eastern districts. Tobacco is
+cultivated in the northern regions. Gum copal is exported.
+Part of the trade of Ashanti had been diverted to the French port
+of Assini in consequence of the wars waged between England and
+the Ashanti, but on the suppression of the revolt of 1900 measures
+were taken to improve trade between Kumasi and Cape Coast.
+Kumasi is the distributing centre for the whole of Ashanti and
+the hinterland. Gold exists in the western districts of the
+country, and several companies were formed to work the mines
+in the period 1895-1901. Most of the gold exported from the
+Gold Coast in 1902 and following years came from the Obuassi
+mines. The gold output from Ashanti amounted in 1905 to
+68,259 oz., valued at Ł254,790. The railway to Kumasi from
+Sekondi, which was completed in 1903, passes through the
+auriferous region. As far as the trade goes through British
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span>
+territory southward, the figures are included in those of the Gold
+Coast; but Ashanti does also a considerable trade with its
+French and German neighbours, and northwards with the Niger
+countries. Its revenue and expenditure are included in those of
+the Gold Coast. Revenue is obtained principally from caravan
+taxes, liquor licences, rents from government land and
+contributions from the gold-mining companies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The railway to Kumasi, cut through one
+of the densest forest regions, is described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span>.
+The usual means of communication is by tortuous paths through
+the forest, too narrow to admit any wheeled vehicle. A wide
+road, 141 m. long, has been cut through the bush from Cape
+Coast to Kumasi, and from Kumasi ancient caravan routes go
+to the chief trading centres farther inland. Where rivers and
+swamps have to be crossed, ferries are maintained. A favourite
+mode of travelling in the bush is in a palanquin borne on the
+heads of four carriers. Telegraph lines connect Kumasi with the
+coast towns and with the towns in the Northern Territories.
+There is a well-organized postal service.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Ashanti first came under the notice of Europeans
+early in the 18th century, through their successful wars with the
+kingdoms bordering the maritime territory. Osai Tutu
+may be considered as the real founder of the Ashanti
+<span class="sidenote">Early relations with the British.</span>
+power. He either built or greatly extended Kumasi;
+he subdued the neighbouring state of Denkera (1719)
+and the Mahommedan countries of Gaman (Jaman) and Banna,
+and extended the empire by conquests both on the east and west.
+At last he was defeated and slain (1731); but his successor, Osai
+Apoko, made further acquisitions towards the coast. In 1800,
+Osai Tutu Quamina, an enterprising and ambitious man, who
+appears early to have formed the desire of opening a communication
+with white nations, became king. About 1807, two chiefs
+of the Assin, whom he had defeated in battle, sought refuge
+among the Fanti, the ruling people on the coast. On the refusal
+of the Fanti to deliver up the fugitives, Osai Tutu invaded their
+country, defeated them and drove them towards the sea. The
+Ashanti reached the coast near Anamabo, where there was then
+a British fort. The governor exhorted the townsmen to come
+to terms and offered to mediate; but they resolved to abide
+the contest. The result was the destruction of the town, and the
+slaughter of 8000 of the inhabitants. The Ashanti, who lost over
+2000 men, failed, however, to storm the English fort, though the
+garrison was reduced from twenty-four to eight men. A truce
+was agreed to, and the king refusing to treat except with the
+governor of Cape Coast, Colonel G. Torrane (governor 1805-1807)
+repaired to Anamabo, where he was received with great pomp.
+Torrane determined to surrender the fugitive Assin chiefs, but
+one succeeded in escaping; the other, on being given up, was
+put to death by the Ashanti. Torrane concluded an agreement
+with the Ashanti, acknowledging their conquest of Fantiland, and
+delivering up to them half the fugitives in Anamabo fort (most
+of the remainder were sold by Torrane and the members of his
+council as slaves). The governor also agreed to pay rent to the
+Ashanti for Anamabo fort and Cape Coast castle. The character
+of this man, who died on the coast in 1808, is indicated by Osai
+Tutu&rsquo;s eulogy of him. &ldquo;From the hour Governor Torrane
+delivered up Tchibbu [one of the Assin fugitives] I took the
+English for my friends,&rdquo; said the king of Ashanti, &ldquo;because I
+saw their object was trade only and they did not care for the
+people. Torrane was a man of sense and he pleased me
+much.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of repeated invasions of Fantiland by the
+Ashanti, the British in 1817 sent Frederick James, commandant
+of Accra fort, T.E. Bowdich and W. Hutchinson on a mission to
+Kumasi. After one or two harmonious interviews, the king
+advanced a claim for the payment of the quit rents for Anamabo
+fort and Cape Coast castle, rents the major part of which the
+Fanti had induced the British to pay to them, leaving only a
+nominal sum for transmission to Kumasi. Mr James, the head
+of the mission, volunteered no satisfactory explanation, whereupon
+the king broke into uncontrollable rage, calling the emissaries
+cheats and liars. Bowdich and Hutchinson, thinking
+that British interests and the safety of the mission were endangered,
+took the negotiation into their own hands. Mr James
+was recalled, and a treaty was concluded, by which the king&rsquo;s
+demands were satisfied, and the right of the British to control
+the natives in the coast towns recognized.</p>
+
+<p>The government at home, though they demurred somewhat
+to the course that had been pursued, saw the wisdom of cultivating
+intercourse with this powerful African kingdom. They sent
+out, therefore, to Kumasi, as consul, Mr Joseph Dupuis, formerly
+consul at Mogador, who arrived at Cape Coast in January 1819.
+By that time fresh difficulties had arisen between the coast
+natives, who were supported by the British, and the Ashanti.
+Dupuis set out on the 9th of February 1820, and on the 28th
+arrived at Kumasi. After several meetings with the king, a
+treaty was drawn up, which acknowledged the sovereignty of
+Ashanti over the territory of the Fanti, and left the natives of
+Cape Coast to the mercy of their enemies. Mr J. Hope Smith,
+the governor of Cape Coast, disowned the treaty, as betraying
+the interests of the natives under British protection. Mr Hope
+Smith was supported by the government in London, which in
+<span class="sidenote">Sir Charles M&lsquo;Carthy&rsquo;s fate.</span>
+1821 assumed direct control of the British settlements.
+Sir Charles M&lsquo;Carthy, the first governor appointed by
+the crown, espoused the cause of the Fanti, but was
+defeated in battle by the Ashanti, the 21st of January 1824,
+at a place beyond the Prah called Essamako. The Ashanti
+had 10,000 men to Sir Charles&rsquo;s 500. Sir Charles and eight other
+Europeans were killed. The skull of the governor was afterwards
+used at Kumasi as a royal drinking-cup. It was asserted that
+Sir Charles lost the battle through his ordnance-keeper bringing
+up kegs filled with vermicelli instead of ammunition. The fact is
+that the mistake, if made, only hastened the inevitable
+catastrophe. On the very day of this defeat Osai Tutu Quamina
+died and was succeeded by Osai Okoto. A state of chronic
+warfare ensued, until the Ashanti sustained a signal defeat at
+Dodowah on the 7th of August 1826. From this time the power
+of the Ashanti over the coast tribes waned, and in 1831 the king
+was obliged to purchase peace from Mr George Maclean, then
+administrator of the Gold Coast, at the price of 600 oz. of
+gold, and to send his son as a hostage to Cape Coast. The
+payment of ground rent for the forts held by the British had
+ceased after the battle of Dodowah, and by the treaty concluded
+by Maclean the river Prah was fixed as the boundary of the
+Ashanti kingdom, all the tribes south of it being under British
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>The king (Kwaka Dua I.), who had succeeded Osai Okoto in
+1838, was a peace-loving monarch who encouraged trade, but
+in 1852 the Ashanti tried to reassert authority over the Fanti
+in the Gold Coast protectorate, and in 1863 a war was caused by
+the refusal of the king&rsquo;s demand for the surrender by the British
+of a fugitive chief and a runaway slave-boy. The Ashanti were
+victorious in two battles and retired unmolested. The governor,
+Mr Richard Pine, urged the advisability of an advance on
+Kumasi, but this the British government would not allow. No
+further fighting followed, but the prestige of the Ashanti greatly
+increased. &ldquo;The white men&rdquo; (said Kwaka Dua) &ldquo;bring many
+cannon to the bush, but the bush is stronger than the cannon.&rdquo;
+In April 1867 Kwaka Dua died, and after an interval of civil
+war was succeeded by Kofi Karikari, who on being enstooled
+swore, &ldquo;My business shall be war.&rdquo; Thereafter preparations
+were made throughout Ashanti to attack the Fanti tribes, and
+the result was the war of 1873-74.</p>
+
+<p>Two distinct events were the immediate cause of the war.
+The principal was the transference of Elmina fort from the
+Dutch to the British, which took place on the 2nd of
+April 1872. The Elmina were regarded by the Ashanti
+<span class="sidenote">The war of 1873-1874.</span>
+as their subjects, and the king of Ashanti held the
+Elmina &ldquo;custom-note,&rdquo;&mdash;that is, he received from
+the Dutch an annual payment, in its origin a ground rent for
+the fort, but looked upon by the Dutch as a present for trade
+purposes. The Ashanti greatly resented the occupation by
+Britain of what they considered Ashanti territory. Another
+but minor cause of the war was the holding in captivity by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span>
+Ashanti of four Europeans. An Ashanti force invaded Krepi, a
+territory beyond the Volta, and in June 1869 captured Mr Fritz
+A. Ramseyer, his wife and infant son (the child died of privation
+shortly afterwards), and Mr J. Kühne, members of the Basel
+mission. Monsieur M.J. Bonnat, a French trader, was also
+captured at another place. The captives were taken to Kumasi.
+Negotiations for their release were begun, but the Europeans
+were still prisoners when the sale of Elmina occurred. The
+Ashanti delayed war until their preparations were complete,
+whilst the Gold Coast officials appear to have thought the risk of
+hostilities remote. However, on the 22nd of January 1873 an
+Ashanti force crossed the Prah and invaded the British protectorate.
+They defeated the Fanti, stirred up disputes at
+Elmina, and encamped at Mampon near Cape Coast, to the great
+alarm of the inhabitants. Measures were taken for the defence
+of the territory and the punishment of the assailants, which
+culminated in the despatch of Sir Garnet (afterwards Viscount)
+Wolseley as British administrator, Ł800,000 being voted by
+parliament for the expenses of the expedition. On landing
+(October 2) at Cape Coast, Wolseley found the Ashanti, who
+had been decimated by smallpox and fever, preparing to
+return home. He determined, however, to march to Kumasi,
+whilst Captain (afterwards Sir) John Glover, R.N., administrator
+of Lagos, was with a force of native levies to co-operate from
+the east and take the Ashanti in rear. Meanwhile the enemy
+broke up camp, and, although harassed by native levies raised
+by the British, effected an orderly retreat. The Ashanti army
+re-entered Kumasi on the 22nd of December. Wolseley asked
+for the help of white troops, and the 2nd battalion Rifle
+Brigade, the 23rd Fusiliers and 42nd Highlanders were despatched.
+Seeing the preparations made by his enemy, Kofi
+Karikari endeavoured to make peace, and in response to General
+Wolseley&rsquo;s demands the European captives were released
+(January 1874). Sir Garnet determined that peace must be
+signed in Kumasi and continued his advance. On the 20th of
+January the river Prah was crossed by the European troops;
+on the 24th the Adansi hills were reached; on the 31st there was
+severe fighting at Amoaful; on the 1st of February Bekwai was
+captured; and on the evening of the 4th the victorious army
+was in Kumasi, after seven hours&rsquo; fighting. The king, who had
+led his army, fled into the bush when he saw the day was lost.
+As the 42nd Highlanders pushed forward to Kumasi, the town
+was found full of Ashanti soldiers, but not a shot was fired at the
+invaders. Sir Garnet Wolseley sent messengers to the king,
+but Kofi Karikari refused to surrender. As his force was small,
+provisions scarce, and the rainy season setting in, and as he was
+encumbered with many sick and wounded, the British general
+decided to retire. On the 6th, therefore, the homeward march
+was commenced, the city being left behind in flames. In the
+meantime Captain Glover&rsquo;s force had crossed the Prah on the
+15th of January, and the Ashanti opposition weakening after
+the capture of Kumasi, Glover was able to push forward. On
+the 11th of February, Captain (later General) R.W. Sartorius,
+who had been sent ahead with twenty Hausa only, found Kumasi
+still deserted. Captain Sartorius and his twenty men marched
+50 m. through the heart of the enemy&rsquo;s country. On the 12th
+Glover and his force of natives entered the Ashanti capital.
+The news of Glover&rsquo;s approach induced the king, who feared also
+the return of the white troops, to sue for peace. On the 9th of
+February a messenger from Kofi Karikari overtook Sir Garnet,
+who on the 13th at Fomana received the Ashanti envoys. A
+treaty was concluded whereby the king agreed, among other
+conditions, to pay 50,000 oz. of gold, to renounce all claim to
+homage from certain neighbouring kings, and all pretensions of
+supremacy over any part of the former Dutch protectorate, to
+promote freedom of trade, to keep open a road from Kumasi to
+the Prah, and to do his best to check the practice of human
+sacrifice. Besides coloured troops, there were employed in this
+campaign about 2400 Europeans, who suffered severely from
+fever and otherwise, though the mortality among the men was
+slight. Seventy-one per cent of the troops were on the sick
+list, and more than forty officers died&mdash;only six from wounds.
+The success of the expedition was facilitated by the exertions of
+Captain (afterwards General Sir William) Butler and Captain
+(afterwards General W. L.) Dalrymple, who effected diversions
+with very inadequate resources.</p>
+
+<p>One result of the war of 1873-74 was that several states
+dependent on Ashanti declared themselves independent, and
+sought British protection. This was refused, and the
+inaction of the colonial office contributed to the
+<span class="sidenote">A British protectorate established.</span>
+reconsolidation of the Ashanti power.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Shortly after
+the war the Ashanti deposed Kofi Karikari, and
+placed on the golden stool&mdash;the symbol of sovereignty&mdash;his
+brother Mensa. This monarch broke almost every article of
+the Fomana treaty, and even the payment of the indemnity
+was not demanded. (In all, only 4000 oz. of gold, out of the
+50,000 stipulated for, were paid.) Mensa&rsquo;s rule was tyrannous
+and stained with repeated human sacrifices. In 1883 a revolution
+displaced that monarch, who was succeeded by Kwaka Dua II.&mdash;a
+young man who died (June 1884) within a few months of his
+election. In the same month died the ex-king Kofi Karikari,
+and disruption threatened Ashanti. At length, after a desolating
+civil war, Prince Prempeh&mdash;who took the name of Kwaka Dua
+III.&mdash;was chosen king (March 26, 1888), the colonial government
+having been forced to intervene in the dispute owing to the
+troubles it occasioned in the Gold Coast. The election of
+Prempeh took place in the presence and with the sanction of an
+officer of the Gold Coast government. Prempeh defeated his
+enemies, and for a time peace and prosperity returned to Ashanti.
+However in 1893 there was fresh trouble between Ashanti and
+the tribes of the protectorate, and the roads were closed to
+traders by Prempeh&rsquo;s orders. The British government was
+forced to interfere, more especially as the country, by international
+agreement, had been included in the British sphere of
+influence. A mission was despatched to Prempeh, calling upon
+him to fulfil the terms of the 1874 treaty, and further, to accept
+a British protectorate and receive a resident at Kumasi. The
+king declined to treat with the governor of the Gold Coast, and
+despatched informal agents to England, whom the secretary of
+state refused to receive. To the demands of the British mission
+relative to the acceptance of a protectorate and other matters,
+Prempeh made no reply in the three weeks&rsquo; grace allowed, which
+expired on the 31st of October 1895. To enforce the British
+demands, to put an end to the misgovernment and barbarities
+carried on at Kumasi, and to establish law, order and security
+for trade, an expedition was at length decided upon. The force,
+placed under Colonel Sir Francis Scott, consisted of the 2nd West
+Yorkshire regiment, a &ldquo;special service corps,&rdquo; made up of
+detachments from various regiments in the United Kingdom,
+under specially selected officers, the 2nd West India regiment,
+and the Gold Coast and Lagos Hausa. The composition of the
+special service corps was much criticized at the time; but as it
+was not called upon for fighting purposes, no inferences as to its
+efficiency are possible. The details of the expedition were carefully
+organized. Before the arrival of the staff and contingent
+from England (December 1895) the native forces were employed
+in improving the road from Cape Coast to Prahsu (70 m.), and
+in establishing road stations to serve as standing camps for the
+troops. About 12,000 carriers were collected, the load allotted
+to each being 50 &#8468; In addition, a force of native scouts, which
+ultimately reached a total of 860 men, was organized in eighteen
+companies, and partly armed with Snider rifles, to cover the
+advance of the main column, which started on the 27th of
+December, and to improve the road. The king of Bekwai having
+asked for British protection, a small force was pressed forward
+and occupied this native town, about 25 m. from Kumasi, on the
+4th of January 1896. The advance continued, and at Ordahsu
+a mission arrived from King Prempeh offering unconditional
+submission. On the 17th of January Kumasi was occupied, and
+Colonel Sir F. Scott received the king. Effective measures
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span>
+were taken to prevent his escape, and on the 20th Prempeh
+made submission to Mr (afterwards Sir W. E.) Maxwell, the
+<span class="sidenote">Prempeh deposed.</span>
+governor of Cape Coast, in native fashion. After this act
+of public humiliation, the king and the queen mother
+with the principal chiefs were arrested and taken as
+prisoners to Cape Coast, where they were embarked on board
+H.M.S. &ldquo;Racoon&rdquo; for Elmina. The fetish buildings at Bantama
+were burned, and on the 22nd of January Bokro, a village 5 m.
+from Kumasi, and Maheer, the king&rsquo;s summer palace, were
+visited by the native scouts and found deserted. On the same
+day, leaving the Hausa at Kumasi, the expedition began the
+return march of 150 m. to Cape Coast. The complete success
+of the expedition was due to the excellent organization of the
+supply and transport services, while the promptitude with which
+the operations were carried out probably accounts in great
+measure for the absence of resistance. Although no fighting
+occurred, a heavy strain was thrown upon all ranks, and fever
+claimed many victims, among whom was Prince Henry of
+Battenberg, who had volunteered for the post of military
+secretary to Colonel Sir F. Scott.</p>
+
+<p>After the deportation of Prempeh no successor was appointed
+to the throne of Ashanti. A British resident, Captain Donald W.
+Stewart, was installed at Kumasi, and whilst the
+other states of the confederacy retained their king and
+<span class="sidenote">Siege and relief of Kumasi.</span>
+tribal system the affairs of the Kumasi were administered
+by chiefs under British guidance. Mr and Mrs
+Ramseyer (two of the missionaries imprisoned by King Kofi
+Karikari for four and a half years) returned to Kumasi, and
+other missionaries followed. A fort was built in Kumasi and
+garrisoned with Gold Coast constabulary. Though outwardly
+submissive, the Kumasi chiefs were far from reconciled to
+British rule, and in 1900 a serious rebellion broke out. The
+tribes involved were the Kumasi, Adansi and Kokofu; the
+other tribes of the Ashanti confederation remained loyal. The
+rebels were, however, able to command a force reported to
+number 40,000. On the 28th of March, before the rebellion had
+declared itself, the governor of the Gold Coast, Sir F. Hodgson,
+in a public palaver at Kumasi, announced that the Ashanti
+chiefs would have to pay the British government 4000 oz. of
+gold yearly, and he reproached the chiefs with not having
+brought to him the golden stool, which the Kumasi had kept
+hidden since 1896. Three days afterwards the Kumasi warriors
+attacked a party of Hausa sent with the chief object of discovering
+the golden stool. (In the previous January a secret attempt to
+seize the stool had failed.) The Kumasi, who were longing to
+wipe out the dishonour of having let Prempeh be deported
+without fighting, next threatened the fort of Kumasi. Mr
+Ramseyer and the other Basel missionaries, and Sir F. and
+Lady Hodgson, took refuge in the fort, and reinforcements
+were urgently asked for. On the 18th of April 100 Gold Coast
+constabulary arrived. On the 29th the Kumasi attacked in
+force, but were repulsed. The same day a party of 250 Lagos
+constabulary reached Kumasi. They had fought their way up,
+and came in with little ammunition. On the 15th of May Major
+A. Morris arrived from the British territory north of Ashanti,
+also with 250 men. The garrison now numbered 700. The 29
+Europeans in the fort included four women. Outside the fort
+were gathered 3000 native refugees. Famine and disease soon
+began to tell their tale. Sir F. Hodgson sent out a message on
+the 4th of June (it reached the relieving force on the 12th of
+June), saying that they could only hold out to the 11th of June.
+However, it was not till the 23rd of June that the governor and
+all the Europeans save three, together with 600 Hausa of all
+ranks, sallied out of the fort. Avoiding the main road, held by
+the enemy in force, they attacked a weakly held stockade, and
+succeeded in cutting their way through, with a loss of two
+British officers mortally wounded, 39 Hausa killed, and double
+that number wounded or missing. The governor&rsquo;s party reached
+Cape Coast safely on the 10th of July.</p>
+
+<p>A force of 100 Hausa, with three white men (Captain Bishop,
+Mr Ralph and Dr Hay), was left behind in Kumasi fort with
+rations to last three weeks. Meantime a relief expedition had
+been organized at Cape Coast by Colonel James Willcocks. This
+officer reached Cape Coast from Nigeria on the 26th of May.
+The difficulties before him were appalling. Carriers could
+scarcely be obtained, there were no local food supplies, the rainy
+season was at its height, all the roads were deep mire, the bush
+was almost impenetrable, and the enemy were both brave and
+cunning, fighting behind concealed stockades. It was not until
+the 2nd of July that Colonel Willcocks was able to advance to
+Fumsu. On the next day he heard of the escape of the governor
+and of the straits of the garrison left at Kumasi. He determined
+to relieve the fort in time, and on the 9th of July reached Bekwai,
+the king of which place had remained loyal. Making his final
+dispositions, the colonel spread a report that on the 13th he
+would attack Kokofu, east of Bekwai, and this drew off several
+thousands of the enemy from Kumasi. After feinting to attack
+Kokofu, Colonel Willcocks suddenly marched west. There was
+smart fighting on the 14th, and at 4.30 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> on the 15th, after a
+march since daybreak through roads &ldquo;in indescribably bad
+condition,&rdquo; the main rebel stockade was encountered. It was
+carried at the point of the bayonet by the Yoruba troops, who
+proved themselves fully equal to the Hausa. &ldquo;The charge
+could not have been beaten in <i>élan</i> by any soldiers.&rdquo; Kumasi
+was entered the same evening, a bugler of the war-worn garrison
+of the fort sounding the &ldquo;general salute&rdquo; as the relieving
+column came in view. Most of the defenders were too weak to
+stand. Outside the fort nothing was to be seen but burnt-down
+houses and putrid bodies. The relieving force that marched
+into Kumasi consisted of 1000 fighting men (all West Africans),
+with 60 white officers and non-commissioned officers, two
+75-millimetre guns, four seven-pounder guns and six Maxims.</p>
+
+<p>Kumasi relieved, there remained the task of crushing the
+rebellion. Colonel Willcocks&rsquo;s force was increased by Yaos and
+a few Sikhs from Central Africa to a total of 3368 natives, with
+134 British officers and 35 British non-commissioned officers.
+In addition there were Ashanti levies. On the 30th of September
+the Kumasi were completely beaten at Obassa. Thereafter
+many of the rebel chiefs surrendered, and the only two remaining
+in the field were captured on the 28th of December. Thus
+1901 opened with peace restored. The total number of casualties
+during the campaign (including those who died of disease) was
+1007. Nine British officers were killed in action, forty-three
+were wounded, and six died of disease. The commander,
+Colonel Willcocks, was promoted and created a K.C.M.G.</p>
+
+<p>By an order in council, dated the 26th of September 1901,
+Ashanti was formally annexed to the British dominions, and
+given a separate administration under the control of
+the governor of the Gold Coast. A chief commissioner
+<span class="sidenote">Progress under British administration.</span>
+represents the governor in his absence, and is assisted
+by a staff of four commissioners and four assistant
+commissioners. A battalion of the Gold Coast regiment
+is stationed in the country with headquarters at Kumasi. The
+order in council mentioned, which may be described as the first
+constitution granted Ashanti by its British owners, provides
+that the governor, in issuing ordinances respecting the administration
+of justice, the raising of revenue, or any other matter,
+shall respect any native laws by which the civil relations of any
+chiefs, tribes or populations are regulated, &ldquo;except so far as
+they may be incompatible with British sovereignty or clearly
+injurious to the welfare of the natives themselves.&rdquo; After the
+annexation of the country in 1901 the relations between the
+governing power and the governed steadily improved. Mr F.C.
+Fuller, who succeeded Sir Donald Stewart as chief commissioner
+early in 1905, was able to report in the following year that
+among the Ashanti suspicion of the &ldquo;white man&rsquo;s&rdquo; ulterior
+motives was speedily losing ground. The marked preference
+shown by the natives to resort to the civil and criminal courts
+established by the British demonstrated their faith in the impartial
+treatment awarded therein. Moreover, the maintenance
+of the tribal system and the support given to the lawful chiefs
+did much to win the confidence and respect of a people naturally
+suspicious, and mindful of their exiled king.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For a general survey of the country, see <i>Travels</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span>
+<i>in Ashanti and Jaman</i>, by R.A. Freeman (London, 1898); <i>Historical
+Geography of the British Colonies</i>, vol. iii. &ldquo;West Africa,&rdquo; by C.P.
+Lucas (Oxford, 1900); and the <i>Annual Reports, Ashanti</i>, issued from
+1906 onward by the Colonial Office, London. <i>The Tshi-speaking
+Peoples of the Gold Coast</i>, by Col. A.B. Ellis (London, 1887), deals
+with ethnology. Of early works on the country the most valuable
+are <i>A Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee</i>, by T.E. Bowdich
+(London, 1819); and <i>Journal of a Residence in Ashantee</i> (London,
+1824), by J. Dupuis. For history generally, see <i>A History of the
+Gold Coast of West Africa</i>, by Col. A.B. Ellis (London, 1893); and
+<i>History of the Gold Coast and Asante ... from about 1500 to 1860</i>,
+by C.C. Reindorf, a native pastor of the Basel mission (Basel, 1895).</p>
+
+<p>For the British military campaigns, in addition to the official blue-books,
+consult: <i>Narrative of the Ashantee War</i>, 2 vols., by (Sir)
+Henry Brackenbury (London, 1874); <i>The Story of a Soldier&rsquo;s Life</i>
+by Viscount Wolseley, vol. ii. chs. xliii.-l. (London, 1903); <i>Coomassie</i>,
+by (Sir) H.M. Stanley, being the story of the 1873-74 expedition
+(new ed., London, 1896); <i>Life of Sir John Hawley Glover</i>, by Lady
+Glover, chs. iii.-x. (London, 1897); <i>The Downfall of Prempeh</i>, by
+(General) R.S.S. Baden-Powell, an account of the 1895-96 expedition
+(London, 1896); <i>From Kabul to Kumassi</i> (chs. xv. to end), by
+Sir James Willcocks, (London, 1904); <i>The Ashanti Campaign of
+1900</i>, by Capt. C.H. Armitage and Lieut.-Col. A.F. Montanaro
+(London, 1901); <i>The Relief of Kumasi</i>, by Capt. H.C.J. Biss
+(London, 1901). The two bocks following are by besieged residents
+in Kumasi: <i>The Siege of Kumasi</i>, by Lady Hodgson (London,
+1901); <i>Dark and Stormy Days at Kumasi</i>, 1900, from the diary of
+the Rev. Fritz Ramseyer (London, 1901). Many of the works
+quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span> deal also with Ashanti.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The exact area of dense forest land is unknown, but
+is estimated at fully 12,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> An attempt was made late in 1875, by the despatch of Dr V.S.
+Gouldsbury on a mission to Eastern Akim, Juabin and Kumasi, to
+repair the effects of the previous inaction of the colonial government,
+but without success.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASH&lsquo;AR&#298;<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> [Ab&#363;-l Hasan &lsquo;Ali ibn Isma&lsquo;&#299;l ul-Ash&lsquo;ar&#299;], (873-935),
+Arabian theologian, was born of pure Arab stock at Basra, but
+spent the greater part of his life at Bagdad. Although belonging
+to an orthodox family, he became a pupil of the great Mu&lsquo;tazalite
+teacher al-Jubb&#257;&lsquo;&#299;, and himself remained a Mu&lsquo;tazalite until
+his fortieth year. In 912 he returned to the faith of his fathers
+and became its most distinguished champion, using the philosophical
+methods he had learned in the school of heresy. His
+theology, which occupied a mediate position between the
+extreme views on most points, became dominant among the
+Shafi&lsquo;ites. He is said to have written over a hundred works,
+of which only four or five are known to be extant.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Spitta, <i>Zur Geschichte Abu &lsquo;l-Hasan al A&#353;&lsquo;ari&rsquo;s</i> (Leipzig,
+1876); A.F. Mehren, <i>Exposé de la reforme de l&rsquo;Islamisme commencée
+par Abou. &lsquo;l-Hasan Ali el-Ash&lsquo;ari</i> (Leiden, 1878); and D.B. Macdonald&rsquo;s
+<i>Muslim Theology</i> (London, 1903), especially the creed of
+Ash&lsquo;ari in Appendix iii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBOURNE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a market-town in the western parliamentary
+division of Derbyshire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. of Derby, on
+the London &amp; North-Western and the North Staffordshire
+railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4039. It is pleasantly
+situated on rising ground between two small valleys opening
+into that of the Dove, and the most beautiful scenery of Dovedale
+is not far distant. The church of St Oswald is cruciform, Early
+English and later; a fine building with a central tower and
+lofty octagonal spire. Its monuments and brasses are of much
+interest. The town has a large agricultural trade and a manufacture
+of corsets. The streams in the neighbourhood are in
+favour with trout fishermen. Ashbourne Hall, an ancient
+mansion, has associations with &ldquo;Prince Charlie,&rdquo; who occupied
+it both before and after his advance on Derby in 1745. There
+are also many connexions with Dr Johnson, a frequent visitor
+here to his friend Dr Taylor, who occupied a house opposite
+the grammar school.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBURNHAM, JOHN<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1603-1671), English Royalist, was
+the son of Sir John Ashburnham of Ashburnham in Sussex.
+He early entered the king&rsquo;s service. In 1627 he was sent to
+Paris by his relative the duke of Buckingham to make overtures
+for peace, and in 1628 he prepared to join the expedition to
+Rochelle interrupted by the duke&rsquo;s assassination. The same
+year he was made groom of the bedchamber and elected member
+of parliament for Hastings, which borough he also represented
+in the Long Parliament of 1640. In this capacity he rendered
+services by reporting proceedings to the king. He made a
+considerable fortune and recovered the Ashburnham estates
+alienated by his father. He became one of the king&rsquo;s chief
+advisers and had his full confidence. He attended Charles at
+York on the outbreak of the war with Scotland. In the Civil
+War he was made treasurer of the royal army, in which capacity
+he aroused Hyde&rsquo;s jealousy and remonstrances by infringing
+on his province as chancellor of the exchequer. In 1644 he was
+a commissioner at Uxbridge. He accompanied Charles in his
+flight from Oxford in April 1646 to the Scots, and subsequently
+escaped abroad, joining the queen at Paris, residing afterwards
+at Rouen and being sent to the Hague to obtain aid from the
+prince of Orange. After the seizure of Charles by the army,
+Ashburnham joined him at Hampton Court in 1647, where he
+had several conferences with Cromwell and other army officers.
+When Charles escaped from Hampton Court on the 11th of
+November, he followed Ashburnham&rsquo;s advice in opposition to
+that of Sir John Berkeley, who urged the king to go abroad, and
+took refuge in the Isle of Wight, being placed by Ashburnham
+in the hands of Robert Hammond, the governor. &ldquo;Oh, Jack,&rdquo;
+the king exclaimed when he understood the situation, &ldquo;thou
+hast undone me!&rdquo; when Ashburnham, &ldquo;falling into a great
+passion of weeping, offered to go and kill Hammond.&rdquo; By this
+fatal step Ashburnham incurred the unmerited charge of
+treachery and disloyalty. Clarendon, however, who censures
+his conduct, absolves him from any crime except that of folly
+and excessive self-confidence, and he was acquitted both by
+Charles I. and Charles II. He was separated with Berkeley from
+Charles on the 1st of January 1648, waited on the mainland in
+expectation of Charles&rsquo;s escape, and was afterwards taken and
+imprisoned at Windsor, and exchanged during the second Civil
+War for Sir W. Masham and other prisoners. He was one of the
+delinquents specially exempted from pardon in the treaty of
+Newport. In November he was allowed to compound for his
+estates, and declared himself willing to take the covenant. After
+the king&rsquo;s death he remained in England, an object of suspicion
+to all parties, corresponded with Charles II., and underwent
+several terms of imprisonment in the Tower and in Guernsey.
+At the Restoration he was reinstated in his former place of
+groom of the bedchamber and was compensated for his losses.
+He represented Sussex in parliament from 1661 till the 22nd of
+November 1667, when he was expelled the House for taking a
+bribe of Ł500 from French merchants for landing their wines.
+He died on the 15th of June 1671.</p>
+
+<p>He had eight children, the eldest of whom, William, left a
+son John (1656-1710), who in 1689 was created Baron Ashburnham.
+John&rsquo;s second son, John (1687-1737), who became 3rd
+Baron Ashburnham on his brother&rsquo;s death in 1710, was created
+Viscount St Asaph and earl of Ashburnham in 1730. The 5th
+earl (b. 1840) was his direct descendant. Bertram (1797-1878),
+the 4th earl, was the collector of the famous Ashburnham
+library, which was dispersed in 1883 and 1884.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>A Letter from Mr Ashburnham to a Friend</i>, defending John Ashburnham&rsquo;s
+conduct with regard to the king, was published in 1648.
+His longer <i>Narrative</i> was published in 1830 by George, 3rd earl of
+Ashburnham (the latter&rsquo;s championship of his ancestor, however,
+being entirely uncritical and unconvincing); <i>A Letter to W. Lenthall</i>
+(1647) repudiates the charge brought against the king of violating
+his parole (<i>Thomason Tracts</i>, Brit. Museum, E 418 [4]).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1774-1848),
+English politician and financier, 2nd son of Sir Francis
+Baring (the founder of the house of Baring Brothers &amp; Co.)
+and of Harriet, daughter of William Herring, was born on the
+27th of October 1774, and was brought up in his father&rsquo;s business.
+He was sent by the latter to the United States; married Anne,
+daughter of William Bingham, of Philadelphia, and formed wide
+connexions with American houses. In 1810, by his father&rsquo;s
+death, he became head of the firm. He sat in parliament for
+Taunton (1806-1826), Callington (1826-1831), Thetford (1831-1832),
+North Essex (1832-1835). He regarded politics from the
+point of view of the business man, opposed the orders in council,
+and the restrictions on trade with the United States in 1812,
+and in 1826 the act for the suppression of small bank-notes.
+He was a strong antagonist of Reform. He accepted the post
+of chancellor of the exchequer in the duke of Wellington&rsquo;s
+projected ministry of 1832; but afterwards, alarmed at the
+scene in parliament, declared &ldquo;he would face a thousand devils
+rather than such a House of Commons,&rdquo; and advised the recall
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span>
+of Lord Grey. In 1834 he was president of the board of trade
+and master of the mint in Sir Robert Peel&rsquo;s government, and on
+the latter&rsquo;s retirement was created Baron Ashburton on the 10th
+of April 1835, taking the title previously held by John Dunning,
+his aunt&rsquo;s husband. In 1842 he was despatched to America,
+and the same year concluded the Ashburton or Webster-Ashburton
+treaty. A compromise was settled concerning the
+north-east boundary of Maine, the extradition of certain criminals
+was arranged, each state agreed to maintain a squadron of at
+least eighty guns on the coast of Africa for the suppression of the
+slave trade, and the two governments agreed to unite in an effort
+to persuade other powers to close all slave markets within their
+territories. Despite his earlier attitude, Lord Ashburton disapproved
+of Peel&rsquo;s free-trade projects, and opposed the Bank
+Charter Act of 1844. He was a trustee of the British Museum
+and of the National Gallery, a privy councillor and D.C.L. of
+Oxford. He published, besides several speeches, <i>An Enquiry
+into the Causes and Consequences of the Orders in Council</i> (1808),
+and <i>The Financial and Commercial Crisis Considered</i> (1847).
+He died on the 13th of May 1848, leaving a large family, his
+eldest son becoming 2nd baron. The 5th baron (b. 1866) succeeded
+to the title in 1889.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> in the existing line; see below for the earlier creation.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span><a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1731-1783),
+English lawyer, the second son of John Dunning of Ashburton,
+Devonshire, an attorney, was born at Ashburton on the 18th of
+October 1731, and was educated at the free grammar school of
+his native place. At first articled to his father, he was admitted,
+at the age of nineteen, to the Middle Temple, and called to the bar
+in 1756, where he came very slowly into practice. He went the
+western circuit for several years without receiving a single brief.
+In 1762 he was employed to draw up a defence of the British East
+India Company against the Dutch East India Company, which
+had memorialized the crown on certain grievances, and the
+masterly style which characterized the document procured him
+at once reputation and emolument. In 1763 he distinguished
+himself as counsel on the side of Wilkes, whose cause he conducted
+throughout. His powerful argument against the validity of
+general warrants in the case of <i>Leach</i> v. <i>Money</i> (June 18, 1763)
+established his reputation, and his practice from that period
+gradually increased to such an extent that in 1776 he is said to
+have been in the receipt of nearly Ł10,000 per annum. In 1766
+he was chosen recorder of Bristol, and in December 1767 he was
+appointed solicitor-general. The latter appointment he held till
+May 1770, when he retired with his friend Lord Shelburne. In
+1771 he was presented with the freedom of the city of London.
+From this period he was considered as a regular member of the
+opposition, and distinguished himself by many able speeches in
+parliament. He was first chosen member for Calne in 1768, and
+continued to represent that borough until he was promoted to
+the peerage. In 1780 he brought forward a motion that the
+&ldquo;influence of the crown had increased, was increasing, and ought
+to be diminished,&rdquo; which he carried by a majority of eighteen.
+He strongly opposed the system of sinecure officers and pensions;
+but his probity was not strong enough to prevent his taking
+advantage of it himself. In 1782, when the marquis of Rockingham
+became prime minister, Dunning was appointed chancellor of
+the duchy of Lancaster, a rich sinecure; and about the same time
+he was advanced to the peerage, with the title of Lord Ashburton.
+Under Lord Shelburne&rsquo;s administration he accepted a pension of
+Ł4000 a year. He died at Exmouth on the 18th of August 1783.
+Though possessed of an insignificant person, an awkward
+manner and a provincial accent, Lord Ashburton was one of
+the most fluent and persuasive orators of his time. He had
+married Elizabeth Baring, and was succeeded as 2nd baron by
+his son Richard, at whose death in 1823 the title became extinct,
+being revived in 1835 by Alexander Baring.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the answer to the Dutch memorial, Lord Ashburton is
+supposed to have assisted in writing a pamphlet on the law of libel,
+and to have been the author of <i>A Letter to the Proprietors of East
+India Stock, on the subject of Lord Clive&rsquo;s Jaghire, occasioned by his
+Lordship&rsquo;s Letter on that Subject</i> (1764, 8vo). He was at one time
+suspected of being the author of the <i>Letters of Junius</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> of the first creation; for the present title see above.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBURTON,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a river of Western Australia, rising in the
+mountains west of the Great Sandy Desert, and following a
+course north-westward for 400 m., into Exmouth Gulf. In its
+upper reaches it flows through a rich gold-bearing district to
+which it gives name, and nearer its mouth it traverses a vast
+tract of fine pastoral country. The outlet for both these districts
+is the port of Onslow, at the mouth of the river, near which there
+are several pearl-fishing stations. The river is not navigable.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBURTON,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a market-town in the Ashburton parliamentary
+division of Devonshire, England, 24 m. N.W. by W. of Plymouth,
+on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 2628. It lies in a valley surrounded by hills,
+at a short distance from the river Dart; the scenery, towards
+Dartmoor and in the neighbourhood of Buckland and Holne
+Chase, being unsurpassed in the county. The church of St.
+Andrew is cruciform with a lofty tower. It was built early in
+the 15th century, and contains a fine old oak roof over the north
+aisle, and a tablet in memory of John Dunning, solicitor-general
+and 1st Baron Ashburton (1731-1783). The inscription is by
+Dr Johnson. Lord Ashburton was educated at the grammar
+school, which was founded as a chantry in 1314. Serge is
+manufactured in Ashburton, and there are breweries, paint
+factories and saw-mills. A large deposit of umber is worked in
+the neighbourhood. Slate quarries and copper and tin mines
+were formerly valuable. A neighbouring centre of the serge
+industry is the urban district of <span class="sc">Buckfastleigh</span> (pop. 2520),
+3 m. S S.W. Between the two towns is Buckfast Abbey,
+said to have been, before the Conquest, a Benedictine house, and
+refounded for Cistercians in 1137. It was restored to use in 1882
+by a French Benedictine community, the fine Perpendicular
+abbot&rsquo;s tower remaining, while other parts have been rebuilt on
+the original lines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ashburton (Essebretona, Asperton, Ashperton) is a borough by
+prescription and an ancient stannary town. It was governed by a
+portreeve and bailiff, elected annually at the court leet held by the
+lord of the manor. According to Domesday, Ashburton was held
+in chief by Osbern, bishop of Exeter, and rendered geld for six
+hides. In 1552, as the two manors of Ashburton Borough and
+Ashburton Foreign, it was sold by the bishop, and subsequently
+became crown property. Finally, it was acquired in moieties by the
+Clinton family, and the present Lord Clinton is joint lord of the
+manor with Sir Robert Jardine. In 1298 and 1407 Ashburton
+returned two members, from 1407 until 1640 one member only,
+and then again two members, until deprived of one by the Reform
+Act of 1832 and of the other by the Reform Act of 1885. In the
+reign of Edward II. Bishop Stapledon obtained a Saturday market,
+and two annual fairs lasting three days at the feasts of St Laurence
+(August 10) and St Martin in winter (November 11). In 1672 John
+Ford was granted a Tuesday market for the sale of wool and
+woollen goods made from English yarn, and in 1705 Andrew Quicke
+obtained two annual fairs, on the first Thursdays in March and
+June, for the sale of cattle, corn and merchandise.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBY, TURNER<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1824-1862), American cavalry leader in
+the Confederate army, was born in Fauquier county, Virginia,
+in 1824. Before the Civil War he was a planter in Markham,
+Fauquier county, and a local politician. When hostilities
+began he raised a regiment of cavalry, which he led with conspicuous
+success in the Valley campaigns of 1861-62, under
+Joseph Johnston and Stonewall Jackson. He was promoted a
+brigadier-general shortly before his death, which took place in
+a cavalry skirmish at Harrisonburg, Va., on the 6th of June
+1862. By his early death the Confederates lost one of the best
+cavalry officers in their service.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a market-town in the Bosworth
+parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England; 118 m.
+N.W. by N. from London by the Midland railway, on the
+Leicester-Burton branch. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4726.
+The church of St Helen is a fine Perpendicular building, restored
+and enlarged (1880); it contains monuments of the Huntingdon
+family, and an old finger-pillory for the punishment of misbehaviour
+in church. The Ivanhoe baths, erected in 1826, are
+frequented for their saline waters, which, as containing bromine,
+are found useful in scrofulous and rheumatic complaints. The
+springs are at Moira, 3 m. west. There is a Queen Eleanor cross
+commemorating the countess of Loudoun, by Sir Gilbert Scott.
+To the south of the town are the extensive remains of Ashby
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span>
+Castle. There are extensive coal-mines in the neighbouring
+district, as at Moira, whence the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal runs
+south to the Coventry canal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At the time of the Domesday survey Ashby-de-la-Zouch formed
+part of the estates of Hugh de Grentmaisnel. Soon after it was held
+by Robert Beaumeis, from whom it passed by female descent to the
+family of la Zouch, whence it derived the adjunct to its name,
+having been hitherto known as Ashby or Essebi. The earliest record
+of a grant of market rights is in 1219, when Roger la Zouch obtained
+a grant of a weekly market and a two days&rsquo; fair at the feast of
+St Helen, in consideration of a fine of one palfrey. In the 15th
+century the manor was held by James Butler, earl of Ormond, after
+whose attainder it was granted in 1461 to Lord Hastings, who in
+1474 obtained royal licence to empark 3000 acres and to build and
+fortify a castle. At this castle Mary queen of Scots was detained
+in 1569 under the custody of the earls of Huntingdon and Shrewsbury.
+During the Civil War Colonel Henry Hastings fortified
+and held it for the king, and it was visited by Charles in 1645. In
+1648, at the close of the war, it was dismantled by order of parliament.
+It plays a great part in Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s <i>Ivanhoe</i>. In the
+18th century Ashby was celebrated as one of the best markets for
+horses in England, and had besides prosperous factories for woollen
+and cotton stockings and for hats.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History&mdash;Leicestershire; History of
+Ashby-de-la-Zouch</i> (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1852).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">A-SHE-HO<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (Manch. <i>Alchuku</i>), a town of Manchuria, China,
+125 m. N.E. of Kirin, and 30 m. S. of the Sungari. It is governed
+by a mandarin of the second class. Pop. about 60,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHER,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a tribe of Israel, called after the son of Jacob and
+Zilpah, Leah&rsquo;s maid. The name is taken by the narrator of
+Gen. xxx. 12 seq. (J) to mean happy or propitious, possibly an
+allusion to the fertility of the tribe&rsquo;s territory (with which cf.
+Gen. xlix. 20, Deut. xxxiii. 24); on the other hand, like Gad, it
+may have been originally a divine title. The district held by this
+tribe bordered upon Naphtali, and lay to the north of Issachar
+and Zebulun, and to the south of Dan. But the boundaries are
+not definite and the references to its territory are obscure.
+Asher is blamed for taking no part in the fight against Sisera
+(Judg. v. 17), and although it shares with Zebulun and Naphtali
+in Gideon&rsquo;s defeat of the Midianites (Judg. vi. 35, vii. 23), the
+narrative in question is not the older of the two accounts of the
+event, and the incorporation of the name is probably due to a
+late redactor. Lying as it did in the closest proximity to
+Phoenicians and Aramaeans, its population must have been
+exceptionally mixed, and the description of the occupation of
+Palestine in Judg. i. 31 seq. shows that it contained a strong
+Canaanite element. In the Blessing of Moses it is bidden to
+defend itself&mdash;evidently against invasion (Deut. xxxiii. 25).</p>
+
+<p>Even in the time of Seti I. and Rameses II. (latter half of 14th
+cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the district to the west of Galilee appears to have been
+known to the Egyptians as Aser(u), so that it is possible to infer
+either (<i>a</i>) that Asher was an Israelite tribe which, if it ever went
+down into Egypt, separated itself from its brethren in Egypt
+and migrated north, &ldquo;an example which was probably followed
+by some of the other tribes as well&rdquo; (Hommel, <i>Ancient Hebrew
+Tradition</i>, p. 228); or (<i>b</i>) it was a district which, if never closely
+bound to Israel, was at least regarded as part of the national
+kingdom, and treated as Israelite by the genealogical device of
+making it a &ldquo;son&rdquo; of Jacob. It is possible that some of its
+Israelite population had followed the example of Dan and moved
+from an earlier home in the south. Two of the clans of Asher,
+Heber and Malchiel, have been associated with Milk-ili and
+Habiri, the names of a hostile chief and people in the Amarna
+Tablets (Jastrow, <i>Journal Bibl. Lit.</i> xi. pp. 118 seq., xii.
+pp. 61 seq., Hommel), but it is scarcely probable that events of
+about 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> should have survived only in this form. This
+applies also to the suggestion that the name Asher has been
+derived from a famous Abd-ashirta of the same period (Barton,
+<i>ib.</i> xv. p. 174). Some connexion with the goddess Ashir(t)a,
+however, is not unlikely.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further H.W. Hogg, <i>Ency. Bibl.</i> col. 327 seq.; E. Meyer,
+<i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 540 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">&rsquo;ASHER BEN-YEHIEL<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (known as <i>Rosh</i>), Jewish rabbi and
+codifier, was born in the Rhine district <i>c.</i> 1250, and died in
+Toledo 1327. Endangered by the persecutions inflicted on the
+German Jews in the 13th century, &rsquo;Asher fled to Spain, where
+he was made rabbi of Toledo. His enforced exile impoverished
+him, and from this date begins an important change in the
+status of medieval rabbis. Before the 14th century, rabbis had
+obtained a livelihood by the exercise of some secular profession,
+particularly medicine, and received no salary for performing
+the rabbinic function. This was now changed. A disciple of
+Meir of Rothenburg, &lsquo;Asher&rsquo;s sole interest was in the Talmud.
+He was a man of austere piety, profound and narrow. He was
+a determined opponent of the study of philosophy, and thus was
+antipathetic to the Spanish spirit. The Jews of Spain continued,
+nevertheless, devotees of secular sciences as well as of rabbinical
+lore. &rsquo;Asher was the first of the German rabbis to display strong
+talent for systematization, and his chief work partook of the
+nature of a compendium of the Talmud. Compiled between
+1307 and 1314, &rsquo;Asher&rsquo;s <i>Compendium</i> resembled, and to a large
+extent superseded, the work of &rsquo;Al-phasi (<i>q.v.</i>). &rsquo;Asher&rsquo;s <i>Compendium</i>
+is printed in most editions of the Talmud, and it differed
+from previous Compendia in greater simplicity and in the
+deference shown to German authorities. &rsquo;Asher&rsquo;s son Jacob,
+who died at Toledo before 1340, was the author of the four <i>Turim</i>,
+a very profound and popular codification of rabbinical law.
+This work was the standard code until Joseph Qaro directly
+based on it his widely accepted Code of Jewish law, the <i>Shul&#7717;an
+&lsquo;Arukh</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHEVILLE,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Buncombe county,
+North Carolina, U.S.A., in the mountainous Blue Ridge region in
+the west part of the state, about 210 m. W. of Raleigh. Pop.
+(1890) 10,235; (1900) 14,692, of whom 4724 were negroes;
+(1910, census) 18,762. Asheville is situated at the junction
+of three branches of the Southern railway, on a high terrace on
+the east bank of the French Broad river, at the mouth of the
+Swannanoa, about 2300 ft. above the sea. The city is best known
+as one of the most popular health and pleasure resorts in the
+south, being a summer resort for southerners and a winter
+resort for northerners. It has a dry and equable climate and
+beautiful scenery. Among its social clubs are the Albemarle,
+the Asheville, the Elks, the Tahkeeostee and the Swannanoa
+Country clubs. An extensive system of city and suburban
+parks, connected by a series of beautiful drives, adds to the
+city&rsquo;s attractiveness. There are great forests in the vicinity.
+Among the public buildings are the city hall, the court house,
+the Federal building, the public library and an auditorium.
+In or near Asheville are a normal and collegiate institute for
+young women (1892), and, occupying the same campus, a
+home industrial school (1887) for girls, both under the control
+of the Woman&rsquo;s Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian
+Church; the Asheville farm school for boys, an industrial
+school for negroes; the Asheville school for boys (5 m. west of
+Asheville); and the Bingham school (1793), founded at Pittsboro,
+N.C., by William Bingham (d. 1826), and removed to its present
+site (3 m. north-west of Asheville) in 1891. About 2 m. south-east
+of the city is Biltmore, the estate of George W. Vanderbilt,
+its 125,000 acres constituting what is probably the finest country
+place in the United States. The central feature of the estate is
+a château (375 × 150 ft.) of French Renaissance design, after the
+famous château at Blois, France. In the neighbourhood is a
+model village, with an elementary school, an industrial school
+for whites, a hospital and a church, maintained by Mr Vanderbilt.
+Both the château and the village were designed by Richard M.
+Hunt; the landscape gardening was done by Frederick Law
+Olmsted. A collection of woody plants, one of the largest and
+finest in the world, and a broad forest and hunting preserve,
+known as Pisgah Forest (100,000 acres), are also maintained by
+the owner. Asheville is a market for live-stock, dairy products,
+lumber and fruits, and has various manufactories (in which a
+good water-power is utilized), including tanneries, cotton mills,
+brick and tile factories, and a wood-working and veneer plant.
+The value of the city&rsquo;s factory products increased from $1,300,698
+in 1900 to $1,918,362 in 1905, or 47.5%. The city was named
+in honour of Samuel Ashe (1725-1813), chief-justice of North
+Carolina from 1777 to 1796, and John Ashe (1720-1781), a
+North Carolina soldier who distinguished himself in the War of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span>
+Independence, was settled about 1790, and was incorporated in
+1835. The city&rsquo;s boundaries were enlarged in 1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHFORD,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a market-town in the Southern or Ashford parliamentary
+division of Kent, England, 56 m. S.E. of London by
+the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 12,808. It is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence
+near the confluence of the upper branches of the river Stour. It
+has a fine Perpendicular church dedicated to St Mary, with a
+lofty, well-proportioned tower and many interesting monuments.
+The grammar school was founded by Sir Norman Knatchbull in
+the reign of Charles I. Ashford has agricultural implement
+works and breweries; and the large locomotive and carriage
+works of the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway are here. At
+Bethersden, between Ashford and Tenterden, marble quarries
+were formerly worked extensively, supplying material to the
+cathedrals of Canterbury and Rochester, and to many local
+churches. At Charing, north-west of Ashford, the archbishops
+of Canterbury had a residence from pre-Conquest times, and
+ruins of a palace, mainly of the Decorated period, remain. On
+the south-eastern outskirts of Ashford is the populous village of
+Willesborough (3602).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ashford (Esselesford, Asshatisforde, Essheford) was held at the
+time of the Domesday survey by Hugh de Montfort, who came to
+England with William the Conqueror. A Saturday market and an
+annual fair were granted to the lord of the manor by Henry III. in
+1243. Further annual fairs were granted by Edward III. in 1349
+and by Edward IV. in 1466. In 1672 Charles II. granted a market
+on every second Tuesday, with a court of pie-powder. James I.
+in 1607, at the petition of the inhabitants of Ashford, gave Sir John
+Smith, Kt., the right of holding a court of record in the town on every third Tuesday. The fertility of the pasture-land in Romney Marsh
+to the south and east of Ashford caused the cattle trade to increase
+in the latter half of the 18th century, and led to the establishment
+of a stock market in 1784. The town has never been incorporated.</p>
+
+<p>See Edward Hasted, <i>History and Survey of Kent</i> (Canterbury,
+1778-1799, 2nd ed. 1797-1801); <i>Victoria County History&mdash;Kent</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">&rsquo;ASHI<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (352-427), Jewish <i>&rsquo;amora</i>, the first editor of the Talmud,
+was born at Babylon. He was head of the Sura Academy, and
+there began the Babylonian Talmud, spending thirty years of his
+life at it. He left the work incomplete, and it was finished by his
+disciple Rabina just before the year 500 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Talmud</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHINGTON,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an urban district in the Wansbeck parliamentary
+division of Northumberland, England, 4 m. E. of Morpeth, on the
+Newbiggin branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
+13,956. The district, especially along the river Wansbeck, is not
+without beauty, but there are numerous collieries, from the
+existence of which springs the modern growth of Ashington. At
+Bothal on the river (from which parish that of Ashington was
+formed) is the castle originally belonging to the Bertram family,
+of which Roger Bertram probably built the gatehouse, the only
+habitable portion remaining, in the reign of Edward III. The
+ruins of the castle are fragmentary, but of considerable extent.
+The church of St Andrew here has interesting details from Early
+English to Perpendicular date, and in the neighbouring woods
+is a ruined chapel of St Mary. The mining centre of Ashington
+lies 2 m. north-east, on the high ground north of the Wansbeck.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">&rsquo;ASHKENAZI, SEBI<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1656-1718), known as &#7716;akham &#7778;ebi,
+for some time rabbi of Amsterdam, was a resolute opponent of
+the followers of the pseudo-Messiah, Sabbatai &#7778;ebi (<i>q.v.</i>). He had
+a chequered career, owing to his independence of character. He
+visited many lands, including England, where he wielded much
+influence. His <i>Responsa</i>, are held in high esteem.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHLAND,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a city of Boyd county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the
+Ohio river, about 130 m. E. by N. of Frankfort. Pop. (1890)
+4195; (1900) 6800 (489 negroes); (1910) 8688. It is served by
+the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio (being a terminal of the Lexington and
+Big Sandy Divisions) and the Norfolk &amp; Western railways, and
+is connected with Huntington, West Virginia, by an electric line.
+The city has a fine natural park (Central Park) of about 30
+acres; and Clyffeside Park (maintained by a private corporation),
+of about 75 acres, just east of the city, is a pleasure resort and a
+meeting-ground (with a casino seating 3000 people) for the
+Tri-State &ldquo;Chautauqua&rdquo; (for certain parts of Kentucky, Ohio
+and West Virginia). The surrounding country abounds in coal,
+iron ore, oil, clay, stone and timber, for which the city is a
+distributing centre. Ashland has considerable river traffic,
+and various manufactures, including pig iron, nails, wire rods,
+steel billets, sheet steel, dressed lumber (especially poplar),
+furniture, fire brick and leather. Ashland was settled in 1854,
+and was chartered as a city in 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHLAND,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., about 50 m. N.E. of Harrisburg and about 100 m. N.W.
+of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 7346; (1900) 6438 (969 foreign-born);
+(1910) 6855. It is served by the Lehigh Valley and the
+Philadelphia &amp; Reading railways, and by the electric lines of
+the Schuylkill Railway Company and the Shamokin &amp; Mount
+Carmel Transit Company. The borough is built on the slope
+of Locust Mountain, about 885 ft. above sea-level. Its chief
+industry is the mining of anthracite coal at several collieries
+in the vicinity; and at Fountain Springs, 1 m. south-east, is
+a state hospital for injured persons of the Anthracite Coal
+Region of Pennsylvania, opened in 1883. The municipality
+owns and operates the waterworks. Ashland was laid out as a
+town in 1847, and was named in honour of Henry Clay&rsquo;s home
+at Lexington, Ky.; in 1857 it was incorporated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHLAND,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a village of Hanover county, Virginia, U.S.A.,
+17 m. N.W. of Richmond. Pop. (1900) 1147; (1910) 1324.
+It is served by the Richmond, Fredericksburg &amp; Potomac
+railway, and is a favourite resort from Richmond. Here is
+situated the Randolph-Macon College (Methodist Episcopal,
+South), one of the oldest Methodist Episcopal colleges in the
+United States. In 1832, two years after receiving its charter,
+it opened near Boydton, Mecklenburg county, Virginia, and in
+1868 was removed to Ashland. The college in 1907-1908 had
+150 students and a faculty of 16; it publishes an endowed
+historical series called <i>The John P. Branch Historical Papers
+of Randolph-Macon College</i>; and it is a part of the &ldquo;Randolph-Macon
+System of Colleges and Academies,&rdquo; which includes,
+besides, Randolph-Macon Academy (1890) at Bedford City,
+Virginia, and Randolph-Macon Academy (1892) at Front
+Royal, Virginia, both for boys; Randolph-Macon Woman&rsquo;s
+College (1893) at Lynchburg, Virginia, which in 1907-1908 had
+an enrolment of 390; and Randolph-Macon Institute, for girls,
+Danville, Virginia, which was admitted into the &ldquo;System&rdquo;
+in 1897. These five institutions are under the control of a single
+board of trustees; the work of the preparatory schools is thus
+correlated with that of the colleges. About 7 m. out of Ashland
+is the birthplace of Henry Clay, and about 15 m. distant is the
+birthplace of Patrick Henry. Ashland was settled in 1845 and
+was incorporated in 1856.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHLAND,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Ashland county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated about 315 m. N.W. of Milwaukee,
+and about 70 m. E. of Superior and Duluth, in the N. part of
+the state, at the head of Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Lake
+Superior. Pop. (1890) 9956; (1900) 13,074, of whom 4417
+were foreign-born; (1910, census) 11,594. It is served by
+the Chicago &amp; North-Western, the Northern Pacific, the Chicago,
+St Paul, Minneapolis &amp; Omaha, and the Wisconsin Central
+railways, and by several steamboat lines on the Great Lakes.
+The city is attractively situated, has a dry, healthful climate,
+and is a summer resort. It has a fine Federal building, one of
+the best high-school buildings in Wisconsin, the Vaughn public
+library (1895), a Roman Catholic hospital, and the Rinehart
+hospital, and is the seat of the Northland College and Academy
+(Congregational). Ashland has an excellent harbour, has large
+iron-ore and coal docks, and is the principal port for the shipment
+of iron ore from the rich Gogebic Range, the annual ore shipment
+approximating 3,500,000 tons, valued at $12,000,000, and
+it has also an extensive export trade in lumber. Brownstone
+quarried in the vicinity is also an important export. The lake
+trade amounts to more than $35,000,000 annually. Ashland
+has large saw-mills, iron and steel rolling mills, foundries and
+machine shops, railway repair shops (of the Chicago &amp; North-Western
+railway), knitting works, and manufactories of
+dynamite, sulphite fibre, charcoal and wood-alcohol. In 1905
+its total factory product was valued at $4,210,265. Settled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span>
+about 1854, Ashland was incorporated as a village in 1863 and
+received a city charter in 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHLAR,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> also written <span class="sc">Ashler, Ashelere</span>, &amp;c. (probably
+from Lat. <i>axilla</i>, diminutive of <i>axis</i>, an axle), hewn or squared
+stone, generally applied to that used for facing walls. In a
+contract of date 1398 we read&mdash;&ldquo;Murus erit exterius de puro
+lapide vocato <i>achilar</i>, plane incisso, interius vero de lapide fracto
+vocato <i>roghwall</i>.&rdquo; &ldquo;Clene hewen ashler&rdquo; often occurs in medieval
+documents; this no doubt means tooled or finely worked,
+in contradistinction to rough-axed faces.</p>
+
+<p>An &ldquo;ashlar piece&rdquo; in building is an upright piece of timber
+framed between the common rafters and the wall plate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMES<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1860-&emsp;&emsp;), English economist,
+was born in London on the 25th of February 1860. He was
+educated at St Olave&rsquo;s grammar school and Balliol College,
+Oxford, and became a fellow of Lincoln College. In 1888 he was
+appointed professor of political economy and constitutional
+history in Toronto University, a post which he resigned in 1892,
+in order to become professor of economic history at Harvard
+University. In 1901 he was appointed professor of commerce
+and finance in Birmingham University and in 1902 dean of the
+faculty of commerce. Professor Ashley became well known for
+his work on the early history of English industry, and for his
+prominence among those English economists who supported
+Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s tariff reform movement. His most important
+works are <i>Early History of the English Woollen Industry</i> (1887);
+<i>Introduction to English Economic History and Theory</i> (2 parts,
+1888-1893); <i>Surveys, Historic and Economic</i> (1900); <i>Adjustment
+of Wages</i> (1903); the <i>Tariff Problem</i> (2nd ed. 1904); <i>Progress
+of the German Working Classes</i> (1904).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHMOLE, ELIAS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1617-1692), English antiquarian, and
+founder of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, was born at
+Lichfield on the 23rd of May 1617, the son of a saddler. In 1638
+he became a solicitor, and in 1644 was appointed commissioner
+of excise. At Oxford, whither this brought him when the
+Royalist Parliament was sitting there, he made friends with
+Captain (afterwards Sir) George Wharton, through whose
+influence he obtained the king&rsquo;s commission as captain of horse
+and comptroller of the ordnance. In 1646 he was initiated as a
+Freemason&mdash;the first gentleman, or amateur, to be &ldquo;accepted.&rdquo;
+In 1649 he married Lady Mainwaring, some twenty years his
+senior and a relative of his first wife who had died eight years
+before. This marriage placed him in a position of affluence that
+enabled him to devote his whole time to his favourite studies.
+His interest in astrology, aroused by Wharton, and by William
+Lilly,&mdash;whom with other astrologers he met in London in 1646,&mdash;seems,
+in the following years, to have subsided in favour of
+heraldry and antiquarian research. In 1657 his wife petitioned
+for a separation, but failing to gain her case returned to live with
+him. Between this crisis in his domestic life and the time of her
+death in 1668, Ashmole was in high favour at court. He was
+made successively Windsor herald, commissioner, comptroller
+and accountant-general of excise, commissioner for Surinam and
+comptroller of the White Office. He afterwards refused the
+office of Garter king-at-arms in favour of Sir William Dugdale,
+whose daughter he had married in 1668. In 1672 he published
+his <i>Institutions, Laws and Ceremonies of the Order of the Garter</i>,
+a work which was practically exhaustive, and is an example of
+his diligence and years of patient antiquarian research. Five
+years later he presented the Ashmolean Museum, the first public
+museum of curiosities in the kingdom, the larger part of which
+he had inherited from a friend, John Tradescant, to the university
+of Oxford. He made it a condition that a suitable building
+should be erected for its reception, and the collection was not
+finally installed until 1683. Subsequently he made the further
+gift to the university of his library. He died on the 18th of
+May 1692.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHRAF<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Shurefa, Sherifs</span>), a small scattered tribe of
+African &ldquo;Arabs&rdquo; settled near Tokar, in the valleys of the Gash
+and Baraka, and in the Amarar country north of Suakin. They
+call themselves Beni Hashin, and claim descent from Mahomet;
+hence their name, <i>sherif</i> (plural <i>ashraf</i>) being the title applied to
+descendants of the prophet. In the time of the khalifa Abdulla
+(1885-1898), Ashraf was the name by which the family and
+adherents of his late master the mahdi were known, the mahdi&rsquo;s
+family claiming to be Ashraf. The Ashraf of Tokar remained
+loyal to Egypt during the Sudan troubles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
+1905); <i>Fire and Sword in the Sudan</i>, by Slatin Pasha (London,
+1896); for the Ashraf or Sherifs in Arabia, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabia</a></span>: <i>Geography</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHREF,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of Persia in the province of Mazandaran,
+about 50 m. W. of Astarabad and 5 m. inland from the Caspian
+Sea, in 36° 42&prime; N. and 53° 32&prime; E. The population is about 6000,
+comprising descendants of some Georgians introduced by Shah
+Abbas I. (1587-1629) and a number of Gudars, a peculiar pariah
+race, probably of Indian origin. The place was without importance
+until 1612, when Shah Abbas began building and laying
+out the palaces and gardens in the neighbourhood now
+collectively known as Bagh i Shah (the garden of the shah). The
+palaces, completed in 1627, are now in ruins, but the gardens with
+their luxuriant vegetation and gigantic cypress and orange trees
+ate well worth a visit. There were originally six separate gardens,
+all contained within one large wall but separated one from
+another by high walls. The principal palace was the Chehel
+Situn (forty pillars), destroyed by the Afghans in 1723, and,
+although rebuilt by Nadir Shah in 1731, already in ruins in 1743.
+About ž m. north of the town is the Safi-abad garden, with a
+palace built by Shah Safi (1629-1642) for his daughter. It is
+situated on a lovely wooded hill, and was repaired and in part
+renovated about 1870 by Ná&#7779;iru&rsquo;d-Din Shah.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHTABULA,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a city of Ashtabula county, Ohio, U.S.A., in
+Ashtabula township, on the Ashtabula river and Lake Erie,
+and 54 m. N.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 8338; (1900) 12,949,
+of whom 3688 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 18,266.
+There is a large Finnish-born population in the city and in Ashtabula
+county, and the <i>Amerikan Sanomat</i>, established here in
+1897, is one of the most widely read Finnish weeklies in the
+country. Ashtabula is served by the Pennsylvania, the Lake
+Shore &amp; Michigan Southern, and the New York, Chicago &amp; St
+Louis railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. The city is
+built on the high bank of the river about 75 ft. above the lake,
+and commands good views of diversified scenery. There is a
+public library. Ashtabula has an excellent harbour, to and from
+which large quantities of iron ore and coal are shipped. More
+iron ore is received at this port annually than at any other port
+in the country, or, probably, in the world; the ore is shipped
+thence by rail to Pittsburg, Youngstown and other iron manufacturing
+centres. In 1907 the port received 7,542,149 gross tons
+of iron ore, and shipped 2,632,027 net tons of soft coal. Among
+the city&rsquo;s manufactures are leather, worsted goods, agricultural
+implements, and foundry and machine shop products; in 1905
+the total value of the factory product was $1,895,454, an increase
+of 114.3% in five years. There are large green-houses in and
+near Ashtabula, and quantities of lettuce, cucumbers and
+tomatoes are raised under glass and shipped to Pittsburg and
+other large cities. The first settlement here was made about
+1801. Ashtabula township was created in 1808, and from it
+the townships of Kingsville, Plymouth and Sheffield have
+subsequently been formed. The village of Ashtabula was incorporated
+in 1831, and received a city charter in 1891. The name
+<i>Ashtabula</i> is an Indian word first applied to the river and said
+to mean &ldquo;fish river.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> an urban district in the Newton
+parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. S. of Wigan,
+on the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 18,687. The district
+is rich in minerals, and has large collieries, and a colliery
+company&rsquo;s institute; iron goods are manufactured.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a market-town and municipal and
+parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, on the river
+Tame, a tributary of the Mersey, 185 m. N. W. by N. from London
+and 6˝ E. from Manchester. Area, 1346 acres. Pop. (1891)
+40,486; (1901) 43,890. It is served by the London &amp; North-Western
+and the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire railways (Charlestown
+station), and by the Great Central (Park Parade station).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span>
+The church of St Michael is Perpendicular, but almost wholly
+rebuilt. In the vicinity are barracks. The Old Hall, or manor
+house of the Asshetons, remains in an altered form, with an
+ancient prison adjoining, and the name of Gallows Meadow, still
+preserved, recalls the summary execution of justice by the lords
+of the manor. In the vicinity of Ashton a few picturesque old
+houses remain among the numerous modern residences. Stamford
+Park, presented by Lord Stamford, is shared by the towns
+of Ashton and Stalybridge, which extends across the Tame into
+Cheshire. A technical school, school of art and free library, and
+several hospitals are maintained. Chief among industries are
+cotton-spinning, hat-making and iron-founding and machinery
+works; and there are large collieries in the neighbourhood.
+The parliamentary borough, which returns one member, extends
+into Cheshire. The corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen
+and 24 councillors.</p>
+
+<p>The derivation from the Saxon <i>ćsc</i> (ash) and <i>tun</i> (an enclosed
+place) accounts for the earliest orthography Estun. The addition
+<i>subtus lineam</i> is found in ancient deeds and is due to the position
+of the place below the line or boundary of Cheshire, which once
+formed the frontier between the kingdoms of Northumbria and
+Mercia. The manor was granted to Roger de Poictou by
+William I., but before the end of his reign came to the Greslets
+as part of the barony of Manchester. It was held by the
+Asshetons from 1335 to 1515, when it passed by marriage to the
+Booths of Dunham Massey, and is now held by the earl of
+Stamford, the representative of that family. The lord of the
+manor still holds the ancient court-leet and court-baron half-yearly
+in May and November, in which cognizance is taken of
+breaches of agreement among the tenants, especially concerning
+the repair of roads and cultivation of lands. The place had long
+enjoyed the name of borough, but it was not till 1847 that a
+charter of incorporation was granted. Under the Reform Act
+(1832) it returns one member. One of the markets dates back
+to 1436. The ancient industry was woollen, but soon after the
+invention of the spinning frame the cotton trade was introduced,
+and as early as 1769 the weaving of ginghams, nankeens and
+calicoes was carried on, and the weaving of cotton yarn by
+machinery soon became the staple industry. A chapel or church
+existed here as early as 1261-1262.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASH WEDNESDAY,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> in the Western Church, the first day of
+Lent (<i>q.v.</i>), so called from the ceremonial use of ashes, as a symbol
+of penitence, in the service prescribed for the day. The custom,
+which is ultimately based on the penance of &ldquo;sackcloth and
+ashes&rdquo; spoken of by the prophets of the Old Testament, has been
+dropped in those of the reformed Churches which still observe
+the fast; but it is retained in the Roman Catholic Church, the
+day being known as <i>dies cinerum</i> (day of ashes) or <i>dies cineris et
+cilicii</i> (day of ash and sackcloth). The ashes, obtained by burning
+the palms or their substitutes used in the ceremonial of the
+previous Palm Sunday, are placed in a vessel on the altar before
+High Mass. The priest, vested in a violet cope, prays that God
+may send His angel to hallow the ash, that it become a <i>remedium
+salubre</i> for all penitents. After another prayer the ashes are
+thrice sprinkled with holy water and thrice censed. Then the
+priest invites those present to approach and, dipping his thumb
+in the ashes, marks them as they kneel with the sign of the cross
+on the forehead (or in the case of clerics on the place of tonsure),
+with the words: <i>Memento, homo, quid pulvis es et in pulverem
+reverteris</i> (Remember, man, that thou art dust and unto dust thou
+shall return). The celebrant himself either sprinkles the ash on
+his own head in silence, or receives it from the priest of highest
+dignity present.</p>
+
+<p>This ceremony is derived from the custom of public penance
+in the early Church, when the sinner to be reconciled had to
+appear in the congregation clad in sackcloth and covered with
+ashes (cf. Tertullian, <i>De Pudicitia</i>, 13). At what date this use
+was extended to the whole congregation is not known. The
+phrase <i>dies cinerum</i> appears in the earliest extant copies of the
+Gregorian Sacramentary, and it is probable that the custom
+was already established by the 8th century. The Anglo-Saxon
+homilist Aelfric, in his <i>Lives of the Saints</i> (996 or 997), refers to
+it as in common use; but the earliest evidence of its authoritative
+prescription is a decree of the synod of Beneventum in
+1091.</p>
+
+<p>Of the reformed Churches the Anglican Church alone marks
+the day by any special service. This is known as the Commination
+service, its distinctive element being the solemn reading of
+&ldquo;the general sentences of God&rsquo;s cursing against sinners, gathered
+out of the seven and twentieth chapter of Deuteronomy, and
+other places of Scripture.&rdquo; The lections for the day are the
+same as in the Roman Church (Joel ii. 12, &amp;c., and Matt. vi. 16,
+&amp;c.). In the American Prayer Book the office of Commination
+is omitted, with the exception of the three concluding prayers,
+which are derived from the prayers and anthems said or sung
+during the blessing and distribution of the ashes according to
+the Sarum Missal. The ceremonial of the ashes was not proscribed
+in England at the Reformation; it was indeed enjoined
+by a proclamation of Henry VIII. (February 26, 1538) and
+again in 1550 under Edward VI.; but it had fallen into complete
+disuse by the beginning of the 17th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, and Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), s. &ldquo;<i>Aschermittuoch</i>&rdquo;; L. Duchesne,
+<i>Christian Worship</i>, trans. by M.L. McClure (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASHWELL, LENA<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1872-&emsp;&emsp;), English actress, was the
+daughter of Commander Pocock, R.N. In 1896 she married
+the actor Arthur Playfair, whom she divorced in 1908; later in
+the latter year she married Dr Simson. In 1895 she played
+Elaine in Sir Henry Irving&rsquo;s production of <i>King Arthur</i> at
+the Lyceum, and again acted with him in 1903 in <i>Dante</i>.
+She made her first striking success, however, on the London
+stage in <i>Mrs Dane&rsquo;s Defence</i> with Sir Charles Wyndham in 1900,
+and a few years later her acting in <i>Leah Kleschna</i> confirmed her
+position as one of the leading actresses in London. In 1907 she
+started under her own management at the Kingsway theatre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASIA,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the name of one of the great continents into which the
+earth&rsquo;s surface is divided, embracing the north-eastern portion
+of the great mass of land which constitutes what is generally
+known as the Old World, of which Europe forms the north-western
+and Africa the south-western region.</p>
+
+<p>Much doubt attaches to the origin of the name. Some of the
+earliest Greek geographers divided their known world into two
+portions only, Europe and Asia, in which last Libya (the Greek
+name for Africa) was included. Herodotus, who ranks Libya
+as one of the chief divisions of the world, separating it from Asia,
+repudiates as fables the ordinary explanations assigned to the
+names Europe and Asia, but confesses his inability to say whence
+they came. It would appear probable, however, that the former
+of these words was derived from an Assyrian or Hebrew root,
+which signifies the west or setting sun, and the latter from a
+corresponding root meaning the east or rising sun, and that they
+were used at one time to imply the west and the east. There
+is ground also for supposing that they may at first have been
+used with a specific or restricted local application, a more
+extended signification having eventually been given to them.
+After the word Asia had acquired its larger sense, it was still
+specially used by the Greeks to designate the country around
+Ephesus. The idea of Asia as originally formed was necessarily
+indefinite, and long continued to be so; and the area to which
+the name was finally applied, as geographical knowledge increased,
+was to a great extent determined by arbitrary and not very
+precise conceptions, rather than on the basis of natural relations
+and differences subsisting between it and the surrounding
+regions.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Geography</p>
+
+<p>The northern boundary of Asia is formed by the Arctic
+Ocean; the coast-line falls between 70° and 75° N., and so lies
+within the Arctic circle, having its extreme northern
+point in Cape Sivero-Vostochnyi (<i>i.e.</i> north-east)
+<span class="sidenote">Boundaries.</span>
+or Chelyuskin, in 78° N. On the south the coast-line
+is far more irregular, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and
+the China Sea reaching about to the northern tropic at the
+mouths of the Indus, of the Ganges and of the Canton river;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span>
+while the great peninsulas of Arabia, Hindostan and Cambodia
+descend to about 10° N., and the Malay peninsula extends
+within a degree and a half of the equator. On the west the
+extreme point of Asia is found on the shore of the Mediterranean,
+at Cape Baba, in 26° E., nor far from the Dardanelles. Thence
+the boundary passes in the one direction through the Mediterranean,
+and down the Red Sea to the southern point of Arabia,
+at the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in 45° E.; and in the other
+through the Black Sea, and along the range of Caucasus, following
+approximately 40° N. to the Caspian, whence it turns to the
+north on a line not far from the 60th meridian, along the Ural
+Mountains, and meets the Arctic Ocean nearly opposite the
+island of Novaya Zemlya. The most easterly point of Asia is
+East Cape (Vostochnyi, <i>i.e.</i> east, or Dezhnev), in 190° E., at the
+entrance of Bering Strait. The boundary between this point
+and the extremity of the Malay Peninsula follows the coast of
+the Northern Pacific and the China Sea, on a line deeply broken
+by the projection of the peninsulas of Kamchatka and Korea,
+and the recession of the Sea of Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea, and the
+Gulfs of Tongking and Siam.</p>
+
+<p>On the east and south-east of Asia are several important
+groups of islands, the more southern of which link this continent
+to Australia, and to the islands of the Pacific. The
+Kurile islands, the Japanese group, Luchu, Formosa
+<span class="sidenote">Islands.</span>
+and the Philippines, may be regarded as unquestionable outliers
+of Asia. Between the islands of the Malay archipelago from
+Sumatra to New Guinea, and the neighbouring Asiatic continent,
+no definite relations appear ever to have existed, and no distinctly
+marked boundary for Asia has been established by the
+old geographers in this quarter. Modern science, however, has
+indicated a line of physical separation along the channel between
+Borneo and Celebes, called the Straits of Macassar, which
+follows approximately 120° E., to the west of which the flora
+and fauna are essentially Asiatic in their type, while to the south
+and east the Australian element begins to be distinctly marked,
+soon to become predominant. To this boundary has been given
+the name of Wallace&rsquo;s line, after the eminent naturalist, A.R.
+Wallace, who first indicated its existence.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the great extent of Asia, it is not easy to obtain a
+correct conception of the actual form of its outline from ordinary
+maps, the distortions which accompany projections of
+large spherical areas on a flat surface being necessarily
+<span class="sidenote">Form of continent.</span>
+great and misleading. Turning, therefore, to a globe,
+Asia, viewed as a whole, will be seen to have the form of a great
+isosceles spherical triangle, having its north-eastern apex at
+East Cape (Vostochnyi), in Bering Strait; its two equal sides,
+in length about a quadrant of the sphere, or 6500 m., extending
+on the west to the southern point of Arabia, and on the east to
+the extremity of the Malay peninsula; and the base between
+these points occupying about 60° of a great circle, or 4500 m.,
+and being deeply indented by the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
+Bengal on either side of the Indian peninsula. A great circle,
+drawn through East Cape and the southern point of Arabia,
+passes nearly along the coast-line of the Arctic Ocean, over the
+Ural Mountains, through the western part of the Caspian, and
+nearly along the boundary between Persia and Asiatic Turkey.
+Asia Minor and the north-western half of Arabia lie outside such
+a great circle, which otherwise indicates, with fair accuracy, the
+north-western boundary of Asia. In like manner a great circle
+drawn through East Cape and the extremity of the Malay
+peninsula, passes nearly over the coasts of Manchuria, China
+and Cochin-China, and departs comparatively little from the
+eastern boundary.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Asia is divided laterally along the parallel of 40° north by a
+depression which, beginning on the east of the desert of Gobi, extends
+westwards through Mongolia to Chinese Turkestan. To
+the west of Kashgar the central depression is limited by
+<span class="sidenote">General physiography.</span>
+the meridional range of Sarikol and the great elevation
+of the Pamir, of which the Sarikol is the eastern face.
+The level of this depression (once a vast inland sea) between the
+mountains which enclose the sources of the Hwang-ho and the
+Sarikol range probably never exceeds 2000 ft. above sea, and modern
+researches tend to prove that in the central portions of the Gobi
+(about Lop Nor) it may be actually below sea-level. A vast
+proportion of the continent north of this central line is but a few hundred
+feet in altitude. Shelving gradually upward from the low flats of
+Siberia the general continental level rises to a great central water-parting,
+or divide, which stretches from the Black Sea through the
+Elburz and the Hindu Kush to the Tian-shan mountains in the
+Pamir region, and hence to Bering Strait on the extreme north-east.
+This great divide is not always marked by well-defined ranges facing
+steeply either to the north or south. There are considerable spaces
+where the strike, or axis, of the main ranges is transverse to the
+water-parting, which is then represented by intermediate highlands
+forming lacustrine regions with an indefinite watershed. Only a
+part of this great continental divide (including such ranges as the
+Hindu Kush, Tian-shan, Altai or Khangai) rises to any great height,
+a considerable portion of it being below 5000 ft. in altitude. South
+of the divide the level at once drops to the central depression of
+Gobi, which forms a vast interior, almost waterless space, where
+the local drainage is lost in deserts or swamps. South of this
+enclosed depression is another great hydrographic barrier which
+parts it from the low plains of the Amur, of China, Siam and India,
+bordered by the shallows of the Yellow Sea and the shoals which
+enclose the islands of Japan and Formosa, all of them once an integral
+part of the continent. This second barrier is one of the most
+mighty upheavals in the world, by reason both of its extent and
+its altitude. Starting from the Amur river and reaching along the
+eastern margin of the Gobi desert towards the sources of the Hwang-ho,
+it merges into the Altyn-tagh and the Kuen-lun, forming the
+northern face of the vast Tibetan highlands which are bounded on
+the south by the Himalaya. The Pamir highlands between the base
+of the Tian-shan mountains and the eastern buttresses of the Hindu
+Kush unite these two great divides, enclosing the Gobi depression
+on the west; and they would again be united on the east but for
+the transverse valley of the Amur, which parts the Khingan mountains
+from the Yablonoi system to the east of Lake Baikal.</p>
+
+<p>If we consider the whole continent to be divided into three sections,
+viz. a northern section with an average altitude of less than 5000 ft.
+above sea, where all the main rivers flow northward to the Mediterranean,
+the Arctic Sea, or the Caspian; a central section of depression,
+where the drainage is lost in swamps or <i>ham&#363;ns</i>, and of which
+the average level probably does not exceed 2000 ft. above sea; and
+a southern section divided between highly elevated table-lands from
+15,000 to 16,000 ft. in altitude, and lowlands of the Arabian, Indian,
+Siamese and Chinese peninsulas, with an ocean outlet for its drainage;
+we find that there is only one direct connexion between northern
+and southern sections which involves no mountain passes, and no
+formidable barrier of altitudes. That one is afforded by the narrow
+valley of the Hari Rud to the west of Herat. From the Caspian to
+Karachi it is possible to pass without encountering any orographic
+obstacle greater than the divide which separates the valley of the
+Hari Rud from the Helmund <i>ham&#363;n</i> basin, which may be represented
+by an altitude of about 4000 ft. above sea-level. This fact
+possesses great significance in connexion with the development of
+Asiatic railways.</p>
+
+<p>If we examine the hydrographic basins of the three divisions of
+Asia thus indicated we find that the northern division,
+<span class="sidenote">Hydrography.</span>
+including the drainage falling into the Arctic Sea, the Aralo-Caspian
+depression, or the Mediterranean, embraces an area
+of about 6,394,500 sq. m., as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%; clear: both;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Sq. m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Area of Arctic river basins</td> <td class="tcr">4,367,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;  Aralo-Caspian basin</td> <td class="tcr">1,759,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;  &rdquo; &emsp;  Mediterranean</td> <td class="tcr">268,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">6,394,500</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The southern division is nearly equal in extent&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Sq. m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pacific drainage</td> <td class="tcr">3,641,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Indian Ocean</td> <td class="tcr">2,873,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">6,514,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The interior or inland basins, including the lacustrine regions south
+of the Arctic watershed, the Gobi depression, Tibetan plateau, the
+Iranian (or Perso-Afghan) uplands, the Syro-Arabian inland basin,
+and that of Asia Minor, amount to 3,141,500 sq. m. or about half
+the extent of the other two.</p>
+
+<p>By far the largest Asiatic river basin is that of the Ob, which
+exceeds 1,000,000 sq. m. in extent. On the east and south the Amur
+embraces no less than 776,000 sq. m., the Yang-tsze-kiang including
+685,000, the Ganges 409,500, and the Indus 370,000 sq. m.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The lakes of Asia are innumerable, and vary in size from an inland
+sea (such as Lakes Baikal and Balkash) to a highland loch, or the
+indefinitely extended swamps of Persia. Many of them are at high
+elevations (Lake Victoria, 13,400 ft., being probably the most elevated),
+and are undoubted vestiges of an ancient period of glaciation.
+Such lakes, as a rule, show indications of a gradual decrease in size.
+Others are relics of an earlier geological period, when land areas
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span>
+recently upheaved from the sea were spread at low levels with alternate
+inundations of salt and fresh water. Of these Lop Nor and the
+Helmund <i>ham&#363;ns</i> are typical. Such lakes (in common with all the
+plateau <i>ham&#363;ns</i> of south-west Baluchistan and Persia) change their
+form and extent from season to season, and many of them are
+impregnated with saline deposits from the underlying strata. The
+<i>kavirs</i>, or salt depressions, of the Persian desert are more frequently
+widespread deposits of mud and salt than water-covered areas.</p>
+
+<p>Although for the purposes of geographical nomenclature, boundaries
+formed by a coast-line&mdash;that is, by depressions of the earth&rsquo;s
+solid crust <i>below</i> the ocean level&mdash;are most easily recognized and are of special convenience; and although such
+boundaries, from following lines on which the continuity of
+<span class="sidenote">Political divisions.</span>
+the land is interrupted, often necessarily indicate important differences
+in the conditions of adjoining countries, and of their political and
+physical relations, yet variations of the elevation of the surface <i>above</i>
+the sea-level frequently produce effects not less marked. The changes
+of temperature and climate caused by difference of elevation are
+quite comparable in their magnitude and effect on all organized
+creatures with those due to differences of latitude; and the relative
+position of the high and low lands on the earth&rsquo;s surface, by modifying
+the direction of the winds, the fall of rain, and other atmospheric
+phenomena, produce effects in no sense less important than those
+due to the relative distribution of the land and sea. Hence the study
+of the mountain ranges of a continent is, for a proper apprehension
+of its physical conditions and characteristics, as essential as the
+examination of its extent and position in relation to the equator
+and poles, and the configuration of its coasts.</p>
+
+<p>From such causes the physical conditions of a large part of Asia,
+and the history of its population, have been very greatly influenced
+by the occurrence of the mass of mountain above described,
+which includes the Himalaya and the whole
+<span class="sidenote">Himalayan boundary.</span>
+elevated area having true physical connexion with that
+range, and occupies an area about 2000 m. in length and
+varying from 100 to 500 m. in width, between 65° and 100° east and
+between 28° and 35° north. These mountains, which include the
+highest peaks in the world, rise, along their entire length, far above
+the line of perpetual snow, and few of the passes across the main
+ridges are at a less altitude than 15,000 or 16,000 ft. above the sea.
+Peaks of 20,000 ft. abound along the whole chain, and the points
+that exceed that elevation are numerous. A mountain range such
+as this, attaining altitudes at which vegetable life ceases, and the
+support of animal life is extremely difficult, constitutes an almost
+impassable barrier against the spread of all forms of living creatures.
+The mountain mass, moreover, is not less important in causing a complete
+separation between the atmospheric conditions on its opposite
+flanks, by reason of the extent to which it penetrates that stratum
+of the atmosphere which is in contact with the earth&rsquo;s surface and
+is effective in determining climate. The highest summits create
+serious obstructions to the movements of nearly three-fourths of the
+mass of the air resting on this part of the earth, and of nearly the
+whole of the moisture it contains; the average height of the entire
+chain is such as to make it an almost absolute barrier to one-half of
+the air and three-fourths of the moisture; while the lower ranges
+also produce important atmospheric effects, one-fourth of the air
+and one-half of the watery vapour it carries with it lying below
+9000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>This great mass of mountain, constituting as it does a complete
+natural line of division across a large part of the continent, will form
+a convenient basis from which to work, in proceeding, as will now
+be done, to give a general view of the principal countries contained
+in Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The summit of the great mountain mass is occupied by Tibet, a
+country known by its inhabitants under the name of <i>Bod</i> or <i>Bodyul</i>.
+Tibet is a rugged table-land, narrow as compared with its
+length, broken up by a succession of mountain ranges,
+<span class="sidenote">Tibet.</span>
+which follow as a rule the direction of the length of the table-land,
+and commonly rise into the regions of perpetual snow; between the
+flanks of these lie valleys, closely hemmed in, usually narrow, having
+a very moderate inclination, but at intervals opening out into wide
+plains, and occupied either by rivers, or frequently by lakes from
+which there is no outflow and the waters of which are salt. The
+eastern termination of Tibet is in the line of snowy mountains which
+flanks China on the west, between the 27th and 35th parallels of
+latitude, and about 103° east. On the west the table-land is prolonged
+beyond the political limits of Tibet, though with much the same
+physical features, to about 70° east, beyond which it terminates; and
+the ranges which are covered with perpetual snow as far west as
+Samarkand, thence rapidly diminish in height, and terminate in low
+hills north of Bokhara.</p>
+
+<p>The mean elevation of Tibet may be taken as 15,000 ft. above the
+sea. The broad mountainous slope by which it is connected with
+the lower levels of Hindostan contains the ranges known as the
+Himalaya; the name Kuen-lun is generally applied to the northern
+slope that descends to the central plains of the Gobi, though these
+mountains are not locally known under those names, Kuen-lun
+being apparently a Chinese designation.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme rigour of the climate of Tibet, which combines great
+cold with great drought, makes the country essentially very poor,
+and the chief portion of it little better than desert. The vegetation
+is everywhere most scanty, and scarcely anything deserving the name
+of a tree is to be found unless in the more sheltered spots, and then
+artificially planted. The population in the lower and warmer valleys
+live in houses, and follow agriculture; in the higher regions they are
+nomadic shepherds, thinly scattered over a large area.</p>
+
+<p>China lies between the eastern flank of the Tibetan plateau and
+the North Pacific, having its northern and southern limits about
+on 40° and 20° N. respectively. The country, though
+<span class="sidenote">China.</span>
+generally broken up with mountains of moderate elevation,
+possesses none of very great importance apart from those of its
+western border. It is well watered, populous, and, as a rule, highly
+cultivated, fertile, and well wooded; the climate is analogous to
+that of southern Europe, with hot summers, and winters everywhere
+cold and in the north decidedly severe.</p>
+
+<p>From the eastern extremity of the Tibetan mountains, between
+the 95th and 100th meridians, high ranges extend from about 35° N.
+in a southerly direction, which, spreading outwards as
+they go south, reach the sea at various points in Cochin-China,
+<span class="sidenote">Indo-Chinese region.</span>
+the Malay peninsula, and the east flank of Bengal.
+Between these ranges, which are probably permanently
+snowy to about 27° N., flow the great rivers of the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula, the Mekong, the Menam, the Salween, and the Irrawaddy,
+the valleys of which form the main portions of the states of Cochin-China
+(including Tongking and Cambodia), of Siam (including Laos)
+and of Burma. The people of Cochin-China are called Anam; it
+is probably from a corruption of their name for the capital of Tongking,
+Kechao, that the Portuguese Cochin has been derived. All
+these countries are well watered, populous and fertile, with a
+climate very similar to that of eastern Bengal. The geography of
+the region in which the mountains of Cochin-China and Siam join
+Tibet is still imperfectly known, but there is no ground left for doubting
+that the great river of eastern Tibet, the Tsanpo, supplies the
+main stream of the Brahmaputra. The two great rivers of China,
+the Hwang-ho and the Yang-tsze-kiang take their rise from the
+eastern face of Tibet, the former from the north-east angle, the
+latter from the south-east. The main stream of this last is called
+Dichu in Tibet, and its chief feeder is the Ya-lung-kiang, which rises
+not far from the Hwang-ho, and is considered the territorial boundary
+between China and Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>British India comprises approximately the area between the 95th
+and 70th meridians, and between the Tibetan table-land and the
+Indian Ocean. The Indian peninsula from 25° N. southwards
+is a table-land, having its greatest elevation on the
+<span class="sidenote">British India.</span>
+west, where the highest points rise to over 8000 ft., though
+the ordinary altitude of the higher hills hardly exceeds 4000 ft.;
+the general level of the table-land lies between 3000 ft. as a maximum
+and 1000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>From the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra on the east to
+that of the Indus on the west, and intervening between the table-land
+of the peninsula and the foot of the Himalayan slope of the
+Tibetan plateau, lies the great plain of northern India, which rises
+at its highest point to about 1000 ft., and includes altogether, with
+its prolongation up the valley of Assam, an area of about 500,000
+sq. m., comprising the richest, the most populous and most civilized
+districts of India. The great plain extends, with an almost unbroken
+surface, from the most western to the most eastern extremity of
+British India, and is composed of deposits so finely comminuted,
+that it is no exaggeration to say that it is possible to go from the
+Bay of Bengal up the Ganges, through the Punjab, and down the
+Indus again to the sea, over a distance of 2000 m. and more, without
+finding a pebble, however small.</p>
+
+<p>The great rivers of northern India&mdash;the Ganges, the Brahmaputra
+and the Indus&mdash;all derive their waters from the Tibetan
+mountain mass; and it is a remarkable circumstance that the
+northern water-parting of India should lie to the north of the Himalaya
+in the regions of central Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>The population of India is very large, some of its districts being
+among the most densely peopled in the world. The country is
+generally well cleared, and forests are, as a rule, found only along
+the flanks of the mountains, where the fall of rain is most abundant.
+The more open parts are highly cultivated, and large cities abound.
+The climate is generally such as to secure the population the necessaries
+of life without severe labour; the extremes of heat and
+drought are such as to render the land unsuitable for pasture, and
+the people everywhere subsist by cultivation of the soil or commerce,
+and live in settled villages or towns.</p>
+
+<p>The island of Ceylon is distinguished from the neighbouring parts
+of British India by little more than its separate administration
+and the Buddhistic religion of its population. The highest point in
+Ceylon rises to about 9000 ft. above the sea, and the mountain slopes
+are densely covered with forest. The lower levels are in climate
+and cultivation quite similar to the regions in the same latitude on
+the Malay peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Of the islands in the Bay of Bengal the Nicobar and Andaman
+groups are alone worth notice. They are placed on a line joining
+the north end of Sumatra and Cape Negrais, the south-western
+extremity of Burma. They possibly owe their existence to the
+volcanic agencies which are known to extend from Sumatra across
+this part of the Indian Ocean.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:662px; height:980px" src="images/img736a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:658px; height:980px" src="images/img736c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img736b.jpg">(Click to enlarge left side.)</a><br />
+<a href="images/img736d.jpg">(Click to enlarge right side.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">The Laccadives and Maldives are groups of small coral islands,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span>
+situated along the 73rd meridian at no great distance from the
+Indian peninsula on which they have a political dependency.</p>
+
+<p>The portion of Asia west of British India excluding Arabia and
+Syria forms another extensive plateau covering an area as large
+as that of Tibet though at a much lower altitude. Its
+southern border runs along the Arabian Sea, the Persian
+<span class="sidenote">The Nearer East.</span>
+Gulf, the Tigris and thence westward to the north-east
+angle of the Levant, on the north the high land follows
+nearly 36° N. to the southern shore of the Caspian and thence to
+the Black Sea and Sea of Marmora. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran
+or Persia, Armenia and the provinces of Asia Minor occupy this
+high region with which they are nearly conterminous. The eastern
+flank of this table-land follows a line of hills drawn a short distance
+from the Indus between the mouth of that river and the Himalaya,
+about on the 72nd meridian, these hills do not generally exceed
+4000 or 5000 ft. in elevation but a few of the summits reach 10,000 ft.
+or more. The southern and south western face follows the coast
+closely up the Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Indus, and is
+formed farther west by the mountain scarp, which, rising in many
+points to 10,000 ft. flanks the Tigris and the Mesopotamian plains,
+and extends along Kurdistan and Armenia nearly to the 40th
+meridian, beyond which it turns along the Taurus range, and the
+north eastern angle of the Mediterranean. The north eastern
+portion of the Afghan table-land abuts on the Himalaya and Tibet,
+with which it forms a continuous mass of mountain between the
+71st and 72nd meridians and 34° and 36° N. From the point of
+intersection of the 71st meridian with the 36th parallel of latitude,
+an unbroken range of mountain stretches on one side towards the
+north east, up to the crest of the northern slope of the Tibetan
+plateau, and on the other nearly due west as far as the Caspian.
+The north eastern portion of this range is of great altitude, and
+separates the headwaters of the Oxus, which run off to the Aral Sea,
+from those of the Indus and its Kabul tributary, which, uniting
+below Peshawar are thence discharged southward into the Arabian
+Sea. The western part of the range, which received the name of
+Paropamisus Mons from the ancients, diminishes in height west of
+the 65th meridian and constitutes the northern face of the Afghan
+and Persian plateau rising abruptly from the plains of the Turkoman
+desert which lies between the Oxus and the Caspian. These mountains
+at some points attain a height of 10,000 or 12,000 ft. Along
+the south coast of the Caspian this line of elevation is prolonged as
+the Elburz range (not to be confused with the Elburz of the Caucasus),
+and has its culminating point in Demavend, which rises to 19,400 ft.
+above the sea thence it extends to the north west to Ararat, which
+rises to upwards of 17,000 ft. from the vicinity of which the Euphrates
+flows off to the south west across the high lands of Armenia.
+Below the north east declivity of this range lies Georgia, on the other
+side of which province rises the Caucasus, the boundary of Asia and
+Europe between the Caspian and Black Seas, the highest points of
+which reach an elevation of nearly 19,000 ft. West of Ararat high
+hills extend along the Black Sea between which and the Taurus
+range lies the plateau of Asia Minor reaching to the Aegean Sea,
+the mountains along the Black Sea, on which are the Olympus and
+Ida of the ancients rise to 6000 or 7000 ft., the Taurus is more
+lofty&mdash;reaching 8000 and 10,000 ft.&mdash;both ranges decline in altitude
+as they approach the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>This great plateau extending from the Mediterranean to the
+Indus has a length of about 2500 m. from east to west, and a breadth
+of upwards of 600 m. on the west and nowhere of less than 250 m.
+It lies generally at altitudes between 2000 ft. and 8000 ft. above
+the sea level. Viewed as a whole the eastern half of this region,
+comprising Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan, is poor and
+unproductive. The climate is very severe in the winter and extremely
+hot in summer. The rainfall is very scanty, and running waters
+are hardly known excepting among the mountains which form the
+scarps of the elevated country. The population is sparse, frequently
+nomadic, and addicted to plunder, progress in the arts and habits
+of civilization is small. The western part of the area falls within
+the Turkish empire. Its climate is less hot and and its natural
+productiveness much greater and its population more settled and
+on the whole more advanced.</p>
+
+<p>The peninsula of Arabia with Syria, its continuation to the north-west,
+has some of the characteristics of the hottest and driest parts
+Persia and Baluchistan. Excepting the northern part
+of this tract which is conterminous with the plain of
+<span class="sidenote">Arabia.</span>
+Mesopotamia (which at its highest point reaches an elevation of about
+700 ft. above the sea) the country is covered with low mountains,
+rising to 3000 or 4000 ft. in altitude having among them narrow
+valleys in which the vegetation is scanty with exceptional regions
+of greater fertility in the neighbourhood of the coasts where the
+rainfall is greatest. In northern Syria the mountains of Lebanon
+rise to about 10,000 ft. and with a more copious water supply
+the country becomes more productive. The whole tract, excepting
+south eastern Arabia is nominally subject to Turkey but the people
+are to no small extent practically independent living a nomadic
+pastoral and freebooting life under petty chiefs in the more arid
+districts, but settled in towns in the more fertile tracts where agriculture
+becomes more profitable and external commerce is established.</p>
+
+<p>The area between the northern border of the Persian high lands
+and the Caspian and Aral Seas is a nearly desert low lying plain,
+extending to the foot of the north-western extremity of the
+great Tibeto-Himalayan mountains and prolonged eastward
+<span class="sidenote">Trans-Caspian region and central Asia.</span>
+up the valleys of the Oxus (Amu Darya) and
+Jaxartes (Syr-Darya), and northward across the country
+of the Kirghiz to the south western border of Siberia.
+It includes Bokhara, Khiva and Turkestan proper in
+which the Uzbeg Turks are dominant, and for the most
+part is inhabited by nomadic tribes, who are marauders, enjoying
+the reputation of being the worst among a race of professed robbers.
+The tribes to the north, subject to Russia, are naturally more peaceable,
+and have been brought into some degree of discipline. In this
+tract the rainfall is nowhere sufficient for the purposes of agriculture,
+which is only possible by help of irrigation, and the fixed population
+(which contains a non-Turkish element) is comparatively small,
+and restricted to the towns and the districts near the rivers.</p>
+
+<p>The north-western extremity of the elevated Tibeto-Himalayan
+mountain plateau is situated about on 73° E. and 39° N. This
+region is known as Pamir, it has all the characteristics of the highest
+regions of Tibet, and so far fitly receives the Russian designation
+of steppe, but it seems to have no special peculiarities, and the
+reason of its having been so long regarded as a geographical enigma
+is not obvious. From it the Oxus, or Amu, flows off to the west,
+and the Jaxartes, or Syr, to the north, through the Turki state of
+Khokand, while to the east the waters run down past Kashgar to
+the central desert of the Gobi, uniting with the streams from the
+northern slope of the Tibetan plateau that traverse the principalities
+of Yarkand and Khotan, which are also Turki. Here the Tibetan
+mountains unite with the line of elevation which stretches across
+the continent from the Pacific, and which separates Siberia from
+the region commonly spoken of under the name of central Asia.</p>
+
+<p>A range of mountains, called Stanovor, rising to heights of 4000
+or 5000 ft., follows the southern coast of the eastern extremity of
+Asia from Kamchatka to the borders of Manchuria, as far as
+the 135th meridian, in lat. 55° N. Thence the Yablonoi
+<span class="sidenote">Manchuria.</span>
+range, continuing in the same direction, divides the
+waters of the river Lena, which flows through Siberia into the
+Arctic Sea, from those of the river Amur, which falls into the North
+Pacific, the basin of this river, with its affluents, constitutes Manchuria.
+From the north of Manchuria the Khingan range stretches
+southward to the Chinese frontier near Peking, east of which the
+drainage falls into the Amur and the Yellow Sea, while to the west
+is an almost rainless region, the inclination of which is towards the
+central area of the continent, Mongolia.</p>
+
+<p>From the western end of the Yablonoi range, on the 115th
+meridian, a mountainous belt extends along a somewhat irregular
+line to the extremity of Pamir, known under various names
+in its different parts, and broken up into several branches,
+<span class="sidenote">Mongolia.</span>
+enclosing among them many isolated drainage areas, from which
+there is no outflow, and within which numerous lakes are formed.
+The most important of these ranges is the Tian-shan or Celestial
+Mountains, which form the northern boundary of the Gobi desert,
+they lie between 40° and 43° N., and between 75° and 95° E., and
+some of the summits are said to exceed 20,000 ft. in altitude, along
+the foot of this range are the principal cultivated districts of central
+Asia, and here too are situated the few towns which have sprung
+up in this barren and thinly peopled region. Next may be named
+the Ala-tau, on the prolongation of the Tian-shan, flanking the Syr on
+the north, and rising to 14,000 or 15,000 ft. It forms the barrier
+between the Issyk-kul and Balkash lakes, the elevation of which is
+about 5000 ft. Last is the Altai, near the 50th parallel, rising to
+10,000 or 12,000 ft., which separates the waters of the great rivers
+of western Siberia from those that collect into the lakes of north-west
+Mongolia, Dzungaria and Kalka. A line of elevation is continued
+west of the Altai to the Ural Mountains, not rising to considerable
+altitudes; this divides the drainage of south-west Siberia
+from the great plains lying north east of the Aral Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The central area bounded on the north and north-west by the
+Yablonoi Mountains and their western extension in the Tian-shan,
+on the south by the northern face of the Tibetan plateau and on the
+east by the Khingan range before alluded to, forms the great desert
+of central Asia, known as the Gobi. Its eastern part is nearly
+conterminous with south Mongolia, its western forms Chinese or eastern
+Turkestan. It appears likely that no part of this great central
+Asiatic desert is less than 2000 ft. above the sea level. The elevation
+of the plain about Kashgar and Yarkand is from 4000 to 6000 ft.
+The more northern parts of Mongolia are between 4000 and 6000 ft.,
+and no portion of the route across the desert between the Chinese
+frontier and Kiakhta is below 3000 ft. The precise positions of the
+mountain ridges that traverse this central area are not properly
+known, their elevation is everywhere considerable, and many points
+are known to exceed 10,000 or 12,000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>In Mongolia the population is essentially nomadic, its wealth consisting
+in herds of horned cattle, sheep, horses and camels. The
+Turki tribes, occupying western Mongolia, are among the least
+civilized of human beings, and it is chiefly to their extreme barbarity
+and cruelty that our ignorance of central Asia is due. The climate is
+very severe, with great extremes of heat and cold. The drought is
+very great, rain falls rarely and in small quantities. The surface
+is for the most part a hard stony desert, areas of blown sand occurring
+but exceptionally. There are few towns or settled villages, except
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span>
+along the slopes of the higher mountains, on which the rain falls
+more abundantly, or the melting snow supplies streams for irrigation.
+It is only in such situations that cultivated lands are found, and
+beyond them trees are hardly to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The portion of Asia which lies between the Arctic Ocean and the
+mountainous belt bounding Manchuria, Mongolia and Turkestan
+on the north is Siberia. It includes an immense high
+and broken plateau which spreads from south-west to
+<span class="sidenote">Siberia.</span>
+north-east, losing in width and altitude as it advances north-east.
+It is fringed on either side by high border ridges, which subside on
+the north-west into a stretch of high plains, 1500 to 2000 ft. high,
+finally dropping to lowlands a few hundred feet above sea-level.
+The extremes of heat and cold are very great. The rainfall, though
+not heavy, is sufficient to maintain such vegetation as is compatible
+with the conditions of temperature, and the surface is often swampy
+or peaty. The mountain-sides are commonly clothed with pine
+forests, and the plains with grasses or shrubs. The population is
+very scanty; the cultivated tracts are comparatively small in extent
+and restricted to the more settled districts. The towns are entirely
+Russian. The indigenous races are nomadic Mongols, of a peaceful
+character, but in a very backward state of civilization. The Ural
+Mountains do not exceed 2000 or 3000 ft. in average altitude, the
+highest summits not exceeding 6000 ft., and one of the passes being
+as low as 1400 ft. In the southern half of the range are the chief
+mining districts of Russia. The Ob, Yenisei and Lena, which traverse
+Siberia, are among the largest rivers in the world.</p>
+
+<p>The southern group of the Malay Archipelago, from Sumatra to
+Java and Timor, extends in the arc of a circle between 95° and
+127° E., and from 5° to 10° S. The central part of the
+<span class="sidenote">Malay Archipelago.</span>
+group is a volcanic region, many of the volcanoes being
+still active, the summits frequently rising to 10,000 ft.
+or more.</p>
+
+<p>Sumatra, the largest of the islands, is but thinly peopled; the
+greater part of the surface is covered with dense forest, the cultivated
+area being comparatively small, confined to the low lands, and chiefly
+in the volcanic region near the centre of the island. Java is the most
+thickly peopled, best cultivated and most advanced island of the
+whole Eastern archipelago. It has attained a high degree of wealth
+and prosperity under the Dutch government. The people are peaceful
+and industrious, and chiefly occupied with agriculture. The
+highest of the volcanic peaks rises to 12,000 ft. above the sea. The
+eastern islands of this group are less productive and less advanced.</p>
+
+<p>Borneo, the most western and the largest of the northern group
+of islands which extends between 110° and 150° E., as far as New
+Guinea or Papua, is but little known. The population is small, rude
+and uncivilized; and the surface is rough and mountainous and
+generally covered with forest except near the coast, to the alluvial
+lands on which settlers have been attracted from various surrounding
+countries. The highest mountain rises to nearly 14,000 ft., but
+the ordinary elevations do not exceed 4000 or 5000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>Of Celebes less is known than of Borneo, which it resembles in
+condition and natural characteristics. The highest known peaks
+rise to 8000 ft., some of them being volcanic.</p>
+
+<p>New Guinea extends almost to the same meridian as the eastern
+coast of Australia, from the north point of which it is separated by
+Torres Straits. Very little is known of the interior. The
+mountains are said to rise to 20,000 ft., having the appearance
+<span class="sidenote">Pacific Islands.</span>
+of being permanently covered with snow; the surface
+seems generally to be clothed with thick wood. The inhabitants are
+of the Negrito type, with curly or crisp and bushy hair; those of
+the west coast have come more into communication with the traders
+of other islands and are fairly civilized. Eastward, many of the
+tribes are barbarous savages.</p>
+
+<p>The Philippine Islands lie between 5° and 20° N., between Borneo
+and southern China. The highest land does not rise to a greater
+height than 10,250 ft.; the climate is well suited for agriculture,
+and the islands generally are fertile and fairly cultivated, though not
+coming up to the standard of Java either in wealth or population.</p>
+
+<p>Formosa, which is situated under the northern tropic, near the coast
+of China, is traversed by a high range of mountains, reaching nearly
+13,000 ft. in elevation. On its western side, which is occupied by
+an immigrant Chinese population, are open and well-cultivated
+plains; on the east it is mountainous, and occupied by independent
+indigenous tribes in a less advanced state.</p>
+
+<p>The islands of Japan, not including Sakhalin, of which half is
+Japanese, lie between the 30th and 45th parallels. The whole group
+is traversed by a line of volcanic mountains, some of which are in
+activity, the highest point being about 13,000 ft. above the sea.
+The country is generally well watered, fertile and well cultivated.
+The Japanese people have added to their ancient civilization and
+their remarkable artistic faculty, an adaptation of Western methods,
+and a capacity for progress in war and commerce, which single them
+out among Eastern races as a great modern world-force.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Exploration</p>
+
+<p>The progress of geodetic surveys in Russia had long ago extended
+across the European half of the great empire, St Petersburg being
+connected with Tiflis on the southern slopes of the Caucasus by a
+direct system of triangulation carried out with the highest scientific
+precision. St Petersburg, again, is connected with Greenwich by
+European systems of triangulation; and the Greenwich meridian
+is adopted by Russia as the zero for all her longitude values. But
+beyond the eastern shores of the Caspian no system of direct geodetic
+measurements by first-class triangulation has been possible, and the
+surveys of Asiatic Russia are separated from those of Europe by the
+width of that inland sea. The arid nature of the trans-Caspian
+deserts has proved an insuperable obstacle to those rigorous methods
+of geodetic survey which distinguish Russian methods in Europe,
+so that Russian geography in central Asia is dependent on other
+means than that of direct measurement for the co-ordinate values
+in latitude and longitude for any given point. The astronomical
+observatory at Tashkent is adopted for the initial starting-point of
+the trans-Caspian triangulation of Russia; the triangulation ranks
+as second-class only, and now extends to the Pamir frontier beyond
+Osh. The longitude of the Tashkent observatory has been determined
+by telegraph differentially with Pulkova as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">H.</td> <td class="tcc">M.</td> <td class="tcc">S.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">In 1875 via Ekaterinburg</td> <td class="tcl">and Omsk</td> <td class="tcl">2</td> <td class="tcc">35</td> <td class="tcc">52.151</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">In 1891 via Saratov</td> <td class="tcl">and Orenburg</td> <td class="tcl">2</td> <td class="tcc">35</td> <td class="tcc">52.228</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">In 1895 via Kiev</td> <td class="tcl">and Baku</td> <td class="tcl">2</td> <td class="tcc">35</td> <td class="tcc">51.997</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">With these three independent values, all falling within a range of 0<span class="sp">S</span>.25,
+it is improbable that the mean value has an error as large as 0<span class="sp">S</span>.10.</p>
+
+<p>Exact surveys in Russia, based upon triangulation, extend as
+far east as Chinese Turkestan in longitude about 75° E.
+of Greenwich. In India geodetic triangulation furnishes
+<span class="sidenote">Extent of exact surveys in Asia.</span>
+the basis for exact surveys as far east as the eastern
+boundaries of Burma in longitude about 100° E.</p>
+
+<p>The close of the 19th century witnessed the forging
+of the final links in the great geodetic triangulation of India, so far
+as the peninsula is concerned. Further geodetic connexion with the
+European systems remains to be accomplished. Since 1890 further
+and more rigorous application of the telegraphic method of determining
+longitudes differentially with Greenwich has resulted in a
+slight correction (amounting to about 2&Prime; of arc) to the previous
+determination by the same method through Suez. This last determination
+was effected through four arcs as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr> <td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl">Greenwich&mdash;Potsdam.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl">Potsdam&mdash;Teheran.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl">Teheran&mdash;Bushire.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl">Bushire&mdash;Karachi.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Each arc was measured with every precaution and a multitude of
+observations. The only element of uncertainty was caused by the
+retardation of the current, which between Potsdam and Teheran
+(3000 m.) took 0<span class="sp">S</span>.20 to travel; but it is probable that the final value
+can be accepted as correct to within 0<span class="sp">S</span>.05.</p>
+
+<p>The final result of this latest determination is to place the Madras
+observatory 2&prime; 27&Prime; to the west of the position adopted for it on the
+strength of absolute astronomical determinations.</p>
+
+<p>But while we have yet to wait for that expansion of principal
+triangulation which will bring Asia into connexion with Europe
+by the direct process of earth measurement, a topographical
+<span class="sidenote">Connexion between Russian and Indian surveys.</span>
+connexion has been effected between Russian
+and Indian surveys which sufficiently proves that the
+deductive methods employed by both countries for the
+determination of the co-ordinate values of fixed points so
+far agree that, for all practical purposes of future Asiatic
+cartography, no difficulty in adjustment between Indian and Russian
+mapping need be apprehended.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with the Indian triangulation minor extensions
+carried out on systems involving more or less irregularity have
+been pushed outwards on all sides. They reach through
+Afghanistan and Baluchistan to the eastern districts of
+<span class="sidenote">Extension of geographical surveys.</span>
+Persia, and along the coast of Makran to that of Arabia.
+They have long ago included the farther mountain
+peaks of Nepal, and they now branch outwards towards
+western China and into Siam. These far extensions furnish the
+basis for a vast amount of exploratory survey of a strictly geographical
+character, and they have contributed largely towards
+raising the standard of accuracy in Asiatic geographical surveys to
+a level which was deemed unattainable fifty years ago. There is
+yet a vast field open in Asia for this class of surveys. While at
+the close of the 19th century western Asia (exclusive of Arabia)
+may be said to have been freed from all geographical perplexity,
+China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia still include enormous areas of
+which geographical knowledge is in a primitive stage of nebulous
+uncertainty.</p>
+
+<p>Of scientific geographical exploration in Asia (beyond the limits of
+actual surveys) the modern period has been so prolific that it is only
+possible to refer in barest outline to some of the principal
+expeditions, most of which have been directed either to
+<span class="sidenote">Indian explorers.</span>
+the great elevated table-land of Tibet or to the central
+depression which exists to the north of it. In southern Tibet the
+trans-Himalayan explorations of the native surveyors attached to
+the Indian survey, notably Pundits Nain Singh and Krishna, added
+largely to our knowledge of the great plateau. Nain Singh explored
+the sources of the Indus and of the Upper Brahmaputra in the years
+1865-1867; and in 1874-1875 he followed a line from the eastern
+frontiers of Kashmir to the Tengri Nor lake and thence to Lhasa, in
+which city he remained for some months. Krishna&rsquo;s remarkable
+journey in 1879-1882 extended from Lhasa northwards through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span>
+Tsaidam to Sachu, or Saitu, in Mongolia. He subsequently passed
+through eastern Tibet to the town of Darchendo, or Tachienlu, on
+the high road between Lhasa and Peking, and on the borders of
+China. Failing to reach India through Upper Assam he returned
+to the neighbourhood of Lhasa, and crossed the Himalayas by a more
+westerly route. Both these explorers visited Lhasa.</p>
+
+<p>In 1871-1873 the great Russian explorer, Nicolai Prjevalsky,
+crossed the Gobi desert from the north to Kansu in western China.
+He first defined the geography of Tsaidam, and mapped
+the hydrography of that remarkable region, from which
+<span class="sidenote">Russian explorers.</span>
+emanate the great rivers of China, Siam and Burma.
+He penetrated southwards to within a month&rsquo;s march of Lhasa.
+In 1876 he visited the Lop Nor and discovered the Altyn Tagh range.
+In 1879 he followed up the Urangi river to the Altai Mountains, and
+demonstrated to the world the extraordinary physical changes which
+have passed over the heart of the Asiatic continent since Jenghiz
+Khan massed his vast armies in those provinces. He crossed, and
+named, the Dzungarian extension of the Gobi desert, and then
+traversed the Gobi itself from Hami to Sachu, which became a point
+of junction between his journeys and those of Krishna. He visited
+the sources of the Hwang-ho (Yellow river) and the Salween, and
+then returned to Russia. His fourth journey in 1883-1885 was to
+Sining (the great trade centre of the Chinese borderland), and thence
+through northern Tibet (crossing the Altyn Tagh to Lop Nor), and
+by the Cherchen-Keriya trade route to Khotan. From Khotan he
+followed the Tarim to Aksu.</p>
+
+<p>Following Prjevalsky the Russian explorers, Pevtsov and Roborovski,
+in 1889-1890 (and again in 1894), added greatly to our knowledge
+of the topography of western Chinese Turkestan and the
+northern borders of Tibet; all these Russian expeditions being conducted
+on scientific principles and yielding results of the highest
+value. Among other distinguished Russian explorers in Asia, the
+names of Lessar, Annentkov (who bridged the Trans-Caspian deserts
+by a railway), P.K. Kozlov and Potanin are conspicuous during the
+19th century.</p>
+
+<p>Although the establishment of a lucrative trade between India
+and central Asia had been the dream of many successive Indian
+viceroys, and much had been done towards improving
+the approaches to Simla from the north, very little was
+<span class="sidenote">Other explorations in central Asia.</span>
+really known of the highlands of the Pamirs, or of the
+regions of the great central depression, before the mission of
+Sir Douglas Forsyth to Yarkand in 1870. Robert Barkley
+Shaw and George Hayward were the European pioneers
+of geography into the central dominion of Kashgar, arriving at
+Yarkand within a few weeks of each other in 1868. Shaw subsequently
+accompanied Forsyth&rsquo;s mission in 1870, when Henry Trotter
+made the first maps of Chinese Turkestan. The next great accession
+to our knowledge of central Asiatic geography was gained with the
+Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886, when Afghan
+Turkestan and the Oxus regions were mapped by Colonel Sir T.H.
+Holdich, Colonel St George Gore and Sir Adelbert Talbot; and when
+Ney Elias crossed from China through the Pamirs and Badakshan
+to the camp of the commission, identifying the great &ldquo;Dragon
+Lake,&rdquo; Rangkul, on his way. About the same time a mission,
+under Captain (afterwards Sir Willaim) Lockhart, crossed the Hindu
+Kush into Wakhan, and returned to India by the Bashgol valley
+of Kafiristan. This was Colonel Woodthorpe&rsquo;s opportunity, and he
+was then enabled to verify the results of W.W. M&lsquo;Nair&rsquo;s previous
+explorations, and to determine the conformation of the Hindu Kush.
+In 1885 Arthur Douglas Carey and Andrew Dalgleish, following
+more or less the tracks of Prjevalsky, contributed much that was
+new to the map of Asia; and in 1886 Captain (afterwards Sir Francis)
+Younghusband completed a most adventurous journey across the
+heart of the continent by crossing the Muztagh, the great mountain
+barrier between China and Kashmir.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1886-1887 that Pierre G. Bonvalot, accompanied by
+Prince Henri d&rsquo;Orléans, crossed the Tibetan plateau from north
+to south but failed to enter Lhasa. In 1889-1891 the
+American traveller, W.W. Rockhill, commenced his
+<span class="sidenote">Tibetan explorations.</span>
+Tibetan journeys, and also attempted to reach Lhasa,
+without success. By his writings, as much as by his
+explorations, Rockhill has made his name great in the annals of
+Asiatic research. In 1891 Hamilton Bower made his famous journey
+from Leh to Peking. He, too, failed to penetrate the jealously-guarded
+portals of Lhasa; but he secured (with the assistance of
+a native surveyor) a splendid addition to our previous Tibetan
+mapping. In 1891-1892-1893 the gallant French explorer, Dutreuil
+de Rhins, was in the field of Tibet, where he finally sacrificed his life
+to his work; and the same years saw George N. (afterwards Lord)
+Curzon in the Pamirs, and St George Littledale on his first great
+Tibetan journey, accompanied by his wife. Littledale&rsquo;s first journey
+ended at Peking; his second, in 1894-1895, took him almost within
+sight of the sacred walls of Lhasa, but he failed to pass inside. Greatest
+among modern Asiatic explorers (if we except Prjevalsky) is the
+brave Swede, Professor Sven Hedin, whose travels through the deserts
+of Takla Makan and Tibet, and whose investigations in the glacial
+regions of the Sarikol mountains, occupied him from 1894 to 1896.
+His is a truly monumental record. From 1896 to 1898 we find two
+British cavalry officers taking the front position in the list of Tibetan
+travellers-Captain M.S. Wellby of the 18th Hussars and Captain
+H. Deasy of the 16th Lancers, each striking out a new line, and
+rendering most valuable service to geography. The latter continued
+the Pamir triangulation, which had been carried across the Hindu
+Kush by Colonels Sir T.H. Holdich and R.A. Wahab during the
+Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895, into the plains of Kashgar
+and to the sources of the Zarafshan.</p>
+
+<p>Since the beginning of the century the work of Deasy in western
+Tibet has been well extended by Dr M.A. Stein and Captain C.
+G. Rawling, who have increased our knowledge of ancient fields
+of industry and commerce in Turkestan and Tibet. Ellsworth
+Huntington threw new light on the Tian-shan plateau and the Alai
+range by his explorations of 1903; and Sven Hedin, between 1899
+and 1902, was collecting material in Turkestan and Tibetan fields,
+and resumed his journeys in 1905-1908, the result being to revolutionize
+our knowledge of the region north of the upper Tsanpo
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tibet</a></span>). The mission of Sir Francis Younghusband to Lhasa in
+1904 resulted in an extension of the Indian system of triangulation
+which finally determined the geographical position of that city, and in
+a most valuable reconnaissance of the valleys of the Upper Brahmaputra
+and Indus by Captains C.H.D. Ryder and C.G. Rawling.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in the Farther East so rapid has been the progress of
+geographical research since the first beginnings of investigation into
+the route connexion between Burma and China in 1874
+(when the brave Augustus Margary lost his life), that a
+<span class="sidenote">Chinese explorations.</span>
+gradually increasing tide of exploration, setting from
+east to west and back again, has culminated in a flood
+of inquiring experts intent on economic and commercial development
+in China, essaying to unlock those doors to trade which are
+hereafter to be propped open for the benefit of humanity. Captain
+William Gill, of the Indian survey, first made his way across China
+to eastern Tibet and Burma, and subsequently delighted the world
+with his story of the <i>River of Golden Sand</i>. Then followed another
+charming writer, E.C. Baber, who, in 1877-1878, unravelled the
+geographic mysteries of the western provinces of the Celestial
+empire. Mark Bell crossed the continent in 1887 and illustrated
+its ancient trade routes, following the steps of Archibald Colquhoun,
+who wandered from Peking to Talifu in 1881. Meanwhile, the
+acquisition of Burma and the demarcation of boundaries had opened
+the way to the extension of geographical surveys in directions
+hitherto untraversed. Woodthorpe was followed into Burmese
+fields by many others; and amongst the earliest travellers to those
+mysterious mountains which hide the sources of the Irrawaddy, the
+Salween and the Mekong, was Prince Henri d&rsquo;Orleans. Burma
+was rapidly brought under survey; Siam was already in the map-making
+hands of James M&rsquo;Carthy, whilst Curzon and Warrington
+Smyth added much to our knowledge of its picturesque coast districts.
+No more valuable contribution to the illustration of western Chinese
+configuration has been given to the public than that of C.C. Manifold
+who explored and mapped the upper basin of the Yang-tsze river
+between the years 1900 and 1904, whilst our knowledge of the
+geography of the Russo-Chinese borderland on the north-east has
+been largely advanced by the operations attending the Russo-Japanese
+war which terminated in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>Turning our attention westwards, no advance in the progress of
+scientific geography is more remarkable than that recorded on the
+northern and north-western frontiers of India. Here
+there is little matter of exploration. It has rather been a
+<span class="sidenote">Indian frontiers&mdash;Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia.</span>
+wide extension of scientific geographical mapping.
+Afghan war of 1878-80; the Russo-Afghan Boundary
+Commission of 1884-1885; the occupation of Gilgit and
+Chitral; the extension of boundaries east and north of
+Afghanistan, and again, between Baluchistan and Persia&mdash;these,
+added to the opportunities afforded by the
+systematic survey of Baluchistan which has been steadily progressing
+since 1880&mdash;combined to produce a series of geographical maps
+which extend from the Oxus to the Indus, and from the Indus
+to the Euphrates.</p>
+
+<p>In these professional labours the Indian surveyors have been
+assisted by such scientific geographers as General Sir A. Houtum
+Schindler, Captain H.B. Vaughan and Major Percy M. Sykes in
+Persia, and by Sir George Robertson and Cockerill in Kafiristan and
+the Hindu Kush.</p>
+
+<p>In still more western fields of research much additional light has
+been thrown since 1875 on the physiography of the great deserts and
+oases of Arabia. The labours of Charles Doughty and
+Wilfrid S. Blunt in northern Arabia in 1877-1878 were
+<span class="sidenote">Arabia.</span>
+followed by those of G. Schweinfurth and E. Glaser in the south-west
+about ten years later. In 1884-1885 Colonel S.B. Miles made his
+adventurous journey through Oman, while Theodore Bent threw
+searchlights backwards into ancient Semitic history by his investigations
+in the Bahrein Islands in 1888 and in Hadramut in 1894-1895.</p>
+
+<p>In northern Asia it is impossible to follow in detail the results
+of the organized Russian surveys. The vast steppes and forest-clad
+mountain regions of Siberia have assumed a new geographical
+aspect in the light of these revelations, and
+<span class="sidenote">Northern Asia, Siberia, &amp;c.</span>
+already promise a new world of economic resources
+to Russian enterprise in the near future. A remarkable
+expedition by Baron Toll in 1892 through the regions
+watered by the Lena, resulted in the collection of material which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span>
+will greatly help to elucidate some of the problems which beset
+the geological history of the world, proving <i>inter alia</i> the primeval
+existence of a boreal zone of the Jurassic sea round the North Pole.</p>
+
+<p>In no other period of the world&rsquo;s history, of equal length of time,
+has so much scientific enterprise been directed towards the field of
+Asiatic inquiry. The first great result of recent geographical
+research has been to modify pre-existing ideas of
+<span class="sidenote">General results of investigation.</span>
+the orography of the vast central region represented by
+Tibet and Mongolia. The great highland plateau which
+stretches from the Himalaya northwards to Chinese
+Turkestan, and from the frontier of Kashmir eastwards to China,
+has now been defined with comparative geographical exactness.
+The position of Sachu (or Saitu) in Mongolia may be taken as an
+obligatory point in modern map construction. The longitude value
+now adopted is 94° 54&prime; E. of Greenwich, which is the revised value
+given by Prjevalsky in the map accompanying the account of his
+fourth exploration into central Asia. Other values are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Prjevalsky, by his second and third explorations</td> <td class="tcl">94° 26&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Krishna</td> <td class="tcl">94° 23&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carey and Dalgleish</td> <td class="tcl">94° 48&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Littledale</td> <td class="tcl">94° 49&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kreitner (with Szecheny&rsquo;s expedition)</td> <td class="tcl">94° 58&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The longitude of Darchendo, or Tachienlu, on the extreme east,
+may be accepted as another obligatory point. The adopted value
+by the Royal Geographical Society is 102° 12&Prime;. Krishna gives
+102° 15&Prime;, Kreitner 102° 5&Prime;, Baber 102° 18&Prime;.</p>
+
+<p>South and west the bounding territories are well fixed in geographical
+position by the Indian survey determinations of the value
+of Himalayan peaks. On the north the Chinese Turkestan explorations
+are now brought into survey connexion with Kashmir and
+India.</p>
+
+<p>No longer do we regard the Kuen-lun mountains, which extend
+from the frontiers of Kashmir, north of Leh, almost due east to the
+Chinese province of Kansu, as the southern limit of the Gobi or
+Turkestan depression. This very remarkable longitudinal chain is
+undoubtedly the northern limit of the Chang Tang, the elevated
+highland steppes of Tibet; but from it there branches a minor
+system to the north-east from a point in about 83° E. longitude,
+which culminates in the Altyn Tagh, and extends eastwards in a
+continuous water-divide to the Nan Shan mountains, north of the
+Koko Nor basin. Thus between Tibet and the low-lying sands
+of Gobi we have, thrust in, a system of elevated valleys (Tsaidam),
+8000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, forming an intermediate steppe
+between the highest regions and the lowest, east of Lop Nor. All
+this is comparatively new geography, and it goes far to explain why
+the great trade routes from Peking to the west were pushed so far
+to the north.</p>
+
+<p>On the western edge of the Kashgar plains, the political boundary
+between Russia and China is defined by the meridional range of
+Sarikol. This range (known to the ancients as Taurus
+and in medieval times as Bolor) like many others of the
+<span class="sidenote">Russo-Chinese boundary.</span>
+most important great natural mountain divisions of the
+world, consists of two parallel chains, of which the western
+is the water-divide of the Pamirs, and the eastern (which has been
+known as the Kashgar or Kandar range) is split at intervals by
+lateral gorges to allow of the passage of the main drainage from the
+eastern Pamir slopes.</p>
+
+<p>In western Asia we have learned the exact value of the mountain
+barrier which lies between Merv and Herat, and have mapped
+its connexion with the Elburz of Persia. We can now
+fully appreciate the factor in practical politics which
+<span class="sidenote">Indian frontiers&mdash;Afghanistan, &amp;c.</span>
+that definite but somewhat irregular mountain system
+represents which connects the water-divide north of
+Herat with the southern abutment of the Hindu Kush,
+near Bamian. Every pass of importance is known and recorded;
+every route of significance has been explored and mapped; Afghanistan
+has assumed a new political entity by the demarcation of
+a boundary; the value of Herat and of the Pamirs as bases of
+aggression has been assessed, and the whole intervening space of
+mountain and plain thoroughly examined.</p>
+
+<p>Although within the limits of western Asiatic states, still under
+Asiatic government and beyond the active influence of European
+interests, the material progress of the Eastern world has
+appeared to remain stationary, yet large accessions to
+<span class="sidenote">Persia.</span>
+geographical knowledge have at least been made, and in some instances
+a deeper knowledge of the surface of the country and modern
+conditions of life has led to the straightening of many crooked paths
+in history, and a better appreciation of the slow processes of advancing
+civilization. The steady advance of scientific inquiry into
+every corner of Persia, backed by the unceasing efforts of a new
+school of geographical explorers, has left nothing unexamined that
+can be subjected to superficial observation. The geographical map
+of the country is fairly complete, and with it much detailed information
+is now accessible regarding the coast and harbours of the
+Persian Gulf, the routes and passes of the interior, and the possibilities
+of commercial development by the construction of trade
+roads uniting the Caspian, the Karun, the Persian Gulf, and India,
+via Seistan. Persia has assumed a comprehensible position as a
+factor in future Eastern politics.</p>
+
+<p>In Arabia progress has been slower, although the surveys carried
+out by Colonel Wahab in connexion with the boundary determined
+in the Aden hinterland added more exact geographical
+knowledge within a limited area. Little more is known
+<span class="sidenote">Arabia.</span>
+of the wide spaces of interior desert than has already been given to
+the world in the works of Sir Richard F. Burton, Wm. Gifford
+Palgrave and Sir Lewis Pelly amongst Englishmen, and Karsten
+Niebuhr, John Lewis Burckhardt, Visconte, Joseph Halévy and
+others, amongst foreign travellers. Charles Doughty and Wilfrid
+S. Blunt have visited and illustrated the district of Nejd, and described
+the waning glories of the Wahabi empire. But extended
+geographical knowledge does not point to any great practical issue.
+Commercial relations with Arabia remain much as they were in 1875.</p>
+
+<p>In Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia there is little to record
+of progress in material development beyond the promises held
+out by the Euphrates Valley railway concession to a
+<span class="sidenote">Asia Minor, &amp;c.</span>
+German company. The exact information obtained by
+the researches of English surveyors in Palestine and
+beyond Jordan, or by the efforts of explorers in the regions that lie
+between the Mediterranean and the Caspian, have so far led rather
+to the elucidation of history than to fresh commercial enterprise or
+the possible increase of material wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Asiatic Russia, especially eastern Siberia and Mongolia, have
+been brought within the sphere of Russian exploration, with results
+so surprising as to form an epoch in the history of Asia.
+<span class="sidenote">Russia in Asia.</span>
+Here there has been a development of the resources
+of the Old World which parallels the best records of the
+New.</p>
+
+<p>The great central depression of the continent which reaches from
+the foot of the Pamir plateau on the west through the Tarim desert
+to Lop Nor and the Gobi has yielded up many interesting
+secrets. The remarkable phenomenon of the periodic
+<span class="sidenote">Chinese Turkestan and Oxus basin.</span>
+shifting of the Lop Nor system has been revealed by the
+researches of Sven Hedin, and the former existence of
+highly civilized centres of Buddhist art and industry in
+the now sand-strewn wastes of the Turkestan desert has been clearly
+demonstrated by the same great explorer and by Dr M.A. Stein.
+The depression westward of the Caspian and Aral basins, and the
+original connexion of these seas, have also come under the close
+investigation of Russian scientists, with the result that the theory
+of an ancient connexion between the Oxus and the Caspian has been
+displaced by the more recent hypothesis of an extension of the
+Caspian Sea eastwards into Trans-Caspian territory within the
+post-Pleiocene age. The discovery of shells (now living in the Caspian)
+at a distance of about 100 m. inland, at an altitude of 140 to 280 ft.
+above the present level of the Caspian, gives support to this hypothesis,
+which is further advanced by the ascertained nature of the
+Kara-kum sands, which appear to be a purely marine formation
+exhibiting no traces of fluviatile deposits which might be considered
+as delta deposits of the Oxus.</p>
+
+<p>In the discussion of this problem we find the names of Baron A.
+Kaulbars, Annentkov, P.M. Lessar, and A.M. Konshin prominent.
+Further matter of interest in connexion with the Oxus basin was
+elucidated by the researches of L. Griesbach in connexion with the
+Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission. He reported the gradual
+formation of an anticlinal or ridge extending longitudinally through
+the great Balkh plain of Afghan Turkestan, which effectually shuts
+off the northern affluents of that basin from actual junction with the
+river. This evidence of a gradual process of upheaval still in action
+may throw some light on the physical (especially the climatic) changes
+which must have passed over that part of Asia since Balkh was the
+&ldquo;mother of cities,&rdquo; the great trade centre of Asia, and the plains of
+Balkh were green with cultivation. In the restoration of the outlines
+of ancient and medieval geography in Asia Sven Hedin&rsquo;s discoveries
+of the actual remains of cities which have long been buried
+under the advancing waves of sand in the Takla Makan desert,
+cities which flourished in the comparatively recent period of Buddhist
+ascendancy in High Asia, is of the very highest interest, filling
+up a blank in the identification of sites mentioned by early geographers
+and illustrating more fully the course of old pilgrim routes.</p>
+
+<p>With the completion of the surveys of Baluchistan and Makran
+much light has also been thrown on the ancient connexion between
+<span class="sidenote">Baluchistan and Makran.</span>
+east and west; and the final settlement of the southern
+boundaries of Afghanistan has led to the reopening of
+one at least of the old trade routes between Seistan
+and India.</p>
+
+<p>Farther east no part of Asia has been brought under more careful
+investigation than the hydrography of the strange mountain
+wilderness that divides Tibet and Burma from China.
+In this field the researches of travellers already mentioned,
+<span class="sidenote">Burma and China.</span>
+combined with the more exact reconnaissance
+of native surveyors and of those exploring parties which have
+recently been working in the interests of commercial projects, have
+left little to future inquiry. We know now for certain that the great
+Tsanpo of Tibet and the Brahmaputra are one and the same river;
+that north of the point where the great countermarch of that river
+from east to west is effected are to be found the sources of the
+Salween, the Mekong, the Yang-tsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho, or
+Yellow river, in order, from west to east; and that south of it, thrust
+in between the extreme eastern edge of the Brahmaputra basin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span>
+and the Salween, rise the dual sources of the Irrawaddy. From the
+water-divide which separates the most eastern affluent of the
+Brahmaputra, eastwards to the deep gorges which enclose the most
+westerly branch of the upper Yang-tsze-kiang (here running from
+north to south), is a short space of 100 m.; and within that space
+two mighty rivers, the Salween and the Mekong, send down their
+torrents to Burma and Siam. These three rivers flow parallel to each
+other for some 300 m., deep hidden in narrow and precipitous troughs,
+amidst some of the grandest scenery of Asia; spreading apart
+where the Yank-tsze takes its course eastwards, not far north of
+the parallel of 25°.</p>
+
+<p>The comparatively restricted area which still remains for close
+investigation includes the most easterly sources of the Brahmaputra,
+the most northerly sources of the Irrawaddy, and some 300 m. of
+the course of the upper Salween.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Boundary Demarcation</i>.&mdash;The period from about 1880
+has been an era of boundary-making in Asia, of defining the
+politico-geographical limits of empire, and of determining the responsibilities
+of government. Russia, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, India
+and China have all revised their borders, and with the revision the
+political relations between these countries have acquired a new
+and more assured basis. See also the articles on the different
+countries. We are not here concerned with understandings as to
+&ldquo;spheres of influence,&rdquo; or with arrangements such as the
+Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 concerning Persia.</p>
+
+<p>The advance of Russia to the Turkoman deserts and the Oxus
+demanded a definite boundary between her trans-Caspian conquests
+and the kingdom of Afghanistan. This was determined
+on the north-west by the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
+<span class="sidenote">Southern boundary of Russia in Asia.</span>
+of 1884-1886. A boundary was then fixed
+between the Hari Rud (the river of Herat) and the Oxus,
+which is almost entirely artificial in its construction.
+Zulfikar, where the boundary leaves the Hari Rud, is about 70 m.
+south of Sarakhs, and the most southerly point of the boundary
+(where it crosses the Kushk) is about 60 m. north of Herat. From
+the junction of the boundary with the Oxus at Khamiab about
+150 m. above the crossing-point of the Russian Trans-Caspian
+railway at Charjui, the main channel of the Oxus river becomes the
+northern boundary of Afghanistan, separating that country from
+Russia, and so continues to its source in Victoria Lake of the Great
+Pamir. Beyond this point the Anglo-Russian Commission of 1895
+demarcated a line to the snowfields and glaciers which overlook the
+Chinese border. Between the Russian Pamirs and Chinese Turkestan
+the rugged line of the Sarikol range intervenes, the actual
+dividing line being still indefinite. Beyond Kashgar the southern
+boundary of Siberia follows an irregular course to the north-east,
+partly defined by the Tian-shan and Alatau mountains, till it attains
+a northerly point in about 53° N. lat. marked by the Sayan range
+to the west of Irkutsk. It then deflects south-east till it touches
+the Kerulen affluent of the Amur river at a point which is shown
+in unofficial maps as about 117° 30&prime; E. long, and 49° 20&prime; N. lat.
+From here it follows this affluent to its junction with the Amur river,
+and the Amur river to its junction with the Usuri. It follows the
+Usuri to its head (its direction now being a little west of south),
+and finally strikes the Pacific coast on about 42° 30&prime; N. lat. at the
+mouth of the Tumen river 100 m. south of the Amur bay, at the head
+of which lies the Russian port of Vladivostok. At two points the
+Russian boundary nearly approaches that of provinces which are
+directly under British suzerainty. Where the Oxus river takes its
+great bend to the north from Ishkashim, the breadth of the Afghan
+territory intervening between that river and the main water-divide
+of the Hindu Kush is not more than 10 or 12 m.; and east of the
+Pamir extension of Afghanistan, where the Beyik Pass crosses
+the Sarikol range and drops into the Taghdumbash Pamir, there
+is but the narrow width of the Karachukar valley between the
+Sarikol and the Muztagh. Here, however, the boundary is again
+undefined. Eastwards of this the great Kashgar depression, which
+includes the Tarim desert, separates Russia from the vast sterile
+highlands of Tibet; and a continuous series of desert spaces of low
+elevation, marking the limits of a primeval inland sea from the
+Sarikol meridional watershed to the Khingan mountains on the
+western borders of Manchuria, divide her from the northern provinces
+of China. From the Khingan ranges to the Pacific, south
+of the Amur, stretch the rich districts of Manchuria, a province
+which connects Russia with the Korea by a series of valleys formed
+by the Sungari and its affluents&mdash;a land of hill and plain, forest
+and swamp, possessing a delightful climate, and vast undeveloped
+agricultural resources. Throughout this land of promise Russian
+influence was destroyed by Japan in the war of 1904. The possession
+of Port Arthur, and direct political control over Korea, place
+Japan in the dominant position as regards Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p>Coincident with the demarcation of Russian boundaries in Turkestan
+was that of northern Afghanistan. From the Hari Rud on the
+west to the Sarikol mountains on the east her northern
+limits were set by the Boundary Commissions of 1884-1886
+<span class="sidenote">Afghan political boundaries.</span>
+and of 1895 respectively. Her southern and eastern
+boundaries were further defined by a series of minor
+commissions, working on the basis of the Kabul agreement
+of 1893, which lasted for nearly four years, terminating with the
+Mohmand settlement at the close of an expedition in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>The Pamir extension of Afghan territory to the north-east reaches
+to a point a little short of 75° E., from whence it follows the water-divide to the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, and is thenceforward
+defined by the water-parting of the Hindu Kush. It leaves the
+Hindu Kush near the Dorah Pass at the head of one of the minor
+Chitral affluents, and passing south-west divides Kafiristan from
+Chitral and Bajour, separates the sections of the Mohmands who
+are within the respective spheres of Afghan and British sovereignty,
+and crosses the Peshawar-Kabul route at Lundi-Khana. It thus
+places a broad width of independent territory between the boundaries
+of British India (which have remained practically, though not
+absolutely, untouched) and Afghanistan; and this independent
+belt includes Swat, Bajour and a part of the Mohmand territory
+north of the Kabul river. The same principle of maintaining an
+intervening width of neutral territory between the two countries
+is definitely established throughout the eastern borders of Afghanistan,
+along the full length of which a definite boundary has been
+demarcated to the point where it touches the northern limits of
+Baluchistan on the Gomal river. From the Gomal Baluchistan
+itself becomes an intervening state between British India and
+Afghanistan, and the dividing line between Baluchistan and
+Afghanistan is laid down with all the precision employed on the more
+northerly sections of the demarcation.</p>
+
+<p>Baluchistan can no longer be regarded as a distinct entity amongst
+Asiatic nations, such as Afghanistan undoubtedly is. Baluchistan
+independence demands qualification. There is British
+Baluchistan <i>par excellence</i>, and there is the rest of Baluchistan which exists in various degrees of independence, but
+<span class="sidenote">Baluchistan.</span>
+is everywhere subject to British control. British Baluchistan officially includes the districts of Peshin, Sibi and of
+Thal-Chotiali. As these districts had originally been Afghan, they were transferred to British
+authority by the treaty of Gandamak in 1879, although nominally
+they had been handed over to Kalat forty years previously. Now
+they form an official province of British Baluchistan within the
+Baluchistan Agency; and the agency extends from the Gomal to
+the Arabian Sea and the Persian frontier. Within this agency there
+are districts as independent as any in Afghanistan, but the political
+status of the province as a whole is almost precisely that of the native states of the Indian peninsula. The agent to the
+governor-general of India, with a staff of political assistants, practically exercises supreme control.</p>
+
+<p>The increase of Russian influence on the northern Persian border
+and its extension southwards towards Seistan led to the appointment
+of a British consul at Kirman, the dominating
+<span class="sidenote">Kirman.</span>
+town of southern Khorasan, directly connected with
+Meshed on the north; and the acquisition of rights of administration
+of the Nushki district secured to Great Britain the trade
+between Seistan and Quetta by the new Helmund desert route.</p>
+
+<p>While British India has so far avoided actual geographical contact
+with one great European power in Asia on the north and west,
+she has touched another on the east. The Mekong river
+which limits British interests in Burma limits also those
+<span class="sidenote">Boundary between French territory and India.</span>
+of France in Tongking. The eastern boundaries of
+Burma are not yet fully demarcated on the Chinese
+frontier. At a point level in latitude with Mogaung,
+near the northern termination of the Burmese railway
+system, this boundary is defined by the eastern watershed of the
+Nmaikha, the eastern of the two great northern affluents of the
+Irrawaddy. Then it follows an irregular course southwards to a
+position south-east of Bhamo in lat. 24°. It next defines the northern
+edge of the Shan States, and finally strikes the Mekong river in
+lat. 21° 45&prime; (approximately). From that point southwards the river
+becomes the boundary between the Shan States and Tongking for
+some 200 m., the channel of the river defining the limits of occupation
+(though not entirely of interest) between French and British subjects.
+Approximately on the parallel of 20° N. lat. the Burmese boundary
+leaves the Mekong to run westwards towards the Salween, and thereafter
+following the eastern watershed of the Salween basin it divides
+the Lower Burma provinces from Siam.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the areas of territories in Asia
+<span class="sidenote">Area and political division.</span>
+(continental and insular) dependent on the various extra-Asiatic
+powers, and of those which are independent or
+nominally so:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%; clear: both;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;Territory</td> <td class="tcr">Sq. m.&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Russian</td> <td class="tcr cl">6,495,970</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">British</td> <td class="tcr">1,998,220</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Dutch</td> <td class="tcr cl">586,980</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">French</td> <td class="tcr">247,580</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">U.S.A.</td> <td class="tcr cl">114,370</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">German</td> <td class="tcr">193</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Turkish</td> <td class="tcr cl">681,980</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chinese</td> <td class="tcr">4,299,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Japanese</td> <td class="tcr cl">161,110</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Other independent territories</td> <td class="tcr">2,232,270</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The total area of Asia, continental and insular, is therefore somewhat
+over 16,819,000 sq. m. (but various authorities differ considerably
+in their detailed estimates). The population may be set down
+roughly as 823,000,000, of which 330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory,
+302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000 Russian.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span></p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:851px" src="images/img742.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Geology</p>
+
+<p>The geology of Asia is so complex and over wide areas so little
+known that it is difficult to give a connected account of either the
+structure or the development of the continent, and only the broader
+features can be dealt with here.</p>
+
+<p>In the south, in Syria, Arabia and the peninsula of India, none
+but the oldest rocks are folded, and the Upper Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic
+and the Tertiary beds lie almost horizontally upon them. It is
+a region of quiescence or of faulting, but not of folding. North of
+this lies a broad belt in which the Mesozoic deposits and even the
+lower divisions of the Tertiary system are thrown into folds which
+extend in a series of arcs from west to east and now form the principal
+mountain ranges of central Asia. This belt includes Asia Minor,
+Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, the Himalayas, the Tian-shan,
+and, although they are very different in direction, the Burmese
+ranges. The Kuen-lun, Nan-shan and the mountain ranges of
+southern China are, perhaps, of earlier date, but nevertheless they
+be in the same belt. It is not true that throughout the whole width
+of this zone the beds are folded. There are considerable tracts
+which are but little disturbed, but these tracts are enclosed within
+the arcs formed by the folds, and the zone taken as a whole is distinctly
+one of crumpling. North of the folded belt, and including
+the greater part of Siberia, Mongolia and northern China, lies another
+area which is, in general, free from any important folding of Mesozoic
+or Tertiary age. There are, it is true, mountain ranges which are
+formed of folded beds; but in many cases the direction of the chains
+is different from that of the folds, so that the ranges must owe their
+elevation to other causes; and the folds, moreover, are of ancient
+date, for the most part Archaean or Palaeozoic. The configuration
+of the region is largely due to faulting, trough-like or tray-like
+depressions being formed, and the intervening strips, which have
+not been depressed, standing up as mountain ridges. Over a large
+part of Siberia and in the north of China, even the Cambrian beds
+still lie as horizontally as they were first laid down. In the extreme
+north, in the Verkhoyansk range and in the mountains of the Taimyr
+peninsula, there are indications of another zone of folding of Mesozoic
+or later date, but our information concerning these ranges is
+very scanty. Besides the three chief regions into which the mainland
+is thus seen to be divided, attention should be drawn to the festoons
+of islands which border the eastern side of the continent, and which
+are undoubtedly due to causes similar to those which produced the
+folds of the folded belt.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the Asiatic ranges the Himalayan is, geologically, the best
+known; and the evidence which it affords shows clearly that the
+folds to which it owes its elevation were produced by an overthrust
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span>
+from the north. It is, indeed, as if the high land of central Asia had
+been pushed southward against and over the unyielding mass formed
+by the old rocks of the Indian peninsula, and in the process the edges
+of the over-riding strata had been crumpled and folded. Overlooking
+all smaller details, we may consider Asia to consist of a northern
+mass and a southern mass, too rigid to crumple, but not too strong
+to fracture, and an intermediate belt of softer rock which was capable
+of folding. If then by the contraction of the earth&rsquo;s interior the outer
+crust were forced to accommodate itself to a smaller nucleus, the
+central softer belt would yield by crumpling, the more rigid masses
+to the north and south, if they gave way at all, would yield by
+faulting. It is interesting to observe, as will be shown later, that
+during the Mesozoic era there was a land mass in the north of Asia
+and another in the south, and between them lay the sea in which
+ordinary marine sediments were deposited. The belt of folding
+does not precisely coincide with this central sea, but the
+correspondence is fairly close.</p>
+
+<p>The present outline of the eastern coast and the nearly enclosed
+seas which lie between the islands and the mainland, are attributed
+by Richthofen chiefly to simple faulting.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the early geological history of Asia beyond the
+fact that a large part of the continent was covered by the sea during
+the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. But there is positive evidence
+that much of the north and east of Asia has been land since the
+Palaeozoic era, and it has been conclusively proved that the peninsula
+of India has never been beneath the sea since the Carboniferous
+period at least. Between these ancient land masses lies an area in
+which marine deposits of Mesozoic age are well developed and which
+was evidently beneath the sea during the greater part of the Mesozoic
+era. The northern land mass has been named Angaraland by
+E. Suess; the southern, of which the Indian peninsula is but a
+fragment, is called Gondwanaland by Neumayr, Suess and others,
+while the intervening sea is the central Mediterranean sea of
+Neumayr and the Tethys of Suess. The greater part of western
+Asia, including the basin of the Obi, the drainage area of the Aral
+Sea, together with Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia and Arabia, was
+covered by the sea during the later stages of the Cretaceous period,
+but a considerable part of this region was probably dry land in
+Jurassic times.</p>
+
+<p>The northern land mass begins in the north with the area which
+lies between the Yenisei and the Lena. Here the folded Archean
+rocks are overlaid by Cambrian and Ordovician beds, which still
+lie for the most part flat and undisturbed. Upon these rest patches
+of freshwater deposits containing numerous remains of plants.
+They consist chiefly of sandstone and conglomerate, but include
+workable seams of coal. Some of the deposits appear to be of
+Permian age, but others are probably Jurassic, and they are all
+included under the general name of the Angara series. Excepting
+in the extreme north, where marine Jurassic and Cretaceous fossils
+have been found, there is no evidence that this part of Siberia has
+been beneath the sea since the early part of the Palaeozoic era.
+Besides the plant beds extensive outflows of basic lava rest directly
+upon the Cambrian and Ordovician strata. The date of these
+eruptions is still uncertain, but they probably continued to a very
+recent period.</p>
+
+<p>South and east of the Palaeozoic plateau is an extensive area
+consisting chiefly of Archean rocks, and including the greater part
+of Mongolia north of the Tian-shan. Here again there are no marine
+beds of Mesozoic or Tertiary age, while plant-bearing deposits
+belonging to the Angara series are known. Structurally, the folds
+of this region are of ancient date, but the area is crossed by a series
+of depressions formed by faults, and the intervening strips, which
+have not been depressed to the same extent, now stand up as mountain
+ranges. Farther south, in the Chinese provinces of Shansi and
+Shensi, the geological succession is similar in some respects to that
+of the Siberian Palaeozoic plateau, but the sequence is more complete.
+There is again a floor of folded Archean rocks overlaid by nearly
+horizontal strata of Lower Palaeozoic age, but these are followed
+by marine beds belonging to the Carboniferous period. From the
+Upper Carboniferous onward, however, no marine deposits are
+known; and, as in Siberia, plant bearing beds are met with.
+Southern China is very different in structure, consisting largely of
+folded mountain chains; but the geological succession is very similar,
+and excepting near the Tibetan and Burmese borders, there are no
+marine deposits of Mesozoic or Tertiary age.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it appears that from the Arctic Ocean there stretches a broad
+area as far as the south of China, in which no marine deposits of
+later date than Carboniferous have yet been found, except in the
+extreme north. Freshwater and terrestrial deposits of Mesozoic age
+occur in many places, and the conclusion is irresistible that the
+greater part of this area has been land since the close of the
+Palaeozoic era. The Triassic deposits of the Verkhoyansk Range show that
+this land did not extend to the Bering Sea, while the marine Mesozoic
+deposits of Japan on the east, the western Tian-shan on the west and
+Tibet on the south give us some idea of its limits in other directions.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way the entire absence of any marine fossils in the
+peninsula of India, excepting near its borders, and the presence of
+the terrestrial and freshwater deposits of the Gondwana series,
+representing the whole of the geological scale from the top of the
+Carboniferous to the top of the Jurassic, show that this region also
+has been land since the Carboniferous period. It was a portion
+of a great land mass which probably extended across the Indian
+Ocean and was at one time united with the south of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>But these two land masses were not connected. Between India
+and China there is a broad belt in which marine deposits of Mesozoic
+and Tertiary age are well developed. Marine Tertiary beds occur
+in Burma; in the Himalayas and in south Tibet there is a nearly
+complete series of marine deposits from the Carboniferous to the
+Eocene; in Afghanistan the Mesozoic beds are in part marine and
+in part fluviatile. The sea in which these strata were deposited
+seems to have attained its greatest extension in Upper Cretaceous
+times when its waters spread over the whole of western Asia and
+even encroached slightly upon the Indian land. The Eocene sea
+however cannot have been much inferior in extent.</p>
+
+<p>It was after the Eocene period that the main part of the elevation
+of the Himalayas took place, as is shown by the occurrence of
+nummulitic limestone at a height of 20,000 ft. The formation of this
+and of the other great mountain chains of central Asia resulted in
+the isolation of portions of the former central sea, and the same
+forces finally led to the elevation of the whole region and the union
+of the old continents of Angara and Gondwana. Gondwanaland,
+however, did not long survive, and the portion which lay between
+India and South Africa sank beneath the waves in Tertiary times.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving out of consideration all evidence of more ancient volcanic
+activity, each of the three regions into which, as we have seen, the
+continent may be divided has been, during or since the Cretaceous
+period, the seat of great volcanic eruptions. In the southern region
+of unfolded beds are found the lavas of the &ldquo;harras&rdquo; of Arabia,
+and in India the extensive flows of the Deccan Trap. In the central
+folded belt lie the great volcanoes, now mostly extinct, of Asia Minor,
+Armenia, Persia and Baluchistan. In Burma also there is at least
+one extinct volcano. In the northern unfolded region great flows
+of basic lava lie directly upon the Cambrian and Ordovician beds
+of Siberia, but are certainly in part of Tertiary age. Similar flows
+on a smaller scale occur in Manchuria, Korea and northern China.</p>
+
+<p>In all these cases, however, the eruptions have now almost ceased,
+and the great volcanoes of the present day lie in the islands off the
+eastern and south eastern coasts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">References</span>&mdash;E. Suess, <i>Das Antlitz der Erde</i> (see, especially,
+vol. iii. part 1.); F.V. Richthofen, &ldquo;Ueber Gestalt und Gliederung
+einer Grundlinie in der Morphologie Ost-Asiens,&rdquo; <i>Sitz. k. preuss.
+Akad. Wiss.</i> (Berlin, 1900), pp. 888-925, and Geomorphologische
+Studien aus Ostasien, <i>ibid.</i>, 1901, pp. 782-808, 1902, pp. 944-975,
+1903, pp. 867-918.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. La.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Climate.</p>
+
+<p>Among the places on the globe where the temperature falls lowest
+are some in northern Asia; and among those where it rises highest
+are some in southern Asia. The mean temperature of
+the north coast of eastern Siberia is but a few degrees
+<span class="sidenote">Temperature.</span>
+above the zero of Fahrenheit; the lowest mean temperature
+anywhere observed is about 4° Fahr., at Melville Island,
+north of the American continent. The isothermals of mean annual
+temperature lie over northern Asia on curves tolerably regular in
+their outline, having their western branches in a somewhat higher
+latitude than their eastern; a reduction of 1° of latitude corresponds
+approximately&mdash;and irrespective of modifications due to elevation&mdash;to
+a rise of ˝° Fahr., as far say as 30° N, where the mean temperature
+is about 75° Fahr. Farther south the increase is slower, and
+the highest mean temperature anywhere attained in southern Asia
+is not much above 82° Fahr.</p>
+
+<p>The variations of temperature are very great in Siberia, amounting
+near the coast to more than 100° Fahr., between the mean of the
+hottest and coldest months, and to still more between the extreme
+temperatures of those months. In southern Asia, and particularly
+near the sea, the variation between the hottest and coldest monthly
+means is very much less, and under the equator it is reduced to about
+5°. In Siberia the difference between the means of the hottest and
+coldest months is hardly anywhere less than 60° Fahr. On the Sea
+of Aral it is 80° Fahr., and at Astrakhan, on the Caspian, more
+than 50°. At Tiflis it is 45°. In northern China, at Peking, it is
+55°, reduced to 30° at Canton, and to 20° at Manila. In northern
+India the greatest difference does not exceed 40°, and it falls off to
+about 15° at Calcutta and to about 10° or 12° at Bombay and Madras.
+The temperatures at the head of the Persian Gulf approximate
+to those of northern India, and those of Aden to Madras. At Singapore
+the range is less than 5°, and at Batavia in Java, and Galle
+in Ceylon, it is about the same. The extreme temperatures in
+Siberia may be considered to lie between 80° and 90° Fahr. for
+maxima, and between &minus;40° and &minus;70° Fahr. for minima. The extreme
+of heat near the Caspian and Aral Seas rises to nearly 100° Fahr.,
+while that of cold falls to &minus;20° Fahr. or lower. Compared with these
+figures, we find in southern Asia 110° or 112° Fahr. as a maximum
+hardly ever exceeded. The absolute minimum in northern India,
+in lat. 30°, hardly goes below 32°; at Calcutta it is about 40°, though
+the thermometer seldom falls to 50°. At Madras it rarely falls as
+low as 65°, or at Bombay below 60°. At Singapore and Batavia the
+thermometer very rarely falls below 70°, or rises above 90°. At Aden
+the minimum is a few degrees below 70°, the maximum not much
+exceeding 90°.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span></p>
+
+<p>These figures sufficiently indicate the main characteristics of the
+air temperatures of Asia. Throughout its northern portion the
+winter is long and of extreme severity; and even down to the circle
+of 35° N. lat., the minimum temperature is almost as low as zero of
+Fahrenheit. The summers are hot, though short in the northern
+latitudes, the maximum of summer heat being comparatively little
+less than that observed in the tropical countries farther south. The
+moderating effect of the proximity of the ocean is felt in an important
+degree along the southern and eastern parts of Asia, where
+the land is broken up into islands or peninsulas. The great elevations
+above the sea-level of the central part of Asia, and of the table-lands
+of Afghanistan and Persia, tend to exaggerate the winter cold;
+while the sterility of the surface, due to the small rainfall over the
+same region, operates powerfully in the opposite direction in increasing
+the summer heat. In the summer a great accumulation of solar
+heat takes place on the dry surface soil, from which it cannot be
+released upwards by evaporation, as might be the case were the soil
+moist or covered with vegetation, nor can it be readily conveyed
+away downwards as happens on the ocean. In the winter similar
+consequences ensue, in a negative direction, from the prolonged loss
+of heat by radiation in the long and clear nights&mdash;an effect which is
+intensified wherever the surface is covered with snow, or the air little
+charged with vapour. In illustration of the very slow diffusion of
+heat in the solid crust of the earth, and as affording a further indication
+of the climate of northern Asia, reference may here be made
+to the frozen soil of Siberia, in the vicinity of Yakutsk. In this
+region the earth is frozen permanently to a depth of more than 380 ft.
+at which the temperature is still 5° or 6° Fahr. below the freezing
+point of water, the summer heat merely thawing the surface to a
+depth of about 3 ft. At a depth of 50 ft. the temperature is about
+15 Fahr. below the freezing point. Under such conditions of the
+soil, the land, nevertheless, produces crops of wheat and other
+grain from fifteen to forty fold.</p>
+
+<p>The very high summer temperatures of the area north of the
+tropic of Cancer are sufficiently accounted for, when compared with
+those observed south of the tropic, by the increased length of the
+day in the higher latitude, which more than compensates for the
+loss of heat due to the smaller mid-day altitude of the sun. The
+difference between the heating power of the sun&rsquo;s rays at noon on the
+21st of June, in latitude 20° and in latitude 45°, is only about 2%;
+while the accumulated heat received during the day, which is
+lengthened to 15˝ hours in the higher latitude, is greater by about 11%
+than in the lower latitude, where the day consists only of 13ź hours.</p>
+
+<p>Although the foregoing account of the temperatures of Asia
+supplies the main outline of the observed phenomena, a very important
+modifying cause, of which more will be said hereafter, comes
+into operation over the whole of the tropical region, namely, the
+periodical summer rains. These tend very greatly to arrest the
+increase of the summer heat over the area where they prevail, and
+otherwise give it altogether peculiar characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>The great summer heat, by expanding the air upwards, disturbs
+the level of the planes of equal pressure, and causes an outflow
+of the upper strata from the heated area. The winter
+cold produces an effect of just an opposite nature, and
+<span class="sidenote">Pressure and Winds.</span>
+causes an accumulation of air over the cold area. The
+diminution of barometric pressure which takes place all
+over Asia during the summer months, and the increase in the winter,
+are hence, no doubt, the results of the alternate heating and cooling
+of the air over the continent.</p>
+
+<p>The necessary and immediate results of such periodical changes
+of pressure are winds, which, speaking generally, blow from the area
+of greatest to that of least pressure&mdash;subject, however, to certain
+modifications of direction, arising from the absolute motion of the
+whole body of the air due to the revolution of the earth on its axis
+from west to east. The south-westerly winds which prevail north
+of the equator during the hot half of the year, to which navigators
+have given the name of the south-west monsoon (the latter word
+being a corruption of the Indian name for season), arise from the
+great diminution of atmospheric pressure over Asia, which begins
+to be strongly marked with the great rise of temperature in April
+and May, and the simultaneous relatively higher pressure over the
+equator and the regions south of it. This diminution of pressure,
+which continues as the heat increases till it reaches its maximum in
+July soon after the solstice, is followed by the corresponding development
+of the south-west monsoon; and as the barometric pressure
+is gradually restored, and becomes equalized within the tropics soon
+after the equinox in October, with the general fall of temperature
+north of the equator, the south-west winds fall off, and are succeeded
+by a north-east monsoon, which is developed during the winter
+months by the relatively greater atmospheric pressure which then
+occurs over Asia, as compared with the equatorial region.</p>
+
+<p>Although the succession of the periodical winds follows the progress
+of the seasons as just described, the changes in the wind&rsquo;s direction
+everywhere take place under the operation of special local influences
+which often disguise the more general law, and make it difficult to
+trace. Thus the south-west monsoon begins in the Arabian Sea with
+west and north-westerly winds, which draw round as the year advances
+to south-west and fall back again in the autumn by north-west
+to north. In the Bay of Bengal the strength of the south-west
+monsoon is rather from the south and south-east, being
+succeeded by north-east winds after October, which give place to
+northerly and north-westerly winds as the year advances. Among
+the islands of the Malay Archipelago the force of the monsoons is
+much interrupted, and the position of this region on the equator
+otherwise modifies the directions of the prevailing winds. The
+southerly summer winds of the Asiatic seas between the equator
+and the tropic do not extend to the coasts of Java, and the south-easterly
+trade winds are there developed in the usual manner. The
+China Sea is fully exposed to both monsoons, the normal directions
+of which nearly coincide with the centre of the channel between the
+continent of Asia and the eastern islands.</p>
+
+<p>The south-west monsoon does not generally extend, in its character
+of a south-west wind, over the land. The current of air flowing in
+from over the sea is gradually diverted towards the area of least
+pressure, and at the same time is dissipated and loses much of its
+original force. The winds which pass northward over India blow as
+south-easterly and easterly winds over the north-eastern part of
+the Gangetic plain, and as south winds up the Indus. They seem
+almost entirely to have exhausted their northward velocity by the
+time they have reached the northern extremity of the great Indian
+plain; they are not felt on the table-lands of Afghanistan, and
+hardly penetrate into the Indus basin or the ranges of the Himalaya,
+by which mountains, and those which branch off from them into the
+Malay peninsula, they are prevented from continuing their progress
+in the direction originally imparted to them.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more remarkable phenomena of the hotter seas of Asia
+must be noticed the revolving storms or cyclones, which are of
+frequent occurrence in the hot months in the Indian Ocean and
+China Sea, in which last they are known under the name of typhoon.
+The cyclones of the Bay of Bengal appear to originate over the
+Andaman and Nicobar islands, and are commonly propagated in
+a north-westward direction, striking the east coast of the Indian
+peninsula at various points, and then often advancing with an
+easterly tendency over the land, and passing with extreme violence
+across the delta of the Ganges. They occur in all the hot months,
+from June to October, and more rarely in November, and appear to
+be originated by adverse currents from the north meeting those of
+the south-west monsoon. The cyclones of the China Sea also occur
+in the hot months of the year, but they advance from north-east to
+south-west, though occasionally from east to west; they originate
+near the island of Formosa, and extend to about the 10th degree of
+N. lat. They are thus developed in nearly the same latitudes and in
+the same months as those of the Indian Sea, though their progress is in
+a different direction. In both cases, however, the storms appear to
+advance towards the area of greatest heat. In these storms the
+wind invariably circulates from north by west through south to east.</p>
+
+<p>The heated body of air carried from the Indian Ocean over
+southern Asia by the south-west monsoon comes up highly charged
+with watery vapour, and hence in a condition to release a large
+body of water as rain upon the land, whenever it is
+<span class="sidenote">Rainfall.</span>
+brought into circumstances which reduce its temperature
+in a notable degree. Such a reduction of temperature is brought
+about along the greater part of the coasts of India and of the Burmo-Siamese
+peninsula by the interruption of the wind current by continuous
+ranges of mountains, which force the mass of air to rise
+over them, whereby the air being rarefied, its specific capacity for
+heat is increased and its temperature falls, with a corresponding
+condensation of the vapour originally held in suspension.</p>
+
+<p>This explanation of the principal efficient cause of the summer
+rains of south Asia is immediately based on an analysis of the complicated
+phenomena actually observed, and it serves to account
+for many apparent anomalies. The heaviest falls of rain occur along
+lines of mountain of some extent directly facing the vapour-bearing
+winds, as on the Western Ghats of India and the west coast of the
+Malay peninsula. The same results are found along the mountains
+at a distance from the sea, the heaviest rainfall known to occur anywhere
+in the world (not less than 600 in. in the year) being recorded
+on the Khasi range about 100 m. north-east of Calcutta, which
+presents an abrupt front to the progress of the moist winds flowing
+up from the Bay of Bengal. The cessation of the rains on the
+southern border of Baluchistan, west of Karachi, obviously arises
+from the projection of the south-east coast of Arabia, which limits
+the breadth of the south-west monsoon air current and the length
+of the coast-line directly exposed to it. The very small and irregular
+rainfall in Sind and along the Indus is to be accounted for by the
+want of any obstacle in the path of the vapour-bearing winds,
+which, therefore, carry the uncondensed rain up to the Punjab,
+where it falls on the outer ranges of the western Himalaya and
+of Afghanistan.</p>
+
+<p>The diurnal mountain winds are very strongly marked on the
+Himalaya, where they probably are the most active agents in determining
+the precipitation of rain along the chain&mdash;the monsoon
+currents, as before stated, not penetrating among the mountains.
+The formation of dense banks of cloud in the afternoon, when the
+up wind is strongest, along the southern face of the snowy ranges
+of the Himalaya, is a regular daily phenomenon during the hotter
+months of the year, and heavy rain, accompanied by electrical
+discharges, is the frequent result of such condensation.</p>
+
+<p>Too little is known of the greater part of Asia to admit of any
+more being said with reference to this part of the subject, than to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
+mention a few facts bearing on the rainfall. In northern Asia there
+is a generally equal rainfall of 19 to 29 in. between the Volga and
+the Lena in Manchuria and northern China, rather more considerable
+increase in Korea, Siam and Japan. At Tiflis the yearly fall is
+22 in.; on the Caspian about 7 or 8 in.; on the Sea of Aral 5 or 6 in.
+In south-western Siberia it is 12 or 14 in., diminishing as we proceed
+eastward to 6 or 7 in. at Barnaul, and to 5 or 6 in. at Urga in northern
+Mongolia. In eastern Siberia it is about 15 to 20 in. In China we
+find about 23 in. to be the fall at Peking; while at Canton, which lies
+nearly on the northern tropic and the region of the south-west
+monsoon is entered, the quantity is increased to 78 in. At Batavia
+in Java the fall is about 78 in.; at Singapore it is nearly 100 in.
+The quantity increases considerably on that part of the coast
+of the Malay peninsula which is not sheltered from the south-west
+by Sumatra. On the Tenasserim and Burmese coast falls of more
+than 200 in. are registered, and the quantity is here nowhere less
+than 75 or 80 in., which is about the average of the eastern part
+of the delta of the Ganges, Calcutta standing at about 64 in. On the
+hills that flank Bengal on the east the fall is very great. On the
+Khasi hills, at an elevation of about 4500 ft., the average of ten
+years is more than 550 in. As much as 150 in. has been measured
+in one month, and 610 in. in one year. On the west coast of the
+Indian peninsula the fall at the sea-level varies from about 75 to
+100 in., and at certain elevations on the mountains more than
+250 in. is commonly registered, with intermediate quantities at intervening
+localities. On the east coast the fall is far less, nowhere rising
+to 50 in., and towards the southern apex of the peninsula being
+reduced to 25 or 30 in. Ceylon shows from 60 to 80 in. As we
+recede from the coast the fall diminishes, till it is reduced to about
+25 or 30 in. at the head of the Gangetic plain. The tract along the
+Indus to within 60 or 80 m. of the Himalaya is almost rainless, 6 or
+8 in. being the fall in the southern portion of the Punjab. On the
+outer ranges of the Himalaya the yearly fall amounts to about 200 in.
+on the east in Sikkim, and gradually diminishes on the west, where
+north of the Punjab it is about 70 or 80 in. In the interior of the
+chain the rain is far less, and the quantity of precipitation is so small in
+Tibet that it can be hardly measured. It is to the greatly reduced
+fall of snow on the northern faces of the highest ranges of the Himalaya
+that is to be attributed the higher level of the snow-line, a
+phenomenon which was long a cause of discussion.</p>
+
+<p>In Afghanistan, Persia, Asia Minor and Syria, winter and spring
+appear to be the chief seasons of condensation. In other parts of
+Asia the principal part of the rain falls between May and September,
+that is, in the hottest half of the year. In the islands under the
+equator the heaviest fall is between October and February.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. S.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Flora and Fauna</p>
+
+<p>The general assemblage of animals and plants found over northern
+Asia resembles greatly that found in the parts of Europe which are
+adjacent and have a similar climate. Siberia, north of the 50th
+parallel, has a climate not much differing from a similarly situated
+portion of Europe, though the winters are more severe and the
+summers hotter. The rainfall, though moderate, is still sufficient
+to maintain the supply of water in the great rivers that traverse
+the country to the Arctic Sea, and to support an abundant vegetation.
+A similar affinity exists between the life of the southern
+parts of Europe and that in the zone of Asia extending from the
+Mediterranean across to the Himalaya and northern China. This
+belt, which embraces Asia Minor, northern Persia, Afghanistan, and
+the southern slopes of the Himalaya, from its elevation has a temperate
+climate, and throughout it the rainfall is sufficient to maintain
+a vigorous vegetation, while the summers, though hot. and the
+winters, though severe, are not extreme. The plants and animals
+along it are found to have a marked similarity of character to
+those of south Europe, with which region the zone is virtually
+continuous.</p>
+
+<p>The extremely dry and hot tracts which constitute an almost
+unbroken desert from Arabia, through south Persia and Baluchistan,
+to Sind, are characterized by considerable uniformity in the types
+of life, which closely approach to those of the neighbouring hot and
+dry regions of Africa. The region of the heavy periodical summer
+rains and high temperature, which comprises India, the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula, and southern China, as well as the western part
+of the Malay Archipelago, is also marked by much similarity in the
+plants and animals throughout its extent. The area between the
+southern border of Siberia and the margin of the temperate alpine
+zone of the Himalaya and north China, comprising what are
+commonly called central Asia, Turkestan, Mongolia and western
+Manchuria, is an almost rainless region, having winters of extreme
+severity and summers of intense heat. Its animals and plants have
+a special character suited to the peculiar climatal conditions, more
+closely allied to those of the adjacent northern Siberian tract than
+of the other bordering regions. The south-eastern parts of the Malay
+Archipelago have much in common with the Australian continent,
+to which they adjoin, though their affinities are chiefly Indian.
+North China and Japan also have many forms of life in common.
+Much still remains to be done in the exploration of China and eastern
+Asia; but it is known that many of the special forms of this region
+extend to the Himalaya, while others clearly indicate a connexion
+with North America.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing brief review of the principal territorial divisions
+according to which the forms of life are distributed in Asia, indicates
+how close is the dependence of this distribution on climatic conditions,
+and this will be made more apparent by a somewhat fuller
+account of the main features of the flora and fauna.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The flora of the whole of northern Asia is in essentials
+the same as that of northern Europe, the differences being due rather
+to variations of species than of genera. The absence of
+<span class="sidenote">Northern Asia.</span>
+the oak and of all heaths east of the Ural may be noticed.
+Pines, larch, birch are the principal trees on the mountains;
+willow, alders and poplars on the lower ground. The
+northern limit of the pine in Siberia is about 70° N.</p>
+
+<p>Along the warm temperate zone, from the Mediterranean to the
+Himalaya, extends a flora essentially European in character. Many
+European species reach the central Himalaya, though few are known
+in its eastern parts. The genera common to the Himalaya and
+Europe are much more abundant, and extend throughout the chain,
+and to all elevations. There is also a corresponding diffusion of
+Japanese and Chinese forms along this zone, these being most numerous
+in the eastern Himalaya, and less frequent in the west.</p>
+
+<p>The truly tropical flora of the hotter and wetter regions of eastern
+India is continuous with that of the Malayan peninsula and islands,
+and extends along the lower ranges of the Himalaya, gradually
+becoming less marked and rising to lower elevations as we go
+westward, where the rainfall diminishes and the winter cold
+increases.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of the higher and therefore cooler and less rainy
+ranges of the Himalaya has greater uniformity of character along the
+whole chain, and a closer general approach to European forms is
+maintained; an increased number of species is actually identical,
+among these being found, at the greatest elevations, many alpine
+plants believed to be identical with species of the north Arctic regions.
+On reaching the Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness the
+flora assumes many features of the Siberian type. Many true
+Siberian species are found, and more Siberian genera. Some of the
+Siberian forms, thus brought into proximity with the Indian flora,
+extend to the rainy parts of the mountains, and even to the plains of
+upper India. Assemblages of marine plants form another remarkable
+feature of Tibet, these being frequently met with growing at
+elevations of 14,000 to 15,000 ft. above the sea, more especially in
+the vicinity of the many salt lakes of those regions.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of the hot and dry region of the south-west of the
+continent consists largely of plants which are diffused over Africa,
+Baluchistan and Sind; many of these extend into the hotter parts
+of India, and not a few common Egyptian plants are to be met with
+in the Indian peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>The whole number of species of plants indigenous in the region of
+south-eastern Asia, which includes India and the Malayan peninsula
+and islands, from about the 65th to the 105th meridian,
+was estimated by Sir J.D. Hooker at 12,000 to 15,000.
+<span class="sidenote">Indian region.</span>
+The principal orders, arranged according to their numerical
+importance, are as follows:&mdash;Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Orchidaceae,
+Compositae, Gramineae, Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae, Cyperaceae
+and Labiatae. But within this region there is a very great variation
+between the vegetation of the more humid and the more arid regions,
+while the characteristics of the flora on the higher mountain ranges
+differ wholly from those of the plains. In short, we have a somewhat
+heterogeneous assemblage of tropical, temperate and alpine plants,
+as has been already briefly indicated, of which, however, the tropical
+are so far dominant as to give their character to the flora viewed as a
+whole. The Indian flora contains a more general and complete
+illustration of almost all the chief natural families of all parts of the
+world than any other country. Compositae are comparatively rare;
+so also Gramineae and Cyperaceae are in some places deficient, and
+Labiatae, Leguminosae and ferns in others. Euphorbiaceae and
+Scrophulariaceae and Orchidaceae are universally present, the last
+in specially large proportions.</p>
+
+<p>The perennially humid regions of the Malayan peninsula and
+western portion of the archipelago are everywhere covered with
+dense forest, rendered difficult to traverse by the thorny cane, a
+palm of the genus <i>Calamus</i>, which has its greatest development in
+this part of Asia. The chief trees belong to the orders of Terebinthaceae,
+Sapindaceae, Meliaceae, Clusiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Ternstroemiaceae,
+Leguminosae, laurels, oaks and figs, with Dilleniaceae,
+Sapotaceae and nutmegs. Bamboos and palms, with <i>Pandanus</i> and
+<i>Dracaena</i>, are also abundant. A similar forest flora extends along
+the mountains of eastern India to the Himalaya, where it ascends to
+elevations varying from 6000 to 7000 ft. on the east to 3000 or 4000
+ft. on the west.</p>
+
+<p>The arboreous forms which least require the humid and equable
+heat of the more truly tropical and equatorial climates, and are best
+able to resist the high temperatures and excessive drought of the
+northern Indian hot months from April to June, are certain Leguminosae,.
+<i>Bauhinia, Acacia, Butea</i> and <i>Dalbergia, Bombax, Skorea,
+Nauclea, Lagerstroemia</i>, and <i>Bignonia</i>, a few bamboos and palms,
+with others which extend far beyond the tropic, and give a tropical
+aspect to the forest to the extreme northern border of the Indian
+plain.</p>
+
+<p>Of the herbaceous vegetation of the more rainy regions may be
+noted the Orchidaceae, Orontiaceae, Scitamineae, with ferns and other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+Cryptogams, besides Gramineae and Cyperaceae. Among these
+some forms, as among the trees, extend much beyond the tropic and
+ascend into the temperate zones on the mountains, of which may be
+mentioned <i>Begonia, Osbeckia</i>, various Cyrtandraceae,
+Scitamineae, and a few epiphytical orchids.</p>
+
+<p>Of the orders most largely developed in south India, and more
+sparingly elsewhere, may be named Aurantiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
+Balsaminaceae, Ebenaceae, Jasmineae, and Cyrtandraceae; but
+of these few contain as many as 100 peculiar Indian species.
+<i>Nepenthes</i> may be mentioned as a genus specially developed in
+the Malayan area, and extending from New Caledonia to Madagascar;
+it is found as far north as the Khasi hills, and in Ceylon, but does
+not appear on the Himalaya or in the peninsula of India. The
+Balsaminaceae may be named as being rare in the eastern region
+and very abundant in the peninsula. A distinct connexion between
+the flora of the peninsula and Ceylon and that of eastern tropical
+Africa is observable not only in the great similarity of many of the
+more truly tropical forms, and the identity of families and genera
+found in both regions, but in a more remarkable manner in the
+likeness of the mountain flora of this part of Africa to that of the
+peninsula, in which several species occur believed to be identical
+with Abyssinian forms. This connexion is further established by
+the absence from both areas of oaks, conifers and cycads, which,
+as regards the first two families, is a remarkable feature of the flora
+of the peninsula and Ceylon, as the mountains rise to elevations in
+which both of them are abundant to the north and east. With these
+facts it has to be noticed that many of the principal forms of the
+eastern flora are absent or comparatively rare in the peninsula and
+Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p>The general physiognomy of the Indian flora is mainly determined
+by the conditions of humidity of climate. The impenetrable shady
+forests of the Malay peninsula and eastern Bengal, of the west
+coast of the Indian peninsula, and of Ceylon, offer a strong contrast
+to the more loosely-timbered districts of the drier regions of
+central India and the north-western Himalaya. The forest areas of
+India include the dense vegetation and luxuriant growth of the
+Tarai jungles at the foot of the eastern Himalaya, and wide stretches
+of loosely-timbered country which are a prevailing feature in the
+Central Provinces and parts of Madras. Where the lowlands are
+highly cultivated they are adorned with planted wood, and where
+they are cut off from rain they are nearly completely desert.</p>
+
+<p>The higher mountains rise abruptly from the plains; on their
+slopes, clothed below almost exclusively with the more tropical forms,
+a vegetation of a warm temperate character, chiefly evergreen, soon
+begins to prevail, comprising Magnoliaceae, Ternstroemiaccae, subtropical
+Rosaceae, rhododendron, oak, <i>Ilex, Symplocos</i>, Lauraceae,
+<i>Pinus longifolia</i>, with mountain forms of truly tropical orders, palms,
+<i>Pandanus, Musa, Vitis, Vernonia</i>, and many others. On the east
+the vegetation of the Himalaya is most abundant and varied. The
+forest extends, with great luxuriance, to an elevation of 12,000 ft.,
+above which the sub-alpine region may be said to begin, in which
+rhododendron scrub often covers the ground up to 13,000 or 14,000 ft.
+Only one pine is found below 8000 ft., above which several other
+Coniferae occur. Plantains, tree-ferns, bamboos, several <i>Calami</i>,
+and other palms, and <i>Pandanus</i>, are abundant at the lower levels.
+Between 4000 and 8000 ft. epiphytal orchids are very frequent, and
+reach even to 10,000 ft. Vegetation ascends on the drier and less
+snowy mountain slopes of Tibet to above 18,000 ft. On the west,
+with the drier climate, the forest is less luxuriant and dense, and the
+hill-sides and the valleys better cultivated. The warm mountain
+slopes are covered with <i>Pinus longifolia</i>, or with oaks and
+rhododendron, and the forest is not commonly dense below 8000 ft.,
+excepting in some of the more secluded valleys at a low elevation. From
+8000 to 12,000 ft., a thick forest of deciduous trees is almost universal,
+above which a sub-alpine region is reached, and vegetation as on the
+east continues up to 18,000 ft. or more. The more tropical forms
+of the east, such as the tree-ferns, do not reach west of Nepal. The
+cedar or deodar is hardly indigenous east of the sources of the
+Ganges, and at about the same point the forms of the west begin
+to be more abundant, increasing in number as we advance towards
+Afghanistan.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivated plants of the Indian region include wheat, barley,
+rice and maize; various millets, <i>Sorghum, Penicillaria, Panicum</i>
+and <i>Eleusine</i>; many pulses, peas and beans; mustard and rape;
+ginger and turmeric; pepper and capsicum; several Cucurbitaceae;
+tobacco, <i>Sesamum</i>, poppy, <i>Crotolaria</i> and <i>Cannabis</i>; cotton,
+indigo and sugar; coffee and tea; oranges, lemons of many sorts; pomegranate,
+mango, figs, peaches, vines and plantains. The more
+common palms are <i>Cocos, Phoenix</i> and <i>Borassus</i>, supplying cocoa-nut
+and toddy. Indian agriculture combines the harvests of the tropical
+and temperate zones. North of the tropic the winter cold is sufficient
+to admit of the cultivation of almost all the cereals and vegetables
+of Europe, wheat being sown in November and reaped early in April.
+In this same region the summer heat and rain provide a thoroughly
+tropical climate, in which rice and other tropical cereals are freely
+raised, being as a rule sown early in July and reaped in September
+or October. In southern India, and the other parts of Asia and of
+the islands having a similar climate, the difference of the winter and
+summer half-years is not sufficient to admit of the proper cultivation
+of wheat or barley. The other cereals may be seen occasionally,
+where artificial irrigation is practised, in all stages of progress at
+all seasons of the year, though the operations of agriculture are,
+as a general rule, limited to the rainy months, when alone is the
+requisite supply of water commonly forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p>The trees of India producing economically useful timber are
+comparatively few, owing to the want of durability of the wood, in
+the extremely hot and moist climate. The teak, <i>Tectona grandis</i>,
+supplies the finest timber. It is found in greatest perfection in the
+forests of the west coasts of Burma and the Indian peninsula, where
+the rainfall is heaviest, growing to a height of 100 or 150 ft., mixed
+with other trees and bamboos. The sal, <i>Shorea robusta</i>, a very
+durable wood, is most abundant along the skirts of the Himalaya
+from Assam to the Punjab, and is found in central India, to which
+the teak also extends. The sal grows to a large size, and is more
+gregarious than the teak. Of other useful woods found in the plains
+may be named the babool, <i>Acacia</i>; toon, <i>Cedrela</i>; and sissoo,
+<i>Dalbergia</i>. The only timber in ordinary use obtained from the
+Himalaya proper is the deodar, <i>Cedrus deodara</i>. Besides these are the
+sandalwood, <i>Santalum</i>, of southern India, and many sorts of bamboo
+found in all parts of the country. The cinchona has recently been
+introduced with complete success; and the mahogany of America
+reaches a large size, and gives promise of being grown for use as
+timber.</p>
+
+<p>The flora of the rainless region of south-western Asia is continuous
+with the desert flora of northern and eastern Africa, and extends
+from the coast of Senegal to the meridian of 75° E., or from
+the great African desert to the border of the rainless tract
+<span class="sidenote">Western Asia.</span>
+along the Indus and the southern parts of the Punjab.
+It includes the peninsula of Arabia, the shores of the Persian Gulf,
+south Persia, and Afghanistan and Baluchistan. On the west its
+limit is in the Cape Verde Islands, and it is partially represented in
+Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>The more common plants in the most characteristic part of this
+region in southern Arabia are Capparidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and
+a few Leguminosae, a <i>Reseda</i> and <i>Dipterygium</i>; palms, Polygonaceae,
+ferns, and other cryptogams, are rare. The number of families
+relative to the area is very small, and the number of genera and
+species equally restricted, in very many cases a single species being
+the only representative of an order. The aspect of the vegetation
+is very peculiar, and is commonly determined by the predominance
+of some four or five species, the rest being either local or sparingly
+scattered over the area. The absence of the ordinary bright green
+colours of vegetation is another peculiarity of this flora, almost all
+the plants having glaucous or whitened stems. Foliage is reduced to
+a minimum, the moisture of the plant being stored up in massive
+or fleshy stems against the long-continued drought. Aridity has
+favoured the production of spines as a defence from external attack,
+sharp thorns are frequent, and asperities of various sorts predominate.
+Many species produce gums and resins, their stems being encrusted
+with the exudations, and pungency and aromatic odour is an almost
+universal quality of the plants of desert regions.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivated plants of Arabia are much the same as those of
+northern India&mdash;wheat, barley, and the common <i>Sorghum</i>, with
+dates and lemons, cotton and indigo. To these must be added coffee,
+which is restricted to the slopes of the western hills. Among the
+more mountainous regions of the south-western part of Arabia,
+known as Arabia Felix, the summits of which rise to 6000 or 7000 ft.,
+the rainfall is sufficient to develop a more luxuriant vegetation, and
+the valleys have a flora like that of similarly situated parts of
+southern Persia, and the less elevated parts of Afghanistan and
+Baluchistan, partaking of the characters of that of the hotter
+Mediterranean region. In these countries aromatic shrubs are abundant.
+Trees are rare, and almost restricted to <i>Pistacia, Celtis</i> and <i>Dodonaea</i>,
+with poplars, and the date palm. Prickly forms of <i>Statice</i> and
+<i>Astragalus</i> cover the dry hills. In the spring there is an abundant
+herbaceous vegetation, including many bulbous plants, with genera,
+if not species, identical with those of the Syrian region, some of which
+extend to the Himalaya.</p>
+
+<p>The flora of the northern part of Afghanistan approximates to that
+of the contiguous western Himalaya. <i>Quercus Ilex</i>, the evergreen
+oak of southern Europe, is found in forests as far east as the Sutlej,
+accompanied with other European forms. In the higher parts of
+Afghanistan and Persia Boraginaceae and thistles abound; gigantic
+Umbelliferae, such as <i>Ferula, Galbanum, Dorema, Bubon, Peucedanum,
+Prangos</i>, and others, also characterize the same districts, and some
+of them extend into Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>The flora of Asia Minor and northern Persia differs but little from
+that of the southern parts of Europe. The mountains are clothed,
+where the fall of rain is abundant, with forests of <i>Quercus, Fagus,
+Ulmus, Acer, Carpinus</i> and <i>Corylus</i>, and various Coniferae. Of
+these the only genus that is not found on the Himalaya is <i>Fagus</i>.
+Fruit trees of the plum tribe abound. The cultivated plants are
+those of southern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of the Malayan Islands is for the most part that
+of the wetter and hotter region of India; but the greater uniformity
+of the temperature and humidity leads to the predominance
+of certain tropical forms not so conspicuous in India,
+<span class="sidenote">Eastern Asia.</span>
+while the proximity of the Australian continent has
+permitted the partial diffusion of Australian types which are not
+seen in India. The liquidambar and nutmeg may be noticed among
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
+the former, the first is one of the most conspicuous trees in java,
+on the mountains of the eastern part of which the casuarina, one
+of the characteristic forms of Australia, is also abundant. Rhododendrons
+occur in Borneo and Sumatra, descending to the level of
+the sea. On the mountains of Java there appears to be no truly
+alpine flora, <i>Saxifraga</i> is not found. In Borneo some of the temperate
+forms of Australia appear on the higher mountains. On the
+other islands similar characteristics are to be observed, Australian
+genera extending to the Philippines, and even to southern China.</p>
+
+<p>The analysis of the Hong Kong flora indicates that about three-fifths
+of the species are common to the Indian region, and nearly
+all the remainder are either Chinese or local forms. The number
+of species common to southern China, Japan and northern Asia is
+small. The cultivated plants of China are, with a few exceptions,
+the same as those of India South China, therefore seems, botanically
+hardly distinct from the great Indian region, into which many
+Chinese forms penetrate, as before noticed. The flora of north
+China, which is akin to that of Japan, shows manifest relation to that
+of the neighbouring American continent, from which many temperate
+forms extend, reaching to the Himalaya, almost as far as Kashmir.
+Very little is known of the plants of the interior of northern China,
+but it seems probable that a complete botanical connexion is established
+between it and the temperate region of the Himalaya.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of the dry region of central Asia is remarkable for
+the great relative number of Chenopodiaceae, <i>Salicornia</i> and other
+salt plants being common; Polygonaceae also are abundant,
+leafless forms being of frequent occurrence, which
+<span class="sidenote">Central Asia.</span>
+gives the vegetation a very remarkable aspect. Peculiar
+forms of Leguminosae also prevail, and these with many of the other
+plants of the southern and drier regions of Siberia, or of the colder
+regions of the desert tracts of Persia and Afghanistan, extend into
+Tibet, where the extreme drought and the hot (nearly vertical) sun
+combine to produce a summer climate not greatly differing from that
+of the plains of central Asia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The zoological provinces of Asia correspond very closely
+with the botanical. The northern portion of Asia, as far south as
+the Himalaya, is not zoologically distinct from Europe,
+and these two areas, with the strip of Africa north of the
+<span class="sidenote">Zoological Regions.</span>
+Atlas, constitute the Palaearctic region of Dr. Sclater,
+whose zoological primary divisions of the earth have met with the
+general approval of naturalists. The south-eastern portion of Asia
+with the adjacent islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philippines,
+form his Indian region. The extreme south-west part of the
+continent constitutes a separate zoological district, comprising
+Arabia, Palestine and southern Persia, and reaching, like the hot
+desert botanical tract, to Baluchistan and Sind, it belongs to what
+Dr. Sclater calls the Ethiopian region, which extends over Africa,
+south of the Atlas. Celebes, Papua, and the other islands east of
+Java beyond Wallace&rsquo;s line fall within the Australian region.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the mammals of Europe also occur in northern Asia,
+where however, the Palaearctic fauna is enriched by numerous
+additional species. The characteristic groups belong
+mostly to forms which are restricted to cold and temperate
+<span class="sidenote">Mammals and birds.</span>
+regions. Consequently the Quadrumana, or monkeys,
+are nearly unrepresented, a single species occurring in Japan, and
+one or two others in northern China and Tibet. Insectivorous bats
+are numerous, but the frugivorous division of this order is only represented
+by a single species in Japan. Carnivora are also numerous,
+particularly the frequenters of cold climates, such as bears, weasels,
+wolves and foxes. Of the Insectivora, numerous forms of moles,
+shrews and hedgehogs prevail. The Rodents are also well represented
+by various squirrels, mice, and hares. Characteristic forms
+ot this order in northern Asia are the marmots (<i>Arctomys</i>) and the
+pikas or tailless hares (<i>Lagomys</i>). The great order of Ungulata is
+represented by various forms of sheep, as many as ten or twelve wild
+species of <i>Ovis</i> being met with in the mountain chains of Asia, and
+more sparingly by several peculiar forms of antelope, such as the
+saiga (<i>Saiga tatarica</i>) and the <i>Gazella gutturosa</i>, or yellow sheep.
+Coming to the deer, we also meet with characteristic forms in
+northern Asia, especially those belonging to the typical genus <i>Cervus</i>.
+The musk deer (<i>Moschus</i>) is also quite restricted to northern Asia,
+and is one of its most peculiar types.</p>
+
+<p>The ornithology ot northern Asia is even more closely allied to
+that of Europe than the mammal fauna. Nearly three fourths of
+the well-known species of Europe extend through Siberia into the
+islands of the Japanese empire. Here again, we have an absence of
+all tropical forms, and a great development of groups characteristic
+of cold and temperate regions. One of the most peculiar of these
+is the genus <i>Phasianus</i>, of which splendid birds all the species are
+restricted in their wild state to northern Asia. The still more
+magnificently clad gold pheasants (<i>Thaumalea</i>), and the eared
+pheasants (<i>Crossoptilon</i>) are also confined to certain districts in the
+mountains of north eastern Asia. Amongst the <i>Passeres</i>, such forms
+as the larks, stone chats, finches, linnets, and grosbeaks are well
+developed and exhibit many species.</p>
+
+<p>The mammal fauna of the Indian region of Asia is much more
+highly developed than that of the Palaearctic. The Quadrumana
+are represented by several peculiar genera, amongst which are
+<i>Semnopithecus</i>, <i>Hylobates</i> and <i>Simia</i>. Two peculiar forms of the
+Lemurine group are also met with. Both the insectivorous and
+frugivorous divisions of the bats are well represented. Amongst
+the Insectivora very peculiar forms are found, such as <i>Gymnura</i>
+and <i>Tupaia</i>. The <i>Carnivora</i> are likewise numerous, and this region
+may be considered as the true home of the tiger, though this animal
+has wandered far north into the Palaearctic division of Asia. Other
+characteristic Carnivora are civets, various ichneumons, and the
+benturong (<i>Arctictis</i>). Two species of bears are likewise restricted
+to the Indian region. In the order of Rodents squirrels are very
+numerous and porcupines of two genera are met with. The Indian
+region is the home of the Indian elephant&mdash;one of the two sole remaining
+representatives of the order Proboscidea. Of the Ungulates, four
+species of rhinoceros and one of tapir are met with, besides several
+peculiar forms of the swine family. The Bovidae or hollow-horned
+ruminants, are represented by several genera of antelopes, and by
+species of true <i>Bos</i>&mdash;such as <i>B. sondaicus</i>, <i>B. frontalis</i> and <i>B. bubalus</i>.
+Deer are likewise numerous, and the peculiar group of chevrotains
+(<i>Tragulus</i>) is characteristic of the Indian region. Finally, this
+region affords us representatives of the order Edentata, in the shape
+of several species of <i>Manis</i>, or scaly ant-eater.</p>
+
+<p>The assemblage of birds of the Indian region is one of the richest
+and most varied in the world, being surpassed only by that of
+tropical America. Nearly every order, except that of the Struthiones
+or ostriches, is well represented, and there are many peculiar genera
+not found elsewhere, such as <i>Buceros</i>, <i>Harpactes</i>, <i>Lophophorus</i>,
+<i>Euplocamus</i>, <i>Pajo</i> and <i>Ceriornis</i>. The <i>Phasianidae</i> (exclusive of
+true <i>Phasianus</i>) are highly characteristic ot this region, as are likewise
+certain genera of barbets (<i>Megalaema</i>), parrots (<i>Palaeornis</i>), and
+crows (<i>Dendrocitta</i>, <i>Urocissa</i> and <i>Cissa</i>). The family <i>Eurylaemidae</i>
+is entirely confined to this part of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The Ethiopian fauna plays but a subordinate part in Asia, intruding
+only into the south-western corner, and occupying the desert
+districts of Arabia and Syria, although some of the characteristic
+species reach still farther into Persia and Sind, and even into western
+India. The lion and the hunting leopard, which may be considered
+as in this epoch at least, Ethiopian types extend thus far, besides
+various species of jerboa and other desert-loving forms.</p>
+
+<p>In the birds, the Ethiopian type is shown by the prevalence of larks
+and stone chats, and by the complete absence of the many peculiar
+genera of the Indian region.</p>
+
+<p>The occurrence of mammals of the Marsupial order in the Molucca
+Islands and Celebes, while none have been found in the adjacent
+islands of Java and Borneo, lying on the west of Wallace&rsquo;s line, or
+in the Indian region, shows that the margin of the Australian region
+has here been reached. The same conclusion is indicated by the
+absence from the Moluccas and Celebes of various other Mammals,
+Quadrumana, Carnivora, Insectivora and Ruminants, which abound
+in the western part of the Archipelago. Deer do not extend into
+New Guinea, in which island the genus <i>Sus</i> appears to have its
+eastern limit. A peculiar form of baboon, <i>Cynopithecus</i>, and the
+singular ruminant, <i>Anoa</i>, found in Celebes, seem to have no relation
+to Asiatic animals, and rather to be allied to those in Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The birds of these islands present similar peculiarities. Those of
+the Indian region abruptly disappear at, and many Australian forms
+reach but do not pass, the line above spoken of. Species of birds akin
+to those of Africa also occur in Celebes.</p>
+
+<p>Of the marine orders of Sirenia and Cetacea the Dugong, <i>Halicore</i>,
+is exclusively found in the Indian Ocean and a dolphin, <i>Platanista</i>,
+peculiar to the Ganges, ascends that river to a great distance from
+the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Of the sea fishes of Asia, among the Acanthopterygii, or spiny-rayed
+fishes, the <i>Percidae</i>, or perches, are largely represented, the
+genus <i>Serranus</i>, which has only one species in Europe, is
+very numerous in Asia, and the forms are very large.
+<span class="sidenote">Fishes.</span>
+Other allied genera are abundant and extend from the Indian seas
+to eastern Africa. The Squamipennes, or scaly-finned fishes, are
+principally found in the seas of southern Asia, and especially near
+coral reefs. The <i>Mullidae</i> or red mullets are largely represented
+by genera differing from those of Europe. The <i>Polynemidae</i>, which
+range from the Atlantic through the Indian Ocean to the Pacific,
+supply animals from which isinglass is prepared; one of them, the
+mango fish, esteemed a great delicacy, inhabits the seas from the
+Bay of Bengal to Siam. The <i>Sciaenidae</i> extend from the Bay
+of Bengal to China, but are not known to the westward. The
+<i>Stromateidae</i>, or pomfrets, resemble the dory, a Mediterranean form,
+and extend to China and the Pacific. The sword fishes <i>Xiphidae</i>,
+the lancet fishes, <i>Acanthuridae</i>, and the scabbard fishes, <i>Trichuridae</i>,
+are distributed through the seas of south Asia. Mackerels of various
+genera abound, as well as gobies, blenniesm and mullets.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Anacanthim, the cod family so well known in Europe
+shows but one or two species in the seas of south Asia, though the
+soles and allied fishes are numerous along the coasts. Of the Physostomi,
+the siluroids are abundant in the estuaries and muddy waters;
+the habits of some of these fishes are remarkable, such as that of the
+males carrying the ova in their mouths till the young are hatched.
+The small family of <i>Scopelidae</i> affords the gelatinous <i>Harpodon</i>, or
+bumalo. The gar-fish and flying fishes are numerous, extending
+into the seas of Europe. The <i>Clupeidae</i> or herrings, are most
+abundant, and anchovies, or sardines, are found in shoals, but at
+irregular and uncertain intervals. The marine eels, <i>Muraenidae</i>, are
+more numerous towards the Malay Archipelago than in the Indian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
+seas. Forms of sea-horses (<i>Hippocampus</i>), pipe-fishes (<i>Syngnathus</i>),
+fife-fishes (<i>Sclerodermus</i>), and sun-fish, globe-fish, and other allied
+forms of <i>Gymnodontes</i>, are not uncommon.</p>
+
+<p>Of the cartilaginous fishes, Chondropterygii, the true sharks and
+hammer-headed sharks, are numerous. The dog-fish also is found,
+one species extending from the Indian seas to the Cape of Good
+Hope. The saw-fishes, <i>Pristidae</i>, the electrical rays, <i>Torpedinae</i>,
+and ordinary rays and skates, are also found in considerable numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The fresh waters of southern Asia are deficient in the typical
+forms of the Acanthopterygii, and are chiefly inhabited by carp,
+siluroids, simple or spined eels, and the walking and climbing fishes.
+The <i>Siluridae</i> attain their chief development in tropical regions.
+Only one <i>Silurus</i> is found in Europe, and the same species extends
+to southern Asia and Africa. The <i>Salmonidae</i> are entirely absent
+from the waters of southern Asia, though they exist in the rivers
+that flow into the Arctic Ocean and the neighbouring parts of the
+northern Pacific, extending perhaps to Formosa; and trout, though
+unknown in Indian rivers, are found beyond the watershed of the
+Indus, in the streams flowing into the Caspian. The <i>Cyprinidae</i>, or
+carp, are largely represented in southern Asia, and there grow to a
+size unknown in Europe; a <i>Barbus</i> in the Tigris has been taken of
+the weight of 300 &#8468; The chief development of this family, both
+as to size and number of forms, is in the mountain regions with a
+temperate climate; the smaller species are found in the hotter regions
+and in the low-lying rivers. Of the <i>Clupeidae</i>, or herrings, numerous
+forms occur in Asiatic waters, ascending the rivers many hundred
+miles; one of the best-known of Indian fishes, the hilsa, is of this
+family. The sturgeons, which abound in the Black Sea and Caspian,
+and ascend the rivers that fall into them, are also found in Asiatic
+Russia, and an allied form extends to southern China. The walking
+or climbing fishes, which are peculiar to south-eastern Asia and
+Africa, are organized so as to be able to breathe when out of the
+water, and they are thus fitted to exist under conditions which
+would be fatal to other fishes, being suited to live in the regions of
+periodical drought and rain in which they are found.</p>
+
+<p>The insects of all southern Asia, including India south of the
+Himalaya, China, Siam and the Malayan Islands, belong to one
+group; not only the genera, but even the species are often
+the same on the opposite sides of the Bay of Bengal.
+<span class="sidenote">Insects.</span>
+The connexion with Africa is marked by the occurrence of many
+genera common to Africa and India, and confined to those two
+regions, and similarities of form are not uncommon there in cases
+in which the genera are not peculiar. Of Coleopterous insects known
+to inhabit east Siberia, nearly one-third are found in western
+Europe. The European forms seem to extend to about 30° N.,
+south of which the Indo-Malayan types are met with, Japan being
+of the Europeo-Asiatic group. The northern forms extend generally
+along the south coast of the Mediterranean up to the border of the
+great desert, and from the Levant to the Caspian.</p>
+
+<p>Of the domesticated animals of Asia may first be mentioned the
+elephant. It does not breed in captivity, and is not found wild west
+of the Jumna river in northern India. The horse is produced,
+in the highest perfection in Arabia and the hot
+<span class="sidenote">Domesticated animals.</span>
+and dry countries of western Asia. Ponies are most
+esteemed from the wetter regions of the east, and the
+hilly tracts. Asses are abundant in most places, and two wild species
+occur. The horned cattle include the humped oxen and buffaloes of
+India, and the yak of Tibet. A hybrid between the yak and Indian
+cattle, called zo, is commonly reared in Tibet and the Himalaya.
+Sheep abound in the more temperate regions, and goats are universally
+met with; both of these animals are used as beasts of burden
+in the mountains of Tibet. The reindeer of northern Siberia call
+also for special notice; they are used for the saddle as well as for
+draught.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. S.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Ethnology</p>
+
+<p>Asia, including its outlying islands, has become the dwelling-place
+of all the great families into which the races of men have been
+divided. By far the largest area is occupied by the
+Mongolian group. These have yellow-brown skins, black
+<span class="sidenote">Racial types.</span>
+eyes and hair, flat noses and oblique eyes. They are short
+in stature, with little hair on the body and face. In general terms
+they extend, with modifications of character probably due to admixture
+with other types and to varying conditions of life, over the
+whole of northern Asia as far south as the plains bordering the
+Caspian Sea, including Tibet and China, and also over the Indo-Malayan
+peninsula and Archipelago, excepting Papua and some of
+the more eastern islands.</p>
+
+<p>Next in numerical importance to the Mongolians are the races
+which have been called by Professor Huxley <i>Melanochroic</i> and
+<i>Xanthochroic</i>. The former includes the dark-haired people of
+southern Europe, and extends over North Africa, Asia Minor,
+Syria to south-western Asia, and through Arabia and Persia to India.
+The latter race includes the fair-haired people of northern Europe,
+and extends over nearly the same area as the Melanochroi, with
+which race it is greatly intermixed. The Xanthochroi have fair
+skins, blue eyes and light hair; and others have dark skins, eyes and
+hair, and are of a slighter frame. Together they constitute what
+were once called the Caucasian races. The Melanochroi are not
+considered by Huxley to be one of the primitive modifications of
+mankind, but rather to be the result of the admixture of the Xanthochroi
+with the Australoid type, next to be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The third group is that of the Australoid type. Their hair is dark,
+generally soft, never woolly. The eyes and skin are dark, the beard
+often well developed, the nose broad and flat, the lips coarse, and
+jaws heavy. This race is believed to form the basis of the people
+of the Indian peninsula, and of some of the hill tribes of central
+India, to whom the name Dravidian has been given, and by its
+admixture with the Melanochroic group to have given rise to the
+ordinary population of the Indian provinces. It is also probable that
+the Australoid family extends into south Arabia and Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The last group, the Negroid, is represented by the races to which
+has been given the name of <i>Negrito</i>, from the small size of some of
+them. They are closely akin to the negroes of South Africa, and
+possess the characteristic dark skins, woolly but scanty beard and
+body hair, broad flat noses, and projecting lips of the African; and
+are diffused over the Andaman Islands, a part of the Malay peninsula,
+the Philippines, Papua, and some of the neighbouring islands. The
+Negritos appear to be derived from a mixture of the true Negro with
+the Australoid type.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of the Mongolian group in Asia offers no particular
+difficulty. There is complete present, and probably previous
+long-existing, geographical continuity in the area over
+which they are found. There is also considerable similarity
+<span class="sidenote">Mongolians.</span>
+of climate and other conditions throughout the
+northern half of Asia which they occupy. The extension of modified
+forms of the Mongolian type over the whole American continent
+may be mentioned as a remarkable circumstance connected with
+this branch of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>The Mongolians of the northern half of Asia are almost entirely
+nomadic, hunters and shepherds or herdsmen. The least advanced
+of these, but far the most peaceful, are those that occupy Siberia.
+Farther south the best-known tribes are the Manchus, the Mongols
+proper, the Moguls and the Turks, all known under the name
+of Tatars, and to the ancients as Scythians, occupying from east
+to west the zone of Asia comprised between the 40th and 50th
+circles of N. lat. The Turks are Mahommedans; their tribes extend
+up the Oxus to the borders of Afghanistan and Persia, and to the
+Caspian, and under the name of Kirghiz into Russia, and their
+language is spoken over a large part of western Asia. Their letters
+are those of Persia. The Manchus and Mongols are chiefly Buddhist,
+with letters derived from the ancient Syriac. The Manchus are now
+said to be gradually falling under the influence of Chinese civilization,
+and to be losing their old nomadic habits, and even their peculiar
+language. The predatory habits of the Turkish, Mongolian and
+Manchu population of northern Asia, and their irruptions into other
+parts of the continent and into Europe, have produced very remarkable
+results in the history of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese branch of the Mongolian family are a thoroughly
+settled people of agriculturists and traders. They are partially
+Buddhist, and have a peculiar monosyllabic, uninflected language,
+with writing consisting of symbols, which represent words, not
+letters.</p>
+
+<p>The countries lying between India and the Mongolian are occupied
+by populations chiefly of the Mongolian and Chinese type,
+having languages fundamentally monosyllabic, but using letters
+derived from India, and adopting their religion, which is almost
+everywhere Buddhist, from the Indians. Of these may be named
+the Tibetans, the Burmese and the Siamese. Cochin-China is more
+nearly Chinese in all respects. It is known that to the Tibeto-Chinese
+modifications of the pure Mongolian type all the eastern
+Burmese tribes&mdash;Chins, Kachins, Shans, &amp;c.&mdash;belong (as indeed
+do the Burmese themselves), and that a cognate race occupies the
+Himalaya to the eastern limits of Kashmir.</p>
+
+<p>Some light has been thrown on the connexion between the Tibetan
+race and certain tribes of central India, the Bhils and Kols; and it
+seems more probable that these tribes are the remnants of a Mongolian
+race which first displaced a yet earlier Negroid population,
+and was then itself shouldered out by a Caucasian irruption, than
+that they entered India by any of the northern passages within
+historic times. Mongolian settlements have lately been found very
+much farther extended into the border countries of north-west India
+than has been hitherto recognized. The Mingals, who, conjointly
+with the Brahuis, occupy the hills south of Kalat to the limits of the
+Rajput province of Las Bela, claim Mongolian descent, and traces
+of a Mongolian colony have been found in Makran.</p>
+
+<p>The Malays, who occupy the peninsula and most of the islands of
+the Archipelago called after them, are Mongols apparently modified
+by their very different climate, and by the maritime life
+<span class="sidenote">Malays.</span>
+forced upon them by the physical conditions of the
+region they inhabit. As they are now known to us, they have undergone
+a process of partial civilization, first at the hands of the Brahminical
+Indians, from whom they borrowed a religion, and to some
+extent literature and an alphabet, and subsequently from intercourse
+with the Arabs, which has led to the adoption of Mahommedanism
+by most of them.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Aryan has been given to the races speaking languages
+derived from, or akin to, the ancient form of Sanskrit, who now
+occupy the temperate zone extending from the Mediterranean,
+across the highlands of Asia Minor, Persia and Afghanistan, to
+<span class="sidenote">Aryans.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span>
+India. The races speaking the languages akin to the ancient
+Assyrian, which are now mainly represented by Arabic, have been
+called Semitic, and occupy the countries south-west of
+Persia, including Syria and Arabia, besides extending into
+North Africa. Though the languages of these races are very different
+they cannot be regarded as physically distinct, and they are both
+without doubt branches of the Melanochroi, modified by admixture
+with the neighbouring races, the Mongols, the Australoids and the
+Xanthochroi.</p>
+
+<p>The Aryans of India are probably the most settled and civilized
+of all Asiatic races. This type is found in its purest form in the north
+and north-west, while the mixed races and the population referred
+to the Australoid type predominate in the peninsula and southern
+India. The spoken languages of northern India are very various,
+differing one from another in the sort of degree that English differs
+from German, though all are thoroughly Sanskritic in their vocables,
+but with an absence of Sanskrit grammar that has given rise to
+considerable discussion. The languages of the south are Dravidian,
+not Sanskritic. The letters of both classes of languages, which also
+vary considerably, are all modifications of the ancient Pali, and
+probably derived from the Dravidians, not from the Aryans. They
+are written from left to right, exception being made of Urdu or
+Hindostani, the mixed language of the Mahommedan conquerors of
+northern India, the character used for writing which is the Persian.
+From the river Sutlej and the borders of the Sind desert, as far as
+Burma and to Ceylon, the religion of the great bulk of the people
+of India is Hindu or Brahminical, though the Mahommedans are
+often numerous, and in some places even in a majority. West of the
+Sutlej the population of Asia may be said to be wholly Mahommedan
+with the exception of certain relatively small areas in Asia Minor
+and Syria, where Christians predominate. The language of the
+Punjab does not differ very materially from that of Upper India.
+West of the Indus the dialects approach more to Persian, which
+language meets Arabic and Turki west of the Tigris, and along the
+Turkoman desert and the Caspian. Through the whole of this tract
+the letters are used which are common to Persian, Arabic and
+Turkish, written from right to left.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable progress has been made in the classification of the
+various races which occupy the continent to the west of the great
+Mongolian region. The ancient Sacae, or Scyths, are
+recognized in the Aryan population, who may be found
+<span class="sidenote">Racial distribution.</span>
+in great numbers and in their purest form in the more
+inaccessible mountains and glens of the central highlands.
+These Tajiks (as they are usually called) form the underlying population
+of Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Badakshan, and their
+language (in the central districts of Asia) is found to contain words
+of Aryan or Sanskrit derivation which are not known in Persian.
+They have been for the most part dispossessed of their country by
+Turkish immigration and conquests, but they still retain their original
+intellectual superiority over the Turkish and other mixed tribes by
+which they are surrounded. Uzbegs and Kirghiz have but small
+affinity with the Mongol element of Asia. They are the representatives
+of those countless Turkish irruptions which have taken place
+through all history. Of the two divisions (Kara Kirghiz and Kassak
+Kirghiz) into which the Kirghiz tribes are divided by Russian
+authorities, the Kassak Kirghiz is the more closely allied to the
+Mongol type; the Kara Kirghiz, who are found principally in the
+valleys of the Tian-shan and Altai mountains, being unmistakably
+Turkish. The Kipchaks are only a Kirghiz clan. The language of
+the Kirghiz is Turki and their religion that of Mahomet. As a
+nomadic people they have great contempt for the Sarts, who represent
+the town dwellers of the tribe. The Kalmucks are a Buddhist
+and Mongolian people who originated in a confederacy of tribes
+dwelling in Dzungaria, migrated to Siberia, and settled on the
+Lower Volga. From thence they returned late in the 18th century
+to the reoccupation of their old ground in Kulja under the Chinese.
+The Turkoman is the purest form of the Turk element, and his language
+is the purest form of the Turkish tongue, which is represented
+at Constantinople by a comparatively mongrel, or mixed, dialect.
+Ethnographers have traced a connexion between the Turkoman of
+central Asia and the Teutonic races of Europe, based on a similarity
+of national customs and immemorial usage. Evidence of an original
+affinity between Turkoman and Rajput has also been found in the
+mutual possession by these races of a ruddy skin, so that as ethnographical
+inquiry advances the Turk appears to recede from his
+Mongolian affinities and to approach the Caucasian. Turks and
+Mongols alike were doubtless included under the term Scyth by the
+ancients, and as Tatars by more modern writers, insomuch that the
+Turkish dynasty at Delhi, founded by Baber, is usually termed the
+Mogul dynasty, although there can be no distinction traced between
+the terms Mogul and Mongol. The general results of recent inquiry
+into the ethnography of Afghanistan is to support the general
+correctness of Bellew&rsquo;s theories of the origin of the Afghan races.
+The claim of the Durani Afghan to be a true Ben-i-Israel is certainly
+in no way weakened by any recent investigation. The influence of
+Greek culture in northern India is fully recognized, and the distribution
+of Greek colonies previous to Alexander&rsquo;s time is attested
+by practical knowledge of the districts they were said to occupy.
+The <i>habitat</i> of the Nysaeana, and the identity of certain tribes of
+Kafiristan with the descendants of these pre-Alexandrian colonists
+from the west, are also well established. To this day hymns are unwittingly
+sung to Bacchus in the dales and glens of Kafiristan. The
+ethnographical status of the mixed tribes of the mountains that lie
+between Chitral and the Peshawar plains has been fairly well fixed
+by John Biddulph, and much patient inquiry in the vast fields of
+Baluchistan by Major Mockler, G.P. Tate and others has resulted
+in quite a new appreciation of the tribal origin of the great conglomeration
+of Baluch peoples.</p>
+
+<p>The result of trans-border surveys to the north and west of India
+has been to establish the important geographical fact that it is by
+two gateways only, one on the north-west and one on the west of
+India, that the central Asiatic tides of immigration have flowed
+into the peninsula. The Kabul valley indicates the north-western
+entrance, and Makran indicates that on the west. By the Kabul
+valley route, which includes at its head the group of passes across
+the Hindu Kush which extend from the Khawak to the Kaoshan, all
+those central Asian hordes, be they Sacae, Yue-chi, Jats, Goths or
+Huns, who were driven towards the rich plains of the south, entered
+the Punjab. Some of them migrated from districts which belong to
+eastern Asia, but none of them penetrated into India by eastern
+passes. Such tides as set towards the Himalaya broke against their
+farther buttresses, leaving an interesting ethnographical flotsam
+in the northern valleys; but they never overflowed the Himalayan
+barrier. Later most of the historic invasions of India from central
+Asia followed the route which leads directly from Kabul to Peshawar
+and Delhi.</p>
+
+<p>By the western gates of Makran prehistoric irruptions from
+Mesopotamia broke into the plains of Lower Sind, and either passed
+on towards the central provinces of India or were absorbed in the
+highlands south of Kalat. In later centuries the Arabs from the
+west reached the valley of the Indus by their western route, and
+there established a dynasty which lasted for 300 years. The identification
+of existing peoples with the various Scythic, Persian and
+Arab races who have passed from High Asia into the Indian borderland,
+has opened up a vast field of ethnographical inquiry which has
+hardly yet found adequate workers for its investigation. To such
+fields may be added the yet more complicated problems of those
+reflex waves which flowed backwards from India into the border
+highlands.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p>
+
+<p>1. The borders assigned to Asia on the west are somewhat
+arbitrary. The Urals indicate no real division of races, and in
+both Greek and Turkish times Asia Minor has been connected
+with the opposite shores of Europe rather than with the lands
+lying to the east. A juster view of early history is probably
+obtained by thinking of the countries round the Mediterranean
+as interacting on one another than by separating Palestine and
+Asia Minor as Asiatic.</p>
+
+<p>2. The words &ldquo;Asiatic&rdquo; and &ldquo;Oriental&rdquo; are often used as
+if they denoted a definite and homogeneous type, but Russians
+resemble Asiatics in many ways, and Turks, Hindus,
+Chinese, &amp;c., differ in so many important points that
+<span class="sidenote">Asiatic characteristics.</span>
+the common substratum is small. It amounts to this,
+that Asiatics stand on a higher level than the natives
+of Africa or America, but do not possess the special material
+civilization of western Europe. As far as any common mental
+characteristic can be assigned it is also somewhat negative,
+namely, that Asiatics have not the same sentiment of independence
+and freedom as Europeans. Individuals are thought of as
+members of a family, state or religion, rather than as entities
+with a destiny and rights of their own. This leads to autocracy
+in politics, fatalism in religion and conservatism in both. Hence,
+too, Asiatic history has large and simple outlines. Though
+longer chronologically than the annals of Europe, it is less
+eventful, less diversified and offers fewer personalities of interest.
+But the same conditions which render individual eminence
+difficult procure for it when once attained a more ready recognition,
+and the conquerors and prophets of Asia have had more
+power and authority than their parallels in Europe. Jenghiz
+Khan and Timur covered more ground than Napoleon, and no
+European has had such an effect on the world as Mahomet.</p>
+
+<p>3. Attention has often been called to the religious character
+of Asia. Not only the great religions of the world&mdash;Buddhism,
+Christianity, Islam&mdash;but those of secondary importance,
+such as Judaism, Parseeism, Taoism, are all
+<span class="sidenote">Religion and civilisation.</span>
+Asiatic. No European race left to itself has developed
+any thing more than an unsystematic paganism. It is
+true that Greek philosophy advanced far beyond this stage, but
+it produced nothing sufficiently popular to be called a religion.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
+On the other hand Christianity, though Asiatic in its origin and
+essential ideas, has to a large extent taken its present form on
+European soil, and some of its most important manifestations&mdash;
+notably the Roman Church&mdash;are European reconstructions in
+which little of the Asiatic element remains. Christianity has
+made little way farther east then Asia Minor. Modern missions
+have made no great conquests there, and in earlier times the
+Nestorians and Jacobites who penetrated to central Asia, China
+and India, received respectful hearing, but never had anything
+like the success which attended Buddhism and Islam. Yet
+Buddhism has never made much impression west of India; and
+Islam is clearly repugnant to Europeans, for even when under
+Moslem rule (as in Turkey) they refuse to accept it in a far larger
+proportion than did the Hindus in similar circumstances. Hence
+there is clearly a deep-seated difference between the religious
+feelings of the two continents.</p>
+
+<p>Since Asiatic records go back much farther than those of
+Europe, it is natural that Asia should be thought the birthplace
+of civilization. But this originality cannot be absolute, for,
+whatever may have been the relations of Babylonia and the
+Aryans, the latter brought civilization to India from the west,
+and it is not always clear whether similarity of government and
+institutions is the result of borrowing or of parallel development.
+Both in Europe and in Asia small feudal or aristocratic states
+tended to consolidate themselves into monarchies, but whereas
+in Europe from the early days of Rome onwards royalty has often
+been driven out and replaced temporarily or permanently by
+popular government, this change seems not to occur in Asia,
+where revolution means only a change of dynasty. The few
+cases where the government is not monarchical, as Arabia, seem
+to represent the persistence of very ancient conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The contemplation of Asia suggests that progress is most
+rapid when accompanied by the migration of races or the transplantation
+of ideas and institutions. Thus Greece excelled the
+Eastern countries from whom she may have derived her civilization,
+and Buddhism had a far more brilliant career outside India
+than in it.</p>
+
+<p>4. In many parts of southern Asia are found semi-barbarous
+races representing the earliest known stratum of population, such
+as the Veddahs of Ceylon, and various tribes in China
+and the Malay Archipelago. Some of them offer
+<span class="sidenote">General historical outlines.</span>
+analogies to the Australians. This connexion, if true,
+must be very ancient, since it apparently goes back to
+a time when the distribution of land and water was other than
+at present. In northern Asia are found other aborigines, such
+as the Ainus of Japan and the so-called hyperborean races
+(Chukchis, &amp;c.), but no materials are at present forthcoming
+for their history. There is some record of the migrations of the
+later races superimposed on these aborigines. The Chinese came
+from the west, though how far west is unknown: the Hindus
+and Persians from the north-west: the Burmese and Siamese
+from the north. We do not know if the Mongols, Turks, &amp;c.,
+had any earlier home than central Asia, but their extensive
+movements from that region are historical.</p>
+
+<p>The antiquity of Asiatic history is often exaggerated. With
+the exception of Babylonia and Assyria, we can hardly even
+conjecture what was the condition of this continent much before
+1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At that period the Chinese were advancing along the
+Hwang-ho, and the Aryans were entering India from the north-west.
+Both were in conflict with earlier races. The influence
+of Babylonian civilization was probably widespread. Some
+connexion between Babylonia and China is generally admitted,
+and all Indian alphabets seem traceable to a Semitic original
+borrowed in the course of commerce from the Persian Gulf.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from European conquests, the internal history of Asia
+in the last 2000 years is the result of the interaction of four main
+influences: (<i>a</i>) Chinese, (<i>b</i>) Indian, (<i>c</i>) Mahommedan, (<i>d</i>) Central
+Asian. Of these the first three represent different types of
+civilization: the fourth has little originality, but has been of
+great importance in affecting the distribution of races and
+political power.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) China has moulded the civilization of the eastern mainland
+and Japan, without much affecting the Malay Archipelago. In
+the sphere of direct influence fall Korea, Japan and Annam;
+in the outer sphere are Mongolia, Tibet, Siam, Cambodia and
+Burma, where Indian and Chinese influence are combined, the
+Indian being often the stronger. These countries, except Japan,
+have all been at some time at least nominal tributaries of China.
+Where Chinese influence had full play it introduced Confucianism,
+a special style in art and the Chinese system of writing. After
+the Christian era it was accompanied by Chinese Buddhism.
+The cumbrous Chinese script maintains itself in the Far East,
+but has not advanced west of China proper and Annam.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Indian influence may be defined as Buddhism, if it is
+understood that Buddhism is not at all periods clearly distinguishable
+from Hinduism. Its sphere includes Indo-China, much of
+the Malay Archipelago, Tibet and Mongolia, Moreover, China
+and Japan themselves may be said to fall within this sphere, in
+view of the part which Buddhism has played in their development.
+The Buddhist influence is not merely religious, for it is
+always accompanied by Indian art and literature, and often by
+an Indian alphabet. Much of this art is Greek in origin, being
+derived from the Perso-Greek states on the north-west frontiers
+of India. Indian alphabets have spread to Tibet, Cambodia, Java
+and Korea. The history of Indian civilization in Indo-China
+and the Archipelago is still obscure, in spite of the existence of
+gigantic ruins, but it would appear that in some parts at least two
+periods must be distinguished, first the introduction of Hinduism
+(or mixed Hinduism and Buddhism), perhaps under Indian
+princes, and secondly a later and more purely ecclesiastical
+introduction of Sinhalese Buddhism, with its literature and art.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Mahommedanism or Islam is perhaps the greatest transforming
+force which the world has seen. It has profoundly
+affected and to a large extent subjugated all western Asia
+including India, all eastern and northern Africa as well as Spain,
+and all eastern Europe. Its open advocacy of force attracts
+warlike races, and the intensity of its influence is increased by
+the fusion of secular and religious power, so that the Moslem
+Church is a Moslem state characterized by slavery, polygamy,
+and, subject to the autocracy of the ruler, by the theoretical
+equality of Moslems, who in political status are superior to non-Moslems.
+Thus, whenever the population of a Moslem country
+is of mixed belief, a ruling caste of Moslems is formed, as in
+Turkey at the present day and India under the Moguls. Islam
+is paramount in Turkey, Persia, Arabia and Afghanistan. India
+is the dividing line: Islam is strong in northern and central India,
+weaker in the south. But only one-fifth of the whole population
+is Moslem. Beyond India it has spread to Malacca and the
+Malay Archipelago, where it overwhelmed Hindu civilization,
+and reached the southern Philippines. But it made no progress
+in Indo-China or Japan; and though there is a large Moslem
+population in China the Chinese influence has been stronger, for
+alone of all Asiatics the Chinese have succeeded in forcing Islam
+to accept the ordinary limitations of a religion and to take its
+place as a creed parallel to Buddhism or any other.</p>
+
+<p>Even more than Buddhism Islam has carried with it a special
+style of art and civilization. It is usually accompanied by the use
+of the Arabic alphabet, and in the languages of Moslem nations
+(notably Turkish, Persian, Hindustani and Malay) a large
+proportion of the vocabulary is borrowed from Arabic. Hindi
+and Hindustani, two forms of the same language as spoken by
+Hindus and Mahommedans respectively, are a curious example
+of how deeply religion may affect culture.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The great part which central Asian tribes have played in
+history is obscured by the absence of any common name for
+them. Linguistically they can be divided into several groups
+such as Turks, Mongols and Huns, but they were from time to
+time united into states representing more than one group, and
+their armies were recruited, like the Janissaries, from all the
+military races in the neighbourhood. Soon after the Christian
+era central Asia began to boil over, and at least seven great
+invasions and more or less complete conquests can be ascribed
+to these tribes without counting minor movements, (i.) The
+early invasions of Europe by the Avars, Huns and Bulgarians.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span>
+(ii.) The invasion and temporary subjection of Russia by the
+Mongols, who penetrated as far west as Silesia, (iii.) The
+conquests of Timur. (iv.) The conquest of Asia Minor and
+eastern Europe by the Turks. (v.) The conquest of India by the
+Moguls. (vi.) The conquest of China by the Mongols under
+Kublai. (vii.) The later conquest of China by the Manchus. To
+these may be added numerous lesser invasions of India, China
+and Persia.</p>
+
+<p>These tribes have a genius for warfare rather than for government,
+art or literature, and with few exceptions (<i>e.g.</i> the Moguls
+in India) have proved poor administrators. Apart from conquest
+their most important function has been to keep up communications
+in central Asia, and to transport religions and civilizations
+from one region to another. Thus they are mainly responsible
+for the introduction of Islam with its Arabic or Persian civilization
+into India and Europe, and in earlier times their movements
+facilitated the infiltration of Graeco-Bactrian civilization into
+India, besides maintaining communication between China and
+the West.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Babylonia and Assyria</i>.&mdash;The movements mentioned above
+have been the chief factors of relatively modern Asiatic history,
+but in early times the centre of activity and culture lay farther
+west, in Babylonia and Assyria. These ancient states began to
+decline in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and on their ruins rose the
+Persian empire, which with various political metamorphoses
+continued to be an important power till the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+after which all western Asia was overwhelmed by the Moslem
+wave, and old landmarks and kingdoms were obliterated.</p>
+
+<p>The materials for the study of their institutions and population
+are abundant, but lend themselves to discussion rather than to
+a summary of admitted facts. In the early history of south-western
+Asia the Semites form the most important ethnic group,
+which is primarily linguistic but also shares other remarkable
+characteristics. Two of the greatest religions of the world,
+Christianity and Islam, are Semitic in origin, as well as Judaism.
+In politics these races have been less successful in modern times,
+but the Semitic states of Babylonia and Assyria were once the
+principal centres for the development and distribution of civilization.
+It is generally agreed that this civilization can be traced
+back to an earlier race, the Sumero-Akkadians, whose language
+seems allied to the agglutinative idioms of central Asia. If this
+ancient civilized race was really allied to the ancestors of the
+Turks and Huns, it is a remarkable instance of how civilization
+thrives best by being transplanted at a certain period of growth.
+Still less is known of the early non-Aryan races of Asia Minor
+such as the Hittites and Alorodians. One hypothesis supposes
+that the shores of the Mediterranean were originally inhabited
+by a homogeneous race neither Aryan nor Semitic.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest Sumerian records seem to be anterior to 4000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Shortly after that period Babylonia was invaded by Semites,
+who became the ruling race. The city of Babylon came to the
+fore as metropolis about 2285 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> under Khammurabi. Assyria
+was an offshoot of Babylonia lying to the north-west, and apparently
+colonized before the second millennium. While using
+the same language as the Babylonians, the Assyrians had an
+individuality which showed itself in art and religion. In the
+9th and 8th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they became the chief power within
+their sphere and the suzerain of their parent Babylon. But they
+succumbed before the advance of the Medo-Persian power in
+606 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, whereas it was not till 555 that Cyrus took Babylon.
+Assyria, being essentially a military power, disappeared with
+the destruction of Nineveh, but Babylon continued to exercise
+an influence on culture and religion for many centuries after the
+Persian conquest.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>China</i>.&mdash;This is the oldest of existing states, though its
+authentic history does not go back much beyond 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is
+generally admitted that there was some connexion between
+the ancient civilizations of China and Babylonia, but its precise
+nature is still uncertain. It is clear, however, that the Chinese
+came from the west, and entered their present territory along
+the course of the Hwang-ho at an unknown period, possibly about
+3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In early historical times China consisted of a shifting
+confederacy of feudal states, but about 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the state of
+Tsin or Chin (whence the name China) came into prominence,
+and succeeded in forming a homogeneous empire, which advanced
+considerably towards the south. The subsequent history of
+China is mainly a record of struggles with various tribes, commonly,
+but not very correctly, called Tatars. The empire was
+frequently broken up by successful incursions, or divided
+between rival dynasties, but at least twice became a great
+Asiatic power: under the Han dynasty (about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 220),
+and the T&rsquo;ang (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618-906). The dominions of the latter
+extended across central Asia to northern India, but were dismembered
+by the attacks of the Kitans, whence the name Cathay.
+China proper, minus these external provinces, was again united
+under the Sung dynasty (960-1127), but split into the northern
+(Tatar) and southern (Chinese) kingdoms. In the 13th century
+arose the Mongol power, and Kublai Khan conquered China.
+The Mongol dynasty lasted less than a century, but the Ming,
+the native Chinese dynasty which succeeded it, reigned for
+nearly 300 years and despatched expeditions which reached
+India, Ceylon and East Africa. In 1644 the Ming succumbed
+to the attacks of the Manchus, a northern tribe who captured
+Peking and founded the present imperial house.</p>
+
+<p>Until the advent of Europeans, the Chinese were always in
+contact with inferior races. Whether they expanded at the
+expense of weak aboriginal tribes or were conquered by more
+robust invaders, Chinese civilization prevailed and assimilated
+alike the conquered and the conquerors. It is largely to this
+that we must ascribe the national conservatism and contempt
+for foreigners. The spirit of the Chinese polity is self-contained,
+anti-military and anti-sacerdotal. Rank is nominally determined
+by merit, as tested by competitive examinations. Society
+is conceived as regulated by mutual obligations, of which the
+duties of parents and children are the most important. The
+emperor is head of the state and the high priest, who sacrifices
+to Heaven on behalf of his people, but he can be deposed, and
+no divine right is inherent in certain families as in Japan and
+Turkey. On the contrary there have been 20 dynasties since
+the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>The most conspicuous figure in Chinese literature is Confucius
+(551-475 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Though he laid no claim to originality and
+merely sought to collect and systematize the traditions of
+antiquity, his influence in the Far East has been unbounded,
+and he must be pronounced one of the most powerful advocates
+of peace and humanity that have ever existed. Confucianism
+is an ethical rather than a religious system, and hence was able
+to co-exist, though not on very friendly terms, with Buddhism,
+which reached China about the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> and was the
+chief source of Chinese religious ideas, except the older ancestor
+worship. But they are not a religious people, and like many
+Europeans regard the church as a department of the state.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Japan</i> appears to have been formerly inhabited by the
+Ainus, who have traditions of an older but unknown population,
+but was invaded in prehistoric times by a race akin to the
+Koreans, which was possibly mingled with Malay elements
+after occupying the southern part of the islands. Authentic
+history does not begin till about the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when
+Chinese civilization and Buddhism were introduced. The
+government was originally autocratic, but as early as the 7th
+century the most characteristic feature of Japanese politics&mdash;the
+power of great families who overshadowed the throne&mdash;makes
+its appearance. We hear first of the Fujiwara family,
+and then of the rivalry between the houses of Taira and Minamoto.
+The latter prevailed, and in 1192 established the dual
+system of government under which the emperor or Mikado
+ruled only in name, and the real power was in the hands of a
+hereditary military chief called Shogun. Japan has never been
+invaded in historical times, but an attempt made by Kublai
+Khan to conquer it was successfully repulsed. The chief power
+then passed to the Ashikaga dynasty of Shoguns, who retained
+it for about 200 years and were distinguished for their patronage
+of the arts. The second half of the 16th century was a period
+of ferment and anarchy, marked by the arrival of the Portuguese
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
+and the rise of some remarkable adventurers, one of whom,
+Hideyoshi, conquered Korea and apparently meditated the
+invasion of China. His plans were interrupted by his death, and
+his successor, Ieyasu, who shaped the social and political life
+of Japan for nearly 300 years (1603-1868), definitely decided on a
+policy of seclusion and isolation. All ideas of external conquest
+were abandoned, Christianity was forbidden, and Japan closed
+to foreigners, only the Dutch being allowed a strictly limited
+commerce. In 1854-1859 the Christian powers, beginning
+with the United States, successfully asserted their right to trade
+with Japan. The influx of new ideas provoked civil war, in
+which the already decadent Shogunate was abolished and the
+authority of the Mikado restored. Recognizing that their only
+chance of competing with Europeans was to fight them with
+their own weapons, the Japanese set themselves deliberately
+to assimilate the material civilization and to some extent
+the institutions of Europe, such as constitutional government.
+Their progress and success are without parallel. In 1895 they
+defeated the Chinese and ten years later the Russians. Their
+exceptional status among Asiatic nations has been recognized
+by treaties which, contrary to the general practice in non-Christian
+countries, place all foreigners in Japan under Japanese
+law.</p>
+
+<p>This sudden development of the Japanese is perhaps the
+most important event of the second half of the 19th century,
+since it marks the rise of an Asiatic power capable of competing
+with Europe on equal terms. Their history is so different from
+that of the rest of Asia that it is not surprising if the result is
+different. The nation hardly came into existence till China and
+India had passed their prime, and remained secluded and free
+from the continual struggle against barbarian invaders, which
+drained the energies of its neighbours. It was left untouched
+by Mahommedanism, and for an unprecedentedly long period
+kept Europeans at bay without wasting its strength in hostilities.
+The military spirit was evolved, not in raids and massacres of
+the usual Asiatic type which create little but intense racial
+hatred, but in feuds between families and factions of the same
+race, which restrained ferocity and tended to create a temper
+like that of the feudal chivalry of Europe. On the other hand
+it is noticeable that the Japanese have little which is original
+in the way of religion, literature or philosophy. Unlike the
+Chinese and Indians, they have hitherto not had the smallest
+influence on the intellectual development of Asia, and though
+they have in the past sometimes shown themselves intensely
+nationalist and conservative, they have, compared with India
+and China, so little which is really their own that their assimilation
+of foreign ideas is explicable.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Korea</i> received its civilization and religion from China, but
+differs in language, and to some extent in customs. An alphabet
+derived from Indian sources is in use as well as Chinese writing.
+The country was at most periods independent though nominally
+tributary to China. In the 16th century the Japanese occupied
+it for a short period, and in 1894 they went to war with China
+on account of her claims to suzerainty. In 1895 Korea was
+declared independent.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>India</i>.&mdash;The population of India comprises at least three
+strata: firstly, uncivilized aborigines, such as the Kols and
+Santhals, and secondly, the Dravidians (Tamils, Kanarese, &amp;c.),
+who perhaps represent the earliest northern invaders, and appear
+to have attained some degree of culture on their own account.
+The most recent authorities are of opinion that the Kolarians
+and Dravidians represent a single physical type; but, whatever
+the historical explanation may be, they certainly have different
+languages and show different stages of civilization. In prehistoric
+times they were spread over the whole of India, but were
+driven to the centre and south of the peninsula by the third
+stratum of Aryans, and perhaps also by invasions of so-called
+Mongolian races from the north-west. No historical record has
+been preserved of these latter, but they appear to have profoundly
+affected the population of Bengal, which is believed to be Mongolo-Dravidian
+in composition. The Aryans appear to have been
+settled to the north of the Hindu Kush, and to have migrated
+south-eastwards about 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Their original home has been
+a subject of much discussion, but the view now prevalent is that
+they arose in southern Russia or Asia Minor, whence a section
+spread eastwards and divided into two closely related branches&mdash;the
+Hindus and Iranians. There were probably two successive
+Aryan immigrations, and the tradition of a struggle between
+them may be preserved in the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i>. The life of the
+ancient Aryans, as portrayed in their sacred songs, the <i>Rig Veda</i>,
+was quasi-nomadic and in many ways democratic, but by the
+6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> settled states had been formed in the Ganges
+valley. They were absolute monarchies, but the power of the
+king was tempered by the extraordinary influence possessed by
+the hereditary sacerdotal class or Brahmans. The position of
+this class, which has remained till the present day, is connected
+with the institution of caste, a division of the population into
+groups founded partly on racial distinctions. The peaceful
+progress of Brahmanism was hindered by the doctrine of the
+Indian prince Gotama, called the Buddha, which grew into one
+of the greatest religions of the world. For many centuries the
+culture and development of the Hindus depended mainly on
+the interaction of the old Brahmanical religion and Buddhism.
+The latter was finally absorbed, and disappeared in India itself,
+but has spread Indian influence over the whole of eastern Asia,
+where it still flourishes.</p>
+
+<p>In 326 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Alexander invaded the Punjab. The immediate
+result was small, but the establishment of Perso-Greek kingdoms
+in central Asia had a powerful influence on Indian art and culture.
+It may also have helped to familiarize the Hindu mind with the
+idea of an empire, which appeared among them later than in
+other Asiatic countries. The first empire, called Maurya, reached
+its greatest extent in the time of Asoka (264-227 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who ruled
+from Afghanistan to Madras. He was a zealous Buddhist and
+gave the first example of a missionary religion, for by his exertions
+the faith was spread over all India and Ceylon. No Hindu
+empires have lasted long, and the Maurya dominions broke up
+fifty years after his death.</p>
+
+<p>In the next period (<i>c</i>. 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300) India was invaded
+from the north by tribes partly of Parthian and partly of Turki
+(Yue-chi, &amp;c.) origin. Owing to the absence of dated records,
+the chronology of these invasions has not yet been set beyond
+dispute, but the most important was that of the Kushans, whose
+king Kanishka founded a state which comprised northern India
+and Kashmir. They were Buddhists, and it is probable that
+the Mahayana or northern form of Buddhism was due to an
+amalgamation of Gotama&rsquo;s doctrines with the ideas (largely
+Greek and Persian) which they brought with them. Much of
+Sivaism has probably the same origin. Another native empire,
+known as Gupta, rose on the ruins of the Kushan kingdom,
+and embraced nearly the whole peninsula, but it broke up
+in the 5th century, partly owing to the attacks of new northern
+invaders, the Huns. The Malava dynasty maintained Hindu
+civilization in the 6th century, and from 606 to 646 Harsha
+established a brief but brilliant empire in the north with its
+capital at Kanauj. This epoch is marked by the renaissance of
+Sanskrit literature and the gradual revival of Hinduism at the
+expense of Buddhism. But after Harsha Hindu history is lost
+in a maze of small and transitory states, incapable of resisting
+the ever advancing Mahommedan peril. As early as 712 the
+Arabs conquered Sind, and by the end of the 11th century the
+whole of northern India was in Moslem hands. Two periods may
+be distinguished, namely the Turki (1200-1526) and the Mogul
+empire. The former comprised several dynasties of mixed Turki
+and Iranian race, but was wanting in coherency. In the neighbourhood
+of the Moslem capitals, Islam spread rapidly, but in
+such districts as Rajputana and specially Vijayanagar (Mysore)
+Hindu civilization and religion maintained themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In 1526 the Moguls descended on India from Transoxiana and
+seized the throne of Delhi. They never subjugated the south,
+but the empire which they founded in the north was for about
+two centuries, under such rulers as Akbar and Shah Jehan, one
+of the most brilliant which Asia has seen. After 1707 it began
+to decline: the governors became independent: a powerful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span>
+Mahratta confederacy arose in central India; Nadir Shah of
+Persia sacked Delhi; and Ahmed Shah made repeated invasions.
+A still more formidable danger, the power of the French and
+English, continued to increase. Amidst such confusion the
+authority of the Mogul empire rapidly disappeared, but it lasted
+as a name till the Mutiny (1857).</p>
+
+<p>Indian history until Mahommedan times is marked by the
+unusual prominence of religious ideas, and is a record of intellectual
+development rather than of political events. Whatever
+national unity the Hindu peoples possessed came from the
+persistent and penetrating influence of the Brahman caste.
+Kings held a secondary position, and were generally regarded
+as adventitious tyrants, rather than as the heads and representatives
+of the nation. Even the great dynasties have left
+few traces, and it is with difficulty that the patient historian
+disinters the minor kingdoms from obscurity, but Indian religion,
+literature and art have influenced all Asia from Persia to Japan.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Persia.</i>&mdash;The Persians, with whom are often coupled the
+Medes, appear to be pure Aryans in origin, and the earliest form
+of their language and religion offers remarkable analogies to the
+Vedas. It is reasonable to suppose that their ancestors and those
+of the Hindus at one time formed a single tribe somewhere in
+central Asia. The religion was remodelled by Zoroaster, who
+seems to be a historical character and to have lived about the
+7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> About the same time they shook off the
+domination of Assyria. From the 6th century onwards their
+empire, then known as Median, began to expand at the expense
+of the surrounding states. They destroyed Nineveh in alliance
+with the Babylonians, and half a century later Cyrus took
+Babylon and founded the great dynasty of the Achaemenidae.
+The substitution of the Persian for the Median power, which
+took place with the advent of Cyrus, seems to indicate merely
+the pre-eminence of a particular tribe and not conquest by
+another race. The power of the Achaemenidae, when at its
+maximum, extended from the Oxus and Indus in the east to
+Thrace in the west and Egypt in the south, but fell before Greece,
+after lasting for rather more than 200 years. Darius and Xerxes
+were repulsed in their efforts to subjugate the Greek Peninsula,
+and Alexander the Great conquered their successor Darius III.
+in 329. But the greater part of the empire continued to exist
+under new masters, the Seleucids, as a Hellenistic power which
+was of great importance for the dissemination of Greek culture
+in the East. Bactria soon became independent under an Indo-Greek
+dynasty, and the blending of Greek, Persian, central
+Asiatic and Hindu influences had an important effect on the art
+and religion of India, and through India on all eastern Asia.
+About the same period (250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 227) the Parthian empire
+arose under the Arsacids in Khorasan and the adjacent districts.
+The Parthians appear to have been a Turanian tribe who had
+adopted many Persian customs. They successfully withstood
+the Romans, and at one time their power extended from India
+to Syria. They succumbed to the Persian dynasty of the
+Sassanids, who ruled successfully for about four centuries,
+established the Zoroastrian faith as their state religion, and
+maintained a creditable conflict with the East Roman empire.
+But in the 7th century they were defeated by Heraclius, and
+shortly afterwards were annihilated before the first impetus of
+the Mahommedan conquest, which established Islam in Persia
+and the neighbouring lands, sweeping away old civilizations
+and boundaries. During the greater part of the Mahommedan
+period Persia has been ruled by troubled and short-lived
+dynasties. It attained a certain dignity and unity under
+Abbas Shah (1585-1628), but in later times was distracted and
+disorganized by Afghan invasions. The present dynasty, which
+is of Turkoman origin, dates from 1789.</p>
+
+<p>The achievements of the Persians in art, literature and
+religion are by no means contemptible, but somewhat mixed and
+cosmopolitan. Owing to its position, the Persian state, when it
+from time to time became a conquering empire, overlapped Asia
+Minor, Babylon and India, and hence acted as an intermediary
+for transmitting art and ideas, sending for instance Greek
+sculpture to India and the cult of Mithra to western Europe. It
+is perhaps on account of this intermediate flavour that the
+literature of Persia&mdash;for instance the adaptations of Omar
+Khayyam&mdash;is more appreciated in Europe than that of other
+Oriental nations. On the other hand, the wars between Persia
+and Greece were recognized both at the time and afterwards
+as a struggle between Europe and Asia; the fact that both
+combatants were Aryans was not felt, and has no importance
+compared to the difference of continent.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Jews.</i>&mdash;The Israelites appear to have been originally a
+nomadic tribe akin to the Arabs, whom they resemble in their
+want of political instinct and in their extraordinary religious
+genius. Among many remarkable qualities they have been
+distinguished from the earliest times by a species of commensalism,
+or power of living among other nations without becoming
+either socially merged or politically distinct. Their traditional
+history represents them as migrating to the borders of Egypt
+and living there for some centuries. After the exodus, which
+perhaps took place about 1300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they moved northwards
+again and founded a state of modest dimensions, which attained
+a short-lived unity under Solomon, but succumbed to internal
+dissensions and to the attacks of Assyria and Babylon. Shalmanezer
+destroyed the northern kingdom or Israel in 720, and
+following the practice of the times deported the majority of the
+population, whose traces became lost to history. There is no
+reason why their descendants should not be found to-day in
+various tribes, but the physical type commonly called Jewish is
+characteristic not so much of Israel as of western Asia generally.
+In 588 Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews in captivity, but
+after the Persian conquest of Babylonia they were allowed to
+return to Palestine in 538. Their institutions and ideas were
+probably considerably modified during this period. Babylon
+long continued to be a Jewish centre whence the Jews radiated
+to other countries. The restored state of Jerusalem lived for
+about six centuries in partial independence under Persian,
+Egyptian, Syrian and Roman rule, often showing an aggressively
+heroic attachment to its national customs, which brought it into
+collision with its suzerains, until the temple was destroyed by
+Titus in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70, and the country laid waste in the succeeding
+years. But long before this period the Jews of the Dispersion
+had become as important as the inhabitants of Palestine. From
+choice or compulsion large numbers settled in Egypt in the time
+of the Ptolemies, and added an appreciable element to Alexandrine
+culture, while gradual voluntary emigration established
+Jewish communities in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, who
+facilitated the first spread of Christianity. In spite of chronic
+unpopularity and recurring persecutions they have spread over
+nearly all Europe. At the end of the 13th century they were
+expelled from Spain and many of the exiles moved eastwards.
+At present the largest numbers are to be found in the eastern
+parts of Europe. It is remarkable that though the Jews live in
+relative peace with Asiatics, the great majority of them prefer
+Europe as a residence.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Arabs.</i>&mdash;The Arabs have hardly any history before the
+rise of Islam, although their name is mentioned by surrounding
+nations from the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards. They appear to
+have had few states or kings, but rather tribes and chiefs. Their
+relationship to the Babylonians and Jews is indicated by linguistic
+and ethnological data. The language and writing of the Semites
+who, at an unknown period, settled in what is now Abyssinia,
+show affinities with those of South Arabia, and these Semites
+may have been immigrants into Africa from that region. It is
+plain from early Moslem literature that Persian, Christian and
+especially Jewish ideas had penetrated into Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>With the rise of Mahommedanism occurred a sudden effervescence
+of the Arabs, who during some centuries threatened to
+impose not only their political authority but their civilization
+and new religion on the whole known world. They successfully
+invaded India and central Asia in the east, Spain and Morocco
+in the west. The Caliphate under the Omayyads of Damascus,
+and then the Abbasids of Bagdad, became the principal power in
+the nearer East. It had not, however, a sufficiently coherent
+organization for permanence; parts of it became independent,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
+others were first protected and then absorbed by the Turks.
+The Arab rule in Spain, which once threatened to overwhelm
+Europe and was turned back near Tours by Charles Martel, was
+distinguished by its tolerance and civilization, and lingered on
+till the 15th century.</p>
+
+<p>The collapse of the political power of the Arabs was singularly
+complete. The Caliphate, though Arabian, was always geographically
+outside Arabia, and on its fall Arabia remained as
+it was before Islam, isolated and inaccessible. It is still one of
+the least known parts of the globe, and has hardly any political
+link with the outside, for the Arabs of northern Africa form
+separate states. But in spite of this total political collapse,
+Arabic religion and literature are still one of the greatest forces
+working in the western half of Asia, in northern Africa and to
+some extent in eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>Ceylon</i>, though geographically an annex of India, has not
+followed its fortunes historically. According to tradition it was
+invaded by an Aryan-speaking colony from the valley of the
+Ganges in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It received Buddhism from
+north India in the time of Asoka, and has had considerable
+importance as a centre of religious culture which has influenced
+Burma and Siam. Its medieval history consists of struggles
+between the native sovereigns and Tamil invaders. A powerful
+native dynasty reigned in the 12th century, but in 1408 the
+island was attacked by Chinese, and from 1505 onwards it was
+distracted by the attacks and squabbles of Europeans. It was
+partially subjugated, first by the Portuguese and then by the
+Dutch. In 1796 the Dutch were expelled by the English.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Indo-China.</i>&mdash;This is an appropriate name for Burma,
+Siam, Cambodia, Annam, &amp;c., for both in position and in civilization
+they lie between India and China. Indian influence is
+predominant as far as Cambodia (though with a Chinese tinge),
+Indian alphabets being employed and the Buddhism being of
+the Sinhalese type, but in Annam and Tongking the Chinese
+script and many Chinese institutions are in use. The population
+belongs to various races, and also comprises little-known wild
+tribes, (i.) Languages of the group known as M&#333;n-Annam are
+spoken in Annam and in Pegu, an ancient kingdom originally
+distinct from Burma though now confounded with it. This
+distribution seems to indicate that they once spread over the
+whole region, and were divided by the later advance of the
+Siamese and others. Until Annam was taken by the French,
+its history consisted of a struggle with the Chinese, who alternately
+asserted and lost their sovereignty. The Annamese are,
+however, a distinct race. Cochin China was once the seat of a
+kingdom called Champa, which appears to have had a hinduized
+Malay civilization and to have been subsequently absorbed by
+Annam. (ii.) The Burmese are linguistically allied to the
+Tibetans, and probably entered Burma from the north-west.
+The early history consists largely of conflicts between the
+Burmese and Talaings. The kingdom which was annexed by
+Britain in 1885 was founded about 1750 by Alompra, who
+united his countrymen and broke the power of the Talaings.
+He also invaded Siam. (iii.) The Khmers or Cambodians,
+whose languages appear to belong to the M&#333;n-Annam group,
+form a relatively ancient kingdom, much reduced in the last few
+centuries by the advance of the Siamese and new a French
+protectorate. Remarkable ruins dating from perhaps <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800
+to 1000 attest the former prevalence of strong Hindu influence,
+(iv.) The Siamese or Thai, who speak a monosyllabic language
+of the Chinese type, but written in an Indian alphabet, represent
+a late invasion from southern China, whence they descended
+about the 13th century.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Malays.</i>&mdash;This widely-scattered race has no political
+union and its distribution is a puzzle for ethnography. At
+present it occupies the extremity of the Malay Peninsula, Java,
+Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines and other islands of the
+Malay Archipelago as well as Madagascar, while the inhabitants
+of most islands in the South Seas, including New Zealand and
+Hawaii, speak languages which if not Malay have at least undergone
+a strong Malay influence. It would seem from this distribution
+that the Malays are not continental, but a seafaring
+race with exceptional powers of dispersal, who have spread over
+the ocean from some island centre&mdash;perhaps Java. The latest
+theory, however, is that there is a great linguistic group (which
+may or may not prove to correspond to an ethnic unity) comprising
+the Mund&#257;, M&#333;nkhmer, Malay, Polynesian and Micronesian
+languages, and that the stream of immigration which
+distributed them started from the extreme west. Three periods
+can be traced in the history of the Asiatic Malays. In the first
+(in which such tribes as the Dyaks have remained) they were
+semi-barbarous. In the second, Hindu civilization reached the
+Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra and other islands. The
+presence of Hindu ruins, as well as of numerous Indian words
+and customs, testifies to the strength of this influence. It was,
+however, superseded by Islam, which spread to the Malay
+Archipelago and Peninsula before the 16th century. At the
+present time the Arabic alphabet is used on the mainland, but
+Indian alphabets in Java, Sumatra, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>Tibet.</i>&mdash;This remote and mountainous country has a
+peculiar civilization. It has entirely escaped Islam, and though
+it is a nominal vassal of China, direct Chinese influence has not
+been strong. The most striking feature is the religion, a corrupt
+form of late Indian Buddhism, known as Lamaism, which,
+largely in consequence of the favour shown by Jenghiz Khan
+and his successors, has attained temporal power and developed
+into an ecclesiastical state curiously like the papacy.</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>Mongols.</i>&mdash;Such civilization as the Mongols possess is a
+mixture of Chinese and Indian, the latter derived chiefly through
+Tibet, but their alphabet is a curious instance of transplantation.
+It is an adaptation of the Syriac writing introduced by the
+early Nestorian missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>18. Almost all Asiatic countries have a literature, but it is
+often not indigenous and consists of foreign works, chiefly
+religious, read either in translations or the original.
+Thus with the exception of a little folklore the literature
+<span class="sidenote">Literature, art, science.</span>
+of Indo-China, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea and Manchuria
+is mainly Indian or Chinese. The chief original
+literatures are Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic and Persian. The
+Japanese have produced few books of importance, and their
+compositions are chiefly remarkable as being lighter and more
+secular than is usual in Asia, but the older Chinese works take
+high rank both for their merits and the effect they have had.
+The extensive Sanskrit literature, which has reached in translations
+China, Japan and Java, is chiefly theological and poetical,
+history being conspicuously absent. India has also a considerable
+medieval and modern literature in various languages. Pali,
+though only a form of Hindu literature, has a separate history,
+for it died in India and was preserved in Ceylon, whence it was
+imported to Burma and Siam as the language of religion. The
+Pali versions of Buddha&rsquo;s discourses are among the most remarkable
+products of Asia. The literatures of all Moslem peoples are
+largely inspired by Arabic, which has produced a voluminous
+collection of works in prose and poetry. Persian, after being
+itself transformed by Arabic, has in its turn largely influenced
+all west Asiatic Moslem literature from Hindustani to Turkish.</p>
+
+<p>If one excepts the Old Testament, which is a product of the
+extreme west of Asia, it is remarkable how small has been the
+influence of Asiatic literature on Europe. Though Greek and
+Slavonic almost ceased to be written languages under Turkish
+rule, Europeans showed no disposition to replace them by
+Ottoman or Arabic literature.</p>
+
+<p>Without counting subdivisions there would seem to be three
+main schools of art in Asia at present&mdash;Chinese, Indian and
+Moslem. The first contains many original elements. It is
+feeblest in architecture and strongest in the branches demanding
+skill and care in a limited compass, such as painting, porcelain
+and enamel. It is the main inspiration of Japanese art, which,
+however, shows great originality in its treatment of borrowed
+themes. Both China and Japan have felt through Buddhism
+the influence of Indian art, which contains at least two elements&mdash;one
+indigenous and the other Greco-Persian. Unlike Chinese art
+it has a genius for architecture and sculpture rather than painting.
+Mahommedan art is also largely architectural and has affected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span>
+nearly all Moslem countries. Except that the use of Arabic
+inscriptions is one of its principal methods of decoration, it owes
+little to Arabia and much to Byzantium. The Persian variety
+of this art is more ornate, and less averse to representations of
+living beings. Both Moslem and Chinese art are closely connected
+with calligraphy, but Hindus rarely use writing for ornament.</p>
+
+<p>In both art and literature modern Asia is inferior to the past
+more conspicuously than Europe.</p>
+
+<p>As for science, astronomy was cultivated by the Babylonians
+at an early period, and it is probably from them that a knowledge
+of the heavenly bodies and their movements spread over Asia.
+Grammar and prosody were studied in India with a marvellous
+accuracy and minuteness several centuries before Christ. Mathematics
+were cultivated by the Chinese, Indians and Arabs, but
+nearly all the sciences based on the observation of nature,
+including medicine, have remained in a very backward condition.
+Much the same, however, might have been said of Europe until
+two centuries ago, and the scientific knowledge of the Arabs under
+the earlier Caliphates was equal or superior to that of any of
+their contemporaries. Histories and accounts of travels have
+been composed both in Arabic and Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>19. It is only natural that Europe should have chiefly felt the
+influence of western Asia. Though Europeans may be indebted
+to China for some mechanical inventions, she was
+too distant to produce much direct effect, and the
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of Asia on other continents.</span>
+influence of India has been mainly directed towards
+the East. The resemblances between primitive
+Christianity and Buddhism appear to be coincidences,
+and though both early Greek philosophy and later Alexandrine
+ideas suggest Indian affinities, there is no clear connexion such
+as there is between certain aspects of Chinese thought and India.</p>
+
+<p>Any general statement as to the debt owed by early European
+civilizations to western Asia would at present be premature, for
+though important discoveries have been made in Crete and
+Babylonia the best authorities are chary of positive conclusions
+as to the relations of Cretan civilization to Egypt and Babylonia.
+Egyptian influence within the Aegean area seems certain, and
+the theory that Greek writing and systems for reckoning time are
+Babylonian in origin has not been disproved, though the history
+of the alphabet is more complex than was supposed.</p>
+
+<p>In historic times Asia has attempted to assert her influence over
+Europe by a series of invasions, most of which have been repulsed.
+Such were the Persian wars of Greece, and perhaps one may
+add Hannibal&rsquo;s invasion of Italy, if the Carthaginians were
+Phoenicians transplanted to Africa. The Roman empire kept
+back the Persians and Parthians, but could not prevent a series
+of incursions by Avars, Huns, Bulgarians, and later by Mongols
+and Turks. Islam has twice obtained a footing in Europe, under
+the Arabs in Spain and under the Turks at Constantinople.
+The earlier Asiatic invasions were conducted by armies operating
+at a distance from their bases, and had little result, for the
+soldiery retired after a time (like Alexander from India), or more
+rarely (<i>e.g.</i> the Bulgarians) settled down without keeping up any
+connexion with Asia. The Turks, and to some extent the Arabs
+in Spain, were successful because they first conquered the parts
+of Asia and Africa adjoining Europe, so that the final invaders
+were in touch with Asiatic settlements. Though the Turks have
+profoundly affected the whole of eastern Europe, the result of
+their conquests has been not so much to plant Asiatic culture in
+Europe as to arrest development entirely, the countries under
+their rule remaining in much the same condition as under the
+moribund Byzantine empire.</p>
+
+<p>In general, Europe has in historic times shown itself decidedly
+hostile to Asiatic institutions and modes of thought. It is only
+of recent years that the writings of Schopenhauer and the
+researches of many distinguished orientalists have awakened
+some interest in Asiatic philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Asia on Africa has been considerable, and
+until the middle of the 10th century greater than that of Europe.
+Some authorities hold that Egyptian civilization came from
+Babylonia, and that the so-called Hamitic languages are older
+and less specialized members of the Semitic family. The connexion
+between Carthage and Phoenicia is more certain, and the
+ancient Abyssinian kingdom was founded by Semites from
+south Arabia. The traditions of the Somalis derive them from
+the same region. The theory that the ruins in Mashonaland
+were built by immigrants from south Arabia is now discredited,
+but there was certainly a continuous stream of Arab migration
+to East Africa which probably began in pre-Moslem times and
+founded a series of cities on the coast. The whole of the north
+of Africa from Egypt to Morocco has been mahommedanized,
+and Mahommedan influence is general and fairly strong from
+Timbuktu to Lake Chad and Wadai. South of the equator,
+Arab slave-dealers penetrated from Zanzibar to the great lakes
+and the Congo during the second and third quarters of the 19th
+century, but their power, though formidable, has disappeared
+without leaving any permanent traces.</p>
+
+<p>The relation to Asia of the pre-European civilizations of
+America is another of those questions which admit of no definite
+answer at present, though many facts support the theory that
+the semi-civilized inhabitants of Mexico and Central America
+crossed from Asia by Bering Straits and descended the west
+coast. Some authorities hold that Peruvian civilization had no
+connexion with the north and was an entirely indigenous product,
+but Kechua is in structure not unlike the agglutinative languages
+of central and northern Asia.</p>
+
+<p>20. European influence on Asia has been specially strong
+at two epochs, firstly after the conquests of Alexander the
+Great, and secondly from the 16th century onwards.
+Alexander&rsquo;s conquests resulted in the foundation of
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of Europe on Asia.</span>
+Perso-Greek kingdoms in Asia, which not only hellenized
+their own area but influenced the art and religion
+of India and to some extent of China. Then follows a long
+period in which eastern Europe was mainly occupied in combating
+Asiatic invasions, and had little opportunity of Europeanizing
+the East. Somewhat later the Crusades kept up communication
+with the Levant, and established there the power of the Roman
+Church, somewhat to the detriment of oriental Christianity,
+but intercourse with farther Asia was limited to the voyages
+of a few travellers. Looking at eastern Europe and western
+Asia only, one must say that Asiatic influences have on the
+whole prevailed hitherto (though perhaps the tide is turning),
+for Islam is paramount in this region and European culture at
+a low ebb. But the case is quite different if one looks at the
+two continents as a whole, for improvement in means of communication
+has brought about strange vicissitudes, and western
+Europe has asserted her power in middle and eastern Asia.</p>
+
+<p>In the 16th century a new era began with the discovery by
+the Portuguese of the route to India round the Cape, and the
+naval powers of Europe started one after another on careers of
+oriental conquest. The movement was maritime and affected
+the nations in the extreme west of Europe rather than those
+nearer Asia, who were under the Turkish yoke. Also the parts
+of Asia affected were chiefly India and the extreme East. The
+countries west of India, being less exposed to naval invasion,
+remained comparatively untouched. It will thus be seen that
+European (excluding Russian) power in Asia is based almost
+entirely on improved navigation. There was no attempt to
+overwhelm whole empires by pouring into them masses of
+troops, but commerce was combined with territorial acquisition,
+and a continuity of European interest secured by the presence
+of merchants and settlers. The course of oriental conquest
+followed the events of European politics, and the possessions of
+European powers in the East generally changed hands according
+to the fortunes of their masters at home. Portugal was
+first on the scene, and in the 16th century established a considerable
+littoral empire on the coasts of East Africa, India and China,
+fragments of which still remain, especially Goa, where Portuguese
+influence on the natives was considerable. Before the century
+was out the Dutch appeared as the successful rivals of the
+Portuguese, but the real struggle for supremacy in southern
+Asia took place between France and England about 1740-1783.
+Both entered India as commercial companies, but the disorganized
+condition of the Mogul empire necessitated the use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span>
+of military force to protect their interests, and allured them to
+conquest. The companies gradually undertook the financial
+control of the districts where they traded and were recognized
+by the natives as political powers. The ultimate victory of
+England seems due less to any particular aptitude for dealing
+with oriental problems than to a better command of the seas
+and to considerations of European politics. At the end of the
+Napoleonic wars Portugal had Macao and Goa, Holland Java,
+Sumatra and other islands, France some odds and ends in India,
+while England emerged with Hong Kong, Singapore, Ceylon
+and a free hand in India. Guided by such administrators as
+Warren Hastings, the East India Company had assumed more
+and more definitely the functions of government for a great
+part of India. In 1809 its exclusive trading rights were taken
+away by Parliament, but its administrative status was thus
+made clearer, and when after the mutiny of 1857 it was desirable
+to define British authority in India there seemed nothing
+unnatural in declaring it to be a possession of the crown.</p>
+
+<p>Another category of European possessions in Asia comprises
+those acquired towards the end of the 19th century, such as
+Indo-China (France), Burma and Wei-Hai-Wei (Britain), and
+Kiao-Chow (Germany). Whereas the earlier conquests were
+mostly the results of large half-conscious national movements
+working out their destinies in the East, these later ones were
+annexations deliberately planned by European cabinets. It
+seemed to be assumed that Asia was to be divided among the
+powers of Europe, and each was anxious to get its share or
+more.</p>
+
+<p>The advance of Russia in Asia is entirely different from that
+of the other powers, since it has taken place by land and not
+by sea. Though the geographical extent of Russian territory
+and influence is enormous, she has always moved along the line
+of least resistance. She is a moderately strong empire lying to
+the north of the great Moslem states, and having for neighbours
+a series of very weak principalities or semi-civilized tribes.
+The conquest of Siberia and central Asia presented no real
+difficulties: Persia and Constantinople were left on one side,
+and Russia was defeated as soon as she was opposed by a vigorous
+power in the Far East. As the Russian possessions in Asia are
+continuous with European Russia, it is only natural that they
+should have been russified far more thoroughly than the British
+possessions have been anglicized.</p>
+
+<p>There has been great difference of opinion as to the extent
+to which Alexander&rsquo;s conquests influenced Asia, and it is equally
+hard to say what is the effect now being produced by Europe.
+Clearly such alterations as the construction of railways in
+nearly all parts of the continent, and the establishment of
+peace over formerly disturbed areas like India, are of enormous
+importance, and must change the life of the people. But the
+mental constitution of Asiatics is less easily modified than their
+institutions, and even Japan has assimilated European methods
+rather than European ideas.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. El.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The modern bibliography of Asia, including the
+works of travellers and explorers since 1880, is voluminous. It is
+impossible to refer to all that has been written in the Survey Reports
+and Gazetteers of the government of India, or in the records of the
+Royal Asiatic Society, or the Asiatic Society, Bengal; but amongst
+the more important popular works are the following:&mdash;Richthofen,
+&ldquo;China, Japan, and Korea,&rdquo; vol. iv. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, <i>China</i> (Berlin,
+1877); Regel, &ldquo;Upper Oxus,&rdquo; vol. i. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1879; Dr
+Bellew, <i>Afghanistan and the Afghans</i> (London, 1879); Nicolas
+Prjevalski, &ldquo;Explorations in Asia,&rdquo; see vols. i., ii., v., ix. and xi. of the
+<i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1879-1889; W. Blunt, &ldquo;A Visit to Jebel Shammar,&rdquo;
+vol ii. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1880; Captain W Gill, <i>The River of Golden
+Sand</i> (London, 1880); Sir R. Temple, &ldquo;Central Plateau of Asia,&rdquo;
+vol. iv. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i> 1882; Baker, &ldquo;A Journey of Exploration in
+Western Ssu-Chuan,&rdquo; vol. i. <i>Supplementary Papers R.G.S.</i>, 1882-1885;
+Sir C. Wilson, &ldquo;Notes on Physical and Historical Geography
+of Asia Minor,&rdquo; vol. vi. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1884; General J.T. Walker,
+&ldquo;Asiatic Explorers of the Indian Survey,&rdquo; vol. viii. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>,
+1885; Samuel Beal, <i>Buddhist Records of the Western World</i> (Boston,
+1885); Charles Doughty, <i>Travels in Northern Arabia</i> (Cambridge,
+1886); <i>Travels in Arabia Deserta</i> (Cambridge, 1888); Venukoff,
+&ldquo;Explorations,&rdquo; vol. viii. <i>Proc. G.R.S.</i>, 1886; Ney Elias, &ldquo;Explorations
+in Central Asia,&rdquo; see vols. viii. and ix. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1886-1887;
+Arthur Carey, &ldquo;Explorations in Turkestan,&rdquo; see vol. ix.
+<i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1887; Henry Lansdell, <i>Through Central Asia</i> (London,
+1887); Archibald Colquhoun, <i>Report on Railway Connexion between
+Burma and China</i> (London, 1887); Major C. Yate, <i>Northern
+Afghanistan</i> (Edinburgh, 1888); Captain F. Younghusband, <i>The
+Heart of a Continent</i> (London, 1893); <i>A Journey through Manchuria,
+&amp;c.</i> (Lahore, 1888); also see vol. x. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, and vol. v. <i>Jour.
+R.G.S.</i>; Dutreuil de Rhins, <i>L&rsquo;Asie Centrale</i> (Paris, 1889); Pierre
+Bonvalot, <i>Through the Heart of Asia</i>, trans. Pitman (London, 1889);
+<i>From Paris to Tonkin</i>, trans. Pitman (London, 1891); Roborovski,
+translation from Russian <i>Invalide</i>, October 1889, vol. xii. <i>Proc.
+R.G.S.</i>; &ldquo;Central Asia,&rdquo; vol. viii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; Colonel Mark
+Bell, &ldquo;Trade Routes of Asia,&rdquo; vol. xii. <i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1890; W.W.
+Rockhill, &ldquo;An American in Tibet,&rdquo; <i>Century Magazine</i>, November
+1890; <i>The Land of the Lamas</i> (London, 1891); Theodore Bent,
+&ldquo;Hadramut,&rdquo; vol. iv. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1894; &ldquo;Southern Arabia,&rdquo;
+vol. vi. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; &ldquo;Bahrein Islands,&rdquo; vol. xii. <i>Proc.
+R.G.S.</i>, 1890; Grombcherski, &ldquo;Explorations in Kuen Lun,&rdquo; vol. xii.
+<i>Proc. R.G.S.</i>, 1890; Lydekker, &ldquo;The Geology of the Kashmir Valley
+and Chamba Territories,&rdquo; vols. xiii. and xiv. <i>Geological Survey of
+India</i>; Max Müller, <i>The Sacred Books of the East</i> (Oxford, 1890-1894);
+Elisée Reclus, <i>The Earth and its Inhabitants</i> (series, 1890);
+G.W. Leitner, <i>Dardistan</i>; H.F. Blanford, <i>Elementary Geography
+of India, Burma, and Ceylon</i> (London, 1890); <i>Guide to the Climate
+and Weather of India</i> (London, 1889); Lord Dunmore, <i>The Pamirs</i>
+(London, 1892); A. Tissandier, <i>Voyage au tour du monde</i> (Paris,
+1892); Lord Curzon, <i>Persia and the Persian Question</i> (London,
+1892); <i>Russia and the Anglo-Russian Question</i> (London, 1889);
+<i>Problems of the Far East</i> (London, 1894); Captain Hamilton Bower,
+<i>Diary of a Journey across Tibet</i> (Calcutta, 1893); Szechenyi, <i>Die
+wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Reise des Grafen Béla Szechenyi
+in Ostasien</i> (Wien, 1893); R.D. Oldham, &ldquo;Evolution of Indian
+Geology,&rdquo; vol. iii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1894; Baron Toll, &ldquo;Siberia,&rdquo;
+vol. iii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1894; Delmar Morgan, &ldquo;The Mountain
+Systems of Central Asia,&rdquo; <i>Scottish Geological Magazine</i>, No. 10, of
+1894; Sir Frederick Goldsmid, &ldquo;Persian Geography,&rdquo; vol. vi. <i>Jour.
+R.G.S.</i>, 1895; Warrington Smyth, &ldquo;Siam,&rdquo; vol. vi. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>,
+1895; &ldquo;Siamese East Coast,&rdquo; vol xi. <i>Jour.</i> 1898; Prince Kropotkin,
+&ldquo;Siberian Railway,&rdquo; vol. v. <i>R.G.S. Jour.</i>, 1895; W.R. Lawrence,
+<i>The Vale of Kashmir</i> (Oxford, 1895); Captain Vaughan, &ldquo;Persia,&rdquo;
+vol. viii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; Prince H. d&rsquo;Orleans, &ldquo;Yunan to
+India,&rdquo; vol. vii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; &ldquo;Tonkin to Talifu,&rdquo; vol. viii.
+<i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; Sir T. Holdich, &ldquo;Ancient and Medieval
+Makran,&rdquo; vol. vii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; <i>The Indian Borderland</i>
+(London, 1901); India (Oxford, 1904); Colonel Woodthorpe,
+&ldquo;Shan States,&rdquo; vol. vii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; <i>Report of the Pamir
+Boundary Commission</i> (Calcutta, 1896); St George Littledale,
+&ldquo;Journey Across the Pamirs from North to South,&rdquo; vol. iii. <i>Jour.
+R.G.S.</i>, 1894, and vol. vii. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1896; Sir G. Robertson,
+<i>The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush</i> (London, 1896); Captain Stiffe,
+&ldquo;Persian Gulf Trading Centres,&rdquo; vols. viii., ix. and x. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>,
+1897; Ney Elias and Ross, <i>A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia,
+from the Tarskh-i-Rastisdi of Mirza Haidar</i> (London, 1898); Grenard,
+<i>Mission scientifique sur la Haute Asie</i> (Paris, 1898); Dr Sven Hedin,
+<i>Through Asia</i> (London, 1898); Central Asia and Tibet (1903); <i>Geographie
+des Hochlandes van Pamir</i> (Berlin, 1894); Captain M.S.
+Wellby, &ldquo;Through Tibet,&rdquo; <i>R.G.S. Jour.</i>, September 1898; Captain
+P.M. Sykes, &ldquo;Persian Explorations,&rdquo; vol. x. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, 1898;
+<i>Ten Thousand Miles in Persia</i> (1902); Kronshin, &ldquo;Old Beds of the
+Oxus,&rdquo; <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>, September 1898; Sir W. Hunter, <i>History of
+British India</i>, vol. i. (London, 1898); Captain H. Deasy, &ldquo;Western
+Tibet,&rdquo; vol. ix. <i>Jour. R.G.S.</i>; In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan
+(London, 1901); A. Little, <i>The Far East</i> (Oxford, 1905); Captain
+Rawling, <i>The Great Plateau</i> (London, 1905); <i>Journal of the Royal
+Geogl. Society</i>, vols. xv. to xxv. (1900-1905); Colonel A. Durand,
+<i>The Making of a Frontier</i> (London, 1899); R. Cobbold, <i>Innermost
+Asia</i> (London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Authorities differ in their methods and results of computation
+of these and other similar measurements.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASIA,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> in a restricted sense, the name of the first Roman
+province east of the Aegean, formed (133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) out of the kingdom
+left to the Romans by the will of Attalus III. Philometor, king
+of Pergamum. It included Mysia, Lydia, Caria and Phrygia,
+and therefore, of course, Aeolis, Ionia and the Troad. In 84 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+on the close of the Mithradatic War, Sulla reorganized the
+province, forming 40 <i>regiones</i> for fiscal purposes, and it was
+later divided into <i>conventus</i>. From 80 to 50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the upper
+Maeander valley and all Phrygia, except the extreme north,
+were detached and added to Cilicia. In 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Asia was made
+a senatorial province under a pro-consul. As the wealthiest
+of Roman provinces it had most to gain by the <i>pax Romana</i>, and
+therefore welcomed the empire, and established and maintained
+the most devout cult of Augustus by means of the organization
+known as the <i>Koinon</i> or Commune, a representative council,
+meeting in the various <i>metropoleis</i>. In this cult the emperor
+came to be associated with the common worship of the Ephesian
+Artemis. By the reorganization of Diocletian, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 297, Asia
+was broken up into several small provinces, and one of these,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span>
+of which the capital was Ephesus, retained the name of the
+original province (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asia Minor</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASIA MINOR,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> the general geographical name for the peninsula,
+forming part of the empire of Turkey, on the extreme west
+of the continent of Asia, bounded on the N. by the Black Sea,
+on the W. by the Aegean, and on the S. by the Mediterranean,
+and at its N.W. extremity only parted from Europe by the
+narrow straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On the east,
+no natural boundary separates it from the Armenian plateau;
+but, for descriptive purposes, it will suffice to take a line drawn
+from the southern extremity of the Giaour Dagh, east of the
+Gulf of Alexandretta along the crest of that chain, then along
+that of the eastern Taurus to the Euphrates near Malatia, then
+up the river, keeping to the western arm till Erzingan is reached,
+and finally bending north to the Black Sea along the course of
+the Churuk Su, which flows out west of Batum. This makes the
+Euphrates the main eastern limit, with radii to the north-east
+angle of the Levant and the south-east angle of the Black Sea,
+and roughly agrees with the popular conception of Asia Minor
+as a geographical region. But it must be remembered that this
+term was not used by classical geographers (it is first found in
+Orosius in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), and is not in local or official
+use now. It probably arose in the first instance from a vague
+popular distinction between the continent itself and the Roman
+province of &ldquo;Asia&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), which at one time included most of
+the peninsula west of the central salt desert (<i>Axylon</i>). The name
+<i>Anatolia</i>, in the form <i>Anadol</i>, is used by natives for the western
+part of the peninsula (<i>cis Halym</i>) and not as including ancient
+Cappadocia and Pontus. Before the reconstitution of the provinces
+as <i>vilayets</i> it was the official title of the principal <i>eyalet</i>
+of Asia Minor, and was also used more generally to include all
+the peninsular provinces over which the beylerbey of Anadoli,
+whose seat was at Kutaiah, had the same paramount military
+jurisdiction which the beylerbey of &ldquo;Rumili&rdquo; enjoyed in the
+peninsular provinces of Europe. The term &ldquo;Anatolia&rdquo; appears
+first in the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (10th century).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The greatest length of Asia Minor, as popularly understood, is
+along its north edge, 720 m. Along the south it is about 650 m.
+The greatest breadth is 420 m. from <i>C. Kerembé</i> to <i>C. Anamur</i>;
+but at the waist of the peninsula, between the head of the Gulf of
+Alexandretta and the southernmost bight of the Black Sea (at
+Ordu), it is not quite 300 m. The greater portion of Asia Minor
+consists of a plateau rising gradually from east to west, 2500 ft. to
+4500 ft.; east of the Kizil Irmak (Halys), the ground rises more
+sharply to the highlands of Armenia (<i>q.v.</i>). On the south the plateau
+is buttressed by the Taurus range, which stretches in a broken
+irregular line from the Aegean to the Persian frontier. On the north
+the plateau is supported by a range of varying altitude, which
+follows the southern coast of the Black Sea and has no distinctive
+name. On the west the edge of the plateau is broken by broad
+valleys, and the deeply indented coast-line throws out long rocky
+promontories towards Europe. On the north, excepting the deltas
+formed by the Kizil and Yeshil Irmaks, there are no considerable
+coast plains, no good harbours except Sinope and Vona, and no
+islands. On the west there are narrow coast plains of limited extent,
+deep gulfs, which offer facilities for trade and commerce, and a
+fringe of protecting islands. On the south are the isolated plains
+of Pamphylia and Cilicia, the almost land-locked harbours of Marmarice,
+Makri and Kekova, the broad bay of Adalia, the deep-seated
+gulf of Alexandretta (Iskanderun), and the islands of Rhodes with
+dependencies, Castelorizo and Cyprus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mountains</i>.&mdash;The Taurus range, perhaps the most important
+feature in Asia Minor, runs the whole length of the peninsula on the
+south, springing east of Euphrates in the Armeno-Kurdish highlands,
+and being prolonged into the Aegean Sea by rocky promontories
+and islands. It attains in Lycia an altitude of 10,500 ft., and in the
+Bulgar Dagh (Cilicia) of over 10,000 ft. The average elevation is
+about 7000 ft. East of the Bulgar Dagh the range is pierced by the
+Sihun and Jihun rivers, and their tributaries, but its continuity is
+not broken. The principal passes across the range are those over
+which Roman or Byzantine roads ran:&mdash;(1) from Laodicea to Adalia
+(Attalia), by way of the Khonas pass and the valley of the Istanoz
+Chai; (2) from Apamea or from Pisidian Antioch to Adalia, by Isbarta
+and Sagalassus; (3) from Laranda, by Coropissus and the upper
+valley of the southern Calycadnus, to Germanicopolis and thence to
+Anemourium or Kelenderis; (4) from Laranda, by the lower Calycadnus,
+to Claudiopolis and thence to Kelenderis or Seleucia; (5) from
+Iconium or Caesarea Mazaca, through the Cilician Gates (Gulek
+Boghaz, 3300 ft.) to Tarsus; (6) from Caesarea to the valley of the Sarus
+and thence to Flaviopolis on the Cilician Plain; (7) from Caesarea over
+Anti-Taurus by the Kuru Chai to Cocvsus (Geuksun) and thence to
+Germanicia (Marash). Large districts on the southern slopes of the
+Taurus chain are covered with forests of oak and fir, and there are
+numerous <i>yailas</i> or grassy &ldquo;alps,&rdquo; with abundant water, to which
+villagers and nomads move with their flocks during the summer
+months.</p>
+
+<p>Anti-Taurus is a term of rather vague and doubtful application,
+(<i>a</i>) Some have regarded it as meaning the more or less continuous
+range which buttresses up the central plateau on the north, parallel
+to the Taurus, (<i>b</i>) Others take it to mean the line of heights and
+mountain peaks which separates the waters running to the Black
+Sea and the Anatolian plateau from those falling to the Persian
+Gulf and the Mediterranean. This has its origin in the high land,
+near the source of the Kizil Irmak, and thence runs south-west
+towards the volcanic district of Mt. Argaeus, which, however, can
+hardly be regarded as orographically one with it. After a low
+interval it springs up again at its southern extremity in the lofty
+sharp-peaked ridge of Ala Dagh (11,000 ft.), and finally joins Taurus.
+(<i>c</i>) South of Sivas a line of bare hills connects this chain with another
+range of high forest-clad mountains, which loses itself southwards
+in the main mass of Taurus, and is held to be the true Anti-Taurus
+by geographers. It throws off, in the latitude of Kaisarieh, a subsidiary
+range, the Binboa Dagh, which separates the waters of the
+Sihun from those of the Jihun. The principal passes are those
+followed by the old roads:&mdash;(1) from Sebasteia to Tephrike and the
+upper valley of the western Euphrates; (2) from Sebasteia to Melitene,
+by way of the pass of Delikli Tash and the basin of the Tokhma Su;
+(3) from Caesarea to Arabissus, by the Kuru Chai and the valley of
+Cocysus (Geuksun). The range of Amanus (Giaour Dagh) is separated
+from the mass of Taurus by the deep gorge of the Jihun, whence
+it runs south-south-west to Ras el-Khanzir, forming the limit
+between Cilicia and Syria, various parts bearing different names, as
+Elma Dagh above Alexandretta. It attains its greatest altitude in
+Kaya Duldul (6500 ft.), which rises abruptly from the bed of the
+Jihun, and it is crossed by two celebrated passes:&mdash;(1) the Amanides
+Pylae (Baghche Pass), through which ran the road from the Cilician
+Plain to Apamea-Zeugma, on the Euphrates; (2) the Pylae Syriae or
+&ldquo;Syrian Gates&rdquo; (Beilan Pass), through which passed the great
+Roman highway from Tarsus to Syria. On the western edge of the
+plateau several short ranges, running approximately east and west,
+rise above the general level:&mdash;Sultan Dagh (6500 ft.); Salbacus-Cadmus
+(8000 ft.); Messogis (3600 ft.); Latmus (6000 ft.); Tmolus
+(5000 ft.); Dindymus (8200 ft.); Ida (5800 ft.); and the Mysian
+Olympus (7600 ft.). The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and
+Caicus facilitate communication between the plateau and the
+Aegean, and the descent to the Sea of Marmora along the valleys
+of the Tembris and Sangarius presents no difficulties. The northern
+border range, though not continuous, rises steadily from the west
+to its culmination in the Galatian Olympus (Ilkaz Dagh), south of
+Kastamuni. East of the Kizil Irmak there is no single mountain
+chain, but there are several short ranges with elevations sometimes
+exceeding 9000 ft. The best routes from the plateau to the Black
+Sea were followed by the Roman roads from Tavium and Sebasteia
+to Sinope and Amisus, and those from Sebasteia to Cotyora and
+Cerasus-Pharnacia, which at first ascend the upper Halys. Several
+minor ranges rise above the level of the eastern plateau, and in the
+south groups of volcanic peaks and cones extend for about 150 m.
+from Kaisarieh (Caesarea) to Karaman. The most important are
+Mt. Argaeus (Erjish Dagh, 13,100 ft.) above Kaisarieh itself, the
+highest peak in Asia Minor; Ali Dagh (6200 ft.); Hassan Dagh
+(8000 ft.); Karaja Dagh; and Kara Dagh (7500 ft.). On the west
+of the plateau evidences of volcanic activity are to be seen in the
+district of Kula (Katakekaumene), coated with recent erupted
+matter, and in the numerous hot springs of the Lycus, Maeander,
+and other valleys. Earthquakes are frequent all over the peninsula,
+but especially in the south-east and west, where the Maeander valley
+and the Gulf of Smyrna are notorious seismic foci. The centre of the
+plateau is occupied by a vast treeless plain, the <i>Axylon</i> of the Greeks,
+in which lies a large salt lake, Tuz Geul. The plain is fertile where
+cultivated, fairly supplied with deep wells, and in many places
+covered with good pasture. Enclosed between the Taurus and
+Amanus ranges and the sea are the fertile plains of Cilicia Pedias,
+consisting in great part of a rich, stoneless loam, out of which rise
+rocky crags that are crowned with the ruins of Greco-Roman and
+Armenian strongholds, and of Pamphylia, partly alluvial soil, partly
+travertine, deposited by the Taurus rivers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rivers</i>.&mdash;The rivers of Asia Minor are of no great importance.
+Some do not flow directly to the sea; others find their way to the
+coast through deep rocky gorges, or are mere torrents; and a few
+only are navigable for boats for short distances from their mouths.
+They cut so deep into the limestone formation of the plateau as
+to over-drain it, and often they disappear into swallow holes (<i>duden</i>)
+to reappear lower down. The most important rivers which flow to
+the Black Sea are the following:&mdash;the Boas (Churuk Su) which rises
+near Baiburt, and flows out near Batum; the Iris (Yeshil Irmak),
+with its tributaries the Lycus (Kelkit Irmak), which rises on the
+Armenian plateau, the Chekerek Irmak, which has its source near
+Yuzgat, and the Tersakan Su; the Halys (Kizil Irmak) is the longest
+river in Asia Minor, with its tributaries the Delije Irmak (Cappadox),
+which flows through the eastern part of Galatia, and the Geuk Irmak,
+which has its sources in the mountains above Kastamuni. With
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
+the exception of Sivas, no town of importance lies in the valley of
+the Kizil Irmak throughout its course of over 600 m. The Sangarius
+(Sakaria) rises in the Phrygian mountains and, after many changes
+of direction, falls into the Black Sea, about 80 m. east of the
+Bosporus. Its tributaries are the Pursak Su (Tembris), which has
+its source in the Murad Dagh (Dindymus), and, after running north
+to Eski-shehr, flows almost due east to the Sakaria, and the Enguri
+Su, which joins the Sakaria a little below the junction of the Pursak.
+To the Black Sea, about 40 m. east of Eregli, also flows the Billaeus
+(Filiyas Chai). Into the Sea of Marmora run the Rhyndacus (Edrenos
+Chai) and the Macestus (Susurlu Chai), which unite about 12 m.
+from the sea. The most celebrated streams of the Troad are the
+Granicus (Bigha Chai) and the Scamander (Menderes Su), both
+rising in Mt. Ida (Kaz Dagh). The former flows to the Sea of Marmora;
+the latter to the Dardanelles. The most northerly of the
+rivers that flow to the Aegean is the Caicus (Bakir Chai), which runs
+past Soma, and near Pergamum, to the Gulf of Chanderli. The
+Hermus (Gediz Chai) has its principal sources in the Murad Dagh,
+and, receiving several streams on its way, runs through the volcanic
+district of Katakekaumene to the broad fertile valley through which
+it flows past Manisa to the sea, near Lefke. So recently as about
+1880 it discharged into the Gulf of Smyrna, but the shoals formed
+by its silt-laden waters were so obstructive to navigation that it
+was turned back into its old bed. Its principal tributaries are&mdash;the
+Phrygius (Kum Chai), which receives the waters of the Lycus
+(Gürduk Chai), and the Cogamus (Kuzu Chai), which in its upper
+course is separated from the valley of the Maeander by hills that
+were crossed by the Roman road from Pergamum to Laodicea. The
+Caystrus (Kuchuk Menderes) flows through a fertile valley between
+Mt. Tmolus and Messogis to the sea near Ephesus, where its silt has
+filled up the port. The Maeander (Menderes Chai) takes its rise in a
+celebrated group of springs near Dineir, and after a winding course
+enters the broad valley, through which it &ldquo;meanders&rdquo; to the sea.
+Its deposits have long since filled up the harbours of Miletus, and
+converted the islands which protected them into mounds in a swampy
+plain. Its principal tributaries are the Glaucus, the Senarus (Banaz
+Chai), and the Hippurius, on the right bank. On the left bank are
+the Lycus (Churuk Su), which flows westwards by Colossae through
+a broad open valley that affords the only natural approach to the
+eleated plateau, the Harpasus (Ak Chai), and the Marsyas (China
+Chai). The rivers that flow to the Mediterranean, with two exceptions,
+rise in Mt. Taurus, and have short courses, but in winter and
+spring they bring down large bodies of water. In Lycia are the Indus
+(Gereniz Chai), and the Xanthus (Eshen Chai). The Pamphylian
+plain is traversed by the Cestrus (Ak Su), the Eurymedon (Keupri
+Su), and the Melas (Menavgat Chai), which, where it enters the sea,
+is a broad, deep stream, navigable for about 6 m. The Calycadnus
+(Geuk Su) has two main branches which join near Mut and flow
+south-east, and enter the sea, a deep rapid river, about 12 m. below
+Selefke. The Cydnus (Tersous or Tarsus Chai) is formed by the
+junction of three streams that rise in Mt. Taurus, and one of these
+flows through the narrow gorge known as the Cilician Gates. After
+passing Tarsus, the river enters a marsh which occupies the site of
+the ancient harbour. The Cydnus is liable to floods, and its deposits
+have covered Roman Tarsus to a depth of 20 ft. The Sarus (Sihun)
+is formed by the junction of the Karmalas (Zamanti Su), which
+rises in Uzun Yaila, and the Sarus (Saris), which has its sources in
+the hills to the south of the same plateau. The first, after entering
+Mt. Taurus, flows through a deep chasm walled in by lofty precipices,
+and is joined in the heart of the range by the Saris. Before reaching
+the Cilician Plain the river receives the waters of the Kerkhun Su,
+which cuts through the Bulgar Dagh, and opens a way for the roads
+from the Cilician Gates to Konia and Kaisarieh. After passing
+Adana, to which point small craft ascend, the Sihun runs south-west
+to the sea. There are, however, indications that at one period it flowed
+south-east to join the Pyramus. The Pyramus (Jihun) has its principal
+source in a group of large springs near Albistan; but before it
+enters Mt. Taurus it is joined by the Sogutli Irmak, the Khurman
+Su and the Geuk Su. The river emerges from Taurus, about 7 m.
+west of Marash, and here it is joined by the Ak Su, which rises in some
+small lakes south of Taurus. The Jihun now enters a remarkable
+defile which separates Taurus from the Giaour Dagh, and reaches
+the Cilician Plain near Budrun. From this point it flows west, and
+then south-west past Missis, until it makes a bend to discharge its
+waters south of Ayas Bay. The river is navigable as far as Missis.
+The only considerable tributary of the Euphrates which comes
+within our region is the Tokhma Su, which rises in Uzun Yaila and
+flows south-east to the main river not far from Malatia. In the
+central and southern portions of the plateau the streams either flow
+into salt lakes, where their waters pass off by evaporation, or into
+freshwater lakes, which have no visible outlets. In the latter cases
+the waters find their way beneath Taurus in subterranean channels,
+and reappear as the sources of rivers flowing to the coast. Thus the
+Ak Geul supplies the Cydnus, and the Beishehr, Egirdir and Kestel
+lakes feed the rivers of the Pamphylian plain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lakes.</i>&mdash;The salt lakes are Tuz Geul (anc. <i>Tatta</i>), which lies in the
+great central plain, and is about 60 m. long and 10 to 30 m. broad
+in winter, but in the dry season it is hardly more than a saline
+marsh; Buldur Geul, 2900 ft. above sea-level; and Aji-tuz Geul,
+2600 ft. The freshwater lakes are Beishehr Geul (anc. <i>Karalis</i>),
+3770 ft., a fine sheet of water 30 m. long, which discharges south-east
+to the Soghla Geul; Egirdir Geul (probably anc. <i>Limnae</i>, a name
+which included the two bays of Hoiran and Egirdir, forming the
+lake), 2850 ft., which is 30 m. long, but less broad than Beishehr
+and noted for the abundance and variety of its fish. In the north-west
+portion of Asia Minor are Isnik Geul (L. Ascania), Abulliont
+Geul (L. Apollonia), and Maniyas Geul (L. Miletopolis).</p>
+
+<p><i>Springs.</i>&mdash;Asia Minor is remarkable for the number of its thermal
+and mineral springs. The most important are:&mdash;Yalova, in the
+Ismid sanjak; Brusa, Chitli, Terje and Eskishehr, in the Brusa
+vilayet; Tuzla, in the Karasi; Cheshme, Ilija, Hierapolis (with
+enormous alum deposits), and Alashehr, in the Aidin; Terzili
+Hammam and Iskelib in the Angora; Boli in the Kastamuni;
+and Khavsa, in the Sivas. Many of these were famous in antiquity
+and occur in a list given by Strabo. The Maeander valley is especially
+noted for its hot springs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The central plateau of Asia Minor consists of nearly
+horizontal strata, while the surrounding mountain chains form a
+complex system, in which the beds are intensely folded. Around
+the coast flat-lying deposits of Tertiary age are found, and these often
+extend high up into the mountain region. The deposits of the
+central, or Lycaonian, plateau consist of freshwater marls and limestones
+of late Tertiary or Neogene age. Along the south-eastern
+margin, in front of the Taurus, stands a line of great volcanoes,
+stretching from Kara-Dagh to Argaeus. They are now extinct,
+but were probably active till the close of the Tertiary period. On
+its southern side the plateau is bounded by the high chains of the
+Taurus and the Anti-Taurus, which form a crescent with its convexity
+facing southwards. Devonian and Carboniferous fossils
+have been found in several places in the Anti-Taurus. Limestones
+of Eocene or Cretaceous age form a large part of the Taurus, but the
+interior zone probably includes rocks of earlier periods. The folding
+of the Anti-Taurus affects the Eocene but not the Miocene, while
+in the Taurus the Miocene beds have been elevated, but without
+much folding, to great heights. North of the Lycaonian plateau
+lies another zone of folding which may be divided into the East
+Pontian and West Pontian arcs. In the east a well-defined mountain
+system runs nearly parallel to the Black Sea coast from Batum
+to Sinope, forming a gentle curve with its convexity facing southwards.
+Cretaceous limestones and serpentine take a large part in
+the formation of these mountains, while even the Oligocene is involved
+in the folds. West of Sinope Cretaceous beds form a long
+strip parallel to the shore line. Carboniferous rocks occur at Eregli
+(Heraclea Pontica), where they have been worked for coal. Devonian
+fossils have been found near the Bosporus and Carboniferous
+fossils at Balia Maden in Mysia. Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous
+beds form a band south of the Sea of Marmora, probably the continuation
+of the Mesozoic band of the Black Sea coast. Farther
+south there are zones of serpentine, and of crystalline and schistose
+rocks, some of which are probably Palaeozoic. The direction of the
+folds of this region is from west to east, but on the borders of Phrygia
+and Mysia they meet the north-westerly extension of the Taurus
+folds and bend around the ancient mass of Lydia. Marine Eocene
+beds occur near the Dardanelles, but the Tertiary deposits of this
+part of Asia Minor are mostly freshwater and belong to the upper
+part of the system. In western Mysia they are much disturbed,
+but in eastern Mysia they are nearly horizontal. They are often
+accompanied by volcanic rocks, which are mainly andesitic, and they
+commonly lie unconformably upon the older beds. In the western
+part of Asia Minor there are several areas of ancient rocks about
+which very little is known. The Taurus folds here meet another
+system which enters the region from the Aegean Sea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate is varied, but systematic observations are
+wanting. On the plateau the winter is long and cold, and in the
+northern districts there is much snow. The summer is very hot, but
+the nights are usually cool. On the north coast the winter is cold,
+and the winds, sweeping across the Black Sea from the steppes of
+Russia, are accompanied by torrents of rain and heavy falls of snow.
+East of Samsun, where the coast is partially protected by the
+Caucasus, the climate is more moderate. In summer the heat is
+damp and enervating, and, as Trebizond is approached, the vegetation
+becomes almost subtropical. On the south coast the winter
+is mild, with occasional frosts and heavy rain; the summer heat
+is very great. On the west coast the climate is moderate, but the
+influence of the cold north winds is felt as far south as Smyrna, and
+the winter at that place is colder than in corresponding latitudes in
+Europe. A great feature of summer is the <i>inbat</i> or north wind,
+which blows almost daily, often with the force of a gale, off the sea
+from noon till near sunset.</p>
+
+<p><i>Products, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The mineral wealth of Asia Minor is very great,
+but few mines have yet been opened. The minerals known to exist
+are&mdash;alum, antimony, arsenic, asbestos, boracide, chrome, coal,
+copper, emery, fuller&rsquo;s earth, gold, iron, kaolin, lead, lignite, magnetic
+iron, manganese, meerschaum, mercury, nickel, rock-salt, silver,
+sulphur and zinc. The vegetation varies with the climate, soil and
+elevation. The mountains on the north coast are clothed with dense
+forests of pine, fir, cedar, oak, beech, &amp;c. On the Taurus range the
+forests are smaller, and there is a larger proportion of pine. On the
+west coast the ilex, plane, oak, valonia oak, and pine predominate.
+On the plateau willows, poplars and chestnut trees grow near the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
+streams, but nine-tenths of the country is treeless, except for scrub.
+On the south and west coasts the fig and olive are largely cultivated.
+The vine yields rich produce everywhere, except in the higher
+districts. The apple, pear, cherry and plum thrive well in the north;
+the orange, lemon, citron and sugar-cane in the south; styrax and
+mastic in the south-west; and the wheat lands of the Sivas vilayet
+can hardly be surpassed. The most important vegetable productions
+are&mdash;cereals, cotton, gum tragacanth, liquorice, olive oil, opium,
+rice, saffron, salep, tobacco and yellow berries. Silk is produced in
+large quantities in the vicinity of Brusa and Amasia, and mohair
+from the Angora goat all over the plateau. The wild animals include
+bear, boar, chamois, fallow red and roe deer, gazelle, hyena, ibex,
+jackal, leopard, lynx, moufflon, panther, wild sheep and wolf. The
+native reports of a maneless lion in Lycia (<i>arslan</i>) are probably based
+on the existence of large panthers. Amongst the domestic animals
+are the buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel, bred from
+a Bactrian sire and Syrian mother. Large numbers of sheep and
+Angora goats are reared on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on
+the Uzun Yaila; but no effort is made to improve the quality of
+the wool and mohair or the breed of horses. Good mules can be
+obtained in several districts, and small hardy oxen are largely bred
+for ploughing and transport. The larger birds are the bittern, great
+and small bustard, eagle, francolin, goose; giant, grey and red-legged
+partridge, sand grouse, pelican, pheasant, stork and swan.
+The rivers and lakes are well supplied with fish, and the mountain
+streams abound with small trout.</p>
+
+<p>The principal manufactures are:&mdash;Carpets, rugs, cotton, tobacco,
+mohair and silk stuffs, soap, wine and leather. The exports are:&mdash;Cereal,
+cotton, cotton seed, dried fruits, drugs, fruit, gall nuts, gum
+tragacanth, liquorice root, maize, nuts, olive oil, opium, rice, sesame,
+sponges, storax, timber, tobacco, valonia, walnut wood, wine, yellow
+berries, carpets, cotton yarn, cocoons, hides, leather, mohair, silk,
+silk stuffs, rugs, wax, wool, leeches, live stock, minerals, &amp;c. The
+imports are:&mdash;Coffee, cotton cloths, cotton goods, crockery, dry-salteries,
+fezzes, glass-ware, haberdashery, hardware, henna, ironware,
+jute, linen goods, manufactured goods, matches, petroleum,
+salt, sugar, woollen goods, yarns, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;There are few metalled roads, and those that
+exist are in bad repair, but on the plateau light carts can pass nearly
+everywhere. The lines of railway now open are:&mdash;(1) From Haidar
+Pasha to Ismid, Eski-shehr and Angora; (2) from Mudania to Brusa;
+(3) from Eski-shehr to Afium-Kara-hissar, Konia and Bulgurli, east of
+Eregli (the first section of the Bagdad railway). These lines are
+worked by the German <i>Gesellschaft der anatolischen Eisenbahnen</i>.
+(4) From Smyrna to Manisa, Ala-shehr and Afium-Kara-hissar, with
+a branch line from Manisa to Soma. This line is worked by a French
+company. (5) From Smyrna to Aidin and Dineir, with branches to
+Odemish, Tireh, Sokia, Denizli, Ishekli, Seidi Keui and Bouja,
+constructed and worked by an English company. (6) From Mersina
+to Tarsus and Adana, an English line under a control mainly French.
+There are two competing routes for the eastern trade&mdash;one running
+inland from Constantinople (Haidar Pasha), the other from Smyrna.
+The first is connected by ferry with the European railway system; the
+second with the great sea routes from Smyrna to Trieste, Marseilles
+and Liverpool. The right to construct all railways in Armenia
+and north-eastern Asia Minor has been conceded to Russia, and the
+Germans have a virtual monopoly of the central plateau.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Ethnology.</i>&mdash;None of the conquering races that invaded Asia
+Minor, whether from the east or from the west, wholly expelled
+or exterminated the race in possession. The vanquished retired
+to the hills or absorbed the victors. In the course of ages race
+distinction has been almost obliterated by fusion of blood; by
+the complete Hellenization of the country, which followed the
+introduction of Christianity; by the later acceptance of Islam;
+and by migrations due to the occupation of cultivated lands
+by the nomads. It will be convenient here to adopt the modern
+division into Moslems, Christians and Jews:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Moslems.</i>
+The Turks never established themselves in such numbers as to
+form the predominant element in the population. Where the
+land was unsuitable for nomad occupation the agricultural
+population remained, and it still retains some of its original
+characteristics. Thus in Cappadocia the facial type of the non-Aryan
+race is common, and in Galatia there are traces of Gallic
+blood. The Zeibeks of the west and south-west are apparently
+representatives of the Carians and Lycians; and the peasants
+of the Black Sea coast range of the people of Bithynia,
+Paphlagonia and Pontus. Wherever the people accepted Islam they
+called themselves Turks, and a majority of the so-called &ldquo;Turks&rdquo;
+belong by blood to the races that occupied Asia Minor before
+the Seljuk invasion. Turkish and Zaza-speaking Kurds (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kurdistan</a></span>) are found in the Angora and Sivas vilayets. There
+are many large colonies of Circassians and smaller ones of Noghai
+(Nogais), Tatars, Georgians, Lazis, Cossacks, Albanians and
+Pomaks. East of Boghaz Keui there is a compact population
+of Kizilbash, who are partly descendants of Shia Turks
+transplanted from Persia and partly of the indigenous race. In the
+Cilician plain there are large settlements of Nosairis who have
+migrated from the Syrian mountains (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syria</a></span>). The nomads
+and semi-nomads are, for the most part, representatives of the
+Turks, Mongols and Tatars who poured into the country during
+the 350 years that followed the defeat of Romanus. Turkomans
+are found in the Angora and Adana vilayets; Avshars, a tribe
+of Turkish origin, in the valleys of Anti-Taurus; and Tatars
+in the Angora and Brusa vilayets; Yuruks are most numerous
+in the Konia vilayet. They speak Turkish and profess to be
+Moslems, but have no mosques or imams. The Turkomans have
+villages in which they spend the winter, wandering over the great
+plains of the interior with their flocks and herds during the
+summer. The Yuruks on the contrary are a truly nomad race.
+Their tents are made of black goats&rsquo; hair and their principal
+covering is a cloak of the same material. They are not limited
+to the milder districts of the interior, but when the harvest is
+over, descend into the rich plains and valleys near the coast. The
+Chepmi and Takhtaji, who live chiefly in the Aidin vilayet, appear
+to be derived from one of the early races. (<i>b</i>) <i>Christians.</i>
+The Greeks are in places the descendants of colonists from Greece,
+many of whom, <i>e.g.</i> in Pamphylia and the Smyrna district, are
+of very recent importation; but most of them belong by blood
+to the indigenous races. These people became &ldquo;Greeks&rdquo; as
+being subjects of the Byzantine empire and members of the
+Eastern Church. On the west coast, in Pontus and to some
+extent of late in Cappadocia, and in the mining villages, peopled
+from the Trebizond Greeks, the language is Romaic; on the
+south coast and in many inland villages (<i>e.g.</i> in Cappadocia)
+it is either Turkish, which is written in Greek characters, or a
+Greco-Turkish jargon. In and near Smyrna there are large
+colonies of Hellenes. Armenians are most numerous in the
+eastern districts, where they have been settled since the great
+migration that preceded and followed the Seljuk invasion.
+There are, however, Armenians in every large town. In central
+and western Asia Minor they are the descendants of colonists
+from Persia and Armenia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armenia</a></span>), (<i>c</i>) The <i>Jews</i> live
+chiefly on the Bosporus; and in Smyrna, Rhodes, Brusa and
+other western towns. <i>Gypsies</i>&mdash;some Moslem, some
+Christian&mdash;are also numerous, especially in the south.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Asia Minor owes the peculiar interest of its history
+to its geographical position. &ldquo;Planted like a bridge between Asia
+and Europe,&rdquo; it has been from the earliest period a battleground
+between the East and the West. The central plateau
+(2500 to 4500 ft.), with no navigable river and few natural
+approaches, with its monotonous scenery and severe climate, is a
+continuation of central Asia. The west coast, with its alternation
+of sea and promontory, of rugged mountains and fertile
+valleys, its bright and varied scenery, and its fine climate, is
+almost a part of Europe. These conditions are unfavourable to
+permanence, and the history of Asia Minor is that of the march of
+hostile armies, and rise and fall of small states, rather than that
+of a united state under an independent sovereign. At a very early
+period Asia Minor appears to have been occupied by non-Aryan
+tribes or races which differed little from each other in religion,
+language and social system. During the past generation much
+light has been thrown upon one of these races&mdash;the &ldquo;Hittites&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Syro-Cappadocians,&rdquo; who, after their rule had passed away,
+were known to Herodotus as &ldquo;White Syrians,&rdquo; and whose descendants
+can still be recognised in the villages of Cappadocia.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+The centre of their power is supposed to have been Boghaz
+Keui (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>), east of the Halys, whence roads radiated to
+harbours on the Aegean, to Sinope, to northern Syria and to the
+Cilician plain. Their strange sculptures and inscriptions have
+been found at Pteria, Euyuk, Fraktin, Kiz Hissar (Tyana), Ivriz,
+Bulgar, Muden and other places between Smyrna and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
+Euphrates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>). When the great Aryan immigration
+from Europe commenced is unknown, but it was dying out in the
+11th and 10th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In Phrygia the Aryans founded
+a kingdom, of which traces remain in various rock tombs,
+forts and towns, and in legends preserved by the Greeks. The
+Phrygian power was broken in the 9th or 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the
+Cimmerii, who entered Asia Minor through Armenia; and on its
+decline rose the kingdom of Lydia, with its centre at Sardis. A
+second Cimmerian invasion almost destroyed the rising kingdom,
+but the invaders were expelled at last by Alyattes, 617 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scythia</a></span>). The last king, Croesus (? 560-546 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) carried the
+boundaries of Lydia to the Halys, and subdued the Greek
+colonies on the coast. The date of the foundation of these
+colonies cannot be fixed; but at an early period they formed a
+chain of settlements from Trebizond to Rhodes, and by the 8th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> some of them rivalled the splendour of Tyre and
+Sidon. Too jealous of each other to combine, and too demoralized
+by luxury to resist, they fell an easy prey to Lydia;
+and when the Lydian kingdom ended with the capture of Sardis
+by Cyrus, 546 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they passed, almost without resistance, to
+Persia. Under Persian rule Asia Minor was divided into four
+satrapies, but the Greek cities were governed by Greeks, and
+several of the tribes in the interior retained their native
+princes and priest-dynasts. An attempt of the Greeks to
+regain their freedom was crushed, 500-494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but later the
+tide turned and the cities were combined with European Greeks
+into a league for defence against the Persians. The weakness
+of Persian rule was disclosed by the expedition of Cyrus and the
+Ten Thousand Greeks, 402 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and in the following century
+Asia Minor was invaded by Alexander the Great (<i>q.v.</i>), 334 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionia</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The wars which followed the death of Alexander eventually
+gave Asia Minor to Seleucus, but none of the Seleucid kings was
+able to establish his rule over the whole peninsula. Rhodes became
+a great maritime republic, and much of the south and west
+coast belonged at one time or another to the Ptolemies of Egypt.
+An independent kingdom was founded at Pergamum, 283 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+which lasted until Attalus III., 133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, made the Romans his
+heirs. Bithynia became an independent monarchy, and Cappadocia
+and Paphlagonia tributary provinces under native princes.
+In southern Asia Minor the Seleucids founded Antioch, Apamea,
+Attalia, the Laodiceas and Seleuceias, and other cities as centres
+of commerce, some of which afterwards played an important
+part in the Hellenization (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hellenism</a></span>) of the country,
+and in the spread of Christianity. During the 3rd century,
+278-277 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, certain Gallic tribes crossed the Bosporus and
+Hellespont, and established a Celtic power in central Asia
+Minor. They were confined by the victories of Attalus I. of
+Pergamum, c. 232 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, to a district on the Sangarius and
+Halys to which the name Galatia was applied; and after their
+defeat by Manlius, 189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they were subjected to the suzerainty
+of Pergamum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Galatia</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The defeat of Antiochus the Great at Magnesia, 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+placed Asia Minor at the mercy of Rome; but it was not until
+133 that the first Roman province, Asia, was formed to include
+only western Anatolia, without Bithynia. Errors in policy and
+in government facilitated the rise of Pontus into a formidable
+power under Mithradates, who was finally driven out of the
+country by Pompey, and died 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Under the settlement of
+Asia Minor by Pompey, Bithynia-Pontus and Cilicia became
+provinces, whilst Galatia and Cappadocia were allowed to retain
+nominal independence for over half a century more under native
+kings, and Lycia continued an autonomous League. A long
+period of tranquillity followed, during which the Roman dominion
+grew, and all Asia Minor was divided into two provinces. The
+boundaries were often changed; and about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 297, in Diocletian&rsquo;s
+reorganization of the empire, the power of the great
+military commands was broken, and the provinces were made
+smaller and united in groups called dioceses. A great change
+followed the introduction of Christianity, which spread first along
+the main roads that ran north and west from the Cilician Gates,
+and especially along the great trade route to Ephesus. In some
+districts it spread rapidly, in others slowly. With its advance
+the native languages and old religions gradually disappeared,
+and at last the whole country was thoroughly Hellenized, and
+the people united by identity of language and religion.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the 6th century Asia Minor had become wealthy
+and prosperous; but centuries of peace and over-centralization
+had affected the <i>moral</i> of the people and weakened the central
+government. During the 7th century the provincial system
+broke down, and the country was divided into <i>themes</i> or military
+districts. From 616 to 626 Persian armies swept unimpeded
+over the land, and Chosroes (Khosrau) II. pitched his camp on
+the shore of the Bosporus. The victories of Heraclius forced
+Chosroes to retire; but the Persians were followed by the Arabs,
+who, advancing with equal ease, laid siege to Constantinople,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 668. It almost appeared as if Asia Minor would be annexed
+to the dominion of the Caliph. But the tide of conquest was
+stemmed by the iconoclast emperors, and the Arab expeditions,
+excepting those of Harun al-Rashid, 781 and 806, and of
+el-Motasim, 838, became simply predatory raids. In the 10th
+century the Arabs were expelled. They never held more than
+the districts along the main roads, and in the intervals of peace
+the country rapidly recovered itself. But a more dangerous
+enemy was soon to appear on the eastern border.</p>
+
+<p>In 1067 the Seljuk Turks ravaged Cappadocia and Cilicia; in
+1071 they defeated and captured the emperor Romanus Diogenes,
+and in 1080 they took Nicaea. One branch of the Seljuks
+founded the empire of Rum, with its capital first at Nicaea and
+then at Iconium. The empire, which at one time included
+nearly the whole of Asia Minor, with portions of Armenia and
+Syria, passed to the Mongols when they defeated the sultan of
+Rum in 1243, and the sultans became vassals of the Great Khan.
+The Seljuk sultans were liberal patrons of art, literature and
+science, and the remains of their public buildings and tombs are
+amongst the most beautiful and most interesting in the country.
+The marches of the Crusaders across Asia Minor left no permanent
+impression. But the support given by the Latin princes to the
+Armenians in Cilicia facilitated the growth of the small warlike
+state of Lesser Armenia, which fell in 1375 with the defeat and
+capture of Leo VI. by the Mameluke sultan of Egypt. The
+Mongols were too weak to govern the country they had conquered,
+and the vassalage of the last sultan of Rum, who died in 1307,
+was only nominal. On his death the Turkoman governors of his
+western provinces drove out the Mongols and asserted their
+independence. A contest for supremacy followed, which eventually
+ended in favour of the Osmanli Turks of Brusa. In 1400
+Sultan Bayezid I. held all Asia Minor west of the Euphrates;
+but in 1402 he was defeated and made prisoner by Timur, who
+swept through the country to the shores of the Aegean. On the
+death of Timur Osmanli supremacy was re-established after
+a prolonged straggle, which ended with the annexation by
+Mahommed II. (1451-1481) of Karamania and Trebizond, and
+the abandonment of the last of the Italian trading settlements
+which had studded the coast during the 13th and 14th centuries.
+The later history of Asia Minor is that of the Turkish empire.
+The most important event was the advance (1832-1833) of an
+Egyptian army, under Ibrahim Pasha, through the Cilician Gates
+to Konia and Kutaiah.</p>
+
+<p>The defeat of the emperor Romanus (1071) initiated a change
+in the condition of Asia Minor which was to be complete and
+lasting. A long succession of nomad Turkish tribes, pressing
+forward from central Asia, wandered over the rich country in
+search of fresh pastures for their flocks and herds. They did not
+plunder or ill-treat the people, but they cared nothing for town
+life or for agricultural pursuits, and as they passed onward they
+left the country bare. Large districts passed out of cultivation
+and were abandoned to the nomads, who replaced wheeled
+traffic by the pack horse and the camel. The peasants either
+became nomads themselves or took refuge in the towns or the
+mountains. The Mongols, as they advanced, sacked towns and
+laid waste the agricultural lands. Timur conducted his campaigns
+with a ruthless disregard of life and property. Entire
+Christian communities were massacred, flourishing towns were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span>
+completely destroyed, and all Asia Minor was ravaged. From
+these disasters the country never recovered, and the last traces
+of Western civilization disappeared with the enforced use of the
+Turkish language and the wholesale conversions to Islam under
+the earliest Osmanli sultans. The recent large increase of the
+Greek population in the western districts, the construction of
+railways, and the growing interests of Germany and Russia on
+the plateau seem, however, to indicate that the tide is again
+turning in favour of the West.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:917px; height:656px" src="images/img760.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img760a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<div class="pt2 condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;1. <span class="sc">General Authorities</span>:&mdash;C. Texier, <i>Asie
+Mineure</i> (1843); P. Tchihatcheff, <i>Asie Mineure</i> (1853-1860);
+C. Ritter, <i>Erdkunde</i>, vols. xviii. xix. (1858-1859); W.J. Hamilton,
+<i>Researches in Asia Minor</i> (1843); E. Reclus. <i>Nouv. Géog. Univ.</i>
+vol. ix. (1884); V. Cuinet, <i>La Turquie d&rsquo;Asie</i> (1890); W.M. Ramsay,
+<i>Hist. Geog. of A. M.</i> (1890); Murray&rsquo;s <i>Handbook for A. M. &amp;c.</i>, ed. by
+Sir C. Wilson (1895). For <span class="sc">Geology</span> see Tchihatcheff, <i>Asie Mineure,
+Géologie</i> (Paris, 1867-1869); Schaffer, <i>Cilicia, Peterm. Mitt.
+Ergänzungsheft</i>, 141 (1903); Philippson, <i>Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss.</i> (1903),
+pp. 112-124; English, <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> (London, 1904), pp. 243-295;
+see also Suess, <i>Das Antlitz der Erde</i>, vol. iii. pp. 402-412, and
+the accompanying references.</p>
+
+<p>2. A. <i>Western Asia Minor</i>.&mdash;J. Spon and G. Wheler, <i>Voyage
+du Levant</i> (1679); P. de Tournefort, <i>Voyage du Levant</i> (1718);
+F. Beaufort, <i>Ionian Antiquities</i> (1811); R. Chandler, <i>Travels</i> (1817);
+W.M. Leake, <i>Journal of a Tour in A. M.</i> (1820); F.V.J. Arundell,
+<i>Visit to the Seven Churches</i> (1828), and <i>Discoveries, &amp;c.</i> (1834);
+C. Fellows, <i>Excursion in A. M.</i> (1839); C.T. Newton, <i>Travels</i> (1867),
+and <i>Discoveries at Halicarnassus, &amp;c.</i> (1863); Dilettanti Society,
+<i>Ionian Antiquities</i> (1769-1840); J.R.S. Sterrett, <i>Epigr. Journey</i>
+and <i>Wolfe Exped.</i> (Papers, Amer. Arch. Inst. ii. iii.) (1888); J.H.
+Skene, <i>Anadol</i> (1853); G. Radet, <i>Lydie</i> (1893); O. Rayet and
+A. Thomas, <i>Milet et le Golfe Latmique</i> (1872); K. Buresch, <i>Aus
+Lydien</i> (1898); W.M. Ramsay, <i>Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia</i>
+(1895), and <i>Impressions of Turkey</i> (1898).</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>Eastern Asia Minor</i>.&mdash;W.F. Ainsworth, <i>Travels in A. M.</i>
+(1842); G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, <i>Expl. arch, de la Galatie</i> (1862-1872);
+E.J. Davis, <i>Anatolica</i> (1874); H.F. Tozer, <i>Turkish Armenia</i>
+(1881); H.J. v. Lennep, <i>Travels</i> (1870); D.G. Hogarth, <i>Wandering
+Scholar</i> (1896); Lord Warkworth, <i>Notes of a Diary, &amp;c.</i> (1898);
+E. Sarre, <i>Reise</i> (1896); D.G. Hogarth and J.A.R. Munro, <i>Mod.
+and Anc. Roads</i> (R.G.S. Supp. Papers iii.) (1893); H.C. Barkley,
+<i>A Ride through A. M. and Armenia</i> (1891); M. Sykes, <i>Dar ul-Islam</i>
+(1904); E. Chantre, <i>Mission en Cappadocie</i> (1898).</p>
+
+<p>C. <i>Southern Asia Minor</i>.&mdash;F. Beaufort, <i>Karamania</i> (1817); C.
+Fellows, <i>Discoveries in Lycia</i> (1841); T.A.B. Spratt and E. Forbes,
+<i>Travels in Lycia</i> (1847); V. Langlois, <i>Voy. dans la Cilicie</i> (1861);
+E.J. Davis, <i>Life in Asiatic Turkey</i> (1879); O. Benndorf and E.
+Niemann, <i>Lykien</i> (1884); C. Lanckoronski, <i>Villes de la Pamphylie
+et de la Pisidie</i> (1890); F. v. Luschan, <i>Reisen in S.W. Kleinasien</i>
+(1888); E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, <i>Lykien</i> (1889); K. Humann
+and O. Puchstein, <i>Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien</i> (1890).</p>
+
+<p>D. <i>Northern Asia Minor</i>.&mdash;J.M. Kinneir, <i>Journey through A. M.</i>
+(1818); J.G.C. Anderson and F. Cumont, <i>Studia Pontica</i> (1903);
+E. Naumann, <i>Vom Goldenen Horn, &amp;c.</i> (1893).</p>
+
+<p>See also G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, <i>Hist. de l&rsquo;art dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i>,
+vols. iv. v. (1886-1890); J. Strzygowski, <i>Kleinasien, &amp;c.</i> (1903).
+Also numerous articles in all leading archaeological periodicals, the
+<i>Geographical Journal</i>, <i>Deutsche Rundschau</i>, <i>Petermann&rsquo;s Geog.
+Mitteilungen</i>, &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Maps</span>.&mdash;H. Kiepert, <i>Nouv. carte gén. des prov. asiat. de l&rsquo;Emp.
+ottoman</i> (1894), and <i>Spezialkarte v. Westkleinasien</i> (1890); W. von
+Diest, <i>Karte des Nordwestkleinasien</i> (1901); R. Kiepert, <i>Karte von
+Kleinasien</i> (1901); E. Friederich, <i>Handels- und Produktenkarte von
+Kleinasien</i> (1898); J.G.C. Anderson, <i>Asia Minor</i> (Murray&rsquo;s Handy
+Class. Maps) (1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The people, Moslem and Christian, are physically one and appear
+to be closely related to the modern Armenians. This relationship is
+noticeable in other districts, and the whole original population of
+Asia Minor has been characterized as Proto-Armenian or Armenoid.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASIENTO,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Assiento</span> (from the verb <i>asentar</i>, to place, or
+establish), a Spanish word meaning a farm of the taxes, or
+contract. The farmer or contractor is called an <i>asentista</i>. The
+word acquired a considerable notoriety in English and American
+history, on account of the &ldquo;Asiento Treaty&rdquo; of 1713. Until 1702
+the Spanish government had given the contract for the supply
+of negroes to its colonies in America to the Genoese. But after
+the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in 1700, a French
+company was formed which received the exclusive privilege of
+the Spanish-American slave trade for ten years&mdash;from September
+1702 to 1712. When the peace of Utrecht was signed the British
+government insisted that the monopoly should be given to its
+own subjects. By the terms of the Asiento treaty signed on the
+16th of March 1713, it was provided that British subjects should
+be authorized to introduce 144,000 slaves in the course of thirty
+years, at the rate of 4800 per annum. The privilege was to
+expire on the 1st of May 1743. British subjects were also
+authorized to send one ship of 500 tons per annum, laden with
+manufactured goods, to the fairs of Porto Bello and La Vera
+Cruz. Import duties were to be paid for the slaves and goods.
+This privilege was conveyed by the British government to the
+South Sea Company, formed to work it. The privilege, to which
+an exaggerated value was attached, formed the solid basis of
+the notorious fit of speculative fever called the South Sea Bubble.
+Until 1739 the trade in blacks went on without interruption, but
+amid increasingly angry disputes between the Spanish and the
+British governments. The right to send a single trading ship
+to the fairs of Porto Bello or La Vera Cruz was abused. Under
+pretence of renewing her provisions she was followed by tenders
+which in fact carried goods. Thus there arose what was in fact
+a vast contraband trade. The Spanish government established
+a service of revenue boats (<i>guarda costas</i>) which insisted on
+searching all English vessels approaching the shores of the
+Spanish colonies. There can be no doubt that the smugglers
+were guilty of many piratical excesses, and that the <i>guarda
+costas</i> often acted with violence on mere suspicion. After many
+disputes, in which the claims of the British government were
+met by Spanish counterclaims, war ensued in 1739. When peace
+was made at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 Spain undertook to allow the
+asiento to be renewed for the four years which were to run when
+war broke out in 1739. But the renewal for so short a period
+was not considered advantageous, and by the treaty of El Retiro
+of 1750, the British government agreed to the recession of the
+Asiento treaty altogether on the payment by Spain of Ł100,000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A very convenient account of the Asiento Treaty, and of the trade
+which arose under it, will be found in Malachy Postlethwayt&rsquo;s
+<i>Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce</i> (London, 1751), <i>s.v.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASIR,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a district in western Arabia, lying between 17° 30&prime; and
+21° N., and 40° 30&prime; and 45° E.; bounded N. by Hejaz, E. by
+Nejd, S. by Yemen and W. by the Red Sea. Like Yemen, it
+consists of a lowland zone some 20 or 30 m. in width along the
+coast, and of a mountainous tract, falling steeply on the west
+and merging into a highland plateau which slopes gradually to
+the N.E. towards the Nejd steppes. Its length along the coast
+is about 230 m., and its breadth from the coast to El Besha about
+180. The lowland, or Tehama, is hot and barren; the principal
+places in it are Kanfuda, the chief port of the district, Marsa
+Hali and El Itwad, smaller ports farther south. The mountainous
+tract has probably an average altitude of between 6000 and
+7000 ft., with a temperate climate and regular rainfall, and is
+fertile and populous. The valleys are well watered and produce
+excellent crops of cereals and dates. The best-known are the
+Wadi Taraba and the W. Besha, both running north-east
+towards the W. Dawasir in Nejd. Taraba, according to John
+Lewis Burckhardt, is a considerable town, surrounded by palm
+groves and gardens, and watered by numerous rivulets, and
+tamous for its long resistance to Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s forces in 1815.
+Five or six days&rsquo; journey to the south-east is the district of
+Besha, the most important position between Sana and Taif.
+Here Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s army, amounting to 12,000 men, found
+sufficient provisions to supply it during a fortnight&rsquo;s halt.
+The Wadi Besha is a broad valley abounding with streams
+containing numerous hamlets scattered over a tract some
+six or eight hours&rsquo; journey in length. Its principal affluent,
+the W. Shahran, rises 120 m. to the south and runs
+through the fertile district of Khamis Mishet, the highest in
+Asir. The Zahran district lies four days west of Besha on the
+crest of the main range: the principal place is Makhwa, a large
+town and market, from which grain is exported in considerable
+quantities to Mecca. Farther south is the district of Shamran.
+Throughout the mountainous country the valleys are well
+watered and cultivated, with fortified villages perched on the
+surrounding heights. Juniper forests are said to exist on the
+higher mountains. Three or four days&rsquo; journey east and south-east
+of Besha are the encampments of the Bani Kahtan, one of
+the most ancient tribes of Arabia; their pastures extend into
+the adjoining district of Nejd, where they breed camels in large
+numbers, as well as a few horses.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants are a brave and warlike race of mountaineers,
+and aided by the natural strength of their country they have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
+hitherto preserved their independence. Since the beginning of
+the 19th century they have been bigoted Wahhabis, though
+previously regarded by their neighbours as very lax Mahommedans;
+during Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s occupation of Nejd their constant
+raids on the Egyptian communications compelled him to send
+several punitive expeditions into the district, which, however,
+met with little success. Since the reconquest of Yemen by the
+Turks, they have made repeated attempts to subjugate Asir,
+but beyond occupying Kanfuda, and holding one or two isolated
+points in the interior, of which Ibha and Manadir are the principal,
+they have effected nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The chief sources of information regarding Asir are the notes
+made by J.L. Burckhardt at Taif in 1814 and those of the French
+officers with the Egyptian expeditions into the country from
+1814 to 1837. No part of Arabia would better repay exploration.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;J.L. Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (London,
+1829); F. Mengin, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;Égypte</i>, &amp;c. (Paris, 1823);
+M.O. Tamisier, <i>Voyage en Arabie</i> (Paris, 1840).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASISIUM<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (mod. <i>Assisi</i>), an ancient town of Umbria, in a
+lofty situation about 15 m. E.S.E. of Perusia. As an independent
+community it had already begun to use Latin as well as Umbrian
+in its inscriptions (for one of these recording the chief magistrates&mdash;<i>marones</i>&mdash;see
+<i>C.I.L.</i> xi. 5390). It became a <i>municipium</i> in
+90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but, though numerous inscriptions (<i>C.I.L.</i> xi. 5371-5606)
+testify to its importance in the Imperial period, it is hardly
+mentioned by our classical authorities. Scanty traces of the
+ancient city walls may be seen; within the town the best-preserved
+building is the so-called temple of Minerva, with six
+Corinthian columns of travertine, now converted into a church,
+erected by Gaius and Titus Caesius in the Augustan era. It
+fronted on to the ancient forum, part of the pavement of which,
+with a base for the equestrian statues of Castor and Pollux (as
+the inscription upon it records) has been laid bare beneath the
+present Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. The remains of the amphitheatre,
+in <i>opus reticulatum</i>, may be seen in the north-east corner
+of the town; and other ancient buildings have been discovered.
+Asisium was probably the birthplace of Propertius.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASKABAD,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Askhabad</span>, a town of Russian central Asia,
+capital of the Transcaspian province, 345 m. by rail S.E. of
+Krasnovodsk and 594 from Samarkand, situated in a small
+oasis at the N. foot of the Kopet-dagh range. It has a public
+library and a technical railway school; also cotton-cleaning
+works, tanneries, brick-works, and a mineral-water factory.
+The trade is valued at Ł250,000 a year. The population, 2500
+in 1881, when the Russians seized it, was 19,428 in 1897, one-third
+Persians, many of them belonging to the Babi sect.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASKAULES<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="askaulaes">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#973;&#955;&#951;&#962;</span> [?] from <span class="grk" title="askos">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, bag, <span class="grk" title="aulos">&#945;&#8016;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span>, pipe),
+probably the Greek word for bag-piper, although there is no
+documentary authority for its use. Neither it nor <span class="grk" title="askaulos">&#7940;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>
+(which would naturally mean the bag-pipe) has been found in
+Greek classical authors, though J.J. Reiske&mdash;in a note on Dio
+Chrysostom, <i>Orat.</i> lxxi. <i>ad fin.</i>, where an unmistakable description
+of the bag-pipe occurs (&ldquo;and they say that he is skilled to
+write, to work as an artist, and to play the pipe with his mouth,
+on the bag placed under his arm-pits&rdquo;)&mdash;says that <span class="grk" title="askaulaes">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#973;&#955;&#951;&#962;</span> was
+the Greek word for bag-piper. The only actual corroboration
+of this is the use of <i>ascaules</i> for the pure Latin <i>utricularius</i> in
+Martial x. 3. 8. Dio Chrysostom flourished about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100;
+it is therefore only an assumption that the bag-pipe was known
+to the classical Greeks by the name of <span class="grk" title="askaulos">&#7940;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>. It need not,
+however, be a matter of surprise that among the highly cultured
+Greeks such an instrument as the bag-pipe should exist without
+finding a place in literature. It is significant that it is not
+mentioned by Pollux (<i>Onomast.</i> iv. 74) and Athenaeus (<i>Deipnos.</i>
+iv. 76) in their lists of the various kinds of pipes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bag-pipe</a></span>; art. &ldquo;Askaules&rdquo; in Pauly-Wissowa,
+<i>Realencyclopadie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASKE, ROBERT<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (d. 1537), English rebel, was a country
+gentleman who belonged to an ancient family long settled in
+Yorkshire, his mother being a daughter of John, Lord Clifford.
+When in 1536 the insurrection called the &ldquo;Pilgrimage of Grace&rdquo;
+broke out in Yorkshire, Aske was made leader; and marching
+with the banner of St Cuthbert and with the badge of the &ldquo;five
+wounds,&rdquo; he occupied York on the 16th of October and on the
+20th captured Pontefract Castle, with Lord Darcy and the
+archbishop of York, who took the oath of the rebels. He caused
+the monks and nuns to be reinstated, and refused to allow the
+king&rsquo;s herald to read the royal proclamation, announcing his
+intention of marching to London to declare the grievances of
+the commons to the sovereign himself, secure the expulsion of
+counsellors of low birth, and obtain restitution for the church.
+The whole country was soon in the hands of the rebels, a military
+organization with posts from Newcastle to Hull was established,
+and Hull was provided with cannon. Subsequently Aske, followed
+by 30,000 or 40,000 men, proceeded towards Doncaster, where
+lay the duke of Norfolk with the royal forces, which, inferior
+in numbers, would probably have been overwhelmed had not
+Aske persuaded his followers to accept the king&rsquo;s pardon, and
+the promise of a parliament at York and to disband. Soon
+afterwards he received a letter from the king desiring him to
+come secretly to London to inform him of the causes of the
+rebellion. Aske went under the guarantee of a safe-conduct
+and was well received by Henry. He put in writing a full
+account of the rising and of his own share in it; and, fully
+persuaded of the king&rsquo;s good intentions, returned home on the
+8th of January 1537, bringing with him promises of a visit from
+the king to Yorkshire, of the holding of a parliament at York,
+and of free elections. Shortly afterwards he wrote to the king
+warning him of the still unquiet state not only of the north but
+of the midlands, and stating his fear that more bloodshed was
+impending. The same month he received the king&rsquo;s thanks for
+his action in pacifying Sir Francis Bigod&rsquo;s rising. But his
+position was now a difficult and a perilous one, and a few weeks
+later the attitude of the government towards him was suddenly
+changed. The new rising had given the court an excuse for
+breaking off the treaty and sending another army under Norfolk
+into Yorkshire. Possibly in these fresh circumstances Aske
+may have given cause for further suspicions of his loyalty, and
+in his last confession he acknowledged that communications to
+obtain aid had been opened with the imperial ambassador and
+were contemplated with Flanders. But it is more probable
+that the government had from the first treacherously affected
+to treat him with confidence to secure the secrets of the rebels
+and to effect his destruction. In March Norfolk congratulated
+Cromwell on the successful accomplishment of his task, having
+persuaded Aske to go to London on false assurances of security.
+He was arrested in April, tried before a commission at Westminster,
+and sentenced to death for high treason on the 17th of
+May; and on the 28th of June he was taken back to Yorkshire,
+being paraded in the towns and country through which he
+passed. He was hanged at York in July, expressing repentance
+for breaking the king&rsquo;s laws, but declaring that he had promise
+of pardon both from Cromwell and from Henry. It is related
+that his servant, Robert Wall, died of grief at the thought of
+his master&rsquo;s approaching execution. Aske was a real leader,
+who gained the affection and confidence of his followers; and
+his sudden rise to greatness and his choice by the people point
+to abilities that have not been recorded.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries</i>, by F.A. Gasquet
+(1906); <i>Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.</i>, vols. xi.
+and xii.; <i>English Histor. Review</i>, v. 330, 550 (account of the rebellion,
+examination and answers to interrogations); <i>Chronicle of
+Henry VIII.</i>, tr. by M.A.S. Hume (1889); Whitaker&rsquo;s <i>Richmondshire</i>,
+i. 116 (pedigree of the Askes).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASKEW,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ascue</span>, <b>ANNE</b> (1521?-1546), English Protestant
+martyr, born at Stallingborough about 1521, was the second
+daughter of Sir William Askew (d. 1540) of South Kelsey,
+Lincoln, by his first wife Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
+Wrottesley. Her elder sister, Martha, was betrothed by her
+parents to Thomas Kyme, a Lincolnshire justice of the peace,
+but she died before marriage, and Anne was induced or compelled
+to take her place. She is said to have had two children
+by Kyme, but religious differences and incompatibility of temperament
+soon estranged the couple. Kyme was apparently an
+unimaginative man of the world, while Anne took to Bible-reading
+with zeal, became convinced of the falsity of the doctrine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
+of transubstantiation, and created some stir in Lincoln by her
+disputations. According to Bale and Foxe her husband turned her
+out of doors, but in the privy council register she is said to have
+&ldquo;refused Kyme to be her husband without any honest allegation.&rdquo;
+She had as good a reason for repudiating her husband
+as Henry VIII. for repudiating Anne of Cleves. In any case,
+she came to London and made friends with Joan Bocher, who
+was already known for heterodoxy, and other Protestants. She
+was examined for heresy in March 1545 by the lord mayor, and
+was committed to the Counter prison. Then she was examined
+by Bonner, the bishop of London, who drew up a form of recantation
+which he entered in his register. This fact led Parsons
+and other Catholic historians to state that she actually recanted
+but she refused to sign Bonner&rsquo;s form without qualification.
+Two months later, on the 24th of May, the privy council ordered
+her arrest. On the 13th of June 1545, she was arraigned as a
+sacramentarian under the Six Articles at the Guildhall; but no
+witness appeared against her; she was declared not guilty by
+the jury and discharged after paying her fees.</p>
+
+<p>The reactionary party, which, owing to the absence of Hertford
+and Lisle and to the presence of Gardiner, gained the upper hand
+in the council in the summer of 1546, were not satisfied with this
+repulse; they probably aimed at the leaders of the reforming
+party, such as Hertford and possibly Queen Catherine Parr, who
+were suspected of favouring Anne, and on the 18th of June 1546
+Anne was again arraigned before a commission including the
+lord mayor, the duke of Norfolk, St John, Bonner and Heath.
+No jury was empanelled and no witnesses were called; she was
+condemned, simply on her confession, to be burnt. On the same
+day she was called before the privy council with her husband.
+Kyme was sent home into Lincolnshire, but Anne was committed
+to Newgate, &ldquo;for that she was very obstinate and heady in
+reasoning of matters of religion.&rdquo; On the following day she was
+taken to the Tower and racked; according to Anne&rsquo;s own
+statement, as recorded by Bale, the lord chancellor, Wriothesley,
+and the solicitor-general, Rich, worked the rack themselves; but
+she &ldquo;would not convert for all the pain&rdquo; (Wriothesley, <i>Chronicle</i>
+i. 168). Her torture, disputed by Jardine, Lingard and others, is
+substantiated not only by her own narrative, but by two
+contemporary chronicles, and by a contemporary letter (<i>ibid.</i>;
+<i>Narratives of the Reformation</i>, p. 305; Ellis, <i>Original Letters</i>, 2nd
+Ser. ii. 177). For four weeks she was left in prison, and at length
+on the 16th of July, she was burnt at Smithfield in the presence
+of the same persecuting dignitaries who had condemned her to death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Bale&rsquo;s two tracts, printed at Marburg in November
+1546 and January 1547, are the basis of Foxe&rsquo;s account. See also
+<i>Acts of the Privy Council</i> (1542-1547), pp. 424-462; Wriothesley&rsquo;s
+<i>Chron.</i> i. 155, 167-169; <i>Narratives of the Reformation</i>, passim;
+Gough&rsquo;s <i>Index to Parker Soc. Publications</i>; Burnet&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the
+Reformation</i>; Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the Church of England</i>; <i>Dict. Nat.
+Biogr.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">A&#7778;MA&lsquo;&#298;<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> [Ab&#363; Sa&lsquo;&#299;d &lsquo;Abd ul-Malik ibn Quraib] (<i>c.</i> 739-831),
+Arabian scholar, was born of pure Arab stock in Basra and was
+a pupil there of Ab&#363; &lsquo;Amr ibn ul-&lsquo;Al&#257;. He seems to have been a
+poor man until by the influence of the governor of Basra he was
+brought to the notice of Har&#363;n al-Rash&#299;d, who enjoyed his
+conversation at court and made him tutor of his son. He became
+wealthy and acquired property in Basra, where he again settled
+for a time; but returned later to Bagdad, where he died in 831.
+A&#7779;ma&lsquo;&#299; was one of the greatest scholars of his age. From his
+youth he stored up in his memory the sacred words of the Koran,
+the traditions of the Prophet, the verses of the old poets and the
+stories of the ancient wars of the Arabs. He was also a student
+of language and a critic. It was as a critic that he was the great
+rival of Ab&#363; &lsquo;Ubaida (<i>q.v.</i>). While the latter followed (or led) the
+Shu&lsquo;&#363;bite movement and declared for the excellence of all things
+not Arabian, A&#7779;ma&lsquo;&#299; was the pious Moslem and avowed supporter
+of the superiority of the Arabs over all peoples, and of the freedom
+of their language and literature from all foreign influence.
+Some of his scholars attained high rank as literary men. Of
+A&#7779;ma&lsquo;&#299;&rsquo;s many works mentioned in the catalogue known as the
+<i>Fihrist</i>, only about half a dozen are extant. Of these the <i>Book
+of Distinction</i> has been edited by D.H. Müller (Vienna, 1876);
+the <i>Book of the Wild Animals</i> by R. Geyer (Vienna, 1887); the
+<i>Book of the Horse</i>, by A. Haffner (Vienna, 1895); the <i>Book of the
+Sheep</i>, by A. Haffner (Vienna, 1896).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For life of A&#7779;ma&lsquo;&#299;, see Ibn Khallik&#257;n, <i>Biographical Dictionary</i>,
+translated from the Arabic by McG. de Slane (Paris and
+London, 1842), vol. ii. pp. 123-127. For his work as a grammarian,
+G. Flügel, <i>Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber</i> (Leipzig, 1862),
+pp. 72-80.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASMARA,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> the capital of the Italian colony of Eritrea, N.E.
+Africa. It is built on the Hamasen plateau, near its eastern edge,
+at an elevation of 7800 ft., and is some 40 m. W.S.W. in a direct
+line of the seaport of Massawa. Pop. (1904) about 9000, including
+the garrison of 300 Italian soldiers, and some 1000 native troops.
+The European civil population numbers over 500; the rest
+of the inhabitants are chiefly Abyssinians. There is a small
+Mahommedan colony. The town is strongly fortified. The
+European quarter contains several fine public buildings, including
+the residence of the governor, club house, barracks and hospital.
+Fort Baldissera is built on a hill to the south-west of the town
+and is considered impregnable.</p>
+
+<p>Asmara, an Amharic word signifying &ldquo;good pasture place,&rdquo; is
+a town of considerable antiquity. It was included in the maritime
+province of northern Abyssinia, which was governed by a
+viceroy who bore the title of Bahar-nagash (ruler of the sea).
+By the Abyssinians the Hamasen plateau was known as the plain
+of the thousand villages. Asmara appears to have been one of
+the most prosperous of these villages, and to have attained
+commercial importance through being on the high road from
+Axum to Massawa. When Werner Munzinger (<i>q.v.</i>) became
+French consul at Massawa, he entered into a scheme for annexing
+the Hamasen (of which Asmara was then the capital) to France,
+but the outbreak of the war with Germany in 1870 brought the
+project to nought (cf. A.B. Wylde, <i>Modern Abyssinia</i>, 1901).
+In 1872 Munzinger, now in Egyptian service, annexed Asmara
+to the khedivial dominions, but in 1884, owing to the rise of the
+mahdi, Egypt evacuated her Abyssinian provinces and Asmara was
+chosen by Ras Alula, the representative of the negus Johannes
+(King John), as his headquarters. Shortly afterwards the Italians
+occupied Massawa, and in 1889 Asmara (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+In 1900 the seat of government was transferred from Massawa
+to Asmara, which in its modern form is the creation of the
+Italians. It is surrounded by rich agricultural lands, cultivated
+in part by Italian immigrants, and is a busy trading centre. A
+railway from Massawa to Asmara was completed as far as Ghinda,
+at the foot of the plateau, in 1904. At Medrizien, 6 m. north of
+Asmara, are gold-mines which have been partially worked.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Dainelli, <i>In Africa. Lettere dall&rsquo; Eritrea</i> (Bergamo, 1908);
+R. Perini, <i>Di qua dal Mareb</i> (Florence, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASMODEUS,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ashmedai</span>, an evil demon who appears in later
+Jewish tradition as &ldquo;king of demons.&rdquo; He is sometimes identified
+with Beelzebub or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11). In the Talmud he
+plays a great part in the legends concerning Solomon. In the
+apocryphal book of Tobit (iii. 8) occurs the well-known story of
+his love for Sara, the beautiful daughter of Raguel, whose seven
+husbands were slain in succession by him on their respective
+bridal nights. At last Tobias, by burning the heart and liver of
+a fish, drove off the demon, who fled to Egypt. From the part
+played by Asmodeus in this story, he has been often familiarly
+called the genius of matrimonial unhappiness or jealousy, and
+as such may be compared with Lilith. Le Sage makes him the
+principal character in his novel <i>Le Diable boiteux</i>. Both the
+word and the conception seem to have been derived originally
+from the Persian. The name has been taken to mean &ldquo;covetous.&rdquo;
+It is in any case no doubt identical with the demon Aeshma of
+the Zend-Avesta and the Pahlavi texts. But the meaning is not
+certain. It is generally agreed that the second part of the name
+Asmodeus is the same as the Zend <i>da&#275;wa, d&#275;w</i>, &ldquo;demon.&rdquo; The
+first part may be equivalent to Aeshma, the impersonation of
+anger. But W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>)
+prefers to derive it from <i>ish</i>, to drive, set in motion; whence
+<i>ish-m&#299;n</i>, driving, impetuous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The legend of Asmodeus is given fully in the <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>, s.v.
+See also the articles in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>, Hastings&rsquo;
+<i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, and Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASMONEUS,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Asamonaeus</span> (so Josephus), great-grandfather
+of Mattathias, the father of Judas Maccabaeus. Nothing more is
+known of him, and the name is only given by Josephus (not in
+1 Macc. ii. 1). But the dynasty was known to Josephus and the
+Mishna (once) as &ldquo;the sons (race) of the Asamonaeans (of A.)&rdquo;;
+and the Targum of 1 Sam. ii. 4 has &ldquo;the house of the Hashmoneans
+who were weak, signs were wrought for them and
+strength.&rdquo; If not the founder, Asmoneus was probably the home
+of the family (cf. Heshmon, Jos. xv. 27).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Schurer, <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i>, i. 248 N; art.
+&ldquo;Maccabees,&rdquo; § 2, in <i>Ency. Biblica</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASNIČRES,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of
+Seine, on the left bank of the Seine, about 1˝ m. N.N.W. of the
+fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 35,883. The town, which
+has grown rapidly in recent years, is a favourite boating centre
+for the Parisians. The industries include boat-building and the
+manufacture of colours and perfumery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASOKA,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a famous Buddhist emperor of India who reigned
+from 264 to 228 or 227 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Thirty-five of his inscriptions on
+rocks or pillars or in caves still exist (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span>: <i>Indian</i>),
+and they are among the most remarkable and interesting of
+Buddhist monuments (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buddhism</a></span>). Asoka was the grandson
+of Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya (Peacock) dynasty,
+who had wrested the Indian provinces of Alexander the Great
+from the hands of Seleucus, and he was the son of Bindus&#257;ra,
+who succeeded his father Chandragupta, by a lady from Champ&#257;.
+The Greeks do not mention him and the Brahmin books ignore
+him, but the Buddhist chronicles and legends tell us much about
+him. The inscriptions, which contain altogether about five
+thousand words, are entirely of religious import, and their
+references to worldly affairs are incidental. They begin in the
+thirteenth year of his reign, and tell us that in the ninth year he
+had invaded Kalinga, and had been so deeply impressed by the
+horrors involved in warfare that he had then given up the desire
+for conquest, and devoted himself to conquest by &ldquo;religion.&rdquo;
+What the religion was is explained in the edicts. It is purely
+ethical, independent alike of theology and ritual, and is the code
+of morals as laid down in the Buddhist sacred books for laymen.
+He further tells us that in the ninth year of his reign he formally
+joined the Buddhist community as a layman, in the eleventh
+year he became a member of the order, and in the thirteenth he
+&ldquo;set out for the Great Wisdom&rdquo; (the <i>Sambodhi</i>), which is the
+Buddhist technical term for entering upon the well-known, eightfold
+path to Nirvana. One of the edicts is addressed to the
+order, and urges upon its members and the laity alike the learning
+and rehearsal of passages from the Buddhist scriptures.
+Two others are proclamations commemorating visits paid by the
+king, one to the dome erected over the ashes of Kon&#257;gamana, the
+Buddha, another to the birthplace of Gotama, the Buddha (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Three very short ones are dedications of caves to the use of
+an order of recluses. The rest either enunciate the religion as
+explained above, or describe the means adopted by the king for
+propagating it, or acting in accordance with it. These means are
+such as the digging of wells, planting medicinal herbs, and trees
+for shade, sending out of missionaries, appointment of special
+officers to supervise charities, and so on. The missionaries were
+sent to Kashmir, to the Himalayas, to the border lands on the
+Indus, to the coast of Burma, to south India and to Ceylon.
+And the king claims that missions sent by him to certain Greek
+kingdoms that he names had resulted in the folk there conforming
+themselves to his religion. The extent of Asoka&rsquo;s dominion
+included all India from the thirteenth degree of latitude up to the
+Himalayas, Nepal, Kashmir, the Swat valley, Afghanistan as
+far as the Hindu Kush, Sind and Baluchistan. It was thus as
+large as, or perhaps somewhat larger than, British India before
+the conquest of Burma. He was undoubtedly the most powerful
+sovereign of his time and the most remarkable and imposing of
+the native rulers of India. &ldquo;If a man&rsquo;s fame,&rdquo; says Köppen,
+&ldquo;can be measured by the number of hearts who revere his
+memory, by the number of lips who have mentioned, and still
+mention him with honour, Asoka is more famous than Charlemagne
+or Caesar.&rdquo; At the same time it is probable that,
+like Constantine&rsquo;s patronage of Christianity, his patronage of
+Buddhism, then the most rising and influential faith in India,
+was not unalloyed with political motives, and it is certain that
+his vast benefactions to the Buddhist cause were at least one of
+the causes that led to its decline.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>Asoka</i>, by Vincent Smith (Oxford, 1901); <i>Inscriptions de
+Piyadasi</i>, by E. Senart (Paris, 1891); chapters on Asoka in T.W.
+Rhys Davids&rsquo;s <i>Buddhism</i> (20th ed., London, 1903), and <i>Buddhist India</i>
+(London, 1903); V.A. Smith, <i>Edicts of Asoka</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. W. R. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASOLO<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (anc. <i>Acelum</i>), a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province
+of Treviso, about 19 m. N.W. direct from the town of Treviso,
+and some 10 m. E. of Bassanoby road. Pop. (1901) 5847. It is
+well situated on a hill, 690 ft. above sea-level. Remains of
+Roman baths and of a theatre have been discovered in the
+course of excavation (<i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1877, 235; 1881, 205;
+1882, 289), and the town was probably a <i>municipium</i>. It
+became an episcopal see in the 6th century. It was to Asolo
+that Catherine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, retired on her abdication.
+Here she was visited by Pietro Bembo, who conceived here
+his <i>Dialoghi degli Asolani</i>, and by Andrea Navagero (Naugerius).
+Paulus Manutius was born here. The village of Maser is 4˝ m. to
+the E., and near it is the Villa Giacomelli, erected by Palladio, containing
+frescoes by Paolo Veronese, executed in 1566-1568 for Marcantonio
+Barbaro of Venice, and ranking among his best works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASOR<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (Hebr. for &ldquo;ten&rdquo;), an instrument &ldquo;of ten strings&rdquo;
+mentioned in the Bible, about which authors are not agreed.
+The word occurs only three times in the Bible, and has not been
+traced elsewhere. In Psalm xxxiii. 2 the reference is to &ldquo;kinnor,
+nebel and asor&rdquo;; in Psalm xcii. 3, to &ldquo;nebel and asor&rdquo;; in
+Psalm cxliv. to &ldquo;nebel-asor.&rdquo; In the English version <i>asor</i> is
+translated &ldquo;an instrument of ten strings,&rdquo; with a marginal note
+&ldquo;omit&rdquo; applied to &ldquo;instrument.&rdquo; In the Septuagint, the word
+being derived from a root signifying &ldquo;ten,&rdquo; the Greek is <span class="grk" title="en dekachordo">&#7952;&#957; &#948;&#949;&#954;&#945;&#967;&#959;&#961;&#948;&#8183;</span>
+or <span class="grk" title="psaltaerion dekachordon">&#968;&#945;&#955;&#964;&#942;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#948;&#949;&#954;&#940;&#967;&#959;&#961;&#948;&#959;&#957;</span>, in the Vulgate <i>in decachordo
+psalterio</i>. Each time the word <i>asor</i> is used it follows the
+word <i>nebel</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psaltery</a></span>), and probably merely indicates a
+variant of the nebel, having ten strings instead of the customary
+twelve assigned to it by Josephus (<i>Antiquities</i>, vii. 12. 3).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Mendel and Reissmann, <i>Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon</i>,
+vol. i. (Berlin, 1881); Sir John Stainer, <i>The Music of the
+Bible</i>, pp. 35-37; Forkel, <i>Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik</i>, Bd. i.
+p. 133 (Leipzig, 1788).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASP<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (<i>Vipera aspis</i>), a species of venomous snake, closely allied
+to the common adder of Great Britain, which it represents
+throughout the southern parts of Europe, being specially
+abundant in the region of the Alps. It differs from the adder
+in having the head entirely covered with scales, shields being
+absent, and in having the snout somewhat turned up. The term
+&ldquo;Asp&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="aspis">&#7936;&#963;&#960;&#943;&#962;</span> seems to have been employed by Greek and
+Roman writers, and by writers generally down to comparatively
+recent times, to designate more than one species of serpent;
+thus the asp, by means of which Cleopatra is said to have ended
+her life, and so avoided the disgrace of entering Rome a captive,
+is now generally supposed to have been the cerastes, or horned
+viper (<i>Cerastes cornutus</i>), of northern Africa and Arabia, a snake
+about 15 in. long, exceedingly venomous, and provided with
+curious horn-like protuberances over each eye, which give it a
+decidedly sinister appearance. The snake, however, to which
+the word &ldquo;asp&rdquo; has been most commonly applied is undoubtedly
+the haje of Egypt, the <i>spy-slange</i> or spitting snake of the Boers
+(<i>Naja haje</i>), one of the very poisonous <i>Elarinae</i>, from 3 to 4 ft.
+long, with the skin of its neck loose, so as to render it dilatable
+at the will of the animal, as in the cobra of India, a species from
+which it differs only in the absence of the spectacle-like mark
+on the back of the neck. Like the cobra, also, the haje has its
+fangs extracted by the jugglers of the country, who afterwards
+train it to perform various tricks. The asp (<i>Pethen</i>, &#1508;&#1514;&#1503;) is
+mentioned in various parts of the Old Testament. This name
+is twice translated &ldquo;adder,&rdquo; but as nothing is told of it beyond
+its poisonous character and the intractability of its disposition,
+it is impossible accurately to determine the species.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPARAGINE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, a naturally occurring base, found
+in plants belonging to the natural orders Leguminosae and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
+Cruciferae. It occurs in two optically active forms, namely, as
+laevo-asparagine and dextro-asparagine. Laevo-asparagine was
+isolated in 1805 by L.N. Vauquelin. A. Piutti (<i>Gazz. chim. Ital.</i>,
+1887, 17, p. 126; 1888, 18, p. 457) synthesized the asparagines
+from the monomethyl ester of inactive aspartic acid by heating
+it with alcoholic ammonia. In this way a mixture of the two
+asparagines was obtained, which were separated by picking out
+the hemihedral crystals.</p>
+
+<p class="center">HOOCˇCHˇNH<span class="su">2</span>ˇCH<span class="su">2</span>ˇCOOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> + NH<span class="su">3</span>
+        = C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>OH + HOOCˇCHˇNH<span class="su">2</span>ˇCH<span class="su">2</span>ˇCONH<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Laevo-asparagine is slightly soluble in cold water and readily
+soluble in hot water. It crystallizes in prisms, containing one
+molecule of water of crystallization, the anhydrous form melting
+at 234-235° C. Nitrous acid converts it into malic acid,
+HOOCˇCHOHˇCH<span class="su">2</span>ˇCOOH. It is laevo-rotatory in aqueous or
+in alkaline solution, and dextro-rotatory in acid solution (L.
+Pasteur, <i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1851 [2], 31, p. 67). Dextro-asparagine
+was first found in 1886 in the shoots of the vetch (Piutti). It
+forms rhombic crystals possessing a sweet taste. It is dextro-rotatory
+in aqueous or alkaline solution, and laevo-rotatory
+in acid solution.</p>
+
+<p>Hydrolysis by means of acids or alkalis converts the asparagines
+into aspartic acid; whilst on heating with water in a sealed
+tube they are converted into ammonium aspartate. The constitution
+of the asparagines has been determined by A. Piutti
+(<i>Gazz. chim. Ital.</i>, 1888, 18, p. 457).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPARAGUS,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a genus of plants (nat. ord. Liliaceae) containing
+more than 100 species, and widely distributed in the temperate
+and warmer parts of the Old World; it was introduced from
+Europe into America with the early settlers. The name is
+derived from the Greek <span class="grk" title="asparagos">&#7936;&#963;&#960;&#940;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="aspharagos">&#7936;&#963;&#966;&#940;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, the origin
+of which is obscure. <i>Sperage</i> or <i>sparage</i> was the form in use from
+the 16th to 18th centuries, cf. the modern Italian <i>sparagio</i>. The
+vulgar corruption <i>sparrow-grass</i> or <i>sparagrass</i> was in accepted
+popular use during the 18th century, &ldquo;asparagus&rdquo; being considered
+pedantic. The plants have a short, creeping, underground
+stem from which spring slender, branched, aerial shoots.
+The leaves are reduced to minute scales bearing in their axils
+tufts of green, needle-like branches (the so-called <i>cladodes</i>),
+which simulate, and perform the functions of, leaves. In one
+section of the genus, sometimes regarded as a distinct genus
+<i>Myrsiphyllum</i>, the cladodes are flattened. The plants often
+climb or scramble, in which they are helped by the development
+of the scale-leaves into persistent spines. The flowers are
+small, whitish and pendulous; the fruit is a berry.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the climbing species are grown in greenhouses for
+their delicate, often feathery branches, which are also valuable
+for cutting; the South African <i>Asparagus plumosus</i> is an
+especially elegant species. The so-called smilax, much used for
+decoration, is a species of the <i>Myrsiphyllum</i> section, <i>A.
+medeoloides</i>, also known as <i>Myrsiphyllum asparagoides</i>. The young
+shoots of <i>Asparagus officinalis</i> have from very remote times been
+in high repute as a culinary vegetable, owing to their delicate
+flavour and diuretic virtues. The plant, which is a native of the
+north temperate zone of the Old World, grows wild on the south
+coast of England; and on the waste steppes of Russia it is so
+abundant that it is eaten by cattle like grass. In common with
+the marsh-mallow and some other plants, it contains asparagine
+or aspartic acidamide. The roots of asparagus were formerly
+used as an aperient medicine, and the fruits were likewise
+employed as a diuretic. Under the name of Prussian asparagus,
+the spikes of an allied plant, <i>Ornithogalum pyrenaicum</i>, are used
+in some places. The diuretic action is extremely feeble, and
+neither the plant nor asparagine is now used medicinally.</p>
+
+<p>Asparagus is grown extensively in private gardens as well as
+for market. The asparagus prefers a loose, light, deep, sandy soil;
+the depth should be 3 ft., the soil being well trenched, and all
+surplus water got away. A considerable quantity of well-rotted
+dung or of recent seaweed should be laid in the bottom of the
+trench, and another top-dressing of manure should be dug in
+preparatory to planting or sowing. The beds should be 3 ft.
+or 5 ft. wide, with intervening alleys of 2 ft., the narrower beds
+taking two rows of plants, the wider ones three rows. The beds
+should run east and west, so that the sun&rsquo;s rays may strike
+against the side of the bed. In some cases the plants are grown
+in equidistant rows 3 to 4 ft. apart. Where the beds are made
+with plants already prepared, either one-year-old or two-year-old
+plants may be used, for which a trench should be cut sufficient
+to afford room for spreading out the roots, the crowns being all
+kept at about 2 in. below the surface. Planting is best done in
+April, after the plants have started into growth. To prevent
+injury to the roots, it is, however, perhaps the better plan to
+sow the seeds in the beds where the plants are to remain. To
+experience the finest flavour of asparagus, it should be eaten
+immediately after having been gathered; if kept longer than one
+day, or set into water, its finer flavour is altogether lost. If
+properly treated, asparagus beds will continue to bear well for
+many years. The asparagus grown at Argenteuil, near Paris,
+has acquired much notoriety for its large size and excellent
+quality. The French growers plant in trenches instead of
+raised beds. The most common method of forcing asparagus
+is to prepare, early in the year, a moderate hot-bed of stable
+litter with a bottom heat of 70°, and to cover it with a common
+frame. After the heat of fermentation has somewhat subsided,
+the surface of the bed is covered with a layer of light earth or
+exhausted tan-bark, and in this the roots of strong mature plants
+are closely placed. The crowns of the roots are then covered
+with 3 to 6 in. of soil. A common three-light frame may hold
+500 or 600 plants, and will afford a supply for several weeks.
+After planting, linings are applied when necessary to keep up
+the heat, but care must be taken not to scorch the roots; air
+must be occasionally admitted. Where there are pits heated
+by hot water or by the tank system, they may be advantageously
+applied to this purpose. A succession of crops must be maintained
+by annually sowing or planting new beds.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;asparagus-beetle&rdquo; is the popular name for two beetles,
+the &ldquo;common asparagus beetle&rdquo; (<i>Crioceris asparagi</i>) and the
+&ldquo;twelve-spotted&rdquo; (<i>C. duodecimpunctata</i>), which feed on the
+asparagus plant. <i>C. asparagi</i> has been known in Europe since
+early times, and was introduced into America about 1856; the
+rarer <i>C. duodecimpunctata</i> (sometimes called the &ldquo;red&rdquo; to
+distinguish it from the &ldquo;blue&rdquo; species) was detected in America
+in 1881. For an admirable account of these pests see F.H.
+Chittenden, <i>Circular 102 of the U.S. Dep. of Agriculture, Bureau
+of Entomology</i>, May 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;asparagus-stone&rdquo; is a form of apatite, simulating asparagus
+in colour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPASIA,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> an Athenian courtesan of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was
+born either at Miletus or at Megara, and settled in Athens, where
+her beauty and her accomplishments gained for her a great
+reputation. Pericles, who had divorced his wife (445), made her
+his mistress, and, after the death of his two legitimate sons,
+procured the passing of a law under which his son by her was
+recognized as legitimate. It was the fashion, especially among
+the comic poets, to regard her as the adviser of Pericles in all
+his political actions, and she is even charged with having caused
+the Samian and Peloponnesian wars (Aristoph. <i>Acharn</i>. 497).
+Shortly before the latter war, she was accused of impiety, and
+nothing but the tears and entreaties of Pericles procured her
+acquittal. On the death of Pericles she is said to have become
+the mistress of one Lysicles, whom, though of ignoble birth, she
+raised to a high position in the state; but, as Lysicles died a year
+after Pericles (428), the story is unconvincing. She was the
+chief figure in the dialogue <i>Aspasia</i> by Aeschines the Socratic,
+in which she was represented as criticizing the manners and
+training of the women of her time (for an attempted reconstruction
+of the dialogue see P. Natorp in <i>Philologus</i>, li. p. 489, 1892);
+in the <i>Menexenus</i> (generally ascribed to Plato) she is a teacher
+of rhetoric, the instructress of Socrates and Pericles, and a funeral
+oration in honour of those Athenians who had given their lives
+for their country (the authorship of which is attributed to
+Aspasia) is repeated by Socrates; Xenophon (<i>Oecon.</i> lii. 14) also
+speaks of her in favourable terms, but she is not mentioned by
+Thucydides. In opposition to this view, Wilamowitz-Möllendorff
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span>
+(<i>Hermes</i>, xxxv. 1900) regards her simply as a courtesan, whose
+personality would readily become the subject of rumour, favourable
+or unfavourable. There is a bust bearing her name in the
+Pio Clementino Museum in the Vatican.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Le Conte de Bičvre, <i>Les Deux Aspasies</i> (1736); J.B. Capefigue,
+<i>Aspasie et le sičcle de Périclčs</i> (1862); L. Becq de Fouquičres. <i>Aspasie
+de Milet</i> (1872); H. Houssaye, <i>Aspasie, Cléopâtre, Théodora</i> (1899);
+R. Hamerling, <i>Aspasia</i> (a romance; Eng. trans. by M.J. Safford,
+New York, 1882); J. Donaldson, <i>Woman</i> (1907). Also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPASIUS<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span>, a Greek peripatetic philosopher, and a prolific
+commentator on Aristotle. He flourished probably towards the
+close of the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, or perhaps during the reign of
+Antoninus Pius. His commentaries on the <i>Categories, De
+Interpretatione, De Sensu</i>, and other works of Aristotle are
+frequently referred to by later writers, but have not come down
+to us. Commentaries on Plato, mentioned by Porphyry in his
+life of Plotinus, have also been lost. Commentaries on books
+1-4, 7 (in part), and 8 of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> are preserved;
+that on book 8 was printed with those of Eustratius and others
+by Aldus Manutius at Venice in 1536. They were partly (2-4)
+translated into Latin by Felicianus in 1541, and have frequently
+been republished, but their authenticity has been disputed.
+The most recent edition is by G. Heylbut in <i>Commentaria in
+Aristotelem Graeca</i>, xix. 1 (Berlin, 1889).</p>
+
+<p>Another <span class="sc">Aspasius</span>, in the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, was a Roman sophist
+and rhetorician, son or pupil of the rhetorician Demetrianus. He
+taught rhetoric in Rome, and filled the chair of rhetoric founded
+by Vespasian. He was secretary to the emperor Maximin. His
+orations, which are praised for their style, are lost.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPEN<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, an important section of the poplar genus (<i>Populus</i>)
+of which the common aspen of Europe, <i>P. tremula</i>, may be taken
+as the type,&mdash;a tall fast-growing tree with rather slender trunk,
+and grey bark becoming rugged when old. The roundish leaves,
+toothed on the margin, are slightly downy when young, but afterwards
+smooth, dark green on the upper and greyish green on the
+lower surface; the long slender petioles, much flattened towards
+the outer end, allow of free lateral motion by the lightest breeze,
+giving the foliage its well-known tremulous character. By their
+friction on each other the leaves give rise to a rustling sound.
+It is supposed that the mulberry trees (<i>Becaim</i>) mentioned in
+1 Chronicles xiv. 14, 15 were really aspen trees. The flowers,
+which appear in March and April, are borne on pendulous hairy
+catkins, 2-3 in. long; male and female catkins are, as in the other
+species of the genus, on distinct trees.</p>
+
+<p>The aspen is found in moist places, sometimes at a considerable
+elevation, 1600 ft. or more, in Scotland. It is an abundant tree
+in the northern parts of Britain, even as far as Sutherland, and is
+occasionally found in the coppices of the southern counties, but
+in these latter habitats seldom reaches any large size; throughout
+northern Europe it abounds in the forests,&mdash;in Lapland
+flourishing even in 70° N. lat., while in Siberia its range extends
+to the Arctic Circle; in Norway its upper limit is said to coincide
+with that of the pine; trees exist near the western coast having
+stems 15 ft. in circumference. The wood of the aspen is very
+light and soft, though tough; it is employed by coopers, chiefly
+for pails and herring-casks; it is also made into butchers&rsquo; trays,
+pack-saddles, and various articles for which its lightness recommends
+it; sabots are also made of it in France, and in medieval
+days it was valued for arrows, especially for those used in target
+practice; the bark is used for tanning in northern countries;
+cattle and deer browse greedily on the young shoots and abundant
+suckers. Aspen wood makes but indifferent fuel, but charcoal
+prepared from it is light and friable, and has been employed in
+gunpowder manufacture. The powdered bark is sometimes given
+to horses as a vermifuge; it possesses likewise tonic and febrifugal
+properties, containing a considerable amount of salicin. The
+aspen is readily propagated either by cuttings or suckers, but
+has been but little planted of late years in Britain. <i>P. trepida</i>,
+or <i>tremuloides</i>. is closely allied to the European aspen, being
+chiefly distinguished by its more pointed leaves; it is a native
+of most parts of Canada and the United States, extending
+northwards as far as Great Slave Lake. The wood is soft and
+neither strong nor durable; it burns better in the green state
+than that of most trees, and is often used by the hunters of the
+North-West as fuel; split into thin layers, it was formerly
+employed in the United States for bonnet and hat making. It
+is largely manufactured into wood-pulp for paper-making. The
+bark is of some value as a tonic and febrifuge. <i>P. grandidentata</i>,
+the large-leaved American aspen, has ovate or roundish leaves
+deeply and irregularly serrated on the margin. The wood is
+light, soft and close-grained, but not strong. In northern New
+England and Canada it is largely manufactured into wood-pulp;
+it is occasionally used in turnery and for wooden-ware.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPENDUS<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (mod. <i>Balkis Kalé</i>, or, more anciently in the
+native language, <span class="sc">Estvedys</span> (whence the adjective <i>Estvedijys</i> on
+coins), an ancient city of Pamphylia, very strongly situated on
+an isolated hill on the right bank of the Eurymedon at the
+point where the river issues from the Taurus. The sea is now
+about 7 m. distant, and the river is navigable only for about
+2 m. from the mouth; but in the time of Thucydides ships could
+anchor off Aspendus. Really of pre-Hellenic date, the place
+claimed to be an Argive colony. It derived wealth from great
+<i>salines</i> and from a trade in oil and wool, to which the wide
+range of its admirable coinage bears witness from the 5th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards. There Alcibiades met the satrap Tissaphernes in
+411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and thence succeeded in getting the Phoenician fleet,
+intended to co-operate with Sparta, sent back home. The
+Athenian, Thrasybulus, after obtaining contributions from
+Aspendus in 389, was murdered by the inhabitants. The city
+bought off Alexander in 333, but, not keeping faith, was forcibly
+occupied by the conqueror. In due course it passed from
+Pergamene to Roman dominion, and according to Cicero, was
+plundered of many artistic treasures by Verres. It was ranked
+by Philostratus the third city of Pamphylia, and in Byzantine
+times seems to have been known as Primopolis, under which
+name its bishop signed at Ephesus in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 431. In medieval
+times it was evidently still a strong place, but it has now sunk,
+in the general decay of Pamphylia, to a wretched hamlet.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins still extant are very remarkable, and, with the
+noble Roman theatre, the finest in the world, have earned for
+the place (as is the case with certain other great monuments) a
+legendary connexion with Solomon&rsquo;s Sheban queen. On the
+summit of the hillock, surrounded by a wall with three gates,
+lie the remains of the city. The public buildings round the forum
+can all be traced, and parts of them are standing to a considerable
+height. They consist of a fine nympheum on the north with a
+covered theatre behind it, covered market halls on the west, and
+a peristyle hall and a basilica on the east. In the plain below are
+large thermae, and ruins of a splendid aqueduct. But all else
+seems insignificant beside the huge theatre, half hollowed out of
+the north-east flank of the hill. This was first published by
+C.F.M. Texier in 1849, and has now been completely planned,
+&amp;c., by Count Lanckoronski&rsquo;s expedition in 1884. It is built of
+local conglomerate and is in marvellous preservation. Erected
+to the honour of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus by
+the architect Zeno, for the heirs of a local Roman citizen (as an
+inscription repeated over both portals attests), its auditorium
+has a circuit of 313.17 feet. There are forty tiers of seating,
+divided by one <i>diazoma</i>, and crowned by an arched gallery of
+rather later date, repaired in places with brick. This auditorium
+held 7500 spectators. The seats are not perfect, but so nearly
+so as to appear practically intact. The wooden stage has, of
+course, perished, but all its supporting structures are in place,
+and the great scena wall stands to its full height, and produces a
+magnificent impression whether from within or from without.
+Inwardly it was decorated with two orders of columns one above
+the other, with rich entablatures, much of which survives. In
+the <i>tympanum</i> is a relief of Bacchus (wrongly supposed to be of a
+female, and called the Bal-Kis, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Honey Girl&rdquo;). The position
+of the sounding board above the stage is apparent. Under the
+forepart of the auditorium, built out from the hill, are immense
+vaults. The whole structure was enclosed within one great wall,
+pierced with numerous windows. This structure was probably
+put to some ecclesiastical Byzantine use, as certain mutilated
+heads of saints appear upon it; and later it became a fortress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span>
+and received certain additions. It is now under the care of the
+local <i>aghá</i> and not allowed to be plundered for building stone.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Lanckoronski, <i>Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie</i>, i.
+(1890).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPER, AEMILIUS,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> Latin grammarian, possibly lived in the
+2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He wrote commentaries on Terence, Sallust
+and Virgil. Numerous fragments of the last show that as both
+critic and commentator he possessed good judgment and taste.
+They are printed in Keil, <i>Probi in Vergilii Bucolica Commentarius</i>
+(1848); see also Suringar, <i>Historia Critica Scholiastarum Latinorum</i>
+(1834); Gräfenhan, <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie im
+Alterthum.</i> iv. (1843-1850). Two short grammatical treatises,
+extant under the name of Asper, and of very little value, have
+nothing to do with the commentator, but belong to a much
+later date&mdash;the time of Priscian (6th century). Both are
+printed in Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>. See also Schanz, <i>Geschichte
+der römischen Litteratur</i>, § 598.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPER, HANS<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1499-1571), Swiss painter, was born and died
+at Zürich. He wrought in a great variety of styles, but excelled
+chiefly in flower and fruit pieces, and in portrait-painting.
+Many of his pictures have perished, but his style may be judged
+from the illustrations to Gessner&rsquo;s <i>Historia Animalium</i>, for which
+he is said to have furnished the designs, and from portraits of
+Zwingli and his daughter Regula Gwalter, which are preserved
+in the public library of Zürich. It has been usual to class Asper
+among the pupils and imitators of Holbein, but an inspection of
+his works is sufficient to show that this is a mistake. Though
+Asper was held in high reputation by his fellow-citizens, who
+elected him a member of the Great Council, and had a medal
+struck in his honour, he seems to have died in poverty.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPERGES<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (&ldquo;thou wilt sprinkle,&rdquo; from the Latin verb
+<i>aspergere</i>), the ceremony of sprinkling the people with holy water
+before High Mass in the Roman Catholic Church, so called from
+the first word of the verse (Ps. iv. 9) <i>Asperges me, Domini,
+hyssopo et mundabor</i>, with which the priest begins the ceremony.
+The brush used for sprinkling is an aspergill (<i>aspergillum</i>), or
+aspersoir, and the vessel for this water an <i>aspersorium</i>. The act
+of sprinkling the water is called <i>aspersion</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPERN-ESSLING,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> <span class="sc">Battle of</span> (1809), a battle fought on the
+21st and 22nd of May 1809 between the French and their allies
+under Napoleon and the Austrians commanded by the archduke
+Charles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). At the time of the
+battle Napoleon was in possession of Vienna, the bridges over
+the Danube had been broken, and the archduke&rsquo;s army was on
+and about the Bisamberg, a mountain near Korneuburg, on
+the left bank of the river. The first task of the French was the
+crossing of the Danube. Lobau, one of the numerous islands
+which divide the river into minor channels, was selected as the
+point of crossing, careful preparations were made, and on the
+night of the 19th-20th of May the French bridged all the channels
+from the right bank to Lobau and occupied the island. By the
+evening of the 20th great masses of men had been collected there
+and the last arm of the Danube, between Lobau and the left bank,
+bridged. Massena&rsquo;s corps at once crossed to the left bank and
+dislodged the Austrian outposts. Undeterred by the news of
+heavy attacks on his rear from Tirol and from Bohemia, Napoleon
+hurried all available troops to the bridges, and by daybreak on
+the 21st, 40,000 men were collected on the Marchfeld, the broad
+open plain of the left bank, which was also to be the scene of
+the battle of Wagram. The archduke did not resist the passage;
+it was his intention, as soon as a large enough force had crossed,
+to attack it before the rest of the French army could come to its
+assistance. Napoleon had, of course, accepted the risk of such
+an attack, but he sought at the same time to minimize it by
+summoning every available battalion to the scene. His forces
+on the Marchfeld were drawn up in front of the bridges facing
+north, with their left in the village of Aspern (Gross-Aspern)
+and their right in Essling (or Esslingen). Both places lay close
+to the Danube and could not therefore be turned; Aspern,
+indeed, is actually on the bank of one of the river channels.
+But the French had to fill the gap between the villages, and also
+to move forward to give room for the supports to form up.
+Whilst they were thus engaged the archduke moved to the
+attack with his whole army in five columns. Three under
+Hiller, Bellegarde and Hohenzollern were to converge upon
+Aspern, the other two, under Rosenberg, to attack Essling.
+The Austrian cavalry was in the centre, ready to move out
+against any French cavalry which should attack the heads of
+the columns. During the 21st the bridges became more and
+more unsafe, owing to the violence of the current, but the
+French crossed without intermission all day and during the night.</p>
+
+<p>The battle began at Aspern; Hiller carried the village at the
+first rush, but Masséna recaptured it, and held his ground with
+the same tenacity as he had shown at Genoa in 1800. The
+French infantry, indeed, fought on this day with the old stubborn
+bravery which it had failed to show in the earlier battles of the
+year. The three Austrian columns fighting their hardest through
+the day were unable to capture more than half the village; the
+rest was still held by Masséna when night fell. In the meanwhile
+nearly all the French infantry posted between the two villages
+and in front of the bridges had been drawn into the fight on
+either flank. Napoleon therefore, to create a diversion, sent
+forward his centre, now consisting only of cavalry, to charge the
+enemy&rsquo;s artillery, which was deployed in a long line and firing
+into Aspern. The first charge of the French was repulsed, but
+the second attempt, made by heavy masses of cuirassiers, was
+more serious. The French horsemen, gallantly led, drove off
+the guns, rode round Hohenzollern&rsquo;s infantry squares, and
+routed the cavalry of Lichtenstein, but they were unable to do
+more, and in the end they retired to their old position. In the
+meanwhile Essling had been the scene of fighting almost as
+desperate as that of Aspern. The French cuirassiers made
+repeated charges on the flank of Rosenberg&rsquo;s force, and for long
+delayed the assault, and in the villages Lannes with a single
+division made a heroic and successful resistance, till night ended
+the battle. The two armies bivouacked on their ground, and in
+Aspern the French and Austrians lay within pistol shot of each
+other. The latter had fought fully as hard as their opponents,
+and Napoleon realized that they were no longer the professional
+soldiers of former campaigns. The spirit of the nation was in
+them and they fought to kill, not for the honour of their arms.
+The emperor was not discouraged, but on the contrary renewed
+his efforts to bring up every available man. All through the
+night more and more French troops were put across.</p>
+
+<p>At the earliest dawn of the 22nd the battle was resumed.
+Masséna swiftly cleared Aspern of the enemy, but at the same
+time Rosenberg stormed Essling at last. Lannes, however,
+resisted desperately, and reinforced by St Hilaire&rsquo;s division,
+drove Rosenberg out. In Aspern Masséna had been less fortunate,
+the counter-attack of Hiller and Bellegarde being as
+completely successful as that of Lannes and St Hilaire. Meantime
+Napoleon had launched a great attack on the Austrian
+centre. The whole of the French centre, with Lannes on the
+right and the cavalry in reserve, moved forward. The Austrian
+line was broken through, between Rosenberg&rsquo;s right and Hohenzollern&rsquo;s
+left, and the French squadrons poured into the gap.
+Victory was almost won when the archduke brought up his last
+reserve, himself leading on his soldiers with a colour in his hand.
+Lannes was checked, and with his repulse the impetus of the
+attack died out all along the line. Aspern had been lost, and
+graver news reached Napoleon at the critical moment. The
+Danube bridges, which had broken down once already, had at
+last been cut by heavy barges, which had been set adrift down
+stream for the purpose by the Austrians. Napoleon at once
+suspended the attack. Essling now fell to another assault of
+Rosenberg, and though again the French, this time part of the
+Guard, drove him out, the Austrian general then directed his
+efforts on the flank of the French centre, slowly retiring on the
+bridges. The retirement was terribly costly, and but for the
+steadiness of Lannes the French must have been driven into the
+Danube, for the archduke&rsquo;s last effort to break down their
+resistance was made with the utmost fury. Only the complete
+exhaustion of both sides put an end to the fighting. The French
+lost 44,000 out of 90,000 successively engaged, and amongst the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span>
+killed were Lannes and St Hilaire. The Austrians, 75,000 strong,
+lost 23,360. Even this, the first great defeat of Napoleon, did
+not shake his resolution. The beaten forces were at last withdrawn
+safely into the island. On the night of the 22nd the
+great bridge was repaired, and the army awaited the arrival of
+reinforcements, not in Vienna, but in Lobau.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See sketch map in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wagram</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPHALT,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Asphaltum</span>. The solid or semi-solid kinds of
+bitumen (<i>q.v.</i>) were termed <span class="grk" title="asphaltos">&#7940;&#963;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> by the Greeks; and by
+some ancient classical writers the name of <i>pissasphaltum</i> (<span class="grk" title="pissa">&#960;&#943;&#963;&#963;&#945;</span>,
+pitch) was also sometimes employed. The asphalt of the Dead
+Sea (known as <i>Lacus Asphaltites</i>) received considerable notice
+from early travellers, and Diodorus the historian states that the
+inhabitants of the surrounding parts were accustomed to collect
+it for use in Egypt for embalming. In common with other forms
+of bitumen, asphalt is very widely distributed geographically
+and occurs in greater or less quantity in rocks of all ages. There
+is some divergence in the views expressed as to the precise
+manner of its production, but it may certainly be said that the
+principal asphalt deposits are merely the result of the evaporation
+and oxidation of liquid petroleum which has escaped from
+outcropping strata. The celebrated Pitch Lake of Trinidad
+was long regarded as the largest deposit of asphalt in existence,
+but it is said to be exceeded in area, if not in depth also, by one
+in Venezuela. The Trinidad &ldquo;Lake&rdquo; has an area of 99.3 acres,
+and is sufficiently firm in places to support a team of horses. The
+deposit is worked with picks to a depth of a foot or two, and the
+excavations soon become filled up by the plastic material flowing
+in from below and hardening. The depth of the deposit is not
+accurately known. The surface is not level but is composed of
+irregularly tumescent masses of various sizes, each said to be
+subject to independent motion, whereby the interior of each
+rises and flows centrifugally towards the edges. As the spaces
+between them are always filled with water, these masses are
+prevented from coalescing. The softer parts of the lake constantly
+evolve gas, which is stated to consist largely of carbon dioxide
+and sulphuretted hydrogen, and the pitch, which is honeycombed
+with gas-cavities, continues to exhibit this action for
+some time after its removal from the lake. The working of the
+deposit is in the hands of the New Trinidad Asphalt Company,
+who hold the concession up to the year 1930 on payment to the
+government of a minimum royalty of Ł10,000 a year. A circular
+line of tramway, supported on palm-leaves, has been laid on
+the lake to facilitate the removal of the asphalt. Very large
+quantities are exported for paving and other purposes, the annual
+shipments amounting to about 130,000 tons from the lake and
+about 30,000 tons from other properties. The amount of asphalt
+in the lake has been estimated at 158,400 tons for each foot of
+depth, and if the average depth be taken at 20 ft. this would give
+a total of 3,168,000 tons; but in 1908, though 1,885,600 tons
+had been removed in the previous thirty-five years, there was
+but little evidence of reduction in the quantity. The Venezuelan
+deposit already referred to is in the state of Bermudez, and the
+area of it is reported to be more than 1000 acres. The asphalt
+of Cuba is a well-known article of commerce, of which 7252 tons
+was exported to the United States in 1902. The principal
+deposits are near the harbour of Cardenas (70 ft. thick), in the
+Pinar del Rio, near Havana (18 ft. thick), at Canas Tomasita
+(105 ft. thick); and a specially pure variety near Vuelta.</p>
+
+<p>The comparative composition of Trinidad and Cuba asphalt
+is given in the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Refined<br />Trinidad,<br />Melting<br />point<br />185° F.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Refined<br />Cuba (soft),<br />Melting<br />point<br />115° F.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Refined<br />Cuba (hard),<br />Melting<br />point<br />160° F.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Water.</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Volatile bitumen.</td> <td class="tcr rb">51.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphur.</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.35</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ash (earthy matter).</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.30</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.51</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fixed carbon.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.03</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chemical composition of Trinidad asphalt has been given as:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">C.</td> <td class="tcc allb">H.</td> <td class="tcc allb">N.</td> <td class="tcc allb">O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">S.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">80.32</td> <td class="tcc allb">6.30</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.50</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.40</td> <td class="tcc allb">11.48</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The following is a comparison of Trinidad and Venezuela
+(Bermudez) asphalt:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm">Refined<br />Trinidad.</td> <td class="tccm">Refined<br />Bermudez.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Specific gravity at 60° F.</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.373</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.071</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide</td> <td class="tcr">61.507%</td> <td class="tcr">92.22%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Mineral matter (ash)</td> <td class="tcr cl">34.51%</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.50%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Non-bituminous organic matter</td> <td class="tcr">3.983%</td> <td class="tcr">1.28%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Portion of total bitumen soluble in alcohol</td> <td class="tcr cl">8.24%</td> <td class="tcr cl">11.66%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Portion of total bitumen soluble in ether</td> <td class="tcr">80.01%</td> <td class="tcr">81.63%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Loss at 212° F.</td> <td class="tcr cl">0.65%</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.37%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Loss at 400° F. in ten hours</td> <td class="tcr">7.98%</td> <td class="tcr">17.80%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Loss at 400° on total bitumen</td> <td class="tcr cl">12.811%</td> <td class="tcr cl">18.308%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen at</td> <td class="tcr">410° F.</td> <td class="tcr">none at 437° F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Softening-point</td> <td class="tcr cl">160° F.</td> <td class="tcr cl">none at 113° F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Flowing-point</td> <td class="tcr">192° F.</td> <td class="tcr">none at 150° F.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Asphalt in its purest forms is generally black or blackish
+brown in colour, and is frequently brittle at ordinary
+temperatures.  Apart from its principal use in the manufacture of
+paving materials, it is largely employed in building as a
+&ldquo;damp-course&rdquo; and as a water-excluding coating for concrete floors,
+as well as in the manufacture of roofing-felt. It also enters
+largely into the composition of black varnish. The material
+chiefly used in the construction of asphalt roadways is an
+asphaltic or bituminous limestone found in the Val de Travers,
+canton of Neuchâtel; in the neighbourhood of Seyssel, department
+of Ain; at Limmer, near the city of Hanover; and elsewhere.
+The proportion of bitumen present in asphalt rock
+usually ranges from 7 to 20%, but it is found that rock containing
+more than 11% cannot be satisfactorily used for street pavements,
+and it is accordingly customary to mix the richer and
+poorer varieties in fine powder in such respective quantities
+that the proportion of bitumen present is from 9 to 10%. The
+richer rock is utilized as a source of asphalt &ldquo;mastic,&rdquo; which is
+employed for footpaths, floors, roofs, &amp;c. Excellent foundations
+for steam-hammers, dynamos and high-speed engines are made
+of asphaltic concrete.</p>
+<div class="author">(B. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPHODEL<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (<i>Asphodelus</i>), a genus of the lily order (Liliaceae),
+containing seven species in the Mediterranean region. The
+plants are hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted
+radical leaves and an elongated stem bearing a handsome spike
+of white or yellow flowers. <i>Asphodelus albus</i> and <i>A. fistulosus</i>
+have white flowers and grow from 1˝ to 2 ft. high; <i>A. ramosus</i> is
+a larger plant, the large white flowers of which have a
+reddish-brown line in the middle of each segment. Bog-asphodel
+(<i>Narthecium ossifragum</i>), a member of the same family, is a small
+herb common in boggy places in Britain, with rigid narrow radical
+leaves and a stem bearing a raceme of small golden yellow flowers.</p>
+
+<p>In Greek legend the asphodel is the most famous of the plants
+connected with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes
+it as covering the great meadow (<span class="grk" title="asphodelos leimon">&#7936;&#963;&#966;&#972;&#948;&#949;&#955;&#959;&#962; &#955;&#949;&#953;&#956;&#974;&#957;</span>), the haunt of
+the dead (<i>Od.</i> xi. 539, 573; xxiv. 13). It was planted on graves,
+and is often connected with Persephone, who appears crowned
+with a garland of asphodels. Its general connexion with death
+is due no doubt to the greyish colour of its leaves and its yellowish
+flowers, which suggest the gloom of the underworld and the pallor
+of death. The roots were eaten by the poorer Greeks; hence
+such food was thought good enough for the shades (cf. Hesiod,
+<i>Works and Days</i>, 41; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxi. 17 [68]; Lucian,
+<i>De luctu</i>, 19). The asphodel was also supposed to be a remedy for
+poisonous snake-bites and a specific against sorcery; it was fatal
+to mice, but preserved pigs from disease. The Libyan nomads
+made their huts of asphodel stalks (cf. Herod. iv. 190).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span></p>
+
+<p>No satisfactory derivation of the word is suggested. The
+English word &ldquo;daffodil&rdquo; is a perversion of &ldquo;asphodel,&rdquo; formerly
+written &ldquo;affodil.&rdquo; The <i>d</i> may come from the French <i>fleur
+d&rsquo;affodille</i>. It is no part of the word philologically.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, s.v.; H.O. Lenz, <i>Botanik
+der alten Griechen und Römer</i> (1859); J. Murr, <i>Die Pflanzenwelt in
+der griechischen Mythologie</i> (1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPHYXIA<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span> priv., <span class="grk" title="sphaexis">&#963;&#966;&#973;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span>, a pulse), a term in medicine,
+literally signifying loss of pulsation, which is applied to describe
+the arrestment of the function of respiration from some hindrance
+to the entrance of air into the lungs. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Respiratory System</a></span>:
+<i>Pathology</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPIC<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (French, from Lat. <i>aspis</i>), an asp or viper found in
+Egypt whose bite is supposed to cause a swift and easy death,
+hence poetically a term for any venomous snake. From association,
+perhaps, with the coldness of the aspic (as in the French
+proverb, <i>froid comme un aspic</i>), the word is used for a savoury
+jelly containing meat, fish or eggs, &amp;c. It is also the botanical
+name of the <i>Lavandula spica</i>, or spikenard, from which a white,
+aromatic and highly inflammable oil is distilled, called <i>huile d&rsquo;aspic</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPIDISTRA,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> a small genus of the lily order (Liliaceae),
+native of the Himalayas, China and Japan. <i>Aspidistra lurida</i> is
+a favourite pot-plant, bearing large green or white-striped leaves
+on an underground stem, and small dark purplish, cup-shaped
+flowers close to the ground.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPIROTRICHACEAE<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (O. Bütschli), an order of Ciliate
+Infusoria, characterized by an investment, general or partial,
+of nearly uniform cilia, without any distinct adoral wreath, and
+one or two adoral endoral undulating membranes. With the
+Gymnostomaceae it formed the Holotricha of Stein.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1836-1905), Mexican statesman and
+diplomatist, was born at Puebla, and educated at the university
+of Mexico, where he took his degree in 1855. He took part in the
+war against the emperor Maximilian, and in 1867, on the
+establishment of the republic, was appointed assistant secretary
+of state for foreign affairs. In 1873 he became Mexican consul at
+San Francisco, where he remained till his election to the Senate
+in 1875. He was professor of jurisprudence at the college of
+Puebla from 1883 to 1890, when he was again appointed assistant
+secretary of foreign affairs. From 1899 till he died in 1905 he
+was Mexican ambassador to the United States. Among his
+writings may be mentioned; <i>Código de extranjeria de los Estados-Unidos
+Mexicanos</i> (1876), and <i>La liberdad civil como base del
+derecho internacional privado</i> (1896).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASPROMONTE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a mountain of Calabria, Italy, rising behind
+Reggio di Calabria, the west extremity of the Sila range. The
+highest point is 6420 ft. and the slopes are clad with forest.
+Here Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner by the Italian
+troops under Pallavicini in 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), English statesman,
+son of Joseph Dixon Asquith, was born at Morley, Yorkshire,
+on the 12th of September 1852. He came of a middle-class
+Yorkshire family of pronounced Liberal and Nonconformist
+views, and was educated under Dr Edwin Abbott at the City of
+London school, from which he went as a scholar to Balliol,
+Oxford; there he had a distinguished career, taking a first-class
+in classics, winning the Craven scholarship and being elected a
+fellow of his college. He was president of the Union, and impressed
+all his contemporaries with his intellectual ability, Dr
+Jowett himself confidently predicting his signal success in any
+career he adopted. On leaving Oxford he went to the bar, and
+as early as 1890 became a K.C. In 1887 he unsuccessfully
+defended Mr R.B. Cunninghame Graham and Mr John Burns
+for their share in the riot in Trafalgar Square; and in 1889 he
+was junior to Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Russell as counsel
+for the Irish Nationalists before the Parnell Commission&mdash;an
+association afterwards bitterly commented upon by Mr T. Healy
+in the House of Commons (March 30, 1908). But though he
+attained a fair practice at the bar, and was recognized as a lawyer
+of unusual mental distinction and clarity, his forensic success
+was not nearly so conspicuous as that of some of his contemporaries.
+His ambitions lay rather in the direction of the
+House of Commons. He had taken a prominent part in politics
+as a Liberal since his university days, especially in work for the
+Eighty Club, and in 1886 was elected member of parliament
+for East Fife, a seat which he retained in subsequent elections.
+Mr Gladstone was attracted by his vigorous ability as a speaker,
+and his evidence of sound political judgment; and in August
+1892, though comparatively unknown to the general public, he
+was selected to move the vote of want of confidence which
+overthrew Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s government, and was made home
+secretary in the new Liberal ministry. At the Home Office he
+proved his capacity as an administrator; he was the first to
+appoint women as factory inspectors, and he was responsible for
+opening Trafalgar Square to Labour demonstrations; but he
+firmly refused to sanction the proposed amnesty for the dynamiters,
+and he was violently abused by extremists on account of
+the shooting of two men by the military at the strike riot at
+Featherstone in August 1893. It was he who coined the phrase
+(Birmingham, 1894) as to the government&rsquo;s &ldquo;ploughing the
+sands&rdquo; in their endeavour to pass Liberal legislation with a
+hostile House of Lords. His Employers&rsquo; Liability Bill 1893
+was lost because the government refused to accept the
+Lords&rsquo; amendment as to &ldquo;contracting-out.&rdquo; His suspensory
+bill, with a view to the disestablishment of the church in
+Wales, was abortive (1895), but it served to recommend
+him to the Welsh Nationalists as well as to the disestablishment
+party in England and Scotland. During his three years
+of office he more than confirmed the high opinion formed of
+his abilities.</p>
+
+<p>The Liberal defeat in 1895 left him out of office for eleven
+years. He had married Miss Helen Melland in 1877, and was
+left with a family when she died in 1891; in 1894, however, he
+had married again, his second wife being the accomplished Miss
+Margaret (&ldquo;Margot&rdquo;) Tennant, daughter of the wealthy ironmaster,
+Sir Charles Tennant, Bart., a lady well known in London
+society as a member of the coterie known as &ldquo;Souls,&rdquo; and
+commonly identified as the original of Mr E.F. Benson&rsquo;s <i>Dodo</i>
+(1893). On leaving the Home Office in 1895, Mr Asquith decided
+to return to his work at the bar, a course which excited much
+comment, since it was unprecedented that a minister who had
+exercised judicial functions in that capacity should take up again
+the position of an advocate; but it was obvious that to maintain
+the tradition was difficult in the case of a man who had no
+sufficient independent means. During the years of Unionist
+ascendancy Mr Asquith divided his energies between his legal
+work and politics; but his adhesion to Lord Rosebery (<i>q.v.</i>)
+as a Liberal Imperialist at the time of the Boer War, while it
+strengthened his position in the eyes of the public, put him in
+some difficulty with his own party, led as it was by Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman (<i>q.v.</i>), who was identified with the &ldquo;pro-Boer&rdquo;
+policy. He was one of the founders of the Liberal League,
+and his courageous definiteness of view and intellectual vigour
+marked him out as Lord Rosebery&rsquo;s chief lieutenant if that
+statesman should ever return to power. He thus became identified
+with the Roseberyite attitude towards Irish Home Rule;
+and, while he continued to uphold the Gladstonian policy in
+theory, in practice the Irish Nationalists felt that very little
+could be expected from his advocacy. In spite of his Imperialist
+views, however, he did much to smooth over the party difficulties,
+and when the tariff-reform movement began in 1903, he seized
+the opportunity for rallying the Liberals to the banner of
+free-trade and championing the &ldquo;orthodox&rdquo; English political
+economy, on which indeed he had been a lecturer in his younger
+days. During the critical years of Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s crusade
+(1903-1906) he made himself the chief spokesman of the Liberal
+party, delivering a series of speeches in answer to those of the
+tariff-reform leader; and his persistent following and answering
+of Mr Chamberlain had undoubted effect. He also made useful
+party capital out of the necessity for financial retrenchment,
+owing to the large increase in public expenditure, maintained by
+the Unionist government even after the Boer War was over;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
+and his mastery of statistical detail and argument made his
+appointment as chancellor of the exchequer part of the natural
+order of things when in December 1905 Mr Balfour resigned and
+Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (<i>q.v.</i>) became prime minister.</p>
+
+<p>During Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s premiership, Mr
+Asquith gradually rose in political importance, and in 1907 the
+prime minister&rsquo;s ill-health resulted in much of the leadership in
+the Commons devolving on the chancellor of the exchequer.
+At first the party as a whole had regarded him somewhat coldly.
+And his unbending common-sense, and sobriety of criticism in
+matters which deeply interested the less academic Radicals who
+were enthusiasts for extreme courses, would have made the
+parliamentary situation difficult but for the exceptional
+popularity of the prime minister. In the autumn of 1907, however,
+as the latter&rsquo;s retention of office became more and more improbable,
+it became evident that no other possible successor had equal
+qualifications. The session of 1908 opened with Mr Asquith
+acting avowedly as the prime minister&rsquo;s deputy, and the course
+of business was itself of a nature to emphasize his claims. After
+two rather humdrum budgets he was pledged to inaugurate a
+system of old-age pensions (forming the chief feature of the
+budget of 1908, personally introduced by him at the beginning of
+May), and his speech in April on the Licensing Bill was a triumph
+of clear exposition, though later in the year, after passing the
+Commons, it was thrown out by the Lords. On the 5th of April
+it was announced that Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman had resigned
+and Mr Asquith been sent for by the king. As the latter
+was staying at Biarritz, the unprecedented course was followed
+of Mr Asquith journeying there for the purpose, and on the 8th
+he resigned the chancellorship of the exchequer and kissed hands
+as prime minister. The names of the new cabinet were announced
+on the 13th. The new appointments were: Lord Tweedmouth
+as lord president of the council (instead of the admiralty);
+Lord Crewe as colonial secretary (instead of lord president of
+the council); Mr D. Lloyd George, chancellor of the exchequer
+(transferred from the Board of Trade); Mr R. McKenna, first
+lord of the admiralty (instead of minister of education); Mr
+Winston Churchill, president of the Board of Trade; and Mr
+Walter Runciman, minister of education. Lord Elgin ceased
+to be colonial secretary, but Lord Loreburn (lord chancellor),
+Lord Ripon (lord privy seal), Mr H. Gladstone (Home Office),
+Sir E. Grey (foreign affairs), Mr Haldane (War Office), Mr
+Sinclair (secretary for Scotland; created in 1909 Lord Pentland),
+Mr Burns (Local Government Board), Lord Carrington (Board
+of Agriculture), Mr Birrell (Irish secretary), Mr S. Buxton
+(postmaster-general), Mr L. Harcourt (commissioner of works),
+Mr John Morley (India) and Sir Henry Fowler (duchy of Lancaster)
+retained their offices, the two latter being created peers.
+The Budget (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lloyd George</a></span>) was the sole feature of political
+interest in 1909, and its rejection in December by the Lords led
+to the general election of January 1910, which left the Liberals
+and Unionists practically equal, with the Labour and Irish
+parties dominating the situation (L. 275, U. 273, Lab. 40, I. 82).
+Mr Asquith was in a difficult position, but the ministry remained
+in office; and he had developed a concentration
+of forces with a view to attacking the veto of the House of
+Lords (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parliament</a></span>), when the death of the king in May
+caused a suspension of hostilities. A conference between the
+leaders on both sides was arranged, to discuss whether any
+compromise was possible, and controversy was postponed to
+an autumn session.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASS<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (O.E. <i>assa</i>; Lat. <i>asinus</i>), a common name (the synonym
+&ldquo;donkey&rdquo; is supposed to be derived either by analogy
+from &ldquo;monkey,&rdquo; or from the Christian name Duncan; cf.
+Neddy, Jack, Dicky, &amp;c.) for different varieties of the sub-genus
+<i>Asinus</i>, belonging to the horse tribe, and especially for the
+domestic ass; it differs from the horse in its smaller size, long
+ears, the character of its tail, fur and markings, and its proverbial
+dulness and obstinacy. The ancient Egyptians symbolized an
+ignorant person by the head and ears of an ass, and the Romans
+thought it a bad omen to meet one. In the middle ages the
+Germans of Westphalia made the ass the symbol of St Thomas,
+the incredulous apostle; the boy who was last to enter school
+on St Thomas&rsquo; day was called the &ldquo;Ass Thomas&rdquo; (Gubernatis&rsquo;s
+<i>Zoological Mythology</i>, i. 362). The foolishness and obstinacy
+of the ass has caused the name to be transferred metaphorically
+to human beings; and the fifth proposition of Book i. of Euclid
+is known as the <i>Pons Asinorum</i>, bridge of asses.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASS, FEAST OF THE,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> formerly a festival in northern France,
+primarily in commemoration of the biblical flight into Egypt,
+and usually held on the 14th of January. A girl with a baby at
+her breast and seated on an ass splendidly caparisoned was led
+through the town to the church, and there placed at the gospel
+side of the altar while mass was said. The ceremony degenerated
+into a burlesque in which the ass of the flight became confused
+with Balaam&rsquo;s ass. So scandalous became the popular revels
+associated with it, that the celebration was prohibited by the
+church in the 15th century. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fools, Feast of</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSAB,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a bay and port on the African shore of the Red Sea,
+60 m. N. of the strait of Bab-el Mandeb. Assab Bay was the
+first territory acquired by Italy in Africa. Bought from the
+sultan of Raheita in 1870, it was not occupied until 1880.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eritrea</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSAM,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a former province of British India, which was
+amalgamated in 1905 with &ldquo;Eastern Bengal and Assam&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Area 56,243 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 6,126,343. The province of
+Assam lies on the N.E. border of Bengal, on the extreme
+frontier of the Indian empire, with Bhutan and Tibet beyond
+it on the N., and Burma and Manipur on the E. It comprises
+the valleys of the Brahmaputra and Surma rivers, together
+with the mountainous watershed which intervenes between them.
+It is situated between 24° 0&prime; and 28° 17&prime; N. lat., and between
+89° 46&prime; and 97° 5&prime; E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the
+eastern section of the great Himalayan range, the frontier
+tribes from west to east being successively Bhutias, Akas,
+Daphlas, Miris, Abors and Mishmis; on the N.E. by the
+Mishmi hills, which sweep round the head of the Brahmaputra
+valley; on the E. by the unexplored mountains that mark
+the frontier of Burma, by the hills occupied by the independent
+Naga tribes and by the state of Manipur; on the S. by the
+Lushai hills, the state of Hill Tippera, and the Bengal district
+of Tippera; and on the W. by the Bengal districts of Mymensingh
+and Rangpur, the state of Kuch Behar and Jalpaiguri
+district.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Divisions.</i>&mdash;Assam is naturally divided into three
+distinct tracts, the Brahmaputra valley, the Surma valley and
+the hill ranges between the two. The Brahmaputra valley is
+an alluvial plain, about 450 m. in length, with an average
+breadth of 50 m., lying almost east and west. To the north is
+the main chain of the Himalayas, the lower ranges of which rise
+abruptly from the plain; to the south is the great elevated
+plateau or succession of plateaus known as the Assam range.
+The various portions of this range are called by the names of the
+tribes who inhabit them&mdash;the Garo, the Khasi, the Jaintia, the
+North Cachar and the Naga hills. The range as a whole is
+joined at its eastern extremity by the Patkai to the Himalayan
+system, and by the mountains of Manipur to the Arakan Yoma.
+The highest points in the range are Nokrek peak (4600 ft.) in
+the Garo hills, Shillong peak (6450 ft.) in the Khasi-Jaintia hills,
+and Japva peak (nearly 10,000 ft.) in the Naga hills. South of the
+range comes the third division of the province, the Surma
+valley, comprising the two districts of Cachar and Sylhet. The
+Surma valley is much smaller than the Brahmaputra valley,
+covering only 7506 against 24,283 sq. m.; its mean elevation
+is much lower and its rivers are more sluggish.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Aspects.</i>&mdash;Assam is a fertile series of valleys, with the
+great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the <i>Son of Brahma</i>)
+flowing down its middle, and an infinite number of tributaries and
+watercourses pouring into it from the mountains on either side.
+The Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad
+during the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a
+number of islands in its bed. Rising in the Tibetan plateau, far to
+the north of the Himalayas, and skirting round their eastern passes
+not far from the Yang-tsze-kiang and the great river of Cambodia, it
+enters Assam by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders
+and accumulations of rocks. The gorge, situated in Lakhimpur
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span>
+district, through which the southernmost branch of the Brahmaputra
+enters, has from time immemorial been held in reverence by
+the Hindus. It is called the Brahmakunda or Parasuramkunda;
+and although the journey to it is both difficult and dangerous, it is
+annually visited by thousands of devotees. After a rapid course
+westwards down the whole length of the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra
+turns sharply to the south, spreading itself over the alluvial
+districts of the Bengal delta, and, after several changes of name,
+ends its course of 1800 m. in the Bay of Bengal. Its first tributaries
+in Assam, after crossing the frontier, are the Kundil and the Digaru,
+flowing from the Mishmi hills on the north, and the Tengapani and
+Dihing, which take their rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east.
+Shortly afterwards it receives the Dihang, flowing from the north-east;
+but its principal confluent is the Dihong, which, deriving its
+origin, under the name of the Tsangpo, from a spot in the vicinity of
+the source of the Sutlej, flows in a direction precisely opposite to that
+river, and traversing the table-land of Tibet, at the back of the great
+Himalaya range, falls into the Brahmaputra in 27° 48&prime; N. lat.,
+95° 26&prime; E. long., after a course of nearly 1000 m. Doubts were long
+entertained whether the Dihong could be justly regarded as the
+continuation of the Tsangpo, but these were practically set at rest
+by the voyage of F.J. Needham in 1886. Below the confluence, the
+united stream flows in a south-westerly direction, forming the
+boundary between the districts of Lakhimpur and Darrang, situated
+on its northern bank, and those of Sibsagar and Nowgong on the
+south; and finally bisecting Kamrup, it crosses over the frontier
+of the province and passes into Bengal. In its course it receives
+on the left side the Dihing, a river having its rise at the south-eastern
+angle of the province; and lower down, on the opposite side, it parts
+with a considerable offset termed the Buri Lohir, which, however,
+reunites with the Brahmaputra 60 m. below the point of divergence,
+bearing with it the additional waters of the Subansiri, flowing from
+Tibet. A second offset, under the name of the Kalang river, rejoins
+the parent stream a short distance above the town of Gauhati.
+The remaining rivers are too numerous to be particularized. The
+streams of the south are not rapid, and have no considerable current
+until May or June. Among the islands formed by the intersection
+and confluence of the rivers is Majuli, or the Great Island, as it is
+called by way of pre-eminence. This island extends 55 m. in length
+by about 10 in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra on the
+south-east and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west. In the upper
+part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra enters,
+the country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north and
+east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the base to the
+snow-line. On either bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow strip
+of plain rises almost imperceptibly to the foot of the hills. Gigantic
+reeds and grasses occupy the low lands near the banks of the great
+river; expanses of fertile rice-land come next; a little higher up,
+dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and fruit trees
+of great size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the
+interior table-land and mountains. The country in the vicinity of
+the large rivers is flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled jungle,
+with the exception of some very low-lying tracts which are either
+permanent marshes or are covered with water during the rains.
+Jungle will not grow on these depressions, and they are covered
+either with water, reeds, high grasses or rice cultivation. On or
+near such open spaces are collected all the villages. As the traveller
+proceeds farther down the valley, the country gradually opens out
+into wide plains. In the western district of Kamrup the country
+forms one great expanse, with a few elevated tracts here and there,
+varying from 200 to 800 ft. in height.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soils</i>.&mdash;The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kinds
+of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich
+black loam reposing on a grey sandy clay, though occasionally it
+exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into
+three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the largest
+group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains, which
+stand out upon the plain. Another set of hills project into the valley
+at Gauhati. But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs from
+the Khasi chain than isolated groups belonging to the plains. The
+other hills are all isolated and of small extent. The second division
+of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies above
+the ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra. The channels of
+some of the hill streams, however, are of so little depth that the
+highest lands in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods. On
+the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the
+whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the
+beds of the hill streams. The breadth of these plains is in some
+places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a tract of many
+miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills
+that protect them from the aberrations of the river. The alluvial
+deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be
+considered as the third general division of lands in Assam. These
+lands are very extensive, and present every degree of fertility and
+elevation, from the vast <i>chars</i> of pure sand, subject to annual inundations,
+to the firm islands, so raised by drift-sand and the accumulated
+remains of rank vegetable matter, as no longer to be liable
+to flood. The rapidity with which wastes, composed entirely of sand
+newly washed forward by the current during floods, become converted
+into rich pasture is astonishing. As the freshets begin to lessen and
+retire into the deeper channels, the currents form natural embankments
+on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion of
+water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the
+action of the sun&rsquo;s rays. It slowly evaporates, leaving a thin crust
+of animal and vegetable matter. This is soon impregnated with the
+seeds of the <i>Saccharum spontaneum</i> and other grasses that have been
+partly brought by the winds and partly deposited by the water.
+Such places are frequented by numerous flocks of aquatic birds,
+which resort thither in search of fish and mollusca. As vegetation
+begins to appear, herds of wild elephants and buffaloes are attracted
+by the supply of food and the solitude of the newly-formed land, and
+in their turn contribute to manure the soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;Geographically the Assam hills lie in the angle between
+the Himalayas and the Burmese ranges, but geologically they
+belong to neither. The older rocks are like those of Bengal, and the
+newer beds show no sign of either the Himalayan or the Burmese
+folding&mdash;on the top of the plateau they are nearly horizontal, but
+along the southern margin they are bent sharply downwards in a
+simple monoclinal fold. The greater part of the mass is composed of
+gneiss and schists. The Sylhet traps near the southern margin are
+correlated with the Rajmahal traps of Bengal. The older rocks are
+overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous beds, consisting chiefly of
+sandstones with seams of coal, the whole series thinning rapidly
+towards the north and thus indicating the neighbourhood of the
+old shore-line. The fossils are very similar to those of the South
+Indian Cretaceous, but very different from those of the corresponding
+beds in the Nerbudda valley. The overlying Tertiary series includes
+nummulitic beds and valuable seams of coal.</p>
+
+<p>The border ranges of the east and south of Assam belong to
+the Burmese system of mountain chains (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burma</a></span>), and consist
+largely of Tertiary beds, including the great coal seams of Upper
+Assam. The Assam valley is covered by the alluvial deposits of the
+Brahmaputra.</p>
+
+<p>Of the mineral productions by far the most valuable is coal.
+Compared with the Gondwana coal of the peninsula of India the
+Tertiary coal seams of Assam are remarkable for their purity and
+their extraordinary thickness. The &ldquo;Thick Seam&rdquo; of Margherita,
+in Upper Assam, averages 50 ft., and in some places reaches as much
+as 80 ft. The average percentage of ash in 27 assays of Assam coal
+was 3.8 as against 16.3 in 17 assays of Raniganj coal. The coal
+seams are commonly associated with petroleum springs. Gold is
+found in the alluvial deposits, but the results of exploration have
+not been very promising.</p>
+
+<p><i>Earthquakes</i>.&mdash;Assam is liable to earthquakes. There was a severe
+earthquake in Cachar on the 10th of January 1869, a severe shock
+in Shillong and Gauhati in September 1875, and one in Silchar in
+October 1882; but by far the severest shock known is that which
+occurred on the evening of 12th June 1897. The area of this seismic
+disturbance extended over north-eastern India, from Manipur to
+Sikkim; but the focus was in the Khasi and Garo hills. In the
+station of Shillong every masonry building was levelled to the
+ground. Throughout the country bridges were shattered, roads
+were broken up like ploughed fields, and the beds of rivers were
+dislocated. In the hills there were terrible landslips, which wrecked
+the little Cherrapunji railway and caused 600 deaths. The total
+mortality recorded was 1542, including two Europeans at Shillong.
+The levels of the country were so affected that the towns of Goalpara
+and Barpeta became almost uninhabitable during the rains.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The zoology of Assam presents some interesting features.
+Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering
+villages in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to their
+tastes. Many are caught by means of female elephants previously
+tamed, and trained to decoy males into the snares prepared for
+subjecting them to captivity. A considerable number are tamed
+and exported from Assam every year. Many are killed every year
+in the forests for the sake of the ivory which they furnish. The
+government <i>keddah</i> establishment from Dacca captures large numbers
+of elephants in the province, and the right of hunting is also sold
+by auction to private bidders. The annual catch of the latter
+averages about two hundred. The rhinoceros is found in the denser
+parts of the forests and generally in swampy places. This animal
+is hunted and killed for its skin and its horn. The skin affords
+the material for the best shields. The horn is sacred in the eyes of
+the natives. Contrary to the usual belief, it is stated that, if caught young, the rhinoceros is easily tamed and becomes strongly attached
+to his keeper. Tigers abound, and though many are annually destroyed
+for the sake of the government reward, their numbers seem
+scarcely, if at all, to diminish. Leopards and bears are numerous;
+and the sand-badger, the <i>Arctonyx collaris</i> of Cuvier, a small animal
+somewhat resembling a bear, but having the snout, eyes and tail
+of a hog, is found. Among the most formidable animals known
+is the wild buffalo or <i>gaur</i> which is of great size, strength and
+fierceness. The fox and the jackal exist, and the wild hog is very
+abundant. Goats, deer of various kinds, hares, and two or three
+species of antelope are found, as are monkeys in great variety.
+The porcupine, the squirrel, the civet cat, the ichneumon and the
+otter are common. The birds are too various to admit of enumeration.
+Wild game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, snipe and
+water-fowl of many descriptions make the country a tempting field
+for the sportsman. Vultures and other birds of prey are met with.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
+Crocodiles (commonly called alligators) swarm in all parts of the
+Brahmaputra, and are very destructive to the fish, of which hundreds
+of varieties are found, and which supply a valuable article of food.
+The most destructive of the <i>ferae naturae</i>, as regards human
+life, are, however, the snakes. Of these, several poisonous species
+exist, including the cobra and karait (<i>Naja tripudians</i> and <i>Bungarus
+caeruleus</i>). The bite of a fairly-grown healthy serpent of
+either of these species is deadly; and it is ascertained that more
+deaths occur from snake-bite than from all the other wild beasts put
+together. Among the non-poisonous serpents the python ranks
+first. This is an enormous boa-constrictor of great length and
+weight, which drops upon his prey from the branch of a tree, or steals
+upon it in the thick grass. He kills his victim by rolling himself
+round the body till he breaks its ribs, or suffocates it by one irresistible
+convolution round its throat. He seldom or never attacks
+human beings unless in self-defence, and loss of life from this cause
+is scarcely ever reported.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture</i>.&mdash;The principal and almost the only food-grain of
+the plains portion of the province is rice. The production of this
+staple is carried on generally under the same conditions as in
+Bengal; but the times of sowing and reaping and the names given
+to the several crops vary much in different parts of the province.
+In 1901-1902 out of a total cultivated area of 1,736,000 acres, there
+were 1,194,000 acres under rice. In addition jute is grown to a
+considerable extent in Goalpara and Sylhet; cotton is grown in
+large quantities along the slopes of the Assam range. Rubber is
+grown in government plantations and is also brought in by the hill
+tribes; while lac, mustard and potatoes are also produced.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tea Plantations</i>.&mdash;The most important article of commerce produced
+in Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great proportion
+of the cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption, and the
+Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own consumption,
+large quantities being imported for the coolies. The tea
+plantations are the one great source of wealth to the province, and
+the necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the
+development of Assam. The plant was discovered in 1823 by
+Mr Robert Bruce, who had proceeded thither on a mercantile
+exploration. The country, however, then formed part of the
+Burmese dominions. But war with this monarchy shortly afterwards
+broke out, and a brother of the first discoverer, happening to
+be appointed to the command of a division of gunboats employed
+in some part of the operations, followed up the pursuit of the subject,
+and obtained several hundred plants and a considerable quantity
+of seed. Some specimens were ultimately forwarded to the superintendent
+of the botanic garden at Calcutta. In 1832 Captain F.
+Jenkins was deputed by the governor-general of India, Lord William
+Bentinck, to report upon the resources of the country, and the tea
+plant was brought to his especial notice by Mr Bruce; in 1834 a
+minute was recorded by the governor-general on the subject, in
+which it is stated that his attention had been called to it in 1827
+before his departure from England. In accordance with the views
+of that minute, a committee was appointed to prosecute inquiries,
+and to promote the cultivation of the plant. Communications were
+opened with China with a view to obtain fresh plants and seeds, and
+a deputation, composed of gentlemen versed in botanical studies,
+was despatched to Assam. Some seeds were obtained from China;
+but they proved to be of small importance, as it was clearly ascertained
+by the members of the Assam deputation that both the black
+and the green tea plants were indigenous here, and might be multiplied
+to any extent; another result of the Chinese mission, that of
+procuring persons skilled in the cultivation and manufacture of black
+tea, was of more material benefit. Subsequently, under Lord
+Auckland, a further supply of Chinese cultivators and manufacturers
+was obtained&mdash;men well acquainted with the processes
+necessary for the production of green tea, as the former set were
+with those requisite for black. In 1838 the first twelve chests of tea
+from Assam were received in England. They had been injured in
+some degree on the passage, but on samples being submitted to
+brokers, and others of long experience and tried judgment, the
+reports were highly favourable. It was never, however, the intention
+of government to carry on the trade, but to resign it to
+private adventure as soon as the experimental course could be fairly
+completed. Mercantile associations for the culture and manufacture
+of tea in Assam began to be formed as early as 1839; and in 1849
+the government disposed of their establishment, and relinquished
+the manufacture to the ordinary operation of commercial enterprise.
+In 1851 the crop of the principal company was estimated to produce
+280,000 &#8468; Since then the enterprise has rapidly developed. Tea
+is now cultivated in all the plains district of the provinces. When
+the industry was first established, the land which was supposed
+to be best for the plant was hill or undulating ground; but now
+it has been found in the Surma valley that with good drainage the
+heaviest crops of tea can be raised from low-lying land, even such
+as formerly supported rice cultivation. At the close of the year
+1905 there were 942 gardens in all, with 422,335 acres, and employing
+464,912 coolies. The majority of gardens are owned by Europeans,
+405,486 acres belonging to them as against 16,849 to Indians.
+The total out-turn for the province in 1905 was 193,556,047 &#8468;
+Between 1893 and 1898 there was a great extension of tea cultivation,
+with the result that the industry began to suffer from the congestion
+that follows over-production. Also to meet the requirements of the
+industry, an enormous number of coolies had to be brought into the
+province from other parts of India, and in recent years the supply
+of labour has begun to fall off, causing a rise in the cost of production.
+For these reasons there was a crisis in the tea industry of
+Assam, which was relieved to some extent by the reduction of the
+English duty on tea in 1906.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tea-Garden Coolies</i>.&mdash;The labour required on the tea gardens
+is almost entirely imported, as the natives of the province are
+too prosperous to do such work. During the decade 1891-1901,
+596,856 coolies were imported, or about a tenth of the total population
+of the province. The importation of coolies is controlled
+by an elaborate system of legislation, which provides for the registration
+of contracts, the medical inspection of coolies during the
+journey, and supervision over rates of pay, &amp;c., on the gardens.
+The first labour act was passed in 1863, and since then the law on the
+subject has been changed by successive enactments. The measure
+now in force is called Act VI. of 1901. Under this act the maximum
+term of the labour contract is fixed at four years, and a minimum
+monthly wage is laid down, the payment of which, however, is contingent
+on the completion of a daily task by the labourer. Labourers
+under contract deserting are liable to fine and imprisonment, and,
+subject to certain restrictions, may be arrested without warrant
+by their employers. In addition to the labourers engaged under
+this act, a large number are employed under contract enforceable
+by Act XIII, of 1859, which provides penalties for breach of the
+contract, but does not allow of the arrest of deserters without
+warrant. Neither does this act regulate in any way the terms of
+the contract, nor contain any special provisions for the protection
+of the labourer. Many labourers on the conclusion of their first
+engagement under Act VI. of 1901 enter into renewed contracts
+under Act XIII. of 1859. In 1905 there were in all 664,296 labourers,
+and 24,209 fresh importations, of whom 62% chose the old act.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways</i>.&mdash;The Assam-Bengal railway runs from the seaport of
+Chittagong to the Surma valley, and thence across the hills to
+Dibrugarh, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch
+to Gauhati lower down the Brahmaputra. The hill section of this
+line was found exceedingly difficult of construction, and extensive
+damage was done by the earthquake of 1897; but it is now complete.
+This railway is financed by the government, though worked by a
+company, and therefore ranks as a state line. At the end of 1904
+its open mileage was 576 m. There are several short lines of light
+railway or tramway in the province. The most important is the
+Dibru-Sadiya railway, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with
+a branch to the coal-fields.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade</i>.-The external trade of Assam is conducted partly by
+steamer, partly by native boat, and to a small extent by rail. In
+the Brahmaputra valley steamers carry as much as 86% of the
+exports, and 94% of the imports. In the Surma valley native
+boats carry about 43% of both. In 1904-1905 the total exports
+were valued at 726 lakhs of rupees. The chief items were tea, rice
+in the husk, oil-seeds, tea-seed, timber, coal and jute. The imports
+were valued at 457 lakhs of rupees. The chief items were cotton
+piece-goods, rice not in the husk, sugar, grain and pulse, salt, iron
+and steel, tobacco, cotton twist and yarn, and brass and copper.
+No less than two-thirds of the total trade is conducted with Calcutta.
+The trans-frontier trade is insignificant; and most of it is conducted
+with the Bengal state of Hill Tippera. The trade through Chittagong
+is increasing owing to the opening of the hill-section of the
+Assam-Bengal railway, which gives direct communication between
+the districts of Upper Assam and the port of Chittagong, and the
+incorporation of that port in the new province of Eastern Bengal
+and Assam.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.&mdash;The total population of Assam, according to
+the census of 1901, was 6,126,343, of whom 3,429,099 were
+Hindus, 1,581,317 Mahommedans and 1,068,334 Animists.
+The number of foreigners in the population due to immigration
+by the tea-garden coolies was 775,844. But in spite of this
+immigration the rate of increase in the population was only
+5.9% in the decade, and with the immigrants deducted 1.36%.
+Amongst native-born Assamese during the decade there was a
+serious decrease in Nowgong and some other districts, due to
+<i>kalaazar</i> and other diseases. The Assamese are an interesting
+race, of distinct origin from the neighbouring Bengalis. A large
+proportion of them derive their origin from tribes who came
+from the Himalayan ranges, from Burma or from the Chinese
+frontier. The most important of these are the Ahoms or Ahams,
+an offshoot of the Shan race of northern Burma. They were the
+last conquerors of Assam before the Burmese, and they long
+preserved their ancient traditions, habits and institutions.
+Hinduism first made its encroachments among their kings and
+nobility. Several generations ago they gave up eating beef,
+and they are now completely Hinduized, except in a few remote
+recesses of Assam. Hinduism has also impressed its language
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span>
+upon the province, and the vernacular Assamese possesses a close
+affinity to Bengali, with the substitution of <i>s</i> for the Bengali <i>ch</i>,
+of a guttural <i>h</i> for the Bengali <i>h</i> or <i>sh</i>, and a few other dialectic
+changes. Indeed, so close was the resemblance that for a time
+Bengali was used as the court and official language of the province
+under British rule. But with the development of the country
+the Assamese tongue asserted its claims to be treated as a distinct
+vernacular, and a resolution of government (1873) re-established
+it as the language of official life and public business.</p>
+
+<p>The Assam peasant, living in a half-populated province, and
+surrounded by surplus land, is indolent, good-natured and, on
+the whole, prosperous. He raises sufficient food for his wants
+with very little labour, and, with the exception of a few religious
+ceremonies, he has no demand made upon him for money, saving
+the light rental of his fields. Under the peaceful influences of
+British rule, he has completely lost his ancient warlike instincts,
+and forgotten his predatory habits. In complexion he is a shade
+or two fairer than the Bengali. His person is in general short
+and robust, but devoid of the grace and flexibility of the Hindu.
+A flat face, with high cheek-bones, presents a physiognomy
+resembling the Chinese, and suggests no idea of beauty. His
+hair is abundant, black, lank and coarse, but the beard is scanty,
+and usually plucked out, which gives him an effeminate appearance.
+The women form a striking contrast to the men; there is
+more of feminine beauty in them than is commonly seen in the
+women of Bengal, with a form and feature somewhat approaching
+the European. The habits of life of the Assamese peasantry
+are pre-eminently domestic. Great respect is paid to old age;
+when parents are no longer capable of labour they are supported
+by their children, and scarcely any one is allowed to become a
+burden to the public. They have also in general a very tender
+regard for their offspring, and are generous and kind to their
+relations. They are hospitable to people of their own caste, but
+to no others. The use of opium is very general.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hill Tribes</i>.&mdash;The hill and frontier tribes of Assam include the
+Nagas, Singphos, Daphlas, Miris, Khamtis, Mishmis, Abors, &amp;c.,
+nearly all of whom, excepting the Nagas, are found near the frontiers
+of Lakhimpur district. The principal of these, in point of
+numbers, are the Nagas, who inhabit the hills and forests along
+the eastern and south-eastern frontier of Assam. They reside
+partly in the British district of the Naga hills and partly in
+independent territory under the political control of the deputy-commissioner
+of the adjoining districts. They cultivate rice,
+cotton, yams and Indian corn, and prepare salt from the brine
+springs in their hills. The different tribes of Nagas are independent
+of and unconnected with one another, and are often
+at war with each other. The Singphos are another of the main
+population of the same race, who occupy in force the hilly
+country between the Patkai and Chindwin rivers, and are nominally
+subject to Burma. The Akas, Daphlas, Miris, Abors,
+Mishmis and Khamtis are described under separate headings.
+Under regulation V. of 1873, an inner line has been laid down
+in certain districts, up to which the protection of British authority
+is guaranteed, and beyond which, except by special permission,
+it is not lawful for British subjects to go. This inner line has
+been laid down in Darrang towards the Bhutias, Akas and
+Daphlas; in Lakhimper towards the Daphlas, Miris, Abors,
+Mishmis, Khamtis, Singphos and Nagas; and in Sibsagar towards
+the Nagas. The inner line formerly maintained along the Lushai
+border has since 1895 been allowed to fall into desuetude, but
+Lushais visiting Cachar are required to take out passes from the
+superintendent of the Lushai hills. The line is marked at
+intervals by frontier posts held by military police and commanding
+the roads of access to the tract beyond; and any
+person from the plains who has received permission to cross the
+line has to present his pass at these posts.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;Assam was the province of Bengal which remained
+most stubbornly outside the limits of the Mogul empire and of
+the Mahommedan polity in India. Indeed, although frequently
+overrun by Mussulman armies, and its western districts annexed
+to the Mahommedan vice-royalty of Bengal, the province maintained
+an uncertain independence till its invasion by the Burmese
+towards the end of the 18th century, and its final cession to the
+British in 1826. It seems to have been originally included, along
+with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the old Hindu
+territory of Kamrup. Its early legends point to great religious
+revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a
+source of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into
+prehistoric times, but the first rajah capable of indentification
+flourished about the year 76 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Kamrup, the Pragjotishpur
+of the ancient Hindus, was the capital of a legendary king Narak,
+whose son Bhagadatta distinguished himself in the great war of
+the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When Hsüan Tsang visited the country in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 640, a prince
+named Kumar Bhaskara Barman was on the throne. The people
+are described as being of small stature with dark yellow complexions;
+they were fierce in appearance, but upright and
+studious. Hinduism was the state religion, and the number of
+Buddhists was very small. The soil was deep and fertile, and
+the towns were surrounded by moats with water brought from
+rivers or banked-up lakes. Subsequently we read of Pal rulers
+in Assam. It is supposed that these kings were Buddhist and
+belonged to the Pal dynasty of Bengal. Although the whole of
+Kamrup appears from time to time to have been united into one
+kingdom under some unusually powerful monarch, it was more
+often split up into numerous petty states; and for several
+centuries the Koch, the Ahom and the Chutia powers contested
+for the Assam valley. In the early part of the 13th century
+the Ahoms or Ahams, from northern Burma and the Chinese
+frontiers, poured into the eastern districts of Assam, founded a
+kingdom, and held it firmly for several centuries. The Ahoms
+were Shans from the ancient Shan kingdom of Pong. Their
+manners, customs, religion and language were, and for a long
+time continued to be, different from those of the Hindus; but
+they found themselves compelled to respect the superior civilization
+of this race, and slowly adopted its customs and language.
+The conversion of their king Chuchengpha to Hinduism took
+place in the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1655, and all the Ahoms of Assam
+gradually followed his example. In medieval history, the
+Assamese were known to the Mussulman population as a warlike,
+predatory race, who sailed down the Brahmaputra in fleets of
+innumerable canoes, plundered the rich districts of the delta,
+and retired in safety to their forests and swamps. As the
+Mahommedan power consolidated itself in Bengal, repeated expeditions
+were sent out against these river pirates of the north-east.
+The physical difficulties which an invading force had to
+contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a
+regular subjugation of the country; and after repeated efforts,
+the Mussulmans contented themselves with occupying the
+western districts at the mouth of the Assam valley. The following
+details will suffice for the history of a struggle in which no
+great political object was attained, and which left the Assamese
+still the same wild and piratical people as when their fleets of
+canoes first sallied forth against the Bengal delta. In 1638,
+during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan, the Assamese
+descended the Brahmaputra, and pillaged the country round the
+city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal,
+who retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam. During
+the civil wars between the sons of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam
+renewed his predatory incursions into Bengal; upon the termination
+of the contest, Aurangzeb determined to avenge these
+repeated insults, and despatched a considerable force for the
+regular invasion of the Assamese territory (1660-1662). His
+general, Mir Jumla, defeated the rajah, who fled to the mountains,
+and most of the chiefs made their submission to the conqueror.
+But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumla&rsquo;s army
+was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated
+the last expedition against Assam by the Mahommedans, whose
+fortunes in this country were never prosperous. A writer of the
+Mahommedan faith says:&mdash;&ldquo;Whenever an invading army has
+entered their territories, the Assamese have sheltered themselves
+in strong posts, and have distressed the enemy by stratagems,
+surprises and alarms, and by cutting off their provisions. If
+these means failed, they have declined a battle in the field, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span>
+have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the grain
+and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set
+in upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity
+to make excursions and vent their rage; the famished
+invaders have either become their prisoners or been put to death.
+In this manner powerful and numerous armies have been sunk
+in that whirlpool of destruction, and not a soul has escaped.&rdquo;
+The same writer states that the country was spacious, populous
+and hard to be penetrated; that it abounded in dangers; that
+the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that the
+obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The
+inhabitants, he says, were enterprising, well-armed and always
+prepared for battle. Moreover, they had lofty forts, numerously
+garrisoned and plentifully provided with warlike stores; and
+the approach to them was opposed by thick and dangerous
+jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers. The difficulties in the
+way of successful invasion are of course not understated, as it
+was the object of the writer to exalt the prowess and perseverance
+of the faithful. He accounts for their temporary success by
+recording that &ldquo;the Mussulman hordes experienced the comfort
+of fighting for their religion, and the blessings of it reverted to
+the sovereignty of his just and pious majesty.&rdquo; The short-lived
+triumph of the Mussulmans might, however, have warranted a
+less ambitious tone. About the middle of the 17th century the
+chief became a convert to Hinduism. By what mode the conversion
+was effected does not clearly appear, but whatever were
+the means employed, it seems that the decline of the country
+commenced about the same period. Internal dissensions, invasion
+and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province,
+and neither prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the
+18th century some interference took place on the part of the
+British government, then conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but
+the successor of that nobleman, Sir John Shore, adopting the
+non-intervention policy, withdrew the British force, and abandoned
+the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged the
+Burmese to depose the rajah, and to make Assam a dependency
+of Ava. The extension of their encroachments on a portion of
+the territory of the East India Company compelled the British
+government to take decisive steps for its own protection. Hence
+arose the series of hostilities with Ava known in Indian history as
+the first Burmese War, on the termination of which by treaty in
+February 1826, Assam remained a British possession. In 1832
+that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam was
+formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon
+Purandhar Singh, the ex-rajah of the country; but the administration
+of this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his
+principality was reunited with the British dominions. After a
+period of successful administration and internal development,
+under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, it was erected into a
+separate chief-commissionership in 1874.</p>
+
+<p>In 1886 the eastern Dwars were annexed from Bhutan; and
+in 1874 the district of Goalpara, the eastern Dwars and the
+Garo hills were incorporated in Assam. In 1898 the southern
+Lushai hills were transferred from Bengal to Assam, and the
+north and south Lushai hills were amalgamated as a district of
+Assam, and placed under the superintendent of the Lushai hills.
+Frontier troubles occasionally occur with the Akas, Daphlas,
+Abors and Mishmis along the northern border, arising out of
+raids from the independent territory into British districts. In
+October 1905 the whole province of Assam was incorporated in
+the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E.A. Gait, <i>The History of Assam</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSAMESE,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> the Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Assam
+valley. In 1901 the number of its speakers was 1,350,846.
+It is closely related to Bengali and Oriya, forming with them
+and with Bihari the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars.
+For further particulars see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bengali</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1753-1829),
+the founder of schools for the education of deaf-mutes in Italy,
+was born at Genoa in 1753. After qualifying himself for the
+church, he entered the society of the Pietists, &ldquo;Scuole Pie,&rdquo;
+who devoted themselves to the training of the young. His
+superior learning caused him to be appointed to lecture on
+theology to the students of the order. In 1801 he heard of the
+Abbé Sicard&rsquo;s training of deaf-mutes in Paris, and resolved to
+try something similar in Italy. He began with one pupil, and
+had by degrees collected a small number round him, when, in 1805,
+Napoleon, hearing of his endeavours, ordered a convent to be
+given him for a school-house, and funds for supporting twelve
+scholars to be taken from the convent revenues. This order was
+scarcely attended to till 1811, when it was renewed, and in the
+following year Assarotti, with a considerable number of pupils,
+took possession of the new school. Here he continued, with the
+exception of a short interval in 1814, till his death in 1829. A
+pension, which had been awarded him by the king of Sardinia,
+he bequeathed to his scholars.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSARY,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Assarion</span>, a Roman copper coin, the &ldquo;farthing&rdquo;
+of Matthew x. 29.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSASSIN<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (properly <i>Hash&#299;sh&#299;n</i>, from <i>Hashish</i>, the opiate
+made from the juice of hemp leaves), a general term for a secret
+murderer, originally the name of a branch of the Shiite sect
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shiites</a></span>), known as Isma&rsquo;&#299;lites, founded by &#7716;assan (ibn)
+&#7778;abb&#257;&#7717; at the end of the 11th century, and from that time active
+in Syria and Persia until crushed in the 13th century by the
+Mongols under Hulaku (Hulagu) in Persia, and by the Mameluke
+Bibars in Syria. The father of &#7716;assan &#7778;abb&#257;&#7717;, a native of
+Khorasan, and a Shiite, had been frequently compelled to profess
+Sunnite orthodoxy, and from prudential motives had sent his
+son to study under an orthodox doctor at Nishapur. Here
+&#7716;assan made the acquaintance of Niz&#257;m-ul-Mulk, afterwards
+vizier of the sultan Malik-Shah (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seljuks</a></span>). During the
+reign of Alp-Arslan he remained in obscurity, and then appeared
+at the court of Malik-Shah, where he was at first kindly received
+by his old friend the vizier. &#7716;assan, who was a man of great
+ability, tried to supplant him in the favour of the sultan, but was
+outwitted and compelled to take his departure from Persia. He
+went to Egypt (1078-79), and, on account of his high reputation,
+was received with great honour by the lodge at Cairo. He soon
+stood so high in the caliph Mostan&#7779;ir&rsquo;s favour as to excite against
+him the jealousy of the chief general, and a cause of open enmity
+soon arose. The caliph had nominated first one and then
+another of his sons as his successor, and in consequence a party
+division took place among the leading men. &#7716;assan, who
+adopted the cause of Niz&#257;r, the eldest son, found his enemies too
+strong for him, and was forced to leave Egypt. After many
+adventures he reached Aleppo and Damascus, and after a sojourn
+there, settled near Kuhistan (Kohistan). He gradually spread
+his peculiar modification of Isma&lsquo;&#299;lite doctrine, and, having
+collected a considerable number of followers, formed them into a
+secret society. In 1090 he obtained, by stratagem, the strong
+mountain fortress of Alam&#363;t in Persia, and, removing there
+with his followers, settled as chief of the famous society afterwards
+called the Assassins.</p>
+
+<p>The speculative principles of this body were identical with
+those of the Isma&lsquo;&#299;lites, but their external policy was marked by
+one peculiar and distinctive feature&mdash;the employment of secret
+&ldquo;assassination&rdquo; against all enemies. This practice was introduced
+by &#7716;assan, and formed the essential characteristic of the sect.
+In organization they closely resembled the western lodge at
+Cairo. At the head was the supreme ruler, the <i>Sheik-al-Jabal</i>
+(<i>Jebel</i>), <i>i.e.</i> Chief, or, as it is commonly translated, Old Man of
+the Mountains. Under him were three <i>D&#257;&lsquo;i-al-Kirb&#257;l</i>, or, as
+they may be called, grand priors, who ruled the three provinces
+over which the sheik&rsquo;s power extended. Next came the body
+of <i>D&#257;&lsquo;is</i>, or priors, who were fully initiated into all the secret
+doctrines, and were the emissaries of the faith. Fourth were
+the <i>Ref&#299;qs</i>, associates or fellows, who were in process of initiation,
+and who ultimately advanced to the dignity of <i>d&#257;&lsquo;is</i>. Fifth
+came the most distinctive class, the <i>Fedais</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the devoted
+ones), who were the guards or assassins proper. These were all
+young men, and from their ranks were selected the agents for
+any deed of blood. They were kept uninitiated, and the blindest
+obedience was exacted from and yielded by them. When the
+sheik required the services of any of them, the selected <i>fedais</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span>
+were intoxicated with the <i>hash&#299;sh</i>. When in this state they were
+introduced into the splendid gardens of the sheik, and surrounded
+with every sensual pleasure. Such a foretaste of
+paradise, only to be granted by their supreme ruler, made them
+eager to obey his slightest command; their lives they counted as
+nothing, and would resign them at a word from him. Finally,
+the sixth and seventh orders were the <i>L&#257;siqs</i>, or novices, and
+the common people. Hassan well knew the efficacy of established
+law and custom in securing the obedience of a mass
+of people; accordingly, upon all but the initiated, the observances
+of Islam were rigidly enforced. As for the initiated, they
+knew the worthlessness of positive religion and morality; they
+believed in nothing, and scoffed at the practices of the faithful.</p>
+
+<p>The Assassins soon began to make their power felt. One of
+their first victims was Hassan&rsquo;s former friend, Nizam-ul-Mulk,
+whose son also died under the dagger of a secret murderer. The
+death by poison of the sultan Malik-Shah was likewise ascribed
+to this dreaded society, and contributed to increase their evil
+fame. Sultan Sinjar, his successor, made war upon them, but
+he was soon glad to come to terms with enemies against whose
+operations no precaution seemed available. After a long and
+prosperous rule Hassan died at an advanced age in 1124. He
+had previously slain both his sons, one on suspicion of having
+been concerned in the murder of a <i>d&#257;&lsquo;i</i> at Kuhistan, the other
+for drinking wine, and he was therefore compelled to name as his
+successor his chief <i>d&#257;&lsquo;i</i>, Kia-Busurg-Omid.</p>
+
+<p>During the fourteen years&rsquo; reign of this second leader, the
+Assassins were frequently unfortunate in the open field, and
+their castles were taken and plundered; but they acquired a
+stronghold in Syria, while their numerous murders made them
+an object of dread to the neighbouring princes, and spread abroad
+their evil renown. A long series of distinguished men perished
+under the daggers of the <i>fedais</i>; even the most sacred dignity
+was not spared. The caliph Mostarshid was assassinated in his
+tent, and not long after, the caliph Rashid suffered a similar fate.
+Busurg-Omid was succeeded by his son Mahommed I., who, during the
+long period of twenty-five years, ruthlessly carried out his
+predecessor&rsquo;s principles. In his time Massiat became the
+chief seat of the Syrian branch of the society. Mahommed&rsquo;s
+abilities were not great, and the affections of the people were drawn
+towards his son Hassan, a youth of great learning, skilled in all
+the wisdom of the initiated, and popularly believed to be the promised
+Imam become visible on earth. The old sheik prevented any attempt
+at insurrection by slaying 250 of Hassan&rsquo;s adherents, and the
+son was glad to make submission. When, however, he attained the
+throne, he began to put his views into effect. On the 17th of the
+month Ramadan, 1164, he assembled the people and disclosed to them
+the secret doctrines of the
+initiated; he announced that the doctrines of Islam were now
+abolished, that the people might give themselves up to feasting
+and joy. Soon after, he announced that he was the promised
+Imam, the caliph of God upon earth. To substantiate these
+claims he gave out that he was not the son of Mahommed, but
+was descended from Niz&#257;r, son of the Egyptian caliph Mostansir,
+and a lineal descendant of Isma&lsquo;&#299;l. After a short reign of four
+years Hassan was assassinated by his brother-in-law, and his
+son Mahommed II. succeeded. One of his first acts was to slay
+his father&rsquo;s murderer, with all his family and relatives; and his
+long rule, extending over a period of forty-six years, was marked
+by many similar deeds of cruelty. He had to contend with many
+powerful enemies, especially with the great Atabeg sultan
+Nureddin, and his more celebrated successor, Saladin, who had
+gained possession of Egypt after the death of the last Fatimite
+caliph, and against whom even secret assassination seemed
+powerless. During his reign, also, the Syrian branch of the
+society, under their <i>d&#257;&lsquo;i</i>, Sinan, made themselves independent,
+and remained so ever afterwards. It was with this Syrian branch
+that the Crusaders made acquaintance; and it appears to have
+been their emissaries who slew Count Raymund of Tripoli and
+Conrad of Montferrat.</p>
+
+<p>Mahommed II. died from the effects of poison, administered,
+it is believed, by his son, Jelaleddin Hassan III., who succeeded.
+He restored the old form of doctrine&mdash;secret principles for the
+initiated, and Islam for the people&mdash;and his general piety and
+orthodoxy procured for him the name of the new Mussulman.
+During his reign of twelve years no assassinations occurred, and
+he obtained a high reputation among the neighbouring princes.
+Like his father, he was removed by poison, and his son, &lsquo;Ala-ed-d&#299;n
+Mahommed III., a child of nine years of age, weak in mind and
+body, was placed on the throne. Under his rule the mild
+principles of his father were deserted, and a fresh course of
+assassination entered on. In 1255, after a reign of thirty years,
+&lsquo;Ala-ed-d&#299;n was slain, with the connivance of his son, Rukneddin,
+the last ruler of the Assassins. In the following year Hulaku
+(Hulagu), brother of the Tatar, Mangu Khan, invaded the hill
+country of Persia, took Alam&#363;t and many other castles, and
+captured Ruknedd&#299;n (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mongols</a></span>). He treated him kindly,
+and, at his own request, sent him under escort to Mangu. On
+the way, Ruknedd&#299;n treacherously incited the inhabitants of
+Kirdkuh to resist the Tatars. This breach of good faith was
+severely punished by the khan, who ordered Ruknedd&#299;n to be
+put to death, and sent a messenger to Hulaku (Hulagu) commanding
+him to slay all his captives. About 12,000 of the
+Assassins were massacred, and their power in Persia was completely
+broken. The Syrian branch flourished for some years longer,
+till Bibars, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, ravaged their country
+and nearly extirpated them. Small bodies of them lingered about
+the mountains of Syria, and are believed still to exist there.
+Doctrines somewhat similar to theirs are still to be met with in
+north Syria.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. von Hammer, <i>Geschichte der Assassinen</i> (1818); S. de Sacy,
+<i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;lnstitut</i>, iv. (1818), who discusses the etymology
+fully; <i>Calcutta Review</i>, vols. lv., lvi.; A. Jourdain in Michaud&rsquo;s
+<i>Histoire des Croisades</i>, ii. pp. 465-484, and trans. of the Persian
+historian Mirkhond in <i>Notices et extraits des manuscrits</i>, xiii.
+pp. 143 sq.; cf. R. Dozy, <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;histoire de l&rsquo;Islamisme</i>
+(Leiden and Paris, 1879); ch. ix.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSAULT<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>ad</i>, to or on, and <i>saltare</i>, to leap),
+in English law, &ldquo;an attempt or offer with force or violence to do
+corporal hurt to another, as by striking at another with a stick
+or other weapon, or without a weapon, though the party misses
+his aim.&rdquo; Notwithstanding ancient opinions to the contrary,
+it is now settled that mere words, be they ever so provoking,
+will not constitute an assault. Coupled with the attempt or
+threat to inflict corporal injury, there must in all cases be the
+means of carrying the threat into effect. A <i>battery</i> is more than a
+threat or attempt to injure the person of another; the injury
+must have been inflicted, but it makes no difference however
+small it may be, as the law does not &ldquo;draw the line between
+degrees of violence,&rdquo; but &ldquo;totally prohibits the first and lowest
+stage of it.&rdquo; Every battery includes an assault. A common
+assault is a misdemeanour, and is punishable by imprisonment
+with or without hard labour to the extent of one year, and if it
+occasions bodily harm, with penal servitude for three years, or
+imprisonment to the extent of two years, with or without hard
+labour. There are various different kinds of assaults which are
+provided against by particular enactments of parliament, such
+as the Offences against the Person Act 1861, the Prevention of
+Crimes Act 1871, &amp;c.; and there are also certain aggravated
+assaults for which the punishment is severer than for common
+assault, as an assault with intent to murder, with intent to
+commit a rape, &amp;c. In certain cases an assault and battery is
+sometimes justifiable, as in the case where a person in authority,
+as a parent or schoolmaster, inflicts moderate punishment upon
+a child, or in certain cases of self-defence, or in defence of one&rsquo;s
+goods and chattels. An assault may be both a tort and a crime,
+giving a civil action for damages to the person injured, as well as
+being the subject of a criminal prosecution.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States</i>.&mdash;The general principles applicable throughout
+the United States are the same as in England. Riding a horse
+threateningly near a person; or riding a bicycle against another
+(<i>Mercer</i> v. <i>Corbin</i>, 117 Indiana Rep. 450); waking one from
+sleep to present a milk bill (<i>Richmond</i> v. <i>Fiske</i>, 160 Mass. 34),
+are assaults. A minor is liable for damages for an assault
+(<i>Hildreth</i> v. <i>Hancock</i>, 156 Illinois Rep. 618). In Texas it has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
+been held that an assault with a knife is not necessarily an
+aggravated assault (<i>Warren</i> v. <i>State</i>, 3 S.W. 240), and an axe
+is not necessarily a &ldquo;deadly weapon&rdquo; with which to assault
+(<i>Gladney</i> v. <i>State</i>, 12 S.W. 868), and the State must prove that it
+would be likely to produce death or serious bodily injury (<i>Melton</i>
+v. <i>State</i>, 17 S.W. 257). Neither a pistol nor brass knuckles are
+necessarily deadly weapons; the State must show their size or
+manner of use in making the assault (<i>Ballard</i> v. <i>State</i>, 13 S.W.
+674; <i>Miles</i> v. <i>State</i>, 5 S.W. 250). But in 1903 a pistol was held
+by the Texas Supreme Court to be a deadly weapon if not used
+simply as a club (<i>Lockland</i> v. <i>State</i>, 73 S.W. 1054), and the same
+court held in 1904 that a pistol is a deadly weapon (<i>Pace</i> v. <i>State</i>,
+79 S.W. 531), and so the assault was an aggravated assault. In
+North Carolina it has been held that an axe is <i>ex vi termini</i> a
+&ldquo;deadly weapon&rdquo; (<i>State</i> v. <i>Shields</i>, 110 N.C. 49).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSAYE,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a village of Hyderabad or the Nizam&rsquo;s Dominions,
+in southern India, just beyond the Berar frontier. The place is
+celebrated as the site of a battle fought on the 23rd of September
+1803 between the combined Mahratta forces Under Sindhia and
+the rajah of Berar and the British under Major-General Wellesley,
+afterwards the duke of Wellington. The Mahratta force consisted
+of 50,000 men, supported by 100 pieces of cannon served
+by French artillerymen, and entrenched in a strong position.
+Against this the English had but a force of 4500 men, which,
+however, after a severe struggle, gained the most complete
+victory that ever crowned British valour in India. Of the
+enemy 12,000 were killed and wounded; and General Wellesley
+lost 1657&mdash;one-third of his little force&mdash;killed and wounded.
+Assaye is 261 m. north-west of Hyderabad.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSAYING<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span>. To &ldquo;assay&rdquo; (or &ldquo;essay&rdquo;; Fr. <i>essayer</i>) is in
+general to try, or attempt, so to make trial or test. In a restricted
+sense the term assaying is applied in metallurgy to the determination
+of the amount of gold or silver in ores or alloys; in this
+article, however, it will be used in a wider technical signification,
+and will include a description of the methods for the quantitative
+determination of those elements in ores which affect their value
+in metallurgical operations. It would be impossible to give in
+detail here all the precautions necessary for the successful use
+of the methods, and the descriptions will therefore be confined
+to the principles involved and the general manner in which they
+are applied to secure the desired results.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Silver</i>.&mdash;Ores containing gold or silver are almost
+invariably assayed in the dry way; that is, by fusion with
+appropriate fluxes and ultimate separation of the elements in
+the metallic form. One of the customs which has grown out of
+our peculiar system of weights is the form of statement of the
+results of such an assay. Instead of expressing the amounts of
+gold and silver in percentages of the weight of ore, they are
+expressed in ounces to the ton, the ounce being the troy ounce
+and the ton that of 2000 avoirdupois pounds. To simplify
+calculation and to enable the assayer to use the metric system
+of weights employed in all chemical calculations, the &ldquo;assay
+ton&rdquo; (&ldquo;A.T.&rdquo; = 29.166 grammes) has been devised, which bears
+the same relation to the ton of 2000 &#8468; avoirdupois that one
+milligram does to the troy ounce; when one assay ton of ore is
+used, each milligram of gold or silver found represents one ounce
+to the ton.</p>
+
+<p>The assay of an ore for gold or silver consists of two operations.
+In the first the gold or silver is made to combine or alloy with
+metallic lead, the other constituents of the ore being separated
+from the lead as slag. In the second, the lead button containing
+the gold or silver is cupelled and the resulting gold or silver button
+is weighed. The first is conducted in one of two ways, known
+respectively as the crucible method and the scorification method.
+The crucible method is generally used for ores containing gold
+in small amounts and for certain classes of silver ores. The
+amount of ore taken for assay is generally one-half &ldquo;A.T.,&rdquo; but in
+very low-grade ores one, two, and sometimes even four &ldquo;A.T.s&rdquo;
+are used. In the scorification method one-tenth of an &ldquo;A.T.&rdquo; is
+the amount commonly taken. While in both methods the same
+result is sought, the means employed are quite different. In the
+scorification method the ore is mixed in the scorifier (a shallow
+dish of burned clay) with from ten to twenty times its weight of
+granulated metallic lead (test lead) and a little borax glass, and
+heated in a muffle, the front of which is at first closed. When
+the lead melts and begins to oxidize, the lead oxide, or so-called
+litharge, combines with or dissolves the non-metallic and readily
+oxidizable constituents of the ore, while the gold and silver alloy
+with the lead. As the slag thus formed flows off to the sides of
+the scorifier, the assay clears and the melted metallic lead forms
+an &ldquo;eye&rdquo; in the middle. The door of the muffle is then opened
+and the current of air which is drawn over the scorifier rapidly
+oxidizes the lead, while the melted litharge gradually closes over
+the metal. When the &ldquo;eye&rdquo; has quite disappeared the door is
+closed and the temperature raised to make the slag very liquid.
+The scorifier is taken from the muffle in a pair of tongs and the
+contents poured into a mould, the lead forming a button in the
+bottom while the slag floats on top. When cold, the contents
+of the mould are taken out and the lead button hammered into
+the form of a cube, the slag, which is glassy and brittle, separating
+readily from the metal, which is then ready for cupellation. In
+the crucible method the ore is mixed with from once to twice its
+weight of flux, which varies in composition, but of which the
+following may be taken as a type:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Sodium bicarbonate</td> <td class="tcl cl">8 parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium carbonate</td> <td class="tcl">3&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Powdered borax</td> <td class="tcl cl">4&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Flour</td> <td class="tcl">1&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Litharge</td> <td class="tcl cl">9&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The mixture is charged into a round clay crucible from 100 mm.
+to 125 mm. high, and heated either in a muffle or in a crucible
+furnace at a gradually increasing heat for forty or fifty minutes.
+At the expiration of this time, when the charge should be perfectly
+liquid and in a tranquil state of fusion, the crucible is removed
+from the furnace and the contents are poured into a mould.
+The resulting lead button hammered into shape and carefully
+cleansed from slag is ready for the cupel. If the button is too
+large for cupellation, or if it is hard, it may be scorified either
+alone or mixed with test lead before cupellation. The character
+and amount of the flux necessarily depend upon the character of
+the ore, the object being to concentrate in the lead button all the
+gold and silver while dissolving and carrying off in the slag the
+other constituents of the ore. Under the most favourable conditions
+there is a slight loss of gold and silver in the fusion, the
+scorification and the cupellation, both by absorption in the slag
+and by actual volatilization and absorption in the cupel. In ores
+containing much copper, this metal is largely concentrated in the
+lead button, making it hard, and necessitating repeated
+scorifications and, in some cases, a preliminary removal of the
+copper by solution of the ore in nitric acid. This leaves the gold
+in the insoluble residue, which is filtered off, and the silver in
+the solution is thrown down by hydrochloric acid. The resulting
+precipitate of silver chloride is filtered, and the residue and the
+precipitate are scorified together. Ores containing much arsenic
+or sulphur are generally roasted at a low heat and the assay
+is made on the roasted material.</p>
+
+<p>The process of cupellation is briefly as follows:&mdash;The gold
+alloy is fused with a quantity of lead, and a little silver if silver
+is already present. The resulting alloy, which is called the <i>lead
+button</i>, is then submitted to fusion on a very porous support,
+made of bone-ash, and called a <i>cupel</i>. The fusion being effected
+in a current of air, the lead oxidizes. The heat is sufficient to
+keep the resulting lead oxide fused, and the porous cupel has the
+property of absorbing melted lead oxide without taking up any
+of the metallic globule, exactly in the same way that blotting-paper
+will absorb water whilst it will not touch a globule of
+mercury. The heat being continued, and the current of air
+always passing over the surface of the melted lead button, and
+the lead oxide being sucked up by the cupel as fast as it is formed,
+the metallic globule rapidly diminishes in size until at last all
+the lead has been got rid of. Now, if this were the only action,
+little good would have been gained, for we should simply have
+put lead into the gold alloy, and then taken it out again; but
+another action goes on whilst the lead is oxidizing in the current
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span>
+of air. Other metals, except the silver and gold, also oxidize,
+and are carried by the melted litharge into the cupel. If the lead
+is therefore rightly proportioned to the standard of alloy, the
+resulting button will consist of only gold and silver, and these are
+separated by the operation of <i>parting</i>, which consists in boiling
+the alloy (after rolling it to a thin plate) in strong nitric acid,
+which dissolves the silver and leaves the gold as a coherent
+sponge. To effect this parting properly, the proportion of silver
+to gold should be as 3 to 1. The operation by which the alloy is
+brought to this standard is termed <i>quartation</i> or <i>inquartation</i>,
+and consists in fusing the alloy in a cupel with lead and the
+quantity of fine silver or fine gold necessary to bring it to the
+desired composition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lead</i>.&mdash;The &ldquo;dry&rdquo; or fire assay for lead is largely used for the
+valuation of lead ores, although it is being gradually replaced by
+volumetric methods. One part of the ore is mixed with from
+three to five parts of a flux of the following composition:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Potassium carbonate</td> <td class="tcc cl">40.6%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sodium bicarbonate</td> <td class="tcc">31.3%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Borax</td> <td class="tcc cl">15.6%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Flour</td> <td class="tcc">12.5%</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The mixture is charged into a clay crucible and heated for twenty
+minutes at a good red heat. When the mixture has been in a
+tranquil state of fusion for a few minutes it is poured into a mould.
+When cold, the button is hammered, cleaned carefully from slag,
+and weighed. The proportion is calculated from the amount
+of ore used, and the result is expressed in parts in a hundred
+or percentage of the ore. Various impurities, such as copper,
+antimony and sulphur, go into the lead button, so that the result
+is generally too high. The most accurate method for the determination
+of lead in ores is the gravimetric method, in which it is
+weighed as lead sulphate after the various impurities have been
+separated. Nearly all lead ores contain more or less sulphur;
+and as in the process of solution in nitric acid this is oxidized
+to sulphuric acid which unites with the lead to form the very
+insoluble lead sulphate, it is simpler to add sulphuric acid to
+convert all the lead into sulphate and then evaporate until the
+nitric acid is expelled. The salts of iron, copper, &amp;c., are then
+dissolved in water and filtered from the insoluble silica, lead
+sulphate, and calcium sulphate, which are washed with dilute
+sulphuric acid. The insoluble matter is treated with a hot solution
+of alkaline ammonium acetate, which dissolves the lead
+sulphate, the other materials being separated by filtration. The
+lead sulphate, re-precipitated in the filtrate by an excess of
+sulphuric acid and alcohol, is then filtered on an asbestos felt in
+a Gooch crucible, washed with dilute sulphuric acid and alcohol,
+ignited, and weighed. Lead sulphate contains 68.30% of
+metallic lead.</p>
+
+<p>There are several volumetric methods for assaying lead ores,
+but the best known is that based on the precipitation of lead by
+ammonium molybdate in an acetic acid solution. The lead
+sulphate, obtained as described above and dissolved in ammonium
+acetate, is acidulated with acetic acid diluted with hot water and
+heated to boiling-point. A standardized solution of ammonium
+molybdate is then added from a burette. As long as the solution
+contains lead, the addition of the molybdate solution causes
+a precipitation of white lead molybdate. An excess of the
+precipitant is shown by a drop of the solution imparting a
+yellow colour to a solution of tannin, prepared by dissolving
+one part of tannin in 300 of water; drops of this solution are
+placed on a white porcelain plate, and as the precipitant is added
+to the lead solution a drop of the latter is removed from time to
+time on a glass stirring-rod and added to one of the drops on the
+porcelain plate. The appearance of a yellow colour shows that
+all the lead has been precipitated and that the solution contains
+an excess of molybdate. From the reading of the burette the
+lead is calculated. The molybdate solution should be of such a
+strength that 1 cc. will precipitate 0.01 gramme of lead. It is
+standardized by dissolving a weighed amount of lead sulphate in
+ammonium acetate and proceeding as described above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zinc</i>.&mdash;Chemically the ores of zinc consist of the silicates,
+carbonates, oxides, and sulphides of zinc associated with other
+metals, some of which complicate the methods of assay. The
+most modern and the most generally accepted method is volumetric,
+and is based on the reaction between zinc chloride and
+potassium ferrocyanide, by which insoluble zinc ferrocyanide
+and soluble potassium chloride are formed; the presence of the
+slightest excess of potassium ferrocyanide is shown by a brownish
+tint being imparted by the solution to a drop of uranium nitrate.
+The ore (0.5 gramme) is digested with a mixture of potassium
+nitrate and nitric acid. A saturated solution of potassium
+chlorate in strong nitric acid is added, and the mass evaporated
+to dryness. It is then heated with a mixture of ammonium
+chloride and ammonia, filtered and washed with a hot dilute
+solution of the same mixture. The filtrate diluted to 200 cc. is
+carefully neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and excess of 6 cc.
+of the strong acid is added, and the solution saturated with
+hydrogen sulphide, which precipitates the copper and cadmium,
+metals which would otherwise interfere. Without filtering, the
+standard solution is added from a burette, and from time to time
+a drop of the solution is removed on the glass stirring-rod and
+added to a drop or two of a strong solution of uranium nitrate,
+previously placed on a white porcelain plate. The appearance
+of a brown tint in one of these tests shows the end of the reaction.
+When cadmium is not present the copper may be precipitated
+by boiling the acidulated ammoniacal solution with test lead and
+titrating, as before described, without removing the lead and
+copper from the solution. The ferrocyanide solution is standardized
+by dissolving 1 gramme of pure zinc in 6 cc. of hydrochloric
+acid, adding ammonium chloride, and titrating as before. This
+method is modified in practice by the character of the ores,
+carbonates and silicates free from sulphides being decomposed
+by hydrochloric acid, with the addition of a little nitric acid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Copper</i>.&mdash;The fire assay for copper ores was abandoned years
+ago and the electrolytic method took its place; this in turn is
+now largely replaced by volumetric methods. In the electrolytic
+method from 0.5 to 5 grammes of ore are treated in a flask or
+beaker, with a mixture of 10 cc. of nitric and 10 cc. of sulphuric
+acid, until thoroughly decomposed. When this liquid is cold it
+is diluted with cold water, heated until all the soluble salts are
+dissolved, transferred to a tall, narrow beaker, and diluted to
+about 150 cc. The electrodes are attached to a frame connected
+with the battery and the beaker is placed on a stool, which can
+be raised so that the electrodes are immersed in the liquid and
+reach the bottom of the beaker. The electrodes consist of two
+cylinders of platinum (placed one inside the other) about 75 mm.
+high, the smaller of the two 37 mm. and the larger 50 mm. in
+diameter, both pierced with 10 to 12 holes 5 mm. in diameter,
+evenly distributed over the surfaces to facilitate diffusion of the
+liquids. The surfaces of the cylinders are roughened with a sand
+blast to increase the areas and make the deposited metals adhere
+more firmly. Each cylinder has a platinum wire fused to the
+upper circumference to connect with a clamp from which a wire
+leads to the proper pole of the battery. The smaller cylinder is
+generally the negative electrode on which the copper is deposited.
+The framework carrying the clamps is arranged so that a number
+of determinations may be made at one time, the wires from the
+clamps running from a rheostat, so arranged that currents of any
+strength may be used simultaneously. The cylinder, having
+been carefully weighed, is placed in position, the beaker containing
+the solution is adjusted, and the current passed until all
+the copper is precipitated. This generally requires from two to
+twelve hours. The cylinders are then removed from the solution
+and washed with distilled water, the one holding the deposited
+copper being washed with alcohol, dried and weighed; the
+increase in weight represents the copper contents of the ore.
+The deposited copper should be firmly adherent and bright rosy
+red in colour. Silver, arsenic and cadmium, if present, are
+precipitated with the copper and affect the accuracy of the
+results; they should be removed by special methods.</p>
+
+<p>Volumetric methods are more expeditious and require less
+apparatus. The potassium cyanide method is based on the
+fact that, when potassium cyanide is added to an ammoniacal
+solution of a salt of copper, the insoluble copper cyanide is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span>
+formed, the end of the reaction being indicated by the disappearance
+of the blue colour of the solution. One gramme of the ore
+is treated in a flask with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids
+and evaporated until all the nitric acid is expelled. After cooling
+a little, water is added, and then a few grammes of aluminium
+foil free from copper. On this foil the copper in the solution is
+all precipitated by electrolytic action in a few minutes, and the
+aluminium is dissolved by the addition of an excess of sulphuric
+acid. Water is added, and as soon as the gangue and copper
+particles have settled the clear solution is decanted, and the
+residue washed several times in the same way. The copper is
+then dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric acid; if silver is present a drop or
+two of hydrochloric acid is added, the solution diluted to about
+50 cc., and filtered. To the filtrate (or, if no silver is present, to
+the diluted nitric acid solution) 10 cc. of ammonia are added,
+and a standard solution of potassium cyanide is run in from
+a burette until the blue colour has nearly disappeared. The
+solution is filtered to get rid of the precipitate, and the titration
+is finished in the nearly clear nitrate, which should be always
+about 200 cc. in volume. The titration is complete when the
+blue colour is so faint that it is almost imperceptible after the
+flask has been vigorously shaken. The potassium cyanide solution
+is standardized by dissolving 0.5 gramme of pure copper
+in 5 cc. of nitric acid, diluting, adding 10 cc. of ammonia, and
+titrating exactly as described above.</p>
+
+<p>When potassium iodide is added to a solution of cupric acetate,
+the reaction Cu(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span> + 2KI = CuI + 2K(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>) + I takes
+place; that is, for each atom of copper one atom of iodine is
+liberated. If a solution of sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite)
+is added to this solution, hydriodic acid, sodium iodide and
+tetrathionate are formed; and if a little starch solution has been
+added, the end of the reaction is indicated by the disappearance
+of the blue colour, due to the iodide of starch. The amount of
+iodine liberated is therefore a measure of the copper in the
+solution, and when the sodium thiosulphate has been carefully
+standardized the method is extremely accurate. The ore is
+treated as described in the cyanide method until the copper
+precipitated by the aluminium foil has been washed and dissolved
+in 5 cc. of nitric acid; then 0.25 gramme of potassium chlorate
+is added, and the solution boiled nearly dry to oxidize any
+arsenic present to arsenic acid. The solution is cooled, 50 cc.
+water added, then 5 cc. ammonia, and the solution is boiled for
+five minutes. Next 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid are added, the
+solution cooled, and 5 cc. of a solution of potassium iodide (300
+grammes to the litre) and the standard solution of sodium
+thiosulphate run in from a burette until the brown colour has
+nearly disappeared. A few drops of starch solution are then
+added, and when the blue colour has nearly vanished a drop or
+two of methyl orange makes the end reaction very sharp. The
+thiosulphate solution is standardized by dissolving 0.3 to 0.5
+gramme of pure copper in 3 cc. of nitric acid, adding 50 cc. of
+water and 5 cc. of ammonia, and titrating as above after the
+addition of 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid and 5 cc. of the potassium
+iodide solution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iron</i>.&mdash;The methods used in the assay for iron are volumetric,
+and are all based on the property possessed by certain reagents
+of oxidizing iron from the ferrous to the ferric state. Two salts
+are in common use for this purpose, potassium permanganate and
+potassium bichromate. It is necessary in the first place, after
+the ore is in solution, to reduce all the iron to the ferrous condition;
+then the carefully standardized solution of the oxidizing
+reagent is added until all the iron is in the ferric state, the
+volume of the standard solution used being the measure of the
+iron contained in the ore. The end of the reaction when potassium
+permanganate is employed is known by the change in colour
+of the solution. As the solution of potassium permanganate,
+which is deep red in colour, is dropped into the colourless iron
+solution, it is quickly decolorized while the iron solution
+gradually assumes a yellowish tinge, the first drop of the permanganate
+solution in excess giving it a pink tint. With potassium
+bichromate solution, which is yellow, the iron solution becomes
+green from the chromium chloride or sulphate formed, and the
+end of the reaction is determined by removing a drop of the
+solution on the stirring-rod and adding it to a drop of a dilute
+solution of potassium ferricyanide on a white tile. So long as the
+solution contains a ferrous salt, the drop on the tile changes to
+blue; hence the absence of a blue coloration indicates the
+complete oxidation of all the ferrous salt and the end of the
+reaction. One gramme of ore is usually taken for assay and
+treated in a small flask or beaker with 10 cc. of hydrochloric acid.
+All the iron in the ore generally dissolves upon heating, and a
+white residue is left. Occasionally this residue contains a small
+amount of iron in a difficultly soluble form; in that case the
+solution is slightly diluted with water and filtered into a larger
+flask. The residue in the filter is ignited and fused with a little
+sodium carbonate and nitrate, or with sodium peroxide. The
+product is treated with water, filtered, and the residue dissolved
+in hydrochloric acid and added to the main solution. This
+solution, which should not exceed 50 cc. or 75 cc. in volume,
+contains the iron in the ferric state and is ready for reduction.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction by metallic zinc, about 3 grammes of granulated
+or foliated zinc are placed in the flask, which is closed with
+a small funnel; when the iron is reduced, add 10 cc. of sulphuric
+acid, and as soon as all the zinc is dissolved the solution is ready
+for titration. In the reduction by stannous chloride the solution
+of the ore in the flask is heated to boiling, and a strong solution
+of stannous chloride is added until the solution is completely
+decolorized; then 60 cc. of a solution of mercuric chloride (50
+grammes to the litre) are run in and the contents of the flask
+poured into a dish containing 600 cc. of water and 60 cc. of a
+solution containing 200 grammes of manganous sulphate, 1 litre of
+phosphoric acid (1.3 sp. gr.), 400 cc. of sulphuric acid, and 1600
+cc. of water. The solution is then ready for titration with the
+standard permanganate solution.</p>
+
+<p>The permanganate or bichromate solution is standardized by
+dissolving 0.5 of a gramme of pure iron wire in a flask, in
+hydrochloric acid, oxidizing it with a little potassium chlorate,
+boiling off all traces of chlorine, deoxidizing by one of the methods
+described above, and titrating with the solution. As the wire
+always contains impurities, the absolute amount of iron in the
+wire must be determined and the correction made accordingly.
+Pure oxalic acid may also be used, which, in the presence of
+sulphuric acid, is oxidized by the standard solution according to
+the reaction:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">5(H<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>2H<span class="su">2</span>O) + 3H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 2KMnO<span class="su">4</span> = 10CO<span class="su">2</span> + 2MnSO<span class="su">4</span>
++ K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 18H<span class="su">2</span>O</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The reaction in case of ferrous sulphate is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">10FeSO<span class="su">4</span> + 2KMnO<span class="su">4</span> + 8H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> = 5Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span> + K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>
++ 2MnSO<span class="su">4</span> + 8H<span class="su">2</span>O;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">that is, the same amount of potassium permanganate is required
+to oxidize 5 molecules of oxalic acid that is necessary to oxidize
+10 molecules of iron in the form of ferrous sulphate to ferric
+sulphate, or 63 parts by weight of oxalic acid equal 56 parts by
+weight of metallic iron. Ammonium ferrous sulphate may also be
+used; it contains one-seventh of its weight of iron.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. A. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSEGAI,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Assagai</span> (from Berber-Arab <i>as-zahayah</i>, through
+Portuguese <i>azagaia</i>), a weapon for throwing or hurling, a light
+spear or javelin made of wood and pointed with iron, particularly
+the spear used by the Zulu and other Kaffir tribes of South
+Africa. In addition to the long-handled assegai there is a shorter
+weapon for use at close quarters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSELIJN, HANS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1610-1660), Dutch painter, was born at
+Diepen, near Amsterdam. He received instruction from Esaias
+Vandevelde (1587-1630), and distinguished himself particularly
+in landscape and animal painting, though his historical works
+and battle pieces are also admired. He travelled much in France
+and Italy, and modelled his style greatly after Bamboccio (Peter
+Laer). He was one of the first Dutch painters who introduced a
+fresh and clear manner of painting landscapes in the style of
+Claude Lorraine, and his example was speedily followed by other
+artists. Asselijn&rsquo;s pictures were in high estimation at Amsterdam,
+and several of them are in the museums of that city.
+Twenty-four, painted in Italy, were engraved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSEMANI,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> the name of a Syrian Maronite family of famous
+Orientalists.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Joseph Simon</span>, a Maronite of Mount Lebanon, was born in
+1687. When very young he was sent to the Maronite college in
+Rome, and was transferred thence to the Vatican library. In
+1717 he was sent to Egypt and Syria to search for valuable MSS.,
+and returned with about 150 very choice ones. The success of
+this expedition induced the pope to send him again to the East
+in 1735, and he returned with a still more valuable collection.
+On his return he was made titular archbishop of Tyre and
+librarian of the Vatican library. He instantly began to carry
+into execution most extensive plans for editing and publishing
+the most valuable MS. treasures of the Vatican. His two great
+works are the <i>Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana rec.
+manuscr. codd. Syr., Arab., Pers., Turc., Hebr., Samarit., Armen.,
+Aethiop., Graec., Aegypt., Iber., et Malab., jussu et munif. Clem.
+XI.</i> (Rome, 1719-1728), 9 vols. folio, and <i>Ephraemi Syri opera
+omnia quae extant, Gr., Syr., et Lat.</i>, 6 vols. folio (Rome, 1737-1746).
+Of the <i>Bibliotheca</i> the first three vols. only were completed.
+The work was to have been in four parts&mdash;(1) Syrian and allied
+MSS., orthodox, Nestorian and Jacobite; (2) Arabian MSS.,
+Christian and Mahommedan; (3) Coptic, Aethiopic, Persian
+and Turkish MSS.; and (4) Syrian and Arabian MSS. not
+distinctively theological; only the first part was completed,
+but extensive preparations were made for the others. There is a
+German abridgment by A.F. Pfeiffer.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Joseph Aloysius</span>, brother of Joseph Simon, and professor
+of Oriental languages at Rome. He died in 1782. Besides aiding
+his brother in his literary labours, he published, in 1749-1760,
+<i>Codex Liturgicus Ecclesiae Universae in xv. libris</i> (this is incomplete),
+and <i>Comment. de Catholicis sive Patriarchis Chaldaeorum
+et Nestorianorum</i> (Rome, 1775).</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Stephen Evodius</span>, nephew of Joseph Simon and Joseph
+Aloysius, was the chief assistant of his uncle Joseph Simon in his
+work in the Vatican library. He was titular archbishop of
+Apamea in Syria, and held several rich prebends in Italy. His
+literary labours were very extensive. His two most important
+works were a description of certain valuable MSS. in his <i>Bibliotheae
+Mediceo-Laurentianae et Palatinae codd. manuscr. Orientalium
+Catalogus</i> (Flor. 1742), fol., and his <i>Acta SS. Martyrum
+Orientalium.</i> He made several translations from the Syrian,
+and in conjunction with his uncle he began the <i>Bibliothecae
+Apostol. Vatic. codd. manusc. Catal., in tres partes distributus.</i>
+Only three vols. were published, and the fire in the Vatican
+library in 1768 consumed the manuscript collections which had
+been prepared for the continuation of the work.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Simon</span>, grandnephew of Joseph Simon, was born at Tripoli
+in 1752, and was professor of Oriental languages in Padua. He
+died in 1820. He is best known by his masterly detection of the
+literary imposture of Vella, which claimed to be a history of the
+Saracens in Syria.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the term used in English law for an
+assembly of three or more persons with intent to commit a crime
+by force, or to carry out a common purpose (whether lawful or
+unlawful), in such a manner or in such circumstances as would
+in the opinion of firm and rational men endanger the public
+peace or create fear of immediate danger to the tranquillity of
+the neighbourhood. In the Year Book of the third year of
+Henry  VII.&rsquo;s reign assemblies were referred to as not punishable
+unless <i>in terrorem populi domini regis</i>. It has been suggested
+(Criminal Code Commission, 1879) that legislation first became
+necessary at a time when it was usual for those landed proprietors
+who were on bad terms with one another to go to market at the
+head of bands of armed retainers (Statute of Northampton,
+1328, 2 Edw. III. c. 3). An assembly, otherwise lawful, is not
+made unlawful if those who take part in it know beforehand
+that there will probably be organized opposition to it, and that
+it may cause a breach of the peace (<i>Beatty</i> v. <i>Gillbanks</i>, 1882,
+9 Q.B.D. 308). All persons may, and must if called upon to do
+so, assist in dispersing an unlawful assembly (<i>Redford</i> v. <i>Birley</i>,
+1822, 1 St. Tr. n.s. 1215; <i>R.</i> v. <i>Pinney</i>, 1831, 3 St. Tr. n.s. 11).
+An assembly which is lawful cannot be rendered unlawful by
+proclamation unless the proclamation is one authorized by
+statute (<i>R.</i> v. <i>Fursey</i>, 1833, 3 St. Tr. n.s. 543, 567; <i>R.</i> v.
+<i>O&rsquo;Connell</i>, 1831, 2 St. Tr. n.s. 629, 656; see also the Prevention
+of Crimes [Ireland] Act 1887). Meetings for training or drilling,
+or military movements, are unlawful assemblies unless held under
+lawful authority from the crown, the lord-lieutenant, or two
+justices of the peace (Unlawful Drilling Act 1820, s. 11).</p>
+
+<p>An unlawful assembly which has made a motion towards its
+common purpose is termed a <i>rout</i>, and if the unlawful assembly
+should proceed to carry out its purpose, <i>e.g.</i> begin to demolish a
+particular enclosure, it becomes a riot (<i>q.v.</i>). All three offences
+are misdemeanours in English law, punishable by fine and
+imprisonment. The common law as to unlawful assembly
+extends to Ireland, subject to the special legislation referred to
+under the title <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riot</a></span>. The law of Scotland includes unlawful
+assembly under the same head as rioting.</p>
+
+<p><i>British Dominions Abroad</i>.&mdash;The law of the British colonies
+as a general rule as to unlawful assemblies follows the common
+law of England. The definitions in the Criminal Codes of Canada
+(1892, s. 79) and Queensland (1899, s. 61) are substantially the
+same as the common-law definition above given. Under the
+Indian Penal Code (s. 141) an assembly of five or more persons
+is designated an unlawful assembly if the common object of the
+persons composing that assembly is&mdash;(1) to overawe by criminal
+force, or show of criminal force, the legislative or executive
+government of India, or the government of any presidency or
+any lieutenant-governor, or any public servant in the exercise
+of the lawful power of such public servant; (2) to resist the
+execution of any law or of any legal process; (3) to commit any
+mischief or &ldquo;criminal trespass&rdquo; or other offence; (4) by means
+of criminal force or show of criminal force to any person, to take
+or obtain possession of any property, or to deprive any person of
+the enjoyment of a right of way, or of the use of water, or other
+corporeal right of which he is in possession or enjoyment, or
+to enforce any right or supposed right; or (5) by means of
+criminal force or show of criminal force, to compel any person
+to do what he is not legally bound to do, or to omit to do
+what he is legally entitled to do (see Mayne, <i>Ind. Cr. Law</i>, ed.
+1896, p. 480). In South Africa and Mauritius the law on this
+subject is derived from the Roman Dutch and French law (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riot</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>United States</i>.&mdash;The common-law definition of unlawful
+assembly is accepted in the United States subject to the special
+legislation of the constituent states. The New York Penal Code
+(s. 451) declares that whenever three or more persons being
+assembled attempt or threaten any act tending towards a breach
+of the peace or injury to person or property, or any unlawful
+act, such assembly is unlawful (see Bishop, <i>Amer. Crim. Law</i>,
+8th ed., 1892, vol. i. s. 534, vol. ii. s. 1256).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSEN,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> the capital of the province of Drente, Holland, 16 m.
+by rail S. of Groningen, at the junction of the two canals which
+run north and south to Groningen and Meppel respectively.
+Pop. (1900) 11,329. It is partly surrounded by a small forest
+belonging to the state. Assen possesses schools (a gymnasium
+and burgher school), a chamber of commerce, a museum of
+antiquities and a court-house. Peat-cutting forms a considerable
+industry. Many prehistoric remains found in the neighbourhood
+are in the museum at Leiden. Until the 19th century Assen was
+a small place built round the convent in which Otto II. (of Lippe),
+bishop of Utrecht, was murdered after being taken prisoner at
+Koevorden in 1237.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSER,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Asserius Menevensis</span> (d. <i>c.</i> 910), English bishop,
+and author of a life of Alfred the Great, was a native of the
+western part of Wales, and was related to Nobis, bishop of St
+David&rsquo;s. He became a monk at St David&rsquo;s, and having acquired
+some reputation for learning, he was invited by King Alfred to
+his court. The king met the monk at Denu (probably East or
+West Dean, near Seaford in Sussex), but Asser did not at once
+accept the invitation of Alfred, and returned to Wales to consult
+his colleagues. He then agreed to spend six months of each year
+with the king and six months in his own land; but his first stay
+at the royal court extended to eight months, and it is probable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span>
+that the annual visit to Wales was curtailed if not altogether
+discontinued. It is difficult to fix the date of Asser&rsquo;s arrival in
+England, but it was probably about 885. He assisted the king
+in his studies, received from him the monasteries of Congresbury
+and Banwell, and sometime later &ldquo;Exeter and its diocese in
+Saxonland and Cornwall.&rdquo; He became bishop of Sherborne
+before 900, and his death is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
+under the date 910, although it is possible that it occurred a
+year or two earlier. The scanty details of Asser&rsquo;s life are taken
+from his biography of Alfred, from which it is inferred that he
+was acquainted with one or two Frankish biographies, and
+possibly had visited the continent of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Asser&rsquo;s work, <i>Annales rerum gestarum Alfredi magni</i>, was
+written about 893, and consists of a chronicle of English history
+from 849 to 887, and an account of Alfred&rsquo;s life, largely drawn
+from personal knowledge, down to 887. The only manuscript
+of which there is any record dates from about 1000, and was
+destroyed by fire in 1731. From this manuscript an edition was
+printed in 1574 under the direction of Matthew Parker, archbishop
+of Canterbury; but this contained many interpolations
+and alterations which were copied by subsequent editors. The
+text has since been the subject of careful study, and the edition
+edited by W.H. Stevenson (Oxford, 1904) distinguishes between
+the original work of Asser and the later additions. Some doubt
+has been cast upon the authenticity of the work, especially by
+T. Wright in the <i>Biographia Britannica literaria</i> (London, 1842),
+who ascribes the life to a monk of St Neots; but the latest
+scholarship regards it as the work of Asser, although all the
+difficulties which surround the authorship have not been removed.
+The life was largely used by subsequent chroniclers, among
+others by Florence of Worcester, Simeon of Durham, Roger of
+Hoveden, and William of Malmesbury.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.H. Stevenson, Introduction to Asser&rsquo;s <i>Life of King Alfred</i>
+(Oxford, 1904); R. Pauli, Introduction to <i>König Aelfred</i> (Berlin, 1851).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSESSMENT,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>assessare</i>, to sit beside, to judge), a
+term expressing either an official valuation of income or property
+for purposes of taxation, or the amount so determined (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Taxation</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valuation</a></span>). It is also applied to the amount
+of damages fixed by a jury in a court of law (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Damages</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>An <i>assessment committee</i> is a statutory committee appointed
+under the Union Assessment Acts 1862, 1880, for the purpose of
+making out the valuation lists upon which the poor-law rate is
+based.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>assessment policy</i>, in life insurance, is a policy issued at a
+fixed premium, the excess of which over the portion necessary
+to meet current claims and expenses goes to form a reserve fund
+which is devoted to various forms of benefit for the policy-holders.
+See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insurance</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Friendly Societies</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSESSOR<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (Lat. <i>assessare</i>, <i>assidere</i>, to sit by), a Roman term
+originally applied to a trained lawyer who sat beside a governor
+of a province or other magistrate, to instruct him in the administration
+of the laws (see Roll, <i>De assessoribus magistratuum
+Romanorum</i>, Leipzig, 1872). The system is still exemplified in
+Scotland, where it is usual in the larger towns for municipal
+magistrates, in the administration of their civil jurisdiction, to
+have the aid of professional assessors. In England, by the Judicature
+Act 1873, the court of appeal and the High Court may
+in any cause or matter call in the aid of assessors. The Patents
+Act 1907 makes special provision for assessors in patent and
+trade-mark cases. By the Supreme Court of Judicature Act
+1891 the House of Lords may, in appeals in admiralty actions,
+call in the aid of assessors, while in the admiralty division of the
+High Court it is usual for the Elder Brethren of Trinity House to
+assist as nautical assessors. In admiralty cases in the county
+courts, too, the judge is frequently assisted by assessors of
+&ldquo;nautical skill and experience&rdquo; (County Court Admiralty
+Jurisdiction Act 1868). In the ecclesiastical courts assessors
+assist the bishop in proceedings under the Church Discipline Act
+1840, s. 11, while under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, s. 2,
+they assist the chancellor in determining questions of fact. By
+the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14, the king in council
+may make rules for the attendance of archbishops and bishops
+as assessors in the hearing of ecclesiastical cases by the judicial
+committee of the privy council.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;assessor&rdquo; is also very generally applied to persons
+appointed to ascertain and fix the value of rates, taxes, &amp;c.,
+and in this sense the word is used in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In France and in all European countries where the civil law
+system prevails, the term <i>assesseur</i> is applied to those assistant
+judges who, with a president, compose a judicial court.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany an <i>Assessor</i>, or <i>Beisitzer</i>, is a member of the legal
+profession who has passed four years in actual practice and
+become qualified for the position of a judge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSETS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (from the O. Nor. Fr. <i>assetz</i>, mod. Fr. <i>assez</i>, &ldquo;enough&rdquo;),
+in English law, strictly the property of a debtor in the
+hands of his representative sufficient for the satisfaction of his
+creditors or legatees. Thus the property of a bankrupt is termed
+his assets and is the fund out of which his liabilities must be paid.
+All property of the debtor is assets, and it is not necessary that
+it should have been reduced into possession by him.</p>
+
+<p>The creditors of a debtor are either secured or unsecured. A
+secured creditor, <i>e.g.</i> a mortgagee, has a prior claim to be paid his
+debt out of his security. If on realization of the security there is
+a balance after paying the debt, such balance becomes assets for
+the unsecured creditors; if there is a deficit, then the creditor
+becomes an unsecured creditor for such deficit. The unsecured
+creditors were formerly divided into creditors by specialty and
+by simple contract, the first being creditors secured by instrument
+under seal who ranked in priority to simple contract creditors.
+But by Hinde Palmer&rsquo;s Act [the Executors Act] 1869 all unsecured
+creditors rank alike.</p>
+
+<p>Assets are divisible into legal assets and equitable assets, and
+the former class is again divisible into assets real and personal.
+These distinctions, though formerly of great importance, have
+now lost most of their meaning, but it is necessary briefly to describe
+the nature of these divisions and their consequences. The
+distinction between assets legal and equitable depends entirely
+upon the remedy open to the creditor to recover his debt and in
+no way upon the nature of the property from which the debt is
+sought to be recovered. If the creditor had to sue the executor
+of a debtor at law to obtain payment out of the property, that
+property was legal assets; but if the only remedy open to the
+creditor to get at the property was to bring an action in chancery
+for the administration of the estate, then the assets were
+equitable.</p>
+
+<p>Legal assets, as has been said, were divided into real and
+personal assets. The personal assets were those which devolved
+<i>virtute officii</i> on the executor or administrator; such assets are
+since Hinde Palmer&rsquo;s Act available equally for specialty and
+simple contract creditors. The real assets consisted of those
+descending to the heir or devised to a devisee, and were at law
+only liable for specialty debts. However, by the Land Transfer
+Act 1897 it is provided that the real estate of a deceased shall
+devolve upon the executor and &ldquo;shall be administered in the
+same manner ... and with the same incidents as if it were
+personal estate.&rdquo; The distinction, therefore, between assets real
+and personal has practically ceased to exist, and only continues
+in regard to such property as is not included in the act, the most
+important of which is land held in copyhold.</p>
+
+<p>The equitable assets were treated otherwise. In the eyes of
+equity all unsecured creditors stand upon the same footing,
+and a creditor suing for administration of the estate sued on
+behalf of himself and all other creditors of the estate, and the
+distinction between specialty and simple contract creditors was
+ignored. Land was not at law liable to satisfy simple contract
+creditors; but if a testator expressly charged it with payment
+of his debts or devised it to his executors upon trust
+to pay his debts, equity treated it as equitable assets and so
+made it available to satisfy simple contract creditors; and
+finally by an act of 1833 it was provided that real estate
+should in all cases be assets to be administered by equity
+for the benefit of simple contract creditors as well as creditors
+by specialty. It will be seen therefore that, generally speaking,
+all creditors have now the same remedies against the executors
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span>
+either at law or in equity. The only property as to which these
+distinctions at all survive is that not touched by the Land
+Transfer Act 1897.</p>
+
+<p>The act of 1833 just mentioned does not, however, deal with
+legacies, which continue to be payable only out of personalty
+unless they are expressly charged upon the realty by the testator;
+it has been contended that the effect of the Land Transfer Act
+1897 has been to alter this and make the realty assets for the
+purpose of paying legacies, but this view is believed to be unsound.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary for the representative so to distribute the assets
+that any fund primarily liable shall bear its proper burden, and
+that as far as possible all debts and legacies may be paid; this
+is said to be &ldquo;marshalling the assets,&rdquo; and a few examples of
+the principal cases of marshalling will make this clear. If the
+personalty is exhausted in satisfying the creditors the legatees
+are left without a fund from which to be paid. But inasmuch as
+the creditor could have got paid out of the realty, as well as the
+personalty, it is not fair that the legatee should suffer by the
+creditor&rsquo;s choice, and he will therefore get payment from the
+real estate. So again if one legacy is charged upon the real
+estate and another is not, then if the former be paid out of the
+personalty the latter will stand in its place and be paid from
+the real estate.</p>
+
+<p>Finally it shall be noticed that an insolvent estate may be
+administered in bankruptcy. In such a case the law of bankruptcy
+regulates the order in which the assets are divided among
+the creditors (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>), but by the Judicature Act 1875,
+it is provided that an insolvent estate may be administered in
+the chancery division, and in such a case &ldquo;the same rules shall
+prevail and be observed as to the respective rights of secured
+and unsecured creditors and as to the debts and liabilities
+provable and as to the valuation of annuities and future and
+contingent liabilities respectively as may be in force for the time
+being under the law of bankruptcy.&rdquo; This clause must be
+construed strictly, and it is only in the three cases specifically
+mentioned that the rules of bankruptcy will be imported into
+the administration of an insolvent estate by the chancery
+division.</p>
+
+<p>In a less strict sense, the term &ldquo;assets,&rdquo; or &ldquo;an asset,&rdquo; is
+used derivatively as a synonym for any property, or as opposed
+to &ldquo;liabilities.&rdquo; Cecil Rhodes once spoke of the British flag
+as a &ldquo;great commercial asset&rdquo; in South Africa, meaning
+merely that the imperial connexion was a source of strength and
+credit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSIDEANS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (the Anglicized form, derived through the Greek,
+of the Hebrew <i>&#7716;asidim</i>, &ldquo;the pious&rdquo;), the name of a party or
+sect which stood out against the Hellenization of the Jews in
+the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After the massacre of those who fled from
+the forces of Antiochus Epiphanes and would not resist on the
+sabbath, Mattathias (or Judas) decided to set aside the law and
+was joined by a company of Assideans, brave men of Israel
+every one, who offered themselves willingly for the law (1 Macc.
+ii. 42, cf. 2 Macc. viii. 1). On the appointment of Alcimus (162
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), &ldquo;a descendant of Aaron&rdquo; as high-priest, &ldquo;the Assideans
+were the first who sought peace&rdquo; (1 Macc. vii. 13 f.); but the
+treacherous murder of sixty of them (ib. 16) threw them back
+into the arms of Judas. According to 2 Macc. xiv., Alcimus
+identified them with the whole party of the rebels, of which
+they were only one, though the most important, section.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Schurer, <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i>, i. 203; art. in <i>Jewish
+Encyclopaedia</i>, s.v. &ldquo;&#7716;asidim&rdquo; (S.M. Dubnow).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSIGNATS<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>assignatus</i>, assigned), a form of
+paper-money issued in France from 1789 to 1796. Assignats were so
+termed, as representing land <i>assigned</i> to the holders.</p>
+
+<p>The financial strait of the French government in 1789 was
+extreme. Coin was scarce, loans were not taken up, taxes had
+ceased to be productive, and the country was threatened with
+imminent bankruptcy. In this emergency assignats were issued
+to provide a substitute for a metallic currency. They were
+originally of the nature of mortgage bonds on the national lands.
+These lands consisted of the church property confiscated, on the
+motion of Mirabeau, by the Constituent Assembly on the 2nd
+of November 1789, and the crown lands, which had been
+taken over by the nation on the 7th of October (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French
+Revolution</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The assignats were first to be paid to the creditors of the state.
+With these the creditors could purchase national land, the
+assignats having, for this purpose, the preference over other
+forms of money. If the creditor did not care to purchase land,
+it was supposed that he could obtain the face-value for them
+from those who desired land. Those assignats which were returned
+to the state as purchase-money were to be cancelled, and
+the whole issue, it was argued, would consequently disappear as
+the national lands were distributed.</p>
+
+<p>A first issue was made of 400,000,000 francs&rsquo; worth of
+assignats, each note being of 100 francs&rsquo; value and bearing
+interest daily at a rate of 5%. They were to be redeemed by
+the product of the sales, and from certain other sources, at the
+rate of 120,000,000 francs in 1791, 100,000,000 francs in 1792,
+80,000,000 francs in 1793 and 1794, and the surplus in 1795.
+The success of the issue was undoubted, and, possibly, if the
+assignats had been restricted, as Mirabeau at first desired, to
+the extent of one-half the value of the lands sold, they would
+not have shared the usual fate of inconvertible paper money.
+Mirabeau was a strenuous advocate of the assignats. &ldquo;They
+represent,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;real property, the most secure of all
+possessions, the soil on which we tread.&rdquo; &ldquo;There cannot be a
+greater error than the fear so generally prevalent as to the
+over-issue of assignats ... reabsorbed progressively in the purchase
+of the national domains, this paper-money can never become
+redundant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1790 the interest was reduced to 3%, and as the treasury
+had again become exhausted, a further issue was decided upon;
+it was also decreed that the assignats were to be accepted as
+legal tender, all public departments being instructed to receive
+them as the equivalent of metallic money. This second issue
+amounted to 800,000,000 francs and carried no interest. It was
+solemnly declared in the decree authorizing the issue that the
+maximum issue was never to exceed twelve hundred millions.
+This pledge, however, was soon broken, and further issues
+brought the total up to 3,750,000,000 francs. The consequence of
+these further issues was instant depreciation, and the note of 100
+francs nominal value sank to less than 20 francs coin. Recourse
+was then had to protective legislation. The first step was to
+decree the penalty of six years&rsquo; imprisonment against any
+person who should sell specie for a more considerable quantity
+of assignats, or who should stipulate a different price for commodities
+according as the payment was to be made in specie or in
+assignats. For the second offence the penalty was to be twenty
+years&rsquo; imprisonment (August 1, 1793), for which the death
+penalty was ultimately substituted (May 10, 1794). This
+severe provision was, however, repealed after the fall of
+Robespierre. Notwithstanding these precautions, the value of assignats
+still declined, till the proportion to specie had become that of six
+to one. Then came the passing by the Convention on the 3rd of
+May 1793 of the absurd &ldquo;maximum.&rdquo; The decree required all
+farmers and corn-dealers to declare the quantity of corn in their
+possession and to sell it only in recognized markets. No person
+was to be allowed to lay in more than one month&rsquo;s supply. A
+maximum price was fixed, above which no one was to buy or sell
+under severe penalties. These measures were soon stultified by
+further issues, and by June 1794 the total number of assignats
+aggregated nearly 8,000,000,000, of which only 2,464,000,000
+had returned to the treasury and been destroyed. The extension
+of the &ldquo;maximum&rdquo; to all commodities only increased the
+confusion. Trade was paralysed and all manufacturing
+establishments were closed down. Attempts by the Convention to
+increase the value of the assignats were of no avail. Too many
+causes operated in favour of their depreciation: the enormous
+issue, the uncertainty as to their value if the Revolution should
+fail, the relation they bore to both specie and commodities,
+which retained their value and refused to be exchanged for
+a money of constantly diminishing purchasing power. Even
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span>
+between the assignats themselves there were differences. The
+royal assignats, which had been issued under Louis XVI., had
+depreciated less than the republican ones. They were worth
+from 8 to 15% more, a fact due to the hope that in case of a
+counter-revolution they would be less likely to be discredited.</p>
+
+<p>The Directory was guilty of even greater abuses in dealing
+with the assignats. By 1796 the issues had reached the enormous
+figure of 45,500,000,000 francs, and even this gigantic total was
+swollen still more by the numerous counterfeits introduced into
+France from the neighbouring countries. The assignats had now
+become totally valueless&mdash;the abolition of the &ldquo;maximum&rdquo; the
+previous year (1795) had produced no effect, and, though, by
+various payments into the treasury, the total number had been
+reduced to about 24,000,000,000 francs, their face-value was
+about 30 to 1 of coin. At this value they were converted into
+800,000,000 francs of land-warrants, or <i>mandats territoriaux</i>,
+which were to constitute a mortgage on all the lands of the
+republic. These <i>mandats</i> were no more successful than the
+assignats, and even on the day of their issue were at a discount
+of 82%. They had an existence of six months, and were finally
+received back by the state at about the seventieth part of their
+face-value in coin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;L.A. Thiers, <i>Histoire de la révolution française</i>,
+gives a full and graphic account of the assignats, the causes of their
+depreciation, &amp;c.;
+J. Garnier, <i>Traité des Finances</i> (1862);
+J. Bresson, <i>Histoire financičre de la France</i> (1829);
+R. Stourm, <i>Les Finances de l&rsquo;ancien régime et de la révolution</i> (1885);
+F.A. Walker, <i>Money</i> (1891);
+Henry Higgs, in the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. viii. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSIGNMENT,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> <span class="sc">Assignation, Assignee</span> (from Lat. <i>assignare</i>,
+to mark out), terms which, as derivatives of the verb &ldquo;to
+assign,&rdquo; are of frequent technical use in law. To assign is to
+make over, and the term is generally used to express a transference
+by writing, in contradistinction to a transference by actual
+delivery. In England the usual expression is assignment, in
+Scotland it is assignation. The person making over is called the
+<i>assignor</i> or <i>cedent</i>; the recipient, the <i>assign</i> or <i>assignee</i>. An
+assignee may be such either <i>by deed</i>, as when a lessee assigns his
+lease to another, or <i>in law</i>, as when property devolves upon an
+executor. The law as to assignment in connexion with each
+particular subject, as the assignment of a chose in action,
+assignment in contract, of dower, of errors, of a lease, &amp;c., will be
+found under the respective headings. In a colloquial sense,
+&ldquo;assignation&rdquo; means a secretly contrived meeting between lovers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSINIBOIA,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a name formerly applied to two districts of
+Canada, but not now held by any. (1) A district formed in 1835
+by the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company, having in it Fort Garry at the
+junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers in Rupert&rsquo;s Land,
+North America. It extended over a circular area, with a radius
+of 50 m. from Fort Garry. It was governed by a local council
+nominated by the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company. It ceased to exist
+when Rupert&rsquo;s Land was transferred to Canada in 1870. (2) A
+district of the North-west Territories, which was given definite
+existence by an act of the Dominion parliament in 1875. Assiniboia
+extended from the western boundary of Manitoba (99° W.
+in 1875, and 101° 25&prime; W. in 1881) to 111° W., and from
+49° N. to 52° N. The name was a misnomer, as it barely
+touched the Assiniboine river. To the north of the district lay
+the district of Saskatchewan, so that when the two were united
+by the Dominion act of 1905, they were somewhat changed in
+boundaries and the name Saskatchewan was given to the new
+province. The derivation of Assiniboia is from two Ojibway
+words, <i>assini</i> meaning a stone, and the termination &ldquo;to cook
+by roasting&rdquo;; from these came a name first applied to a Dakota
+or Sioux tribe living on the Upper Red river; afterwards when
+this tribe separated from the Dakotas, its name was given to the
+branch of the Red river which the tribe visited, the river being
+known as the Assiniboine and the tribe as Assiniboin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSINIBOIN<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (&ldquo;Stone-Cookers&rdquo;), a tribe of North American
+Indians of Siouan stock. Their name (see above) is said to refer
+to their method of boiling water by dropping red-hot stones into
+it. Their former range was between the Missouri and the middle
+Saskatchewan on both sides of the Canadian frontier. In 1904
+there were 1234 in the United States, all on reservations in
+Montana; and in 1902 there were 1371 in Canada.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i>, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSISE<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (from the Fr., derived from Lat. <i>assidere</i>, to sit beside),
+a geological term for two or more beds of rock united by the
+occurrence of the same characteristic species or genera.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSISI<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (anc. <i>Asisium</i>), a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
+Italy, in the province of Perugia, 15 m. E.S.E. by rail from the
+town of Perugia. Pop. (1901) town, 5338; commune, 17,240.
+The town occupies a fine position on a mountain (1345 ft. above
+sea-level) with a view over the valleys of the Tiber and Topino.
+It is mainly famous in connexion with St Francis, who was
+born here in 1182, and returned to die in 1226. The Franciscan
+monastery and the lower and upper church of St Francis were
+begun immediately after his canonization in 1228, and completed
+in 1253, being fine specimens of Gothic architecture. The crypt
+was added in 1818, when the sarcophagus containing his remains
+was discovered. The lower church contains frescoes by Cimabue,
+Giotto and others, the most famous of which are those over the
+high altar by Giotto, illustrating the vows of the Franciscan
+order; while the upper church has frescoes representing scenes
+from the life of St Francis (probably by Giotto and his
+contemporaries) on the lower portion of the walls of the nave, and
+scenes from Old and New Testament history by pupils of Cimabue
+on the upper. The church of Santa Chiara (St Clare), the
+foundress of the Poor Clares, with its massive lateral buttresses,
+fine rose-window, and simple Gothic interior, was begun in 1257,
+four years after her death. It contains the tomb of the saint
+and 13th-century frescoes and pictures. Santa Maria Maggiore
+is also a good Gothic church. The cathedral (San Rufino) has a
+fine façade with three rose-windows of 1140; the interior was
+modernized in 1572. The town is dominated by the medieval
+castle (1655 ft.), built by Cardinal Albornoz (1367) and added
+to by Popes Pius II. and Paul III. Two miles to the east in
+a ravine below Monte Subasio is the hermitage <i>delle Carceri</i>
+(2300 ft.), partly built, partly cut out of the solid rock, given to
+St Francis by Benedictine monks as a place of retirement.
+Below the town to the south-west, close to the station, is the large
+pilgrimage church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, begun in 1569
+by Pope Pius V., with Vignola as architect; but not completed
+until 1640. It contains the original oratory of St Francis and
+the cell in which he died. Adjacent is the garden in which the
+saint&rsquo;s thornless roses bloom in May. Half a mile outside the
+town to the south-east is the convent of San Damiano, erected
+by St Francis, of which St Clare was first abbess.</p>
+
+<p>In the early middle ages Assisi was subject to the dukes of
+Spoleto; but in the 11th century it seems to have been independent.
+It became involved, however, in the disputes of Guelphs
+and Ghibellines, and was frequently at war with Perugia. It
+was sacked by Perugia and the papal troops in 1442, and even
+after that continued to be the prey of factions. The place is
+now famous as a resort of pilgrims, and is also important for the
+history of Italian art. The poet Metastasio was born here in 1698.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Duff-Gordon, <i>Assisi</i> (&ldquo;Mediaeval Towns&rdquo; series, London,
+1900). For ancient history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asisium</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSIUT,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Siut</span>, capital of a province of Upper Egypt of the
+same name, and the largest and best-built town in the Nile
+Valley south of Cairo, from which it is distant 248 m. by rail.
+The population rose from 32,000 in 1882 to 42,000 in 1900.
+Assiut stands near the west bank of the Nile across which, just
+below the town, is a barrage, completed in 1902, consisting of an
+open weir, 2733 ft. long, and over 100 bays or sluices, each 16˝
+ft. wide, which can be opened or closed at will. At the western
+end of the barrage begins the Ibrahimia canal, the feeder of the
+Bahr Yusuf, the largest irrigation canal of Egypt. The
+Ibrahimia canal is skirted by a magnificent embankment planted
+with shady trees leading from the river to the town. There are
+several bazaars, baths and handsome mosques, one noted for its
+lofty minaret, and here the American Presbyterian mission has
+established a college for both sexes. Assiut is famous for its red
+and black pottery and for ornamental wood and ivory work,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
+which find a ready market all over Egypt. It is one of the chief
+centres of the Copts. Here also is the northern terminus of the
+caravan route across the desert, which, passing through the
+Kharga oasis, goes south-west to Darfur. It is known as the
+Arbain, or forty days road, from the time occupied on the journey.
+Assiut (properly Asy&#363;t) is the successor of the ancient Lycopolis
+(Eg. Siöout), capital of the 13th nome of Upper Egypt. Here
+were worshipped two canine gods (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anubis</a></span>), Ophoďs (Wepwoi)
+being the principal god of the city, while Anubis apparently
+presided over the necropolis. No ruins are visible, the mounds of
+the old city being for the most part hidden under modern
+buildings; but the slopes of the limestone hills behind it are
+pierced with an infinity of rock-cut tombs, some of which were
+large and decorated with sculptures, paintings and long inscriptions.
+The archaeological commission of the <i>Description de l&rsquo;Égypte</i> visited them in 1799, when the walls of many of the large
+tombs were still almost intact; in the first half of the 19th century
+(and to some extent later) an immense amount of destruction
+was caused by blasting for stone. Three of the tombs illustrate
+one of the darkest periods in Egypt&rsquo;s history, when the princes of
+Siut played a leading part in the struggle between Heracleopolis
+and Thebes (Dyns. IX.-XI.); another, of the XIIth Dynasty,
+contains a remarkable inscription detailing the contracts made
+by the nomarch with the priests of the temples of Ophoďs
+and Anubis for perpetual services at his tomb (see Breasted,
+<i>Ancient Records of Egypt, Historical Documents</i>, vol. i. pp.
+179, 258). Remains of the mummies of dogs and similar
+animals sacred to these deities are scattered among the débris
+on the hillside in abundance. Lycopolis was the birthplace
+of Plotinus, the founder of Neo-Platonism (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 205-270).
+From the 4th century onwards its grottoes were the dwellings
+of Christian hermits, amongst whom John of Lycopolis was
+the most celebrated.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSIZE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Assise</span> (Lat. <i>assidere</i>, to sit beside; O. Fr. <i>assire</i>,
+to sit, <i>assis</i>, seated), a legal term, meaning literally a &ldquo;session,&rdquo;
+but in fact, as Littleton has styled it, a <i>nomen aequivocum</i>, meaning
+sometimes a jury, sometimes the sittings of a court, and
+sometimes the ordinances of a court or assembly.</p>
+
+<p>It originally signified the form of trial by a jury of sixteen
+persons, which eventually superseded the barbarous judicial
+combat; this jury was named the grand assize and was sworn
+to determine the right of seisin of land (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Evidence</a></span>). The
+grand assize was abolished in 1833; but the term assize is still
+applicable to the jury in criminal causes in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>In the only sense in which the word is not now almost
+obsolete, assize means the periodical session of the judges of the
+High Court of Justice, held in the various counties of England,
+chiefly for the purposes of gaol delivery and trying causes at
+<i>nisi prius</i>. Previous to Magna Carta (1215) writs of assize had
+all to be tried at Westminster, or to await trial in the locality in
+which they had originated at the septennial circuit of the justices
+in eyre; but, by way of remedy for the great consequent delay
+and inconvenience, it was provided by this celebrated act that
+the assizes of <i>mort d&rsquo;ancestor</i> and <i>novel disseisin</i> should be tried
+annually by the judges in every county. By successive enactments,
+the civil jurisdiction of the justices of assize was extended,
+and the number of their sittings increased, till at last the necessity
+of repairing to Westminster for judgment in civil actions was
+almost obviated to country litigants by an act, passed in the reign
+of Edward I., which provided that the writ summoning the jury
+to Westminster should also appoint a time and place for hearing
+such causes within the county of their origin. The date of the
+alternative summons to Westminster was always subsequent to
+the former date, and so timed as to fall in the vacation preceding
+the Westminster term, and thus &ldquo;<i>Unless before</i>,&rdquo; or <i>nisi prius</i>,
+issues came to be dealt with by the judges of assize before the
+summons to Westminster could take effect. The <i>nisi prius</i>
+clause, however, was not then introduced for the first time. It
+occurs occasionally in writs of the reign of Henry III. The royal
+commissions to hold the assizes are&mdash;(1) general, (2) special.
+The general commission is issued twice a year to the judges of the
+High Court of Justice, and two judges are generally sent on each
+circuit. It covers commissions&mdash;(1) of oyer and terminer, by
+which they are empowered to deal with treasons, murders,
+felonies, &amp;c. This is their largest commission; (2) of <i>nisi prius</i>
+(<i>q.v.</i>) (3) of gaol delivery, which requires them to try every
+prisoner in gaol, for whatsoever offence committed; (4) of the
+peace, by which all justices must be present at their county
+assizes, or else suffer a fine. Special commissions are granted for
+inquest in certain causes and crimes. See also the articles
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Circuit</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jury</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Assizes, in the sense of ordinances or enactments of a court or
+council of state, as the &ldquo;assize of bread and ale,&rdquo; the &ldquo;assize of
+Clarendon,&rdquo; the &ldquo;assize of arms,&rdquo; are important in early economic
+history. As early as the reign of John the observance of
+the <i>assisae venalium</i> was enforced, and for a period of 500
+years thereafter it was considered no unimportant part of the
+duties of the legislature to regulate by fixed prices, for the protection of the lieges, the sale of bread, ale, fuel, &amp;c. (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>). Sometimes in city charters the right to assize
+such articles is specially conceded. Regulations of this description
+were beneficial in the repression of fraud and adulteration.
+Assizes are sometimes used in a wider legislative connexion by
+early chroniclers and historians&mdash;the &ldquo;assisae of the realme,&rdquo;
+<i>e.g.</i> occasionally meaning the organic laws of the country. For
+the &ldquo;assizes of Jerusalem&rdquo; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The term assize, originally applying to an assembly or court,
+became transferred to actions before the court or the writs
+by which they were instituted. The following are the more
+important.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assize of darrien presentment</i>, or last presentation, was a
+writ directed to the sheriff to summon an assize or jury to
+enquire who was the last patron that presented to a church
+then vacant, of which the plaintiff complained that he was
+deforced or unlawfully deprived by the defendant. It was
+abolished in 1833 and the action of <i>quare impedit</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) substituted.
+But by the Common Law Procedure Act 1860, no
+<i>quare impedit</i> can be brought, so that an action in the king&rsquo;s
+bench of the High Court was substituted for it.</p>
+
+<p>Assize of <i>mort d&rsquo;ancestor</i> was a writ which lay where a plaintiff
+complained of an &ldquo;abatement&rdquo; or entry upon his freehold,
+effected by a stranger on the death of the plaintiff&rsquo;s father,
+mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, &amp;c. It was abolished in 1833.</p>
+
+<p>Assize of <i>novel disseisin</i> was an action to recover lands of which
+the plaintiff had been &ldquo;disseised&rdquo; or dispossessed. It was
+abolished in 1833. See Pollock and Maitland, <i>Hist. Eng. Law.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Assize, clerk of</i>, an officer &ldquo;who writes all things judicially
+done by the justices of assizes in their circuits.&rdquo; He has charge
+of the commission, and takes recognizances, records, judgments
+and sentences, grants certificates of conviction, draws up orders,
+&amp;c. By the Clerks of Assize Act 1869 he must either have
+been for three years a barrister or solicitor in actual practice, or
+have acted for three years in the capacity of subordinate officer
+of a clerk of assize on circuit.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;There are no assize courts in the United States;
+it is not the custom for supreme court judges of the states to go
+on circuit, but the judges of the United States Supreme Court do
+sit as members of the United States circuit courts in the several
+states periodically throughout the year. These courts are not
+assize courts, but are federal as distinguished from state courts,
+and have a special and limited jurisdiction. In the several states
+the highest court is divided into departments, in each of which
+there are courts presided over by supreme court judges residing
+in that department, thus avoiding the assize court or circuit-going
+system.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSMANNSHAUSEN,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine and
+the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Niederlahnstein. Pop.
+1100. It has a lithium spring, baths and a <i>Kurhaus</i>, and is
+famed for its red wine (Assmannshäuser), which resembles light
+Burgundy. From here a railway ascends the Niederwald.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSOCIATE<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (Lat. <i>associatus</i>, from <i>ad</i>, to, and <i>sociare</i> to join).
+one who is united with another, and so generally a companion&mdash;in
+particular a subordinate member of an institution or society,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
+as an associate of the Royal Academy, or one holding a degree in
+a learned society lower than that of fellow. In English law the
+associates are officers of the supreme court, whose duties are to
+draw up the list of causes, enter verdicts, hand the records to the
+parties, &amp;c., and generally to conduct the business of trials. By
+the Judicature (Officers) Act 1879 they were styled masters of
+the supreme court, but the office is now amalgamated with the
+crown office department, of which they are clerks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Mental Association</span>, a term
+used in psychology to express the conditions under which
+representations arise in consciousness, and also for a principle
+put forward by an important historical school of thinkers to
+account generally for the facts of mental life. Modern physiological
+psychology has so altered the approach to this subject
+that much of the older discussion has become antiquated, but it
+may be recapitulated here for historical purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Earlier Theory</i>.&mdash;In the long and erudite Note D**, appended by
+Sir W. Hamilton to his edition of Reid&rsquo;s Works, many anticipations
+of modern statements on association are cited from the works of
+ancient or medieval thinkers; and for Aristotle, in particular, the
+glory is claimed of having at once originated the doctrine and
+practically brought it to perfection.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> As translated by Hamilton,
+but without his interpolations, the classical passage from the <i>De
+Memoria et Reminiscentia</i> runs as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When, therefore, we accomplish an act of reminiscence, we pass
+through a certain series of precursive movements, until we arrive
+at a movement on which the one we are in quest of is habitually
+consequent. Hence, too, it is that we hunt through the mental
+train, excogitating from the present or some other, and from similar
+or contrary or coadjacent. Through this process reminiscence takes
+place. For the movements are, in these cases, sometimes at the
+same time, sometimes parts of the same whole, so that the subsequent
+movement is already more than half accomplished.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The passage is obscure, but it does at all events indicate the various
+principles commonly termed contiguity, similarity and contrast.
+Similar principles are stated by Zeno the Stoic, by Epicurus (see
+Diog. Laert. vii. § 52, x. § 32), and by St Augustine (<i>Confessions</i>,
+x. e. 19). Aristotle&rsquo;s doctrine received a more or less intelligent
+expansion and illustration from the ancient commentators and the
+schoolmen, and in the still later period of transition from the age
+of scholasticism to the time of modern philosophy, prolonged in the
+works of some writers far into the 17th century, Hamilton adduced
+not a few philosophical authorities who gave prominence to the
+general fact of mental association&mdash;the Spaniard Ludovicus Vives
+(1492-1540) especially being most exhaustive in his account of
+memory.</p>
+
+<p>In Hobbes&rsquo;s psychology much importance is assigned to what he
+called, variously, the succession, sequence, series, consequence,
+coherence, train of imaginations or thoughts in mental discourse.
+But not before Hume is there express question as to what are the
+distinct principles of association. John Locke had, meanwhile,
+introduced the phrase &ldquo;Association of Ideas&rdquo; as the title of a supplementary
+chapter incorporated with the fourth edition of his <i>Essay</i>,
+meaning it, however, only as the name of a principle accounting for
+the mental peculiarities of individuals, with little or no suggestion
+of its general psychological import. Of this last Hume had the
+strongest impression; he reduced the principles of association to
+three&mdash;Resemblance, Contiguity in time and place, Cause and (or)
+Effect. Dugald Stewart put forward Resemblance, Contrariety,
+and Vicinity in time and place, though he added, as another obvious
+principle, accidental coincidence in the sounds of words, and further
+noted three other cases of relation, namely, Cause and Effect, Means
+and End, Premisses and Conclusion, as holding among the trains of
+thought under circumstances of special attention. Reid, preceding
+Stewart, was rather disposed to make light of the subject of association,
+vaguely remarking that it seems to require no other original
+quality of mind but the power of habit to explain the spontaneous
+recurrence of trains of thinking, when become familiar by frequent
+repetition (<i>Intellectual Powers</i>, p. 387).</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton&rsquo;s own theory of mental reproduction, suggestion or
+association is a development, greatly modified, of the doctrine expounded
+in his <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i> (vol. ii. p. 223, seq.), which
+reduced the principles of association first to two&mdash;Simultaneity
+and Affinity, and these further to one supreme principle of Redintegration
+or Totality. In the ultimate scheme he posits no less than
+four general laws of mental succession concerned in reproduction:
+(1) <i>Associability</i> or possible co-suggestion (all thoughts of the same
+mental subject are associable or capable of suggesting each other);
+(2) <i>Repetition</i> or direct remembrance (thoughts coidentical in
+modification, but differing in time, tend to suggest each other);
+(3) <i>Redintegration</i>, direct remembrance or reminiscence (thoughts
+once coidentical in time, are, however, different as mental modes,
+again suggestive of each other, and that in the mutual order which
+they originally held); (4) <i>Preference</i> (thoughts are suggested not
+merely by force of the general subjective relation subsisting between
+themselves, they are also suggested in proportion to the relation of
+interest, from whatever source, in which they stand to the individual
+mind). Upon these follow, as special laws:&mdash;A, Primary&mdash;modes
+of the laws of Repetition and Redintegration&mdash;(1) law of Similars
+(Analogy, Affinity); (2) law of Contrast; (3) law of Coadjacency
+(Cause and Effect, &amp;c.); B, Secondary&mdash;modes of the law of Preference,
+under the law of Possibility&mdash;(1) laws of Immediacy and
+Homogeneity; (2) law of Facility.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Associationist School</i>.&mdash;This name is given to the English
+psychologists who aimed at explaining all mental acquisitions, and
+the more complex mental processes generally under laws not other
+than those which have just been set out as determining simple
+reproduction. Hamilton, though professing to deal with reproduction
+only, formulates a number of still more general laws of mental
+succession&mdash;law of Succession, law of Variation, law of Dependence,
+law of Relativity or Integration (involving law of Conditioned), and,
+finally, law of Intrinsic or Objective Relativity&mdash;as the highest to
+which human consciousness is subject; but it is in a sense quite
+different that the psychologists of the so-called Associationist
+School intend their appropriation of the principle or principles
+commonly signalized. As far as can be judged from imperfect
+records, they were anticipated to some extent by the experientialists
+of ancient times, both Stoic and Epicurean (cf. Diogenes Laertius,
+as above). In the modern period, Hobbes is the first thinker of
+permanent note to whom this doctrine may be traced. Though,
+in point of fact, he took anything but an exhaustive view of the
+phenomena of mental succession, yet, after dealing with trains of
+imagination, or what he called mental discourse, he sought in the
+higher departments of intellect to explain reasoning as a discourse
+in words, dependent upon an arbitrary system of marks, each
+associated with, or standing for, a variety of imaginations; and,
+save for a general assertion that reasoning is a reckoning&mdash;otherwise,
+a compounding and resolving&mdash;he had no other account of knowledge
+to give. The whole emotional side of mind, or, in his language,
+the passions, he, in like manner, resolved into an expectation of
+consequences, based on past experience of pleasures and pains of
+sense. Thus, though he made no serious attempt to justify his
+analysis in detail, he is undoubtedly to be classed with the associationists
+of the next century. They, however, were wont to trace
+their psychological theory no further back than to Locke&rsquo;s <i>Essay</i>.
+Bishop Berkeley was driven to posit expressly a principle of suggestion
+or association in these terms:&mdash;&ldquo;That one idea may suggest
+another to the mind, it will suffice that they have been observed to
+go together, without any demonstration of the necessity of their
+coexistence, or so much as knowing what it is that makes them so to
+coexist&rdquo; (<i>New Theory of Vision</i>, § 25); and to support the obvious
+application of the principle to the case of the sensations of sight
+and touch before him, he constantly urged that association of sound
+and sense of language which the later school has always put in the
+foreground, whether as illustrating the principle in general or in
+explanation of the supreme importance of language for knowledge.
+It was natural, then, that Hume, coming after Berkeley, and assuming
+Berkeley&rsquo;s results, though he reverted to the larger inquiry of
+Locke, should be more explicit in his reference to association; but
+he was original also, when he spoke of it as a &ldquo;kind of attraction
+which in the mental world will be found to have as extraordinary
+effects as in the natural, and to show itself in as many and as various
+forms&rdquo; (<i>Human Nature</i>, i. 1, § 4). Other inquirers about the same
+time conceived of association with this breadth of view, and set
+themselves to track, as psychologists, its effects in detail.</p>
+
+<p>David Hartley in his <i>Observations on Man</i>, published in 1749
+(eleven years after the <i>Human Nature</i>, and one year after the better-known
+<i>Inquiry</i>, of Hume), opened the path for all the investigations
+of like nature that have been so characteristic of English psychology.
+A physician by profession, he sought to combine with an
+elaborate theory of mental association a minutely detailed hypothesis
+as to the corresponding action of the nervous system, based
+upon the suggestion of a vibratory motion within the nerves thrown
+out by Newton in the last paragraph of the <i>Principia</i>. So far, however,
+from promoting the acceptance of the psychological theory,
+this physical hypothesis proved to have rather the opposite effect,
+and it began to be dropped by Hartley&rsquo;s followers (as F. Priestley, in
+his abridged edition of the <i>Observations</i>, 1775) before it was seriously
+impugned from without. When it is studied in the original, and
+not taken upon the report of hostile critics, who would not, or could
+not understand it, no little importance must still be accorded to the
+first attempt, not seldom a curiously felicitous one, to carry through
+that parallelism of the physical and psychical, which since then has
+come to count for more and more in the science of mind. Nor should
+it be forgotten that Hartley himself, for all his paternal interest in the
+doctrine of vibrations, was careful to keep separate from its fortunes
+the cause of his other doctrine of mental association. Of this the point
+lay in no mere restatement, with new precision, of a principle of
+coherence among &ldquo;ideas,&rdquo; but in its being taken as a clue by which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
+to follow the progressive development of the mind&rsquo;s powers. Holding
+that mental states could be scientifically understood only as they
+were analysed, Hartley sought for a principle of synthesis to explain
+the complexity exhibited not only in trains of representative images,
+but alike in the most involved combinations of reasonings and (as
+Berkeley had seen) in the apparently simple phenomena of objective
+perception, as well as in the varied play of the emotions, or, again,
+in the manifold conscious adjustments of the motor system. One
+principle appeared to him sufficient for all, running, as enunciated
+for the simplest case, thus: &ldquo;Any sensations A, B, C, &amp;c., by being
+associated with one another a sufficient number of times, get such a
+power over the corresponding ideas (called by Hartley also vestiges,
+types, images) <i>a, b, c</i>, &amp;c., that any one of the sensations A, when
+impressed alone, shall be able to excite in the mind <i>b, c</i>, &amp;c., the
+ideas of the rest.&rdquo; To render the principle applicable in the cases
+where the associated elements are neither sensations nor simple
+ideas of sensations, Hartley&rsquo;s first care was to determine the conditions
+under which states other than these simplest ones have their
+rise in the mind, becoming the matter of ever higher and higher
+combinations. The principle itself supplied the key to the difficulty,
+when coupled with the notion, already implied in Berkeley&rsquo;s investigations,
+of a coalescence of simple ideas of sensation into one complex
+idea, which may cease to bear any obvious relation to its constituents.
+So far from being content, like Hobbes, to make a rough generalization
+to all mind from the phenomena of developed memory, as if
+these might be straightway assumed, Hartley made a point of
+referring them, in a subordinate place of their own, to his universal
+principle of mental synthesis. He expressly put forward the law of
+association, endued with such scope, as supplying what was wanting
+to Locke&rsquo;s doctrine in its more strictly psychological aspect, and
+thus marks by his work a distinct advance on the line of development
+of the experiential philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>The new doctrine received warm support from some, as Law and
+Priestley, who both, like Hume and Hartley himself, took the principle
+of association as having the like import for the science of mind
+that gravitation had acquired for the science of matter. The principle
+began also, if not always with direct reference to Hartley, yet,
+doubtless, owing to his impressive advocacy of it, to be applied
+systematically in special directions, as by Abraham Tucker (1768)
+to morals, and by Archibald Alison (1790) to aesthetics. Thomas
+Brown (d. 1820) subjected anew to discussion the question of theory.
+Hardly less unjust to Hartley than Reid or Stewart had been, and
+forward to proclaim all that was different in his own position, Brown
+must yet be ranked with the associationists before and after him
+for the prominence he assigned to the associative principle in
+sense-perception (what he called external affections of mind), and for his
+reference of all other mental states (internal affections) to the two
+generic capacities or susceptibilities of Simple and Relative Suggestion.
+He preferred the word Suggestion to Association, which seemed
+to him to imply some prior connecting process, whereof there was
+no evidence in many of the most important cases of suggestion, nor
+even, strictly speaking, in the case of contiguity in time where the
+term seemed least inapplicable. According to him, all that could
+be assumed was a general constitutional tendency of the mind to
+exist successively in states that have certain relations to each other,
+of itself only, and without any external cause or any influence
+previous to that operating at the moment of the suggestion. Brown&rsquo;s
+chief contribution to the general doctrine of mental association,
+besides what he did for the theory of perception, was, perhaps, his
+analysis of voluntary reminiscence and constructive imagination&mdash;faculties
+that appear at first sight to lie altogether beyond the explanatory
+range of the principle. In James Mill&rsquo;s <i>Analysis of the
+Phenomena of the Human Mind</i> (1829), the principle, much as
+Hartley had conceived it, was carried out, with characteristic
+consequence, over the psychological field. With a much enlarged
+and more varied conception of association, Alexander Bain re-executed
+the general psychological task, while Herbert Spencer
+revised the doctrine from the new point of view of the evolution-hypothesis.
+John Stuart Mill made only occasional excursions into
+the region of psychology proper, but sought, in his <i>System of Logic</i>
+(1843), to determine the conditions of objective truth from the point
+of view of the associationist theory, and, thus or otherwise being
+drawn into general philosophical discussion, spread wider than any
+one before him its repute.</p>
+
+<p>The Associationist School has been composed chiefly of British
+thinkers, but in France also it has had distinguished representatives.
+Of these it will suffice to mention Condillac, who professed to explain
+all knowledge from the single principle of association (<i>liaison</i>) of
+ideas, operating through a previous association with signs, verbal
+or other. In Germany, before the time of Kant, mental association
+was generally treated in the traditional manner, as by Wolff. Kant&rsquo;s
+inquiry into the foundations of knowledge, agreeing in its general
+purport with Locke&rsquo;s, however it differed in its critical procedure,
+brought him face to face with the newer doctrine that had been
+grafted on Locke&rsquo;s philosophy; and to account for the fact of synthesis
+in cognition, in express opposition to associationism, as
+represented by Hume, was, in truth, his prime object, starting, as
+he did, from the assumption that there was that in knowledge which
+no mere association of experiences could explain. To the extent,
+therefore, that his influence prevailed, all inquiries made by the
+English associationists were discounted in Germany. Notwithstanding,
+under the very shadow of his authority a corresponding, if
+not related, movement was initiated by J.F. Herbart. Peculiar,
+and widely different from anything conceived by the associationists,
+as Herbart&rsquo;s metaphysical opinions were, he was at one with them,
+and at variance with Kant, in assigning fundamental importance to
+the psychological investigation of the development of consciousness,
+nor was his conception of the laws determining the interaction and
+flow of mental presentations and representations, when taken in its
+bare psychological import, essentially different from theirs. In F.E.
+Beneke&rsquo;s psychology also, and in more recent inquiries conducted
+mainly by physiologists, mental association has been understood in
+its wider scope, as a general principle of explanation.</p>
+
+<p>The associationists differ not a little among themselves in the
+statement of their principle, or, when they adduce several principles,
+in their conception of the relative importance of these. Hartley
+took account only of Contiguity, or the repetition of impressions
+synchronous or immediately successive; the like is true of James
+Mill, though, incidentally, he made an express attempt to resolve
+the received principle of Similarity, and through this the other
+principle of Contrast, into his fundamental law&mdash;law of Frequency,
+as he sometimes called it, because upon frequency, in conjunction
+with vividness of impressions, the strength of association, in his
+view, depended. In a sense of his own, Brown also, while accepting
+the common Aristotelian enumeration of principles, inclined to the
+opinion that &ldquo;all suggestion may be found to depend on prior coexistence,
+or at least on such proximity as is itself very probably a
+modification of coexistence,&rdquo; provided account be taken of &ldquo;the
+influence of emotions and other feelings that are very different
+from ideas, as when an analogous object suggests an analogous
+object by the influence of an emotion which each separately may
+have produced before, and which is, therefore, common to both.&rdquo;
+To the contrary effect, Spencer maintained that the fundamental
+law of all mental association is that presentations aggregate or
+cohere with their like in past experience, and that, besides this law,
+there is in strictness no other, all further phenomena of association
+being incidental. Thus in particular, he would have explained
+association by Contiguity as due to the circumstance of imperfect
+assimilation of the present to the past in consciousness. A. Bain
+regarded Contiguity and Similarity logically, as perfectly distinct
+principles, though in actual psychological occurrence blending
+intimately with each other, contiguous trains being started by a first
+(it may be, implicit) representation through Similarity, while the
+express assimilation of present to past in consciousness is always,
+or tends to be, followed by the revival of what was presented in
+contiguity with that past.</p>
+
+<p>The highest, philosophical interest, as distinguished from that
+which is more strictly psychological, attaches to the mode of mental
+association called Inseparable. The coalescence of mental states
+noted by Hartley, as it had been assumed by Berkeley, was farther
+formulated by James Mill in these terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Some ideas are by frequency and strength of association so
+closely combined that they cannot be separated; if one exists, the
+other exists along with it in spite of whatever effort we make to
+disjoin them.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Analysis of the Human Mind</i>, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 93.)</p>
+
+<p>J.S. Mill&rsquo;s statement is more guarded and particular:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When two phenomena have been very often experienced in conjunction,
+and have not, in any single instance, occurred separately
+either in experience or in thought, there is produced between them
+what has been called inseparable, or, less correctly, indissoluble,
+association; by which is not meant that the association must
+inevitably last to the end of life&mdash;that no subsequent experience or
+process of thought can possibly avail to dissolve it; but only that
+as long as no such experience or process of thought has taken place,
+the association is irresistible; it is impossible for us to think the
+one thing disjoined from the other.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Examination of Hamilton&rsquo;s
+Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed. p. 191.)</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly by J.S. Mill that the philosophical application of the
+principle has been made. The first and most obvious application
+is to so-called necessary truths&mdash;such, namely, as are not merely
+analytic judgments but involve a synthesis of distinct notions.
+Again, the same thinker sought to prove Inseparable Association
+the ground of belief in an external objective world. The former
+application, especially, is facilitated, when the experience through
+which the association is supposed to be constituted is understood
+as cumulative in the race, and transmissible as original endowment
+to individuals&mdash;endowment that may be expressed either, subjectively,
+as latent intelligence, or, objectively, as fixed nervous
+connexions. Spencer, as before suggested, is the author of this
+extended view of mental association.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Criticism</i>.&mdash;Of recent years the associationist theory has
+been subjected to searching criticism, and it has been maintained
+by many writers that the laws are both unsatisfactorily expressed
+and insufficient to explain the facts. Among the most vigorous and
+comprehensive of these investigations is that of F.H. Bradley in his
+<i>Principles of Logic</i> (1883). Having admitted the psychological fact
+of mental association, he attacks the theories of Mill and Bain
+primarily on the ground that they purport to give an account of
+mental life as a whole, a metaphysical doctrine of existence. According
+to this doctrine, mental activity is ultimately reducible to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
+particular feelings, impressions, ideas, which are disparate and unconnected,
+until chance Association brings them together. On this
+assumption the laws of Association naturally emerge in the following
+form:&mdash;(1) The <i>law of Contiguity</i>.&mdash;&ldquo;Actions, sensations and states
+of feeling, occurring together or in close connexion, tend to grow
+together, or cohere, in such a way that, when any one of them is
+afterwards presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought
+up in idea&rdquo; (A. Bain, <i>Senses and Intellect</i>, p. 327). (2) The <i>law of
+Similarity</i>.&mdash;&ldquo;Present actions, sensation, thoughts or emotions tend
+to revive their like among previous impressions or states&rdquo; (A. Bain,
+<i>ibid.</i> 457. Compare J.S. Mill, <i>Logic</i>, ii. p. 440, 9th ed.). The
+fundamental objection to (1) is that ideas and impressions once
+experienced do not recur; they are particular existences, and, as
+such, do not persevere to recur or be presented. So Mill is wrong
+in speaking of two impressions being &ldquo;frequently experienced.&rdquo;
+Bradley claims thus to reduce the law to &ldquo;When we have experienced
+(or even thought of) several pairs of impressions (simultaneous or
+successive), which pairs are like one another; then whenever an
+idea occurs which is like all the impressions on one side of these pairs,
+it tends to excite an idea which is like all the impressions on the other
+side.&rdquo; This statement is destructive of the title of the law, because
+it appears that what were contiguous (the impressions) are not
+associated, and what are associated (the ideas) were not contiguous;
+in other words, the association is not due to contiguity at all.</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding to the law of Similarity (which in Mill&rsquo;s view is at the
+back of association by contiguity), and having made a similar
+criticism of its phrasing, Bradley maintains that it involves an even
+greater absurdity; if two ideas are to be recognized as similar,
+they must both be present in the mind; if one is to call up the other,
+one must be absent. To the obvious reply that the similarity is
+recognized <i>ex post facto</i>, and not while the former idea is being called
+up, Bradley replies simply that such a view reduces the law to the
+mere statement of a phenomenon and deprives it of any explanatory
+value, though he hardly makes it clear in what sense this necessarily
+invalidates the law from a psychological point of view. He further
+points out with greater force that in point of fact mere similarity
+is not the basis of ordinary cases of mental reproduction, inasmuch
+as in any given instance there is more difference than similarity
+between the ideas associated.</p>
+
+<p>Bradley himself bases association on identity plus contiguity:&mdash;&ldquo;Any
+part of a single state of mind tends, if reproduced, to re-instate
+the remainder,&rdquo; or &ldquo;any element tends to reproduce those elements
+with which it has formed one state of mind.&rdquo; This law he calls by
+the name &ldquo;redintegration,&rdquo; understood, of course, in a sense different
+from that in which Hamilton used it. The radical difference between
+this law and those of Mill and Bain is that it deals not with particular
+units of thoughts but with universals or identity between individuals.
+In any example of such reproduction the universal appears in a
+particular form which is more or less different from that in which it
+originally existed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychophysical Researches</i>.&mdash;Bradley&rsquo;s discussion deals with the
+subject purely from the metaphysical side, and the total result
+practically is that association occurs only between universals. From
+the point of view of empirical psychologists Bradley&rsquo;s results are
+open to the charge which he made against those who impugned his
+view of the law of similarity, namely that they are merely a statement&mdash;not
+in any real sense an explanation. The relation between
+the mental and the physical phenomena of association has occupied
+the attention of all the leading psychologists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>).
+William James holds that association is of &ldquo;objects&rdquo; not of &ldquo;ideas,&rdquo;
+is between &ldquo;things thought of&rdquo;&mdash;so far as the word stands for an
+effect. &ldquo;So far as it stands for a cause it is between processes in
+the brain.&rdquo; Dealing with the law of Contiguity he says that the
+&ldquo;most natural way of accounting for it is to conceive it as a result
+of the laws of habit in the nervous system; in other words to ascribe
+it to a physiological cause.&rdquo; Association is thus due to the fact that
+when a nerve current has once passed by a given way, it will pass
+more easily by that way in future; and this fact is a physical fact.
+He further seeks to maintain the important deduction that the only
+primary or ultimate law of association is that of neural habit.</p>
+
+<p>The objections to the associationist theory are summed up by
+G.F. Stout (<i>Analytic Psychol.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 47 seq.) under three heads.
+Of these the first is that the theory as stated, <i>e.g.</i> by Bain, lays far
+too much stress on the mere connexion of elements hitherto entirely
+separate; whereas, in fact, every new mental state or synthesis
+consists in the development or modification of a pre-existing state or
+psychic whole. Secondly, it is quite false to regard an association as
+merely an aggregate of disparate units; in fact, the <i>form</i> of the new
+idea is quite as important as the elements which it comprises.
+Thirdly, the phraseology used by the associationists seems to assume
+that the parts that go to form the whole retain their identity unimpaired;
+in fact, each part or element is <i>ipso facto</i> modified by the
+very fact of its entering into such combination.</p>
+
+<p>The experimental methods now in vogue have to a large extent
+removed the discussion of the whole subject of association of ideas,
+depending in the case of the older writers on introspection, into a new
+sphere. In such a work as E.B. Titchener&rsquo;s <i>Experimental Psychology</i>
+(1905), association is treated as a branch of the study of mental
+reactions, of which association reactions are one division.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>; and the works of Bradley,
+Stout, and James, above quoted, and general works on psychology:
+articles in <i>Mind</i> (passim); A. Bain, <i>Senses and Intellect</i> (4th ed.,
+1894), and in <i>Mind</i>, xii. (1887) pp. 237-249; John Watson, <i>An
+Outline of Philosophy</i> (1898); H. Höffding, <i>Hist. of Mod. Philos.</i>
+(Eng. trans., Lond., 1900), <i>Psychologie in Umrissen auf Grundlage
+der Erfahrung</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893); Jas. Sully, <i>The Human
+Mind</i> (1892), and <i>Outlines of Psych.</i> (Lond., 1892); E.B. Titchener,
+<i>Outline of Psych.</i> (New York, 1896), and in his trans. of O. Külpe&rsquo;s
+<i>Outlines of Psych.</i> (New York, 1895,); Jas. Ward in <i>Mind</i>, viii.
+(1883), xii. (1887), new series ii. (1893), iii. (1894); G.T. Ladd,
+<i>Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory</i> (Lond., 1894); C.L.C.
+Morgan, <i>Introd. to Comparative Psych.</i> (Lond., 1894); W. Wundt,
+<i>Princip. of Physiol. Psych.</i> (Eng. trans., 1904), <i>Human and Animal
+Psych.</i> (Eng. trans., 1894), pp. 282-307; <i>Outlines of Psych.</i> (Eng.
+trans., 1897); E. Claparčde, <i>L&rsquo;Association des idées</i> (1903). For
+associationism in Greek philosophy see J.I. Beare, <i>Greek Theories
+of Elementary Cognition</i> (Oxford, 1906), part iii. §§ 14, 43 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There are, however, distinct anticipations of the theory in
+Plato (<i>Phaedo</i>), as part of the doctrine of <span class="grk" title="anamnaesis">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#956;&#957;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>; thus we find
+the idea of Simmias recalled by the picture of Simmias (similarity),
+and that of a friend by the sight of the lyre on which he played
+(contiguity).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSONANCE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>adsonare</i> or <i>assonare</i>, to sound to or
+answer to), a term defined, in its prosodical sense, as &ldquo;the
+corresponding or riming of one word with another in the accented
+vowel and those which follow it, but not in the consonants&rdquo;
+(<i>New English Dictionary</i>, Oxford). In other words, assonance
+is an improper or imperfect form of rhyme, in which the ear is
+satisfied with the incomplete identity of sound which the vowel
+gives without the aid of consonants. Much rustic or popular
+verse in England is satisfied with assonance, as in such cases as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;And pray who gave thee that jolly red <i>nose</i>?</p>
+<p class="i05">Cinnamon, Ginger, Nutmeg and <i>Cloves</i>,&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>where the agreement between the two <i>o&rsquo;s</i> permits the ear to
+neglect the discord between <i>s</i> and <i>v</i>. But in English these
+instances are the result of carelessness or blunted ear. It is not
+so in several literatures, such as in Spanish, where assonance is
+systematically cultivated as a literary ornament. It is an error
+to confound alliteration,&mdash;which results from the close juxtaposition
+of words beginning with the same sound or letter,&mdash;and
+assonance, which is the repetition of the same vowel-sound in a
+syllable at points where the ear expects a rhyme. The latter is
+a more complicated and less primitive employment of artifice
+than the former, although they have often been used to intensify
+the effect of each other in a single couplet. Assonance appears,
+nevertheless, to have preceded rhyme in several of the European
+languages, and to have led the way towards it. It is particularly
+observable in the French poetry which was composed before the
+12th century, and it reached its highest point in the &ldquo;Chanson
+de Roland,&rdquo; where the sections are distinguished by the fact that
+all the lines in a <i>laisse</i> or stanza close with the same vowel-sound.
+When the ear of the French became more delicate, and pure
+rhyme was introduced, about the year 1120, assonance almost
+immediately retired before it and was employed no more, until
+recent years, when several French poets have re-introduced
+assonance in order to widen the scope of their effects of sound.
+It held its place longer in Provençal and some other Romance
+literatures, while in Spanish it has retained its absolute authority
+over rhyme to the present day. It has been observed that in the
+Romance languages the ear prefers the correspondence of vowels,
+while in the Teutonic languages the preference is given to
+consonants. This distinction is felt most strongly in Spanish,
+where the satisfaction in <i>rimas asonantes</i> is expressed no less in
+the most elaborate works of the poets and dramatists than in
+the rough ballads of the people. The nature of the language here
+permits the full value of the corresponding vowel-sounds to be
+appreciated, whereas in English&mdash;and even in German, where,
+however, a great deal of assonant poetry exists&mdash;the divergence
+of the consonants easily veils or blunts the similarity of sound.
+Various German poets of high merit, and in particular Tieck
+and Heine, have endeavoured to obviate this difficulty, but without
+complete success. Occasionally they endeavour, as English
+rhymers have done, to mix pure rhyme with assonance, but the
+result of this in almost all cases is that the assonances, &amp;c.,
+which make a less strenuous appeal to the ear, are drowned and
+lost in the stress of the pure rhymes. Like alliteration, assonance
+is a very frequent and very effective ornament of prose style, but
+such correspondence in vowel-sound is usually accidental and
+involuntary, an instinctive employment of the skill of the writer.
+To introduce it with a purpose, as of course must be done in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span>
+poetry, has always been held to be a most dangerous practice
+in prose. Assonance as a conscious art, in fact, is scarcely
+recognized as legitimate in English literature. </p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUAN,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aswan</span>, a town of Upper Egypt on the east bank
+of the Nile, facing Elephantine Island below the First Cataract,
+and 590 m. S. of Cairo by rail. It is the capital of a province of
+the same name&mdash;the southernmost province of Egypt. Population
+(1907) 16,128. The principal buildings are along the river
+front, where a broad embankment has been built. Popular
+among Europeans as a winter health resort and tourist centre,
+Assuan is provided with large modern hotels (one situated on
+Elephantine Island), and there is an English church. South-east
+of the railway station are the ruins of a temple built by Ptolemy
+Euergetes, and still farther south are the famous granite quarries
+of Syene. On Elephantine Island are an ancient nilometer and
+other remains, including a granite gateway built under Alexander
+the Great at the temple of the local ram-headed god Chnubis or
+Chnumis (Eg. Khnum), perhaps on account of his connexion
+with Ammon (<i>q.v.</i>); two small but very beautiful temples of the
+XVIIIth Dynasty were destroyed there about 1820. In the hill
+on the opposite side of the river are tombs of the VIth to XIIth
+dynasties, opened by Lord Grenfell in 1885-1886. The inscriptions
+show that they belonged to frontier-prefects whose expeditions
+into Nubia, &amp;c., are recorded in them. Three and a
+half miles above the town, at the beginning of the Cataract, the
+Assuan Dam stretches across the Nile. This great engineering
+work was finished in December 1902 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Irrigation</a></span>: <i>Egypt</i>;
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nile</a></span>). Above the dam the Nile presents the appearance of
+a vast lake. Consequent on the rise of the water-level several
+islands have been wholly and others partly submerged, among
+the latter Philae (<i>q.v.</i>). On the east bank opposite Philae is the
+village of Shellal, southern terminus of the Egyptian railway
+system and the starting point of steamers for the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>In ancient times the chief city, called Yeb, capital of the
+frontier nome, the first of the Upper Country, was on the island
+of Elephantine, guarding the entrance to Egypt. But, owing to
+the cataract, the main route for traffic with the south was by
+land along the eastern shore. Here, near the granite quarries&mdash;whence
+was obtained the material for many magnificent monuments&mdash;there
+grew up another city, at first dependent on and
+afterwards successor to the island town. This city was called
+<i>Swan</i>, the Mart, whence came the Greek <i>Syene</i> and Arabic
+<i>Aswan</i>. Syene is twice mentioned (as Seveneh) in the prophecies
+of Ezekiel, and papyri, discovered on the island, and dated in
+the reigns of Artaxerxes and Darius II, (464-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), reveal
+the existence of a colony of Jews, with a temple to Yahu (Yahweh,
+Jehovah), which had been founded at some time before the conquest
+of Egypt by Cambyses in 523 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They also mention the
+great frontier garrison against the Ethiopians, referred to by
+Herodotus. Syene was one of the bases used by Eratosthenes
+in his calculations for the measurement of the earth. In Roman
+times Syene was strongly garrisoned to resist the attacks of the
+desert tribes. Thither, in virtual banishment, Juvenal was sent
+as prefect by Domitian. In the early days of Christianity the
+town became the seat of a bishopric, and numerous ruins of
+Coptic convents are in the neighbourhood. Syene appears also
+to have flourished under its first Arab rulers, but in the 12th
+century was raided and ruined by Bedouin and Nubian tribes.
+On the conquest of Egypt by the Turks in the 16th century,
+Selim I. placed a garrison here, from whom, in part, the present
+townsmen descend. As the southern frontier town of Egypt
+proper, Assuan in times of peace was the entrepôt of a considerable
+trade with the Sudan and Abyssinia, and in 1880 its trade
+was valued at Ł2,000,000 annually. During the Mahdia (1884-1898)
+Assuan was strongly garrisoned by Egyptian and British
+troops. Since the defeat of the khalifa at Omdurman and the
+fixing (1899) of the Egyptian frontier farther south, the military
+value of Assuan has declined.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the Jewish colony see A.H. Sayce and A.E. Cowley, <i>Aramaic
+Papyri discovered at Assuan</i> (Oxford, 1906); E. Sachau, <i>Drei
+Aramaische papyrus-Urkunden aus Elephantine</i> (Berlin, 1907).
+For the dam see W. Willcocks, <i>The Nile Reservoir Dam at Assuan</i>
+(London, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUMPSIT<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (&ldquo;he has undertaken,&rdquo; from Lat. <i>assumere</i>), a
+word applied to an action for the recovery of damages by reason
+of the breach or non-performance of a simple contract, either
+express or implied, and whether made orally or in writing.
+<i>Assumpsit</i> was the word always used in pleadings by the plaintiff
+to set forth the defendant&rsquo;s undertaking or promise, hence the
+name of the action. Claims in actions of <i>assumpsit</i> were ordinarily
+divided into (<i>a</i>) common or <i>indebitatus assumpsit</i>, brought
+usually on an implied promise, and (<i>b</i>) special <i>assumpsit</i>, founded
+on an express promise. <i>Assumpsit</i> as a form of action became
+obsolete after the passing of the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875.
+(See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pleading</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tort</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>. The feast of the &ldquo;Assumption of
+the blessed Virgin Mary&rdquo; (Lat. <i>festum assumptionis, dormitionis,
+depositionis, pausationis B. V. M.</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="koimaesis">&#954;&#959;&#943;&#956;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="analaephis taes
+theotokou">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#955;&#951;&#968;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#952;&#949;&#959;&#964;&#972;&#954;&#959;&#965;</span>) is a festival of the Christian Church celebrated on the
+15th of August, in commemoration of the miraculous ascent into
+heaven of the mother of Christ. The belief on which this festival
+rests has its origin in apocryphal sources, such as the <span class="grk" title="eis taen
+koimaesin taes uperagias despoinaes">&#949;&#7984;&#962; &#964;&#7969;&#957; &#954;&#959;&#943;&#956;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#957; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#8017;&#960;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#948;&#949;&#963;&#960;&#959;&#943;&#957;&#951;&#962;</span> ascribed to the Apostle John,
+and the <i>de transitu Mariae</i>, assigned to Melito, bishop of Sardis,
+but actually written about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400. Pope Gelasius I. (492-496)
+included them in the list of apocryphal books condemned by the
+<i>Decretum de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis</i>; but they were
+accepted as authentic by the pseudo-Dionysius (<i>de nominbus
+divinis c. 3</i>), whose writings date probably from the 5th century,
+and by Gregory of Tours (d. 593 or 594). The latter in his <i>De
+gloria martyrum</i> (i. 4) gives the following account of the miracle:
+As all the Apostles were watching round the dying Mary, Jesus
+appeared with His angels and committed the soul of His Mother
+to the Archangel Michael. Next day, as they were carrying the
+body to the grave, Christ again appeared and carried it with Him
+in a cloud to heaven, where it was reunited with the soul. This
+story is much amplified in the account given by St John of
+Damascus in the homilies <i>In dormitionem Mariae</i>, which are still
+read in the Roman Church as the lesson during the octave of the
+feast. According to this the patriarchs and Adam and Eve
+also appear at the death-bed, to praise their daughter, through
+whom they had been rescued from the curse of God; a Jew who
+touches the body loses both his hands, which are restored to
+him by the Apostles; and the body lies three days in the grave
+without corruption before it is taken up into heaven.</p>
+
+<p>The festival is first mentioned by St Andrew of Crete (<i>c.</i> 650),
+and, according to the Byzantine historian Nicephorus Callistus
+(<i>Hist. Eccles.</i> xvii. 28), was first instituted by the Emperor
+Maurice in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 582. From the East it was borrowed by Rome,
+where there is evidence of its existence so early as the 7th century.
+In the Gallican Church it was only adopted at the same time as
+the Roman liturgy. But though the festival thus became
+incorporated in the regular usage of the Western Church, the belief
+in the resurrection and bodily assumption of the Virgin has
+never been defined as a dogma and remains a &ldquo;pious opinion,&rdquo;
+which the faithful may reject without imperilling their immortal
+souls, though not apparently&mdash;to quote Melchior Cano (<i>De Locis
+Theolog.</i> xii. 10)&mdash;without &ldquo;insolent temerity,&rdquo; since such
+rejection would be contrary to the common agreement of the Church.
+By the reformed Churches, including the Church of England,
+the festival is not observed, having been rejected at the
+Reformation as being neither primitive nor founded upon any &ldquo;certain
+warrant of Holy Scripture.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3), s. &ldquo;Maria&rdquo;; Mgr. L.
+Duchesne, <i>Christian Worship</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1904); Wetzer
+and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, s. &ldquo;Marienfeste&rdquo;; The <i>Catholic
+Encyclopaedia</i> (London and New York, 1907, &amp;c.), s. &ldquo;Apocrypha,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Assumption.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUR<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (Auth. Vers. <i>Asshur</i>), a Hebrew name, occurring in
+many passages of the Old Testament, for the land and dominion
+of Assyria.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The <i>country</i> of Assyria, which in the Assyro-Babylonian
+literature is known as <i>mat A&#353;&#353;ur</i> (<i>ki</i>), &ldquo;land of Assur,&rdquo;
+took its name from the ancient city of <i>A&#353;&#353;ur</i>, situated at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span>
+southern extremity of Assyria proper, whose territory, soon after
+the first Assyrian settlement, was bounded on the N. by the
+Zagros mountain range in what is now Kurdistan and on the S.
+by the lower Zab river. The kingdom of Assyria, which was the
+outgrowth of the primitive settlement on the site of the city of
+Assur, was developed by a probably gradual process of colonization
+in the rich vales of the middle Tigris region, a district
+watered by the Tigris itself and also by several tributary streams,
+the chief of which was the lower Zab.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It seems quite evident that the <i>city</i> of Assur was originally
+founded by Semites from Babylonia at quite an early, but as
+yet undetermined date. In the prologue to the law-code of the
+great Babylonian monarch Khammurabi (<i>c.</i> 2250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the cities
+of Nineveh and Assur are both mentioned as coming under that
+king&rsquo;s beneficent influence. Assur is there called <i>A-usar</i> (<i>ki</i>),<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+in which combination the ending <i>-ki</i> (&ldquo;land territory&rdquo;) proves
+that even at that early period there was a province of Assur more
+extensive than the city proper. It is probable that this non-Semitic
+form <i>A-usar</i> means &ldquo;well watered region,&rdquo;<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> a most appropriate
+designation for the river settlements of Assyria.
+The problem as to the meaning of the name Assur is rendered
+all the more confusing by the fact that the city and land are also
+called <i>A&#353;&#353;ur</i> (as well as <i>A-usar</i>), both by the Khammurabi records<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+and generally in the later Assyrian literature.
+Furthermore, the god- and country-name <i>Assur</i> also occurs at a late date in
+Assyrian literature in the forms <i>An-&#353;ar, An-&#353;ar</i> (<i>ki</i>), which form<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+was presumably read <i>Assur</i>. In the Creation tablet, the heavens
+personified collectively were indicated by this term <i>An-&#353;ar</i>,
+&ldquo;host of heaven,&rdquo; in contradistinction to the earth = <i>Ki-&#353;ar</i>,
+&ldquo;host of earth.&rdquo; In view of this fact, it seems highly probable
+that the late writing <i>An-sar</i> for <i>Assur</i> was a more or less conscious
+attempt on the part of the Assyrian scribes to identify the
+peculiarly Assyrian deity <i>Asur</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assur</a></span>, the god, below) with
+the Creation deity An-sar. On the other hand, there is an epithet
+<i>A&#353;ir</i> or Ashir (&ldquo;overseer&rdquo;) applied to several gods and particularly
+to the deity <i>A&#353;ur</i>, a fact which introduced a third element
+of confusion into the discussion of the name <i>Assur</i>. It is probable
+then that there is a triple popular etymology in the various forms
+of writing the name <i>A&#353;&#353;ur</i>; viz. <i>A-usar</i>,<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+<i>An-&#353;ar</i> and the stem <i>a&#353;&#257;ru</i>, all of which is quite in harmony
+with the methods followed by the ancient Assyro-Babylonian philologists.<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also A.H. Layard, <i>Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon</i> (1853);
+G. Smith, <i>Assyrian Discoveries</i> (1875);
+R.W. Rogers, <i>History of Babylonia and Assyria</i>, i. 297;
+ii. 13; ii. 30, 76, 102;
+J.F. M&lsquo;Curdy, <i>History, Prophecy and the Monuments</i>,
+§§ 74, 171 f., 247, 258, 283; 57, 59 f. (on the god).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. Pr.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name Assur is not connected with the Asshur of 1 Chron. ii. 24;
+ii. 45. Note that it is customary to spell the god-name <i>A&#353;ur</i> and the
+country-name <i>A&#353;&#353;ur</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Cf. Rassam, <i>Asshur and the Land of Nimrod</i>, 250-251, and many other works.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Robert Harper, <i>Code of Hammurabi</i>, pp. 6-7, lines 55-58.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Thus already Delitzsch, <i>Wo lag das Paradies?</i> p. 252. The
+element <i>a</i> means &ldquo;water,&rdquo; and in <i>u-sar</i> it is probable that <i>u</i>
+also means &ldquo;water,&rdquo; while <i>sar</i> is &ldquo;park, district.&rdquo; See Prince,
+<i>Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon</i>, s.v. <i>usar</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The name appears as <i>A&#353;-&#353;ur</i> (<i>ki</i>) and <i>A&#353;-&#353;u-ur</i> (<i>ki</i>). See King,
+<i>Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi</i>, iv. p. 23, obv. 27; and Nägel,
+<i>Beiträge zur Assyriologie</i>, iv. p. 404; also <i>Cun. Texts from Bab.
+Tablets</i>, vi. pl. 19, line 7.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Meissner-Rost, <i>Bauinschrift Sanheribs</i>, K. 5413a; K. 1306, rev. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See on this entire subject, Morris Jastrow, Jr., <i>Journal Amer. Orient. Soc.</i>,
+xxiv. pp. 282-311; also <i>Die Religion Bab. u. Assyr.</i>, pp. 207 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> On the philological methods of the ancient Babylonian priesthood,
+see Prince, <i>Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon</i>, Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUR,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> the primitive capital of Assyria, now represented by
+the mounds of Kaleh Sherghat (Qal&rsquo;at Shergat) on the west bank
+of the Tigris, nearly midway between the Upper and Lower Zab.
+It is still doubtful (see discussion on the name in the preceding
+article) whether the national god of Assyria took his name from
+that of the city or whether the converse was the case. It is
+most probable, however, that it was the city which was deified
+(see Sayce, <i>Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia</i>, 1902, pp.
+366, 367). Sir A.H. Layard, through his assistant Hormuzd
+Rassam, devoted two or three days to excavating on the site,
+but owing to the want of pasturage and the fear of Bedouin
+attacks he left the spot after finding a broken clay cylinder
+containing the annals of Tiglath-Pileser I., and for many years
+no subsequent efforts were made to explore it. In 1904, however,
+a German expedition under Dr W. Andrae began systematic
+excavations, which have led to important results. The city
+originally grew up round the great temple of the god Assur,
+the foundation of which was ascribed to the High-priest Uspia.
+For many centuries Assur and the surrounding district, which
+came accordingly to be called the land of Assur (<i>Assyria</i>), were
+governed by high-priests under the suzerainty of Babylonia.
+With the decay of the Babylonian power the high-priests succeeded
+in making themselves independent kings, and Assur
+became the capital of an important kingdom. It was already
+surrounded by a wall of crude brick, which rested on stone
+foundations and was strengthened at certain points by courses of
+burnt brick. A deep moat was dug outside it by Tukulti-Inaristi
+or Tukulti-Masu (about 1270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and it was further
+defended on the land side by a <i>salkhu</i> or outwork. In the 15th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was considerably extended to the south in order
+to include a &ldquo;new town&rdquo; which had grown up there. The wall
+was pierced by &ldquo;the gate of Assur,&rdquo; &ldquo;the gate of the Sun-god,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;the gate of the Tigris,&rdquo; &amp;c., and on the river side was a quay
+of burnt brick and limestone cemented with bitumen. The
+temples were in the northern part of the city, together with
+their lofty towers, one of which has been excavated. Besides
+the temple of Assur there was another great temple dedicated to
+Anu and Hadad, as well as the smaller sanctuaries of Bel, Ishtar,
+Merodach and other deities. After the rise of the kingdom,
+palaces were erected separate from the temples; the sites of
+those of Hadad-nirari I., Shalmaneser I., and Assur-nazir-pal
+have been discovered by the German excavators, and about a
+dozen more are referred to in the inscriptions. Even after the
+rise of Nineveh as the capital of the kingdom and the seat of the
+civil power, Assur continued to be the religious centre of the
+country, where the king was called on to reside when performing
+his priestly functions. The city survived the fall of Assyria,
+and extensive buildings as well as tombs of the Parthian age
+have been found upon the site.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft</i> (1904-1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUR,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> <span class="sc">Asur</span>, or <span class="sc">Ashur</span>, the chief god of Assyria, was originally
+the patron deity of the city of Assur on the Tigris, the ancient
+capital of Assyria from which as a centre the authority of the
+<i>patesis</i> (as the rulers were at first called) spread in various
+directions. The history of Assyria (<i>q.v.</i>) can now be traced back
+approximately to 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though it does not rise to political
+prominence until c. 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The name of the god is identical
+with that of the city, though an older form A-shir, signifying
+&ldquo;leader,&rdquo; suggests that a differentiation between the god and
+the city was at one time attempted. Though the origin of the
+form Ashur (or Assur) is not certain, it is probable that the name
+of the god is older than that of the city (see discussion on the
+name above).</p>
+
+<p>The title <i>Ashir</i> was given to various gods in the south, as
+Marduk and Nebo, and there is every reason to believe that it
+represents a direct transfer with the intent to emphasize that
+Assur is the &ldquo;leader&rdquo; or head of the pantheon of the north.
+He is in fact to all intents and purposes of the north. Originally
+like Marduk a solar deity with the winged disk&mdash;the disk always
+typifying the sun&mdash;as his symbol, he becomes as Assyria develops
+into a military power a god of war, indicated by the attachment
+of the figure of a man with a bow to the winged disk.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> While the
+cult of the other great gods and goddesses of Babylonia was
+transferred to Assyria, the worship of Assur so overshadowed
+that of the rest as to give the impression of a decided tendency
+towards the absorption of all divine powers by the one god.
+Indeed, the other gods, Sin, Shamash (Samas), Adad, Ninib and
+Nergal, and even Ea, take on the warlike traits of Assur in the
+epithets and descriptions given of them in the annals and
+votive inscriptions of Assyrian rulers to such an extent as to
+make them appear like little Assurs by the side of the great one.
+Marduk alone retains a large measure of his independence as a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span>
+concession on the part of the Assyrians to the traditions of the
+south, for which they always manifested a profound respect.
+Even during the period that the Assyrian monarchs exercised
+complete sway over the south, they rested their claims to the
+control of Babylonia on the approval of Marduk, and they or
+their representatives never failed to perform the ceremony of
+&ldquo;taking the hand&rdquo; of Marduk, which was the formal method
+of assuming the throne in Babylonia. Apart from this concession,
+it is Assur who pre-eminently presides over the fortunes of
+Assyria.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In his name, and with his approval as indicated by
+favourable omens, the Assyrian armies march to battle. His
+symbol is carried into the thick of the fray, so that the god is
+actually present to grant assistance in the crisis, and the victory
+is with becoming humility invariably ascribed by the kings
+&ldquo;to the help of Assur.&rdquo; With the fall of Assyria the rule of
+Assur also comes to an end, whereas it is significant that the
+cult of the gods of Babylonia&mdash;more particularly of Marduk&mdash;survives
+for several centuries the loss of political independence
+through Cyrus&rsquo; capture of Babylonia in 539 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The name of
+Assur&rsquo;s temple at Assur, represented by the mounds of Kaleh
+Sherghat, was known as E-khar-sag-gal-kur-kurra, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;House
+of the great mountain of the lands.&rdquo; Its exact site has been
+determined by excavations conducted at Kaleh Sherghat since
+1903 by the German Oriental Society. The name indicates the
+existence of the same conception regarding sacred edifices in
+Assyria as in Babylonia, where we find such names as E-Kur
+(&ldquo;mountain house&rdquo;) for the temple of Bel (<i>q.v.</i>) at Nippur, and
+E-Saggila (&ldquo;lofty house&rdquo;) for Marduk&rsquo;s (<i>q.v.</i>) temple at Babylon
+and that of Ea (<i>q.v.</i>) at Eridu, and in view of the general dependence
+of Assyrian religious beliefs as of Assyrian culture in general,
+there is little reason to doubt that the name of Assur&rsquo;s temple
+represents a direct adaptation of such a name as E-Kur, further
+embellished by epithets intended to emphasize the supreme
+control of the god to whom the edifice was dedicated. The
+foundation of the edifice can be traced back to Uspia (Ushpia),
+<i>c.</i> 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and may turn out to be even older. Besides the chief
+temple, the capital contained temples and chapels to Anu, Adad,
+Ishtar, Marduk, Gula, Sin, Shamash, so that we are to assume the
+existence of a sacred precinct in Assur precisely as in the religious
+centres of the south. On the removal of the seat of residence of
+the Assyrian kings to Calah (<i>c.</i> 1300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and then in the 8th
+century to Nineveh, the centre of the Assur cult was likewise
+transferred, though the sanctity of the old seat at Assur
+continued to be recognized. At Nineveh, which remained the
+capital till the fall of the Assyrian empire in 606 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Assur had
+as his rival Ishtar, who was the real patron deity of the place,
+but a reconciliation was brought about by making Ishtar the
+consort of the chief god. The combination was, however, of an
+artificial character, and the consciousness that Ishtar was in
+reality an independent goddess never entirely died out. She
+too, like Assur, was viewed as a war deity, and to such an
+extent was this the case that at times it would appear that
+she, rather than Assur, presided over the fortunes of the Assyrian
+armies.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Prince, <i>Journ. Bibl. Lit.</i>, xxii. 35.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> As essentially a <i>national</i> god, he is almost identical in character
+with the early Yahweh of Israel. See Sayce, Hibbert Lectures,
+<i>Religion of Ancient Babylonia</i>, p. 129.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUR-BANI-PAL<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (&ldquo;Assur creates a son&rdquo;), the <i>grand
+monarque</i> of Assyria, was the prototype of the Greek Sardanapalus,
+and appears probably in the corrupted form of Asnapper
+in Ezra iv. 10. He had been publicly nominated king of Assyria
+(on the 12th of Iyyar) by his father Esar-haddon, some time
+before the latter&rsquo;s death, Babylonia being assigned to his
+twin-brother Samas-sum-yukin, in the hope of gratifying the national
+feeling of the Babylonians. After Esar-haddon&rsquo;s death in 668
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the first task of Assur-bani-pal was to finish the Egyptian
+campaign. Tirhakah, who had reoccupied Egypt, fled to
+Ethiopia, and the Assyrian army spent forty days in ascending
+the Nile from Memphis to Thebes. Shortly afterwards Necho,
+the satrap of Sais, and two others were detected intriguing with
+Tirhakah; Necho and one of his companions were sent in chains
+to Nineveh, but were there pardoned and restored to their
+principalities. Tirhakah died 667 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and his successor
+Tandaman (Tanuat-Amon) entered Upper Egypt, where a general
+revolt against Assyria took place, headed by Thebes. Memphis
+was taken by assault and the Assyrian troops driven out of the
+country. Tyre seems to have revolted at the same time.
+Assur-bani-pal, however, lost no time in pouring fresh forces into the
+revolted province. Once more the Assyrian army made its way
+up the Nile, Thebes was plundered, and its temples destroyed,
+two obelisks being carried to Nineveh as trophies (see Nahum iii. 8).
+Meanwhile the siege of insular Tyre was closely pressed;
+its water-supply was cut off, and it was compelled to surrender.
+Assur-bani-pal was now at the height of his power. The land of
+the Manna (Minni), south-east of Ararat, had been wasted, its
+capital captured by the Assyrians, and its king reduced to vassalage.
+A war with Teumman of Elam had resulted in the overthrow
+of the Elamite army; the head of Teumman was sent to
+Nineveh, and another king, Umman-igas, appointed by the
+Assyrians. The kings of Cilicia and the Tabal offered their
+daughters to the harem of Assur-bani-pal; embassies came from
+Ararat, and even Gyges of Lydia despatched envoys to &ldquo;the
+great king&rdquo; in the hope of obtaining help against the
+Cimmerians. Suddenly the mighty empire began to totter. The
+Lydian king, finding that Nineveh was helpless to assist him,
+turned instead to Egypt and furnished the mercenaries with
+whose help Psammetichus drove the Assyrians out of the country
+and suppressed his brother satraps. Egypt was thus lost to
+Assyria for ever (660 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In Babylonia, moreover, discontent
+was arising, and finally Samas-sum-yukin put himself at the
+head of the national party and declared war upon his brother.
+Elamite aid was readily forthcoming, especially when stimulated
+by bribes, and the Arab tribes joined in the revolt. The resources
+of the Assyrian empire were strained to their utmost. But
+thanks in some measure to the intestine troubles in Elam, the
+Babylonian army and its allies were defeated and driven into
+Babylon, Sippara, Borsippa and Cutha. One by one the cities
+fell, Babylon being finally starved into surrender (648 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) after
+Samas-sum-yukin had burnt himself in his palace to avoid falling
+into the conqueror&rsquo;s hands. It was now the turn of the Arabs,
+some of whom had been in Babylon during the siege, while
+others had occupied themselves in plundering Edom, Moab and
+the Hauran. Northern Arabia was traversed by the Assyrian
+forces, the Nabataeans were almost exterminated, and the
+desert tribes terrorized into order. Elam was alone left to be
+dealt with, and the last resources of the empire were therefore
+expended in preventing it from ever being again a thorn in the
+Assyrian side.</p>
+
+<p>But the effort had exhausted Assyria. Drained of men and
+resources it was no longer able to make head against the
+Cimmerian and Scythian hordes who now poured over western Asia.
+The Cimmerian Dugdamme (Lygdamis in Strabo i. 3, 16), whom
+Assur-bani-pal calls &ldquo;a limb of Satan,&rdquo; after sacking Sardis,
+had been slain in Cilicia, but other Scythian invaders came to
+take his place. When Assur-bani-pal died in 626 (?) <span class="scs">B.C.</span> his
+empire was already in decay, and within a few years the end came.
+He was luxurious and indolent, entrusting the command of his
+armies to others whose successes he appropriated, cruel and
+superstitious, but a magnificent patron of art and literature.
+The great library of Nineveh was to a considerable extent his
+creation, and scribes were kept constantly employed in it
+copying the older tablets of Babylonia, though unfortunately
+their patron&rsquo;s tastes inclined rather to omens and astrology
+than to subjects of more modern interest. The library was
+contained in the palace that he built on the northern side of the
+mound of Kuyunjik and lined with sculptured slabs which
+display Assyrian art at its best. Whether Kandalanu
+(Kinela-danos), who became viceroy of Babylonia after the suppression
+of the revolt, was Assur-bani-pal under another name, or a
+different personage, is still doubtful (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sardanapalus</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;George Smith, <i>History of Assurbanipal</i> (1871);
+S.A. Smith, <i>Die Keilschrifttexte Asurbanipals</i> (1887-1889);
+P. Jensen in E. Schrader&rsquo;s <i>Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek</i>, ii. (1889);
+J.A. Knudtzon, <i>Assyrische Gebete an den Sonnengott</i> (1893);
+C. Lehmann, <i>Schamashschumukin</i> (1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSUS<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> [mod. <i>Behram</i>], an ancient Greek city of the Troad,
+on the Adramyttian Gulf. The situation is one of the most
+magnificent in all the Greek lands. The natural cleavage of the
+trachyte into joint planes had already scarped out shelves
+which it was comparatively easy for human labour to shape;
+and so, high up this cone of trachyte, the Greek town of Assus
+was built, tier above tier, the summit of the crag being crowned
+with a Doric temple of Athena. The view from the summit is
+very beautiful and of great historical interest. In front is Lesbos,
+one of whose towns, Methymna, is said to have sent forth the
+founders of Assus, as early, perhaps, as 1000 or 900 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The
+whole south coast-line of the Troad is seen, and in the south-east
+the ancient territory of Pergamum, from whose masters the
+possession of Assus passed to Rome by the bequest of Attalus III.
+(133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The great heights of Ida rise in the east. Northward
+the Tuzla is seen winding through a rich valley. This valley was
+traversed by the road which St Paul must have followed when he
+came overland from Alexandria Troas to Assus, leaving his
+fellow-travellers to proceed by sea. The north-west gateway, to which
+this road led, is still flanked by two massive towers, of Hellenic
+work. On the shore below, the ancient mole can still be traced
+by large blocks under the clear water. Assus affords the only
+harbour on the 50 m. of coast between Cape Lectum and the
+east end of the Adramyttian Gulf; hence it must always have
+been the chief shipping-place for the exports of the southern
+Troad. The great natural strength of the site protected it against
+petty assailants; but, like other towns in that region, it has
+known many masters&mdash;Lydians, Persians, the kings of
+Pergamum, Romans and Ottoman Turks. From the Persian wars
+to about 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Assus enjoyed at least partial independence.
+It was about 348-345 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that Aristotle spent three years at
+Assus with Hermeas, an ex-slave who had succeeded his former
+master Eubulus as despot of Assus and Atarneus. Aristotle has
+left some verses from an invocation to Arete (Virtue),
+commemorating the worth of Hermeas, who had been seized by
+Persian treachery and put to death.</p>
+
+<p>Under its Turkish name of Behram, Assus is still the
+commercial port of the southern Troad, being the place to which
+loads of valonia are conveyed by camels from all parts of the
+country. Explorations were conducted at Assus in 1881-1883
+by Mr J.T. Clarke for the Archaeological Institute of America.
+The main object was to clear the Doric temple of Athena, built
+about 470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This temple is remarkable for a sculptured
+architrave which took the place of the ordinary frieze. The scenes
+are partly mythological (labours of Heracles), partly purely
+heraldic. Eighteen panels were transported to the Louvre in
+1838; other fragments rewarded the Americans, and a scientific
+ground-plan was drawn. The well-preserved Hellenistic walls
+were also studied.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.T. Clarke, <i>Assos</i>, 2 vols., 1882 and 1898 (Papers of Arch.
+Inst. of America, i. ii.); and authorities under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Troad</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASSYRIA.<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> The two great empires, Assyria and Babylon,
+which grew up on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, can be
+separated as little historically as geographically. From the
+beginning their history is closely intertwined; and the power of
+the one is a measure of the weakness of the other. This
+interdependence of Assyrian and Babylonian history was recognized
+by ancient writers, and has been confirmed by modern discovery.
+But whereas Assyria takes the first place in the classical accounts
+to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of the inscriptions
+has proved that the converse was really the case, and that,
+with the exception of some seven or eight centuries, Assyria
+might be described as a province or dependency of Babylon.
+Not only was Babylonia the mother country, as the tenth chapter
+of Genesis explicitly states, but the religion and culture, the
+literature and the characters in which it was contained, the
+arts and the sciences of the Assyrians were derived from their
+southern neighbours. They were similar in race and language.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and Assyria</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1778-1841), German
+philosopher and philologist, was born at Gotha. Educated there
+and at the university of Jena, he became privat-docent at Jena
+in 1802. In 1805 he became professor of classical literature in
+the university of Landshut, where he remained till 1826, when
+it was transferred to Munich. There he lived till his death on
+the 31st of October 1841. In recognition of his work he was
+made an aulic councillor and a member of the Bavarian Academy
+of Sciences. He is known principally for his work during the
+last twenty-five years of his life on the dialogues of Plato. His
+<i>Platon&rsquo;s Leben und Schriften</i> (1816) was the first of those critical
+inquiries into the life and works of Plato which originated in the
+<i>Introductions</i> of Schleiermacher and the historical scepticism
+of Niebuhr and Wolf. Distrusting tradition, he took a few of
+the finest dialogues as his standard, and from internal evidence
+denounced as spurious not only those which are generally
+admitted to be so (<i>Epinomis, Minos, Theages, Arastae, Clitophon,
+Hipparchus, Eryxias, Letters and Definitions</i>), but also the <i>Meno,
+Euthydemus, Charmides, Lysis, Laches, First and Second Alcibiades,
+Hippias Major and Minor, Ion, Euthyphro, Apology,
+Crito</i>, and even (against Aristotle&rsquo;s explicit assertion) <i>The Laws</i>.
+The genuine dialogues he divides into three series:&mdash;(1) the
+earliest, marked chiefly by the poetical and dramatic element,
+<i>i.e.</i> <i>Protagoras, Phaedrus, Gorgias, Phaedo</i>; (2) the second,
+marked by dialectic subtlety, <i>i.e.</i> <i>Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman,
+Parmenides, Cratylus</i>; (3) the third group, combining both
+qualities harmoniously, <i>i.e.</i> the <i>Philebus, Symposium, Republic,
+Timaeus, Critias</i>. The work was followed by a complete
+edition of Plato&rsquo;s works (11 vols., 1819-1832) with a Latin
+translation and commentary. His last work was the <i>Lexicon
+Platonicum</i> (3 vols., 1834-1839), which is both valuable and
+comprehensive. In his works on aesthetics he combined the
+views of Schelling with those of Winckelmann, Lessing, Kant,
+Herder, Schiller and others. His histories of philosophy are
+marked more by critical scholarship than by originality of
+thought, though they are interesting as asserting the now
+familiar principle that the history of philosophy is not the
+history of opinions, but of reason as a whole; he was among
+the first to attempt to formulate a principle of the development
+of thought. Beside his works on Plato, he wrote, on aesthetics,
+<i>System der Kunstlehre</i> (1805) and <i>Grundriss der Aesthetik</i> (1807);
+on the history of philosophy, <i>Grundlinien der Philosophie</i> (1807,
+republished 1809, but soon forgotten), <i>Grundriss einer Geschichte
+der Philosophie</i> (1807 and 1825), and <i>Hauptmomente der Geschichte
+der Philosophie</i> (1829); in philology, <i>Grundlinien der Philologie</i>
+(1808), and <i>Grundlinien der Grammatik, Hermeneutik und Kritik</i> (1808).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTARA,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> a port of Russian Transcaucasia, government of
+Baku, on the Caspian, in 38° 27&prime; N. lat. and 48° 53&prime; E. long., on
+the river of the same name, which forms the frontier between
+Persia and Russia. Russian merchandize is landed there and
+forwarded to Azerbáiján and Tabriz via Ardebil.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTARABAD,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a province of Persia bounded N. by the Caspian
+Sea and Russian Transcaspian, S. by the Elburz Mountains,
+W. by Mazandaran, and E. by Khorasan. The country,
+mountainous in its southern portion, possesses extensive forests,
+fertile valleys, producing rice, wheat and other grains in
+abundance, and rich pasturages. The soil, even with little
+culture, is exceedingly productive, owing to the abundance of
+water which irrigates and fertilizes it. But while the province
+in many parts presents a landscape of luxuriant beauty, it is a
+prey to the ravages of disease, principally malarial fevers due
+to the extensive swamps formed by waters stagnating in the
+forests, and to the frequent incursions of the Goklan and Yomut
+Turkomans, who have their camping-grounds in the northern
+part of the province, and until about 1890 plundered caravans
+sometimes at the very gates of Astarabad city, and carried
+people off into slavery and bondage. The province has a population
+of about 100,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about Ł30,000.
+The inhabitants, notwithstanding the unhealthiness of their
+climate, are a strong and athletic race, belying their yellow and
+sickly appearance. The province has the following bulúk
+(administrative divisions):&mdash;(1) Astarabad town; (2) Astarabad
+rustak (villages); (3) Sadan rustak; (4). Anazan; (5) Katúl;
+(6) Findarisk, with Kuhsar and Nodeh; (7) Shahkuh Sávar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Astarabad,</span> the capital of the province, is situated on the
+Astar, a small tributary of the Kara Su (Black river), which
+flows into the Caspian Sea 20 m. W. of the city, and about 18 m.
+S. of the Gurgan river, in 36° 51&prime; N. lat. and 54° 26&prime; E. long.
+It is surrounded by a mud wall about 30 ft. in height and about
+3˝ m. in circuit, but much of the enclosed space is occupied by
+gardens, mounds of refuse, and ruins. At one time of greater
+size, it was reduced by Nadir Shah within its present limits.
+Astarabad owes its origin to Yazid ibn Mohallab, who occupied
+the province early in the 8th century for Suleiman, the seventh
+of the Omayyad caliphs (715-717), and was destroyed by
+Timur (Tamerlane) in 1384. Jonas Hanway, the philanthropist
+(d. 1786), visited the place in 1744, and attempted to open a
+direct trade through it between Europe and central Asia.
+Owing to the noxious exhalations of the surrounding forests
+the town is so extremely unhealthy during the hot weather
+as to have acquired the title of the &ldquo;Abode of the Plague.&rdquo;
+It has post and telegraph offices, and a population of about
+10,000. Since 1890 the Turkomans who impeded trade by their
+perpetual raids have been kept more in check, and with the
+decrease of insecurity the commercial activity of Astarabad
+has increased considerably.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTARTE,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a Semitic goddess whose name appears in the
+Bible as Ashtoreth.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> She is everywhere the great female principle,
+answering to the Baal of the Canaanites and Phoenicians<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and
+to the Dagon of the Philistines. She had temples at Sidon and
+at Tyre (whence her worship was transplanted to Carthage),
+and the Philistines probably venerated her at Ascalon (1 Sam.
+xxxi. 10). Solomon built a high-place for her at Jerusalem
+which lasted until the days of King Josiah (1 Kings xi. 5; 2
+Kings xxiii. 13), and the extent of her cult among the Israelites
+is proved as much by the numerous biblical references as by the
+frequent representations of the deity turned up on Palestinian
+soil.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The Moabites formed a compound deity, Ashtar-Chemosh
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moab</a></span>), and the absence of the feminine termination occurs
+similarly in the Babylonian and Assyrian prototype Ishtar.
+The old South Arabian phonetic equivalent &lsquo;Athtar is, however,
+a male deity. Another compound, properly of mixed sex,
+appears in the Aramaean Atargatis (&lsquo;At[t]ar-&lsquo;athe), worn down
+to Derketo, who is specifically associated with sacred pools
+and fish (Ascalon, Hierapolis-Mabog). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Atargatis</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The derivation of the name Ishtar is uncertain, and the original
+attributes of the goddess are consequently unknown. She
+assumes various local forms in the old Semitic world, and this
+has led to consequent fusion and identification with the deities
+of other nations. As the great nature-goddess, the attributes
+of fertility and reproduction are characteristically hers, as
+also the accompanying immorality which originally, perhaps,
+was often nothing more than primitive magic. As patroness of
+the hunt, later identification with Artemis was inevitable.
+Hence the consequent fusion with Aphrodite, Artemis, Diana,
+Juno and Venus, and the action and reaction of one upon the
+other in myth and legend. Her star was the planet Venus, and
+classical writers give her the epithet Caelestis and Urania.
+Whether Astarte was also a lunar goddess has been questioned.
+As the female counterpart of the Phoenician Baal (viewed as a
+sun-god), and on the testimony of late writers (Lucian, Herodian)
+that she was represented with horns, the place-name Ashteroth-Karnaim
+in Gilead (&ldquo;Ashteroth of the horns&rdquo;) has been considered
+ample proof in favour of the theory. But it is probable
+that the horns were primarily ram&rsquo;s horns,<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and that Astarte
+the moon-goddess is due to the influence of the Egyptian Isis
+and Hathor. Robertson Smith, too, argues that Astarte was
+originally a sheep-goddess, and points to the interesting use of
+&ldquo;Astartes of the flocks&rdquo; (Deut. vii. 13, see the comm.) to
+denote the offspring. To nomads, Astarte may well have been
+a sheep-goddess, but this, if her earliest, was not her only type,
+as is clear from the sacred fish of Atargatis, the doves of Ascalon
+(and of the Phoenician sanctuary of Eryx), and the gazelle or
+antelope of the goddess of love (associated also with the Arabian
+Athtar).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The literature is vast; see G.A. Barton, <i>Amer. Journ. of Sem.
+Lang.</i> vols. ix. x., and his <i>Semitic Origins</i>; Driver, Hastings&rsquo;
+<i>Dict. Bible</i>, i. pp. 167-171; Zimmern, <i>Keilinschr. und das alte
+Test.</i><span class="sp">3</span> pp. 420 sqq.; Lagrange, <i>Études d. Relig. Sem.</i> pp. 123-140;
+and the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adonis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aphrodite</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artemis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baal</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The vocalization suggests the Heb. b&#333;sheth, &ldquo;shame&rdquo;; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baal</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Add also the Hittites; for Sutekh, the Egyptian equivalent of
+the male partner, see W.M. Müller, <i>Mitt. d. vorderasiat. Gesell.</i>
+(1902), v. pp. 11, 38. Astarte was introduced also into Egypt and
+had her temple at Memphis. See also S.A. Cook, <i>Religion of
+Ancient Palestine, Index</i>, s.v.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Such figurines are in a sense the prototypes of the Venus of
+Medici. On the influence of her cult upon that of the Virgin Mary,
+see Rösch, <i>Studien u. Krit.</i> (1888), pp. 265 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A model of an Astarte with ram&rsquo;s horns was unearthed by R.A.S.
+Macalister at Gezer (<i>Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statement</i>, 1903, p. 227
+with figure facing).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTELL, MARY<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1668-1731), English author, was born at
+Newcastle-upon-Tyne. She was instructed by her uncle, a
+clergyman, in Latin and French, logic, mathematics and
+natural philosophy. In her twentieth year she went to London,
+where she continued her studies. She published, in 1697, a work
+entitled <i>A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, wherein a Method is
+offered for the Improvement of their Minds</i>. With the same end
+in view she elaborated a scheme for a ladies&rsquo; college, which
+was favourably entertained by Queen Anne, and would have
+been carried out had not Bishop Burnet interfered. The most
+important of her other works was <i>The Christian Religion, as professed
+by a Daughter of the Church of England</i>, published in 1705.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTER<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="astaer">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>, a star), the name of a genus of plants,
+given from the fact of the flowers having a radiated or star-like
+appearance (see below). The Greek word also provides many
+derivatives: <i>e.g.</i> <i>asterism</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="asterismos">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>), a constellation (<i>q.v.</i>);
+<i>asteroid</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="astero-eidaes">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;-&#949;&#953;&#948;&#942;&#962;</span>, star-like), an alternative name for
+planetoids or minor planets (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Planet</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The genus of composite plants named aster (natural order
+<i>Compositae</i>) is found largely in North America, and scattered
+sparingly over Asia, Europe and South America. They are
+usually herbaceous perennials; their flowers arranged in
+numerous heads (<i>capitula</i>) recall those of the daisy, whence
+they are popularly known in England as Michaelmas daisies,
+since many are in bloom about that time. They are valuable
+plants in a garden, the various species flowering from late
+summer right on to November or December. The only British
+species is <i>Aster Tripolium</i>, found abundantly in saline marshes
+near the sea. One of the species, <i>Aster alpinus</i>, grows at a considerable
+height on the mountains of Europe. Some of them, such as
+<i>Aster spectabilis</i> of North America, are very showy. They are
+mostly easy to cultivate in ordinary garden soil, and are readily
+propagated by dividing the roots in early spring. The following
+are some of the better known forms:&mdash;<i>A. alpinus</i>, barely 1 ft.
+high, and <i>A. Amellus</i>, 1˝ ft., with its var. <i>bessarabicus</i>, have
+broadish blunt leaves and large starry bluish flowers; <i>A.
+longifolius</i> var. <i>formosus</i>, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; <i>A. acris</i>,
+2 to 3 ft., with blue flowers in August; <i>A. ericoides</i>, 3 ft., with
+heath-like leaves and masses of small white flowers; <i>A. puniceus</i>,
+4 to 6 ft., blue or rosy-lilac; <i>A. turbinellus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., mauve-coloured,
+are showy border plants; and <i>A. Novae-Angliae</i>, 5 to 6
+ft., rosy-violet; <i>A. Novi-Belgii</i>, 3 to 6 ft., pale blue; <i>A. laevis</i>,
+2 to 6 ft., blue-lilac; and <i>A. grandiflorus</i>, 3 ft., violet, are
+especially useful from their late-flowering habit.</p>
+
+<p>The China aster (<i>Callistephus chinensis</i>) is also a member of
+the order <i>Compositae</i>. It is a hardy annual, a native of China,
+which by cultivation has yielded a great variety of forms. Some
+of the best for ornamental gardening are the chrysanthemum-flowered,
+the paeony-flowered, the crown or cockade, the comet,
+and the globe-quilled. Crown asters have a white centre, and
+dark crimson or purple circumference, and are very beautiful.
+The colours range from white and blush through pink and rose to
+crimson, and from lilac through blue to purple, in various shades.
+They should be sown early in March in pans, in a gentle heat, the
+young plants being quickly transferred to a cool pit, and there
+pricked out in rich soil as soon as large enough, and eventually
+planted out in the garden in May or June, in soil which has
+been well worked and copiously manured, where they grow from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span>
+8 to 18 in. high, and flower towards the end of summer. They
+also make handsome pot plants for the conservatory.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTERIA,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Star-stone</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="astaer">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>, star), a name
+applied to such ornamental stones as exhibit when cut <i>en
+cabochon</i> a luminous star. The typical asteria is the star-sapphire,
+generally a bluish-grey corundum, milky or opalescent,
+with a star of six rays. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sapphire</a></span>.) In red corundum the
+stellate reflexion is less common, and hence the star-ruby occasionally
+found with the star-sapphire in Ceylon is among the
+most valued of &ldquo;fancy stones.&rdquo; When the radiation is shown
+by yellow corundum, the stone is called star-topaz. Cymophane,
+or chatoyant chrysoberyl, may also be asteriated. In all these
+cases the asterism is due to the reflexion of light from twin-lamellae
+or from fine tubular cavities or thin enclosures definitely
+arranged in the stone. The <i>astrion</i> of Pliny is believed to have
+been our moonstone, since it is described as a colourless stone
+from India having within it the appearance of a star shining
+with the light of the moon. All star-stones were formerly
+regarded with much superstition.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTERID,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a group of starfish. They are the starfish proper,
+and have the typical genus <i>Asterias</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Starfish</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTERISK<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="asteriskos">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, a little star), the sign *
+used in typography. The word is also used in its literal meaning
+in old writers, and as a description of an ornamental form
+(star-shaped) in one of the utensils in the Greek Church.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTERIUS,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> of Cappadocia, sophist and teacher of rhetoric
+in Galatia, was converted to Christianity about the year 300,
+and became the disciple of Lucian, the founder of the school of
+Antioch. During the persecution under Maximian (304) he
+relapsed into paganism, and thus, though received again into
+the church by Lucian and supported by the Eusebian party,
+never attained to ecclesiastical office. He is best known as an
+able defender of the semi-Arian position, and was styled by
+Athanasius the &ldquo;advocate&rdquo; of the Arians. His chief work was
+the <i>Syntagmation</i>, but he wrote many others, including commentaries
+on the Gospels, the Psalms, and Romans. He attended
+many synods, and we last hear of him at the synod of Antioch
+in 341.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTERIUS,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> bishop of Amasia, in Pontus, <i>c.</i> 400. He was
+partly contemporary with the emperor Julian (d. 363) and lived
+to a great age. His fame rests chiefly on his <i>Homilies</i>, which
+were much esteemed in the Eastern Church. Most of these have
+been lost, but twenty-one are given in full by Migne (<i>Patrol.
+Ser. Gr.</i> xl. 164-477), and there are fragments of others in Photius
+(<i>Cod.</i> 271). Asterius was a man of much culture, and his works
+are a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the history of
+preaching.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTHMA<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="asthma">&#7942;&#963;&#952;&#956;&#945;</span>, gasping, whence <span class="grk" title="asthmaino">&#7936;&#963;&#952;&#956;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#969;</span>, I gasp for
+breath), a disorder of respiration characterized by severe
+paroxysms of difficult breathing (<i>dyspnoea</i>) usually followed by
+a period of complete relief, with recurrence of the attacks at
+more or less frequent intervals. The term is often loosely
+employed in reference to states of embarrassed respiration,
+which are plainly due to permanent organic disease of the
+respiratory organs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Respiratory System</a></span>: <i>Pathology</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The attacks occur quite suddenly, and in some patients at
+regular, in others at irregular intervals. They are characterized
+by extreme difficulty both in inspiration and expiration, but
+especially in the latter, the chest becoming distended and the
+diaphragm immobile. In the case of &ldquo;pure,&rdquo; &ldquo;idiopathic&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;nervous&rdquo; asthma, there is no fever or other sign of inflammation.
+But where the asthma is secondary to disease of some organ
+of the body, the symptoms will depend largely on that organ and
+the disease present. Such secondary forms may be bronchitic,
+cardiac, renal, peptic or thymic.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of onset differs very markedly in different cases.
+In some the attack begins quite suddenly and without warning,
+but in others various sensations well known to the patient
+announce that an attack is imminent. According to the late
+Dr Hyde Salter the commonest warning is that of an intense
+desire for sleep, so overpowering that though the patient knows
+his only chance of warding off the attack is to keep awake, he is
+yet utterly unable to fight against his drowsiness. Among other
+patients, however, a condition of unwonted mental excitement
+presages the attack. Again the secondary forms of the disease
+may be ushered in by flatulence, constipation and loss of appetite,
+and a symptom which often attends the onset, though it is not
+strictly premonitory, is a profuse diuresis, the urine being
+watery and nearly colourless, as in the condition of hysterical
+diuresis. In the majority of instances the attack begins during
+the night, sometimes abruptly but often by degrees. The patient
+may or may not be aware that his asthma is threatening. A few
+hours after midnight he is aroused from sleep by a sense of
+difficult breathing. In some cases this is a slowly increasing
+condition, not becoming acute for some hour or more. But in
+others the attack is so sudden, so severe, that the patient springs
+from his bed and makes his way at once to an open window,
+apparently struggling for breath. Most asthmatics have some
+favourite attitude which best enables them to use all the
+auxiliary muscles of respiration in their struggle for breath,
+and this attitude they immediately assume, and guard fixedly
+until the attack begins to subside. The picture is characteristic
+and a very painful one to watch. The face is pale, anxious, and
+it may be livid. The veins of the forehead stand out, the eyes
+bulge, and perspiration bedews the face. The head is fixed in
+position, and likewise the powerful muscles of the back to aid the
+attempt at respiration. The breath is whistling and wheezing,
+and if it becomes necessary for the patient to speak, the words are
+uttered with great difficulty. If the chest be watched it is seen
+to be almost motionless, and the respirations may become
+extraordinarily slowed. Inspiration is difficult as the chest is
+already over-distended, but expiration is an even far greater
+struggle. The attack may last any time from an hour to several
+days, and between the attacks the patient is usually quite at
+ease. But notwithstanding the intensely distressing character
+of the attacks, asthma is not one of the diseases that shorten life.</p>
+
+<p>In the child, asthma is usually periodic in its recurrence, but
+as he ages it tends to become more erratic in both its manifestations
+and time of appearance. Also, though at first it may be
+strictly &ldquo;pure&rdquo; asthma, later in life it becomes attended by
+chronic bronchitis, which in its turn gives rise to emphysema.</p>
+
+<p>As to the underlying cause of the disease, one has only to read
+the many utterly different theories put forward to account for it,
+to see how little is really known. But it has now been clearly
+shown that in the asthmatic state the respiratory centre is in an
+unstable and excitable condition, and that there is a morbid
+connexion between this and some part of the nasal apparatus.
+Dr Alexander Francis has shown, however, that the disease is not
+directly due to any mechanical obstruction of the nasal passages,
+and that the nose comparatively rarely supplies the immediate
+exciting cause of the asthmatic attack. Paroxysmal sneezing is
+another form in which asthma may show itself, and, curiously
+enough, this form occurs more frequently in women, asthma of
+the more recognized type in men. In infants and young children
+paroxysmal bronchitis is another form of the same disease.
+Dr James Goodhart notes the connexion between asthma and
+certain skin troubles, giving cases of the alternation of asthma
+and psoriasis, and also of asthma and eczema. The disease
+occurs in families with a well-marked neurotic inheritance, and
+twice as frequently in men as in women. The immediate cause
+of an attack may be anything or nothing. Dr Hyde Salter notes
+that 80% of cases in the young date from an attack of whooping
+cough, bronchitis or measles.</p>
+
+<p>In the general treatment of asthma there are two methods of
+dealing with the patient, either that of hardening the individual,
+widening his range of accommodation, and thus making him less
+susceptible, or that of modifying and adapting the environment
+to the patient. These two methods correspond to the two
+methods of drug treatment, tonic or sedative. During the last
+few years the method of treatment first used by Dr Alexander
+Francis has come into prominence. His plan is to restore the
+stability of the respiratory centre, by cauterizing the septal
+mucous membrane, and combining with this general hygienic
+measures. In his own words the operation, which is entirely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span>
+painless and insignificant, is performed as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;After
+painting one side of the septum nasi with a few drops of cocaine
+and resorcin, I draw a line with a galvano-cautery point from a
+spot opposite the middle turbinated body, forwards and slightly
+downwards for a distance of rather less than half an inch. In
+about one week&rsquo;s time I repeat the operation on the other side.&rdquo;
+In his monograph on the subject, he classifies a large number of
+cases treated in this manner, most of which resulted in complete
+relief, some in very great improvement, and a very few in slight
+or no relief.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTI<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (anc. <i>Hasta</i>), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont,
+Italy, in the province of Alessandria, situated on the Tanaro;
+it is 22 m. W. by rail from Alessandria. Pop. (1901) town,
+19,787; commune, 41,047. Asti has still numerous medieval
+towers, a fine Gothic cathedral of the 14th century, the remains
+of a Christian basilica of the 6th century, and the octagonal
+baptistery of S. Pietro (11th century). It was the birthplace of
+the poet Vittorio Alfieri. In ancient times it manufactured
+pottery. It is now famous for its sparkling wine (<i>Asti spumante</i>),
+and is a considerable centre of trade.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1570-1652), royalist
+commander in the English Civil War, came of a Norfolk family.
+In 1598 he joined Counts Maurice and Henry of Orange in the
+Netherlands, where he served with distinction, and afterwards
+fought under the elector palatine Frederick V. and Gustavus
+Adolphus in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. He was evidently thought
+highly of by the states-general, for when he was absent, serving
+under the king of Denmark, his company in the Dutch army
+was kept open for him. Returning to England with a well-deserved
+reputation, he was in the employment of Charles I.
+in various military capacities. As &ldquo;sergeant-major,&rdquo; or general
+of the infantry, he went north in 1639 to organize the defence
+against the expected Scottish invasion. Here his duties were as
+much diplomatic as military, as the discontent which ended in
+the Civil War was now coming to a head. In the ill-starred
+&ldquo;Bishops&rsquo; War,&rdquo; Astley did good service to the cause of the
+king, and he was involved in the so-called &ldquo;Army Plot.&rdquo; At
+the outbreak of the Great Rebellion (1642) he at once joined
+Charles, and was made major-general of the foot. His characteristic
+battle-prayer at Edgebill has become famous: &ldquo;O Lord,
+Thou knowest how busy I must be this day. If I forget Thee,
+do not forget me. March on, boys!&rdquo; At Gloucester he commanded
+a division, and at the first battle of Newbury he led the
+infantry of the royal army. With Hopton, in 1644, he served
+at Arundel and Cheriton. At the second battle of Newbury
+he made a gallant and memorable defence of Shaw House. He
+was made a baron by the king, and at Naseby he once more
+commanded the main body of the foot. He afterwards served
+in the west, and with 1500 men fought stubbornly but vainly
+the last battle for the king at Stow-on-the-Wold (March 1646).
+His remark to his captors has become as famous as his words
+at Edgehill, &ldquo;You have now done your work and may go play,
+unless you will fall out amongst yourselves.&rdquo; His scrupulous
+honour forbade him to take any part in the Second Civil War,
+as he had given his parole at Stow-on-the-Wold; but he had
+to undergo his share of the discomforts that were the lot of
+the vanquished royalists. He died in February 1651/2. The
+barony became extinct in 1668.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> Bart. (1828-1894), English
+soldier and sportsman, was a descendant of Lord Astley, and
+son of the 2nd baronet (cr. 1821). From 1848 to 1859 he was in
+the army, serving in the Crimean War and retiring as lieutenant-colonel.
+He married an heiress in 1858, and thenceforth devoted
+himself to horse-racing, pugilism and sport in general. He
+succeeded to the baronetcy in 1873, and from 1874 to 1880 was
+Conservative M.P. for North Lincolnshire. He was a popular
+figure on the turf, being familiarly known as &ldquo;the Mate,&rdquo; and
+won and lost large sums of money. Just before his death, on
+the 10th of October 1894, he published some entertaining reminiscences,
+under the title of <i>Fifty Years of my Life</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTON, ANTHONY<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (fl. 1712-1731), English actor and
+dramatist, began to be known on the London stage in the early
+years of the 18th century. He had tried the law and other
+professions, which he finally abandoned for the theatre. He
+had some success as a dramatic author, writing <i>Love in a
+Hurry</i>, performed in Dublin about 1709, and <i>Pastora, or the Coy
+Shepherdess</i>, an opera (1712). For many years he toured the
+English provinces with his wife and son, producing pieces which
+he himself wrote, or medleys from various plays fitted together
+with songs and dialogues of his own.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTON MANOR,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough of
+Warwickshire, England, adjoining Birmingham on the north-east.
+Pop. (1901) 77,326. There are extensive manufactures, including
+those of motors and cycles with their accessories, also paper-mills,
+breweries, &amp;c., and the population is largely industrial.
+Aston Hall, erected by Sir Thomas Holte in 1618-1635, is an
+admirable architectural example of its period, built of red brick.
+It stands in a large park, the whole property being acquired by
+the corporation of Birmingham in 1864, when the mansion
+became a museum and art gallery. It contains the panelling
+of a room from the house of Edmund Hector, which formerly
+stood in Old Square, Birmingham, where Dr Samuel Johnson
+was a frequent visitor. Aston Lower Grounds, adjoining the
+park, contain an assembly hall, and the playing field of the
+Aston Villa Football Club, where the more important games
+are witnessed by many thousands of spectators. Aston Manor
+was incorporated in 1903. The parliamentary borough returns
+one member. The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen
+and 18 councillors. Area, 960 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTOR, JOHN JACOB<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1763-1848), American merchant,
+was born at the village of Walldorf, near Heidelberg, Germany,
+on the 17th of July 1763. Until he was sixteen he worked in the
+shop of his father, a butcher; he then joined an elder brother
+in London, and there for four years was employed in the piano
+and flute factory of an uncle, of the firm of Astor &amp; Broadwood.
+In 1783 he emigrated to America, and settled in New York,
+whither one of his brothers had previously gone. On the voyage
+he became acquainted with a fur-trader, by whose advice he
+devoted himself to the same business, buying furs directly from
+the Indians, preparing them at first with his own hands for the
+market, and selling them in London and elsewhere at a great
+profit. He was also the agent in New York of the firm of Astor
+&amp; Broadwood. By his energy, industry and sound judgment
+he gradually enlarged his operations, did business in all the fur
+markets of the world, and amassed an enormous fortune,&mdash;the
+largest up to that time made by any American. He devoted
+many years to carrying out a project for organizing the fur
+trade from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean, and thence
+by way of the Hawaiian Islands to China and India. In 1811
+he founded at the mouth of the Columbia river a settlement
+named after him Astoria, which was intended to serve as the
+central depot; but two years later the settlement was seized
+and occupied by the English. The incidents of this undertaking
+are the theme of Washington Irving&rsquo;s <i>Astoria</i>. A series of
+disasters frustrated the gigantic scheme. Astor made vast
+additions to his wealth by investments in real estate in New
+York City, and erected many buildings there, including the
+hotel known as the Astor House. The last twenty-five years of
+his life were spent in retirement in New York City, where he
+died on the 29th of March 1848, his fortune then being estimated
+at about $30,000,000. He made various charitable bequests
+by his will, and among them a gift of $50,000 to found an
+institution, opened as the &ldquo;Astor House&rdquo; in 1854, for the
+education of poor children and the relief of the aged and the
+destitute in his native village in Germany. His chief benefaction,
+however, was a bequest of $400,000 for the foundation and
+endowment of a public library in New York City, since known
+as the Astor library, and since 1895 part of the New York public
+library.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Parton&rsquo;s <i>Life of John Jacob Astor</i> (New York, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">William Backhouse Astor</span> (1792-1875),
+inherited the greater part of his father&rsquo;s fortune, and chiefly by
+judicious investments in real estate greatly increased it. He
+was sometimes known as the &ldquo;Landlord of New York.&rdquo; Under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
+his direction the building for the Astor library was erected, and
+to the library he gave about $550,000, including a bequest
+of $200,000. His son, <span class="sc">John Jacob Astor</span> (1822-1890), was
+also well known as a capitalist and philanthropist, giving
+liberally to the Astor library.</p>
+
+<p>The son of the last named, <span class="sc">William Waldorf Astor</span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;),
+served in the New York assembly in 1877, and in the state
+senate in 1880-81. He was United States minister to Italy from
+1882 to 1885. He published two romances, <i>Valentine</i> (1885) and
+<i>Sforza</i> (1889). His wealth, arising from property in New York,
+where also he built the New Netherland hotel and the Waldorf
+hotel, was enormous. In 1890 he removed to England, and in
+1899 was naturalized. In 1893 he became proprietor of the <i>Pall
+Mall Gazette</i>, and afterwards started the <i>Pall Mall Magazine</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTORGA, EMANUELE D&rsquo;<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1681-1736), Italian musical
+composer, was born at Naples on the 11th of December 1681.
+No authentic account of Astorga&rsquo;s life can be successfully constructed
+from the obscure and confusing evidence that has been
+until now handed down, although historians have not failed to
+indulge many pleasant conjectures. According to some of these,
+his father, a baron of Sicily, took an active part in the attempt
+to throw off the Spanish yoke, but was betrayed by his own
+soldiers and publicly executed. His wife and son were compelled
+to be spectators of his fate; and such was the effect upon them
+that his mother died on the spot, and Emanuele fell into a state
+of gloomy despondency, which threatened to deprive him of
+reason. By the kindness of the princess Ursini, the unfortunate
+young man was placed in a convent at Astorga, in Leon, where
+he completed a musical education which is said to have been
+begun in Palermo under Francesco Scarlatti. Here he recovered
+his health, and his admirable musical talents were cultivated
+under the best masters. On the details of this account no
+reliance can safely be placed, nor is there any certainty that in
+1703 he entered the service of the duke of Parma. Equally untrustworthy
+is the story that the duke, suspecting an attachment
+between hi? niece Elizabeth Farnese and Astorga, dismissed
+the musician. The established facts concerning Astorga are
+indeed few enough. They are: that the opera <i>Dafne</i> was
+written and conducted by the composer in Barcelona in 1709;
+that he visited London, where he wrote his <i>Stabat Mater</i>, possibly
+for the society of &ldquo;Antient Musick&rdquo;; that it was performed in
+Oxford in 1713; that in 1712 he was in Vienna, and that he
+retired at an uncertain date to Bohemia, where he died on the
+21st of August 1736, in a castle which had been given to him in
+the domains of Prince Lobkowitz, in Raudnitz. Astorga deserves
+remembrance for his dignified and pathetic <i>Stabat Mater</i>, and
+for his numerous chamber-cantatas for one or two voices. He
+was probably the last composer to carry on the traditions
+of this form of chamber-music as perfected by Alessandro
+Scarlatti.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTORGA,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a city of N.W. Spain, in the province of Leon;
+situated near the right bank of the river Tuerto, and at the
+junction of the Salamanca-Corunna and Leon-Astorga railways.
+Pop. (1900) 5573. Astorga was the Roman Asturica Augusta, a
+provincial capital, and the meeting-place of four military roads.
+Though sacked by the Goths in the 5th century, and later by the
+Moors, it is still surrounded by massive walls of Roman origin.
+A ruined castle, near the city, recalls its strategic importance in
+the 8th century, when Asturias, Galicia and Leon were the
+headquarters of resistance to the Moors. Astorga has been the
+see of a bishop since the 3rd century, and was formerly known as
+the City of Priests, from the number of ecclesiastics resident
+within its walls. Its Gothic cathedral dates from the 15th
+century. The city confers the title of marquis on the Osorio
+family, the ruins of whose palace, sacked in 1810 by the French,
+are still an object of interest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the history, especially the ecclesiastical history, of Astorga,
+see the anonymous <i>Historia de la ciudad de Astorga</i> (Valladolid,
+1840); with <i>Fundación de la ... iglesia ... de Astorga</i>, by P.A.
+Ezpeleta (Madrid, 1634); and <i>Fundación, nombre y armas de ...
+Astorga</i>, by P. Junco (Pamplona, 1635).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTORIA,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
+Clatsop county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the Columbia river, 8 m.
+from its mouth. Pop. (1890) 6184; (1900) 8381, of whom 3779
+were foreign-born (many being Finns,&mdash;a Finnish weekly was
+established here in 1905), and 601 were Chinese; (1910, census)
+9599. It is served by the Astoria &amp; Columbia River railroad
+(Northern Pacific System), and by several coastwise and foreign
+steamship lines (including that of the Oregon Railway &amp; Navigation
+Co.). The river here is about 6 m. wide, and the city has a
+water-front of about 5 m. and a deep, spacious and placid
+harbour. By dredging and the construction of jetties the Federal
+government has since 1885 greatly improved the channel at the
+mouth of the river. The business portion of the city occupies the
+low ground of the river bottom; the residence portion is on the
+hillsides overlooking the harbour. Astoria is the port of entry
+for the Oregon Customs District, Oregon; in 1907 its imports
+were valued at $21,262, and its exports at $329,103. The city
+is especially important as a salmon fishing and packing centre
+(cod, halibut and smaller fish also being abundant); it has also
+an extensive lumber trade, important lumber manufactories,
+pressed brick and terra-cotta factories, and dairy interests. In
+1905 the value of the factory product was $3,092,628 (of which
+$1,759,871 was the value of preserved and canned fish), being
+an increase of 41.8% in five years. Astoria is the oldest American
+settlement in the Columbia Valley. It was founded in 1811, as a
+depot for the fur trade, by John Jacob Astor, in whose honour
+it was named. It was seized by the British in 1813, but was
+restored in 1818. In 1821, while occupied by the North-West
+Fur Company, it was burned and practically abandoned, only
+a few settlers remaining. It was chartered as a city in 1876.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Washington Irving&rsquo;s <i>Astoria; or Anecdotes of an Enterprise
+beyond the Rocky Mountains</i> (Philadelphia, 1836).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTRAEA,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> in Greek legend, the &ldquo;star maiden,&rdquo; daughter of
+Zeus and Themis, or of Astraeus the Titan and Eos, in which case
+she is identified with Dik&#275;. During the golden age she remained
+among men distributing blessings, but when the iron (or bronze)
+age came on, she was forced to withdraw, being the last of the
+goddesses to quit the earth. In the heavens she is amongst the
+signs of the zodiac as the constellation Virgo. She is usually
+represented with a pair of scales and a crown of stars.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ov. <i>Met.</i> i. 150; Juv. vi. 19; Aratus, <i>Phaenomena</i>, 96.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTRAGAL<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="astragalos">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#940;&#947;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, the ankle-joint), an
+architectural term for a convex moulding. This term is generally
+applied to small mouldings, &ldquo;torus&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) to large ones of
+the same form. The Lesbian astragal referred to by Vitruvius,
+bk. iv. ch. vi., was in all probability an astragal carved with a
+bead and reel enrichment.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTRAKHAN,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a government of S.E. Russia, on the lower
+Volga, bounded N. by the governments of Samara and Saratov,
+W. by Saratov and the government of the Don Cossacks, S. by
+Stavropol and Terek, and E. by the Caspian Sea and the government
+of the Urals. Area, 91,327 sq. m., of which 6730 sq. m.
+belong to the delta of the Volga and its brackish lagoons, and
+62,290 sq. m. are covered by the Kalmuck and Kirghiz Steppes.
+The surface is a low-lying plain, except that in the west the
+Ergeni Hills (500-575 ft.) form the water-parting between the
+Volga basin and that of the Don. The climate is very hot and
+dry, the average temperature for the year being 50° Fahr., for
+January 21°, and for July 78°, rainfall 7.3 in., but often there
+is no rain at all in the summer. Pop. (1897) 1,005,460, of whom
+132,383 were urban. The Kalmucks (138,580 in 1897) and
+Kirghiz (260,000) are semi-nomads. In addition to them the
+population includes nearly 44,000 Tatars, 4270 Armenians, with
+Poles and Jews. Fishing off the mouth of the Volga gives
+occupation to 50,000 persons; the fish, chiefly herrings and
+sturgeon, together with the caviare prepared from the latter, are
+sold for the most part at Nizhniy-Novgorod. Over 300,000 tons
+of salt are extracted annually from the lakes, principally those
+of Baskunchak and Elton. Cattle-breeding is an important
+industry. Market-gardening (mustard, water-melons, fruit) is
+on the increase; but pure agriculture is relatively not much
+developed. The government is divided into five districts, the
+chief towns of which are Astrakhan, Enotayevsk (pop. 2810
+in 1897), Krasnyi-yar (4680), Chernyi-yar (5140), and Tsarev
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
+(8900). The Kalmucks and Kirghiz have their own local
+administrations, and so have the Astrakhan Cossacks (25,600).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTRAKHAN,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a town of E. Russia, capital of the government
+of Astrakhan, on the left bank of the main channel of the Volga,
+50 m. from the Caspian Sea, in 46° 21&prime; N. lat. and 48° 5&prime; E. long.
+Since the growth of the petroleum industry of Baku and the
+construction of the Transcaspian railway, Astrakhan has become
+an important commercial centre, exporting fish, caviare, sugar,
+metals, naphtha, cottons and woollens, and importing grain,
+cotton, fruit and timber, to the aggregate value of Ł8,250,000
+with foreign countries and of Ł14,500,000 with the interior of
+Russia. The town gives its name to the &ldquo;fur&rdquo; called &ldquo;astrakhan,&rdquo;
+the skin of the new-born Persian lamb, and so to an
+imitation in rough woollen cloth. There is some tanning,
+shipbuilding and brewing, and making of soap, tar and machinery.
+Astrakhan is the chief port on the Caspian Sea and the
+headquarters of the Russian Caspian fleet. The city consists
+of (1) the <i>kreml</i> or citadel (1550), crowning a hill, on which
+stand also the spacious brick cathedral containing the tombs
+of two Georgian princes, the archbishop&rsquo;s palace and the
+monastery of the Trinity; (2) the Byelogorod or White Town,
+containing the administrative offices and the bazaars; and (3)
+the suburbs, where most of the population resides. The buildings
+in the first two quarters are of stone, in the third of wood,
+irregularly arranged along unpaved, dirty streets. The city is the see
+of a Greek Catholic archbishop and of an Armenian archbishop,
+and contains a Lamaist monastery, as well as technical schools,
+an ichthyological museum, the Peter museum, with ethnographical,
+archaeological and natural history collections, a
+botanical garden, an ecclesiastical seminary, and good squares
+and public gardens, one of which is adorned with a statue (1884)
+of Alexander II. Vineyards surround the city. Astrakhan was
+anciently the capital of a Tatar state, and stood some 7 m.
+farther north. After this was destroyed by the Mongol prince
+Timur the Great in 1395, the existing city was built. The Tatars
+were expelled about 1554 by Ivan IV. of Russia. In 1569 the
+city was besieged by the Turks, but they were defeated with
+great slaughter by the Russians. In 1670 it was seized by the
+rebel Stenka Razin; early in the following century Peter the
+Great constructed here a shipbuilding yard and made Astrakhan
+the base for his hostilities against Persia, and later in the same
+century Catherine II. accorded the city important industrial
+privileges. In 1702, 1718 and 1767, it suffered severely from
+fires; in 1719 was plundered by the Persians; and in 1830 the
+cholera swept away a large number of its people. In the middle
+ages the city was known also as Jitarkhan and Ginterkhan.
+Pop. (1867) 47,839; (1900) 121,580. Eight miles above Astrakhan,
+on the right bank of the Volga, are the ruins of two ancient
+cities superimposed one upon the other. In the upper, which
+may represent the city of Balanjar (Balansar, Belenjer), have
+been found gold and silver coins struck by Mongol rulers, as well
+as ornaments in the same metals. The older and scantier
+underlying ruins are supposed to be those of the once large and
+prosperous city of Itil or Atel (Etel, Idl) of the Arab geographers,
+a residence of the khan of the Khazars, destroyed by the Russians
+in 969.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTROLABE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="astron">&#7940;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, star, and <span class="grk" title="labein">&#955;&#945;&#946;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to take), an
+instrument used not only for stellar, but for solar and lunar
+altitude-taking. The principle of the astrolabe is explained in
+fig. 2. There were two kinds,&mdash;spherical and planispheric.
+The earliest forms were &ldquo;armillae&rdquo; and spherical. Gradually,
+from Eratosthenes to Tycho, Hipparchus playing the most
+important part among ancient astronomers, the complex astrolabe
+was evolved, large specimens being among the chief observatory
+instruments of the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries;
+while small ones were in use among travellers and learned men,
+not only for astronomical, but for astrological and topographical
+purposes. Nearly every one of the modern instruments used for
+the observations of physical astronomy is a part of the perfected
+astrolabe. A collection of circles such as is the armillary sphere,
+if each circle were fitted with a view-tube, might be considered
+a complete astrolabe. Tycho&rsquo;s armillae were astrolabes. In
+fact the modern equatorial, and the altitude and azimuth circle
+are astrolabes in the strictest and oldest meaning of the term;
+and Tycho in one of his astrolabes came so near the modern
+equatorial that it may be taken as the first of the kind.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:1012px; height:743px" src="images/img794.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;PERSIAN ASTROLABE (<i>c.</i> 1712) INSCRIBED IN ARABIC.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Front</span>, showing the <i>Rete</i> or <i>Spider</i>, a network of star
+pointers. Beneath the <i>Rete</i>, in a hollow, are four thin brass
+discs, called Tables or Climates, engraved with projections of the
+sphere for different latitudes.</td>
+<td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Back</span>, showing graduations, parallelogram for measuring heights;
+and other tables, together with the <i>Rule</i> with sights (A)
+held by a moveable pin (B), known as the <i>Horse</i> or <i>Wedge</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr pt2" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:156px; height:103px" src="images/img795a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="tcl f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Principle of the Astrolabe. If a solid circle be fixed
+in any one position and a tube be pivoted on its centre so as to
+move; and if the line C D be drawn upon the circle pointing
+towards any object Q in the heavens which lies in the plane of
+the circle, by turning the tube A B towards any other object
+P in the plane of the circle, the angle BOD will be the angle
+subtended by the two objects P and Q at the eye.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:237px; height:277px" src="images/img795b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Exercises</i>, by T. Blundeville.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Mariner&rsquo;s Astrolabe, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1594.  Made of brass, or of heavy
+wood: it varied in size from a few inches to 1 ft. in diameter.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The two forms of the planispheric astrolabe most widely
+known and used in the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries were:
+(1) the <i>portable astrolabe</i> shown in
+fig. 1 (Plate). This originated in
+the East, and was in early use
+in India, Persia and Arabia, and
+was introduced into Europe by
+the Arabs, who had perfected
+it&mdash;perhaps as early as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700.
+It combines the planisphere and
+armillae of Hipparchus and
+others, and the theodolite of
+Theon, and was usually of brass,
+varying in diameter from a
+couple of inches to a foot or
+more. It was used for taking the
+altitudes of sun, moon and
+stars; for calculating latitude;
+for determining the points of the
+compass, and time; for ascertaining
+heights of mountains, &amp;c.;
+and for construction of horoscopes.
+The instrument was a marvel of convenience and
+ingenuity, and was called &ldquo;the mathematical jewel.&rdquo; Nevertheless
+it passed out of use, because incapable of any great precision.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The <i>mariner&rsquo;s astrolabe</i>, fig. 3, was adapted from that of
+astronomers by Martin Behaim, <i>c.</i> 1480. This was the instrument
+used by Columbus. With the tables of the sun&rsquo;s declination
+then available, he could calculate his latitude by meridian
+altitudes of the sun taken with his astrolabe. The mariner&rsquo;s
+astrolabe was superseded by John Hadley&rsquo;s quadrant of 1731.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Chaucer, <i>Treatise on the Astrolabe</i> (Skeat&rsquo;s edition
+of Chaucer); J.J. Stöffler, <i>Elucidatio Fabrice ususque Astrolabii</i>,
+&amp;c.; Thomas Blundeville, <i>His Exercises</i> (1594);
+F. Ritter, <i>Astrolabium</i>;
+W.H. Morley, <i>Description of Astrolabe of Shah Husain</i>;
+M.L. Huggins, &ldquo;The Astrolabe&rdquo; (<i>Astrophysical Journal</i>, 1894);
+<i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i>, article &ldquo;Astrolabe;&rdquo;
+R. Grant, <i>History of Physical Astronomy</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. L. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTROLOGY,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> the ancient art or science of divining the fate
+and future of human beings from indications given by the positions
+of the stars (sun, moon and planets). The belief in a
+connexion between the heavenly bodies and the life of man has
+played an important part in human history. For long ages
+astronomy and astrology (which might be called astromancy,
+on the same principle as &ldquo;chiromancy&rdquo;) were identified; and
+a distinction is made between &ldquo;natural astrology,&rdquo; which predicts
+the motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, &amp;c., and
+&ldquo;judicial astrology,&rdquo; which studies the influence of the stars on
+human destiny. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) is one of the first to
+distinguish between astronomy and astrology; nor did astronomy
+begin to rid itself of astrology till the 16th century, when, with
+the system of Copernicus, the conviction that the earth itself is
+one of the heavenly bodies was finally established. The study of
+astromancy and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found
+in a developed form among the ancient Babylonians, and
+directly or indirectly through the Babylonians spread to other
+nations. It came to Greece about the middle of the 4th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and reached Rome before the opening of the Christian
+era. In India and China astronomy and astrology are largely
+reflections of Greek theories and speculations; and similarly with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span>
+the introduction of Greek culture into Egypt, both astronomy
+and astrology were actively cultivated in the region of the Nile
+during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Astrology was
+further developed by the Arabs from the 7th to the 13th century,
+and in the Europe of the 14th and 15th centuries astrologers
+were dominating influences at court.</p>
+
+<p>Even up to the present day men of intellectual eminence like
+Dr Richard Garnett have convinced themselves that astromancy
+has a foundation of truth, just as there are still believers in
+chiromancy or other forms of divination. Dr Garnett (&ldquo;A.G. Trent&rdquo;)
+insisted indeed that it was a mistake to confuse astrology
+with fortune-telling, and maintained that it was a &ldquo;physical
+science just as much as geology,&rdquo; depending like them on
+ascertained facts, and grossly misrepresented by being connected
+with magic. Dr Garnett himself looked upon the study of biography
+in relation to the casting of horoscopes as an empirical
+investigation, but it is difficult in practice to keep the distinction
+clear, to judge by present-day text-books such as those of Dr
+Wilde (<i>Primer of Astrology</i>, &amp;c.). Dr Wilde insists on there being
+&ldquo;nothing incongruous with the laws of nature in the theory
+that the sun, moon and stars influence men&rsquo;s physical bodies
+and conditions, seeing that man is made up of a physical part
+of the earth.&rdquo; There is an obvious tendency, however, for
+astromancy to be employed, like palmistry, as a means of
+imposing on the ignorant and credulous. How far the more
+serious claim is likely to be revived in connexion with the
+renewal of research into the &ldquo;occult&rdquo; sciences generally, it is
+still too early to speculate; and it has to be recognized that
+such a point of view is opposed to the generally established
+belief that astrology is either mere superstition or absolute
+imposture, and that its former vogue was due either to deception
+or to the tyranny of an unscientific environment. But if the
+progress of physical science has not prevented the rehabilitation
+of much of ancient alchemy by the later researches into chemical
+change, and if psychology now finds a place for explanations of
+spiritualism and witchcraft which involve the admission of the
+empirical facts under a new theory (as in the case of the
+divining-rod, &amp;c.), it is at least conceivable that some new synthesis
+might once more justify part at all events of ancient and medieval
+astromancy, to the extent of admitting the empirical facts where
+provable, and substituting for the supposed influence of the stars
+as such, some deeper theory which would be consistent with an
+application to other forms of prophecy, and thus might reconcile
+the possibility of dipping into futurity with certain
+interrelations of the universe, different indeed from those assumed
+by astrological theory, but underlying and explaining it. If
+this is ever accomplished it will need the patient investigation
+of a number of empirical observations by competent students
+unbiassed by any <i>parti pris</i>&mdash;a difficult set of conditions to
+obtain; and even then no definite results may be achieved.</p>
+
+<p>The history of astrology can now be traced back to ancient
+Babylonia, and indeed to the earliest phases of Babylonian
+history, <i>i.e.</i> to about 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In Babylonia as well as in Assyria
+as a direct offshoot of Babylonian culture (or as we might also
+term it &ldquo;Euphratean&rdquo; culture), astrology takes its place in the
+official cult as one of the two chief means at the disposal of the
+priests (who were called <i>b&#257;r&#275;</i> or &ldquo;inspectors&rdquo;) for ascertaining
+the will and intention of the gods, the other being through the
+inspection of the liver of the sacrificial animal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>). Just
+as this latter method of divination rested on a well-defined theory,
+to wit, that the liver was the seat of the soul of the animal and
+that the deity in accepting the sacrifice identified himself with
+the animal, whose &ldquo;soul&rdquo; was thus placed in complete accord
+with that of the god and therefore reflected the mind and will
+of the god, so astrology is based on a theory of divine government
+of the world, which in contrast to &ldquo;liver&rdquo; divination assumes
+at the start a more scientific or pseudo-scientific aspect. This
+theory must be taken into consideration as a factor in accounting
+for the persistent hold which even at the present day astrology
+still maintains on many minds. Starting with the indisputable
+fact that man&rsquo;s life and happiness are largely dependent upon
+phenomena in the heavens, that the fertility of the soil is dependent
+upon the sun shining in the heavens as well as upon the
+rains that come from heaven, that on the other hand the mischief
+and damage done by storms and inundations, to both of which
+the Euphratean Valley was almost regularly subject, were to be
+traced likewise to the heavens, the conclusion was drawn that
+all the great gods had their seats in the heavens. In that early
+age of culture known as the &ldquo;nomadic&rdquo; stage, which under
+normal conditions precedes the &ldquo;agricultural&rdquo; stage, the moon
+cult is even more prominent than sun worship, and with the
+moon and sun cults thus furnished by the &ldquo;popular&rdquo; faith it
+was a natural step for the priests, who correspond to the &ldquo;scientists&rdquo;
+of a later day, to perfect a theory of a complete accord
+between phenomena observed in the heavens and occurrences on
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>If moon and sun, whose regular movements conveyed to the
+more intelligent minds the conception of the reign of law and
+order in the universe as against the more popular notion of
+chance and caprice, were divine powers, the same held good
+of the planets, whose movements, though more difficult to
+follow, yet in the course of time came to be at least partially
+understood. Of the planets five were recognized&mdash;Jupiter,
+Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Mars&mdash;to name them in the order
+in which they appear in the older cuneiform literature; in later
+texts Mercury and Saturn change places. These five planets
+were identified with the great gods of the pantheon as
+follows:&mdash;Jupiter with Marduk (<i>q.v.</i>), Venus with the goddess Ishtar (<i>q.v.</i>),
+Saturn with Ninib (<i>q.v.</i>), Mercury with Nebo (<i>q.v.</i>),
+and Mars with Nergal (<i>q.v.</i>). The movements of the sun, moon and five
+planets were regarded as representing the activity of the five
+gods in question, together with the moon-god Sin (<i>q.v.</i>) and the
+sun-god Shamash (<i>q.v.</i>), in preparing the occurrences on earth.
+If, therefore, one could correctly read and interpret the activity
+of these powers, one knew what the gods were aiming to bring
+about. The Babylonian priests accordingly applied themselves
+to the task of perfecting a system of interpretation of the
+phenomena to be observed in the heavens, and it was natural that the
+system was extended from the moon, sun and five planets to the
+more prominent and recognizable fixed stars. That system involved
+not merely the movements of the moon, sun and planets,
+but the observation of their relative position to one another and
+to all kinds of peculiarities noted at any point in the course of
+their movements: in the case of the moon, for instance, the
+exact appearance of the new crescent, its position in the heavens,
+the conditions at conjunction and opposition, the appearance
+of the horns, the halo frequently seen with the new moon,
+which was compared to a &ldquo;cap,&rdquo; the ring round the full moon,
+which was called a &ldquo;stall&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;enclosure&rdquo;), and more of the
+like. To all these phenomena some significance was attached,
+and this significance was naturally intensified in the case of
+such a striking phenomenon as an eclipse of the moon. Applying
+the same method of careful observation to the sun and planets,
+and later to some of the constellations and to many of the fixed
+stars, it will be apparent that the body of observations noted
+must have grown in the course of time to large and indeed to
+enormous proportions, and correspondingly the interpretations
+assigned to the nearly endless variations in the phenomena thus
+observed. The interpretations themselves were based (as in the
+case of divination through the liver) chiefly on two
+factors:&mdash;(1) on the recollection or on written records of what
+in the past had taken place when the phenomenon or phenomena
+in question had been observed, and (2) association of
+ideas&mdash;involving sometimes merely a play upon words&mdash;in
+connexion with the phenomenon or phenomena observed. Thus if on a certain
+occasion the rise of the new moon in a cloudy sky was followed
+by victory over an enemy or by abundant rain, the sign in
+question was thus proved to be a favourable one and its recurrence
+would be regarded as a good omen, though the prognostication
+would not necessarily be limited to the one or the other of
+those occurrences, but might be extended to apply to other
+circumstances. On the other hand, the appearance of the new
+moon earlier than was expected was regarded as an unfavourable
+omen&mdash;prognosticating in one case defeat, in another death
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span>
+among cattle, in a third bad crops&mdash;not necessarily because
+these events actually took place after such a phenomenon, but
+by an application of the general principle resting upon association
+of ideas whereby anything premature would suggest an
+unfavourable occurrence. A thin halo seen above the new moon
+was pictured as a cap, and the association between this and the
+symbol of royalty, which was a conical-shaped cap, led to
+interpreting the phenomenon as an indication that the ruler
+would have a successful reign. In this way a mass of traditional
+interpretation of all kinds of observed phenomena was gathered,
+and once gathered became a guide to the priests for all times.</p>
+
+<p>Astrology in this its earliest stage is, however, marked by two
+characteristic limitations. In the first place, the movements
+and position of the heavenly bodies point to such occurrences
+as are of public import and affect the general welfare. The
+individual&rsquo;s interests are not in any way involved, and we must
+descend many centuries and pass beyond the confines of
+Babylonia and Assyria before we reach that phase which in
+medieval and modern astrology is almost exclusively dwelt
+upon&mdash;genethliology or the individual horoscope. In Babylonia and
+Assyria the cult centred largely and indeed almost exclusively
+in the public welfare and the person of the king, because
+upon his well-being and favour with the gods the fortunes of
+the country were dependent in accordance with the ancient
+conception of kingship (see J.G. Frazer, <i>The Early History of
+Kingship</i>). To some extent, the individual came in for his
+share in the incantations and in the purification ritual through
+which one might hope to rid oneself of the power of the demons
+and of other evil spirits, but outside of this the important aim
+of the priests was to secure for the general benefit the favour of
+the gods, or, as a means of preparing oneself for what the future
+had in store, to ascertain in time whether that favour would be
+granted in any particular instance or would be continued in the
+future. Hence in &ldquo;liver&rdquo; divination, as in astrology, the
+interpretations of the signs noted all have reference to public
+affairs and events and not to the individual&rsquo;s needs or desires.
+In the second place, the astronomical knowledge presupposed
+and accompanying early Babylonian astrology is essentially of
+an empirical character. While in a general way the reign of law
+and order in the movements of the heavenly bodies was recognized,
+and indeed must have exercised an influence at an early
+period in leading to the rise of a methodical divination that was
+certainly of a much higher order than the examination of an
+animal&rsquo;s liver, yet the importance that was laid upon the endless
+variations in the form of the phenomena and the equally numerous
+apparent deviations from what were regarded as normal conditions,
+prevented for a long time the rise of any serious study of
+astronomy beyond what was needed for the purely practical
+purposes that the priests as &ldquo;inspectors&rdquo; of the heavens (as
+they were also the &ldquo;inspectors&rdquo; of the sacrificial livers) had in
+mind. True, we have, probably as early as the days of Khammurabi,
+<i>i.e.</i> <i>c.</i> 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the combinations of prominent groups
+of stars with outlines of pictures fantastically put together, but
+there is no evidence that prior to 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> more than a number
+of the constellations of our zodiac had become part of the
+current astronomy. The theory of the ecliptic as representing
+the course of the sun through the year, divided among twelve
+constellations with a measurement of 30° to each division, is
+also of Babylonian origin, as has now been definitely proved;
+but it does not appear to have been perfected until after the fall
+of the Babylonian empire in 539 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Similarly, the other
+accomplishments of Babylonian astronomers, such as their
+system or rather systems of moon calculations and the drawing
+up of planetary tablets, belong to this late period, so that the
+golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not to the remote
+past, as was until recently supposed, but to the Seleucid period,
+<i>i.e.</i> after the advent of the Greeks in the Euphrates Valley.
+From certain expressions used in astrological texts that are
+earlier than the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it would appear, indeed, that
+the beginnings at least of the calculation of sun and moon
+eclipses belong to the earlier period, but here, too, the chief
+work accomplished was after 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the defectiveness of
+early Babylonian astronomy may be gathered from the fact that
+as late as the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> an error of almost an entire month
+was made by the Babylonian astronomers in the attempt to
+determine through calculation the beginning of a certain year.</p>
+
+<p>The researches of Bouché-Leclercq, Cumont and Boll have
+enabled us to fix with a considerable degree of definiteness the
+middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as the period when Babylonian
+astrology began its triumphal march to the west, invading the
+domain of Greek and Roman culture and destined to exercise
+a strong hold on all nations and groups&mdash;more particularly in
+Egypt&mdash;that came within the sphere of Greek and Roman
+influence. It is rather significant that this spread of astrology
+should have been concomitant with the intellectual impulse that
+led to the rise of a genuine scientific phase of astronomy in
+Babylonia itself, which must have weakened to some extent
+the hold that astrology had on the priests and the people. The
+advent of the Persians, bringing with them a conception of religion
+of a far higher order than Babylonian-Assyrian polytheism (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zoroaster</a></span>), must also have acted as a disintegrating factor
+in leading to the decline of the old faith in the Euphrates
+Valley, and we thus have the interesting though not entirely
+exceptional phenomenon of a great civilization bequeathing as
+a legacy to posterity a superstition instead of a real achievement.
+&ldquo;Chaldaean wisdom&rdquo; became among Greeks and Romans the
+synonym of divination through the planets and stars, and it is
+not surprising that in the course of time to be known as a
+&ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; carried with it frequently the suspicion of
+charlatanry and of more or less wilful deception. The spread of
+astrology beyond Babylonia is thus concomitant with the rise
+of a truly scientific astronomy in Babylonia itself, which in turn
+is due to the intellectual impulse afforded by the contact with
+new forms of culture from both the East and the West.</p>
+
+<p>In the hands of the Greeks and of the later Egyptians both
+astrology and astronomy were carried far beyond the limits
+attained by the Babylonians, and it is indeed a matter of surprise
+to observe the harmonious combination of the two fields&mdash;a
+harmony that seems to grow more complete with each age, and
+that is not broken until we reach the threshold of modern science
+in the 16th century. To the Greek astronomer Hipparchus
+belongs the credit of the discovery (<i>c.</i> 130 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) of the theory of
+the precession of the equinoxes, for a knowledge of which among
+the Babylonians we find no definite proof; but such a signal
+advance in pure science did not prevent the Greeks from developing
+in a most elaborate manner the theory of the influence of the
+planets upon the fate of the individual. The endeavour to trace
+the horoscope of the individual from the position of the planets
+and stars at the time of birth (or, as was attempted by other
+astrologers, at the time of conception) represents the most
+significant contribution of the Greeks to astrology. The system
+was carried to such a degree of perfection that later ages made
+but few additions of an essential character to the genethliology
+or drawing up of the individual horoscope by the Greek
+astrologers. The system was taken up almost bodily by the Arab
+astronomers, it was embodied in the Kabbalistic lore of Jews and
+Christians, and through these and other channels came to be the
+substance of the astrology of the middle ages, forming, as already
+pointed out, under the designation of &ldquo;judicial astrology,&rdquo; a
+pseudo-science which was placed on a perfect footing of equality
+with &ldquo;natural astrology&rdquo; or the more genuine science of the
+study of the motions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Partly in further development of views unfolded in Babylonia,
+but chiefly under Greek influences, the scope of astrology was
+enlarged until it was brought into connexion with practically all
+of the known sciences, botany, chemistry, zoology, mineralogy,
+anatomy and medicine. Colours, metals, stones, plants, drugs
+and animal life of all kinds were associated with the planets and
+placed under their tutelage. In the system that passes under the
+name of Ptolemy, Saturn is associated with grey, Jupiter with
+white, Mars with red, Venus with yellow, while Mercury, occupying
+a peculiar place in Greek as it did in Babylonian astrology
+(where it was at one time designated as <i>the</i> planet <i>par
+excellence</i>), was supposed to vary its colour according to changing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
+circumstances. The sun was associated with gold, the moon with
+silver, Jupiter with electrum, Saturn with lead, Venus with copper,
+and so on, while the continued influence of astrological motives
+is to be seen in the association of quicksilver, upon its discovery
+at a comparatively late period, with Mercury, because of its
+changeable character as a solid and a liquid. In the same way
+stones were connected with both the planets and the months;
+plants, by diverse association of ideas, were connected with the
+planets, and animals likewise were placed under the guidance
+and protection of one or other of the heavenly bodies. By this
+curious process of combination the entire realm of the natural
+sciences was translated into the language of astrology with the
+single avowed purpose of seeing in all phenomena signs indicative
+of what the future had in store. The fate of the individual, as
+that feature of the future which had a supreme interest, led to
+the association of the planets with parts of the body. Here, too,
+we find various systems devised, in part representing the views
+of different schools, in part reflecting advancing conceptions
+regarding the functions of the organs in man and animals. In
+one system the seat of Mercury, representing divine intelligence as
+the source of all knowledge&mdash;a view that reverts to Babylonia
+where Nebo (corresponding to Mercury) was regarded as the
+divine power to whom all wisdom is due&mdash;was placed in the liver
+as the primeval seat of the soul (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>), whereas in other
+systems this distinction was assigned to Jupiter or to Venus.
+Saturn, taking in Greek astrology the place at the head of the
+planets which among the Babylonians was accorded to Jupiter-Marduk,
+was given a place in the brain, which in later times was
+looked upon as the centre of soul-life; Venus, as the planet of
+the passion of love, was supposed to reign supreme over the
+genital organs, the belly and the lower limbs; Mars, as the
+violent planet, is associated with the bile, as well as with the
+blood and kidneys. Again, the right ear is associated with
+Saturn, the left ear with Mars, the right eye in the case of the male
+with the sun and the left eye with the moon, while in the case
+of the female it was just the reverse. From the planets the same
+association of ideas was applied to the constellations of the
+zodiac, which in later phases of astrology are placed on a par
+with the planets themselves, so far as their importance for the
+individual horoscope is concerned. The fate of the individual
+in this combination of planets with the zodiac was made
+dependent not merely upon the planet which happened to be
+rising at the time of birth or of conception, but also upon its
+local relationship to a special sign or to certain signs of the zodiac.
+The zodiac was regarded as the prototype of the human body,
+the different parts of which all had their corresponding section
+in the zodiac itself. The head was placed in the first sign of the
+zodiac&mdash;the Ram; and the feet in the last sign&mdash;the Fishes.
+Between these two extremes the other parts and organs of the
+body were distributed among the remaining signs of the zodiac,
+the neck being assigned to the Bull, the shoulders and arms to
+the Gemini (or twins), the breast to Cancer, the flanks to Leo,
+the bladder to Virgo, the buttocks to the Balance, the pubis to
+the Scorpion, the thighs to Sagittarius, the knees to Capricorn,
+and the limbs to Aquarius. Not content with this, we find the
+late Egyptian astrologers setting up a correspondence between
+the thirty-six <i>decani</i> recognized by them and the human body,
+which is thus divided into thirty-six parts; to each part a god
+was assigned as a controlling force. With human anatomy thus
+connected with the planets, with constellations, and with single
+stars, medicine became an integral part of astrology, or,
+as we might also put it, astrology became the handmaid of
+medicine. Diseases and disturbances of the ordinary functions
+of the organs were attributed to the influence of planets or
+explained as due to conditions observed in a constellation or in
+the position of a star; and an interesting survival of this bond
+between astrology and medicine is to be seen in the use up to
+the present time of the sign of Jupiter &#9795;, which still heads
+medicinal prescriptions, while, on the other hand, the influence
+of planetary lore appears in the assignment of the days of the
+week to the planets, beginning with Sunday, assigned to the sun,
+and ending with Saturday, the day of Saturn. Passing on into
+still later periods, Saturn&rsquo;s day was associated with the Jewish
+sabbath, Sunday with the Lord&rsquo;s Day, Tuesday with Tiw, the
+god of war, corresponding to Mars of the Romans and to the
+Nergal of the Babylonians. Wednesday was assigned to the
+planet Mercury, the equivalent of the Germanic god Woden;
+Thursday to Jupiter, the equivalent of Thor; and Friday to
+Friga, the goddess of love, who is represented by Venus among
+the Romans and among the Babylonians by Ishtar. Astrological
+considerations likewise already regulated in ancient Babylonia
+the distinction of lucky and unlucky days, which passing down
+to the Greeks and Romans (<i>dies fasti</i> and <i>nefasti</i>) found a
+striking expression in Hesiod&rsquo;s <i>Works and Days</i>. Among the Arabs
+similar associations of lucky and unlucky days directly connected
+with the influence of the planets prevailed through all times,
+Tuesday and Wednesday, for instance, being regarded as the
+days for blood-letting, because Tuesday was connected with
+Mars, the lord of war and blood, and Wednesday with Mercury,
+the planet of humours. Even in modern times travellers relate
+how, when an auspicious day has been proclaimed by the astrologers,
+the streets of Bagdad may be seen running with blood
+from the barbers&rsquo; shops.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary here to give a detailed analysis of the methods
+of judicial astrology as an art, or directions for the casting of a
+horoscope, or &ldquo;nativity,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a map of the heavens at the hour
+of birth, showing, according to the Ephemeris, the position of
+the heavenly bodies, from which their influence may be deduced.
+Each of the twelve signs of the zodiac (<i>q.v.</i>) is credited with its
+own characteristics and influence, and is the controlling sign of
+its &ldquo;house of life.&rdquo; The sign exactly rising at the moment of
+birth is called the ascendant. The benevolent or malignant
+influence of each planet, together with the sun and moon, is
+modified by the sign it inhabits at the nativity; thus Jupiter
+in one house may indicate riches, fame in another, beauty in
+another, and Saturn similarly poverty, obscurity or deformity.
+The calculation is affected by the &ldquo;aspects,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> according as
+the planets are near or far as regards one another (in conjunction,
+in semi-sextile, semi-square, sextile, quintile, square, trine,
+sesqui-quadrate, bi-quintile, opposition or parallel acclination).
+Disastrous signs predominate over auspicious, and the various
+effects are combined in a very elaborate and complicated manner.</p>
+
+<p>Judicial astrology, as a form of divination, is a concomitant
+of natural astrology, in its purer astronomical aspect, but mingled
+with what is now considered an unscientific and superstitious
+view of world-forces. In the <i>Janua aurea reserata quatuor
+linguarum</i> (1643) of J.A. Comenius we find the following
+definition:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Astronomus siderum meatus seu motus considerat:
+Astrologus eorundem efficaciam, influxum, et effectum</i>.&rdquo; Kepler
+was more cautious in his opinion; he spoke of astronomy as
+the wise mother, and astrology as the foolish daughter, but he
+added that the existence of the daughter was necessary to the
+life of the mother. Tycho Brahe and Gassendi both began with
+astrology, and it was only after pursuing the false science, and
+finding it wanting, that Gassendi devoted himself to astronomy.
+In their numerous allusions to the subtle mercury, which the one
+makes when treating of a means of measuring time by the efflux
+of the metal, and the other in a treatise on the transit of the
+planet, we see traces of the school in which they served their first
+apprenticeship. Huygens, moreover, in his great posthumous
+work, <i>Cosmotheoros, seu de terris coelestibus</i>, shows himself a
+more exact observer of astrological symbols than Kircher himself
+in his <i>Iter exstaticum</i>. Huygens contends that between the
+inhabitants of different planets there need not be any greater
+difference than exists between men of different types on the earth.
+&ldquo;There are on the earth,&rdquo; continues this rational interpreter
+of the astrologers and chiromancers, &ldquo;men of cold temperament
+who would thrive in Saturn, which is the farthest planet from
+the sun, and there are other spirits warm and ardent enough
+to live in Venus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Those were indeed strange times, according to modern ideas,
+when astrologers were dominant by the terror they inspired,
+and sometimes by the martydom they endured when their predictions
+were either too true or too false. Faith, to borrow their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
+own language, was banished to Virgo, and rarely shed her
+influence on men. Cardan (1501-1576), for instance, hated
+Luther, and so changed his birthday in order to give him an
+unfavourable horoscope. In Cardan&rsquo;s times, as in those of
+Augustus, it was a common practice for men to conceal the day
+and hour of their birth, till, like Augustus, they found a complaisant
+astrologer. But, as a general rule, medieval and Renaissance
+astrologers did not give themselves the trouble of reading
+the stars, but contented themselves with telling fortunes by
+faces. They practised chiromancy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palmistry</a></span>), and relied
+on afterwards drawing a horoscope to suit. As physiognomists
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Physiognomy</a></span>) their talent was undoubted, and according to
+Vanini there was no need to mount to the house-top to cast a
+nativity. &ldquo;Yes,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;I can read his face; by his hair
+and his forehead it is easy to guess that the sun at his birth
+was in the sign of Libra and near Venus. Nay, his complexion
+shows that Venus touches Libra. By the rules of astrology he
+could not lie.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A few salient facts may be added concerning the astrologers
+and their predictions, remarkable either for their fulfilment or
+for the ruin and confusion they brought upon their authors. We
+may begin with one taken from Bacon&rsquo;s <i>Essay of Prophecies</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;When
+I was in France, I heard from one Dr Pena, that the
+queen mother, who was given to curious arts, caused the king
+her husband&rsquo;s nativitie to be calculated, under a false name;
+and the astrologer gave a judgment, that he should be killed in
+a duell; at which the queene laughed, thinking her husband to
+be above challenges and duels; but he was slaine, upon a course
+at tilt, the splinters of the staffe of Mongomery going in at his
+bever.&rdquo; A favourite topic of the astrologers of all countries has
+been the immediate end of the world. As early as 1186 the
+earth had escaped one threatened cataclysm of the astrologers.
+This did not prevent Stöffler from predicting a universal deluge
+for the year 1524&mdash;a year, as it turned out, distinguished for
+drought. His aspect of the heavens told him that in that year
+three planets would meet in the aqueous sign of Pisces. The
+prediction was believed far and wide, and President Aurial, at
+Toulouse, built himself a Noah&rsquo;s ark&mdash;a curious realization, in
+fact, of Chaucer&rsquo;s merry invention in the <i>Miller&rsquo;s Tale</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Tycho Brahe was from his fifteenth year devoted to astrology,
+and adjoining his observatory at Uranienburg the astronomer-royal
+of Denmark had a laboratory built in order to study
+alchemy, and it was only a few years before his death that he
+finally abandoned astrology. We may here notice one very
+remarkable prediction of the master of Kepler. That he had
+carefully studied the comet of 1577 as an astronomer, we may
+gather from his adducing the very small parallax of this comet
+as disproving the assertion of the Aristotelians that a solid
+sphere enveloped the heavens. But besides this, we find him
+in his character of astrologer drawing a singular prediction from
+the appearance of this comet. It announced, he tells us, that in
+the north, in Finland, there should be born a prince who should
+lay waste Germany and vanish in 1632. Gustavus Adolphus,
+it is well known, was born in Finland, overran Germany, and died
+in 1632. The fulfilment of the details of this prophecy suggests
+that Tycho Brahe had some basis of reason for his prediction.
+Born in Denmark of a noble Swedish family, a politician, as were
+all his contemporaries of distinction, Tycho, though no conjuror,
+could foresee the advent of some great northern hero. Moreover,
+he was doubtless well acquainted with a very ancient tradition,
+that heroes generally came from the northern frontiers of their
+native land, where they are hardened and tempered by the
+threefold struggle they wage with soil, climate and barbarian
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>Kepler explained the double movement of the earth by the
+rotation of the sun. At one time the sun presented its friendly
+side, which attracted one planet, sometimes its adverse side,
+which repelled it. He also peopled the planets with souls and
+genii. He was led to his three great laws by musical analogies,
+just as William Herschel afterwards passed from music to
+astronomy. Kepler, who in his youth made almanacs, and once
+prophesied a hard winter, which came to pass, could not help
+putting an astrological interpretation on the disappearance of
+the brilliant star of 1572, which Tycho had observed. Theodore
+Beza thought that this star, which in December 1573 equalled
+Jupiter in brilliancy, predicted the second coming of Christ.
+Astronomers were only then beginning to study variable and
+periodic stars, and disturbances in that part of the heavens,
+which had till then, on the authority of Aristotle, been regarded
+as incorruptible, combined with the troubles of the times, must
+have given a new stimulus to belief in the signs in heaven.
+Montaigne (<i>Essais</i>, lib. i. chap, x.) relates a singular episode
+in the history of astrology. Charles V. and Francis I., who both
+bid for the friendship of the infamous Aretino, surnamed the
+divine, both likewise engaged astrologers to fight their battles.
+In Italy those who prophesied the ruin of France were sure to be
+listened to. These prophecies affected the public funds much
+as telegrams do nowadays. &ldquo;At Rome,&rdquo; Montaigne tells us, &ldquo;a
+large sum of money was lost on the Change by this prognostication
+of our ruin.&rdquo; The marquis of Saluces, notwithstanding his
+gratitude to Francis I. for the many favours he had received,
+including his marquisate, of which the brother was despoiled
+for his benefit, was led in 1536 to betray his country, being scared
+by the glorious prophecies of the ultimate success of Charles V.
+which were then rife. The influence of the Medici made astrologers
+popular in France. Richelieu, on whose council was
+Jacques Gaffarel (1601-1681), the last of the Kabbalists, did not
+despise astrology as an engine of government. At the birth of
+Louis XIV. a certain Morin de Villefranche was placed behind
+a curtain to cast the nativity of the future autocrat. A generation
+back the astrologer would not have been hidden behind a
+curtain, but have taken precedence of the doctor. La Bruyčre
+dares not pronounce against such beliefs, &ldquo;for there are perplexing
+facts affirmed by grave men who were eye-witnesses.&rdquo;
+In England William Lilly and Robert Fludd were both dressed
+in a little brief authority. The latter gives us elaborate rules
+for the detection of a thief, and tells us that he has had personal
+experience of their efficacy. &ldquo;If the lord of the sixth house is
+found in the second house, or in company with the lord of the
+second house, the thief is one of the family. If Mercury is in
+the sign of the Scorpion he will be bald, &amp;c.&rdquo; Francis Bacon
+abuses the astrologers of his day no less than the alchemists, but
+he does so because he has visions of a reformed astrology and a
+reformed alchemy. Sir Thomas Browne, too, while he denies
+the capacity of the astrologers of his day, does not venture to
+dispute the reality of the science. The idea of the souls of men
+passing at death to the stars, the blessedness of their particular
+sphere being assigned them according to their deserts (the
+metempsychosis of J. Reynaud), may be regarded as a survival
+of religious astrology, which, even as late as Descartes&rsquo;s day,
+assigned to the angels the task of moving the planets and the stars.
+Joseph de Maistre believed in comets as messengers of divine
+justice, and in animated planets, and declared that divination
+by astrology is not an absolutely chimerical science. Lastly,
+we may mention a few distinguished men who ran counter to
+their age in denying stellar influences. Aristarchus of Samos,
+Martianus Capella (the precursor of Copernicus), Cicero, Favorinus,
+Sextus Empiricus, Juvenal, and in a later age Savonarola
+and Pico della Mirandola, and La Fontaine, a contemporary of
+the neutral La Bruyčre, were all pronounced opponents of
+astrology.</p>
+
+<p>In England Swift may fairly claim the credit of having given
+the death-blow to astrology by his famous squib, entitled
+<i>Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.</i> He begins,
+by professing profound belief in the art, and next points out the
+vagueness and the absurdities of the philomaths. He then, in
+the happiest vein of parody, proceeds to show them a more
+excellent way:&mdash;&ldquo;My first prediction is but a trifle, yet I
+mention it to show how ignorant these sottish pretenders to
+astrology are in their own concerns: it refers to Partridge the
+almanac-maker. I have consulted the star of his nativity by
+my own rules, and find he will infallibly die upon the 29th of
+March next about eleven at night of a raging fever. Therefore
+I advise him to consider of it and settle his affairs in time.&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span>
+Then followed a letter to a person of quality giving a full and
+particular account of the death of Partridge on the very day
+and nearly at the hour mentioned. In vain the wretched
+astrologer protested that he was alive, got a literary friend to
+write a pamphlet to prove it, and published his almanac for 1709.
+Swift, in his reply, abused him for his want of manners in giving
+a gentleman the lie, answered his arguments <i>seriatim</i>, and
+declared that the evidence of the publication of another almanac
+was wholly irrelevant, &ldquo;for Gadbury, Poor Robin, Dove and
+Way do yearly publish their almanacs, though several of them
+have been dead since before the Revolution.&rdquo; Nevertheless a
+field is found even to this day for almanacs of a similar type,
+and for popular belief in them.</p>
+
+<p>To astrological politics we owe the theory of heaven-sent rulers,
+instruments in the hands of Providence, and saviours of society.
+Napoleon, as well as Wallenstein, believed in his star. Many
+passages in the older English poets are unintelligible without
+some knowledge of astrology. Chaucer wrote a treatise on the
+astrolabe; Milton constantly refers to planetary influences;
+in Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>King Lear</i>, Gloucester and Edmund represent
+respectively the old and the new faith. We still <i>contemplate</i> and
+consider; we still speak of men as <i>jovial</i>, <i>saturnine</i> or <i>mercurial</i>;
+we still talk of the <i>ascendancy</i> of genius, or a <i>disastrous</i> defeat.
+In French <i>heur</i>, <i>malheur</i>, <i>heureux</i>, <i>malheureux</i>, are all derived
+from the Latin <i>augurium</i>; the expression <i>né sous une mauvaise
+étoile</i>, born under an evil star, corresponds (with the change of
+<i>étoile</i> into <i>astre</i>) to the word <i>malôtru</i>, in Provençal <i>malastrue</i>;
+and <i>son étoile pâlit</i>, his star grows pale, belongs to the same class
+of illusions. The Latia <i>ex augurio</i> appears in the Italian <i>sciagura</i>,
+<i>sciagurato</i>, softened into <i>sciaura</i>, <i>sciaurato</i>, wretchedness,
+wretched. The influence of a particular planet has also left
+traces in various languages; but the French and English <i>jovial</i>
+and the English <i>saturnine</i> correspond rather to the gods who
+served as types in chiromancy than to the planets which bear
+the same names. In the case of the expressions <i>bien</i> or <i>mal
+luné</i>, well or ill mooned, <i>avoir un quartier de lune dans la tetę</i>, to
+have the quarter of the moon in one&rsquo;s head, the German <i>mondsüchtig</i>
+and the English <i>moonstruck</i> or <i>lunatic</i>, the fundamental
+idea lies in the strange opinions formerly held about the moon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For the history of astrology with its affinities to
+astronomy on the one hand, and to other forms of popular belief on
+the other, the following works out of a large number that might
+be mentioned are specially recommended:&mdash;A. Bouché-Leclercq,
+<i>L&rsquo;Astrologie grecque</i> (Paris, 1899), with a full bibliography; Franz
+Boll, <i>Sphaera</i> (Leipzig, 1903); Franz Cumont, <i>Catalogus Codicum
+Astrologorum Graecorum</i> (Brussels, 1898; 7 parts published up to
+1909); Franz Boll, &ldquo;Die Erforschung der antiken Astrologie&rdquo; (in
+<i>Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum</i>, Band xxi. Heft 2, pp.
+103-126); Franz Cumont, <i>Les Religions orientates dans le paganisme
+romain</i> (Paris, 1907) (ch. vii. &ldquo;L&rsquo;Astrologie et la magie&rdquo;); Alfred
+Maury, <i>La Magie et l&rsquo;astrologie ŕ l&rsquo;antiquité et au moyen âge</i> (4th ed.,
+Paris, 1877); R.C. Thompson, <i>Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers
+of Nineveh and Babylon</i> (2 vols., London, 1900); F.X.
+Kugler, <i>Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel</i> (Freiburg, 1907;&mdash;to
+be completed in 4 vols.); Ch. Virolleaud, <i>L&rsquo;Astrologie chaldéenne</i>
+(Paris, 1905&mdash;to be completed in 8 parts&mdash;transliteration and
+translations of cuneiform texts); Jastrow, <i>Religion Babyloniens und
+Assyriens</i> (Parts 13 and 14); also certain sections in Bouché-Leclercq,
+<i>Histoire de la divination dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i> (Paris, 1879),
+vol. i. pp. 205-257; in Marcellin Berthelot, <i>Les Origines de l&rsquo;alchimie</i>
+(Paris, 1885), pp. 1-56; Ferd. Höfer, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;astronomie</i> (Paris,
+1846), pp. 1-90; in Rudolf Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i> (Munich,
+1877), ch. i. See also the article by Ernst Riess on Astrology in
+Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>,
+vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896). For modern and practical astrology
+the following works may be found useful in different ways:
+E.M. Bennett, <i>Astrology</i> (New York, 1894); J.M. Pfaff, <i>Astrologie</i>
+(Bamberg, 1816); G. Wilde, <i>Chaldaean Astrology up to date</i> (1901);
+R. Garnett (&ldquo;A.G. Trent&rdquo;), &ldquo;The Soul and the Stars,&rdquo; in the
+<i>University Magazine</i>, 1880 (reprinted in Dobson and Wilde, <i>Natal
+Astrology</i>, 1893); Abel Haatan, <i>Traité d&rsquo;astrologie judiciaire</i> (Paris,
+1825); Fomalhaut, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;astrologie sphérique el judiciaire</i> (Paris,
+1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTRONOMY<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="astron">&#7940;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, a star, and <span class="grk" title="nemein">&#957;&#941;&#956;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to classify
+or arrange). The subject matter of astronomical science, considered
+in its widest range, comprehends all the matter of the
+universe which lies outside the limit of the earth&rsquo;s atmosphere.
+The seeming anomaly of classifying as a single branch of science
+all that we know in a field so wide, while subdividing our knowledge
+of things on our own planet into an indefinite number of
+separate sciences, finds its explanation in the impossibility of
+subjecting the matter of the heavens to that experimental
+scrutiny which yields such rich results when applied to matter
+which we can handle at will. Astronomy is of necessity a science
+of observation in the pursuit of which experiment can directly
+play no part. It is the most ancient of the sciences because,
+before the era of experiment, it was the branch of knowledge
+which could be most easily systematized, while the relations of
+its phenomena to day and night, times and seasons, made some
+knowledge of the subject a necessity of social life. In recent
+times it is among the more progressive of the sciences, because
+the new and improved methods of research now at command
+have found in its cultivation a field of practically unlimited
+extent, in which the lines of research may ultimately lead to a
+comprehension of the universe impossible of attainment before
+our time.</p>
+
+<p>The field we have defined is divisible into at least two parts,
+that of Astronomy proper, or &ldquo;Astrometry,&rdquo; which treats of
+the motions, mutual relations and dimensions of the heavenly
+bodies; and that of Astrophysics (<i>q.v.</i>), which treats of their
+physical constitution. While it is true that the instruments and
+methods of research in these two branches are quite different in
+their details, there is so much in common in the fundamental
+principles which underlie their application, that it is unprofitable
+to consider them as completely distinct sciences.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking in the most comprehensive way, and making an
+exception of the ethereal medium (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aether</a></span>), which, being
+capable of experimental study, is not included in the subject
+of astronomy, we may say that the great masses of matter which
+make up the universe are of two kinds:&mdash;(1) incandescent bodies,
+made visible to us by their own light; (2) dark bodies, revolving
+round them or round each other. These dark bodies are known
+to us in two ways: (<i>a</i>) by becoming visible through reflecting
+the light from incandescent bodies in their neighbourhood, (<i>b</i>)
+by their attraction upon such bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The incandescent bodies are of two classes: stars and nebulae.
+Among the stars our sun is to be included, as it has no properties
+which distinguish it from the great mass of stars except our
+proximity to it. The stars are supposed to be generally spherical,
+like the sun, in form, and to have fairly well-defined boundaries;
+while the nebulae are generally irregular in outline and have no
+well-defined limits. It is, however, probable that the one class
+runs into the other by imperceptible gradations. In the relation
+of the universe to us there is yet another separation of its bodies
+into two classes, one comprising the solar system, the other
+the remainder of the universe. The former consists of the sun
+and the bodies which move round it. Considered as a part of
+the universe, our solar system is insignificant in extent, though,
+for obvious reasons, great in practical importance to us, and in
+the facility with which we may gain knowledge relating to it.</p>
+
+<p>Referring to special articles, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solar System</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sun</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moon</a></span>,
+&amp;c. for a description of the various parts of the universe, we
+confine ourselves, at present, to setting forth a few of the most
+general modern conceptions of the universe. As to extent, it
+may be said, in a general way, that while no definite limits can
+be set to the possible extent of the universe, or the distance of
+its farthest bodies, it seems probable, for reasons which will be
+given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>, that the system to which the stars that we see
+belong, is of finite extent.</p>
+
+<p>As the incandescent bodies of the universe are visible by their
+own light, the problem of ascertaining their existence and
+position is mainly one of seeing, and our facilities for attacking
+it have constantly increased with the improvement of our optical
+appliances. But such is not the case with the dark bodies.
+Such a body can be made known to us only when in the neighbourhood
+of an incandescent body; and even then, unless its
+mass or its dimensions are considerable, it will evade all the
+scrutiny of our science. The question of the possible number
+and magnitude of such bodies is therefore one that does not
+admit of accurate investigation. We can do no more than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
+balance vague estimates of probability. What we do know is
+that these bodies vary widely in size. Those known to be
+revolving round certain of the stars are far larger in proportion
+to their central bodies than our planets are in respect to the sun;
+for were it otherwise we should never be able to detect their
+existence. At the other extreme we know that innumerable
+swarms of minute bodies, probably little more than particles,
+move round the sun in orbits of every degree of eccentricity,
+making themselves known to us only in the exceptional cases
+when they strike the earth&rsquo;s atmosphere. They then appear
+to us as &ldquo;shooting stars&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteor</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>A general idea of the relation of the solar system to the universe
+may be gained by reflecting that the average distance between
+any two neighbouring stars is several thousand times the extent
+of the solar system. Between the orbit of Neptune and the
+nearest star known to us is an immense void in which no bodies
+are yet known to exist, except comets. But although these
+sometimes wander to distances considerably beyond the orbit
+of Neptune, it is probable that the extent of the void which
+separates our system from the nearest star is hundreds of times
+the distance of the farthest point to which a comet ever recedes.</p>
+
+<p>We may conclude this brief characterization of astronomy
+with a statement and classification of the principal lines on
+which astronomical researches are now pursued. The most
+comprehensive problem before the investigator is that of the
+constitution of the universe. It is known that, while infinite
+diversity is found among the bodies of the universe, there are
+also common characteristics throughout its whole extent. In
+a certain sense we may say that the universe now presents itself
+to the thinking astronomer, not as a heterogeneous collection
+of bodies, but as a unified whole. The number of stars is so vast
+that statistical methods can be applied to many of the characters
+which they exhibit&mdash;their spectra, their apparent and absolute
+luminosity, and their arrangement in space. Thus has arisen
+in recent times what we may regard as a third branch of astronomical
+science, known as <i>Stellar Statistics</i>. The development of
+this branch has infused life and interest into what might a few
+years ago have been regarded as the most lifeless mass of figures
+possible, expressing merely the positions and motions of innumerable
+individual stars, as determined by generations of astronomical
+observers. The development of this new branch requires
+great additions to this mass, the product of perhaps centuries
+of work on the older lines of the science. To the statistician of
+the stars, catalogues of spectra, magnitude, position and proper
+motions are of the same importance that census tables are to the
+student of humanity. The measurement of the speed with which
+the individual stars are moving towards or from our system is a
+work of such magnitude that what has yet been done is scarcely
+more than a beginning. The discovery by improved optical
+means, and especially by photography, of new bodies of our
+system so small that they evaded all scrutiny in former times,
+is still going on, but does not at present promise any important
+generalization, unless we regard as such the conclusion that our
+solar system is a more complex organism than was formerly
+supposed.</p>
+
+<p>One characteristic of astronomy which tends to make its
+progress slow and continuous arises out of the general fact that,
+except in the case of motions to or from us, which can be determined
+by a single observation with the spectroscope, the motion
+of a heavenly body can be determined only by comparing its
+position at two different epochs. The interval required between
+these two epochs depends upon the speed of the motion. In the
+case of the greater number of the fixed stars this is so slow that
+centuries may have to elapse before motion can be deduced.
+Even in the case of the planets, the variations in the form and
+position of the orbits are so slow that long periods of observation
+are required for their correct determination.</p>
+
+<p>The process of development is also made slow and difficult by
+the great amount of labour involved in deriving the results of
+astronomical observations. When an astronomer has made an
+observation, it still has to be &ldquo;reduced,&rdquo; and this commonly
+requires more labour than that involved in making it. But
+even this labour may be small compared with that of the theoretical
+astronomer, who, in the future, is to use the result as the
+raw material of his work. The computations required in such
+work are of extreme complexity, and the labour required is still
+further increased by the fact that cases are rather exceptional in
+which the results reached by one generation will not have to be
+revised and reconstructed by another; processes which may
+involve the repetition of the entire work. We may, in fact, regard
+the fabric of astronomical science as a building in the construction
+of which no stone can be added without a readjustment of some
+of the stones on which it has to rest. Thus it comes about that
+the observer, the computer, and the mathematician have in astronomical
+science a practically unlimited field for the exercise of
+their powers.</p>
+
+<p>In treating so comprehensive a subject we may naturally
+distinguish between what we know of the universe and the
+methods and processes by which that knowledge is acquired.
+The former may be termed general, and the latter practical,
+astronomy. When we descend more minutely into details we
+find these two branches of the subject to be connected by certain
+principles, the application of which relates to both subjects.
+Considering as general or descriptive astronomy a description of
+the universe as we now understand it, the other branches of the
+subject generally recognized are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Geometrical</i> or <i>Spherical Astronomy</i>, by the principles of which
+the positions and the motions of the heavenly bodies are defined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Theoretical Astronomy</i>, which may be considered as an extension
+of geometrical astronomy and includes the determination of
+the positions and motions of the heavenly bodies by combining
+mathematical theory with observation. Modern theoretical
+astronomy, taken in the most limited sense, is based upon
+<i>Celestial Mechanics</i>, the science by which, using purely deductive
+mechanical methods, the laws of motion of the heavenly bodies
+are derived by deductive methods from their mutual gravitation
+towards each other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Practical Astronomy</i>, which comprises a description of the
+instruments used in astronomical observation, and of the
+principles and methods underlying their application.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Spherical or Geometrical Astronomy.</i></p>
+
+<p>In astronomy, as in analytical geometry, the position of a
+point is defined by stating its distance and its direction from a
+point of reference taken as known. The numerical quantities by
+which the distance and direction, and therefore the position, are
+defined, are termed <i>co-ordinates</i> of the point. The latter are
+measured or defined with regard to a fixed system of lines and
+planes, which form the basis of the system.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are the fundamental concepts of such a system.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) An origin or point of reference. The points most generally
+taken for this purpose in astronomical practice are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The position of a point of observation on the earth&rsquo;s surface.
+We conceive its position to be that occupied by an observer. The
+position of a heavenly body is then defined by its direction and
+distance from the supposed observer.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The centre of the earth. This point, though it can never be
+occupied by an observer, is used because the positions of the heavenly
+bodies in relation to it are more readily computed than they can be
+from a point on the earth&rsquo;s surface.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The centre of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>(4) In addition to these three most usual points, we may, of
+course, take the centre of a planet or that of a star in order to define
+the position of bodies in their respective neighbourhoods.</p>
+
+<p>Co-ordinates referred to a point of observation as the origin are
+termed &ldquo;apparent,&rdquo; those referred to the centre of the earth are
+&ldquo;geocentric,&rdquo; those referred to the centre of the sun, &ldquo;heliocentric.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The next concept of the system is a fundamental plane,
+regarded as fixed, passing through the origin. In connexion with it
+is an axis perpendicular to it, also passing through the origin. We
+may consider the axis and the plane as a single concept, the axis
+determining the plane, or the plane the axis. The fundamental
+concepts of this class most in use are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) When a point on the earth&rsquo;s surface is taken as the origin,
+the fundamental axis may be the direction of gravity at that point.
+This direction defines the vertical line. The fundamental plane
+which it determines is horizontal and is termed the plane of the
+horizon. Such a plane is realized in the surface of a liquid, a basin
+of quicksilver, for example.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span></p>
+
+<p>(2) When the centre of the earth is taken as origin, the most
+natural fundamental axis is that of the earth&rsquo;s rotation. This axis
+cuts the earth&rsquo;s surface at the North and South Poles. The fundamental
+plane perpendicular to it is the plane of the equator. This
+plane intersects the earth&rsquo;s surface in the terrestrial equator.
+Co-ordinates referred to this system are termed equatorial. A system
+of equatorial co-ordinates may also be used when the origin is on the
+earth&rsquo;s surface. The fundamental axis, instead of being the earth&rsquo;s
+axis itself, is then a line parallel to it, and the fundamental plane is
+the plane passing through the point, and parallel to the plane of the
+equator.</p>
+
+<p>(3) In the system of heliocentric co-ordinates, the plane in which
+the earth moves round the sun, which is the plane of the ecliptic,
+is taken as the fundamental one. The axis of the ecliptic is a line
+perpendicular to this plane.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The third concept necessary to complete the system is a fixed
+line passing through the origin, and lying in the fundamental plane.
+This line defines an initial direction from which other directions are
+counted.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:367px; height:224px" src="images/img802.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The geometrical concepts just defined are shown in fig. 1. Here O
+is the origin, whatever point it may be; OZ is the fundamental
+axis passing through it. In order to represent in the figure the
+position of the fundamental
+plane, we conceive
+a circle to be drawn
+round O, lying in
+that plane. This
+circle, projected in
+perspective as an
+ellipse, is shown in
+the figure. OX is
+the fixed initial
+line by which
+directions are to be
+defined.</p>
+
+<p>Now let P be any point in space,
+say the centre of
+a heavenly body. Conceive a perpendicular PQ to be dropped from
+this point on the fundamental plane, meeting the latter in the
+point Q; PQ will then be parallel to OZ. The co-ordinates of P will
+then be the following three quantities:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The length of the line OP, or the distance of the body from the
+origin, which distance is called the radius vector of the body.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The angle XOQ which the projection of the radius vector upon
+the fundamental plane makes with the initial line OX. This angle
+is called the Longitude, Right Ascension or Azimuth of the body, in
+the various systems of co-ordinates. We may term it in a general
+way the longitudinal co-ordinate.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The angle QOP, which the radius vector makes with the
+fundamental plane. This we may call the latitudinal co-ordinate.
+Instead of it is frequently used the complementary angle ZOP,
+known as the polar distance of the body. Since ZOQ is a right angle,
+it follows that the sum of the polar distance and the latitudinal
+co-ordinates is always 90°. Either may be used for astronomical
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>It is readily seen that the position of a heavenly body is completely
+defined when these co-ordinates are given.</p>
+
+<p>One of the systems of co-ordinates is familiar to every one, and
+may be used as a general illustration of the method. It is our system
+of defining the position of a point on the earth&rsquo;s surface by its latitude
+and longitude. Regarding O (fig. 1) as the centre of the earth, and
+P as a point on the earth&rsquo;s surface, a city for example, it will be seen
+that OZ being the earth&rsquo;s axis, the circle MN will be the equator.
+The initial line OX then passes through the foot of the perpendicular
+dropped from Greenwich upon the plane of the equator, and meets
+the surface at N. The angle QOP is the latitude of the place and
+the angle NOQ its longitude. The longitudes and latitudes thus
+defined are geocentric, and the latitude is slightly different from that
+in ordinary use for geographic purposes. The difference arises from
+the oblateness of the earth, and need not be considered here.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of the co-ordinates we have defined is facilitated
+by introducing that of the celestial sphere. This conception is
+embodied in our idea of the vault of heaven, or of the sky. Taking
+as origin the position of an observer, the direction of a heavenly
+body is defined by the point in which he sees it in the sky; that is
+to say, on the celestial sphere. Imagining, as we may well do, that
+the radius of this sphere is infinite&mdash;then every direction, whatever
+the origin, may be represented by a point on its surface. Take for
+example the vertical line which is embodied in the direction of the
+plumb line. This line, extended upwards, meets the celestial sphere
+in the zenith. The earth&rsquo;s axis, continued indefinitely upwards,
+meets the sphere in a point called the Celestial Pole. This point in
+our middle latitudes is between the zenith and the north horizon,
+near a certain star of the second magnitude familiarly known as the
+Pole Star. As the earth revolves from west to east the celestial
+sphere appears to us to revolve in the opposite direction, turning on
+the line joining the Celestial Poles as on a pivot.</p>
+
+<p>As we conceive of the sky, it does not consist of an entire sphere
+but only as a hemisphere bounded by the horizon. But we have no
+difficulty in extending the conception below the horizon, so that the
+earth with everything upon it is in the centre of a complete sphere.
+The two parts of this sphere are the visible hemisphere, which is
+above the horizon, and the invisible, which is below it. Then the
+plumb line not only defines the zenith as already shown, but in a
+downward direction it defines the nadir, which is the point of the
+sphere directly below our feet. On the side of this sphere opposite
+to the North Celestial is the South Pole, invisible in the Northern
+Terrestrial Hemisphere but visible in the Southern one.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of geocentric to apparent co-ordinates depends upon
+the latitude of the observer. The changes which the aspect of the
+heaven undergoes, as we travel North and South, are so well known
+that they need not be described in detail here; but a general statement
+of them will give a luminous idea of the geometrical co-ordinates
+we have described. Imagine an observer starting from the North
+Pole to travel towards the equator, carrying his zenith with him.
+When at the pole his zenith coincides with the celestial pole, and as
+the earth revolves on its axis, the heavenly bodies perform their
+apparent diurnal revolutions in horizontal circles round the zenith.
+As he travels South, his zenith moves along the celestial sphere,
+and the circles of diurnal rotation become oblique to the horizon.
+The obliquity continually increases until the observer reaches the
+equator. His zenith is then in the equator and the celestial poles are
+in the North and South horizon respectively. The circles in which
+the heavenly bodies appear to revolve are then vertical. Continuing
+his journey towards the south, the north celestial pole sinks below
+the horizon; the south celestial pole rises above it; or to speak
+more exactly, the zenith of the observer approaches that pole. The
+circles of diurnal revolution again become oblique. Finally, at the
+south pole the circles of diurnal revolution are again apparently
+horizontal, but are described in a direction apparently (but not
+really) the reverse of that near the north pole. The reader who will
+trace out these successive concepts and study the results of his
+changing positions will readily acquire the notions which it is our
+subject to define.</p>
+
+<p>We have next to point out the relation of the co-ordinates we
+have described to the annual motion of the earth around the sun.
+In consequence of this motion the sun appears to us to describe
+annually a great circle, called the ecliptic, round the celestial sphere,
+among the stars, with a nearly uniform motion, of somewhat less
+than 1° in a day. Were the stars visible in the daytime in the
+immediate neighbourhood of the sun, this motion could be traced
+from day to day. The ecliptic intersects the celestial equator at
+two opposite points, the equinoxes, at an angle of 23° 27&prime;. The
+vernal equinox is taken as the initial point on the sphere from
+which co-ordinates are measured in the equatorial and ecliptic
+systems. Referring to fig. 1, the initial line OX is defined as directed
+toward the vernal equinox, at which point it intersects the celestial
+sphere.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an enumeration of the co-ordinates which we
+have described in the three systems:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="sc" style="margin-left: 3em;">Apparent System.</p>
+
+<p>Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Altitude or Zenith Distance.<br />
+&emsp;Longitudinal&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Azimuth.</p>
+
+<p class="sc" style="margin-left: 3em;">Equatorial System.</p>
+
+<p>Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Declination or Polar Distance.<br />
+&emsp;Longitudinal&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Right Ascension.</p>
+
+<p class="sc" style="margin-left: 3em;">Ecliptic System.</p>
+
+<p>Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Latitude or Ecliptic Polar Distance.<br />
+&emsp;Longitudinal&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Longitude.</p>
+
+<p><i>Relation of the Diurnal Motion to Spherical Co-ordinates.</i>&mdash;The
+vertical line at any place being the fundamental axis of the apparent
+system of co-ordinates, this system rotates with the earth, and so
+seems to us as fixed. The other two systems, including the vernal
+equinox, are fixed on the celestial sphere, and so seem to us to
+perform a diurnal revolution from east towards west. Regarding the
+period of the revolution as 24 hours, the apparent motion goes on
+at the rate of 15° per hour. Here we have to make a distinction of
+fundamental importance between the diurnal motions of the sun
+and of the stars. Owing to the unceasing apparent motion of the
+sun toward the east, the interval between two passages of the same
+star over the meridian is nearly four minutes less than the interval
+between consecutive passages of the sun. The latter is the measure
+of the day as used in civil life. In astronomical practice is introduced
+a day, termed &ldquo;sidereal,&rdquo; determined, not by the diurnal revolution
+of the sun, but of the stars. The year, which comprises 365.25 solar
+days, contains 366.25 sidereal days. The latter are divided into
+sidereal hours, minutes and seconds as the solar day is. The conception
+of a revolution through 360° in 24 hours is applicable to
+each case. The sun apparently moves at the rate of 15° in a solar
+hour; the stars at the rate of 15° in a sidereal hour. The latter
+motion leads to the use, in astronomical practice, of time instead of
+angle, as the unit in which the right ascensions are to be expressed.
+Considering the position of the vernal equinox, and also of a star
+on the celestial sphere, it will be seen that the interval between
+the transits of these two points across the meridian may be used
+to measure the right ascension of a star, since the latter amounts to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
+15° for every sidereal hour of this interval. For example, if the right
+ascension of a star is exactly 15°, it will pass the meridian one sidereal
+hour after the vernal equinox. For the relations thus arising, and
+their practical applications, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Time, Measurement of</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Theoretical Astronomy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Theoretical Astronomy is that branch of the science which,
+making use of the results of astronomical observations as they are
+supplied by the practical astronomer, investigates the motions of
+the heavenly bodies. In its most important features it is an
+offshoot of celestial mechanics, between which and theoretical
+astronomy no sharp dividing line can be drawn. While it is true
+that the one is concerned altogether with general theories, it is
+also true that these theories require developments and modifications
+to apply them to the numberless problems of astronomy,
+which we may place in either class.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the problems of theoretical astronomy we may assign the
+first place to the determination of orbits (<i>q.v.</i>), which is auxiliary to
+the prediction of the apparent motions of a planet, satellite or star.
+The computations involved in the process, while simple in some cases,
+are extremely complex in others. The orbit of a newly-discovered
+planet or comet may be computed from three complete observations
+by well-known methods in a single day. From the resulting elements
+of the orbit the positions of the body from day to day may be
+computed and tabulated in an ephemeris for the use of observers.
+But when definitive results as to the orbits are required, it is necessary
+to compute the perturbations produced by such of the major planets
+as have affected the motions of the body. With this complicated
+process is associated that of combining numerous observations with
+a view of obtaining the best definitive result. Speaking in a general
+way, we may say that computations pertaining to the orbital
+revolutions of double stars, as well as the bodies of our solar system,
+are to a greater or less extent of the classes we have described. The
+principal modification is that, up to the present time, stellar astronomy
+has not advanced so far that a computation of the perturbations in
+each case of a system of stars is either necessary or possible, except
+in exceptional cases.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Celestial Mechanics</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Celestial Mechanics is, strictly speaking, that branch of applied
+mathematics which, by deductive processes, derives the laws of
+motion of the heavenly bodies from their gravitation towards
+each other, or from the mutual action of the parts which form
+them. The science had its origin in the demonstration by Sir
+Isaac Newton that Kepler&rsquo;s three laws of planetary motion, and
+the law of gravitation, in the case of two bodies, could be mutually
+derived from each other. A body can move round the sun in an
+elliptic orbit having the sun in its focus, and describing equal
+areas in equal times, only under the influence of a force directed
+towards the sun, and varying inversely as the square of the
+distance from it. Conversely, assuming this law of attraction, it
+can be shown that the planets will move according to Kepler&rsquo;s
+laws.</p>
+
+<p>Thus celestial mechanics may be said to have begun with
+Newton&rsquo;s <i>Principia</i>. The development of the science by the
+successors of Newton, especially Laplace and Lagrange, may be
+classed among the most striking achievements of the human
+intellect. The precision with which the path of an eclipse is laid
+down years in advance cannot but imbue the minds of men with
+a high sense of the perfection reached by astronomical theories;
+and the discovery, by purely mathematical processes, of the
+changes which the orbits and motions of the planets are to
+undergo through future ages is more impressive the more fully
+one apprehends the nature of the problem. The purpose of the
+present article is to convey a general idea of the methods by which
+the results of celestial mechanics are reached, without entering
+into those technical details which can be followed only by a
+trained mathematician. It must be admitted that any intelligent
+comprehension of the subject requires at least a grasp of the
+fundamental conceptions of analytical geometry and the infinitesimal
+calculus, such as only one with some training in these
+subjects can be expected to have. This being assumed, the hope
+of the writer is that the exposition will afford the student an
+insight into the theory which may facilitate his orientation, and
+convey to the general reader with a certain amount of mathematical
+training a clear idea of the methods by which conclusions
+relating to it are drawn. The non-mathematical reader may
+possibly be able to gain some general idea, though vague, of the
+significance of the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fundamental hypothesis of the science assumes a system of
+bodies in motion, of which the sun and planets may be taken as
+examples, and of which each separate body is attracted toward all
+the others according to the law of Newton. The motion of each body
+is then expressed in the first place by Newton&rsquo;s three laws of motion
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Motion, Laws of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>). The first step in the
+process shows in a striking way the perfection of the analytic method.
+The conception of force is, so to speak, eliminated from the conditions
+of the problem, which is reduced to one of pure kinematics. At the
+outset, the position of each body, considered as a material particle,
+is defined by reference to a system of co-ordinate axes, and not by
+any verbal description. Differential equations which express the
+changes of the co-ordinates are then constructed. The process of
+discovering the laws of motion of the particle then consists in the
+integration of these equations. Such equations can be formed for a
+system of any number of bodies, but the process of integration in a
+rigorous form is possible only to a limited extent or in special cases.</p>
+
+<p>The problems to be treated are of two classes. In one, the bodies
+are regarded as material particles, no account being taken of their
+dimensions. The earth, for example, may be regarded as a particle
+attracted by another more massive particle, the sun. In the other
+class of problems, the relative motion of the different parts of the
+separate bodies is considered; for example, the rotation of the
+earth on its axis, and the consequences of the fact that those parts
+of a body which are nearer to another body are more strongly
+attracted by it. Beginning with the first branch of the subject,
+the fundamental ideas which it is our purpose to convey are embodied
+in the simple case of only two bodies, which we may call
+the sun and a planet. In this case the two bodies really revolve
+round their common centre of gravity; but a very slight modification
+of the equations of motion reduces them to the relative motion of
+the planet round the sun, regarding the moving centre of the latter
+as the origin of co-ordinates. The motion of this centre, which arises
+from the attraction of the planet on the sun, need not be considered.</p>
+
+<p>In the actual problems of celestial mechanics three co-ordinates
+necessarily enter, leading to three differential equations and six
+equations of solution. But the general principles of the problem
+are completely exemplified with only two bodies, in which case the
+motion takes place in a fixed plane. By taking this plane, which is
+that of the orbit in which the planet performs its revolution, as the
+plane of xy, we have only two co-ordinates to consider. Let us use
+the following notation:</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>x, y, the co-ordinates of the planet relative to the sun as the origin.</p>
+
+<p>M, m, the masses of the attracting bodies, sun and planet.</p>
+
+<p>r, the distance apart of the two bodies, or the radius vector of m
+  relative to M. This last quantity is analytically defined by the
+  equation&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">r˛ = x˛ + y˛</p>
+
+<p>t, the time, reckoned from any epoch we choose.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The differential equations which completely determine the
+changes in the co-ordinates x and y, or the motion of m relative to
+M, are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d˛x</td> <td rowspan="2">= &minus;</td> <td>(M + m)x</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt˛</td> <td class="denom">rł</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d˛y</td> <td rowspan="2">= &minus;</td> <td>(M + m)y</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt˛</td> <td class="denom">rł</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(1)</div>
+
+<p>These formulae are worthy of special attention. They are the
+expression in the language of mathematics of Newton&rsquo;s first two
+laws of motion. Their statement in this language may be regarded
+as perfect, because it completely and unambiguously expresses the
+naked phenomena of the motion. The equations do this without
+expressing any conception, such as that of force, not associated
+with the actual phenomena. Moreover, as a third advantage, these
+expressions are entirely free from those difficulties and ambiguities
+which are met with in every attempt to express the laws of motion
+in ordinary language. They afford yet another great advantage
+in that the derivation of the results requires only the analytic
+operations of the infinitesimal calculus.</p>
+
+<p>The power and spirit of the analytic method will be appreciated
+by showing how it expresses the relations of motion as they were
+conceived geometrically by Newton and Kepler. It is quite evident
+that Kepler&rsquo;s laws do not in themselves enable us to determine the
+actual motion of the planets. We must have, in addition, in the
+case of each special planet, certain specific facts, viz. the axes and
+eccentricity of the ellipse, and the position of the plane in which it
+lies. Besides these, we must have given the position of the planet
+in the orbit at some specified moment. Having these data, the
+position of the planet at any other time may be geometrically
+constructed by Kepler&rsquo;s laws. The third law enables us to compute
+the time taken by the radius vector to sweep over the entire area of
+the orbit, which is identical with the time of revolution. The
+problem of constructing successive radii vectores, the angles of
+which are measured off from the radius vector of the body at the
+original given position, is then a geometric one, known as Kepler&rsquo;s
+problem.</p>
+
+<p>In the analytic process these specific data, called elements of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span>
+orbit, appear as arbitrary constants, introduced by the process of
+integration. In a case like the present one, where there are two
+differential equations of the second order, there will be four such
+constants. The result of the integration is that the co-ordinates x
+and y and their derivatives as to the time, which express the position,
+direction of motion and speed of the planet at any moment, are found
+as functions of the four constants and of the time. Putting</p>
+
+<p class="center">a, b, c, d,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">for the constants, the general form of the solution will be</p>
+
+<p class="center">x = &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(a, b, c, d, t)<br />
+y = &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(a, b, c, d, t)</p>
+
+<div class="author">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">From these may be derived by differentiation as to t the velocities</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dx</td> <td rowspan="2">= &fnof;&prime;<span class="su">1</span>(a, b, c, d, t) = x&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dy</td> <td rowspan="2">= &fnof;&prime;<span class="su">2</span>(a, b, c, d, t) = y&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The symbols x&prime; and y&prime; are used for brevity to mean the velocities
+expressed by the differential coefficients. The arbitrary constants,
+a, b, c and d, are the elements of the orbit, or any quantities from
+which these elements can be obtained. We note that, in the actual
+process of integration, no geometric construction need enter.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:151px; height:154px" src="images/img804.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Let us next consider the problem in another form. Conceive that
+instead of the orbit of the planet, there is given a position P (fig. 2),
+through which the planet passed at an assigned
+moment, with a given velocity, and in a given
+direction, represented by the arrowhead. Logically
+these data completely determine the orbit
+in which the planet shall move, because there
+is only one such orbit passing through P, a
+planet moving in which would have the given
+speed. It follows that the elements of the
+orbit admit of determination when the
+co-ordinates of the planet at an assigned moment
+and their derivatives as to time are given.
+Analytically the elements are determined from
+these data by solving the four equations just given, regarding
+a, b, c and d as unknown quantities, and x, y, x&prime;, y&prime; and t as given
+quantities. The solution of these equations would lead to expressions
+of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="clear: both;">a = &phi;<span class="su">1</span>(x, y, x&prime;, y&prime;, t)<br />
+  b = &phi;<span class="su">2</span>(x, y, x&prime;, y&prime;, t)<br />
+  &emsp;&amp;c. &emsp; &amp;c. &emsp;</p>
+
+<div class="author">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">one for each of the elements.</p>
+
+<p>The general equations expressing the motion of a planet considered
+as a material particle round a centre of attraction lead to theorems
+the more interesting of which will now be enunciated.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The motion of such a planet may take place not only in an
+ellipse but in any curve of the second order; an ellipse, hyperbola,
+or parabola, the latter being the bounding curve between the other
+two. A body moving in a parabola or hyperbola would recede
+indefinitely from its centre of motion and never return to it. The
+ellipse is therefore the only closed orbit.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The motion takes place in accord with Kepler&rsquo;s laws, enunciated
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Whewell&rsquo;s theorem</i>: if a point R be taken at a distance from
+the sun equal to the major axis of the orbit of a planet and, therefore,
+at double the mean distance of the planet, the speed of the
+latter at any point is equal to the speed which a body would acquire
+by falling from the point R to the actual position of the planet.
+The speed of the latter may, therefore, be expressed as a function of
+its radius vector at the moment and of the major axis of its orbit
+without introducing any other elements into the expression. Another
+corollary is that in the case of a body moving in a parabolic orbit
+the velocity at any moment is that which would be acquired by the
+body in falling from an infinite distance to the place it occupies at
+the moment.</p>
+
+<p>(4) If a number of bodies are projected from any point in space
+with the same velocity, but in various directions, and subjected
+only to the attraction of the sun, they will all return to the point
+of projection at the same moment, although the orbits in which they
+move may be ever so different.</p>
+
+<p>(5) At each distance from the sun there is a certain velocity
+which a body would have if it moved in a circular orbit at that
+distance. If projected with this velocity in any direction the point
+of projection will be at the end of the minor axis of the orbit, because
+this is the only point of an ellipse of which the distance from the focus
+is equal to the semi-major axis of the curve, and therefore the only
+point at which the distance of the body from the sun is equal to its
+mean distance.</p>
+
+<p>(6) The relation between the periodic time of a planet and its
+mean distance, approximately expressed by Kepler&rsquo;s third law,
+follows very simply from the laws of centrifugal force. It is an
+elementary principle of mechanics that this force varies directly as
+the product of the distance of the moving body from the centre of
+motion into the square of its angular velocity. When bodies revolve
+at different distances around a centre, their velocities must be such
+that the centrifugal force of each shall be balanced by the attraction
+of the central mass, and therefore vary inversely as the square of the
+distance. If M is the central mass, n the angular velocity, and a the
+distance, the balance of the two forces is expressed by the equation</p>
+
+<p class="center">an˛ = M/a˛,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">whence ałn˛ = M, a constant.</p>
+
+<p>The periodic time varying inversely as n, this equation expresses
+Kepler&rsquo;s third law. This reasoning tacitly supposes the orbit to be
+a circle of radius a, and the mass of the planet to be negligible.
+The rigorous relation is expressed by a slight modification of the
+law. Putting M and m for the respective masses of the sun and
+planet, a for the semi-major axis of the orbit, and n for the mean
+angular motion in unit of time, the relation then is</p>
+
+<p class="center">ałn˛ = M + m.</p>
+
+<p>What is noteworthy in this theorem is that this relation depends
+only on the sum of the masses. It follows, therefore, that were any
+portion of the mass of the sun taken from it, and added to the planet,
+the relation would be unchanged. Kepler&rsquo;s third law therefore
+expresses the fact that the mass of the sun is the same for all the
+planets, and deviates from the truth only to the extent that the
+masses of the latter differ from each other by quantities which are
+only a small fraction of the mass of the sun.</p>
+
+<p><i>Problem of Three Bodies.</i>&mdash;As soon as the general law of
+gravitation was fully apprehended, it became evident that, owing to the
+attraction of each planet upon all the others, the actual motion of the
+planets must deviate from their motion in an ellipse according to
+Kepler&rsquo;s laws. In the <i>Principia</i> Newton made several investigations
+to determine the effects of these actions; but the geometrical
+method which he employed could lead only to rude approximations.
+When the subject was taken up by the continental mathematicians,
+using the analytical method, the question naturally arose whether
+the motions of three bodies under their mutual attraction could not be
+determined with a degree of rigour approximating to that with which
+Newton had solved the problem of two bodies. Thus arose the
+celebrated &ldquo;problem of three bodies.&rdquo; Investigation soon showed that
+certain integrals expressing relations between the motions not only
+of three but of any number of bodies could be found. These were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>First, the law of the conservation of the centre of gravity. This
+expresses the general fact that whatever be the number of the bodies
+which act upon each other, their motions are so related that the
+centre of gravity of the entire system moves in a straight line with
+a constant velocity. This is expressed in three equations, one for
+each of the three rectangular co-ordinates.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, the law of conservation of areas. This is an extension
+of Kepler&rsquo;s second law. Taking as the radius vector of each body
+the line from the body to the common centre of gravity of all, the
+sum of the products formed by multiplying each area described,
+by the mass of the body, remains a constant. In the language of
+theoretical mechanics, the moment of momentum of the entire system
+is a constant quantity. This law is also expressed in three equations,
+one for each of the three planes on which the areas are projected.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, the entire <i>vis viva</i> of the system or, as it is now called,
+the energy, which is obtained by multiplying the mass of each body
+into half the square of its velocity, is equal to the sum of the quotients
+formed by dividing the product of every pair of the masses, taken
+two and two, by their distance apart, with the addition of a constant
+depending on the original conditions of the system. In the language
+of algebra putting m<span class="su">1</span>, m<span class="su">2</span>, m<span class="su">3</span>, &amp;c. for the masses of the bodies,
+r<span class="su">1.2</span>, r<span class="su">1.3</span>, r<span class="su">2.3</span>, &amp;c. for their mutual distances apart;
+v<span class="su">1</span>, v<span class="su">2</span>, v<span class="su">3</span>, &amp;c., for the velocities with which they are moving
+at any moment; these quantities will continually satisfy the equation</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">˝(m<span class="su">1</span>v<span class="su">1</span>˛ +m<span class="su">2</span>v<span class="su">2</span>˛ + ...) =</td>
+ <td>m<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">2</span></td> <td rowspan="2">+</td>
+ <td>m<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">3</span></td> <td rowspan="2">+</td>
+ <td>m<span class="su">2</span>m<span class="su">3</span></td> <td rowspan="2">+ ... + a constant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">r<span class="su">1.2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">r<span class="su">1.3</span></td>
+<td class="denom">r<span class="su">2.3</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The theorems of motion just cited are expressed by seven integrals,
+or equations expressing a law that certain functions of the variables
+and of the time remain constant. It is remarkable that although
+the seven integrals were found almost from the beginning of the
+investigation, no others have since been added; and indeed it has
+recently been shown that no others exist that can be expressed in
+an algebraic form. In the case of three bodies these do not suffice
+completely to define the motion. In this case, the problem can be
+attacked only by methods of approximation, devised so as to meet
+the special conditions of each case. The special conditions which
+obtain in the solar system are such as to make the necessary
+approximation theoretically possible however complex the process
+may be. These conditions are:&mdash;(1) The smallness of the masses
+of the planets in comparison with that of the sun, in consequence of
+which the orbit of each planet deviates but slightly from an ellipse
+during any one revolution; (2) the fact that the orbits of the planets
+are nearly circular, and the planes of their orbits but slightly inclined
+to each other. The result of these conditions is that all the quantities
+required admit of development in series proceeding according to
+the powers of the eccentricities and inclinations of the orbits, and
+the ratio of the masses of the several planets to the mass of the sun.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perturbations of the Planets.</i>&mdash;Kepler&rsquo;s laws do not completely
+express the motion of a planet around a central body, except when
+no force but the mutual attraction of the two bodies comes into play.
+When one or more other bodies form a part of the system, their action
+produces deviations from the elliptic motion, which are called
+<i>perturbations</i>. The problem of determining the perturbations of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span>
+heavenly bodies is perhaps the most complicated with which the
+mathematical astronomer has to grapple; and the forms under which
+it has to be studied are so numerous that they cannot be easily
+arranged under any one head. But there is one conception of
+perturbations of such generality and elegance that it forms the
+common base of all those methods of determining these deviations
+which have high scientific interest. This conception is embodied
+in the method of &ldquo;variation of elements,&rdquo; originally due to J.L.
+Lagrange. The simplest method of presenting it starts with the
+second view of the elliptic motion already set forth.</p>
+
+<p>We have shown that, when the position of a planet and the
+direction and speed of its motion at a certain instant are given,
+the elements of the orbit can be determined. We have supposed
+this to be done at a certain point P of the orbit, the direction and
+speed being expressed by the variables x, y, x&prime; and y&prime;. Now, consider
+the values of these same variables expressing the position of
+the planet at a second point Q, and the speed with which it passes
+that point. With this position and speed the elements of the orbit
+can again be determined. Since the orbit is unchanged so long as
+no disturbing force acts, it follows that the elements determined by
+means of the two sets of values of the variables are in this case the
+same. In a word, although the position and speed of the planet and
+the direction of its motion are constantly changing, the values of
+the elements determined from these variables remain constant.
+This fact is fully expressed by the equations (4) where we have
+constants on one side of the equation equal to functions of the
+variables on the other. Functions of the variables possessing this
+property of remaining constant are termed <i>integrals</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now let the planet be subjected to any force additional to that of
+the sun&rsquo;s attraction,&mdash;say to the attraction of another planet.
+To fix the ideas let us suppose that the additional attraction is only
+an impulse received at the moment of passing the point P. The
+first effect will evidently be to change either the velocity or the
+direction in which the planet is moving at the moment, or both. If,
+with the changed velocity we again compute the elements they
+will be different from the former elements. But, if the impulse is
+not repeated, these new elements will again remain invariable. If
+repeated, the second impulse will again change the elements, and so
+on indefinitely. It follows that, if we go on computing the elements
+a, b, c, d from the actual values of x, y, x&prime; and y&prime;, at each moment
+when the planet is subject to the attraction of another body, they
+will no longer be invariable, but will slowly vary from day to day
+and year to year. These ever varying elements represent an ever
+varying elliptic orbit,&mdash;not an orbit which the planet actually
+describes through its whole course, but an ideal one in which it is
+moving at each instant, and which continually adjusts itself to the
+actual motion of the planet at the instant. This is called the
+<i>osculating</i> orbit.</p>
+
+<p>The essential principle of Lagrange&rsquo;s elegant method consists in
+determining the variations of this osculating ellipse, the co-ordinates
+and velocities of the planet being ignored in the determination.
+This may be done because, since the elements and co-ordinates
+completely determine each other, we may concentrate our attention
+on either, ignoring the other. The reason for taking the elements
+as the variables is that they vary very slowly, a property which
+facilitates their determination, since the variations may be treated
+as small quantities, of which the squares and products may be
+neglected in a first solution. In a second solution the squares and
+products may be taken account of, and so on as far as necessary.</p>
+
+<p>If the problem is viewed from a synthetic point of view, the stages
+of its solution are as follows. We first conceive of the planets as
+moving in invariable elliptic orbits, and thus obtain approximate
+expressions for their positions at any moment. With these expressions
+we express their mutual action, or their pull upon each other
+at any and every moment. This pull determines the variations of
+the ideal elements. Knowing these variations it becomes possible
+to represent by integration the value of the elements as algebraic
+expressions containing the time, and the elements with which we
+started. But the variations thus determined will not be rigorously
+exact, because the pull from which they arise has been determined
+on the supposition that the planets are moving in unvarying orbits,
+whereas the actual pull depends on the actual position of the planets.
+Another approximation is, therefore, to be made, when necessary, by
+correcting the expression of the pull through taking account of the
+variations of the elements already determined, which will give a yet
+nearer approximation to the truth. In theory these successive
+approximations may be carried as far as we please, but in practice the
+labour of executing each approximation is so great that we are
+obliged to stop when the solution is so near the truth that the
+outstanding error is less than that of the best observations. Even this
+degree of precision may be impracticable in the more complex cases.</p>
+
+<p>The results which are required to compare with observations are
+not merely the elements, but the co-ordinates. When the varying
+elements are known these are computed by the equations (2) because,
+from the nature of the algebraic relations, the slowly varying elements
+are continuously determined by the equations (4), which express
+the same relations between the elements and the variables as do
+the equations (2) and (3). This method is, therefore, in form at least,
+completely rigorous. There are some cases in which it may be applied
+unchanged. But commonly it proves to be extremely long and
+cumbrous, and modifications have to be resorted to. Of these
+modifications the most valuable is one conceived by P.A. Hansen.
+A certain mean elliptic orbit, as near as possible to the actual varying
+orbit of the planet, is taken. In this orbit a certain fictitious planet
+is supposed to move according to the law of elliptic motion. Comparing
+the longitudes of the actual and the fictitious planet the
+former will sometimes be ahead of the latter and sometimes behind
+it. But in every case, if at a certain time t, the actual planet has a
+certain longitude, it is certain that at a very short interval dt before
+or after t, the fictitious planet will have this same longitude. What
+Hansen&rsquo;s method does is to determine a correction dt such that, being
+applied to the actual time t, the longitude of the fictitious planet
+computed for the time t + dt, will give the longitude of the true
+planet at the time t. By a number of ingenious devices Hansen
+developed methods by which dt could be determined. The computations
+are, as a general rule, simpler, and the algebraic expressions
+less complex, than when the computations of the longitude itself
+are calculated. Although the longitude of the fictitious planet at
+the fictitious time is then equal to that of the true planet at the true
+time, their radii vectores will not be strictly equal. Hansen, therefore,
+shows how the radius vector is corrected so as to give that of the
+true planet.</p>
+
+<p>In all that precedes we have considered only two variables as
+determining the position of the planet, the latter being supposed to
+move in a plane. Although this is true when there are any number
+of bodies moving in the same plane, the fact is that the planets
+move in slightly different planes. Hence the position of the plane of
+the orbit of each planet is continually changing in consequence of
+their mutual action. The problem of determining the changes is,
+however, simpler than others in perturbations. The method is
+again that of the variation of elements. The position and velocity
+being given in all three co-ordinates, a certain osculating plane is
+determined for each instant in which the planet is moving at that
+instant. This plane remains invariable so long as no third body acts;
+when it does act the position of the plane changes very slowly,
+continually rotating round the radius vector of the planet as an
+instantaneous axis of rotation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secular and Periodic Variations.</i>&mdash;When, following the preceding
+method, the variations of the elements are expressed in terms of the
+time, they are found to be of two classes, <i>periodic</i> and <i>secular</i>. The
+first depend on the mean longitudes of the planets, and always tend
+back to their original values when the planets return to their original
+positions in their orbits. The others are, at least through long
+periods of time, continually progressive.</p>
+
+<p>A luminous idea of the nature of these two classes of variation
+may be gained by conceiving of the motion of a ship, floating on an
+ocean affected by a long ground swell. In consequence of the
+swell, the ship is continually pitching in a somewhat irregular way,
+the oscillations up and down being sometimes great and sometimes
+small. An observer on board of her would notice no motion except
+this. But, suppose the tide to be rising. Then, by continued
+observation, extended over an hour or more, it will be found that,
+in the general average, the ship is gradually rising, so that two
+different kinds of motion are superimposed on each other. The
+effect of the rising tide is in the nature of a secular variation, while
+the pitching is periodic.</p>
+
+<p>But the analogy does not end here. If the progressive rise of the
+ship be watched for six hours or more, it will be found gradually to
+cease and reverse its direction. That is to say, making abstraction
+of the pitching, the ship is slowly rising and falling in a total period
+of nearly twelve hours, while superimposed upon this slow motion is
+a more rapid motion due to the waves. It is thus with the motions
+of the planets going through their revolutions. Each orbit continually
+changes its form and position, sometimes in one direction and
+sometimes in another. But when these changes are averaged
+through years and centuries it is found that the average orbit has a
+secular variation which, for a number of centuries, may appear as a
+very slow progressive change in one direction only. But when this
+change is more fully investigated, it is found to be really periodic,
+so that after thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of thousands
+of years, its direction will be reversed and so on continually, like the
+rising and falling tide. The orbits thus present themselves to us
+in the words of a distinguished writer as &ldquo;Great clocks of eternity
+which beat ages as ours beat seconds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The periodic variations can be represented algebraically as the
+resultant of a series of harmonic motions in the following way:
+Let L be an angle which is increasing uniformly with the time, and
+let n be its rate of increase. We put L<span class="su">0</span> for its value at the moment
+from which the time is reckoned. The general expression for the
+angle will then be</p>
+
+<p class="center">L = nt + L<span class="su">0</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Such an angle continually goes through the round of 360° in a
+definite period. For example, if the daily motion is 5°, and we
+take the day as the unit of time, the round will be completed in
+72 days, and the angle will continually go through the value which it
+had 72 days before. Let us now consider an equation of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">U = a sin (nt + L<span class="su">0</span>).</p>
+
+<p>The value of U will continually oscillate between the extreme
+values +a and &minus;a, going through a series of changes in the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span>
+period in which the angle nt + L<span class="su">0</span> goes through a revolution. In this
+case the variation will be simply periodic.</p>
+
+<p>The value of any element of the planet&rsquo;s motion will generally be
+represented by the sum of an infinite series of such periodic quantities,
+having different periods. For example</p>
+
+<p class="center">U = a sin (nt + L<span class="su">0</span>) + b sin (mt + L<span class="su">1</span>) + c sin (kt + L<span class="su">2</span>) &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In this case the motion of U, while still periodic, is seemingly
+irregular, being much like that of a pitching ship, which has no one
+unvarying period.</p>
+
+<p>In the problems of celestial mechanics the angles within the
+parentheses are represented by sums or differences of multiples of
+the mean longitudes of the planets as they move round their orbits.
+If l be the mean longitude of the planet whose motion we are considering,
+and l&prime; that of the attracting planet affecting it, the periodic
+inequalities of the elements as well as of the co-ordinates of the
+attracted planet, may be represented by an infinite series of terms
+like the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">a sin (l&prime; &minus; l) + b sin (2l&prime; &minus; l) + c sin (l&prime; &minus; 2l) + &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Here the coefficients of l and l&prime; may separately take all integral
+values, though as a general rule the coefficients a, b, c, &amp;c. diminish
+rapidly when these coefficients become large, so that only small
+values have to be considered.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:310px; height:310px" src="images/img806a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 3.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The most interesting kind of periodic inequalities are those known
+as &ldquo;terms of long period.&rdquo; A general idea both of their nature and
+of their cause will be gained by taking as a special case one celebrated
+in the history of the subject&mdash;the great inequality between Jupiter
+and Saturn. We begin by showing what the actual fact is in the case of these two planets. Let
+fig. 3 represent the two
+orbits, the sun being at
+C. We know that the
+period of Jupiter is nearly
+twelve years, and that of
+Saturn a little less than
+thirty years. It will be
+seen that these numbers
+are nearly in the ratio of
+2 to 5. It follows that
+the motions of the mean
+longitudes are nearly in
+the same proportion reversed.
+The annual
+motion of Jupiter is
+nearly 30°, that of Saturn
+a little more than 12°.
+Let us now consider the
+effect of this relation upon
+the configurations and
+relations of the two
+planets. Let the line CJ represent the common direction of the
+two planets from the sun when they are in conjunction, and let us
+follow the motions until they again come into conjunction. This
+will occur along a line CR<span class="su">1</span>, making an angle of nearly 240° with CJ.
+At this point Saturn will have moved 240° and Jupiter an entire
+revolution + 240°, making 600°. These two motions, it will be seen,
+are in the proportion 5 : 2. The next conjunction will take place
+along CS<span class="su">1</span>, and the third after the initial one will again take place
+near the original position JQ, Jupiter having made five revolutions
+and Saturn two.</p>
+
+<p>The result of these repetitions is that, during a number of revolutions,
+the special mutual actions of the two planets at these three
+points of their orbits repeat themselves, while the actions corresponding
+to the three intermediate arcs are wanting. Thus it happens
+that if the mutual actions are balanced through a period of a few
+revolutions only there is a small residuum of forces corresponding
+to the three regions in question, which repeats itself in the same way,
+and which, if it continued indefinitely, would entirely change the
+forms of the two orbits. But the actual mean motions deviate
+slightly from the ratio 2 : 5, and we have next to show how this
+deviation results in an ultimate balancing of the forces. The annual
+mean motions, with the corresponding combinations, are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">Jupiter:&mdash;n</td> <td class="tcl">= 30°.349043</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">Saturn:&mdash;n&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">= 12°.221133</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">2n</td> <td class="tcl">= 60°.69809</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">5n&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">= 61°.10567</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">5n&prime; &minus; 2n</td> <td class="tcl">= 0°.40758</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">If we make a more accurate computation of the conjunctions from
+these data, we shall find that, in the general mean, the consecutive
+conjunctions take place when each planet has moved through an
+entire number of revolutions + 242.7°. It follows that the third
+conjunction instead of occurring exactly along the line CQ<span class="su">1</span> occurs
+along CQ<span class="su">2</span>, making an angle of nearly 8° with CQ<span class="su">1</span>. The successive
+conjunctions following will be along CR<span class="su">2</span>, CS<span class="su">2</span>, CQ<span class="su">3</span>, &amp;c., the law of
+progression being obvious.</p>
+
+<p>The balancing of the series of forces will not be complete until the
+respective triplets of conjunctions have filled up the entire space
+between them. This will occur when the angle whose annual motion
+is 5n&prime; &minus; 2n has gone through 360°. From the preceding value of
+5n&prime; &minus; 2n we see that this will require a little more than 883 years.
+The result of the continued action of the two planets upon each other
+is that during half of this period the motion of one planet is constantly
+retarded and of the other constantly accelerated, while during the
+other half the effects are reversed. There is thus in the case of each
+planet an oscillation of the mean longitude which increases it and
+then diminishes it to its original value at the end of the period of
+883 years.</p>
+
+<p>The longitudes, latitudes and radii vectores of a planet, being
+algebraically expressed as the sum of an infinite periodic series of
+the kind we have been describing, it follows that the problem of
+finding their co-ordinates at any moment is solved by computing
+these expressions. This is facilitated by the construction of tables
+by means of which the co-ordinates can be computed at any time.
+Such tables are used in the offices of the national Ephemerides to
+construct ephemerides of the several planets, showing their exact
+positions in the sky from day to day.</p>
+
+<p>We pass now to the second branch of celestial mechanics viz. that
+in which the planets are no longer considered as particles, but as
+rotating bodies of which the dimensions are to be taken into account.
+Such a body, in free space, not acted on by any force except the
+attraction of its several parts, will go on rotating for ever in an
+invariable direction. But, in consequence of the centrifugal force
+generated by the rotation, it assumes a spheroidal form, the equatorial
+regions bulging out. Such a form we all know to be that of the
+earth and of the planets rotating on their axes. Let us study the
+effect of this deviation from the spherical form upon the attraction
+exercised by a distant body.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:206px; height:95px" src="images/img806b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We begin with the special case of the earth as acted upon by the
+sun and moon. Let fig. 4 represent a section of the earth through its
+axis AB, ECQ being a diameter of the equator. Let the dotted
+lines show the direction of the distant
+attracting body. The point E, being
+more distant than C, will be attracted
+with less force, while Q will be attracted
+with a greater force than will the centre
+C. Were the force equal on every point
+of the earth it would have no influence
+on its rotation, but would simply draw
+its whole mass toward the attracting
+body. It is therefore only the <i>difference</i> of the forces on different
+parts of the earth that affects the rotation.</p>
+
+<p>Let us, therefore, divide the attracting forces at each point into
+two parts, one the average force, which we may call F, and which
+for our purpose may be regarded as equal to the force acting at C;
+the others the residual forces which we must superimpose upon the
+average force F in order that the combination may be equal to the
+actual force. It is clear that at Q this residual force as represented
+by the arrow will be in the same direction as the actual force. But
+at E, since the actual force is less than F, the residual force must
+tend to diminish F, and must, therefore, act toward the right, as
+shown by the arrow. These residual forces tend to make the whole
+earth turn round the centre C in a clockwise direction. If nothing
+modified this tendency the result would be to bring the points
+E and Q into the dotted lines of the attraction. In other words the
+equator would be drawn into coincidence with the ecliptic. Here,
+however, the same action comes into play, which keeps a rotating top
+from falling over. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gyroscope</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>.) For the same
+reason as in the case of the gyroscope the actual motion of the earth&rsquo;s
+axis is at right angles to the line joining the earth and the attracting
+centre, and without going into the details of the mathematical
+processes involved, we may say that the ultimate mean effect will
+be to cause the pole P of the earth to move at right angles to the
+circle joining it to the pole of the ecliptic. Were the position of the
+latter invariable, the celestial pole would move round it in a circle.
+Actually the curve in which it moves is nearly a circle; but the
+distance varies slightly owing to the minute secular variation in the
+position of the ecliptic, caused by the action of the planets. This
+motion of the celestial pole results in a corresponding revolution of
+the equinox around the celestial sphere. The rate of motion is
+slightly variable from century to century owing to the secular
+motion of the plane of the ecliptic. Its period, with the present
+rate of motion, would be about 26,000 years, but the actual period
+is slightly indeterminate from the cause just mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The residual force just described is not limited to the case of an
+ellipsoidal body. It will be seen that the reasoning applies to the
+case of any one body or system of bodies, the dimensions of which
+are not regarded as infinitely small compared with the distance of
+the attracting body. In all such cases the residual forces virtually
+tend to draw those portions of the body nearest the attracting
+centre toward the latter, and those opposite the attracting centre
+away from it. Thus we have a tide-producing force tending to deform
+the body, the action of which is of the same nature as the force
+producing precession. It is of interest to note that, very approximately,
+this deforming force varies inversely as the cube of the
+distance of the attracting body.</p>
+
+<p>The action of the sun upon the satellites of the several planets
+and the effects of this action are of the same general nature. For
+the same reason that the residual forces virtually act in opposite
+directions upon the nearer and more distant portions of a planet
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
+they will virtually act in the case of a satellite. When the latter is
+between its primary and the sun, the attraction of the latter tends to
+draw the satellite away from the primary. When the satellite is in
+the opposite direction from the sun, the same action tends to draw
+the primary away from the satellite. In both cases, relative to the
+primary, the action is the same. When the satellite is in quadrature
+the convergence of the lines of attraction toward the centre of the
+sun tends to bring the two bodies together. When the orbit of the
+satellite is inclined to that of the primary planet round the sun, the
+action brings about a change in the plane of the orbit represented by
+a rotation round an axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit of
+the primary. If we conceive a pole to each of these orbits, determined
+by the points in which lines perpendicular to their planes
+intersect the celestial sphere, the pole of the satellite orbit will
+revolve around the pole of the planetary orbit precisely as the pole
+of the earth does around the pole of the ecliptic, the inclination of the
+two orbits remaining unchanged.</p>
+
+<p>If a planet rotates on its axis so rapidly as to have a considerable
+ellipticity, and if it has satellites revolving very near the plane of the
+equator, the combined actions of the sun and of the equatorial
+protuberances may be such that the whole system will rotate almost
+as if the planes of revolution of the satellites were solidly fixed to
+the plane of the equator. This is the case with the seven inner
+satellites of Saturn. The orbits of these bodies have a large inclination,
+nearly 27°, to the plane of the planet&rsquo;s orbit. The action of the
+sun alone would completely throw them out of these planes as each
+satellite orbit would rotate independently; but the effect of the
+mutual action is to keep all of the planes in close coincidence with
+the plane of the planet&rsquo;s equator.</p>
+
+<p><i>Literature.</i>&mdash;The modern methods of celestial mechanics may
+be considered to begin with Joseph Louis Lagrange, whose theory
+of the variation of elements is developed in his <i>Mécanique
+analytique</i>. The practical methods of computing perturbations of the
+planets and satellites were first exhaustively developed by Pierre
+Simon Laplace in his <i>Mécanique céleste</i>. The only attempt since
+the publication of this great work to develop the various theories
+involved on a uniform plan and mould them into a consistent whole
+is that of de Pontécoulant in <i>Théorie analytique du systčme du
+monde</i> (1829-46, Paris). An approximation to such an attempt is that
+of F.F. Tisserand in his <i>Traité de mécanique céleste</i> (4 vols., Paris).
+This work contains a clear and excellent résumé of the methods
+which have been devised by the leading investigators from the time
+of Lagrange until the present, and thus forms the most encyclopaedic
+treatise to which the student can refer.</p>
+
+<p>Works less comprehensive than this are necessarily confined to
+the elements of the subject, to the development of fundamental
+principles and general methods, or to details of special branches.
+An elementary treatise on the subject is F.R. Moulton&rsquo;s <i>Introduction
+to Celestial Mechanics</i> (London, 1902). Other works with
+the same general object are H.A. Resal, <i>Mécanique céleste</i>; and
+O.F. Dziobek, <i>Theorie der Planetenbewegungen</i>. The most complete
+and systematic development of the general principles of the
+subject, from the point of view of the modern mathematician, is
+found in J.H. Poincaré, <i>Les Méthodes nouvelles de la mécanique
+céleste</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1899, 1892, 1893). Of another work of
+Poincaré, <i>Leçons de mécanique céleste</i>, the first volume appeared in
+1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Practical Astronomy.</i></p>
+
+<p>Practical Astronomy, taken in its widest sense, treats of the
+instruments by which our knowledge of the heavenly bodies
+is acquired, the principles underlying their use, and the methods
+by which these principles are practically applied. Our knowledge
+of these bodies is of necessity derived through the medium
+of the light which they emit; and it is the development and
+applications of the laws of light which have made possible the
+additions to our stock of such knowledge since the middle of the
+19th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At the base of every system of astronomical observation is the law
+that, in the voids of space, a ray of light moves in a right line. The
+fundamental problem of practical astronomy is that of determining
+by measurement the co-ordinates of the heavenly bodies as already
+defined. Of the three co-ordinates, the radius vector does not admit
+of direct measurement, and must be inferred by a combination of
+indirect measurements and physical theories. The other two
+co-ordinates, which define the direction of a body, admit of direct
+measurement on principles applied in the construction and use of
+astronomical instruments.</p>
+
+<p>In the first system of co-ordinates already described the fundamental
+axis is the vertical line or direction of gravity at the point
+of observation. This is not the direction of gravity proper, or of the
+earth&rsquo;s attraction, but the resultant of this attraction combined with
+the centrifugal force due to the earth&rsquo;s rotation on its axis. The
+most obvious method of realizing this direction is by the plumb-line.
+In our time, however, this appliance is replaced by either of two
+others, which admit of much more precise application. These are
+the basin of mercury and the spirit-level. The surface of a liquid
+at rest is necessarily perpendicular to the direction of gravity, and
+therefore horizontal. Considered as a curved surface, concentric
+with the earth, a tangent plane to such a surface is the plane of the
+horizon. The problem of measuring from an axis perpendicular to
+this plane is solved on the principle that the incident and reflected
+rays of light make equal angles with the perpendicular to a reflecting
+surface. It follows that if PO (fig. 5) is the direction of a ray, either
+from a heavenly body or from a terrestrial point, impinging at O upon
+the surface of quicksilver, and reflected in the direction OR, the
+vertical line is the bisector OZ, of the angle POR. If the point P
+is so adjusted over the quicksilver that the ray is reflected back
+on its own path, P and R lying on the same line above O, then we
+know that the line PO is truly vertical. The zenith-distance of an
+object is the angle which the ray of light from it makes with the
+vertical direction thus defined.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:514px; height:174px" src="images/img807a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 5.</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 6.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>To show the principle involved in the spirit-level let MN (fig. 6)
+be the tube of such a level, fixed to an axis OZ on which it may
+revolve. If this axis is so adjusted that in the course of a revolution
+around it the bubble of the level undergoes no change of position,
+we know that the axis is truly vertical. Any slight deviation from
+verticality is shown by the motion of the bubble during the revolution,
+which can be measured and allowed for. The level may not
+be actually attached to an axis, a revolution of 180° being effected
+round an imaginary vertical axis by turning the level end for end.
+The motion of the bubble then measures double the inclination of
+this imaginary axis, or the deviation of a cylinder on which the level
+may rest from horizontality.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:173px" src="images/img807b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 7.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:202px; height:153px" src="images/img807c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 8.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The problem of determining the zenith distance of a celestial
+object now reduces itself to that of measuring the angle between
+the direction of the object and the direction of the vertical line
+realized in one of these ways. This measurement is effected by a
+combination of two instruments, the telescope and the graduated
+circle. Let OF (fig. 7) be a section of the telescope, MN being its
+object glass. Let the parallel dotted lines represent rays of light
+emanating from the object to be observed, which, for our purpose,
+we regard as infinitely distant, a star for example. These rays come
+to a focus at a point F lying in the focal plane of the telescope. In
+this plane are a pair of cross threads or spider lines which, as the
+observer looks into the telescope, are seen as AB and CD (fig. 8).
+If the telescope is so pointed that the image of the star is seen in
+coincidence with the cross threads, as represented in fig. 8, then we
+know that the star is exactly in the
+line of sight of the telescope, defined
+as the line joining the centre of the
+object glass, and the point of intersection
+of the cross threads. If the
+telescope is moved around so that the
+images of two distant points are
+successively brought into coincidence
+with the cross threads, we know that
+the angle between the directions of
+these points is equal to that through
+which the telescope has been turned.
+This angle is measured by means of a graduated circle, rigidly
+attached to the tube of the telescope in a plane parallel to the line
+of sight. When the telescope is turned in this plane, the angular
+motion of the line of sight is equal to that through which the circle
+has turned.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:222px; height:281px" src="images/img808.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 9.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Stripped of all unnecessary adjuncts, and reduced to a geometric
+form, the ideal method by which the zenith distance of a heavenly
+body is determined by the combination which we have described is
+as follows:&mdash;Let OP (fig. 9) be the direction of a celestial body at
+which a telescope, supplied with a graduating circle, is pointed. Let
+OZ be an axis, as nearly vertical as it can easily be set, round which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
+the entire instrument may revolve through 180°. After the image
+of the body is brought into coincidence with the cross threads, the
+instrument is turned through 180° on the axis, which results in the
+line of sight of the telescope pointing
+in a certain direction OQ, determined
+by the condition QOZ = ZOP. The
+telescope is then a second time pointed
+at the object by being moved through
+the angle QOP. Either of the angles
+QOZ and ZOP is then one half that
+through which the telescope has been
+turned, which may be measured by
+a graduated circle, and which is the
+zenith distance of the object measured
+from the direction of the axis OZ.
+This axis may not be exactly vertical.
+Its deviation from the vertical line
+is determined by the motion of the
+bubble of a spirit-level rigidly
+attached either to the axis, or to the
+telescope. Applying this deviation
+to the measured arc, the true zenith
+distance of the body is found.</p>
+
+<p>When the basin of quicksilver is used, the telescope, either before
+or after being directed toward P, is pointed directly downwards, so
+that the observer mounting above it looks through it into the reflecting
+surface. He then adjusts the instrument so that the cross
+threads coincide with their images reflected from the surface of the
+quicksilver. The angular motion of the telescope in passing from this
+position to that when the celestial object is in the line of sight is the
+distance (ND) of the body from the nadir. Subtracting 90° from
+(ND) gives the altitude; and subtracting (ND) from 180° gives the
+zenith distance.</p>
+
+<p>In the measurement of equatorial co-ordinates, the polar distance
+is determined in an analogous way. We determine the apparent
+position of an object near the pole on the celestial sphere at any
+moment, and again at another moment, twelve hours later, when,
+by the diurnal motion, it has made half a revolution. The angle
+through the celestial pole, between these two positions, is double
+the polar distance. The pole is the point midway between them.
+This being ascertained by one or more stars near it, may be used to
+determine by direct measurements the polar distances of other
+bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding methods apply mainly to the latitudinal co-ordinate.
+To measure the difference between the longitudinal co-ordinates
+of two objects by means of a graduated circle the instruments must
+turn on an axis parallel to the principal axis of the system of
+co-ordinates, and the plane of the graduated circle must be at right
+angles to that axis, and, therefore, parallel to the principal co-ordinate
+plane. The telescope, in order that it may be pointed in any direction,
+must admit of two motions, one round the principal axis, and
+the other round an axis at right angles to it. By these two motions
+the instrument may be pointed first at one of the objects and then
+at the other. The motion of the graduated circle in passing from
+one pointing to the other is the measure of the difference between
+the longitudinal co-ordinates of the two objects.</p>
+
+<p>In the equatorial system this co-ordinate (the right ascension)
+is measured in a different way, by making the rotating earth perform
+the function of a graduated circle. The unceasing diurnal motion
+of the image of any heavenly body relative to the cross threads of a
+telescope makes a direct accurate measure of any co-ordinate except
+the declination almost impossible. Before the position of a star can
+be noted, it has passed away from the cross threads. This troublesome
+result is utilized and made a means of measurement. Right
+ascensions are now determined, not by measuring the angle between
+one star and another, but, by noting the time between the transits
+of successive stars over the meridian. The difference between these
+times, when reduced to an angle, is the difference of the right ascensions
+of the stars. The principle is the same as that by which the
+distance between two stations may be determined by the time
+required for a train moving at a uniform known speed to pass from
+one station to the other. The uniform speed of the diurnal motion
+is 15° per hour. We have already mentioned that in astronomical
+practice right ascensions are expressed in time, so that no
+multiplication by 15 is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Measures made on the various systems which we have described
+give the apparent direction of a celestial object as seen by the
+observer. But this is not the true direction, because the ray of light
+from the object undergoes refraction in passing through the atmosphere.
+It is therefore necessary to correct the observation for this
+effect. This is one of the most troublesome problems in astronomy
+because, owing to the ever varying density of the atmosphere,
+arising from differences of temperature, and owing to the impossibility
+of determining the temperature with entire precision at any
+other point than that occupied by the observer, the amount of
+refraction must always be more or less uncertain. The complexity
+of the problem will be seen by reflecting that the temperature of the
+air inside the telescope is not without its effect. This temperature
+may be and commonly is somewhat different from that of the observing
+room, which, again, is commonly higher than the temperature of
+the air outside. The uncertainty thus arising in the amount of the
+refraction is least near the zenith, but increases more and more as the
+horizon is approached.</p>
+
+<p>The result of astronomical observations which is ordinarily wanted
+is not the direction of an object from the observer, but from the centre
+of the earth. Thus a reduction for parallax is required. Having
+effected this reduction, and computed the correction to be applied
+to the observation in order to eliminate all known errors to which
+the instrument is liable, the work of the practical astronomer is
+completed.</p>
+
+<p>The instruments used in astronomical research are described
+under their several names. The following are those most used in
+astrometry:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The equatorial telescope (<i>q.v.</i>) is an instrument which can be
+directed to any point in the sky, and which derives its appellation
+from its being mounted on an axis parallel to that of the earth.
+By revolving on this axis it follows a star in its diurnal motion, so
+that the star is kept in the field of view notwithstanding that motion.</p>
+
+<p>Next in extent of use are the transit instrument and the meridian
+circle, which are commonly united in a single instrument, the transit
+circle (<i>q.v.</i>), known also as the meridian circle. This instrument
+moves only in the plane of the meridian on a horizontal east and
+west axis, and is used to determine the right ascensions and
+declinations of stars. These two instruments or combinations are a
+necessary part of the outfit of every important observatory. An
+adjunct of prime importance, which is necessary to their use, is an
+accurate clock, beating seconds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Use of Photography.</i>&mdash;Before the development of photography,
+there was no possible way of making observations upon the heavenly
+bodies except by the eye. Since the middle of the 19th century the
+system of photographing the heavenly bodies has been introduced,
+step by step, so that it bids fair to supersede eye observations in
+many of the determinations of astronomy. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>:
+<i>Celestial</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The field of practical astronomy includes an extension which
+may be regarded as making astronomical science in a certain sense
+universal. The science is concerned with the heavenly bodies.
+The earth on which we live is, to all intents and purposes, one of
+these bodies, and, so far as its relations to the heavens are concerned,
+must be included in astronomy. The processes of measuring great
+portions of the earth, and of determining geographical positions,
+require both astronomical observations proper, and determinations
+made with instruments similar to those of astronomy. Hence geodesy
+may be regarded as a branch of practical astronomy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. N.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>History of Astronomy.</i></p>
+
+<p>A practical acquaintance with the elements of astronomy is
+indispensable to the conduct of human life. Hence it is most
+widely diffused among uncivilized peoples, whose
+existence depends upon immediate and unvarying
+<span class="sidenote">Origin of the science.</span>
+submission to the dictates of external nature. Having
+no clocks, they regard instead the face of the sky;
+the stars serve them for almanacs; they hunt and fish, they
+sow and reap in correspondence with the recurrent order of
+celestial appearances. But these, to the untutored imagination,
+present a mystical, as well as a mechanical aspect; and barbaric
+familiarity with the heavens developed at an early age, through
+the promptings of superstition, into a fixed system of observation.
+In China, Egypt and Babylonia, strength and continuity were
+lent to this native tendency by the influence of a centralized
+authority; considerable proficiency was attained in the arts of
+observation; and from millennial stores of accumulated data,
+empirical rules were deduced by which the scope of prediction
+was widened and its accuracy enhanced. But no genuine science
+of astronomy was founded until the Greeks sublimed experience
+into theory.</p>
+
+<p>Already, in the third millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, equinoxes and solstices
+were determined in China by means of culminating stars. This
+is known from the orders promulgated by the emperor
+Yao about 2300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, as recorded in the <i>Shu Chung</i>,
+<span class="sidenote">Chinese astronomy.</span>
+a collection of documents antique in the time of
+Confucius (550-478 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). And Yao was merely the
+renovator of a system long previously established. The <i>Shu
+Chung</i> further relates the tragic fate of the official astronomers,
+Hsi and Ho, put to death for neglecting to perform the rites
+customary during an eclipse of the sun, identified by Professor
+S.E. Russell<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> with a partial obscuration visible in northern
+China 2136 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The date cannot be far wrong, and it is by far
+the earliest assignable to an event of the kind. There is, however,
+no certainty that the Chinese were then capable of predicting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span>
+eclipses. They were, on the other hand, probably acquainted,
+a couple of millenniums before Meton gave it his name, with
+the nineteen-year cycle, by which solar and lunar years were
+harmonized;<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> they immemorially made observations in the
+meridian; regulated time by water-clocks, and used measuring
+instruments of the nature of armillary spheres and quadrants.
+In or near 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Chou Kung, an able mathematician,
+determined with surprising accuracy the obliquity of the ecliptic;
+but his attempts to estimate the sun&rsquo;s distance failed hopelessly
+as being grounded on belief in the flatness of the earth. From
+of old, in China, circles were divided into 365ź parts, so that the
+sun described daily one Chinese degree; and the equator began
+to be employed as a line of reference, concurrently with the
+ecliptic, probably in the second century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Both circles, too,
+were marked by star-groups more or less clearly designated and
+defined. Cometary records of a vague kind go back in China
+to 2296 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; they are intelligible and trustworthy from 611 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+onward. Two instruments constructed at the time of Kublai
+Khan&rsquo;s accession in 1280 were still extant at Peking in 1881.
+They were provided with large graduated circles adapted for
+measurements of declination and right ascension, and prove
+the Chinese to have anticipated by at least three centuries some
+of Tycho Brahe&rsquo;s most important inventions.<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+The native astronomy was finally superseded in the 17th century by the
+scientific teachings of Jesuit missionaries from Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Astrolatry was, in Egypt, the prelude to astronomy. The
+stars were observed that they might be duly worshipped. The
+importance of their heliacal risings, or first visible
+appearances at dawn, for the purposes both of practical
+<span class="sidenote">Egyptian astronomy.</span>
+life and of ritual observance, caused them to be
+systematically noted; the length of the year was accurately
+fixed in connexion with the annually recurring Nile-flood; while
+the curiously precise orientation of the Pyramids affords a lasting
+demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching
+the heavens attained in the third millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The
+constellational system in vogue among the Egyptians appears to
+have been essentially of native origin; but they contributed
+little or nothing to the genuine progress of astronomy.</p>
+
+<p>With the Babylonians the case was different, although their
+science lacked the vital principle of growth imparted to it by
+their successors. From them the Greeks derived their
+first notions of astronomy. They copied the Babylonian
+<span class="sidenote">Babylonian astronomy.</span>
+asterisms, appropriated Babylonian knowledge
+of the planets and their courses, and learned to predict
+eclipses by means of the &ldquo;Saros.&rdquo; This is a cycle of 18 years
+11 days, or 223 lunations, discovered at an unknown epoch in
+Chaldaea, at the end of which the moon very nearly returns to
+her original position with regard as well to the sun as to her own
+nodes and perigee. There is no getting back to the beginning
+of astronomy by the shores of the Euphrates. Records dating
+from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (3800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) imply that even
+then the varying aspects of the sky had been long under expert
+observation. Thus early, there is reason to suppose, the
+star-groups with which we are now familiar began to be formed.
+They took shape most likely, not through one stroke of invention,
+but incidentally, as legends developed and astrological persuasions
+became defined.<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The zodiacal series in particular seem
+to have been reformed and reconstructed at wide intervals of
+time (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zodiac</a></span>). Virgo, for example, is referred by P. Jensen,
+on the ground of its harvesting associations, to the fourth
+millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, while Aries (according to F.K. Ginzel) was
+interpolated at a comparatively recent time. In the main,
+however, the constellations transmitted to the West from
+Babylonia by Aratus and Eudoxus must have been arranged
+very much in their present order about 2800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> E.W. Maunder&rsquo;s
+argument to this effect is unanswerable.<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a> For the space of the
+southern sky left blank of stellar emblazonments was necessarily
+centred on the pole; and since the pole shifts among the stars
+through the effects of precession by a known annual amount,
+the ascertainment of any former place for it virtually fixes the
+epoch. It may then be taken as certain that the heavens
+described by Aratus in 270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> represented approximately
+observations made some 2500 years earlier in or near north
+latitude 40°.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of ages, Babylonian astronomy, purified from
+the astrological taint, adapted itself to meet the most refined
+needs of civil life. The decipherment and interpretation by the
+learned Jesuits, Fathers Epping and Strassmeier, of a number
+of clay tablets preserved in the British Museum, have supplied
+detailed knowledge of the methods practised in Mesopotamia
+in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa6l" id="fa6l" href="#ft6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a> They show no trace of Greek influence,
+and were doubtless the improved outcome of an unbroken
+tradition. How protracted it had been, can be in a measure
+estimated from the length of the revolutionary cycles found for
+the planets. The Babylonian computers were not only aware
+that Venus returns in almost exactly eight years to a given
+starting-point in the sky, but they had established similar
+periodic relations in 46, 59, 70 and 83 years severally for Mercury,
+Saturn, Mars and Jupiter. They were accordingly able to fix
+in advance the approximate positions of these objects with
+reference to ecliptical stars which served as fiducial points for
+their determination. In the Ephemerides published year by
+year, the times of new moon were given, together with the
+calculated intervals to the first visibility of the crescent, from
+which the beginning of each month was reckoned; the dates
+and circumstances of solar and lunar eclipses were predicted;
+and due information was supplied as to the forthcoming heliacal
+risings and settings, conjunctions and oppositions of the planets.
+The Babylonians knew of the inequality in the daily motion of
+the sun, but misplaced by 10° the perigee of his orbit. Their
+sidereal year was 4˝<span class="sp">m</span> too long,<a name="fa7l" id="fa7l" href="#ft7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a> and they kept the ecliptic
+stationary among the stars, making no allowance for the shifting
+of the equinoxes. The striking discovery, on the other hand, has been made by the
+Rev. F.X. Kugler<a name="fa8l" id="fa8l" href="#ft8l"><span class="sp">8</span></a> that the various periods underlying their lunar
+predictions were identical with those heretofore believed to have
+been independently arrived at by Hipparchus, who accordingly
+must be held to have borrowed from Chaldaea the lengths of the
+synodic, sidereal, anomalistic and draconitic months.</p>
+
+<p>A steady flow of knowledge from East to West began in the 7th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A Babylonian sage named Berossus founded a
+school about 640 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in the island of Cos, and perhaps
+<span class="sidenote">Greek astronomy. Thales.</span>
+counted Thales of Miletus (<i>c.</i> 639-548) among his pupils.
+The famous &ldquo;eclipse of Thales&rdquo; in 585 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> has not, it is true,
+been authenticated by modern research;<a name="fa9l" id="fa9l" href="#ft9l"><span class="sp">9</span></a> yet the story told
+by Herodotus appears to intimate that a knowledge of the Saros,
+and of the forecasting facilities connected with it,
+was possessed by the Ionian sage.
+Pythagoras of Samos (fl. 540-510 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) learned on his travels
+<span class="sidenote">Pythagoras.</span>
+in Egypt and the East to identify the morning and
+evening stars, to recognize the obliquity of the ecliptic,
+and to regard the earth as a sphere freely poised in
+space. The tenet of its axial movement was held by many of his
+followers&mdash;in an obscure form by Philolaus of Crotona after the
+middle of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and more explicitly by Ecphantus
+and Hicetas of Syracuse (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and by Heraclides
+<span class="sidenote">Heraclides.</span>
+of Pontus. Heraclides, who became a disciple of Plato in 360 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+taught in addition that the sun, while circulating round the earth,
+was the centre of revolution to Venus and Mercury.<a name="fa10l" id="fa10l" href="#ft10l"><span class="sp">10</span></a> A genuine
+heliocentric system, developed by Aristarchus of Samos (fl. 280-264 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+was described by Archimedes in his <i>Arenarius</i>, only to be set aside
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
+with disapproval. The long-lived conception of a series of
+crystal spheres, acting as the vehicles of the heavenly bodies, and
+attuned to divine harmonies, seems to have originated with
+Pythagoras himself.</p>
+
+<p>The first mathematical theory of celestial appearances was
+devised by Eudoxus of Cnidus (408-355 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa11l" id="fa11l" href="#ft11l"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+The problem he attempted to solve was so to combine uniform
+circular movements as to produce the resultant effects actually
+<span class="sidenote">Eudoxus.</span>
+observed. The sun and moon and the five planets were, with
+this end in view, accommodated each with a set of variously
+revolving spheres, to the total number of 27. The Eudoxian or
+&ldquo;homocentric&rdquo; system, after it had been further elaborated by
+Callippus and Aristotle, was modified by Apollonius of Perga
+(fl. 250-220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) into the hypothesis of deferents and epicycles,
+which held the field for 1800 years as the characteristic embodiment
+of Greek ideas in astronomy. Eudoxus further wrote two works
+descriptive of the heavens, the <i>Enoptron</i> and <i>Phaenomena</i>,
+which, substantially preserved in the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus
+(fl. 270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), provided all the leading features of modern stellar
+nomenclature.</p>
+
+<p>Greek astronomy culminated in the school of Alexandria.
+It was, soon after its foundation, illustrated by the labours of
+<span class="sidenote">School of Alexandria.</span>
+Aristyllus and Timocharis (<i>c.</i> 320-260 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who
+constructed the first catalogue giving star-positions as
+measured from a reference-point in the sky. This
+fundamental advance rendered inevitable the detection
+of precessional effects. Aristarchus of Samos observed at Alexandria 280-264 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+His treatise on the magnitudes and distances of the sun and moon,
+<span class="sidenote">Aristarchus.</span>
+edited by John Wallis in 1688, describes a theoretically valid method
+for determining the relative distances of the sun and
+moon by measuring the angle between their centres when half the
+lunar disk is illuminated; but the time of dichotomy being widely
+indeterminate, no useful result was thus obtainable. Aristarchus
+in fact concluded the sun to be not more than twenty times,
+while it is really four hundred times farther off than our satellite.
+His general conception of the universe was comprehensive
+beyond that of any of his predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>Eratosthenes (276-196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a native of Cyrene, was summoned
+from Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euergetes to take charge
+of the royal library. He invented, or improved
+armillary spheres, the chief implements of ancient
+<span class="sidenote"> Eratosthenes.</span>
+astrometry, determined the obliquity of the ecliptic at
+23° 51&prime; (a value 5&prime; too great), and introduced an effective mode
+of arc-measurement. Knowing Alexandria and Syene to be
+situated 5000 stadia apart on the same meridian, he found the
+sun to be 7° 12&prime; south of the zenith at the northern extremity of
+this arc when it was vertically overhead at the southern extremity,
+and he hence inferred a value of 252,000 stadia for the entire
+circumference of the globe. This is a very close approximation
+to the truth, if the length of the unit employed has been correctly
+assigned.<a name="fa12l" id="fa12l" href="#ft12l"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Among the astronomers of antiquity, two great men stand out
+with unchallenged pre-eminence. Hipparchus and Ptolemy
+entertained the same large organic designs; they
+worked on similar methods; and, as the outcome,
+<span class="sidenote">Hipparchus.</span>
+their performances fitted so accurately together that
+between them they re-made celestial science. Hipparchus
+fixed the chief data of astronomy&mdash;the lengths of the tropical and
+sidereal years, of the various months, and of the synodic periods
+of the five planets; determined the obliquity of the ecliptic and
+of the moon&rsquo;s path, the place of the sun&rsquo;s apogee, the eccentricity
+of his orbit, and the moon&rsquo;s horizontal parallax; all with
+approximate accuracy. His loans from Chaldaean experts appear,
+indeed, to have been numerous; but were doubtless independently
+verified. His supreme merit, however, consisted in the
+establishment of astronomy on a sound geometrical basis. His
+acquaintance with trigonometry, a branch of science initiated by
+him, together with his invention of the planisphere, enabled him
+to solve a number of elementary problems; and he was thus led
+to bestow especial attention upon the position of the equinox, as
+being the common point of origin for measures both in right
+ascension and longitude. Its steady retrogression among the
+stars became manifest to him in 130 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, on comparing his own
+observations with those made by Timocharis a century and a
+half earlier; and he estimated at not less than 36&Prime; (the true
+value being 50&Prime;) the annual amount of &ldquo;precession.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The choice made by Hipparchus of the geocentric theory of the
+universe decided the future of Greek astronomy. He further
+elaborated it by the introduction of &ldquo;eccentrics,&rdquo; which
+accounted for the changes in orbital velocity of the sun and moon
+by a displacement of the earth, to a corresponding extent, from
+the centre of the circles they were assumed to describe. This
+gave the elliptic inequality known as the &ldquo;equation of the
+centre,&rdquo; and no other was at that time obvious. He attempted
+no detailed discussion of planetary theory; but his catalogue of
+1080 stars, divided into six classes of brightness, or
+&ldquo;magnitudes,&rdquo; is one of the finest monuments of antique astronomy.
+It is substantially embodied in Ptolemy&rsquo;s <i>Almagest</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemy</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>An interval of 250 years elapsed before the constructive
+labours of Hipparchus obtained completion at Alexandria.
+His observations were largely, and somewhat arbitrarily,
+employed by Ptolemy. Professor Newcomb,
+<span class="sidenote">Ptolemy.</span>
+who has compiled an instructive table of the equinoxes severally
+observed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy, with their errors deduced
+from Leverrier&rsquo;s solar tables, finds palpable evidence that the
+discrepancies between the two series were artificially reconciled
+on the basis of a year 6<span class="sp">m</span> too long, adopted by Ptolemy on trust
+from his predecessor. He nevertheless holds the process to have
+been one that implied no fraudulent intention.</p>
+
+<p>The Ptolemaic system was, in a geometrical sense, defensible;
+it harmonized fairly well with appearances, and physical reasonings
+had not then been extended to the heavens. To the ignorant
+it was recommended by its conformity to crude common sense;
+to the learned, by the wealth of ingenuity expended in bringing
+it to perfection. The <i>Almagest</i> was the consummation of Greek
+astronomy. Ptolemy had no successor; he found only
+commentators, among the more noteworthy of whom were Theon of
+Alexandria (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400) and his daughter Hypatia (370-415).
+With the capture of Alexandria by Omar in 641, the last glimmer
+of its scientific light became extinct, to be rekindled, a century
+and a half later, on the banks of the Tigris.
+The first Arabic translation of the <i>Almagest</i> was made
+<span class="sidenote">Arab astronomers.</span>
+by order of Harun al-Rashid about the year 800; others followed,
+and the Caliph al-Mamun built in 829 a grand observatory at
+Bagdad. Here Albumazar (805-885) watched the skies
+and cast horoscopes; here Tobit ben Korra (836-901)
+developed his long unquestioned, yet misleading theory of
+the &ldquo;trepidation&rdquo; of the equinoxes; Abd-ar-rahman al-S&#363;f
+(903-986) revised at first hand the catalogue of Ptolemy;<a name="fa13l" id="fa13l" href="#ft13l"><span class="sp">13</span></a>
+and Abulwefa (939-998), like al-S&#363;fi,
+a native of Persia, made continuous planetary observations,
+but did not (as alleged by L. Sédillot) anticipate Tycho Brahe&rsquo;s
+discovery of the moon&rsquo;s variation. Ibn Junis (<i>c.</i> 950-1008), although
+the scene of his activity was in Egypt, falls into line with the
+astronomers of Bagdad. He compiled the Hakimite Tables of the planets,
+and observed at Cairo, in 977 and 978, two solar eclipses which, as
+being the first recorded with scientific accuracy,<a name="fa14l" id="fa14l" href="#ft14l"><span class="sp">14</span></a> were made
+available in fixing the amount of lunar acceleration.
+Nasir ud-din (1201-1274) drew up the Ilkhanic Tables, and determined
+the constant of precession at 51&Prime;. He directed an observatory
+established by Hulagu Khan (d. 1265) at Maraga in Persia, and
+equipped with a mural quadrant of 12 ft. radius, besides altitude
+and azimuth instruments. Ulugh Beg (1394-1449), a grandson
+of Tamerlane, was the illustrious personification of Tatar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span>
+astronomy. He founded about 1420 a splendid observatory at
+Samarkand, in which he re-determined nearly all Ptolemy&rsquo;s
+stars, while the Tables published by him held the primacy for
+two centuries.<a name="fa15l" id="fa15l" href="#ft15l"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Arab astronomy, transported by the Moors to Spain, flourished
+temporarily at Cordova and Toledo. From the latter city the
+<span class="sidenote">Moorish Astronomy.</span>
+Toletan Tables, drawn up by Arzachel in 1080, took
+their name; and there also the Alfonsine Tables,
+published in 1252, were prepared under the authority
+of Alphonso X. of Castile. Their appearance signalized the dawn of European science,
+and was nearly coincident with that of the <i>Sphaera Mundi</i>,
+<span class="sidenote">European Astronomy.</span>
+a text-book of spherical astronomy, written by a Yorkshireman,
+John Holywood, known as Sacro Bosco (d. 1256). It had an immense
+vogue, perpetuated by the printing-press in fifty-nine
+editions. In Germany, during the 15th century, a
+brilliant attempt was made to patch up the flaws in Ptolemaic
+doctrine. George Purbach (1423-1461) introduced into Europe
+<span class="sidenote">Purbach.<br />Walther.</span>
+the method of determining time by altitudes employed
+by Ibn Junis. He lectured with applause at Vienna
+from 1450; was joined there in 1452 by Regiomontanus (<i>q.v.</i>);
+and was on the point of starting for Rome to inspect a manuscript
+of the <i>Almagest</i> when he died suddenly at the age of thirty-eight.
+His teachings bore fruit in the work of Regiomontanus, and of
+Bernhard Walther of Nuremberg (1430-1504), who
+fitted up an observatory with clocks driven by
+weights, and developed many improvements in practical
+astronomy.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, a radical reform was being prepared in Italy.
+Under the searchlights of the new learning, the dictatorship of
+Ptolemy appeared no more inevitable than that of Aristotle;
+advanced thinkers like Domenico Maria Novara (1454-1504) promulgated
+<i>sub rosa</i> what were called Pythagorean opinions; and
+<span class="sidenote">Copernicus.</span>
+they were eagerly and fully appropriated by Nicolaus
+Copernicus during his student-years (1496-1505) at
+Bologna and Padua. He laid the groundwork of
+his heliocentric theory between 1506 and 1512, and brought it
+to completion in <i>De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium</i> (1543).
+The colossal task of remaking astronomy on an inverted design
+was, in this treatise, virtually accomplished. Its reasonings
+were solidly founded on the principle of the relativity of motion.
+A continuous shifting of the standpoint was in large measure
+substituted for the displacements of the objects viewed, which
+thus acquired a regularity and consistency heretofore lacking to
+them. In the new system, the sphere of the fixed stars no longer
+revolved diurnally, the earth rotating instead on an axis directed
+towards the celestial pole. The sun too remained stationary,
+while the planets, including our own globe, circulated round him.
+By this means, the planetary &ldquo;retrogradations&rdquo; were explained
+as simple perspective effects due to the combination of the earth&rsquo;s
+revolutions with those of her sister orbs. The retention, however,
+by Copernicus of the antique postulate of uniform circular motion
+impaired the perfection of his plan, since it involved a partial
+survival of the epicyclical machinery. Nor was it feasible, on
+this showing, to place the sun at the true centre of any of the
+planetary orbits; so that his ruling position in the midst of
+them was illusory. The reformed scheme was then by no means
+perfect. Its simplicity was only comparative; many outstanding
+anomalies compromised its harmonious working.
+Moreover, the absence of sensible parallaxes in the stellar
+heavens seemed inconsistent with its validity; and a mobile
+earth outraged deep-rooted prepossessions. Under these
+disadvantageous circumstances, it is scarcely surprising that the
+heliocentric theory, while admired as a daring speculation, won
+its way slowly to acceptance as a truth.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Tabulae Prutenicae</i>, calculated on Copernican principles
+by Erasmus Reinhold (1511-1553), appeared in 1551. Although
+they represented celestial movements far better than the
+Alfonsine Tables, large discrepancies were still apparent, and the
+desirability of testing the novel hypothesis upon which they
+were based by more refined observations prompted a reform of
+methods, undertaken almost simultaneously by the landgrave
+William IV. of Hesse-Cassel (1532-1592), and by Tycho Brahe.
+<span class="sidenote">Observatory of Cassel.</span>
+The landgrave built at Cassel in 1561 the first observatory
+with a revolving dome, and worked for some years
+at a star-catalogue finally left incomplete. Christoph
+Rothmann and Joost Bürgi (1552-1632) became his
+assistants in 1577 and 1579 respectively; and through the skill
+of Bürgi, time-determinations were made available for measuring
+right ascensions. At Cassel, too, the altitude and azimuth
+instrument is believed to have made its first appearance in
+Europe.<a name="fa16l" id="fa16l" href="#ft16l"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Tycho&rsquo;s labours were both more strenuous and more effective.
+He perfected the art of pre-telescopic observation. His
+instruments were on a scale and of a type unknown since
+the days of Nasir ud-din. At Augsburg, in 1569, he
+<span class="sidenote">Tycho Brahe.</span>
+ordered the construction of a 19-ft. quadrant, and of a
+celestial globe 5 ft. in diameter; he substituted equatorial for
+zodiacal armillae, thus definitively establishing the system of
+measurements in right ascension and declination; and improved
+the graduation of circular arcs by adopting the method of
+&ldquo;transversals.&rdquo; By these means, employed with consummate
+skill, he attained an unprecedented degree of accuracy, and as
+an incidental though valuable result, demonstrated the unreality
+of the supposed trepidation of the equinoxes.</p>
+
+<p>No more congruous arrangement could have been devised than
+the inheritance by Johann Kepler of the wealth of materials
+amassed by Tycho Brahe. The younger man&rsquo;s genius
+supplied what was wanting to his predecessor. Tycho&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Kepler.</span>
+endowments were of the practical order; yet he had never
+designed his observations to be an end in themselves. He
+thought of them as means towards the end of ascertaining the
+true form of the universe. His range of ideas was, however,
+restricted; and the attempt embodied in his ground-plan of the
+solar system to revive the ephemeral theory of Heraclides failed
+to influence the development of thought. Kepler, on the
+contrary, was endowed with unlimited powers of speculation,
+but had no mechanical faculty. He found in Tycho&rsquo;s ample
+legacy of first-class data precisely what enabled him to try,
+by the touchstone of fact, the successive hypotheses that he
+imagined; and his untiring patience in comparing and
+calculating the observations at his disposal was rewarded by a
+series of unique discoveries. He long adhered to the traditional
+belief that all celestial revolutions must be performed
+equably in circles; but a laborious computation of seven recorded
+oppositions of Mars at last persuaded him that the planet
+travelled in an ellipse, one focus of which was occupied by the sun.
+Pursuing the inquiry, he found that its velocity was uniform
+with respect to no single point within the orbit, but that the
+areas described, in equal times, by a line drawn from the sun to
+the planet were strictly equal. These two principles he extended,
+by direct proof, to the motion of the earth; and, by analogy,
+to that of the other planets. They were published in 1609 in
+<i>De Motibus Stellae Martis</i>. The announcement of the third of
+&ldquo;Kepler&rsquo;s Laws&rdquo; was made ten years later, in <i>De Harmonice
+Mundi</i>. It states that the squares of the periods of circulation
+round the sun of the several planets are in the same ratio as the
+cubes of their mean distances. This numerical proportion, as
+being a necessary consequence of the law of gravitation, must
+prevail in every system under its sway. It does in fact prevail
+among the satellite-families of our acquaintance, and presumably
+in stellar combinations as well. Kepler&rsquo;s ineradicable belief in
+the existence of some such congruity was derived from the
+Pythagorean idea of an underlying harmony in nature; but his
+arduous efforts for its realization took a devious and fantastic
+course which seemed to give little promise of their surprising
+ultimate success. The outcome of his discoveries was, not only
+to perfect the geometrical plan of the solar system, but to enhance
+very materially the predicting power of astronomy. The
+Rudolphine Tables (Ulm, 1627), computed by him from elliptic
+elements, retained authority for a century, and have in principle
+never been superseded. He was deterred from research into the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
+orbital relations of comets, by his conviction of their perishable
+nature. He supposed their tails to result from the action of
+solar rays, which, in traversing their mass, bore off with them
+some of their subtler particles to form trains directed away from
+the sun. And through the process of waste thus set on foot,
+they finally dissolved into the aether, and expired &ldquo;like spinning
+insects.&rdquo; (<i>De Cometis; Opera</i>, ed. Frisch, t. vii. p. 110.)
+This remarkable anticipation of the modern theory of light-pressure
+was suggested to him by his observations of the great comets
+of 1618.</p>
+
+<p>The formal astronomy of the ancients left Kepler unsatisfied.
+He aimed at finding out the cause as well as the mode of the
+planetary revolutions; and his demonstration that the planes
+in which they are described all pass through the sun was an
+important preliminary to a physical explanation of them. But
+his efforts to supply such an explanation were rendered futile
+by his imperfect apprehension of what motion is in itself. He
+had, it is true, a distinct conception of a force analogous to that
+of gravity, by which cognate bodies tended towards union.
+Misled, however, into identifying it with magnetism, he imagined
+circulation in the solar system to be maintained through the
+material compulsion of fibrous emanations from the sun, carried
+round by his axial rotation. Ignorance regarding the inertia of
+matter drove him to this expedient. The persistence of movement
+seemed to him to imply the persistence of a moving power.
+He did not recognize that motion and rest are equally natural,
+in the sense of requiring force for their alteration. Yet his
+rationale of the tides in <i>De Motibus Stellae</i> is not only memorable
+as an astonishing forecast of the principle of reciprocal attraction
+in the proportion of mass, but for its bold extension to the earth
+of the lunar sphere of influence.</p>
+
+<p>Galileo Galilei, Kepler&rsquo;s most eminent contemporary, took
+a foremost part in dissipating the obscurity that still hung over
+the very foundations of mechanical science. He had, indeed,
+precursors and co-operators. Michel Varo of Geneva wrote
+correctly in 1584 on the composition of forces; Simon Stevin
+of Bruges (1548-1620) independently demonstrated the principle;
+and G.B. Benedetti expounded in his <i>Speculationum Liber</i>
+(Turin, 1585) perfectly clear ideas as to the nature of accelerated
+motion, some years in advance of Galileo&rsquo;s dramatic experiments
+at Pisa. Yet they were never assimilated by Kepler; while,
+on the other hand, the laws of planetary circulation he had
+enounced were strangely ignored by Galileo. The two lines of
+inquiry remained for some time apart. Had they at once been
+made to coalesce, the true nature of the force controlling celestial
+movements should have been quickly recognized. As it was,
+the importance of Kepler&rsquo;s generalizations was not fully appreciated
+until Sir Isaac Newton made them the corner-stone of his
+new cosmic edifice.</p>
+
+<p>Galileo&rsquo;s contributions to astronomy were of a different
+quality from Kepler&rsquo;s. They were easily intelligible to the general
+public: in a sense, they were obvious, since they
+could be verified by every possessor of one of the
+<span class="sidenote">Galileo.</span>
+Dutch perspective-instruments, just then in course of wide and
+rapid distribution. And similar results to his were in fact
+independently obtained in various parts of Europe by Christopher
+Scheiner at Ingolstadt, by Johann Fabricius at Osteel in Friesland,
+and by Thomas Harriot at Syon House, Isleworth. Galileo
+was nevertheless by far the ablest and most versatile of these
+early telescopic observers. His gifts of exposition were on a par
+with his gifts of discernment. What he saw, he rendered conspicuous
+to the world. His sagacity was indeed sometimes at
+fault. He maintained with full conviction to the end of his life
+a grossly erroneous hypothesis of the tides, early adopted from
+Andrea Caesalpino; the &ldquo;triplicate&rdquo; appearance of Saturn
+always remained an enigma to him; and in regarding comets
+as atmospheric emanations he lagged far behind Tycho Brahe.
+Yet he unquestionably ranks as the true founder of descriptive
+astronomy; while his splendid presentment of the laws of
+projectiles in his dialogue of the &ldquo;New Sciences&rdquo; (Leiden,
+1638) lent potent aid to the solid establishment of celestial
+mechanics.</p>
+
+<p>The accumulation of facts does not in itself constitute science.
+Empirical knowledge scarcely deserves the name. <i>Vere scire
+est per causas scire.</i> Francis Bacon&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Gravitational Astronomy.</span>
+prescient dream, however, of a living astronomy by which the physical
+laws governing terrestrial relations should be extended
+the highest heavens, had long to wait for realization.
+Kepler divined its possibility; but his
+thoughts, derailed (so to speak) by the false analogy of magnetism,
+<span class="sidenote">Bacon.<br />Descartes.</span>
+brought him no farther than to the rough draft of the
+scheme of vortices expounded in detail by René Descartes in
+his <i>Principia Philosophiae</i> (1644). And this was a Descartes
+<i>cul-de-sac.</i> The only practicable road struck aside
+from it. The true foundations of a mechanical theory of the
+heavens were laid by Kepler&rsquo;s discoveries, and by Galileo&rsquo;s
+dynamical demonstrations; its construction was facilitated by
+the development of mathematical methods. The invention
+of logarithms, the rise of analytical geometry, and the evolution
+of B. Cavalieri&rsquo;s &ldquo;indivisibles&rdquo; into the infinitesimal calculus,
+all accomplished during the 17th century, immeasurably widened
+the scope of exact astronomy. Gradually, too, the nature of
+the problem awaiting solution came to be apprehended. Jeremiah
+Horrocks had some intuition, previously to 1639, that the
+motion of the moon was controlled by the earth&rsquo;s gravity, and
+disturbed by the action of the sun. Ismael Bouillaud (1605-1694)
+stated in 1645 the fact of planetary circulation under the
+sway of a sun-force decreasing as the inverse square of the
+distance; and the inevitableness of this same &ldquo;duplicate ratio&rdquo;
+was separately perceived by Robert Hooke, Edmund Halley
+<span class="sidenote">Newton.</span>
+and Sir Christopher Wren before Newton&rsquo;s discovery
+had yet been made public. He was the only man of
+his generation who both recognized the law, and had power to
+demonstrate its validity. And this was only a beginning. His
+complete achievement had a twofold aspect. It consisted,
+first, in the identification, by strict numerical comparisons,
+of terrestrial gravity with the mutual attraction of the heavenly
+bodies; secondly, in the following out of its mechanical consequences
+throughout the solar system. Gravitation was thus
+shown to be the sole influence governing the movements of planets
+and satellites; the figure of the rotating earth was successfully
+explained by its action on the minuter particles of matter;
+tides and the procession of the equinoxes proved amenable to
+reasonings based on the same principle; and it satisfactorily
+accounted as well for some of the chief lunar and planetary
+inequalities. Newton&rsquo;s investigations, however, were very far
+from being exhaustive. Colossal though his powers were, they
+had limits; and his work could not but remain unterminated,
+since it was by its nature interminable. Nor was it possible to
+provide it with what could properly be called a sequel. The
+synthetic method employed by him was too unwieldy for common
+use. Yet no other was just then at hand. Mathematical
+analysis needed half a century of cultivation before it was fully
+available for the arduous tasks reserved for it. They were
+accordingly taken up anew by a band of continental inquirers,
+<span class="sidenote">Euler, Clairault, D&rsquo;Alembert.</span>
+primarily by three men of untiring energy and vivid
+genius, Leonhard Euler, Alexis Clairault, and Jean
+le Rond d&rsquo;Alembert. The first of the outstanding
+gravitational problems with which they grappled
+was the unaccountably rapid advance of the lunar perigee.
+But the apparent anomaly disappeared under Euler&rsquo;s powerful
+treatment in 1749, and his result was shortly afterwards
+still further assured by Clairault. The subject of planetary
+perturbations was next attacked. Euler devised in 1753 a
+new method, that of the &ldquo;variation of parameters,&rdquo; for their
+investigation, and applied it to unravel some of the earth&rsquo;s
+irregularities in a memoir crowned by the French Academy
+in 1756; while in 1757, Clairault estimated the masses of the
+moon and Venus by their respective disturbing effects upon
+terrestrial movements. But the most striking incident in the
+history of the verification of Newton&rsquo;s law was the return of
+Halley&rsquo;s comet to perihelion, on the 12th of March 1759, in
+approximate accordance with Clairault&rsquo;s calculation of the
+delays due to the action of Jupiter and Saturn. Visual proof
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span>
+was thus, it might be said, afforded of the harmonious working
+of a single principle to the uttermost boundaries of the sun&rsquo;s
+dominion.</p>
+
+<p>These successes paved the way for the higher triumphs of
+Joseph Louis Lagrange and of Pierre Simon Laplace. The
+subject of the lunar librations was treated by Lagrange
+with great originality in an essay crowned by the Paris
+<span class="sidenote">Lagrange.</span>
+Academy of Sciences in 1764; and he filled up the lacunae in
+his theory of them in a memoir communicated to the Berlin
+Academy in 1780. He again won the prize of the Paris Academy
+in 1766 with an analytical discussion of the movements of
+Jupiter&rsquo;s satellites (<i>Miscellanea</i>, Turin Acad. t. iv.); and in
+the same year expanded Euler&rsquo;s adumbrated method of the
+variation of parameters into a highly effective engine of
+perturbational research. It was especially adapted to the tracing
+out of &ldquo;secular inequalities,&rdquo; or those depending upon changes
+in the orbital elements of the bodies affected by them, and hence
+progressing indefinitely with time; and by its means, accordingly,
+the mechanical stability of the solar system was splendidly
+demonstrated through the successive efforts of Lagrange and
+Laplace. The proper share of each in bringing about this memorable
+result is not easy to apportion, since they freely imparted
+and profited by one another&rsquo;s advances and improvements;
+it need only be said that the fundamental proposition of the
+invariability of the planetary major axes laid down with restrictions
+by Laplace in 1773, was finally established by Lagrange
+in 1776; while Laplace in 1784 proved the subsistence of such
+a relation between the eccentricities of the planetary orbits on
+the one hand, and their inclinations on the other, that an increase
+of either element could, in any single case, proceed only to a
+very small extent. The system was thus shown, apart from
+unknown agencies of subversion, to be constructed for indefinite
+permanence. The prize of the Berlin Academy was, in 1780,
+adjudged to Lagrange for a treatise on the perturbations of
+comets, and he contributed to the Berlin Memoirs, 1781-1784,
+a set of five elaborate papers, embodying and unifying his
+perfected methods and their results.</p>
+
+<p>The crowning trophies of gravitational astronomy in the 18th
+century were Laplace&rsquo;s explanations of the &ldquo;great inequality&rdquo;
+of Jupiter and Saturn in 1784, and of the &ldquo;secular
+acceleration&rdquo; of the moon in 1787. Both irregularities
+<span class="sidenote">Laplace.</span>
+had been noted, a century earlier, by Edmund Halley; both had,
+since that time, vainly exercised the ingenuity of the ablest
+mathematicians; both now almost simultaneously yielded their
+secret to the same fortunate inquirer. Johann Heinrich Lambert
+pointed out in 1773 that the motion of Saturn, from being
+retarded, had become accelerated. A periodic character was
+thus indicated for the disturbance; and Laplace assigned its
+true cause in the near approach to commensurability in the
+periods of the two planets, the cycle of disturbance completing
+itself in about 900 (more accurately 929˝) years. The lunar
+acceleration, too, obtains ultimate compensation, though only
+after a vastly protracted term of years. The discovery, just
+one hundred years after the publication of Newton&rsquo;s <i>Principia</i>,
+of its dependence upon the slowly varying eccentricity of the
+earth&rsquo;s orbit signalized the removal of the last conspicuous
+obstacle to admitting the unqualified validity of the law of
+gravitation. Laplace&rsquo;s calculations, it is true, were inexact.
+An error, corrected by J.C. Adams in 1853, nearly doubled
+the value of the acceleration deducible from them; and served
+to conceal a discrepancy with observation which has since given
+occasion to much profound research (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moon</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Mécanique céleste</i>, in which Laplace welded into a whole
+the items of knowledge accumulated by the labours of a century,
+has been termed the &ldquo;Almagest of the 18th century&rdquo; (Fourier).
+But imposing and complete though the monument appeared, it
+did not long hold possession of the field. Further developments
+ensued. The &ldquo;method of least squares,&rdquo; by which the most
+probable result can be educed from a body of observational data,
+was published by Adrien Marie Legendre in 1806, by Carl
+Friedrich Gauss in his <i>Theoria Motus</i> (1809), which described also
+a mode of calculating the orbit of a planet from three complete
+observations, afterwards turned to important account for the
+recapture of Ceres, the first discovered asteroid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Planets,
+Minor</a></span>). Researches into rotational movement were facilitated
+by S.D. Poisson&rsquo;s application to them in 1809 of Lagrange&rsquo;s
+theory of the variation of constants; Philippe de Pontécoulant
+successfully used in 1829, for the prediction of the impending
+return of Halley&rsquo;s comet, a system of &ldquo;mechanical quadratures&rdquo;
+published by Lagrange in the Berlin Memoirs for 1778; and in
+his <i>Théorie analytique du systčme du monde</i> (1846) he modified
+and refined general theories of the lunar and planetary revolutions.
+P.A. Hansen in 1829 (<i>Astr. Nach.</i> Nos. 166-168, 179)
+left the beaten track by choosing time as the sole variable, the
+orbital elements remaining constant. A.L. Cauchy published
+in 1842-1845 a method similarly conceived, though otherwise
+developed; and the scope of analysis in determining the movements
+of the heavenly bodies has since been perseveringly
+widened by the labours of Urbain J.J. Leverrier, J.C. Adams,
+S. Newcomb, G.W. Hill, E.W. Brown, H. Gyldén, Charles
+Delaunay, F. Tisserand, H. Poincaré and others too numerous to
+mention. Nor were these abstract investigations unaccompanied
+by concrete results. Sir George Airy detected in 1831 an
+inequality, periodic in 240 years, between Venus and the earth.
+Leverrier undertook in 1839, and concluded in 1876, the formidable
+task of revising all the planetary theories and constructing
+from them improved tables. Not less comprehensive has been
+the work carried out by Professor Newcomb of raising to a higher
+grade of perfection, and reducing to a uniform standard, all the
+theories and constants of the solar system. His inquiries afford
+the assurance of a nearly exact conformity among its members to
+strict gravitational law, only the moon and Mercury showing
+some slight, but so far unexplained, anomalies of movement.
+The discovery of Neptune in 1846 by Adams and Leverrier
+marked the first solution of the &ldquo;inverse problem&rdquo; of perturbations.
+That is to say, ascertained or ascertainable effects were
+made the starting-point instead of the goal of research.</p>
+
+<p>Observational astronomy, meanwhile, was advancing to
+<span class="sidenote">Descriptive and practical astronomy.</span>
+some extent independently. The descriptive branch found its
+principle of development in the growing powers of
+the telescope, and had little to do with mathematical
+theory; which, on the contrary, was closely
+allied, by relations of mutual helpfulness, with practical
+astronomy, or &ldquo;astrometry.&rdquo; Meanwhile,
+the elementary requirement of making visual acquaintance with the
+stellar heavens was met, as regards the unknown southern skies,
+<span class="sidenote">Bayer.<br />Gassendi.</span>
+when Johann Bayer published at Nuremberg in 1603 a
+celestial atlas depicting twelve new constellations
+formed from the rude observations of navigators across the line.
+In the same work, the current mode of star-nomenclature by the
+letters of the Greek alphabet made its appearance.
+On the 7th of November 1631 Pierre Gassendi watched
+at Paris the passage of Mercury across the sun. This was the
+first planetary transit observed. The
+next was that of Venus on the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639,
+of which Jeremiah Horrocks and William Crabtree were the sole
+<span class="sidenote">Horrocks.<br />Huygens.</span>
+spectators. The improvement of telescopes was prosecuted by Christiaan
+Huygens from 1655, and promptly led to his discoveries of the
+sixth Saturnian moon, of the true shape of the Saturnian
+appendages, and of the multiple character of
+the &ldquo;trapezium&rdquo; of stars in the Orion nebula. William Gascoigne&rsquo;s
+invention of the filar micrometer and of the adaptation
+of telescopes to graduated instruments remained
+submerged for a quarter of a century in consequence of
+<span class="sidenote">Gascoigne.<br />Hevelius.</span>
+his untimely death at Marston Moor (1644). The latter
+combination had also been ineffectually proposed in 1634 by Jean
+Baptiste Morin (1583-1656); and both devices were recontrived
+at Paris about 1667, the micrometer by Adrien Auzout (d. 1691),
+telescopic sights (so-called) by Jean Picard (1620-1682), who
+simultaneously introduced the astronomical use of pendulum-clocks,
+constructed by Huygens eleven years previously.
+These improvements were ignored or rejected by Johann
+Hevelius of Danzig, the author of the last important
+star-catalogue based solely upon naked-eye determinations.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
+He, nevertheless, used telescopes to good purpose in his studies
+of lunar topography, and his designations for the chief
+mountain-chains and &ldquo;seas&rdquo; of the moon have never been superseded.
+He, moreover, threw out the suggestion (in his <i>Cometographia</i>,
+1668) that comets move round the sun in orbits of a parabolic form.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment, in 1671 and 1676 respectively, of the
+French and English national observatories at once typified and
+stimulated progress. The Paris institution, it is true,
+<span class="sidenote">The Paris observatory.</span>
+lacked unity of direction. No authoritative chief was
+assigned to it until 1771. G.D. Cassini, his son
+and his grandson were only <i>primi inter pares</i>. Claude
+Perrault&rsquo;s stately edifice was equally accessible to all the more
+eminent members of the Academy of Sciences; and researches
+were, more or less independently, carried on there by (among
+others) Philippe de la Hire (1640-1718), G.F. Maraldi (1665-1729),
+and his nephew, J.D. Maraldi, Jean Picard, Huygens, Olaus
+Römer and Nicolas de Lacaille. Some of the best instruments
+then extant were mounted at the Paris observatory.
+<span class="sidenote">G.D. Cassini</span>
+G.D. Cassini brought from Rome a 17-ft. telescope by
+G. Campani, with which he discovered in 1671 Iapetus,
+the ninth in distance of Saturn&rsquo;s family of satellites;
+Rhea was detected in 1672 with a glass by the same maker of
+34-ft. focus; the duplicity of the ring showed in 1675; and, in
+1684, two additional satellites were disclosed by a Campani
+telescope of 100 ft. Cassini, moreover, set up an altazimuth in
+1678, and employed from about 1682 a &ldquo;parallactic machine,&rdquo;
+provided with clockwork to enable it to follow the diurnal motion.
+Both inventions have been ascribed to Olaus Römer, who used
+<span class="sidenote">Römer.</span>
+but did not claim them, and must have become familiar with
+their principles during the nine years (1672-1681)
+spent by him at the Paris observatory. Römer, on the
+other hand, deserves full credit for originating the transit-circle
+and the prime vertical instrument; and he earned undying
+fame by his discovery of the finite velocity of light, made at Paris
+in 1675 by comparing his observations of the eclipses of Jupiter&rsquo;s
+satellites at the conjunctions and oppositions of the planet.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of the Greenwich observatory differed
+widely from that adopted at Paris. There a fundamental scheme
+of practical amelioration was initiated by John
+Flamsteed, the first astronomer royal, and has never
+<span class="sidenote">Flamsteed.</span>
+since been lost sight of. Its purpose is the attainment of so
+complete a power of prediction that the places of the sun, moon
+and planets may be assigned without noticeable error for an
+indefinite future time. Sidereal inquiries, as such, made no part
+of the original programme in which the stars figured merely as
+points of reference. But these points are not stationary. They
+have an apparent precessional movement, the exact amount
+of which can be arrived at only by prolonged and toilsome
+enquiries. They have besides &ldquo;proper motions,&rdquo; detected in
+1718 by E. Halley in a few cases, and since found to prevail
+universally. Further, James Bradley discovered in 1728 the
+annual shifting of the stars due to the aberration of light (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aberration</a></span>), and in 1748, the complicating effects upon
+precession of the &ldquo;nutation&rdquo; of the earth&rsquo;s axis. Hence, the
+preparation of a catalogue recording the &ldquo;mean&rdquo; positions of
+a number of stars for a given epoch involves considerable
+preliminary labour; nor do those positions long continue to satisfy
+observation. They need, after a time, to be corrected, not only
+systematically for precession, but also empirically for proper
+motion. Before the stars can safely be employed as route-marks
+in the sky, their movements must accordingly be tabulated, and
+research into the method of such movements inevitably follows.
+We perceive then that the fundamental problems of sidereal
+science are closely linked up with the elementary and
+indispensable procedures of celestial measurement.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Greenwich observatory is one of strenuous
+efforts for refinement, stimulated by the growing stringency of
+theoretical necessities. Improved practice, again, reacted upon
+theory by bringing to notice residual errors, demanding the
+correction of formulae, or intimating neglected disturbances.
+Each increase of mechanical skill claims a corresponding gain in
+the subtlety of analysis; and vice versa. And this kind of
+interaction has gone on ever since Flamsteed reluctantly
+furnished the &ldquo;places of the moon,&rdquo; which enabled Newton to
+lay the foundations of lunar theory.</p>
+
+<p>Edmund Halley, the second astronomer royal, devoted most
+<span class="sidenote">Halley.<br />Bradley.</span>
+of his official attention to the moon. But his plan of attack was
+not happily chosen; he carried it out with deficient
+instrumental means; and his administration (1720-1742)
+remained comparatively barren. That of his successor,
+though shorter, was vastly more productive.
+James Bradley chose the most appropriate tasks, and executed
+them supremely well, with the indispensable aid of John
+Bird (1700-1776), who constructed for him an 8-ft. quadrant
+of unsurpassed quality. Bradley&rsquo;s store of observations has
+accordingly proved invaluable. Those of 3222 stars, reduced
+by F.W. Bessel in 1818, and again with masterly insight by
+Dr A. Auwers in 1882, form the true basis of exact astronomy,
+and of our knowledge of proper motions. Those relating to the
+moon and planets, corrected by Sir George Airy, 1840-1846,
+form part of the standard materials for discussing theories of
+<span class="sidenote">Bliss.<br />Maskelyne.</span>
+movement in the solar system. The fourth astronomer royal, Nathaniel Bliss, provided in
+two years a sequel of some value to Bradley&rsquo;s performance.
+Nevil Maskelyne, who succeeded him in 1764, set on foot, in 1767, the
+publication of the <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, and about the same time
+had an achromatic telescope fitted to the Greenwich mural quadrant.
+The invention, perfected by John Dollond in 1757, was long debarred
+from becoming effective by difficulties in the manufacture of glass,
+aggravated in England by a heavy excise duty levied until 1845.
+More immediately efficacious was the innovation made by
+<span class="sidenote">Pond.<br />Airy.</span>
+John Pond (astronomer royal, 1811-1836) of substituting
+entire circles for quadrants. He further introduced,
+in 1821, the method of duplicate observations by direct vision
+and by reflection, and by these means obtained results of very
+high precision. During Sir George Airy&rsquo;s long term of office (1836-1881)
+exact astronomy and the traditional purposes of the royal
+observatory were promoted with increased vigour, while the scope
+of research was at the same time memorably widened.  Magnetic,
+meteorological, and spectroscopic departments were added
+to the establishment; electricity was employed, through the medium
+of the chronograph, for the registration of transits;
+and photography was resorted to for the daily automatic record
+of the sun&rsquo;s condition.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, advances were being made in various parts of the
+<span class="sidenote">Wargentin.<br />Lacaille.</span>
+continent of Europe. Peter Wargentin (1717-1783), secretary
+to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, made a special
+study of the Jovian system. James Bradley had
+described to the Royal Society on the 2nd of July
+1719 the curious cyclical relations of the three inner satellites;
+and their period of 437 days was independently discovered by
+Wargentin, who based upon it in 1746 a set of tables, superseded
+only by those of J.B.J. Delambre in 1792.
+Among the fruits of the strenuous career of Nicolas Louis de Lacaille
+were tables of the sun, in which terms depending upon
+planetary perturbations were, for the first time, introduced (1758);
+an extended acquaintance with the southern heavens;
+and a determination of the moon&rsquo;s parallax from observations
+made at opposite extremities of an arc of the meridian 85°
+<span class="sidenote">Tobias Mayer.</span>
+in length. Tobias Mayer of Göttingen (1723-1762)
+originated the mode of adjusting transit-instruments
+still in vogue; drew up a catalogue of nearly a thousand
+zodiacal stars (published posthumously in 1775); and deduced
+the proper motions of eighty stars from a comparison of their
+places as given by Olaus Romer in 1706 with those obtained by
+himself in 1756. He executed besides a chart and forty drawings
+of the moon (published at Göttingen in 1881), and calculated
+lunar tables from a skilful development of Euler&rsquo;s theory, for
+which a reward of Ł3000 was in 1765 paid to his widow by the
+British government. They were published by the Board of
+Longitude, together with his solar tables, in 1770. The material
+interests of navigation were in these works primarily regarded;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
+but the imaginative side of knowledge had also potent representatives
+<span class="sidenote">Lalande.</span>
+during the latter half of the 18th century.
+In France, especially, the versatile activity of J.J.
+Lalande popularized the acquisitions of astronomy, and enforced
+its demands; and he had a German counterpart in J.E. Bode.</p>
+
+<p>Between the time of Aristarchus and the opposition of Mars
+in 1672, no serious attempt was made to solve the problem of
+the sun&rsquo;s distance. In that year, however, Jean
+Richer at Cayenne and G.D. Cassini at Paris made
+<span class="sidenote">Distance of the sun.</span>
+combined observations of the planet, which yielded
+a parallax for the sun of 9.5&Prime;, corresponding to a mean
+radius for the terrestrial orbit of 87,000,000 m. This result,
+though widely inaccurate, came much nearer to the truth than
+any previously obtained; and it instructively illustrated the
+feasibility of concerted astronomical operations at distant parts
+of the earth. The way was thus prepared for availing to the full
+of the opportunities for a celestial survey offered by the transits
+of Venus in 1761 and 1769. They had been signalized by E. Halley
+in 1716; they were later insisted upon by Lalande; an
+enthusiasm for co-operation was evoked, and the globe, from
+Siberia to Otaheite, was studded with observing parties. The
+outcome, nevertheless, disappointed expectation. The instants
+of contact between the limbs of the sun and planet defied precise
+determination. Optical complications fatally impeded sharpness
+of vision, and the phenomena took place in a debateable borderland
+of uncertainty. J.F. Encke, it is true, derived from them
+in 1822-1824 what seemed an authentic parallax of 8.57&Prime;, implying
+a distance of 95,370,000 m.; but the confidence it inspired was
+finally overthrown in 1854 by P.A. Hansen&rsquo;s announcement
+of its incompatibility with lunar theory. An appeal then lay
+to the 19th century pair of transits in 1874 and 1882; but no
+peremptory decision ensued; observations were marred by the
+same optical evils as before. Their upshot, however, had lost
+its essential importance; for a fresh series of investigations
+based on a variety of principles had already been started.
+Leverrier, in 1858, calculated a value of 8.95&Prime; for the solar
+parallax (equivalent to a distance of 91,000,000 m.) from the
+&ldquo;parallactic inequality&rdquo; of the moon; Professor Newcomb,
+using other forms of the gravitational method, derived in 1895
+a parallax of 8.76&Prime;. Again, since the constant of aberration
+defines the ratio between the velocity of light and the earth&rsquo;s
+orbital speed, the span of the terrestrial circuit, in other words,
+the distance of the sun, is immediately deducible from known
+values of the first two quantities. The rate of light-transmission
+was accordingly made the subject of an elaborate set of
+experiments by Professor Newcomb in 1880-1882; and the result,
+taken in connexion with the aberration-constant as determined
+at Pulkowa, yielded a solar parallax of 8.79&Prime;, or a distance (in
+round numbers) of 93,000,000 m. But the direct or geometrical
+mode of attack has still the preference over any of the indirect
+plans. Sir David Gill derived a highly satisfactory value of
+8.78&Prime; for the long-sought constant from the opposition of Mars
+in 1877, and from combined heliometer observations at five
+observatories in 1888-1889 of the minor planets Iris, Victoria
+and Sappho, the apparently definitive value of 8.80&Prime; (equivalent
+distance, 92,874,000 m.). But an unlooked-for fresh opportunity
+was afforded by the discovery in 1898 of the singularly
+circumstanced minor planet Eros, which occasionally approaches the
+earth more nearly than any other heavenly body except the moon.
+The opposition of November 1900, though only moderately
+favourable, could not be neglected; an international photographic
+campaign was organized at Paris with the aid of 58 observatories;
+and the voluminous collected data imply, so far as they have been
+discussed, a parallax for the sun a little greater than 8.8&Prime;.
+(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parallax</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The first specimen of a reflecting telescope was constructed
+by Isaac Newton in 1668. It was of what is still called
+&ldquo;Newtonian&rdquo; design, and had a speculum 2 in. in
+diameter. Through the skill of John Hadley (1682-1743)
+<span class="sidenote">Reflecting telescopes.<br />William Herschel.</span>
+and James Short of Edinburgh (1710-1768)
+the instrument unfolded, in the ensuing century, some
+of its capabilities, which the labours of William Herschel
+enormously enhanced. Between 1774 and 1789 he built scores of
+specula of continually augmented size, up to a diameter
+of 4 ft., the optical excellence of which approved itself
+by a crowd of discoveries. Uranus (<i>q.v.</i>) was recognized
+by its disk on the 13th of March 1781; two of its satellites,
+Oberon and Titania, disclosed themselves on the 11th of January
+1787; while with the giant 48-in. mirror, used on the &ldquo;front-view&rdquo;
+plan, Mimas and Enceladus, the innermost Saturnian
+moons, were brought to view on the 28th of August and the
+17th of September 1789. These were incidental trophies;
+Herschel&rsquo;s main object was the exploration of the sidereal
+heavens. The task, though novel and formidable, was executed
+with almost incredible success. Charles Messier (1730-1817) had
+catalogued in 1781 103 nebulae; Herschel discovered 2500,
+laid down the lines of their classification, divined the laws of
+their distribution, and assigned their place in a scheme of
+development. The proof supplied by him in 1802 that coupled stars
+mutually circulate threw open a boundless field of research;
+and he originated experimental inquiries into the construction
+of the heavens by systematically collecting and sifting stellar
+statistics. He, moreover, definitively established, in 1783, the
+fact and general direction of the sun&rsquo;s movement in space, and
+thus introduced an element of order into the maze of stellar
+<span class="sidenote">Sir John Herschel.</span>
+proper motions. Sir John Herschel continued in the northern, and extended
+to the southern hemisphere, his father&rsquo;s work. The third earl of Rosse mounted,
+at Parsonstown in 1845, a speculum 6 ft. in diameter, which
+afforded the first indications of the spiral structure shown in
+recent photographs to be the most prevalent characteristic
+<span class="sidenote">Lord Rosse.</span>
+of nebulae. Down to near the close of the 19th century, both the use and the
+improvement of reflectors were left mainly in British hands;
+but the gift of the &ldquo;Crossley&rdquo; instrument in 1895, to the Lick
+observatory, and its splendid subsequent performances in nebular
+photography, brought similar tools of research into extensive use
+among American astronomers; and they are now, for many of the
+various purposes of astrophysics, strongly preferred to refractors.</p>
+
+<p>Acquaintance with the asteroidal family began as the 19th
+<span class="sidenote">Giuseppe Piazzi.<br />Max Wolf.</span>
+century opened. On the 1st of January 1801 Giuseppe Piazzi
+(1746-1826) discovered Ceres, at Palermo, while
+engaged in collecting materials for his star-catalogues.
+A prolonged succession of similar events followed.
+But in the mode of detecting these swarming bodies, a typical
+change was made on the 22nd of December 1891,
+when Dr Max Wolf of Heidelberg photographically
+captured No. 323. Repetitions of the feat are now counted by
+the score.</p>
+
+<p>Practical astronomy was only secondarily concerned with
+<span class="sidenote">Lassell.</span>
+the addition of Neptune, on the 23rd of September 1846, to the
+company of known planets; but William Lassell&rsquo;s
+discovery of its satellite, on the 10th of October
+following, was a consequence of the perfect figure and high polish
+of his 2-ft. speculum. With the same instrument, he further
+detected, on the 19th of September 1848, Hyperion, the seventh
+of Saturn&rsquo;s attendants, and, on the 24th of October 1851, Ariel
+and Umbriel, the interior moons of Uranus.
+Simultaneously with Lassell, on the opposite shore of the
+<span class="sidenote">Bond.</span>
+Atlantic, W.C. Bond identified Hyperion; and he perceived,
+on the 15th of November 1850, Saturn&rsquo;s dusky ring, independently
+observed, a fortnight later, by W.R. Dawes, at Wateringbury
+in Kent. With the Washington 26-in. refractor, on the 11th of August 1877,
+<span class="sidenote">Hall.<br />Barnard.</span>
+Professor Asaph Hall descried the moons of Mars, Deimos and Phobos;
+and a minute light-speck, noticed by Professor E.E. Barnard
+in the close neighbourhood of Jupiter on the 9th of September
+1892, proved representative of a small inner satellite,
+invisible with less perfect and powerful instruments than the
+Lick 36-in. achromatic. The Jovian system has been reinforced
+by three remote and extremely faint members, two
+<span class="sidenote">Perrine.<br />W.H. Pickering.</span>
+photographed by Professor C.D. Perrine with the
+Crossley reflector in 1904-1905, and the third at Greenwich in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
+1908; and a pair of Saturnian moons, designated Phoebe and
+Themis, were tracked out by Professor W.H. Pickering,
+in 1898 and 1905 respectively, amid the thicket
+of stars imprinted on negatives taken at Arequipa with
+the Bruce 24-in. doublet lens. This raises to 26 the number of
+discovered satellites in the solar system.</p>
+
+<p>Cometary science has ramified in unexpected ways during the
+last hundred years. The establishment of a class of
+&ldquo;short-period&rdquo; comets by the computations of J.F. Encke
+in 1819, and of Wilhelm von Biela in 1826, led to the
+<span class="sidenote">Comets.</span>
+theory of their &ldquo;capture&rdquo; by the great planets, for which a
+solid mathematical basis was provided by H. Newton, F.
+Tisserand and O. Callandreau. An argument for the aboriginal
+connexion of comets with the solar system, founded by R.C.
+Carrington in 1860 upon their participation in its translatory
+movement, was more fully developed by L. Fabry in 1893; and
+the close orbital relationships of cometary groups, accentuated
+by the pursuit of each other along nearly the same track by the
+comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882, singularly illustrated the probable
+vicissitudes of their careers. The most remarkable event,
+however, in the recent history of cometary astronomy was its
+<span class="sidenote">Meteors.</span>
+assimilation to that of meteors, which took unquestionable
+cosmical rank as a consequence of the Leonid
+tempest of November 1833. The affinity of the two classes of
+objects became known in 1866 through G.V. Schiaparelli&rsquo;s
+announcement that the orbit of the bright comet of 1862 agreed
+strictly with the elliptic ring formed by the circulating Perseid
+meteors; and three other cases of close coincidence were soon
+afterwards brought to light. Tebbutt&rsquo;s comet in 1881 was the
+first to be satisfactorily photographed. The study of such
+objects is now carried on mainly through the agency of the
+sensitive plate. The photographic registration of meteor-trails,
+too, has been lately attempted with partial success. The full
+realization of the method will doubtless provide adequate data
+for the detailed investigation of meteoric paths.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of science during the 19th century had no more
+distinctive feature than the rapid growth of sidereal astronomy
+<span class="sidenote">Sidereal astronomy.</span>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>). Its scope, wide as the universe, can be
+compassed no otherwise than by statistical means,
+and the collection of materials for this purpose involves
+most arduous preliminary labour. The multitudinous enrolment
+of stars was the first requisite. Only one &ldquo;catalogue of
+precision&rdquo;&mdash;Nevil Maskelyne&rsquo;s of 36 fundamental stars&mdash;was
+available in 1800. J.J. Lalande, however, published in 1801, in his <i>Histoire
+céleste</i>, the approximate places of 47,390 from a re-observation
+<span class="sidenote">Star catalogues.</span>
+of which the great Paris catalogue (1887-1892) has been compiled. A
+valuable catalogue of about 7600 stars was issued by Giuseppe
+Piazzi in 1814; Stephen Groombridge determined 4239 at
+Blackheath in 1806-1816; while through the joint and successive
+work of F.W. Bessel and W.A. Argelander, exact acquaintance
+was made with 90,000, a more general acquaintance with the
+324,000 stars recorded in the <i>Bonn Durchmusterung</i> (1859-1862).
+The southern hemisphere was subsequently reviewed on a similar
+duplicate plan by E. Schönfeld (1828-1891) at Bonn, by B.A.
+Gould and J.M. Thome at Córdoba. Moreover, the imposing
+catalogue set on foot in 1865 at thirteen observatories by the
+German astronomical society has recently been completed; and
+adjuncts to it have, from time to time, been provided in the
+publications of the royal observatories at Greenwich and the
+Cape of Good Hope, and of national, imperial and private
+establishments in the United States and on the continent of
+Europe. But in the execution of these protracted undertakings,
+the human eye has been, to a large and increasing extent,
+superseded by the camera. Photographic star-charting was begun
+by Sir David Gill in 1885, and the third and concluding volume
+of the <i>Cape Photographic Durchmusterung</i> appeared in 1900. It
+gives the co-ordinates of above 450,000 stars, measured by
+Professor J.C. Kapteyn at Groningen on plates taken by C. Ray
+Woods at the Cape observatory. And this comprehensive work
+was merely preparatory to the International Catalogue and
+Chart, the production of which was initiated by the resolutions
+of the Paris Photographic Congress of 1887. Eighteen observatories
+scattered north and south of the equator divided the sky
+among them; and the outcome of their combined operations
+aimed at the production of a catalogue of at least 2,000,000
+strictly determined stars, together with a colossal map in 22,000
+sheets, showing stars to the fourteenth magnitude, in numbers
+difficult to estimate. (Sea <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celestial</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of the stars in space can be usefully discussed
+only in connexion with their apparent light-power, or
+&ldquo;magnitude.&rdquo; Photometric catalogues, accordingly, form
+an indispensable part of stellar statistics; and
+<span class="sidenote">Photometric catalogues.</span>
+their construction has been zealously prosecuted.
+The <i>Harvard Photometry</i> of 4260 lucid stars was
+issued by Professor E.C. Pickering in 1884, the <i>Uranometria
+Nova Oxoniensis</i>, giving the relative lustre of 2784 stars, by
+C. Pritchard in 1885. The instrument used at Harvard was a
+&ldquo;meridian photometer,&rdquo; constructed on the principle of polarization;
+while the &ldquo;method of extinctions,&rdquo; by means of a wedge
+of neutral-tinted glass, served for the Oxford determinations.
+At Potsdam, some 17,000 stars have been measured by C.H.G.
+Müller and P.F.F. Kempf with a polarizing photometer; but
+by far the most comprehensive work of the kind is the Harvard
+<i>Photometric Durchmusterung</i> (1901-1903), embracing all stars
+to 7.5 magnitude, and extended to the southern pole by measurements
+executed at Arequipa. The embarrassing subject of photographic
+photometry has also been attacked by Professor Pickering.
+The need is urgent of fixing a scale, and defining standards
+of actinic brightness; but it has not yet been successfully met.</p>
+
+<p>The investigation of double stars was carried on from 1819
+to 1850 with singular persistence and ability at Dorpat and
+Pulkowa by F.G.W. Struve, and by his son and
+successor, O.W. Struve. The high excellence of the
+<span class="sidenote">Double stars.</span>
+data collected by them was a combined result of their
+skill, and of the vast improvement in refracting telescopes
+due to the genius of Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826). Among
+the inheritors of his renown were Alvan Clark and Alvan G.
+Clark of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts; and the superb definition
+of their great achromatics rendered practicable the division
+of what might have been deemed impossibly close star-pairs.
+These facilities were remarkably illustrated by Professor S.W.
+Burnham&rsquo;s record of discovery, which roused fresh enthusiasm
+for this line of inquiry by compelling recognition of the
+extraordinary profusion throughout the heavens of compound objects.
+Discoveries with the spectroscope have ratified and extended
+this conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>Only spurious star-parallaxes had claimed the attention of
+astronomers until F.W. Bessel announced, in December 1838,
+the perspective yearly shifting of 61 Cygni in an ellipse
+with a mean radius of about one-third of a second.
+<span class="sidenote">Stellar parallax.</span>
+Thomas Henderson (1798-1844) had indeed measured
+the larger displacements of &alpha; Centauri at the Cape
+in 1832-1833, but delayed until 1839 to publish his result. Out of
+several hundred stars since then examined, seventy or eighty have
+yielded fairly accurate, though very small parallaxes. But this
+amount of knowledge, however valuable in itself, is utterly
+inadequate to the needs of sidereal research; and various
+attempts have accordingly been made, chiefly by Professors
+J.C. Kapteyn and Simon Newcomb, to estimate, through the
+analysis of their proper motions, the &ldquo;mean parallax&rdquo; of stars
+assorted by magnitude. And the data thus arrived at are
+reassuringly self-consistent. A wide photographic survey, by
+which parallaxes might be secured wholesale, has further been
+recommended by Kapteyn; but is unlikely to be undertaken
+in the immediate future.</p>
+
+<p>The exhaustive ascertainment of stellar parallaxes, combined
+with the visible facts of stellar distribution, would enable us
+to build a perfect plan of the universe in three dimensions.
+Its perfection would, nevertheless, be undermined
+<span class="sidenote">Proper motions.</span>
+by the mobility of all its constituent parts.
+Their configuration at a given instant supplies no information
+as to their configuration hereafter unless the mode and laws of
+their movements have been determined. Hence, one of the leading
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
+inducements to the construction of exact and comprehensive
+catalogues has been to elicit, by comparisons of those for widely
+separated epochs, the proper motions of the stars enumerated
+in them. Little was known on the subject at the beginning of the
+19th century. William Herschel founded his determination in
+1783 of the sun&rsquo;s route in space upon the movements of thirteen
+stars; and he took into account those of only six in his second
+solution of the problem in 1805. But in 1837 Argelander
+employed 390 proper motions as materials for the treatment of
+the same subject; and L. Struve had at his disposal, in 1887,
+no less than 2800. From the re-observation of Lalande&rsquo;s stars,
+after the lapse of not far from a century, J. Bossert was enabled
+to deduce 2675 proper motions, published at Paris in four
+successive memoirs, 1887-1902; and the sum-total of those
+ascertained probably now exceeds 6000. Yet this number,
+although it represents a portentous expenditure of labour, is
+insignificant compared with the multitude of the stellar throng;
+nor had any general tendency been discerned to regulate what
+seemed casual flittings until Professor Kapteyn, in 1904, adverted
+to the prevalence among all the brighter stars of opposite
+stream-flows towards two &ldquo;vertices&rdquo; situated in the Milky Way (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>). The assured general fact as regards the direction of stellar
+movements was that they included a common parallactic element
+due to the sun&rsquo;s translation. And it is by the consideration
+of this partial accordance in motion that the advance through
+space of the solar system has been ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>The apex of the sun&rsquo;s way was fixed by Professor Newcomb
+in 1898 at a point about 4° S. of the brilliant star Vega; but
+was shifted nearly 7° to the S.W. by J.C. Kapteyn&rsquo;s inquiry
+in 1901; so that the range of uncertainty as to its position
+continues unsatisfactorily wide. The speed with which our
+system progresses is, on the other hand, fairly well known.
+It cannot differ much from 12˝ m. a second, the rate assigned
+to it by Professor W.W. Campbell in 1902. He employed in
+his discussion the radial velocities of 280 stars, spectroscopically
+<span class="sidenote">Astrophysics.</span>
+determined; and the upshot signally exemplified the community
+of interests between the rising science of astrophysics and the
+ancient science of astrometry. Their characteristic
+purposes are, nevertheless, entirely different. The
+positions of the heavenly bodies in space, and the
+changes of those positions with time, constitute the primary
+subject of investigation by the elder school; while the new
+<span class="sidenote">Spectrum analysis.</span>
+astronomy concerns itself chiefly with the individual
+peculiarities of suns and planets, with their chemistry,
+physical habitudes and modes of luminosity.
+Its distinctive method is spectrum analysis, the invention and
+development of which in the 19th century have fundamentally
+altered the purpose and prospects of celestial inquiries.</p>
+
+<p>A beam of sunlight admitted into a darkened room through
+a narrow aperture, and there dispersed into a vario-tinted band
+by the interposition of a prism, is not absolutely
+<span class="sidenote">Wollaston.<br />Fraunhofer.</span>
+continuous. Dr W.H. Wollaston made the experiment
+in 1802, and perceived the spaces of colour to be interrupted
+by seven obscure gaps, which took the shape of lines owing to
+his use of rectangular slit. He thus caught a preliminary glimpse of the &ldquo;Fraunhofer lines,&rdquo;
+so called because Joseph Fraunhofer brought them into prominent
+notice by the diligence and insight of his labours upon
+them in 1814-1815. He mapped 324, chose out nine, which he
+designated by the letters of the alphabet, to be standards of
+measurement for the rest, and ascertained the coincidence in
+position between the double yellow ray derived from the flame
+of burning sodium and the pair of dark lines named by him &ldquo;D&rdquo;
+in the solar spectrum. There ensued forty-five years of groping
+for a law which should clear up the enigma of the solar reversals.
+Partial anticipations abounded. The vital heart of the matter
+was barely missed by W.A. Miller in 1845, by L. Foucault in
+1849, by A.J. Ĺngström in 1853, by Balfour Stewart in 1858;
+while Sir George Stokes held the solution of the problem in the
+<span class="sidenote">Kirchhoff.</span>
+hollow of his hand from 1852 onward.
+But it was the synthetic genius of Gustav Kirchhoff which first gave
+unity to the scattered phenomena, and finally reconciled what was
+elicited in the laboratory with what was observed in the sun.
+On the 15th of December 1859 he communicated to the Berlin
+Academy of Sciences the principle which bears his name. Its
+purport is that glowing vapours similarly circumstanced absorb
+the identical radiations which they emit. That is to say, they
+stop out just those sections of white light transmitted through
+them which form their own special luminous badges. Moreover,
+if the white light come from a source at a higher temperature
+than theirs, the sections, or lines, absorbed by them show dark
+against a continuous background. And this is precisely the
+case with the sun. Kirchhoff&rsquo;s principle, accordingly, not only
+afforded a simple explanation of the Fraunhofer lines, but
+availed to found a far-reaching science of celestial chemistry.
+<span class="sidenote">Chemistry of the sun.</span>
+Thousands of the dark lines in the solar spectrum
+agree absolutely in wave-length with the bright rays
+artificially obtained from known substances, and
+appertaining to them individually. These substances
+must then exist near the sun. They are in fact suspended in a
+state of vapour between our eyes and the photosphere, the
+dazzling prismatic radiance of which they, to a minute extent,
+intercept, thus writing their signatures on the coloured scroll
+of dispersed sunshine. By persistent research, powerfully aided
+by the photographic camera and by the concave gratings invented
+by H.A. Rowland (1848-1901) in 1882, about forty terrestrial
+elements have been identified in the sun. Among them, iron,
+sodium, magnesium, calcium and hydrogen are conspicuous;
+but it would be rash to assert that any of the seventy forms
+of matter provisionally enumerated in text-books are wholly
+absent from his composition.</p>
+
+<p>Solar physics has profited enormously by the abolition of
+glare during total eclipses. That of the 8th of July 1842 was
+the first to be efficiently observed; and the luminous
+appendages to the sun disclosed by it were such as
+<span class="sidenote">Solar eclipses.</span>
+to excite startled attention. Their investigation has
+since been diligently prosecuted. The corona was photographed
+at Königsberg during the totality of the 28th of July 1851;
+similar records of the red prominences, successively obtained
+by Father Angelo Secchi and Warren de la Rue, as the shadow-track
+crossed Spain on the 18th of July 1860, finally demonstrated
+their solar status. The Indian eclipse of the 18th of August
+1868 supplied knowledge of their spectrum, found to include
+the yellow ray of an exotic gas named by Sir Norman Lockyer
+&ldquo;helium.&rdquo; It further suggested, to Lockyer and P. Janssen
+separately, the spectroscopic method of observing these objects
+in daylight. Under cover of an eclipse visible in North America
+on the 7th of August 1869, the bright green line of the corona
+was discerned; and Professor C.A. Young caught the &ldquo;flash
+spectrum&rdquo; of the reversing layer, at the moment of second
+contact, at Xerez de la Frontera in Spain, on the 22nd of December
+1870. This significant but evanescent phenomenon, which
+represents the direct emissions of a low-lying solar envelope,
+was photographed by William Shackleton on the occasion of an
+eclipse in Novaya Zemlya on the 9th of August 1896; and it
+has since been abundantly registered by exposures made during
+the obscurations of 1898, 1900, 1901 and 1905. A singular and
+unlooked-for result of eclipse-work has been to include the
+corona within the scope of solar periodicity. Heinrich Schwabe
+established, in 1851, the cyclical variation, in eleven years, of
+spot-frequency; terrestrial magnetic disturbances manifestly
+obeyed the same law; and the peculiar winged aspect of the
+corona disclosed by the eclipse of the 29th of July 1878, at an
+epoch of minimum sun-spots, intimated to A.C. Ranyard a
+theory of coronal types, changing concurrently with the
+fluctuations of spot-activity. This was amply verified at
+subsequent eclipses.</p>
+
+<p>The photography of prominences was, after some preliminary
+trials by C.A. Young and others, fully realized in 1891 by
+Professor George E. Hale at Chicago, and independently
+by Henri Deslandres at Paris. The pictures were
+<span class="sidenote">Prominence photography.</span>
+taken, in both cases, with only one quality of light;
+the violet ray of calcium, the remaining superfluous
+beams being eliminated by the agency of a double slit. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
+last-named expedient had been described by Janssen in 1867.
+Hale devised on the same principle the &ldquo;spectroheliograph,&rdquo;
+an instrument by which the sun&rsquo;s disk can be photographed in
+calcium-light by imparting a rapid movement to its image
+relatively to the sensitive plate; and the method has proved
+in many ways fruitful.</p>
+
+<p>The likeness of the sun to the stars has been shown by the
+spectroscope to be profound and inherent. Yet the general
+agreement of solar and stellar chemistry does not
+exclude important diversities of detail. Fraunhofer
+<span class="sidenote">Stellar spectroscopy.</span>
+was the pioneer in this branch. He observed, in 1823,
+dark lines in stellar spectra which Kirchhoff&rsquo;s discovery
+supplied the means of interpreting. The task, attempted by
+G.B. Donati in 1860, was effectively taken in hand, two years
+later, by Angelo Secchi, William Huggins and Lewis M. Rutherfurd.
+There ensued a general classification of the stars by Secchi
+into four leading types, distinguished by diversities of spectral
+pattern; and the recognition by Huggins of a considerable
+number of terrestrial elements as present in stellar atmospheres.
+Nebular chemistry was initiated by the same investigator when,
+on the 29th of August 1864, he observed the bright-line spectrum
+of a planetary nebula in Draco. About seventy analogous
+objects, including that in the Sword of Orion, were found by him
+to give light of the same quality; and thus after seventy-three
+years, verification was brought to William Herschel&rsquo;s hypothesis
+of a &ldquo;shining fluid&rdquo; diffused through space, the possible raw
+material of stars. In 1874, Dr H.C. Vogel published a modification
+of Secchi&rsquo;s scheme of stellar diversities, and gave it organic
+meaning by connecting spectral differences with advance in
+&ldquo;age.&rdquo; And in 1895, he set apart, as in the earliest stage of
+growth, a new class of &ldquo;helium stars,&rdquo; supposed to develop
+successively into Sirian, solar, Antarian, or alternatively into
+carbon stars.</p>
+
+<p>On the 5th of August 1864, G.B. Donati analysed the light of
+a small comet into three bright bands. Sir William Huggins
+repeated the experiment on Winnecke&rsquo;s comet in 1868,
+obtained the same bands, and traced them to their
+<span class="sidenote">Spectra of comets.</span>
+origin from glowing carbon-vapour. A photograph of
+the spectrum of Tebbutt&rsquo;s comet, taken by him on the 24th
+of June 1881, showed radiations of shorter wave-lengths but
+identical source, and in addition, a percentage of reflected solar
+light marked as such by the presence of some well-known
+Fraunhofer lines. Further experience has generalized these
+earlier results. The rule that comets yield carbon-spectra has
+scarcely any exceptions. The usual bands were, however,
+temporarily effaced in the two brilliant apparitions of 1882 by
+vivid rays of sodium and iron, emitted during the excitement of
+perihelion-passage.</p>
+
+<p>The adoption, by Sir William Huggins in 1876, of gelatine or
+dry plates in celestial photography was a change of decisive
+import. For it made long exposures possible; and
+only with long exposures could autographic impressions
+<span class="sidenote">Progress in spectrography.</span>
+be secured of such faint objects as nebulae, telescopic
+comets, and the immense majority of stars, or
+of the dim ranges of stellar and nebular spectra. The first
+conspicuous triumph of the new &ldquo;spectrographic&rdquo; art thus
+established was the record by Huggins in 1879 of the dispersed
+light of several &ldquo;white&rdquo; or Sirian stars, in which the chief traits
+of absorption were the rhythmical series of hydrogen-lines, then
+memorably discovered. Again by Sir William Huggins, the
+spectrum of the Orion nebula was photographed on the 7th of
+March 1882; and the method has gradually become nearly
+exclusive in the study of nebular emanations. The &ldquo;Draper
+Catalogue&rdquo; of 10,351 stellar spectra was published by Professor
+E.C. Pickering in 1890. The materials for it were rapidly
+accumulated by the use of an objective prism, that is, of a prism
+placed in front of, instead of behind the object-lens, by which
+means the spectra of all the stars in the field, to the number often
+of many score, imprinted themselves simultaneously on the
+sensitive plate. The progress of this survey was marked by a
+number of important discoveries of &ldquo;new&rdquo; and variable stars
+and of spectroscopic binaries, mainly through the acumen of
+Mrs Williamina Paton Fleming of Harvard College in scrutinizing
+the negatives forming the data for the great catalogue.</p>
+
+<p>The principle that the refrangibility of light is altered by end-on
+motion was enunciated by Christian Doppler of Prague in 1842.
+The pitch of a steam-whistle quite obviously rises and
+falls as the engine to which it is attached approaches
+<span class="sidenote">Doppler&rsquo;s principle.</span>
+and recedes from a stationary auditor; and light-pulses
+are modified like sound-waves by velocity in the line of
+sight. They are crowded together and therefore rendered shorter
+and more frequent by the advance of their source, but drawn
+apart and lengthened by its recession. These effects vary with
+the rate of motion, which they consequently serve to measure;
+and they are produced indifferently by movements of the
+spectator or of the light-source. But Doppler&rsquo;s idea that they
+might be detected by colour-change was entirely illusory. It
+would apply only if the spectrum had no infra-red and ultraviolet
+extensions. These, however, since they share the general
+lengthening or shortening of wave-length through motion, are
+thereby shifted, to a certain definite extent, into visibility, and
+so produce accurate chromatic compensation. Integrated light,
+accordingly, tells nothing about velocity; but analysed light
+does, when it includes bright or dark rays the normal positions of
+which are known. The distinction was pointed out by Hippolyte
+Fizeau in 1848. By comparison with their analogues in the
+laboratory it can be determined whether, in which direction, and
+how much, lines of recognized origin are displaced in the spectra
+of the heavenly bodies. This subtle mode of research was made
+available by Sir William Huggins in 1868. He employed it, with
+an outcome of striking promise, to measure the radial speed of
+some of the brighter stars. In the following year, Sir Norman
+Lockyer was enabled to prove, by its means, the extraordinary
+vehemence of chromospheric disturbances, the bright prominence-rays
+in his spectroscope betraying, through their opposite shiftings,
+movements and counter-movements up to 120 m. a second;
+while its validity and refinement were, in 1871, vouched for by
+H.C. Vogel&rsquo;s observations on the 9th of June 1871, of differences
+due to the sun&rsquo;s rotation in the refrangibility of Fraunhofer lines
+derived respectively from the east and west limbs. Stellar
+line-of-sight work, however, made no satisfactory progress until, in
+1888, Vogel changed the <i>venue</i> from the eye to the camera. A
+high degree of precision in measurement thus became attainable,
+and has since been fully attained. Not only the grosser facts
+concerning radial velocity, but variations in it so small as a mile,
+or less, per second, have been recorded and interpreted in terms
+of deep meaning. For the investigation of the general scheme
+of sidereal structure, the multiplication of results of the kind is
+indispensable. But as yet, the recessional or approaching movements
+of only a few hundred stars have been registered; and this
+store of information is scanty indeed compared with the needs of
+research. How the stars really move in space, and how the sun
+travels among them, can be ascertained only with the aid of
+materials collected by the spectrograph, which has now
+fortunately been brought to comply with the arduous conditions of
+exactitude requisite for collaboration with the transit instrument
+and its allies, the clock and chronograph. And here, to their
+great mutual advantage, the old and the new astronomies meet
+and join forces.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;R. Grant, <i>History of Physical Astronomy</i> (1852);
+Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>An Historical Survey of the Astronomy of
+the Ancients</i> (1862);
+J.B.J. Delambre,
+<i>Hist. de l&rsquo;astr. ancienne</i>;
+<i>Hist. de l&rsquo;astr. au moyen âge</i>;
+<i>Hist. de l&rsquo;astr. moderne</i>;
+<i>Hist, de l&rsquo;astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> sičcle</i>;
+J.S. Bailly, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;astronomie</i> (5 vols., 1775-1787);
+J.F. Weidler, <i>Historia Astronomiae</i> (1741);
+J.H. Mädler, <i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i> (1873);
+R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i> (1876);
+<i>Handbuch der Astronomie</i> (1890-1892);
+W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>;
+A.M. Clerke, <i>Hist. of Astronomy during the 19th Century</i> (4th ed., 1903);
+A. Berry, <i>Hist. of Astronomy</i> (1898);
+J.K. Schaubach,
+<i>Geschichte der griechischen Astronomie bis auf Eratosthenes</i> (1802);
+Th. H. Martin, &ldquo;Mémoire sur l&rsquo;histoire des hypotheses astronomiques,&rdquo;
+<i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;lnstitut</i>, t. xxx. (Paris, 1881);
+P. Tannery, <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;histoire de l&rsquo;astronomie ancienne</i> (1893);
+O. Gruppe, <i>Die kosmischen Systeme der Griechen</i> (1851);
+G.V. Schiaparelli, <i>I Precursori del Copernico</i> (1873);
+<i>Le Sfere Omocentriche di Eudosso</i> (1875);
+P. Jensen, <i>Kosmologie der Babylonier</i> (1890);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
+F.X. Kugler, <i>Die babylonische Mondrechnung</i> (1900);
+J. Epping and J.N. Strassmeier, <i>Astronomisches aus Babylon</i> (1889);
+F.K. Ginzel, <i>Die astronomischen Kenntnisse der Babylonier</i> (1901);
+C.L. Ideler, <i>Historische Untersuchungen über die astronomischen
+Beobachtungen der Alten</i> (1806);
+<i>Handbuch der math. Chronologie</i> (2 vols., 1825-1826);
+<i>Untersuchungen über den Ursprung der Sternnamen</i> (1809);
+G. Costard, <i>History of Astronomy</i> (1767);
+J. Narrien,
+<i>An Historical Account of the Origin and Progress of Astronomy</i> (1833);
+J.L.E. Dreyer, <i>Hist. of the Planetary Systems</i> (1906);
+G.W. Hill, &ldquo;Progress of Celestial Mechanics,&rdquo; <i>The Observatory</i>,
+vol. xix. (1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>The Observatory</i>, Nos. 231-234, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Observations of Comets</i>, translated
+from the Chinese <i>Annals</i> by John Williams, F.S.A. (1871).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> J.L.E. Dreyer,
+<i>Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.</i> vol. iii. No. 7 (December 1881).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> F.K. Ginzel, &ldquo;Die astronomischen Kenntnisse
+der Babylonier,&rdquo; C.F. Lehmann, <i>Beiträge zur alten Geschichte</i>,
+Heft i. p. 6 (1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Knowledge and Scientific News</i>, vol. i. pp. 2, 228.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6l" id="ft6l" href="#fa6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Astronomisches aus Babylon</i> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1889).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7l" id="ft7l" href="#fa7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Ginzel, loc. cit. Heft ii. p. 204.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8l" id="ft8l" href="#fa8l"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Die babylonische Mondrechnung</i>, p. 50 (1900).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9l" id="ft9l" href="#fa9l"><span class="fn">9</span></a> S. Newcomb, <i>Astr. Nach.</i> No. 3682;
+P.H. Cowell, <i>Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc.</i> lxv. 867.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10l" id="ft10l" href="#fa10l"><span class="fn">10</span></a> G.V. Schiaparelli, <i>I Precursori del Copernico</i>, pp. 23-28,
+Pubbl. del R. Osservatorio di Brera, No. iii. (1873).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11l" id="ft11l" href="#fa11l"><span class="fn">11</span></a> G.V. Schiaparelli, <i>I Precursori del Copernico</i>,
+pp. 23-28, Pubbl. del R. Osservatorio di Brera, No. ix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12l" id="ft12l" href="#fa12l"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Marie. <i>Hist. des sciences</i>, t. i. p. 79;
+P. Tannery, <i>Hist. de l&rsquo;astronomie ancienne</i>, ch. v. p. 115.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13l" id="ft13l" href="#fa13l"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Published by H.C. Schjellerup in a French translation
+(St Petersburg, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14l" id="ft14l" href="#fa14l"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Newcomb, <i>Researches on the Motion of the Moon</i>,
+Washington Observations for 1875, Appendix ii. p. 20.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15l" id="ft15l" href="#fa15l"><span class="fn">15</span></a> F. Baily, <i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, vol. xiii. p. 19.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16l" id="ft16l" href="#fa16l"><span class="fn">16</span></a> J.L.E. Dreyer, <i>Life of Tycho Brahe</i>, p. 321.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTROPALIA<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (classical <i>Astypalaea</i>), an island, with good
+harbours, in the south part of the Aegean, situated in 36.5° N.
+and immediately west of 26.5° E. It was colonized by Megara,
+and its constitution and buildings are known from numerous
+inscriptions. The Roman emperors recognized it as a free state,
+and in the middle ages it was called <i>Stampalia</i>, and belonged to
+the noble Venetian family of Quirini. It was taken by the Turks
+in the 16th century, and is now noted for its sponges. The
+customs and dress of the people, who speak a patois of romaic
+origin, are interesting.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTROPHYSICS,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> the branch of astronomical science which
+treats of the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies. So
+long as these bodies could be known to men only as points or
+disks of light in the sky, no such science was possible. Even
+later, when the telescope was the only instrument of research,
+knowledge on this subject was confined to the appearances
+presented by the planets, supplemented by more or less probable
+inferences as to the nature of their surfaces. When, in the third
+quarter of the 19th century, spectrum analysis was applied to
+the light coming to us from the heavenly bodies, a new era in
+astronomical science was opened up of such importance that the
+body of knowledge revealed by this method has sometimes been
+termed the &ldquo;new astronomy.&rdquo; The development of the method
+has been greatly assisted by photography, while the application
+of photometric measurements has been a powerful auxiliary in
+the work. It has thus come about that astrophysics owes its
+recent development, and its recognition as a distinct branch of
+astronomical science, to the combination of the processes involved
+in the three arts of spectroscopy, photography and photometry.
+The most general conclusions reached by this combination may
+be summed up as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The heavenly bodies are composed of like matter with that
+which we find to make up our globe. The sun and stars are
+found to contain the more important elements with which
+chemistry has made us acquainted. Iron, calcium and hydrogen
+may be especially mentioned as three familiar chemical elements
+which enter largely into the constitution of all the matter of the
+heavens. It would be going too far to say that all the elements
+known to us exist in the sun or the stars; nor is the question
+whether the rarer ones can or cannot be found there of prime
+importance. The general fact of identity in the main constituents
+is the one of most fundamental importance. It would be going
+too far in the other direction to claim that all the elements
+which compose the heavenly bodies are found on the earth.
+There are many lines in the spectra of the stars, as well as of
+the nebulae, which are not certainly identified with those belonging
+to any elements known to our chemistry. The recent discoveries
+growing out of the investigation of newly discovered
+forms of radiation lead to the conclusion that the question of
+the forms of matter in the stars has far wider range than the
+simple question whether any given element is or is not found
+outside our earth. The question is rather that of the infinity
+of forms that matter may assume, including that most attenuated
+form found in the nebulae, which seem to be composed of matter
+more refined than even the atoms supposed to make up the matter
+around us.</p>
+
+<p>2. The second conclusion is that, as a general rule, the
+incandescent heavenly bodies are not masses of solid or liquid
+matter as formerly assumed, but mainly masses either of gas,
+or of substances gaseous in their nature, so compressed by the
+gravitation of their superincumbent parts toward a common
+centre that their properties combine those of the three forms of
+matter known to us. We have strong reason to believe that
+even the sun, though much denser than the general average of
+the stars, may possibly be characterized as gaseous rather than
+solid. Probabilities also seem to favour the view that this may,
+to a certain extent, be true of the four great planets of our
+system. The case of bodies like our earth and Mars, which are
+solid either superficially or throughout, is probably confined to
+the smaller bodies of the universe.</p>
+
+<p>3. A third characteristic which seems to belong to the great
+bodies of the universe is the very high temperature of their
+interior. With a modification to be mentioned presently, we
+may regard them as intensely hot bodies, probably at a temperature
+higher than any we can produce by artificial means, of which
+the superficial portions have cooled off by radiation into space.
+A modification in this proposition which may hereafter be
+accepted involves an extension of our ideas of temperature, and
+leads us to regard the interior heat of the heavenly bodies as due
+to a form of molecular activity similar to that of which radium
+affords so remarkable an instance. This modification certainly
+avoids many difficulties connected with the question of the
+interior heat of the earth, sun, Jupiter and probably all the
+larger heavenly bodies.</p>
+
+<p>A limit is placed on our knowledge of astrophysics which, up
+to the present time, we have found no means of overstepping.
+This is imposed upon us by the fact that it is only when matter
+is in a gaseous form that the spectroscope can give us certain
+knowledge as to its physical condition. So long as bodies are
+in the solid state the light which they emit, though different in
+different substances, has no characteristic so precisely marked
+that detailed conclusions can be drawn as to the nature of the
+substance emitting it. Even in a liquid form, the spectrum of
+any kind of matter is less characteristic than that of gas. Moreover,
+a gaseous body of uniform temperature, and so dense as
+to be non-transparent, does not radiate the characteristic
+spectrum of the gas of which it is composed. Precise conclusions
+are possible only when a gaseous body is transparent through
+and through, so that the gas emits its characteristic rays&mdash;or
+when the rays from an incandescent body of any kind pass
+through a gaseous envelope at a temperature lower than that of
+the body itself. In this case the revelations of the spectroscope
+relate only to the constitution of the gaseous envelope, and not
+to the body below the envelope, from which the light emanates.
+The outcome of this drawback is that our knowledge of the
+chemical constitution of the stars and planets is still confined
+to their atmospheres, and that conclusions as to the constitution
+of the interior masses which form them must be drawn by other
+methods than the spectroscopic one.</p>
+
+<p>When the spectroscope was first applied in astronomy, it was
+hoped that the light reflected from living matter might be found
+to possess some property different from that found in light
+reflected from non-living matter, and that we might thus detect
+the presence of life on the surface of a planet by a study of its
+spectrum; but no hope of this kind has so far been realized.</p>
+
+<p>We have, in this brief view of the subject, referred mainly to
+the results of spectrum analysis. Growing out of, but beyond
+this method is the beginning of a great branch of research which
+may ultimately explain many heretofore enigmatical phenomena
+of nature. The discovery of radio-activity may, by explaining
+the interior heat of the great bodies of the universe, solve a
+difficulty which since the middle of the 19th century has been
+discussed by physicists and geologists&mdash;that of reconciling the
+long duration which geologists claim for the crust of the earth
+with the period during which physicists have deemed it possible
+that the sun should have radiated heat. Evidence is also
+accumulating to show that the sun and stars are radio-active
+bodies, and that emanations proceeding from the sun, and
+reaching the earth, have important relations to the phenomena
+of Terrestrial Magnetism and the Aurora.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of Astrophysics does not admit of so definite a
+subdivision as that of Astrometry. The conclusions which researches
+relating to it have so far reached are treated in the articles
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sun</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comet</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nebula</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aurora Polaris</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+<div class="author">(S. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTRUC, JEAN<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1684-1766), French physician and Biblical
+critic, was born on the 19th of March 1684 at Sauve, in Languedoc.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span>
+He graduated in medicine at Montpellier in 1703, and in 1710
+he was appointed to the chair of anatomy at Toulouse, which
+he retained till 1717, when he became professor of medicine
+at Montpellier. Subsequently he was appointed successively
+superintendent of the mineral waters of Languedoc (1721), first
+physician to the king of Poland (1729), and regius professor
+of medicine at Paris (1731). He died on the 5th of May 1766
+at Paris. Of his numerous works, that on which his fame
+principally rests is the treatise entitled <i>De Morbis Venereis libri
+sex</i>, 1736. In addition to other medical works he published
+anonymously <i>Conjectures sur les mémoires originaux dont il
+parait que Moyse s&rsquo;est servi pour composer le livre de la Genčse</i>,
+(1753), in which he pointed out that two main sources can be
+traced in the book of Genesis; and two dissertations on the
+immateriality and immortality of the soul, 1755.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hauck, <i>Realencyk. f. prot. Theol.</i>, 1897, vol. ii. pp. 162-170.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTURA,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> formerly an island, now a peninsula, on the coast
+of Latium, Italy, 7 m. S.E. of Antium, at the S.E. extremity
+of the Bay of Antium. The name also belongs to the river which
+flowed into the sea immediately to the S.E., at the mouth of
+which there was, according to Strabo, an anchorage. The
+medieval castle of the Frangipani, in which Conradin of Swabia
+vainly sought refuge after the battle of Tagliacozza in 1268,
+is built upon the foundations of a very large villa, of <i>opus reticulatum</i>
+with later additions in brickwork, and with a small
+harbour attached to it on the south-east. Remains of buildings
+also exist behind the sand dunes, which possibly mark the line
+of the channel which separated the island from the mainland,
+and these may have belonged to the post-station on the Via
+Severiana. As far as can be seen at present, there are remains
+of only one villa on the island itself;<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but along the coast a mile
+to the north-west a line of villas begins, which continues as far
+as Antium. To the south-east, on the other hand, remains are
+almost entirely absent, and this portion of the coast seems to
+have been as sparsely populated in Roman times as it is now.
+The island seems to have existed as such in the time of Pope
+Honorius III. Astura was the site of a favourite villa of Cicero,
+whither he retired on the death of his daughter Tullia in 453 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+It appears to have been unhealthy even in Roman times; according
+to Suetonius, both Augustus and Tiberius contracted here
+the illnesses which proved fatal to them.</p>
+
+<p>See T. Ashby, in <i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;École Française de Rome</i> (1905),
+p. 207.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Servius, in speaking of it as <i>oppidum</i>, must be referring to the
+post-station.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTURIAS,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> an ancient province and principality of northern
+Spain, bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Old
+Castile, S. by Leon and W. by Galicia. Pop. (1900) 627,069;
+area, 4205 sq. m. By the division of Spain in 1833, the province
+took the name of Oviedo, though not to the exclusion, in
+ordinary usage, of the older designation. A full description of
+its modern condition is therefore given under the heading
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oviedo</a></span>; the present article being confined to an account of
+its physical features, its history, and the resultant character
+of its inhabitants. Asturias consists of a portion of the northern
+slope of the Cantabrian Mountains, and is covered in all directions
+with offshoots from the main chain, by which it is almost completely
+shut in on the south. The higher summits, which often
+reach a height of 7000-8000 ft., are usually covered with snow
+until July or August, and the whole region is one of the wildest
+and most picturesque parts of Spain. Until the first railway was
+opened, in the middle of the 19th century, few of the passes
+across the mountains were practicable for carriages, and most
+of them are difficult even for horses. A narrow strip of level
+moorland, covered with furze and rich in deposits of peat, coal
+and amber, stretches inland, from the edge of the sheer cliffs
+which line the coast, to the foot of the mountains. The province
+is watered by numerous streams and rivers, which have hollowed
+out deep valleys; but owing to the narrowness of the level
+tract, their courses are short, rapid and subject to floods. The
+most important is the Nalon or Pravia, which receives the waters
+of the Caudal, the Trubia and the Narcea, and has a course
+of 62 m.; after it rank the Navia and the Sella. The estuaries
+of these rivers are rarely navigable, and along the entire littoral,
+a distance of 130 m., the only important harbours are at Gijón
+and Avilés.</p>
+
+<p>A country so rugged, and so isolated by land and sea, naturally
+served as the last refuge of the older races of Spain when hard
+pressed by successive invaders. Before the Roman conquest,
+the Iberian tribe of Astures had been able to maintain itself
+independent of the Carthaginians, and to extend its territory
+as far south as the Douro. It was famous for its wealth in horses
+and gold. About 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the Romans subjugated the district
+south of the Cantabrians, to which they gave the name of
+Augustana. Their capital was Asturica Augusta, the modern
+Astorga, in Leon. The warlike mountaineers of the northern
+districts, known as Transmontana, never altogether abandoned
+their hostility to the Romans, whose rule was ended by the
+Visigothic conquest, late in the 5th century. In 713, two years
+after the defeat and death of Roderick, the last Visigothic king,
+all Spain, except Galicia and Asturias, fell into the hands of the
+Moors. One of the surviving Christian leaders, Pelayo the Goth,
+took refuge with three hundred followers in the celebrated cave
+of Covadonga, or Cobadonga, near Cangas de Onís, and from this
+hiding-place undertook the Christian reconquest of Spain. The
+Asturians chose him as their king in 718, and although Galicia
+was lost in 734, the Moors proved unable to penetrate into the
+remoter fastnesses held by the levies of Pelayo. After his death
+in 737, the Asturians continued to offer the same heroic resistance,
+and ultimately enabled the people of Galicia, Leon and Castile to
+recover their liberty. The title of prince of Asturias, conferred
+on the heir-apparent to the crown of Spain, dates from 1388,
+when it was first bestowed on a Castilian prince. The title of
+count of Covadonga is assumed by the kings of Spain. In modern
+times Asturias formed a captaincy-general, divided into Asturias
+d&rsquo;Oviedo, which corresponds with the limits of the ancient principality,
+and Asturias de Santillana, which now constitutes the
+western half of Santander.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to their almost entire immunity from any alien domination
+except that of the Romans and Goths, the Asturians may
+perhaps be regarded as the purest representatives of the Iberian
+race; while their dialect (<i>linguaje bable</i>) is sometimes held to be
+closely akin to the parent speech from which modern Castilian is
+derived. It is free from Moorish idioms, and, like Galician and
+Portuguese it often retains the original Latin <i>f</i> which Castilian
+changes into <i>h</i>. In physique, the Asturians are like the Galicians,
+a people of hardy mountaineers and fishermen, finely built, but
+rarely handsome, and with none of the grace of the Castilian or
+Andalusian. Unlike the Galicians, however, they are remarkable
+for their keen spirit of independence, which has been fostered
+by centuries of isolation. Despite the harsh land-laws and
+grinding taxation which prevent them, with all their industry
+and thrift, from securing the freehold of the patch of ground
+cultivated by each peasant family, the Asturians regard themselves
+as the aristocracy of Spain. This pride in their land, race
+and history they preserve even when, as often happens, they
+emigrate to other parts of the country or to South America, and
+earn their living as servants, water-carriers, or, in the case of
+the women, as nurses. They make admirable soldiers and sailors,
+but lack the enterprise and commercial aptitude of the Basques
+and Catalans; while they are differentiated from the inhabitants
+of central and southern Spain by their superior industry, and
+perhaps their lower standard of culture. It is, on the whole,
+true that by the exclusion of the Moors they lost their opportunity
+of playing any conspicuous part in the literary and artistic
+development of Spain. One class of the Asturians deserving
+special mention is that of the nomad cattle-drovers known as
+Baqueros or Vaqueros, who tend their herds on the mountains of
+Leitariegos in summer, and along the coast in winter; forming a
+separate caste, with distinctive customs, and rarely or never
+intermarrying with their neighbours.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the modern condition of the principality (including climate,
+fauna and flora), see S. Canals, <i>Asturias: informancion sobre su
+presente estado</i> (Madrid, 1900); and G. Casal, <i>Memorias de historia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span>
+natural y médica, de Asturias</i> (Oviedo, 1900). For the history and
+antiquities, there is much that is valuable in <i>Asturias monumental,
+epigráfica y diplomática</i>, &amp;c., by C.M. Vigil (Madrid, 1887)&mdash;folio,
+with maps and illustrations. See also F. de Aramburu y Zuloaga,
+<i>Monografia de Asturias</i> (Oviedo, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTYAGES,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> the last king of the Median empire. In the
+inscriptions of Nabonidus the name is written Ishtuvegu (cylinder
+from Abu Habba V R 64, col. 1, 32; Annals, published by Pinches,
+<i>Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch</i>. vii. col. 2, 2). According to Herodotus, he
+was the son of Cyaxares and reigned thirty-five years (584-550
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>); his wife was Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes of Lydia
+(Herod, i. 74). About his reign we know little, as the narrative of
+Herodotus, which makes Cyrus the grandson of Astyages by his
+daughter Mandane, is merely a legend; the figure of Harpagus,
+who as general of the Median army betrays the king to Cyrus,
+alone seems to contain an historical element, as Harpagus and his
+family afterwards obtained a high position in the Persian empire.
+From the inscriptions of Nabonidus we learn that Cyrus, king of
+Anshan (Susiana), began war against him in 553 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; in 550,
+when Astyages marched against Cyrus, his troops rebelled, and
+he was taken prisoner. Then Cyrus occupied and plundered
+Ecbatana. The captive king was treated fairly by Cyrus (Herod,
+i. 130), and according to Ctesias (<i>Pers</i>. 5, cf. Justin i. 6) made
+satrap of Hyrcania, where he was afterwards slain by Oebares
+against the will of Cyrus, who gave him a splendid funeral.
+Alexander Polyhistor and Abydenus in their excerpts from
+Berossus, which Eusebius (<i>Chron</i>. i. pp. 29 and 37) and Syncellus
+(p. 396) have preserved, give the name Astyages to the Median
+king who reigned in the time of the fall of Nineveh (606 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+and became father-in-law of Nebuchadrezzar. This is evidently
+a mistake; the name ought to be Cyaxares (in the fragments of
+the Jewish history of Alexander Polyhistor, in Euseb. <i>Praep.
+Ev</i>. ix. 39, the name is converted into Astibaras, who, according
+to the unhistorical list of Ctesias, was the father of Astyages), and
+there is no reason to invent an earlier king Astyages I., as some
+modern authors have done. The Armenian historians render the
+name Astyages by Ashdahak, <i>i.e.</i> Azhi Dahaka (Zohak), the
+mythical king of the Iranian epics, who has nothing whatever to
+do with the historical king of the Medes.</p>
+<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASTYLAR<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="á-">&#7936;-</span>, privative, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">&#963;&#964;&#8166;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, a column),
+an architectural term given to a class of design in which neither
+columns nor pilasters are used for decorative purposes; thus the
+Ricardi and Strozzi palaces in Florence are astylar in their
+design, in contradistinction to Palladio&rsquo;s palaces at Vicenza,
+which are columnar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASUNCIÓN<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Nuestra Senora de la Asunción</span>), a city and
+port of Paraguay, and capital of the republic, on the left bank of
+the Paraguay river in 25° 16&prime; 04&Prime; S., 57° 42&prime; 40&Prime; W., and 970 m.
+above Buenos Aires. Pop. (est. in 1900) 52,000. The port is
+connected with Buenos Aires and Montevideo by regular lines of
+river steamers, which are its only means of trade communication
+with the outer world, and with the inland town of Villa Rica
+(95 m.) by a railway worked by an English company. The city
+faces upon a curve in the river bank forming what is called the
+Bay of Asunción, and is built on a low sandy plain, rising to pretty
+hillsides overlooking the bay and the low, wooded country of
+the Chaco on the opposite shore. The general elevation is only
+253 ft. above sea-level. Asunción is laid out on a regular plan, the
+credit for which is largely due to Dictator Francia; the principal
+streets are paved and lighted by gas and electricity; and telephone
+and street-car services are maintained. The climate is hot but
+healthful, the mean annual temperature being about 72° F.
+The city is the seat of a bishopric dating from 1547, and contains
+a large number of religious edifices. It has a national
+college and public library, but no great progress in education has
+been made. The most prominent edifice in the city is the palace
+begun by the younger Lopez, which is now occupied by a bank.
+There are some business edifices and residences of considerable
+architectural merit, but the greater part are small and inconspicuous,
+a majority of the residences being thatched, mud-walled
+cabins. Considerable progress was made during the last
+two decades of the 19th century, however, notwithstanding
+misgovernment and the extreme poverty of the people. Asunción
+was founded by Ayolas in 1335, and is the oldest permanent
+Spanish settlement on the La Plata. It was for a long time the
+seat of Spanish rule in this region, and later the scene of a bitter
+struggle between the church authorities and Jesuits. Soon after
+the declaration of independence in 1811, the city fell under the
+despotic rule of Dr Francia, and then under that of the elder and
+younger Lopez, through which its development was greatly
+impeded. It was captured and plundered by the Brazilians in
+1869, and has been the theatre of several revolutionary outbreaks
+since then, one of which (1905) resulted in a blockade of several
+months&rsquo; duration.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASVINS,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, twin deities of light. After
+Indra, Agni and Soma, they are the most prominent divinities
+in the Rig-Veda, and have more than fifty entire hymns addressed
+to them. Their exact attributes are obscure. They appear
+to be the spirits of dawn, the earliest bringers of light in the
+morning sky; they hasten on in the clouds before Dawn and
+prepare the way for her. In some hymns they are called sons
+of the sun; in others, children of the sky; in others, offspring of
+the ocean. They are youngest of the gods, bright lords of lustre,
+honey-hued. They are inseparable. The sole purpose of one
+hymn is to compare them with different twin objects, such as
+eyes, hands, feet and wings. They have a common wife, Surya.
+They are physicians, protectors of the weak and old, especially
+of elderly unmarried women. They are the friends of lovers,
+and bless marriages and make them fruitful.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.A. Macdonell, <i>Vedic Mythology</i> (Strassburg, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASYLUM<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span>, privative, and <span class="grk" title="sulae">&#963;&#973;&#955;&#951;</span>, right of seizure),
+a place of refuge. In ancient Greece, an asylum was an &ldquo;inviolable&rdquo; refuge for persons fleeing from pursuit and in search of
+protection. In a general sense, all Greek temples and altars
+were inviolable, that is, it was a religious crime to remove by
+force any person or thing once under the protection of a deity.
+But it was only in the case of a small number of temples that
+this protecting right of a deity was recognized with common
+consent. Such were the sanctuaries of Zeus Lycaeus in Arcadia,
+of Poseidon in the island of Calauria, and of Apollo at Delos,
+they were, however, numerous in Asia Minor. They guaranteed
+absolute security to the suppliant within their limits. The
+right of sanctuary, originally possessed by all temples, appears
+to have become limited to a few in consequence of abuses of it.
+Asylums in this sense were peculiar to the Greeks. The asylum
+of Romulus (Livy i. 8), which was probably the altar of Veiovis,
+cannot be considered as such. Under Roman dominion, the
+rights of existing Greek sanctuaries were at first confirmed, but
+their number was considerably reduced by Tiberius. Under
+the Empire, the statues of the emperors and the eagles of the
+legions were made refuges against acts of violence. Generally
+speaking, the classes of persons who claimed the rights of asylum
+were slaves who had been maltreated by their masters, soldiers
+defeated and pursued by the enemy, and criminals who feared
+a trial or who had escaped before sentence was passed. (See
+treatises <i>De Asylis Graecis</i>, by Förster, 1847; Jaenisch, 1868;
+Barth, 1888.)</p>
+
+<p>With the establishment of Christianity, the custom of asylum
+or sanctuary (<i>q.v.</i>) became attached to the church or churchyard.
+In modern times the word asylum has come to mean an institution
+providing shelter or refuge for any class of afflicted or
+destitute persons, such as the blind, deaf and dumb, &amp;c., but
+more particularly the insane. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ASYLUM, RIGHT OF<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (Fr. <i>droit d&rsquo;asile</i>; Ger. <i>Asylrecht</i>), in
+international law, the right which a state possesses, by virtue
+of the principle that every independent state is sole master
+within its boundaries, of allowing fugitives from another country
+to enter or sojourn upon its territory. Extradition (<i>q.v.</i>) treaties
+are undertakings between states curtailing the exercise of the
+right of asylum in respect of refugees from justice, but the conditions
+therein laid down invariably show that nations regard
+the maintenance of this right of asylum as intimately connected
+with their right of independent action, however weak as states
+they may be, on their own soil. The neutral right to grant
+asylum to belligerent forces is now governed by articles 57, 58
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
+and 59 of the regulations annexed to the Hague Convention of
+the 29th of July 1899, relating to the Laws and Customs of
+War on Land. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">War</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATACAMA,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a province of northern Chile, bounded N. and S.
+respectively by the provinces of Antofagasta and Coquimbo, and
+extending from the Pacific coast E. to the Argentine boundary
+line. It has an area of 30,729 sq. m., lying in great part within
+the Atacama desert region (see below), and a population (1902)
+of 71,446. The silver and copper mines of the province are
+numerous, some of them ranking among the most productive
+known, but the majority are worked with limited capital and on
+a small scale. The silver ore was first discovered in 1832 by a
+shepherd at a place which bears his name, Juan Godoi. The
+nitrate and borax deposits are extensive and productive, and
+common salt is a natural product of large areas in the elevated
+desert regions of the Andes. The exports include copper and
+silver and their ores, nitrate of soda, borax, guano and other
+minerals in small quantities. The capital, Copiapó (est. pop.
+8991 in 1902), is situated on a small river of the same name 37 m.
+from the coast and 51 m. south-east by rail from Caldera, the
+principal port of this great mining district. Before 1842, when
+guano began to attract notice as an exportable product, Atacama
+was considered as Bolivian territory, and Coquimbo the extreme
+northern province of Chile. In that year Chile decided to explore
+the desert coast, and in 1843 that part of the desert extending
+north to the 26th parallel was organized into the province of
+Atacama.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATACAMA, DESERT OF,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> an arid, barren and saline region of
+western South America, covering the greater part of the Chilean
+provinces of Atacama and Antofagasta, the Argentine territory
+of Los Andes, and the south-western corner of the Bolivian
+department of Potosí. The higher elevations are known as the
+Puna de Atacama, which is practically a continuation southward
+of the great <i>puna</i> region of Peru and Bolivia. It is a broken,
+mountainous region, volcanic in places, saline in others, and
+ranges from 7000 to 13,500 ft. in general elevation. Its culminating
+ridges are marked by an irregular line of peaks and
+extinct volcanoes extending north by east from about 28° S.
+into southern Bolivia. On the eastern side, occasional rainfalls
+occur and streams from the snow-clads peaks produce some slight
+displays of fertility, but the general aspect of the plateaus, which
+are dry and cold in winter and in summer are swept by rainstorms
+and covered by occasional tufts of coarse grass, is barren
+and forbidding. They are also broken by great saline lagoons
+and dry salt basins. This region forms the Argentine territory
+of Los Andes and is habitable in places. On the western slope
+the land descends gradually to the Pacific, being broken into great
+basins, or terraces, by mountainous ridges in its higher elevations,
+widening out into gently-sloping sandy plains below, famous
+for their nitrate deposits, and terminating on the coast with
+sharply-sloping bluffs, having an elevation of 800 to 1500 ft.,
+and looking from the sea like a range of flat-topped hills. This
+desolate region, which is rainless and absolutely barren, and
+was considered worthless for three and a half centuries, is now
+a treasure-house of mineral wealth, abounding in copper, silver,
+lead, nickel, cobalt, iron, nitrates and borax. It is occupied
+by many mining settlements, and includes some of the most
+productive copper and silver mines of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Darapsky, &ldquo;Zur Geographic der Puna de Atacama,&rdquo; <i>Zeits.
+Ges. Erdk. zu Berlin</i>, 1899; G.E. Church, &ldquo;South America: an
+Outline of its Physical Geography,&rdquo; <i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1901;
+John Ball, <i>Notes of a Naturalist in South America</i> (London, 1887);
+F. O&rsquo;Driscoll, &ldquo;A Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic,&rdquo;
+<i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1904.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATACAMITE,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> a mineral found originally in the desert of
+Atacama, and named by D. de Gallizen in 1801. It is a cupric
+oxychloride, having the formula CuCl<span class="su">2</span>ˇ3Cu(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, and crystallizing
+in the orthorhombic system. Its hardness is about 3 and
+its specific gravity 3.7, while its colour presents various shades of
+green, usually dark. Atacamite is a comparatively rare mineral,
+formed in some cases by the action of sea-water on various
+copper-ores, and occurring also as a volcanic product on Vesuvian
+lavas. Some of the finest crystals have been yielded by the
+copper-mines of South Australia, especially at Wallaroo. It
+occurs also, with malachite, at Bembe, near Ambriz, in West
+Africa. From one of its localities in Chile, Los Remolinos, it
+was termed Remolinite by Brooke and Miller. Atacamite, in
+a pulverulent state, was formerly used as a pounce under the
+name of &ldquo;Peruvian green sand,&rdquo; and was known in Chile as
+arsenillo.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATAHUALLPA<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (<i>atahu</i>, Lat. <i>virtus</i>, and <i>allpa</i>, sweet), &ldquo;the
+last of the Incas&rdquo; (or Yncas) of Peru, was the son of the ruler
+Huayna Capac, by Pacha, the daughter of the conquered sovereign
+of Quito. His brother Huascar succeeded Huayna Capac
+in 1527; for, as Atahuallpa was not descended on both sides
+from the line of Incas, Peruvian law considered him illegitimate.
+He obtained, however, the kingdom of Quito. A jealous feeling
+soon sprang up between him and Huascar, who insisted that
+Quito should be held as a dependent province of his empire.
+A civil war broke out between the brothers, and, about the time
+when the Spanish conqueror Pizarro was beginning to move
+inland from the town of San Miguel, Huascar had been defeated
+and thrown into prison, and Atahuallpa had become Inca.
+Pizarro set out in September 1532, and made for Caxamarca,
+where the Inca was. Messengers passed frequently between
+them, and the Spaniards on their march were hospitably received
+by the inhabitants. On the 15th of November, Pizarro entered
+Caxamarca, and sent his brother and Ferdinando de Soto to
+request an interview with the Inca. On the evening of the next
+day, Atahuallpa entered the great square of Caxamarca, accompanied
+by some five or six thousand men, who were either unarmed
+or armed only with short clubs and slings concealed
+under their dresses. Pizarro&rsquo;s artillery and soldiers were planted
+in readiness in the streets opening off the square. The interview
+was carried on by the priest Vicente de Valverde, who addressed
+the Inca through an interpreter. He stated briefly and dogmatically
+the principal points of the Christian faith and the
+Roman Catholic policy, and concluded by calling upon Atahuallpa
+to become a Christian, obey the commands of the pope, give
+up the administration of his kingdom, and pay tribute to Charles
+V., to whom had been granted the conquest of these lands.
+To this extraordinary harangue, which from its own nature
+and the faults of the interpreter must have been completely
+unintelligible, the Inca at first returned a very temperate answer.
+He pointed out what seemed to him certain difficulties in the
+Christian religion, and declined to accept as monarch of his
+dominions this Charles, of whom he knew nothing. He then took
+a bible from the priest&rsquo;s hands, and, after looking at it, threw
+it violently from him, and began a more impassioned speech,
+in which he exposed the designs of the Spaniards, and upbraided
+them with the cruelties they had perpetrated. The priest
+retired, and Pizarro at once gave the signal for attack. The
+Spaniards rushed out suddenly, and the Peruvians, astonished
+and defenceless, were cut down in hundreds. Pizarro himself
+seized the Inca, and in endeavouring to preserve him alive,
+received, accidentally, on his hand the only wound inflicted
+that day on a Spaniard. Atahuallpa, thus treacherously captured,
+offered an enormous sum of money as a ransom, and
+fulfilled his engagement; but Pizarro still detained him, until
+the Spaniards should have arrived in sufficient numbers to
+secure the country. While in captivity, Atahuallpa gave secret
+orders for the assassination of his brother Huascar, and also
+endeavoured to raise an army to expel the invaders. His plans
+were betrayed, and Pizarro at once brought him to trial. He
+was condemned to death, and, as being an idolater, to death
+by fire. Atahuallpa, however, professed himself a Christian,
+received baptism, and his sentence was then altered into death
+by strangulation (August 29, 1533). His body was afterwards
+burned, and the ashes conveyed to Quito. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peru</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATALANTA,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> in Greek legend, the name of two Greek heroines,
+(1) The Arcadian Atalanta was the daughter of Iasius or Iasion
+and Clymene. At her birth, she had been exposed on a hill,
+her father having expected a son. At first she was suckled by a
+she-bear, and then saved by huntsmen, among whom she grew
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span>
+up to be skilled with the bow, swift, and fond of the chase,
+like the virgin goddess Artemis. At the Calydonian boar-hunt
+her arrows were the first to hit the monster, for which its head
+and hide were given her by Meleager. At the funeral games
+of Pelias, she wrestled with Peleus, and won. For a long time
+she remained true to Artemis and rejected all suitors, but
+Meilanion at last gained her love by his persistent devotion.
+She was the mother of Parthenopaeus, one of the Seven against
+Thebes (Apollodorus iii. 9; Hyginus, <i>Fab.</i> 99). (2) The
+Boeotian Atalanta was the daughter of Schoeneus. She was
+famed for her running, and would only consent to marry a suitor
+who could outstrip her in a race, the consequence of failure being
+death. Hippomenes, before starting, had obtained from Aphrodite
+three golden apples, which he dropped at intervals, and
+Atalanta, stopping to pick them up, fell behind. Both were
+happy at the result; but forgetting to thank the goddess for
+the apples, they were led by her to a religious crime, and were
+transformed into lions by the goddess Cybele (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i>
+x. 560; Hyginus, <i>Fab.</i> 185). The characteristics of these
+two heroines (frequently confounded) point to their being
+secondary forms of the Arcadian Artemis.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATARGATIS<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span>, a Syrian deity, known to the Greeks by a
+shortened form of the name, Derketo (Strabo xvi. c. 785; Pliny,
+<i>Nat. Hist.</i> v. 23. 81), and as Dea Syria, or in one word Deasura
+(Lucian, <i>de Dea Syria</i>). She is generally described as the
+&ldquo;fish-goddess.&rdquo; The name is a compound of two divine names;
+the first part is a form of the Himyaritic <i>&rsquo;Athlar</i>, the equivalent
+of the Old Testament <i>Ashtoreth</i>, the Phoenician <i>Astarte</i> (<i>q.v.</i>),
+with the feminine ending omitted (Assyr. <i>Ishtar</i>); the second
+is a Palmyrene name <i>&rsquo;Athe</i> (<i>i.e. tempus opportunum</i>), which
+occurs as part of many compounds. As a consequence of the
+first half of the name, Atargatis has frequently, though wrongly,
+been identified with Astarte. The two deities were, no doubt,
+of common origin, but their cults are historically distinct. In
+2 Macc. xii. 26 we find reference to an Atargateion or Atergateion
+(temple of Atargatis) at Carnion in Gilead (cf. 1 Macc. v. 43),
+but the home of the goddess was unquestionably not Palestine,
+but Syria proper, <span class="correction" title="amended fron expecially">especially</span> at Hierapolis (<i>q.v.</i>), where she had
+a great temple. From Syria her worship extended to Greece,
+Italy and the furthest west. Lucian and Apuleius give descriptions
+of the beggar-priests who went round the great cities
+with an image of the goddess on an ass and collected money.
+The wide extension of the cult is attributable largely to Syrian
+merchants; thus we find traces of it in the great seaport
+towns; at Delos especially numerous inscriptions have been
+found bearing witness to its importance. Again we find the
+cult in Sicily, introduced, no doubt, by slaves and mercenary
+troops, who carried it even to the farthest northern limits of
+the Roman empire. In many cases, however, Atargatis and
+Astarte are fused to such an extent as to be indistinguishable.
+This fusion is exemplified by the Carnion temple, which is
+probably identical with the famous temple of Astarte at Ashtaroth-Karnaim.</p>
+
+<p>Atargatis appears generally as the wife of Hadad (Baal).
+They are the protecting deities of the community. Atargatis,
+in the capacity of <span class="grk" title="polionchos">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#8166;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, wears a mural crown, is the ancestor
+of the royal house, the founder of social and religious life, the
+goddess of generation and fertility (hence the prevalence of
+phallic emblems), and the inventor of useful appliances. Not
+unnaturally she is identified with the Greek Aphrodite. By the
+conjunction of these many functions, she becomes ultimately
+a great Nature-Goddess, analogous to Cybele and Rhea (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Mother of the Gods</a></span>); in one aspect she typifies the
+function of water in producing life; in another, the universal
+mother-earth (Macrobius, <i>Saturn</i>, i. 23); in a third (influenced,
+no doubt, by Chaldaean astrology), the power of destiny. The
+legends are numerous and of an astrological character, intended
+to account for the Syrian dove-worship and abstinence from fish
+(see the story in Athenaeus viii. 37, where Atargatis is derived
+from <span class="grk" title="ates Gatidos">&#7940;&#964;&#949;&#961; &#915;&#940;&#964;&#953;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span> &ldquo;without Gatis,&rdquo;&mdash;a queen who is said to
+have forbidden the eating of fish). Thus Diodorus Siculus,
+using Ctesias, tells how she fell in love with a youth who was
+worshipping at the shrine of Aphrodite, and by him became the
+mother of Semiramis, the Assyrian queen, and how in shame
+she flung herself into a pool at Ascalon or Hierapolis and was
+changed into a fish (W. Robertson Smith in <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> ii.,
+1887). In another story she was hatched from an egg found
+by some fish in the Euphrates and by them thrust on the bank
+where it was hatched by a dove; out of gratitude she persuaded
+Jupiter to transfer the fish to the Zodiac (cf. Ovid, <i>Fast.</i> ii.
+459-474, <i>Metam.</i> v. 331).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See articles <i>s.v.</i> in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk.</i> (1897), by W.
+Baudissin; and Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyc.</i>; Fr. Baethgen, <i>Beiträge zur
+Semit. Religiongesch.</i> (1888); R. Pietschmann, <i>Gesch. der Phönizier</i>
+(1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATAULPHUS<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (the Latinized form of the Gothic Ataulf,
+&ldquo;Father-wolf,&rdquo; from <i>atta</i>, father, and <i>vulfs</i>, wolf; mod. Germ.
+Adolf, Latinized as Adolphus, the form used by Gibbon for the
+subject of this article), king of the Goths (d. 415). On the death
+of Alaric (<i>q.v.</i>) his followers acclaimed his brother-in-law Ataulphus
+as king. In 412 he quitted Italy and led his army across
+the Alps into Gaul. Here he fought against some of the usurpers
+who threatened the throne of Honorius; he made some sort of
+compact with that emperor and, in 414, he married his sister
+Placidia, who had been since the siege of Rome a captive in the
+camp of the Goths. The ex-emperor Attalus danced at the
+marriage festival, which was celebrated with great pomp at
+Narbonne. In 415 Ataulphus crossed the Pyrenees into Spain
+and died at Barcelona, being assassinated by a groom. The
+most important fact in his history is his confession, recorded by
+Orosius, that he saw the inability of his countrymen to rear a
+civilized or abiding kingdom, and that consequently his aim
+should be to build on Roman foundations and blend the two
+nations into one.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATAVISM<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>atavus</i>, a great-great-great-grandfather
+or ancestor), the term given in biology to the reproduction in a
+living person or animal of the characteristics of an ancestor more
+remote than its parents (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heredity</a></span>). Loosely used, it connotes
+a reversion to an earlier type. Individuals reproduce
+unexpectedly the traits of earlier ancestors, and ethnologists
+and criminologists frequently explain by &ldquo;atavism&rdquo; the occurrence
+of degenerate species of man; but the whole subject is
+complicated by other possible explanations of such phenomena,
+included in the scientific study of normal &ldquo;variation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATBARA<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (<i>Bahr-el-Aswad</i>, or Black River), the most northern
+affluent of the river Nile, N.E. Africa. It rises in Abyssinia to
+the N.W. of Lake Tsana, unites its waters with a number of
+other rivers which also rise in the Abyssinian highlands, and
+flows north-west 800 m. till its junction at Ed Damer with the
+Nile (<i>q.v.</i>). The battle of the Atbara, fought near Nakheila,
+a place on the north bank of the river about 30 m. above Ed
+Damer, on the 8th of April 1898, between the khalifa&rsquo;s forces
+under Mahmud and Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener&rsquo;s
+Anglo-Egyptian army, resulted in the complete defeat of the
+Mahdists and the capture of their leader, and paved the way for
+the decisive battle of Omdurman on the 2nd of September
+following (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Military Operations</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATCHISON<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Atchison county,
+Kansas, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Missouri river, which
+is navigable at this point but is utilized comparatively little for
+commerce. Pop. (1890) 13,963; (1900) 15,722, of whom 2508
+were of negro descent and 1308 were foreign-born; (1910)
+16,429. Atchison is served by the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé,
+the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island
+&amp; Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is the seat
+of Midland College (Lutheran, 1887), St Benedict&rsquo;s College
+(Roman Catholic, 1858) for boys, Mt. Scholastics Academy
+(Roman Catholic) for girls, and Western Theological Seminary
+(Evangelical-Lutheran, 1893); a state soldiers&rsquo; orphans&rsquo; home
+is also located here. Atchison&rsquo;s situation and transportation
+facilities make it an important supply-centre, its trade in grains
+and live-stock being particularly large; it has large railway
+machine shops, and its principal manufactures are flour, furniture,
+lumber, hardware and drugs. The value of the city&rsquo;s factory
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
+products increased from $2,093,469 in 1900 to $4,052,274 in 1905,
+or 93.6%. Atchison was founded in 1854 by pro-slavery
+partisans, and was named in honour of their leader, David Rice
+Atchison, a United States senator. The city was quickly surpassed
+by Leavenworth in commercial importance, and during
+the Kansas struggle was never of great political importance.
+Its first city charter was granted in 1858. The Atchison <i>Globe</i>
+(established 1878) is one of the best-known of western papers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATE,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the personification of criminal
+folly, the daughter of Zeus and Eris (Strife). She misled even
+Zeus to take a hasty oath, whereby Heracles became subject to
+Eurystheus. Zeus thereupon cast her by the hair out of Olympus,
+whither she did not return, but remained on earth, working evil
+and mischief (<i>Iliad</i>, xix. 91). She is followed by the Litae
+(Prayers), the old and crippled daughters of Zeus, who are able
+to repair the evil done by her (<i>Iliad</i>, ix. 502). In later times
+Ate is regarded as the avenger of sin (Sophocles, <i>Antigone</i>,
+614, 625).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Girard, <i>Le Sentiment religieux en Grčce</i> (1869); J.F.
+Scherer, <i>De Graecorum Ates Notione atque Indole</i> (1858);
+E. Berch, <i>Bedeutung der Ate bei Aeschylos</i> (1876); C. Lehrs,
+<i>Populare Aufsatze aus dem Alterthum</i> (1875); L. Schmidt,
+<i>Die Ethik der alten Griechen</i> (1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATELLA,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> an ancient Oscan town of Campania, 9 m. N. of
+Naples and 9 m. S. of Capua, on the road between the two. It
+was a member of the Campanian confederation, and shared the
+fortunes of Capua, but remained faithful to Hannibal for a
+longer time; the great part of the inhabitants, when they
+could no longer resist the Romans, were transferred by him to
+Thurii, and the town was reoccupied in 211 by the Romans,
+who settled the exiled inhabitants of Nuceria there. The fate
+of Atella at the end of the war, when the latter were able to
+return to their own city, is unknown. Cicero was in friendly
+relations with it, and exerted influence that it might retain its
+property in Gaul, so that it is obvious that it had then recovered
+municipal rights. The town is mainly famous as the cradle of
+early Roman comedy, the <i>Fabulae Atellanae</i> (see below). Some
+remains of the town still exist, including a tower of the city wall
+in brick.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Beloch, <i>Campanien</i> (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), p. 379.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATELLANAE FABULAE<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (&ldquo;Atellan fables&rdquo;), the name of a
+sort of popular comedy amongst the ancient Romans. The
+name is derived from Atella, an Oscan town in Campania; for
+this reason, and from their being also called <i>Osci Ludi</i>, it has
+been supposed that they were of Oscan origin and introduced at Rome
+after Campania had been deprived of its independence. It
+seems highly improbable that they were performed in the Oscan
+language. Mommsen, however, rejects their Oscan origin
+altogether; he regards them as purely Latin, the scene merely
+being laid at Atella to avoid causing offence by placing it at
+Rome or one of the Latin cities. These plays, or rather sketches,
+contained humorous descriptions of country as contrasted with
+town life, and found their subjects amongst the lower classes
+of the people. The subjects alone were decided upon before
+the performance began; the dialogue was improvised as it
+proceeded. The Atellanae contained certain stock characters,
+like the Italian harlequinades: Maccus (the fool), Bucco (fat-chaps),
+Pappus (daddy), Dossennus (sharper); monsters and
+bogeys like Manducus, Pytho, Lamia also made their appearance.
+The performers were the sons of Roman citizens, who did not
+lose their rights as citizens, and were allowed to serve in the
+army: professional actors were excluded. The simple prose
+dialogues were probably varied by songs in the rude Saturnian
+metre: the language was that of the common people, accompanied
+by lively gesticulation and movements. They were
+characterized by coarseness and obscenity. In the time of Sulla
+a literary form was given to the Atellanae by Pomponius of
+Bononia and Novius, who made them regular written comedies.
+Living persons seem to have been attacked, and even the doings
+of the gods and heroes of mythology burlesqued. From this
+time the Atellanae were used as after-pieces and performed
+by professional actors. In 46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they were ousted by the
+mimes, but regained popularity during the reign of Tiberius
+(chiefly owing to a certain Mummius), until they were definitely
+superseded by and merged in the mimes. They held their
+ground in the small towns and villages of Italy during the last
+days of the empire; they probably lingered on into the middle
+ages, and were the origin of the Italian <i>Commedie dell&rsquo; arte.</i></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The scanty fragments of Pomponius and Novius are collected in
+Ribbeck&rsquo;s <i>Comicorum Romanorum Reliquiae</i>; see also Munk,
+<i>De Fabulis Atellanis</i> (1840); and art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Latin Literature</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATESTE<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (mod. <i>Este, q.v.</i>), an ancient town of Venetia, at the
+southern foot of the Euganean hills, 43 ft. above sea-level;
+22 m. S.W. of Patavium (Padua). The site was occupied in very
+early times, as the discoveries since 1882 show. Large cemeteries
+have been excavated, which show three different periods from
+the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> down to the Roman domination. In the
+first period (Italic) cremation burials closely approximating to
+the Villanova type are found; in the second<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Venetian) the
+tombs are constructed of blocks of stone, and <i>situlae</i> (bronze
+buckets), sometimes decorated with elaborate designs, are
+frequently used to contain the cinerary urns; in the third
+(Gallic), which begins during the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though
+cremation continues, the tombs are much poorer, the ossuaries
+being of badly baked rough clay, and show traces of Gallic
+influence, and characteristics of the La-Tčne civilization. The
+many important objects found in these excavations are preserved
+in the local museum. See G. Ghirardini in <i>Notizie degli Scavi;
+Monumenti dei Lincei</i>, ii. (1893) 161 seq., vii. (1897) 5 seq., x.
+(1901) 5 seq.; <i>Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze
+Storiche</i> (Rome, 1904), v. 279 seq. Inscriptions show that the
+national language asserted its existence even after Ateste came
+into the hands of the Romans. When this occurred is not known;
+boundary stones of 135 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> exist, which divide the territory of
+Ateste from that of Patavium and of Vicetia, showing that the
+former extended from the middle of the Euganean hills to the
+Atesis (mod. <i>Adige</i>, from which Ateste no doubt took its name,
+and on which it once stood). After the battle of Actium,
+Augustus settled veterans from various of his legions in this
+territory, Ateste being thenceforth spoken of as a colony. It
+appears to have furnished many recruits, especially for the
+<i>cohortes urbanae</i>. It appears but little in history, though its
+importance is vouched for by numerous inscriptions, the majority
+of which belong to the early Empire.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This is by some authorities divided into two.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATH,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aath</span>, an ancient town of the province of Hainaut,
+Belgium, situated on the left bank of the Dender. Pop. (1890)
+9868; (1904) 11,201. Formerly it was fortified, but after the
+change in the defensive system of Belgium in 1858 the fortress
+was dismantled and its ramparts superseded by boulevards.
+Owing to a fire caused by lightning its fine church of St Julien,
+dating from the 14th century, which had escaped serious injury
+during many wars, was destroyed in 1817 (since rebuilt). This
+left the Tour Burbant as its sole relic of the middle ages. This
+tower formed part of the <i>donjon</i> of the fortress erected by
+Baldwin IV., count of Hainaut, about the year 1150. Near Ath
+is the fine castle of Beloeil, the ancient seat of the princely
+family of Ligne. Ath is famous for its gild of archers, whose
+butts are erected on the plain of the Esplanade in the centre of
+the town. The town militia has the privilege of being armed
+with bows and crossbows. Ath is also well known in Hainaut
+for its annual fęte called <i>le jour de ducasse&mdash;ducasse</i> being the
+Walloon word for kermesse (fęte). On this occasion a procession
+escorting figures of two giants, Goliath, called locally Goyasse,
+and Samson, forms the chief feature of the celebration. The
+emperor Joseph II. stopped it for its &ldquo;idolatrous&rdquo; character,
+but this act was one of the causes of the Brabant revolution of
+1789. The procession, revived in 1790, was again stopped by
+the French republicans five years later, but was revived under
+the Empire, and has flourished ever since.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHABASCA<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (<i>Athiapescow</i>), or <span class="sc">Elk</span>, a river and lake Of the
+province of Alberta, Canada. The river rises in the Rocky
+Mountains near the Yellowhead Pass in 52° 10&prime; N. and 117° 10&prime;
+W., and flows north-east as far as Athabasca Landing, and thence
+north into Lake Athabasca. It is 740 m. long and has a number
+of important tributaries, including the McLeod, Pembina, Lesser
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
+Slave, which drains the lake of that name, and Clearwater.
+Athabasca lake is 195 m. long, west to east, from 20 to 32 m. wide
+has an area of 3085 sq. m., and is 690 ft. above the sea. It discharges
+its waters northward by Slave river and the Mackenzie
+system to the Arctic Ocean. On its north shore the country is
+high and rocky; on the south, sandy and barren. Shallow
+draught steamers navigate the lake and river, and Lesser
+Slave lake and river, with one interruption&mdash;at Grand Rapids
+near the mouth of the Clearwater river.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHALARIC<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (516-534), king of the Ostrogoths, grandson of
+Theodoric, became king of the Ostrogoths in Italy on his grandfather&rsquo;s
+death (526). As he was only ten years old, the regency
+was assumed by his mother Amalasuntha (<i>q.v.</i>). The murmurs of
+the Gothic nobles procured for their young sovereign too early
+emancipation from the schoolroom. He drank heavily, and
+indulged in vicious excesses which ruined his constitution. He
+died on the 2nd of October 534.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHALIAH,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> in the Bible, the daughter of Ahab, and wife of
+Jehoram, king of Judah. After the death of Ahaziah, her son
+she usurped the throne and reigned for six years. She is said
+to have massacred all the members of the royal house of
+Judah (2 Kings xi. 1-3), but a similar atrocity is also ascribed
+to Jehu (2 Kings x. 12-14); with both notices contrast 2 Chron.
+xxi. 17. The sole survivor Joash was concealed in the temple by
+his aunt, Jehosheba, wife of the priest Jehoida (2 Chron. xxii. 11)
+These organized a revolution in favour of Joash, and caused
+Athaliah and her adherents to be put to death (2 Kings xi.;
+2 Chron. xxii. 10-12, xxiii., xxiv. 7).</p>
+
+<p>The story of Athaliah forms the subject of one of Racine&rsquo;s
+best tragedies. It has been musically treated by Handel and
+Mendelssohn.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHAMAS,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> in Greek mythology, king of the Minyae in
+Boeotian Orchomenus, son of Aeolus, king of Thessaly, or of
+Minyas. His first wife was Nephele, the cloud-goddess, by whom
+he had two children, Phrixus and Helle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argonauts</a></span>).
+Athamas and his second wife Ino were said to have incurred the
+wrath of Hera, because Ino had brought up Dionysus, the son of
+her sister Semele, as a girl, to save his life. Athamas went mad,
+and slew one of his sons, Learchus; Ino, to escape the pursuit of
+her frenzied husband, threw herself into the sea with her other
+son Melicertes. Both were afterwards worshipped as marine
+divinities, Ino as Leucothea, Melicertes as Palaemon (<i>Odyssey</i>
+v. 333). Athamas, with the guilt of his son&rsquo;s murder upon him,
+was obliged to flee from Boeotia. He was ordered by the oracle to
+settle in a place where he should receive hospitality from wild
+beasts. This he found at Phthiotis in Thessaly, where he
+surprised some wolves eating sheep; on his approach they fled,
+leaving him the bones. Athamas, regarding this as the fulfilment
+of the oracle, settled there and married a third wife, Themisto.
+The spot was afterwards called the Athamanian plain (Apollodorus
+i. 9; Hyginus, <i>Fab</i>. 1-5; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> iv. 416, <i>Fasti</i>,
+vi. 485; Valerius Flaccus i. 277).</p>
+
+<p>According to a local legend, Athamas was king of Halos in
+Phthiotis from the first (Schol. on Apoll. Rhodius ii. 513). After
+his attempt on the life of Phrixus, which was supposed to have
+succeeded, the Phthiots were ordered to sacrifice him to Zeus
+Laphystius, in order to appease the anger of the gods. As he was
+on the point of being put to death, Cytissorus, a son of Phrixus,
+suddenly arrived from Aea with the news that Phrixus was still
+alive. Athamas&rsquo;s life was thus saved, but the wrath of the gods
+was unappeased, and pursued the family. It was ordained that
+the eldest born of the race should not enter the council-chamber;
+if he did so, he was liable to be seized and sacrificed if detected
+(Herodotus vii. 197). The legend of Athamas is probably
+founded on a very old custom amongst the Minyae&mdash;the sacrifice
+of the first-born of the race of Athamas to Zeus Laphystius.
+The story formed the subject of lost tragedies by Aeschylus,
+Sophocles, Euripides and other Greek and Latin dramatists.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHANAGILD<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (d. 547) became king of the Visigoths (in
+Spain) in 534, having invoked the aid of the emperor Justinian for
+his revolt against his predecessor Agila. Athanagild, when himself
+king, vainly tried to oust his late allies from the footing which
+they had gained in Spain, nor were the Greeks finally expelled
+from Spain till seventy years later. Athanagild himself is chiefly
+remembered for the tragic fortunes of his daughters Brunechildis
+and Gavleswintha, who married two Frankish brother kings,
+Sigebert and Chilperic. Athanagild died (&ldquo;peacefully,&rdquo; as the
+annalist remarks) in 547.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHANARIC<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (d. 381), a ruler of the Visigoths from about 366
+to 380. He bore the title not of king but of judge, a title which
+may be compared with that of ealdorman among the Anglo-Saxon
+invaders of Britain. Athanaric waged, from 367 to 369,
+an unsuccessful war with the emperor Valens, and the peace by
+which the war was ended was ratified by the Roman and Gothic
+rulers meeting on a barge in mid-stream of the Danube. Athanaric
+was a harsh and obstinate heathen, and his short reign was
+chiefly famous for his brutal persecution of his Christian fellow-countrymen.
+In 376 he was utterly defeated by the Huns,
+who a few years before had burst into Europe. The bulk of the
+Visigothic people sought refuge within the Empire in the region
+now known as Bulgaria, but Athanaric seems to have fled into
+Transylvania. Being attacked there by two Ostrogothic chiefs
+he also, in 381, sought the protection of the Roman emperor.
+Theodosius I. received him courteously, and he was profoundly
+impressed by the glories of Constantinople, but on the fifteenth
+day after his arrival he died, and was honoured by the emperor
+with a magnificent funeral.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHANASIUS<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (293-373), bishop of Alexandria and saint, one
+of the most illustrious defenders of the Christian faith, was born
+probably at Alexandria. Of his family and of his early education
+nothing can be said to be known. According to the legend, the
+boy is said to have once baptized some of his playmates and
+thereupon to have been taken into his house by Bishop Alexander,
+who recognized the validity of this proceeding. It is certain
+that Athanasius was young when he took orders, and that he
+must soon have entered into close relations with his bishop,
+whom, after the outbreak of the Arian controversy, he accompanied
+as archdeacon to the council of Nicaea. In the sessions
+and discussions of the council he could take no part; but in
+unofficial conferences he took sides vigorously, according to his
+own evidence, against the Arians, and was certainly not without
+influence. He had already, before the opening of the Council,
+defined his personal attitude towards the dogmatic problem in
+two essays, <i>Against the Gentiles</i> and <i>On the Incarnation</i>, without,
+however, any special relation to the Arian controversy.</p>
+
+<p>The essay <i>On the Incarnation</i> is the <i>locus classicus</i> for the
+presentation of the teaching of the ancient church on the subject
+of salvation. In this the great idea that God himself had entered
+into humanity becomes dominant. The doom of death under
+which mankind had sighed since Adam&rsquo;s fall could only then be
+averted, when the immortal Word of God (<span class="grk" title="Logos">&#923;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>) assumed a
+mortal body, and, by yielding this to death for the sake of all,
+abrogated once for all the law of death, of which the power had
+been spent on the body of the Lord. Thus was rendered possible
+the leading back of mankind to God, of which the sure pledge
+lies in the grace of the resurrection of Christ. Athanasius would
+hear of no questioning of this religious mystery. In the catchword
+<i>Homousios</i>, which had been added to the creed at Nicaea,
+he too recognized the best formula for the expression of the
+mystery, although in his own writings he made but sparing use
+of it. He was in fact less concerned with the formula than with
+the content. Arians and Semi-Arians seemed to him to be
+pagans, who worship the creature, instead of the God who
+created all things, since they teach two gods, one having no
+beginning, the other having a beginning in Time and therefore
+of the same nature as the heathen gods, since, like them, he is a
+creature. Athanasius has no terms for the definition of the
+Persons in the one &ldquo;Divine&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="to theion">&#964;&#8056; &#952;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>), which are in their
+substance one; and yet he is certain that this &ldquo;Divine&rdquo; is not
+mere abstraction, but something truly personal: &ldquo;They are
+One,&rdquo; so he wrote later in his <i>Discourses against the Arians</i>.
+&ldquo;not as though the unity were torn into two parts, which outside
+the unity would be nothing, nor as though the unity bore two
+names, so that one and the same is at one time Father and then
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span>
+his own Son, as the heretic Sabellius imagined. But they are
+two, for the Father is Father, and the Son is not the same, but,
+again, the Son is Son, and not the Father himself. But their
+Nature (<span class="grk" title="physis">&#966;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>) is one, for the Begotten is not dissimilar (<span class="grk" title="anomoios">&#7936;&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>)
+to the Begetter, but his image, and everything that is the
+Father&rsquo;s is also the Son&rsquo;s.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Five months after the return from the council of Nicaea
+Bishop Alexander died; and on the 8th of February 326
+Athanasius, at the age of thirty-three, became his successor.
+The first years of his episcopate were tranquil; then the storms
+in which the remainder of his life was passed began to gather
+round him. The council had by no means composed the divisions
+in the Church which the Arian controversy had provoked.
+Arius himself still lived, and his friend Eusebius of Nicomedia
+rapidly regained influence over the emperor Constantine. The
+result was a demand made by the emperor that Arius should be
+readmitted to communion. Athanasius stood firm, but many
+accusers soon rose up against one who was known to be under
+the frown of the imperial displeasure. He was charged with
+cruelty, even with sorcery and murder. It was reported that a
+bishop of the Meletian party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meletius</a></span>) in the Thebaid,
+of the name of Arsenius, had been unlawfully put to death by
+him. He was easily able to clear himself of these charges; but
+the hatred of his enemies was not relaxed, and in the summer of
+335 he was peremptorily ordered to appear at Tyre, where a
+council had been summoned to sit in judgment upon his conduct.
+There appeared plainly a predetermination to condemn him,
+and he fled from Tyre to Constantinople to appeal to the emperor
+himself. Refused at first a hearing, his perseverance was at
+length rewarded by the emperor&rsquo;s assent to his reasonable request
+that his accusers should be brought face to face with him in the
+imperial presence. Accordingly the leaders of the council, the
+most conspicuous of whom were Eusebius of Nicomedia and his
+namesake of Caesarea, were summoned to Constantinople.
+Here they did not attempt to repeat their old charges, but found
+a more effective weapon to their hands in a new charge of a
+political kind&mdash;that Athanasius had threatened to stop the
+Alexandrian corn-ships bound for Constantinople. It is very
+difficult to understand how far there was truth in the persistent
+accusations made against the prince-bishop of Alexandria.
+Probably there was in the very greatness of his character and
+the extent of his popular influence a certain species of dominance
+which lent a colour of truth to some of the things said against
+him. On the present occasion his accusers succeeded at once in
+arousing the imperial jealousy. Without obtaining a hearing,
+he was banished at the end of 335 to Trčves in Gaul. This was
+the first banishment of Athanasius, which lasted about one year
+and a half. It was brought to a close by the death of Constantine,
+and the accession as emperor of the West of Constantine II.,
+who, in June 337, allowed Athanasius to return to Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>He reached his see on the 23rd of November 337, and, as he
+himself has told us, &ldquo;the people ran in crowds to see his face;
+the churches were full of rejoicing; thanksgivings were everywhere
+offered up; the ministers and clergy thought the day
+the happiest in their lives.&rdquo; But this period of happiness was
+destined to be short-lived. His position as bishop of Alexandria
+placed him, not under his patron Constantine, but under Constantius,
+another son of the elder Constantine, who had succeeded
+to the throne of the East. He in his turn fell, as his father had
+done in later years, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia,
+who in the latter half of 339 was transferred to the see of Constantinople,
+the new seat of the imperial court. A second
+expulsion of Athanasius was accordingly resolved upon. The old
+accusations against him were revived, and he was further charged
+with having set at naught the decision of a council. On the
+18th of March 339 the exarch of Egypt suddenly confronted
+Athanasius with an imperial edict, by which he was deposed
+and a Cappadocian named Gregory was nominated bishop in
+his place. On the following day, after tumultuous scenes,
+Athanasius fled, and four days later Gregory was installed by the
+aid of the soldiery. On the first opportunity, Athanasius went
+to Rome, to &ldquo;lay his case before the church.&rdquo; A synod assembled
+at Rome in the autumn of 340, and the great council&mdash;probably
+that which met at Sardica in 342 or 343, where the Orientals
+refused to meet the representatives of the Western church&mdash;declared
+him guiltless. This decision, however, had no immediate
+effect in favour of Athanasius. Constantius continued for some
+time implacable, and the bold action of the Western bishops
+only incited the Arian party in Alexandria to fresh severities.
+But the death of the intruder Gregory, on the 26th of June 345,
+opened up a way of reconciliation. Constantius decided to yield
+to the importunity of his brother Constans, who had succeeded
+Constantine II. in the West; and the result was the restoration
+of Athanasius for the second time, on the 21st of October 346.
+Again he returned to Alexandria amid the enthusiastic demonstrations
+of the populace, which is described by Gregory of
+Nazianzus, in his panegyric on Athanasius, as streaming forth
+like &ldquo;another Nile&rdquo; to meet him afar off as he approached the
+city.</p>
+
+<p>The six years of his residence in the West had given Athanasius
+the opportunity of displaying a momentous activity. He made
+long journeys in Italy, in Gaul, and as far as Belgium. Everywhere
+he laboured for the Nicene faith, and the impression
+made by his personality was so great that to hold fast the
+orthodox faith and to defend Athanasius were for many people
+one and the same thing. This was shown when, after the death
+of the emperor Constans, Constantius became sole ruler of East
+and West. With the help of counsellors more subtle than
+discerning, the emperor, with the object of uniting the various
+parties in the Church at any cost, sought for the most colourless
+possible formula of belief, which he hoped to persuade all the
+bishops to accept. As his efforts remained for years fruitless,
+he used force. &ldquo;My will is your guiding-line,&rdquo; he exclaimed in
+the summer of 355 to the bishops who had assembled at Milan
+in response to his orders. A series of his most defiant opponents
+had to go into banishment, Liberius of Rome, Hilarius of Poitiers
+and Hosius of Corduba, the last-named once the confidant of
+Constantine and the actual originator of the <i>Homousios</i>, and
+now nearly a hundred years old. At length came the turn of
+Athanasius, now almost the sole upholder of the banner of the
+Nicene creed in the East. Several attempts to expel him failed
+owing to the attitude of the populace. On the night of the 8th-9th
+of February 356, however, when the bishop was holding the
+Vigils, soldiers and police broke into the church of Theonas.
+Athanasius himself has described the scene for us: &ldquo;I was
+seated upon my chair, the deacon was about to read the psalm,
+the people to answer, &lsquo;For his mercy endureth for ever.&rsquo; The
+solemn act was interrupted; a panic arose.&rdquo; The bishop, who
+was at first unwilling to save himself, until he knew that his
+faithful followers were in safety, succeeded in escaping, leaving
+the town and finding a hiding-place in the country. The solitudes
+of Upper Egypt, where numerous monasteries and hermitages had
+been planted, seem at this time to have been his chief shelter.
+In this case, benefit was repayed by benefit, for Athanasius during
+his episcopate had been a zealous promoter of asceticism and
+monachism. With Anthony the hermit and Pachomius the
+founder of monasteries, he had maintained personal relations,
+and the former he had commemorated in his <i>Life of Anthony</i>.
+During his exile his time was occupied in writing on behalf of
+his cause, and to this period belong some of his most important
+works, above all the great <i>Orations or Discourses against the
+Arians</i>, which furnish the best exposition of his theological
+principles.</p>
+
+<p>During his absence the see of Alexandria was left without a
+pastor. It is true that George of Cappadocia had taken his
+place; but he could only maintain himself for a short while
+(February 357-October 358). The great majority of the population
+remained faithful to the exile. At length, in November 361,
+the way was opened to him for his return to his see by the death
+of Constantius. Julian, who succeeded to the imperial throne,
+professed himself indifferent to the contentions of the Church,
+and gave permission to the bishops exiled in the late reign to
+return home. Among others, Athanasius availed himself of this
+permission, and in February 362 once more seated himself upon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span>
+his throne, amid the rejoicings of the people. He had begun his
+episcopal labours with renewed ardour, and assembled his bishops
+in Alexandria to decide various important questions, when an
+imperial mandate again&mdash;for the fourth time&mdash;drove him from
+his place of power. The faithful gathered around him weeping.
+&ldquo;Be of good heart,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;it is but a cloud: it will pass.&rdquo;
+His forecast proved true; for within a few months Julian had
+closed his brief career of pagan revival. As early as September
+363, Athanasius was able to travel to Jovian, the new emperor,
+who had sent him a letter praising his Christian fidelity and
+encouraging him to resume his work. He returned to Alexandria
+on the 20th of February 364. With the emperor he continued
+to maintain friendly relations; but the period of repose was
+short. In the spring of 365, after the accession of Valens to the
+throne, troubles again arose. Athanasius was once more compelled
+to seek safety from his persecutors in concealment (October
+365), which lasted, however, only for four months. In February
+366 he resumed his episcopal labours, in which he henceforth
+remained undisturbed. On the 2nd of May 373, having consecrated
+one of his presbyters as his successor, he died quietly
+in his own house.</p>
+
+<p>Athanasius was a man of action, but he also knew how to use
+his pen for the furtherance of his cause. He left a large number
+of writings, which cannot of course be compared with those of
+an Origen, a Basil, or a Gregory of Nyssa. Athanasius was no
+systematic theologian. All his treatises are occasional pieces,
+born of controversy and intended for controversial ends. The
+interest in abstract exposition of clearly formulated theological
+ideas is everywhere subordinate to the polemical purpose. But
+all these writings are instinct with a living personal faith, and
+serve for the defence of the cause; for it was not about words
+that he was contending. Even those who do not sympathize
+with the cause which Athanasius steadfastly defended cannot
+but admire his magnanimous and heroic character. If he was
+imperious in temper and inflexible in his conception of the
+Christian faith, he possessed a great heart and a great intellect,
+inspired with an enthusiastic devotion to Christ. As a theologian,
+his main distinction was his zealous advocacy of the essential
+divinity of Christ. Christianity in its Arian conception would
+have evaporated in a new polytheism. To have set a dam
+against this process with the whole force of a mighty personality
+constitutes the importance of Athanasius in the world&rsquo;s history.
+It is with good reason that the Church honours him as the
+&ldquo;Great,&rdquo; and as the &ldquo;Father of Orthodoxy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of the works of Athanasius is the so-called Maurine
+edition of Bernard de Montfaucon in 3 vols. (Paris, 1698); this was
+enlarged in the 3rd edition by Giustiniani (4 vols., Padua, 1777), and
+is printed in this form in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologia</i>, vols. xxv.-xxviii. An
+English translation of selections, with excellent introductions to the
+several writings, was published by Archibald Robertson in the <i>Library
+of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, second series, vol. 4 (Oxford
+and New York, 1892). There is no biography satisfactory from the
+modern point of view. Studies preliminary to such a biography
+began to be published by E. Schwartz in his essays, &ldquo;Zur Geschichte
+des Athanasius&rdquo; (in the <i>Nachrichten der koniglichen Gesellschaft der
+Wissenschaften zu Göttingen</i>, 1904, &amp;c.). The life of Athanasius,
+however, is so completely intertwined with the history of his time
+that it is permissible to refer, for a knowledge of him, to the general
+descriptions which will be found at the close of the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arius</a></span>. Of
+the older literature, Tillemont&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires pour servir ŕ l&rsquo;histoire
+ecclésiastique des six premiers sičcles</i>, vols. vi. and viii., are still a mine
+of material for the historian. Of the newer literature the following
+deserve to be read:&mdash;Johann Adam Möhler, <i>Athanasius der Grosse
+und die Kirche seiner Zeit</i>, 2 vols. (2nd ed., Mainz, 1844); and
+Fr. Boehringer, &ldquo;Arius und Athanasius,&rdquo; <i>Die Kirche Christi und
+ihre Zeugen</i>, vol. i. part 2 (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1874).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHAPASCAN,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a widely distributed linguistic stock of North
+American Indians, the chief tribes included being the Chippewyan,
+Navajo, Apache, Jicarilla, Lipan, Hupa and Wailaki.
+The Athapascan family is geographically divided into Northern,
+Pacific and Southern. The Northern division (Tinneh or Déné)
+is about Alaska, and the Yukon and Mackenzie rivers,&mdash;the
+eponymous &ldquo;Athabasca&rdquo; tribe living round Lake Athabasca,
+in the province of Alberta in Canada. The Pacific division
+covers a strip of territory, some 400 m. in length, from Oregon
+southwards into California. The Southern division includes
+Arizona and New Mexico, parts of Utah, Colorado, Kansas and
+Texas, and the northern part of Mexico. The typical tribes are
+those of the Northern division.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHARVA VEDA,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> the fourth book of the Vedas, the ancient
+scriptures of the Brahman religion. Like the other Vedas it is
+divided into Samhita, Brahmanas and Upanishads, representing
+the spiritual element and its magical and nationalistic development.
+The mantras or sayings composing the Samhita of the
+Atharva Veda differ from those of the other Vedas by being in
+the form of spells rather than prayers or hymns, and seem to
+indicate a stage of religion lower than that of the Rig Veda.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHEISM<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span>, privative, and <span class="grk" title="theos">&#952;&#949;&#972;&#962;</span>, God), literally
+a system of belief which denies the existence of God. The
+term as generally used, however, is highly ambiguous. Its
+meaning varies (<i>a</i>) according to the various definitions of deity,
+and especially (<i>b</i>) according as it is (i.) deliberately adopted
+by a thinker as a description of his own theological standpoint,
+or (ii.) applied by one set of thinkers to their opponents. As
+to (<i>a</i>), it is obvious that atheism from the standpoint of the
+Christian is a very different conception as compared with
+atheism as understood by a Deist, a Positivist, a follower of
+Euhemerus or Herbert Spencer, or a Buddhist. But the ambiguities
+arising from the points of view described in (<i>b</i>) are much
+more difficult both intellectually and in their practical social
+issues. Thus history shows how readily the term has been used
+in the most haphazard manner to describe even the most trivial
+divergence of opinion concerning points of dogma. In other
+words, &ldquo;atheism&rdquo; has been used generally by the orthodox
+adherents of one religion, or even of a single sect, for all beliefs
+which are different or even differently expressed. It is in fact
+in these cases, like &ldquo;heterodoxy,&rdquo; a term of purely negative
+significance, and its intellectual value is of the slightest. The
+distinction between the terms &ldquo;religion&rdquo; and &ldquo;magic&rdquo; is,
+in a similar way, often due merely to rivalry between the
+adherents of two or more mutually exclusive religions brought
+together in the same community. When the psalmist declares
+that &ldquo;the fool hath said in his heart, there is no God,&rdquo; he
+probably does not refer to theoretical denial, but to a practical
+disbelief in God&rsquo;s government of human affairs, shown in disobedience
+to moral laws. Socrates was charged with &ldquo;not
+believing in the gods the city believes in.&rdquo; The cry of the heathen
+populace in the Roman empire against the Christians was
+&ldquo;Away with the atheists! To the lions with the Christians!&rdquo;
+The ground for the charge was probably the lack of idolatry
+in all Christian worship. Spinoza, for whom God alone existed,
+was persecuted as an atheist. A common designation of Knox
+was &ldquo;the atheist,&rdquo; although it was to him &ldquo;matter of satisfaction
+that our most holy religion is founded on faith, not on
+reason.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In its most scientific and serious usage the term is applied
+to that state of mind which does not find deity (<i>i.e.</i> either one
+or many gods) in or above the physical universe. Thus it has
+been applied to certain primitive savages, who have been
+thought (<i>e.g.</i> by Lord Avebury in his <i>Prehistoric Times</i>) to have
+no religious belief; it is, however, the better opinion that there
+are no peoples who are entirely destitute of some rudimentary
+religious belief. In the second place, and most usually, it is
+applied to a purely intellectual, metaphysical disbelief in the
+existence of any god, or of anything supernatural. In this connexion
+it is usual to distinguish three types of atheism:&mdash;the
+<i>dogmatic</i>, which denies the existence of God positively; the
+<i>sceptical</i>, which distrusts the capacity of the human mind to
+discover the existence of God; and the <i>critical</i>, which doubts the
+validity of the theistic argument, the proofs for the existence
+of God. That the first type of atheism exists, in spite of the
+denials of those who favour the second or the third, may be
+proved by the utterances of men like Feuerbach, Flourens or
+Bradlaugh. &ldquo;There is no God,&rdquo; says Feuerbach, &ldquo;it is clear
+as the sun and as evident as the day that there is no God, and
+still more that there can be none.&rdquo; With greater passion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span>
+Flourens declares &ldquo;Our enemy is God. Hatred of God is the
+beginning of wisdom. If mankind would make true progress,
+it must be on the basis of atheism.&rdquo; Bradlaugh maintained
+against Holyoake that he would fight until men respected the
+name &ldquo;atheist.&rdquo; The answer to dogmatic atheism, that it
+implies infinite knowledge, has been well stated in John Foster&rsquo;s
+<i>Essays</i>, and restated by Chalmers in his <i>Natural Theology</i>, and
+its force is recognized in Holyoake&rsquo;s careful qualification of the
+sense in which secularism accepts atheism, &ldquo;always explaining
+the term atheist to mean &lsquo;not seeing God&rsquo; visually or inferentially,
+never suffering it to be taken for anti-theism, that is, hating
+God, denying God&mdash;as <i>hating</i> implies personal knowledge as
+the ground of dislike, and <i>denying</i> implies infinite knowledge
+as the ground of disproof.&rdquo; But dogmatic atheism is rare compared
+with the sceptical type, which is identical with agnosticism
+(<i>q.v.</i>) in so far as it denies the capacity of the mind of man to
+form any conception of God, but is different from it in so far as
+the agnostic merely holds his judgment in suspense, though, in
+practice, agnosticism is apt to result in an attitude towards religion
+which is hardly distinguishable from a passive and unaggressive
+atheism. The third or critical type may be illustrated by
+<i>A Candid Examination of Theism</i> by &ldquo;Physicus&rdquo; (G.J. Romanes),
+in which the writer endeavours to establish the weakness of the
+proofs for the existence of God, and to substitute for theism
+Spencer&rsquo;s physical explanation of the universe, and yet admits
+how unsatisfying to himself the new position is. &ldquo;When at
+times I think, as think at times I must, of the appalling contrast
+between the hallowed glory of that creed which once was mine,
+and the lonely mystery of existence as now I find it&mdash;at such
+times I shall ever feel it impossible to avoid the sharpest pang
+of which my nature is susceptible.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Atheism has to meet the protest of the heart as well as the
+argument of the mind of mankind. It must be judged not only
+by theoretical but by practical arguments, in its relations either
+to the individual or to a society. Voltaire himself, speaking
+as a practical man rather than as a metaphysician, declared
+that if there were no God it would be necessary to invent one;
+and if the analysis is only carried far enough it will be found
+that those who deny the existence of God (in a conventional
+sense) are all the time setting up something in the nature of
+deity by way of an ideal of their own, while fighting over the
+meaning of a word or its conventional misapplication.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHELM<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (d. 923), English churchman, is said to have been
+a monk of Glastonbury before his elevation in 909 to the see of
+Wells, of which he was the first occupant. In 914 he became
+archbishop of Canterbury.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHELNEY,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> a slight eminence of small extent in the low
+level tract about the junction of the rivers Tone and Parrett in
+Somersetshire, England. It was formerly isolated by marshes
+and accessible only by boat or artificial causeway, and under
+these conditions it gained its historical fame as the retreat of
+King Alfred in 878-879 when he was unable to withstand the
+incursions of the Danes. After regaining his throne he founded
+a monastery here in gratitude for the retreat afforded him by
+the island; no traces of it exist above ground, but remains have
+been excavated. There was also found here, in 1693, the celebrated
+Alfred jewel, bearing his name, and preserved in the
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. An inscribed pillar commemorating
+the king was set up in 1801. The name of Athelney signifies
+the Isle of Princes (A.S. <i>Ćthelingaea</i>). Athelney is a railway
+station on a branch of the Great Western line.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENA<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called
+Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas), one of the most important
+goddesses in Greek mythology. With Zeus and Apollo, she
+forms a triad which represents the embodiment of all divine
+power. No satisfactory derivation of the name Athena has
+been given<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a>; Pallas, at first an epithet, but after Pindar used
+by itself, may possibly be connected with <span class="grk" title="pallakhe">&#960;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#954;&#942;</span> (&ldquo;maiden&rdquo;).
+Athena has been variously described as the pure aether, the
+storm-cloud, the dawn, the twilight; but there is little evidence
+that she was regarded as representing any of the physical powers
+of nature, and it is better to endeavour to form an idea of her
+character and attributes from a consideration of her cult-epithets
+and ritual. According to the legend, her father Zeus
+swallowed his wife Metis (&ldquo;counsel&rdquo;), when pregnant with
+Athena, since he had been warned that his children by her
+might prove stronger than himself and dethrone him. Hephaestus
+(or Prometheus) subsequently split open his head with a
+hatchet, and Athena sprang forth fully armed, uttering a loud
+shout of victory (Hesiod, <i>Theogony</i>, 886; Pindar, <i>Olympia</i>,
+vii. 35). In Crete she was said to have issued from a cloud
+burst asunder by Zeus. According to Roscher, the manner of
+her birth represents the storm-cloud split by lightning; Farnell
+(<i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, i. p. 285) sees in it an indication that,
+as the daughter of Metis, Athena was already invested with a
+mental and moral character, and explains the swallowing of
+Metis (for which compare the story of Cronus and his children)
+by the desire to attribute an extraordinary birth to one in whom
+masculine traits predominated. In another account (as <span class="grk" title="Tritogeneia">&#932;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#947;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span>)
+she is the daughter of the river Triton, to which various localities
+were assigned, and wherever there was a river (or lake) of that
+name, the inhabitants claimed that she was born there. It is
+probable that the name originated in Boeotia (C.O. Müller,
+<i>Geschichten hellenischer Stamme</i>, i. pp. 351-357; but see Macan
+on Herodotus, iv. 180), whence it was conveyed by colonists
+to Cyrene and thence to Libya, where there was a river Triton.
+Here some local divinity, a daughter of Poseidon, connected
+with the water and also of a warlike character, was identified
+by the colonists with their own Athena. In any case, it is
+fairly certain that Tritogeneia means &ldquo;water-born,&rdquo; although
+an old interpretation derived it from <span class="grk" title="trito">&#964;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#974;</span>, a supposed Boeotian
+word meaning &ldquo;head,&rdquo; which further points to the name having
+originated in Boeotia. Roscher suggests that the localization
+of her birthplace in the extreme west points to the western sea,
+the home of cloud and storm.</p>
+
+<p>In Homer Athena already appears as the goddess of counsel,
+of war, of female arts and industries, and the protectress of
+Greek cities, this last aspect of her character being the most
+important and pronounced. Hence she is called <span class="grk" title="polias">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#940;&#962;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="poliouchos">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#8166;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, in many Greek states, and is frequently associated
+with <span class="grk" title="Zeus polieus">&#918;&#949;&#8058;&#962; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#949;&#973;&#962;</span>. The most celebrated festival of the city-goddess
+was the Panathenaea at Athens and other places.
+Other titles of kindred meaning are <span class="grk" title="archegeris">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#951;&#947;&#941;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;founder&rdquo;)
+and <span class="grk" title="tanachais">&#960;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#967;&#945;&#7990;&#962;</span>, the protectress of the Achaean league. At Athens
+she presided over the phratries or clans, and was known as
+<span class="grk" title="apatouria">&#7936;&#960;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span> and <span class="grk" title="fratria">&#966;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>, and sacrifice was offered to her at the
+festival Apaturia. The title <span class="grk" title="meter">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span>, given her by the inhabitants
+of Elis, whose women, according to the legend, she had blessed
+with abundance of children, seems at variance with the generally-recognized conception of her as <span class="grk" title="parthenos">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>; but <span class="grk" title="meter">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span> may bear
+the same meaning as <span class="grk" title="kourotrophos">&#954;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#964;&#961;&#972;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>, the fosterer of the young,
+in harmony with her aspect as protectress of civic and family
+life. At Alalcomenae, near the Tritonian lake in Boeotia,
+she was <span class="grk" title="alalkomeneis">&#7936;&#955;&#945;&#955;&#954;&#959;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#951;&#7990;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;defender&rdquo;). Her temple, which was
+pillaged by Sulla, contained an ivory image, which was said to
+have fallen from heaven. The inhabitants claimed that the
+goddess was born there and brought up by a local hero Alalcomeneus.
+Her images, called Palladia, which guarded the
+heights (cf. her epithets <span class="grk" title="acria, kranaia">&#7936;&#954;&#961;&#943;&#945;, &#954;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#943;&#945;</span>), represented her with
+shield uplifted, brandishing her spear to keep off the foe. The
+cult of Athena Itonia, whose earliest seat appears to have, been
+amongst the Thessalians, who used her name as a battle-cry,
+made its way to Coronea in Boeotia, where her sanctuary was
+the seat of the Pamboeotian confederacy. The meaning of
+Itonia is obscure: Dümmler connects it with <span class="grk" title="iteones">&#7984;&#964;&#949;&#8182;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>, the
+&ldquo;willow-beds&rdquo; on the banks of the river Coralios (the river
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
+of the maiden, <i>i.e.</i> Athena); Jebb (on Bacchylides, <i>fr.</i> xi. 2)
+suggests a derivation from <span class="grk" title="ienai">&#943;&#941;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, the goddess of the &ldquo;onset.&rdquo;
+At Thebes she was worshipped as Athena Onka or Onga, of
+equally uncertain derivation (possibly from <span class="grk" title="ogkos">&#8004;&#947;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;a height&rdquo;).
+Peculiar to Arcadia is the title Athena Alea, probably = &ldquo;warder
+off of evil,&rdquo; although others explain it as = &ldquo;warmth,&rdquo; and see
+in it an allusion to her physical nature as one of the powers of
+light. Farnell (<i>Cults</i>, p. 275) points out that at the same time
+she is certainly looked upon as in some way connected with
+the health-divinities, since in her temple she is grouped with
+Asclepius and Hygieia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hygieia</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>She already appears as the goddess of counsel (<span class="grk" title="poluboulos">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#973;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>)
+in the <i>Iliad</i> and in Hesiod. The Attic bouleutae took the oath
+by Athena Boulaia; at Sparta she was <span class="grk" title="agoraia">&#7936;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#945;&#943;&#945;</span>, presiding over
+the popular assemblies in the market-place; in Arcadia <span class="grk" title="mechanitis">&#956;&#951;&#967;&#945;&#957;&#8150;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span>
+the discoverer of devices. The epithet <span class="grk" title="pronoia">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#943;&#945;</span> (&ldquo;forethought&rdquo;)
+is due, according to Farnell, to a confusion with <span class="grk" title="pronaia">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#945;&#943;&#945;</span>, referring
+to a statue of the goddess standing &ldquo;before a shrine,&rdquo; and arose
+later (probably spreading from Delphi), some time after the
+Persian wars, in which she repelled a Persian attack on the
+temples &ldquo;by divine forethought&rdquo;; another legend attributes
+the name to her skill in assisting Leto at the birth of Apollo and
+Artemis. With this aspect of her character may be compared
+the Hesiodic legend, according to which she was the daughter
+of Metis. Her connexion with the trial of Orestes, the introduction
+of a milder form of punishment for justifiable homicide,
+and the institution of the court <span class="grk" title="to epi Palladio">&#964;&#8056; &#7952;&#960;&#8054; &#928;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#948;&#943;&#8180;</span>, show the
+important part played by her in the development of legal ideas.</p>
+
+<p>The protectress of cities was naturally also a goddess of war.
+As such she appears in Homer and Hesiod and in post-Homeric
+legend as the slayer of the Gorgon and taking part in the battle
+of the giants. On numerous monuments she is represented as
+<span class="grk" title="areia">&#7936;&#961;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, &ldquo;the warlike,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="nikephoros">&#957;&#953;&#954;&#951;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;bringer of victory,&rdquo; holding
+an image of Nike (<i>q.v.</i>) in her outstretched hand (for other
+similar epithets see Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon</i>). She was also the goddess
+of the arts of war in general; <span class="grk" title="stoicheia">&#963;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#967;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, she who draws up the
+ranks for battle, <span class="grk" title="zosteria">&#950;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>, she who girds herself for the fray.
+Martial music (cp. <span class="grk" title="Athene salpinx">&#7944;&#952;&#942;&#957;&#951; &#963;&#940;&#955;&#960;&#953;&#947;&#958;</span>, &ldquo;trumpet&rdquo;) and the Pyrrhic
+dance, in which she herself is said to have taken part to commemorate
+the victory over the giants, and the building of
+war-ships were attributed to her. She instructed certain of
+her favourites in gymnastics and athletics, as a useful training
+for war. The epithets <span class="grk" title="ippia">&#7985;&#960;&#960;&#943;&#945;</span>, <span class="grk" title="chalinitis">&#967;&#945;&#955;&#953;&#957;&#8150;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="damasippos">&#948;&#945;&#956;&#940;&#963;&#953;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, usually
+referred to her as goddess of war-horses, may perhaps be reminiscences
+of an older religion in which the horse was sacred to her.
+As a war-goddess, she is the embodiment of prudent and
+intelligent tactics, entirely different from Ares, the personification
+of brute force and rashness, who is fitly represented as
+suffering defeat at her hands. She is the patroness and protectress
+of those heroes who are distinguished for their prudence
+and caution, and in the Trojan War she sides with the more
+civilized Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>The goddess of war develops into the goddess of peace and the
+pursuits connected with it. She is prominent as the promoter of
+agriculture in Attic legend. The Athenian hero Erechtheus
+(Erichthonius), originally an earth-god, is her foster-son, with
+whom she was honoured in the Erechtheum on the Acropolis.
+Her oldest priestesses, the dew-sisters&mdash;Aglauros, Herse,
+Pandrosos&mdash;signify the fertilization of the earth by the dew, and
+were probably at one time identified with Athena, as surnames
+of whom both Aglauros and Pandrosos are found. The story
+of the voluntary sacrifice of the Attic maiden Aglauros on behalf
+of her country in time of war (commemorated by the ephebi
+taking the oath of loyalty to their country in her temple), and
+of the leap of the three sisters over the Acropolis rock (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erechtheus</a></span>), probably points to an old human sacrifice.
+Athena also gave the Athenians the olive-tree, which was
+supposed to have sprung from the bare soil of the Acropolis,
+when smitten by her spear, close to the horse (or spring of water)
+produced by the trident of Poseidon, to which he appealed in
+support of his claim to the lordship of Athens. She is also
+connected with Poseidon in the legend of Erechtheus, not as being
+in any way akin to the former in nature or character, but as
+indicating the contest between an old and a new religion. This
+god, whose worship was introduced into Athens at a later date
+by the Ionian immigrants, was identified with Erechtheus-Erichthonius
+(for whose birth Athena was in a certain sense
+responsible), and thus was brought into connexion with the
+goddess, in order to effect a reconciliation of the two cults.
+Athena was said to have invented the plough, and to have
+taught men to tame horses and yoke oxen. Various arts were
+attributed to her&mdash;shipbuilding, the goldsmith&rsquo;s craft, fulling,
+shoemaking and other branches of industry. As early as Homer
+she takes especial interest in the occupations of women; she
+makes Hera&rsquo;s robe and her own peplus, and spinning and weaving
+are often called &ldquo;the works of Athena.&rdquo; The custom of offering
+a beautifully woven peplus at the Panathenaic festival is connected
+with her character as Ergane the goddess of industry.<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+As patroness of the arts, she is associated with Hephaestus (one
+of her titles is <span class="grk" title="Ephaistia">&#7977;&#966;&#945;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#943;&#945;</span>) and Prometheus, and in Boeotia she was
+regarded as the inventress of the flute. According to Pindar,
+she imitated on the flute the dismal wail of the two surviving
+Gorgons after the death of Medusa. The legend that Athena,
+observing in the water the distortion of her features caused by
+playing that instrument, flung it away, probably indicates that
+the Boeotians whom the Athenians regarded with contempt,
+used the flute in their worship of the Boeotian Athena. The
+story of the slaying of Medusa by Athena, in which there is no
+certain evidence that she played a direct part, explained by
+Roscher as the scattering of the storm-cloud, probably arose
+from the fact that she is represented as wearing the Gorgon&rsquo;s
+head as a badge.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of Aphrodite and Apollo, Roscher in his <i>Lexikon</i>
+deduces all the characteristics of Athena from a single conception&mdash;that
+of the goddess of the storm or the thunder-cloud (for a
+discussion of such attempts see Farnell, <i>Cults</i>, i. pp. 3, 263).
+There seems little reason for regarding her as a nature-goddess
+at all, but rather as the presiding divinity of states and cities,
+of the arts and industries&mdash;in short, as the goddess of the whole
+intellectual side of human life.</p>
+
+<p>Except at Athens, little is known of the ceremonies or festivals
+which attended her worship. There we have the following.
+(1) The ceremony of the <i>Three Sacred Ploughs</i>, by which the
+signal for seed-time was given, apparently dating from a period
+when agriculture was one of the chief occupations of her
+worshippers. (2) The <i>Procharisteria</i> at the end of winter, at
+which thanks were offered for the germination of the seed.
+(3) The <i>Scirophoria</i>, with a procession from the Acropolis to
+the village of Skiron, in the height of summer, the priests who
+were to entreat her to keep off the summer heat walking under
+the shade of parasols (<span class="grk" title="skyron">&#963;&#954;&#943;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>) held over them; others, however,
+connect the name with <span class="grk" title="skiros">&#963;&#954;&#8150;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;gypsum&rdquo;), perhaps used for
+smearing the image of the goddess. (4) The <i>Oschophoria</i>, at the
+vintage season, with races among boys, and a procession, with
+songs in praise of Dionysus and Ariadne. (5) The <i>Chalkeia</i> (feast
+of smiths), at which the birth of Erechtheus and the invention
+of the plough were celebrated. (6) The <i>Plynteria</i> and <i>Callynteria</i>,
+at which her ancient image and peplus in the Erechtheum and
+the temple itself were cleaned, with a procession in which bunches
+of figs (frequently used in lustrations) were carried. (7) The
+<i>Arrhephoria</i> or <i>Errephoria</i> (perhaps = <i>Ersephoria</i>, &ldquo;dew-bearing&rdquo;),
+at which four girls, between seven and eleven years of
+age, selected from noble families, carried certain unknown
+sacred objects to and from the temple of Aphrodite &ldquo;in the
+gardens&rdquo; (see J.E. Harrison, <i>Classical Review</i>, April 1889).
+(8) The <i>Panathenaea</i>, at which the new robes for the image of
+he goddess were carried through the city, spread like a sail on
+a mast. The reliefs of the frieze of the cella of the Parthenon
+enable us to form an idea of the procession. Athletic games,
+open to all who traced their nationality to Athens, were part of
+this festival. Mention should also be made of the Argive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
+ceremony, at which the <i>xoanon</i> (ancient wooden statue) of Athena
+was washed in the river Inachus, a symbol of her purification
+after the Gigantomachia.</p>
+
+<p>The usual attributes of Athena were the helmet, the aegis,
+the round shield with the head of Medusa in the centre, the lance,
+an olive branch, the owl, the cock and the snake. Of these the
+aegis, usually explained as a storm-cloud, is probably intended
+as a battle-charm, like the Gorgon&rsquo;s head on the shield and the
+faces on the shields of Chinese soldiers; the owl probably
+represents the form under which she was worshipped in primitive
+times, and subsequently became her favourite bird (the epithet
+<span class="grk" title="glaukopis">&#947;&#955;&#945;&#965;&#954;&#8182;&#960;&#953;&#962;</span>, meaning &ldquo;keen-eyed&rdquo; in Homer, may have originally
+signified &ldquo;owl-faced&rdquo;); the snake, a common companion of the
+earth deities, probably refers to her connexion with
+Erechtheus-Erichthonius.</p>
+
+<p>As to artistic representations of the goddess, we have first the
+rude figure which seems to be a copy of the Palladium; secondly,
+the still rude, but otherwise more interesting, figures of her,
+as <i>e.g.</i> when accompanying heroes, on the early painted vases;
+and thirdly, the type of her as produced by Pheidias, from which
+little variation appears to have been made. Of his numerous
+statues of her, the three most celebrated were set up on the Acropolis.
+(1) Athena <i>Parthenos</i>, in the Parthenon. It was in ivory
+and gold, and 30 ft. high. She was represented standing, in a long
+tunic; on her head was a helmet, ornamented with sphinxes
+and griffins; on her breast was the aegis, fringed with serpents
+and the Gorgon&rsquo;s head in centre. In her right hand was a Nike
+or winged victory, while her left held a spear, which rested on a
+shield on which were represented the battles of the Amazons
+with the giants. (2) A colossal statue said to have been formed
+from the spoils taken at Marathon, the so-called Athena
+<i>Promachos</i>. (3) Athena <i>Lemnia</i>, so called because it had been
+dedicated by the Athenian cleruchies in Lemnos. In this she
+was represented without arms, as a brilliant type of virgin beauty.
+The two last statues were of bronze. From the time of Pheidias
+calm earnestness, self-conscious might, and clearness of intellect
+were the main characteristics of the goddess. The eyes, slightly
+cast down, betoken an attitude of thoughtfulness; the forehead
+is clear and open; the mouth indicates firmness and resolution.
+The whole suggests a masculine rather than a feminine form.</p>
+
+<p>From Greece the worship of Athena extended to Magna
+Graecia, where a number of temples were erected to her in various
+places. In Italy proper she was identified with Minerva (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See articles in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>; W.H. Roscher&rsquo;s
+<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des
+antiquités</i> (s.v. &ldquo;Minerva&rdquo;); L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>;
+W.H. Roscher, &ldquo;Die Grundbedeutung der Athene,&rdquo; in <i>Nektar und
+Ambrosia</i> (1883); F.A. Voigt, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Mythologie des Ares
+und Athena,&rdquo; in <i>Leipziger Studien</i>, iv. (1881); L.R. Farnell, <i>The
+Cults of the Greek States</i>, i. (1896); J.E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to
+the Study of Greek Religion</i> (1903), for the festivals especially;
+O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, ii. (1907). In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek
+Art</a></span>, fig. 21 represents Athena in the act of striking a prostrate
+giant; fig. 38 a statuette of Athena Parthenos, a replica of the work
+of Pheidias.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> O. Gruppe (<i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, ii. p.
+1194) thinks that it probably means &ldquo;without mother&rsquo;s milk,&rdquo; either
+in an active or in a passive sense &ldquo;not giving suck,&rdquo; or &ldquo;unsuckled,&rdquo;
+in her character as the virgin goddess, or as springing from the head
+of Zeus. In support of this view he
+refers to Hesychius <span class="grk" title="thaenion gala">&#952;&#942;&#957;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#947;&#940;&#955;&#945;</span> and a passage in
+Athenagoras (<i>Legatio pro Christianis</i>, 17), where
+it is stated that Athena was sometimes called <span class="grk" title="Athela">&#7944;&#952;&#951;&#955;&#8118;</span>
+or <span class="grk" title="Athele">&#7944;&#952;&#942;&#955;&#951;</span>. For Pallas, he prefers the old etymology
+from <span class="grk" title="palla">&#960;&#940;&#955;&#955;&#969;</span> (to &ldquo;shake&rdquo;), rather in the sense of
+&ldquo;earth-shaker&rdquo; than &ldquo;lance-brandisher.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> According to J.E. Harrison in Classical Review (June 1894),
+Athena Ergane is the goddess of the fruits of the field and the procreation
+of children.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENAEUM,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> a name originally applied in ancient Greece
+(<span class="grk" title="Athaenaion">&#7944;&#952;&#942;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>) to buildings dedicated to Athena, and specially used
+as the designation of a temple in Athens, where poets and men of
+learning were accustomed to meet and read their productions.
+The academy for the promotion of learning which the emperor
+Hadrian built (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 135) at Rome, near the Forum, was also
+called the Athenaeum. Poets and orators still met and discussed
+there, but regular courses of instruction were given by a staff of
+professors in rhetoric, jurisprudence, grammar and philosophy.
+The institution, later called Schola Romana, continued in high
+repute till the 5th century. Similar academies were also founded
+in the provinces and at Constantinople by the emperor Theodosius II.
+In modern times the name has been applied to various
+academies, as those of Lyons and Marseilles, and the Dutch high
+schools; and it has become a very general designation for literary
+clubs. It is also familiar as the title of several literary periodicals,
+notably of the London literary weekly founded in 1828.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENAEUS,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and
+grammarian, flourished about the end of the 2nd and the beginning
+of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Suidas only tells us that he lived &ldquo;in the
+times of Marcus&rdquo;; but the contempt with which he speaks of
+Commodus (died 192) shows that he survived that emperor.
+Athenaeus himself states that he was the author of a treatise on
+the <i>thratta</i>&mdash;a kind of fish mentioned by Archippus and other
+comic poets&mdash;and of a history of the Syrian kings, both of which
+works are lost. We still possess the <i>Deipnosophistae</i>, which may
+mean dinner-table philosophers or authorities on banquets, in
+fifteen books. The first two books, and parts of the third,
+eleventh and fifteenth, are only extant in epitome, but otherwise
+we seem to possess the work entire. It is an immense storehouse
+of miscellaneous information, chiefly on matters connected with
+the table, but also containing remarks on music, songs, dances,
+games, courtesans. It is full of quotations from writers whose
+works have not come down to us; nearly 800 writers and 2500
+separate writings are referred to by Athenaeus; and he boasts of
+having read 800 plays of the Middle Comedy alone. The plan of
+the <i>Deipnosophistae</i> is exceedingly cumbrous, and is badly carried
+out. It professes to be an account given by the author to his
+friend Timocrates of a banquet held at the house of Laurentius
+(or Larentius), a scholar and wealthy patron of art. It is thus a
+dialogue within a dialogue, after the manner of Plato, but a
+conversation of sufficient length to occupy several days (though
+represented as taking place in one) could not be conveyed in a
+style similar to the short conversations of Socrates. Among the
+twenty-nine guests are Galen and Ulpian, but they are all
+probably fictitious personages, and the majority take no part in
+the conversation. If Ulpian is identical with the famous jurist,
+the <i>Deipnosophistae</i> must have been written after his death (228);
+but the jurist was murdered by the praetorian guards, whereas
+Ulpian in Athenaeus dies a natural death. The conversation
+ranges from the dishes before the guests to literary matters of
+every description, including points of grammar and criticism;
+and they are expected to bring with them extracts from the poets,
+which are read aloud and discussed at table. The whole is but a
+clumsy apparatus for displaying the varied and extensive reading
+of the author. As a work of art it can take but a low rank, but
+as a repertory of fragments and morsels of information it is
+invaluable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editio princeps, Aldine, 1524; Casaubon, 1597-1600; Schweighäuser,
+1801-1807; Dindorf, 1827; Meineke, 1859-1867; Kaibel,
+1887-1890; English translation by Yonge in Bohn&rsquo;s <i>Classical
+Library</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENAGORAS,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> a Christian apologist of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+was, according to an emendator of the Paris Codex 451 of the
+11th century, a native of Athens. The only sources of information
+regarding him are a short notice by Philip of Side, in
+Pamphylia (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 420), and the inscription on his principal work.
+Philip&mdash;or rather the compiler who made excerpts from him&mdash;says
+that he was at the head of an Alexandrian school (the
+catechetical), that he lived in the time of Hadrian and
+Antoninus, to whom he addressed his <i>Apology</i>, and that Clement
+of Alexandria was his pupil; but these statements are more than
+doubtful. The inscription on the work describes it as the &ldquo;Embassy
+of Athenagoras, the Athenian, a philosopher and a Christian
+concerning the Christians, to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius
+Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus, &amp;c.&rdquo; This statement
+has given rise to considerable discussion, but from it and
+internal evidence the date of the <i>Apology</i> (<span class="grk" title="Presbeia peri
+Christianon">&#928;&#961;&#949;&#963;&#946;&#949;&#943;&#945; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#935;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#8182;&#957;</span>) may be fixed at about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 177. Athenagoras is also the
+author of a discourse on the resurrection of the body, which is not
+authenticated otherwise than by the titles on the various manuscripts.
+In the <i>Apology</i>, after contrasting the judicial treatment
+of Christians with that of other accused persons, he refutes the
+accusations brought against the Christians of atheism, eating
+human flesh and licentiousness, and in doing so takes occasion
+to make a vigorous and skilful attack on pagan polytheism and
+mythology. The discourse on the resurrection answers objections
+to the doctrine, and attempts to prove its truth from considerations
+of God&rsquo;s purpose in the creation of man, His justice and the
+nature of man himself. Athenagoras is a powerful and clear
+writer, who strives to comprehend his opponents&rsquo; views and is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span>
+acquainted with the classical writers. He used the <i>Apology</i>
+of Justin, but hardly the works of Aristides or Tatian. His
+theology is strongly tinged with Platonism, and this may account
+for his falling into desuetude. His discussion of the Trinity has
+some points of speculative interest, but it is not sufficiently
+worked out; he regards the Son as the Reason or Wisdom of the
+Father, and the Spirit as a divine effluence. On some other
+points, as the nature of matter, the immortality of the soul and
+the principle of sin, his views are interesting.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.&mdash;J.C. Th. Eg. de Otto, <i>Corpus Apol. Christ. Saec.</i> II.
+vol. vii. (Jena, 1857); E. Schwartz in <i>Texte und Untersuchungen</i>,
+iv. 2 (Leipzig, 1891).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Translations</span>.&mdash;Humphreys (London, 1714); B.P. Pratten
+(<i>Ante-Nic. Fathers</i>, Edinburgh, 1867).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;A. Harnack, <i>Gesch. der altchr. Litt.</i> pp. 526-558, and
+similar works by O. Bardenhewer and A. Ehrhard; Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyk.</i>; G. Krüger, <i>Early Chr. Lit.</i> p. 130 (where additional
+literature is cited). In 1559 and 1612 appeared in French a work
+on <i>True and Perfect Love</i>, purporting to be a translation from the
+Greek of Athenagoras; it is a palpable forgery.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENODORUS,<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> the name of two Stoic philosophers of the
+1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who have frequently been confounded.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Athenodorus Cananites</span> (<i>c.</i> 74 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 7), so called
+from his birthplace Canana near Tarsus (not Cana in Cilicia nor
+Canna in Lycaonia), was the son of one Sandon, whose name
+indicates Tarsian descent, not Jewish as many have held. He
+was a personal friend of Strabo, from whom we derive our knowledge
+of his life. He taught the young Octavian (afterwards
+Augustus) at Apollonia, and was a pupil of Posidonius at Rhodes.
+Subsequently he appears to have travelled in the East (Petra and
+Egypt) and to have made himself famous by lecturing in the
+great cities of the Mediterranean. Writing in 50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Cicero
+speaks of him with the highest respect (cf. <i>Ep. ad. Att.</i>, xvi.
+11. 4, 14. 4), a fact which enables us to fix the date of his birth
+as not later than about 74. His influence over Augustus was
+strong and lasting. He followed him to Rome in 44, and is said to
+have criticized him with the utmost candour, bidding him repeat
+the letters of the alphabet before acting on an angry impulse.
+In later years he was allowed by Augustus to return to Tarsus
+in order to remodel the constitution of the city after the
+degenerate democracy which had misgoverned it under Boethus.
+He succeeded (<i>c.</i> 15-10 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in setting up a timocratic oligarchy
+in the imperial interest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tarsus</a></span>). Sir W.M. Ramsay is
+inclined to attribute to the influence of Athenodorus the striking
+resemblances which can be established between Seneca and Paul,
+the latter of whom must certainly have been acquainted with his
+teachings. According to Eusebius and Strabo he was a learned
+scientist for his day, and some attribute to him a history of
+Tarsus. He helped Cicero in the composition of the <i>De Officiis</i>.
+His works are not certainly known, and none are extant. (See
+Sir W.M. Ramsay in the <i>Expositor</i>, September 1906, pp. 268 ff.)</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Athenodorus Cordylion</span>, also of Tarsus, was keeper of
+the library at Pergamum, and was an old man in 47 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In his
+enthusiasm for Stoicism he used to cut out from Stoic writings
+passages which seemed to him unsatisfactory. He also settled
+in Rome, where he died in the house of the younger Cato.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among others of the name may be mentioned (3) <span class="sc">Athenodorus
+of Teos</span>, who played the cithara at the wedding of Alexander the
+Great and Statira at Susa (324 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); (4) a Greek physician of the
+1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, who wrote on epidemic diseases; and two sculptors,
+of whom (5) one executed the statues of Apollo and Zeus which the
+Spartans dedicated at Delphi after Aegospotami; and (6) the other
+was a son of Alexander of Rhodes, whom he helped in the Laocoon
+group.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENRY,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> a market town of county Galway, Ireland, 14 m.
+inland (E.) from Galway on the Midland Great Western main
+line. Pop. (1901) 853. Its name is derived from <i>Ath-na-riogh</i>,
+the ford of kings; and it grew to importance after the Anglo-Norman
+invasion as the first town of the Burgs and Berminghams.
+The walls were erected in 1211 and the castle in
+1238, and the remains of both are noteworthy. A Dominican
+monastery was founded with great magnificence by Myler de
+Bermingham in 1241, and was repaired by the Board of Works
+in 1893. Of the Franciscan monastery of 1464 little is left.
+The town returned two members to the Irish parliament from
+the time of Richard II. to the Union; but it never recovered
+from the wars of the Tudor period, culminating in a successful
+siege by Red Hugh O&rsquo;Donnell in 1596.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENS<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> [<span class="grk" title="Athaenai">&#7944;&#952;&#8134;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, <i>Athenae</i>, modern colloquial Greek <span class="grk" title="Athaena">&#7945;&#952;&#942;&#957;&#945;</span>],
+the capital of the kingdom of Greece, situated in 23° 44&prime; E.
+and 37° 58&prime; N., towards the southern end of the central and
+principal plain of Attica. The various theories with regard to
+the origin of the name are all somewhat unconvincing; it is
+conceivable that, with the other homonymous Greek towns,
+such as Athenae Diades in Euboea, <span class="grk" title="Athaenai">&#7944;&#952;&#8134;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span> may be connected
+etymologically with <span class="grk" title="anthos">&#7940;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>, a flower (cf. <i>Firenze</i>, Florence);
+the patron goddess, Athena, was probably called after the place
+of her cult.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Topography and Antiquities</p>
+
+<p>The Attic plain, <span class="grk" title="to pedion">&#964;&#8056; &#960;&#949;&#948;&#943;&#959;&#957;</span>, slopes gently towards the coast of
+the Saronic Gulf on the south-west; on the east it is overlooked
+by Mount Hymettus (3369 ft.); on the north-east by Pentelicus
+or Brilessus (3635 ft.) from which, in ancient and modern times,
+an immense quantity of the finest marble has been quarried;
+on the north-west by Parnes (4636 ft.), a continuation of the
+Boeotian Cithaeron, and on the west by Aegaleus (1532 ft.),
+which descends abruptly to the bay of Salamis. In the centre
+of the plain extends from north-east to south-west a series of
+low heights, now known as Turcovuni, culminating towards the
+south in the sharply pointed Lycabettus (1112 ft.), now called
+Hagios Georgios from the monastery which crowns its summit.
+Lycabettus, the most prominent feature in the Athenian landscape,
+directly overhung the ancient city, but was not included
+in its walls; its peculiar shape rendered it unsuitable for
+fortification. The Turcovuni ridge, probably the ancient Anchesmus,
+separates the valley of the Cephisus on the north-west from
+that of its confluent, the Ilissus, which skirted the ancient city
+on the south-west. The Cephisus, rising in Pentelicus, enters
+the sea at New Phalerum; in summer it dwindles to an insignificant
+stream, while the Ilissus, descending from Hymettus,
+is totally dry, probably owing to the destruction of the ancient
+forests on both mountains, and the consequent denudation of
+the soil. Separated from Lycabettus by a depression to the
+south-west, through which flows a brook, now a covered drain
+(probably to be identified with the Eridanus), stands the remarkable
+oblong rocky mass of the Acropolis (512 ft.), rising
+precipitously on all sides except the western; its summit was
+partially levelled in prehistoric times, and the flat area was
+subsequently enlarged by further cutting and by means of retaining
+walls. Close to the Acropolis on the west is the lower
+rocky eminence of the Areopagus, <span class="grk" title="Areios pagos">&#7948;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#940;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> (377 ft.), the seat
+of the famous council; the name (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Areopagus</a></span>) has been
+connected with Ares, whose temple stood on the northern side
+of the hill, but is more probably derived from the <span class="grk" title="Apai">&#7945;&#961;&#945;&#943;</span> or
+Eumenides, whose sanctuary was formed by a cleft in its north-eastern
+declivity. Farther west of the Acropolis are three elevations;
+to the north-west the so-called &ldquo;Hill of the Nymphs&rdquo;
+(341 ft.), on which the modern Observatory stands; to the west
+the Pnyx, the meeting-place of the Athenian democracy (351 ft.),
+and to the south-west the loftier Museum Hill (482 ft.), still
+crowned with the remains of the monument of Philópappus.
+A cavity, a little to the west of the Observatory Hill, is generally
+supposed to be the ancient Barathron or place of execution.
+To the south-east of the Acropolis, beyond the narrow valley
+of the Ilissus, is the hill Ardettus (436 ft.). The distance from
+the Acropolis to the nearest point of the sea coast at Phalerum
+is a little over 3 m.</p>
+
+<p>The natural situation of Athens was such as to favour the
+growth of a powerful community. For the first requisites of a
+primitive settlement&mdash;food supply and defence&mdash;it
+afforded every advantage. The Attic plain, notwithstanding
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of the geographical position.</span>
+the lightness of the soil, furnished an adequate
+supply of cereals; olive and fig groves and vineyards
+were cultivated from the earliest times in the valley of
+the Cephisus, and pasturage for sheep and goats was abundant.
+The surrounding rampart of mountains was broken towards the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
+north-east by an open tract stretching between Hymettus and
+Pentelicus towards Marathon, and was traversed by the passes of
+Decelea, Phylé and Daphné on the north and north-west, but
+the distance between these natural passages and the city was
+sufficient to obviate the danger of surprise by an invading land
+force. On the other hand Athens, like Corinth, Megara and
+Argos, was sufficiently far from the sea to enjoy security against
+the sudden descent of a hostile fleet. At the same time the
+relative proximity of three natural harbours, Peiraeus, Zea and
+Munychia, favoured the development of maritime commerce
+and of the sea power which formed the basis of Athenian hegemony.
+The climate is temperate, but liable to sudden changes;
+the mean temperature is 63°.1 F., the maximum (in July) 99°.01,
+the minimum (in January) 31°.55. The summer heat is moderated
+by the sea-breeze or by cool northerly winds from the
+mountains (especially in July and August). The clear, bracing
+air, according to ancient writers, fostered the intellectual and
+aesthetic character of the people and endowed them with mental
+and physical energy. For the architectural embellishment of
+the city the finest building material was procurable without
+difficulty and in abundance; Pentelicus forms a mass of white,
+transparent, blue-veined marble; another variety, somewhat
+similar in appearance, but generally of a bluer hue, was obtained
+from Hymettus. For ordinary purposes grey limestone was
+furnished by Lycabettus and the adjoining hills; limestone
+from the promontory of Acté (the so-called &ldquo;poros&rdquo; stone),
+and conglomerate, were also largely employed. For the ceramic
+art admirable material was at hand in the district north-west of
+the Acropolis. For sculpture and various architectural purposes
+white, fine-grained marble was brought from Paros and Naxos.
+The main drawback to the situation of the city lay in the insufficiency
+of its water-supply, which was supplemented by an
+aqueduct constructed in the time of the Peisistratids and by
+later water-courses dating from the Roman period. A great
+number of wells were also sunk and rain-water was stored in
+cisterns.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the purposes of scientific topography observation of the
+natural features and outlines is followed by exact investigation of
+the architectural structures or remnants, a process demanding
+high technical competence, acute judgment and practical experience,
+as well as wide and accurate scholarship. The building
+material and the manner of its employment furnish evidence no
+less important than the character of the masonry, the design and
+<span class="sidenote"><i>Sources for Athenian topography</i>.</span>
+the modes of ornamentation. The testimony afforded
+by inscriptions is often of decisive importance, especially
+that of commemorative or votive tablets or of boundary-stones
+found <i>in situ</i>; the value of this evidence is, on
+the other hand, sometimes neutralized owing to the former
+removal of building material already used and its incorporation
+in later structures. Thus sepulchral inscriptions have
+been found on the Acropolis, though no burials took place there
+in ancient times. In the next place comes the evidence derived
+from the whole range of ancient literature and specially from descriptions
+of the city or its different localities. The earliest known
+description of Athens was that of Diodorus, <span class="grk" title="ho periaegtes">&#8001; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#951;&#947;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>, who lived
+in the second half of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Among his successors were
+Polemon of Ilium (beginning of 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose great <span class="grk" title="kosmikae
+periaegaesis">&#954;&#959;&#963;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#942; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#942;&#947;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> gave a minute account of the votive offerings on the Acropolis
+and the tombs on the Sacred Way; and Heliodorus (second half of
+the 2nd century) who wrote fifteen volumes on the monuments of
+Athens. Of these and other works of the earliest topographers only
+some fragments remain. In the period between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 143 and 159
+Pausanias visited Athens at a time when the monuments of the great
+age were still in their perfection and the principal embellishments
+of the Roman period had already been completed. The first thirty
+chapters of his invaluable <i>Description of Greece</i> (<span class="grk" title="periaegaesis taes Hellados">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#942;&#947;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#940;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>)
+are devoted to Athens, its ports and environs. Pausanias makes
+no claim to exhaustiveness; he selected what was best worth
+noticing (<span class="grk" title="ta axiologotata">&#964;&#8048; &#7936;&#958;&#953;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#974;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>). His account, drawn up from notes
+taken in the main from personal observation, possesses an especial
+importance for topographical research, owing to his method of
+describing each object in the order in which he saw it during the
+course of his walks. His accuracy, which has been called in question
+by some scholars, has been remarkably vindicated by recent excavations
+at Athens and elsewhere. The list of ancient topographers
+closes with Pausanias. The literature of succeeding centuries furnishes
+only isolated references; the more important are found in
+the scholia on Aristophanes, the lexicons of Hesychius, Photius
+and others, and the <i>Etymologicum Magnum</i>. The notices of Athens
+during the earlier middle ages are scanty in the extreme.  In 1395
+Niccola da Martoni, a pilgrim from the Holy Land, visited Athens
+and wrote a description of a portion of the city. Of the work of
+Cyriac of Ancona, written about 1450, only some fragments remain,
+which are well supplemented by the contemporaneous description
+of the capable observer known as the &ldquo;Anonymous of Milan.&rdquo; Two
+treatises in Greek by unknown writers belong to the same period.
+The Dutchman Joannes Meursius (1579-1639) wrote three disquisitions
+on Athenian topography. The conquest by Venice in
+1687 led to the publication of several works in that city, including
+the descriptions of De la Rue and Fanelli and the maps of Coronelli
+and others. The systematic study of Athenian topography was
+begun in the 17th century by French residents at Athens, the consuls
+Giraud and Chataignier and the Capuchin monks. The visit of the
+French physician Jacques Spon and the Englishman, Sir George
+Wheler or Wheeler (1650-1723), fortunately took place before the
+catastrophe of the Parthenon in 1687; Spon&rsquo;s <i>Voyage d&rsquo;Italie, de
+Dalmatie, de Grčce et du Levant</i>, which contained the first scientific
+description of the ruins of Athens, appeared in 1678; Wheler&rsquo;s
+<i>Journey into Greece</i>, in 1682. A period of British activity in research
+followed in the 18th century. The monumental work of James
+Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who spent three years at Athens (1751-1754),
+marked an epoch in the progress of Athenian topography and
+is still indispensable to its study, owing to the demolition of ancient
+buildings which began about the middle of the 18th century. To
+this period also belong the labours of Richard Pococke and Richard
+Dalton, Richard Chandler, E.D. Clarke and Edward Dodwell.
+The great work of W.M. Leake (<i>Topography of Athens and the Demi</i>,
+2nd ed., 1841) brought the descriptive literature to an end and inaugurated
+the period of modern scientific research, in which German
+archaeologists have played a distinguished part.</p>
+
+<p>Recent investigation has thrown a new and unexpected light on
+the art, the monuments and the topography of the ancient city.
+Numerous and costly excavations have been carried out
+by the Greek government and by native and foreign
+<span class="sidenote">Recent research.</span>
+scientific societies, while accidental discoveries have been
+frequently made during the building of the modern town. The
+museums, enriched by a constant inflow of works of art and inscriptions,
+have been carefully and scientifically arranged, and
+afford opportunities for systematic study denied to scholars of the
+past generation. Improved means of communication have enabled
+many acute observers to apply the test of scrutiny on the spot to
+theories and conclusions mainly based on literary evidence; five
+foreign schools of archaeology, directed by eminent scholars, lend
+valuable aid to students of all nationalities, and lectures are frequently
+delivered in the museums and on the more interesting and
+important sites. The native archaeologists of the present day hold
+a recognized position in the scientific work; the patriotic sentiment
+of former times, which prompted their zeal but occasionally warped
+their judgment, has been merged in devotion to science for its own
+sake, and the supervision of excavations, as well as the control of
+the art-collections, is now in highly competent hands. Athens has
+thus become a centre of learning, a meeting-place for scholars and
+a basis for research in every part of the Greek world. The attention
+of many students has naturally been concentrated on the ancient
+city, the birthplace of European art and literature, and a great
+development of investigation and discussion in the special domain
+of Athenian archaeology has given birth to a voluminous literature.
+Many theories hitherto universally accepted have been called in
+question or proved to be unsound: the views of Leake, for instance,
+have been challenged on various points, though many of his conclusions
+have been justified and confirmed. The supreme importance
+of a study of Greek antiquities on the spot, long understood by
+scholars in Europe and in America, has gradually come to be recognized
+in England, where a close attention to ancient texts, not always
+adequately supplemented by a course of local study and observation,
+formerly fostered a peculiarly conservative attitude in regard to the
+problems of Greek archaeology. Since the foundation of the German
+Institute in 1874, Athenian topography has to a large extent become
+a speciality of German scholars, among whom Wilhelm Dörpfeld
+occupies a pre-eminent position owing to his great architectural
+attainments and unrivalled local knowledge. Many of his bold and
+novel theories have provoked strenuous opposition, while others
+have met with general acceptance, except among scholars of the
+more conservative type.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:1158px; height:846px" src="images/img832.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img832a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Prehistoric Athens</i>.&mdash;Numerous traces of the &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo;
+epoch have recently been brought to light in Athens and its
+neighbourhood. Among the monuments of this age
+discovered in the surrounding districts are the rock-hewn
+<span class="sidenote">The early citadel.</span>
+tombs of Spata, accidentally revealed by a
+landslip in 1877, and domed sepulchre at Menidí, near
+the ancient Acharnae, excavated by Lolling in 1879. Other
+&ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; landmarks have been laid bare at Eleusis,
+Thoricus, Halae and Aphidna. These structures, however, are
+of comparatively minor importance in point of dimensions and
+decoration; they were apparently designed as places of sepulture
+for local chieftains, whose domains were afterwards incorporated
+in the Athenian realm by the <span class="grk" title="synoikismos">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span> (synoecism) attributed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
+to Theseus. The situation of the Acropolis, dominating the
+surrounding plain and possessing easy communication with
+the sea, favoured the formation of a relatively powerful state&mdash;inferior,
+however, to Tiryns and Mycenae; the myths of Cecrops,
+Erechtheus and Theseus bear witness to the might of the princes
+who ruled in the Athenian citadel, and here we may naturally
+expect to find traces of massive fortifications resembling in some
+degree those of the great Argolid cities. Such in fact have been
+brought to light by the modern excavations on the Acropolis
+(1885-1889). Remains of primitive polygonal walls which undoubtedly
+surrounded the entire area have been found at various
+points a little within the circuit of the existing parapet. The
+best-preserved portions are at the eastern extremity, at the
+northern side near the ancient &ldquo;royal&rdquo; exit, and at the south-western
+angle. The course of the walls can be traced with a few
+interruptions along the southern side. On the northern side are
+the foundations of a primitive tower and other remains, apparently
+of dwelling-houses, one of which may have been the <span class="grk" title="pukinos
+domos Erthaeos">&#960;&#965;&#954;&#953;&#957;&#8056;&#962; &#948;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962; &#7960;&#961;&#949;&#967;&#952;&#8134;&#959;&#962;</span> mentioned by Homer (<i>Od</i>. vii. 81). Among the
+foundations were discovered fragments of &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; pottery.
+The various approaches to the citadel on the northern side&mdash;the
+rock-cut flight of steps north-east of the Erechtheum (<i>q.v.</i>),
+the stairs leading to the well Clepsydra, and the intermediate
+passage supposed to have furnished access to the Persians&mdash;are
+all to be attributed to the primitive epoch. Two pieces of polygonal
+wall, one beneath the bastion of Nike Apteros, the other in
+a direct line between the Roman gateway and the door of the
+Propylaea, are all that remain of the primitive defences of the
+main entrance.</p>
+
+<p>These early fortifications of the Acropolis, ascribed to the
+primitive non-hellenic Pelasgi, must be distinguished from
+the Pelasgicum Or Pelargicum, which was in all probability
+an encircling wall, built round the base of the
+<span class="sidenote">The Pelasgicum.</span>
+citadel and furnished with nine gates from which it
+derived the name of Enneapylon. Such a wall would be required
+to protect the clusters of dwellings around the Acropolis as well
+as the springs issuing from the rock, while the gates opening
+in various directions would give access to the surrounding
+pastures and gardens. This view, which is that of E. Curtius,
+alone harmonizes with the statement of Herodotus (vi. 137) that
+the wall was &ldquo;around&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="peri">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#943;</span>) the Acropolis, and that of Thucydides
+(ii. 17) that it was &ldquo;beneath&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="hypo">&#8017;&#960;&#972;</span>) the fortress. Thus
+it would appear that the citadel had an outer and an inner line
+of defence in prehistoric times. The space enclosed by the outer
+wall was left unoccupied after the Persian wars in deference
+to an oracular response apparently dictated by military considerations,
+the maintenance of an open zone being desirable
+for the defence of the citadel. A portion of the outer wall has
+been recognized in a piece of primitive masonry discovered
+near the Odeum of Herodes Atticus; other traces will probably
+come to light when the northern and eastern slopes of the
+Acropolis have been completely explored. Leake, whom Frazer
+follows, assumed the Pelasgicum to be a fortified space at the
+western end of the Acropolis; this view necessitates the assumption
+that the nine gates were built one within the other, but
+early antiquity furnishes no instance of such a construction;
+Dörpfeld believes it to have extended from the grotto of Pan
+to the sacred precinct of Asclepius. The well-known passage
+of Lucian (<i>Piscator</i>, 47) cannot be regarded as decisive for any
+of the theories advanced, as any portion of the old <i>enceinte</i>
+dismantled by the Persians may have retained the name in later
+times. The Pelasgic wall enclosed the spring Clepsydra, beneath
+the north-western corner of the Acropolis, which furnished a water-supply
+to the defenders of the fortress. The spring, to which a
+staircase leads down, was once more included in a bastion during
+the War of Independence by the Greek chief Odysseus.</p>
+
+<p>To the &ldquo;Pelasgic&rdquo; era may perhaps be referred (with Curtius
+and Milchhöfer) the immense double terrace on the north-eastern
+slope of the Pnyx (395 ft. by 212), the upper portion
+of which is cut out of the rock, while the lower is
+<span class="sidenote">The Pnyx.</span>
+enclosed by a semicircular wall of massive masonry; the theory
+of these scholars, however, that the whole precinct was a sanctuary
+of the Pelasgian Zeus cannot be regarded as proved, nor is it
+easy to abandon the generally received view that this was the
+scene of the popular assemblies of later times, notwithstanding
+the apparent unsuitability of the ground and the insufficiency
+of room for a large multitude. These difficulties are met by
+the assumption that the semicircular masonry formed the base
+of a retaining-wall which rose to a considerable height, supporting
+a theatre-like structure capable of seating many thousand
+persons. The masonry may be attributed to the 5th century;
+the chiselling of the immense blocks is not &ldquo;Cyclopean.&rdquo; Projecting
+from the upper platform at the centre of the chord of
+the semicircular area is a cube of rock, 11 ft. square and 5 ft.
+high, approached on either side by a flight of steps leading to the
+top; this block, which Curtius supposes to have been the
+primitive altar of Zeus <span class="grk" title="Hupsistos">&#8029;&#968;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, may be safely identified with
+the orators&rsquo; bema, <span class="grk" title="ho lithos en tae Pykni">&#8001; &#955;&#943;&#952;&#959;&#962; &#7952;&#957; &#964;&#8135; &#928;&#965;&#954;&#957;&#943;</span> (Aristoph. <i>Pax</i>, 680).
+Plutarch&rsquo;s statement that the Thirty Tyrants removed the
+bema so as to face the land instead of the sea is probably due to
+a misunderstanding. Other cubes of rock, apparently altars,
+exist in the neighbourhood. There can be little doubt that the
+Pnyx was the seat of an ancient cult; the meetings of the
+Ecclesia were of a religious character and were preceded by a
+sacrifice to Zeus <span class="grk" title="Agoraios">&#7944;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>; nor is it conceivable that, but for
+its sacred associations, a site would have been chosen so unsuitable
+for the purposes of a popular assembly as to need the
+addition of a costly artificial auditorium.</p>
+
+<p>The Pnyx, the Hill of the Nymphs and the Museum Hill are
+covered with vestiges of early settlements which extend to a
+considerable distance towards the south-east in the
+direction of Phalerum. They consist of chambers of
+<span class="sidenote">Rock-dwellings and tombs.</span>
+various sizes, some of which were evidently human
+habitations, together with cisterns, channels, seats,
+steps, terraces and quadrangular tombs, all cut in the rock.
+This neighbourhood was held by Curtius to have been the site
+of the primeval rock city, <span class="grk" title="kranaa polis">&#954;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#940;&#945; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span> (Aristoph. <i>Ach</i>. 75),
+anterior to the occupation of the Acropolis and afterwards
+abandoned for the later settlement. It seems inconceivable,
+however, that any other site should have been preferred by the
+primitive settlers to the Acropolis, which offered the greatest
+advantages for defence; the Pnyx, owing to its proximity
+to the centres of civic life, can never have been deserted, and
+that portion which lay within the city walls must have been
+fully occupied when Athens was crowded during the Peloponnesian
+War. Some of the rock chambers originally intended
+for tombs were afterwards converted, perhaps under pressure
+of necessity, into habitations, as in the case of the so-called
+&ldquo;Prison of Socrates,&rdquo; which consists of three chambers horizontally
+excavated and a small round apartment of the &ldquo;beehive&rdquo;
+type. The remains on the Pnyx and its neighbourhood cannot
+all be assigned to one epoch, the prehistoric age. The dwellings
+do not correspond in size or details with the undoubtedly prehistoric
+abodes on the Acropolis. In view of the ancient law
+which forbade burial within the city, the tombs within the
+circuit of the city walls must either be earlier than the time of
+Themistocles or several centuries later; in the similar rock-tombs
+on the neighbouring slopes of the Acropolis and Areopagus
+both Mycenaean and Dipylon pottery have been found. But
+the numerous vertically excavated tombs outside the walls
+are of late date and belong for the most part to the Roman
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The Areopagus is now a bare rock possessing few architectural
+traces. The legend of its occupation by the Amazons (Aeschylus,
+<i>Eum</i>. 681 seq.) may be taken as indicating its military
+importance for an attack on the Acropolis; the
+<span class="sidenote">The Areopagus.</span>
+Persians used it as a <i>point d&rsquo;appui</i> for their assault.
+The seat of the old oligarchical council and court for homicide
+was probably on its eastern height. Here were the altar of Athena
+Areia and two stones, the <span class="grk" title="lithos Ybreos">&#955;&#943;&#952;&#959;&#962; &#8029;&#946;&#961;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>, on which the accuser,
+and the <span class="grk" title="lithos Anaideias">&#955;&#943;&#952;&#959;&#962; &#7944;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#948;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, on which the accused, took their
+stand. Beneath, at the north-eastern corner, is the cleft which
+formed the sanctuary of the <span class="grk" title="Semnai">&#931;&#949;&#956;&#957;&#945;&#943;</span>, or Erinyes. There is
+no reason for disturbing the associations connected with this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span>
+spot as the scene of St Paul&rsquo;s address to the Athenians (E.
+Gardner, <i>Anc. Athens</i>, p. 505).</p>
+
+<p><i>Hellenic Period</i>.&mdash;While modern research has added considerably
+to our knowledge of prehistoric Athens, a still greater light
+has been thrown on the architecture and topography of the city
+in the earlier historic or &ldquo;archaic&rdquo; era, the subsequent age of
+Athenian greatness, and the period of decadence which set in with
+the Macedonian conquest; the first extends from the dawn of
+history to 480-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the city was destroyed by the
+Persians; the second, or classical, age closes in 322 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when
+Athens lost its political independence after the Lamian War;
+the third, or Hellenistic, in 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the state fell under
+Roman protection. We must here group these important epochs
+together, as distinguished from the later period of Roman rule,
+and confine ourselves to a brief notice of their principal monuments
+and a record of the discoveries by which they have been
+illustrated in recent years.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest settlement on the Acropolis was doubtless soon
+increased by groups of dwellings at its base, inhabited by the
+dependents of the princes who ruled in the stronghold.
+These habitations would naturally in the first instance
+<span class="sidenote">The city in the &ldquo;archaic&rdquo; era.</span>
+lie in close proximity to the western approach; after
+the building of the Pelasgicum they seem to have
+extended beyond its walls towards the south and south-west&mdash;towards
+the sea and the waters of the Ilissus. The district thus
+occupied sloped towards the sun and was sheltered by the
+Acropolis from the prevailing northerly winds. The Thesean
+synoecism led to the introduction of new cults and the foundation
+of new shrines partly on the Acropolis, partly in the inhabited
+district at its base both within and without the wall of the
+Pelasgicum. Some of the shrines in this region are mentioned
+by Thucydides in a passage which is of capital importance for
+the topography of the city at this period (ii. 15). By degrees
+the inhabited area began to comprise the open ground to the
+north-west, the nearer portion of the later Ceramicus, or &ldquo;potters&rsquo;
+field&rdquo; (afterwards divided by the walls of Themistocles into the
+Inner and Outer Ceramicus), and eventually extended to the
+north and east of the citadel, which, by the beginning of the
+5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had become the centre of a circular or
+wheel-shaped city, <span class="grk" title="polios trochoeideos akra karaena">&#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962; &#964;&#961;&#959;&#967;&#959;&#949;&#953;&#948;&#941;&#959;&#962; &#7940;&#954;&#961;&#945; &#954;&#940;&#961;&#951;&#957;&#945;</span> (Oracle <i>apud</i>
+Herod, vii. 140). To this enlarged city was applied, probably
+about the second half of the 6th century, the special designation
+<span class="grk" title="to aste">&#964;&#8056; &#7940;&#963;&#964;&#965;</span>, which afterwards distinguished Athens from its port,
+the Peiracus; the Acropolis was already <span class="grk" title="e polis">&#7969; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span> (Thucyd. ii. 15).
+The city is supposed to have been surrounded by a wall before
+the time of Solon, the existence of which may be deduced from
+Thucydides&rsquo; account of the assassination of Hipparchus (vi. 57),
+but no certain traces of such a wall have been discovered;
+the materials may have been removed to build the walls of
+Themistocles.</p>
+
+<p>The centre of commercial and civic life of the older group of
+communities, as of the greater city of the classical age, was the
+Agora or market. Here were the various public
+buildings, which, when the power of the princes on
+<span class="sidenote">The Agora.</span>
+the citadel was transferred to the archons, formed the
+offices of the administrative magistracy. The site of the primitive
+Agora (<span class="grk" title="archaia agora">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#945; &#7936;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#940;</span>) was probably in the hollow between the
+Acropolis and the Pnyx, which formed a convenient meeting-place for
+the dwellers on the north and south sides of the fortress
+as well as for its inhabitants. In the time of the Peisistratids
+the Agora was enlarged so as to extend over the Inner Ceramicus
+on the north-west, apparently reaching the northern declivities
+of the Areopagus and the Acropolis on the south. After the
+Persian Wars the northern portion was used for commercial,
+the southern for political and ceremonial purposes. In the
+southern were the Orchestra, where the Dionysiac dances took
+place, and the famous statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton
+by Antenor which were carried away by Xerxes; also the
+Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the Gods, the Bouleuterium,
+or council-chamber of the Five Hundred, the Prytaneum, the
+hearth of the combined communities, where the guests of the
+state dined, the temple of the Dioscuri, and the Tholus, or Skias,
+a circular stone-domed building in which the Prytaneis were
+maintained at the public expense; in the northern were the
+Leocorium, where Hipparchus was slain, the <span class="grk" title="stoa basilikae">&#963;&#964;&#959;&#8048; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>,
+the famous <span class="grk" title="stoa poikilae">&#963;&#964;&#959;&#8048; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#955;&#951;</span>, where Zeno taught, and other structures.
+The Agora was commonly described as the &ldquo;Ceramicus,&rdquo;
+and Pausanias gives it this name; of the numerous buildings
+which he saw here scarcely a trace remains; their position, for
+the most part, is largely conjectural, and the exact boundaries
+of the Agora itself are uncertain. What are perhaps the remains
+of the <span class="grk" title="stoa basilikae">&#963;&#964;&#959;&#8048; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>, in which the Archon Basileus held his
+court and the Areopagus Council sat in later times, were brought
+to light in the winter of 1897-1898, when excavations were
+carried out on the eastern slope of the &ldquo;Theseum&rdquo; hill. Here
+was found a rectangular structure resembling a temple, but with
+a side door to the north; it possessed a portico of six columns.
+The north slope of the Areopagus, where a number of early
+tombs were found, was also explored, and the limits of the
+Agora on the south and north-west were approximately ascertained.
+A portion of the main road leading from the Dipylon
+to the Agora was discovered.</p>
+
+<p>In 1892 Dörpfeld began a series of excavations in the district
+between the Acropolis and the Pnyx with the object of determining
+the situation of the buildings described by
+Pausanias as existing in the neighbourhood of the
+<span class="sidenote">The Enneacrunus.</span>
+Agora, and more especially the position of the Enneacrunus
+fountain. The Enneacrunus has hitherto
+been generally identified with the spring Callirrhoe in the bed of
+the Ilissus, a little to the south-east of the Olympieum; it is
+apparently, though not explicitly, placed by Thucydides (ii. 15)
+in proximity to that building, as well as the temple of Dionysus
+<span class="grk" title="en limnais">&#7952;&#957; &#955;&#943;&#956;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#962;</span> and other shrines, the temples of Zeus Olympius
+and of Ge and the Pythium, which he mentions as situated
+mainly to the south of the Acropolis. On the other hand,
+Pausanias (i. 14. 1), who never deviates without reason from the
+topographical order of his narrative, mentions the Enneacrunus
+in the midst of his description of certain buildings which were
+undoubtedly in the region of the Agora, and unless he is guilty
+of an unaccountable digression the Enneacrunus which he saw
+must have lain west of the Acropolis. It is now generally
+agreed that the Agora of classical times covered the low ground
+between the hill of the &ldquo;Theseum,&rdquo; the Areopagus and the
+Pnyx; and Pausanias, in the course of his description, appears
+to have reached its southern end. The excavations revealed
+a main road of surprisingly narrow dimensions winding up from
+the Agora to the Acropolis. A little to the south-west of the
+point where the road turns towards the Propylaca was found a
+large rock-cut cistern or reservoir which Dörpfeld identifies with
+the Enneacrunus. The reservoir is supplied by a conduit of
+6th-century tiles connected with an early stone aqueduct, the
+course of which is traceable beneath the Dionysiac theatre and
+the royal garden in the direction of the Upper Ilissus. These
+elaborate waterworks were, according to Dörpfeld, constructed
+by the Peisistratids in order to increase the supply from the
+ancient spring Callirrhoe; the fountain was furnished with nine
+jets and henceforth known as Enneacrunus. This identification
+has been hotly contested by many scholars, and the question
+must still be regarded as undecided. An interesting confirmation
+of Dörpfeld&rsquo;s view is furnished by the map of Guillet and Coronelli,
+published in 1672, in which the Enneacrunus is depicted as a
+well with a stream of running water in the neighbourhood of the
+Pnyx. The fact that spring water is not now found in this
+locality is by no means fatal to the theory; recent engineering
+investigations have shown that much of the surface water of
+the Attic plain has sunk to a lower level. In front of the reservoir
+is a small open space towards which several roads converge;
+close by is a triangular enclosure of polygonal masonry, in which
+were found various relics relating to the worship of Dionysus,
+a very ancient wine-press (<span class="grk" title="laenos">&#955;&#951;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>) and the remains of a small
+temple. Built over this early precinct, which Dörpfeld identifies
+with the Dionysium <span class="grk" title="en limnais">&#7952;&#957; &#955;&#943;&#956;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#962;</span>, or Lenaeum, is a basilica-shaped
+building of the Roman period, apparently sacred to
+Bacchus; in this was found an inscription containing the rules
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
+of the society of the Iobacchi. There is an obvious difficulty in
+assuming that <span class="grk" title="limnai">&#955;&#943;&#956;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, in the sense of &ldquo;marshes,&rdquo; existed in
+this confined area, but stagnant pools may still be seen here
+in winter. Dörpfeld&rsquo;s identification of the Dionysium, <span class="grk" title="en limnais">&#7952;&#957; &#955;&#943;&#956;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#962;</span>
+cannot be regarded as proved; his view that another Pythium
+and another Olympieum existed in this neighbourhood is still
+less probable; but the inconclusiveness of these theories does
+not necessarily invalidate his identification of the Enneacrunus,
+with regard to the position of which the language of Thucydides
+is far from clear. Another enclosure, a little to the south, is
+proved by an inscription to have been a sanctuary of the hitherto
+unknown hero Amynos, with whose cult those of Asclepius and
+the hero Dexion were here associated; under the name Dexion,
+the poet Sophocles is said to have been worshipped after his
+death. The whole district adjoining the Areopagus was found
+to have been thickly built over; the small, mean dwelling-houses
+intersected by narrow, crooked lanes convey a vivid idea of the
+contrast between the modest private residences and the great
+public structures of the ancient city.</p>
+
+<p>The age of the Peisistratids (560-511 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) marked an era in
+the history of Athenian topography. The greatest of their
+foundations, the temple of Olympian Zeus, will be
+referred to later. Among the monuments of their
+<span class="sidenote">The Academy and Lyceum.</span>
+rule, in addition to the enlarged Agora and the
+Enneacrunus, were the Academy and perhaps the
+Lyceum. The original name of the Academy may have been
+Hecademia, from Hecademus, an early proprietor (but see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Academy, Greek</a></span>). The famous seat of the Platonic philosophy
+was a gymnasium enlarged as a public park by Cimon; it lay
+about a mile to the north-west of the Dipylon Gate, with which
+it was connected by a street bordered with tombs. The Lyceum,
+where Aristotle taught, was originally a sanctuary of Apollo
+Lyceius. Like the Academy, it was an enclosure with a gymnasium
+and garden; it lay to the east of the city beyond the
+Diocharean Gate.</p>
+
+<p>Little was known of the buildings on the Acropolis in the
+pre-Persian period before the great excavations of 1885-1888,
+which rank among the most surprising achievements of
+modern research. The results of these operations, which were
+conducted by the Archaeological Society under the direction of
+Kavvadias and Kawerau, must be summarized with the utmost
+<span class="sidenote">The Acropolis before the Persian wars.</span>
+brevity. The great deposits of sculpture and pottery
+now unearthed, representing all that escaped from the
+the ravages of the Persians and the burning of the ancient
+shrines, afford a startling revelation of the development
+of Greek art in the 7th and 6th centuries. Numbers
+of statues&mdash;among them a series of draped and richly-coloured
+female figures&mdash;masterpieces of painted pottery, only
+equalled by the Attic vases found in Magna Grecia and Etruria,
+and numerous bronzes, were among the treasures of art now
+brought to light. All belong to the &ldquo;archaic&rdquo; epoch; only a
+few remains of the greater age were found, including some
+fragments of sculptures from the Parthenon and Erechtheum. We
+are principally concerned, however, with the results which add to
+our knowledge of the topography and architecture of the Acropolis.
+The entire area of the summit was now thoroughly explored,
+the excavations being carried down to the surface of the
+rock, which on the southern side was found to slope outwards to a
+depth of about 45 ft. In the lower strata were discovered the
+remnants of Cyclopean or prehistoric architecture already
+mentioned. Of later date, perhaps, are the limestone polygonal
+retaining walls on the west front, which extended on either side
+of the early entrance. Of these a portion may probably be
+attributed to the Peisistratids, in whose time the Acropolis once
+more became the stronghold of a despotism. Its fortifications,
+though not increased, were apparently strengthened by the
+Tyrants. To its embellishment they probably contributed the
+older ornamental entrance, facing south-west, the precursor of
+the greater structure of Mnesicles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Propylaea</a></span>) and the
+colonnade of the &ldquo;Hecatompedon,&rdquo; or earlier temple of Athena,
+at this time the only large sacred edifice on the citadel. The
+name was subsequently applied to the cella, or eastern chamber,
+of the Parthenon, which is exactly 100 ft. long, and also became
+a popular designation of the temple itself.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Hecatompedon may in all probability be identified
+with an early temple, also 100 ft. long, the foundations of which
+were pointed out in 1885 by Dörpfeld on the ground
+immediately adjoining the south side of the
+<span class="sidenote">The old temple of Athena.</span>
+Erechtheum.  On this spot was apparently the primitive
+sanctuary of Athena, the rich temple <span class="grk" title="pion naeos">&#960;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#957;&#951;&#972;&#962;</span> of
+Homer (<i>Il.</i> ii. 549), in which the cult of the goddess was associated
+with that of Erechtheus; the Homeric temple is identified by
+Furtwängler with the &ldquo;compact house of Erechtheus&rdquo; (<i>Od</i>. vii. 81),
+which, he holds, was not a royal palace, but a place of worship,
+and traces of it may perhaps be recognized in the fragments
+of prehistoric masonry enclosed by the existing foundations.
+The foundations seem to belong to the 7th century, except those
+of the colonnade, which was possibly added by Peisistratus.
+According to Dörpfeld, this was the &ldquo;old temple&rdquo; of Athena
+Polias, frequently mentioned in literature and inscriptions, in
+which was housed the most holy image <span class="grk" title="xoanon">&#958;&#972;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span> of the goddess
+which fell from heaven; it was burnt, but not completely
+destroyed, during the Persian War, and some of its external
+decorations were afterwards built into the north wall of the
+Acropolis; it was subsequently restored, he thinks, with or
+without its colonnade&mdash;in the former case a portion of the
+peristyle must have been removed when the Erechtheum was
+built so as to make room for the porch of the maidens; the
+building was set on fire in 406 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Xen. <i>Hell.</i> i. 6. 1), and
+the conflagration is identical with that mentioned by Demosthenes
+(<i>In Timocr.</i> xxiv. 155); its &ldquo;opisthodomos&rdquo; served as the
+Athenian treasury in the 5th and 4th centuries; the temple is the
+<span class="grk" title="archaios neos taes Poliados">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962; &#957;&#949;&#8060;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#928;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#940;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span> mentioned by Strabo (ix. 16),
+and it was still standing in the time of Pausanias, who applies to
+it the same name (i. 27. 3). The conclusion that the foundations
+are those of an old temple burnt by the Persians has been generally
+accepted, but other portions of Dörpfeld&rsquo;s theory&mdash;more especially
+his assumption that the temple was restored after the Persian
+War&mdash;have provoked much controversy. Thus J.G. Frazer
+maintains the hitherto current theory that the earlier temple of
+Athena and Erechtheus was on the site of the Erechtheum;
+that the Erechtheum inherited the name <span class="grk" title="archaios neos">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962; &#957;&#949;&#974;&#962;</span> from its
+predecessor, and that the &ldquo;opisthodomos&rdquo; in which the treasures
+were kept was the west chamber of the Parthenon; Furtwängler
+and Milchhöfer hold the strange view that the &ldquo;opisthodomos&rdquo;
+was a separate building at the east end of the Acropolis, while
+Penrose thinks the building discovered by Dörpfeld was possibly
+the Cecropeum. E. Curtius and J.W. White, on the other hand,
+accept Dörpfeld&rsquo;s identification, but believe that only the
+western portion of the temple or opisthodomos was rebuilt after
+the Persian War. Admitting the identification, we may perhaps
+conclude that the temple was repaired in order to provide a
+temporary home for the venerated image and other sacred
+objects; no traces of a restoration exist, but the walls probably
+remained standing after the Persian conflagration. The removal
+of the ancient temple was undoubtedly intended when the
+Erechtheum was built, but superstition and popular feeling may
+have prevented its demolition and the removal of the <span class="grk" title="xoanon">&#958;&#972;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span>
+to the new edifice. The temple consisted of an eastern cella with
+pronaos; behind this was the opisthodomos, divided into three
+chambers&mdash;possibly treasuries&mdash;with a portico at the western end.
+The peristyle, if we compare the measurements of the stylobate
+with those of the drums built into the wall of the Acropolis, may
+be concluded to have consisted of six Doric columns at the ends
+and twelve at the sides. In one of the pediments was a gigantomachy,
+of which some fragments have been recovered.</p>
+
+<p>In 1896 excavations with the object of exploring the whole
+northern and eastern slopes of the Acropolis were begun by
+Kavvadias. The pathway between the citadel and
+the Areopagus was found to be so narrow that it is
+<span class="sidenote">The grottoes of Pan and Apollo.</span>
+certain the Panathenaic procession cannot have taken
+this route to the Acropolis. On the north-west rock
+the caves known as the grottoes of Pan and Apollo were
+cleared out; these consist of a slight high-arched indentation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
+immediately to the east of the Clepsydra and a double and
+somewhat deeper cavern a little farther to the east. In the first
+mentioned are a number of niches in which <span class="grk" title="pinakes">&#960;&#943;&#957;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span> (votive
+tablets) were placed: some of these, inscribed with dedications to
+Apollo, have been discovered. The whole locality was the seat of
+the ancient cult of this deity, afterwards styled &ldquo;Hypacraeus,&rdquo;
+with which was associated the legend of Creüsa and the birth
+of Ion. The worship of Pan was introduced after the Persian
+wars, in consequence of an apparition seen by Pheidippides,
+the Athenian courier, in the mountains of Arcadia. Another
+cave more to the west was revealed by the demolition of
+the bastion of Odysseus. To the east a much deeper and hitherto
+unknown cavern has been revealed, which Kavvadias identifies
+with the grotto of Pan. Close to it are a series of steps hewn in
+the rock which connect with those discovered in 1886 within the
+Acropolis wall. Farther east is an underground passage leading
+eastward to a cave supposed to be the sanctuary of Aglaurus
+where the ephebi took the oath; with this passage is connected
+a secret staircase leading up through a cleft in the rock to the
+precinct of the Errephori on the Acropolis. It is conceivable
+that the priestesses employed this exit when descending on their
+mysterious errand.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifty years between the Persian and the Peloponnesian
+wars architecture and plastic art attained their highest perfection
+in Athens. The almost complete destruction of the
+buildings on the Acropolis and in the lower city, among
+<span class="sidenote">The classical period: the walls of Themistocles.</span>
+them many temples and shrines which religious sentiment
+might otherwise have preserved, facilitated the
+realization of the magnificent architectural designs
+of Themistocles, Cimon and Pericles, while the rapid
+growth of the Athenian empire provided the state with the
+necessary means for the execution of these sumptuous projects.
+Of the great monuments of this epoch few traces remain except
+on the Acropolis. After the departure of the Persians the first
+necessity was the reconstruction of the defences of the city and
+the citadel. The walls of the city, now built under the direction
+of Themistocles, embraced a larger area than the previous
+circuit, with which they seem to have coincided at the Dipylon
+Gate on the north-west where the Sacred Way to Eleusis was
+joined by the principal carriage route to the Peiraeus and the
+roads to the Academy and Colonus. The other more important
+gates were the Peiraic and Melitan on the west; the Itonian on
+the south leading to Phalerum, the Diomean and Diocharean on
+the east, and the Acharnian on the north. The wall, which was
+strengthened with numerous towers, enclosed the quarters of
+Collytus on the north, Melite on the west, Limnae on the
+south-west and south, and Diomea on the east. The scanty traces
+which remain have not been systematically excavated except
+in the neighbourhood of the Dipylon; the discovery of sepulchral
+tablets built into the masonry illustrates the statement of
+Thucydides with regard to the employment of such material
+in the hasty construction of the walls. The circuit has been
+practically ascertained in its general lines, though not in details;
+it is given by Thucydides (ii. 13. 7) as 43 stades (about
+5˝ m.) exclusive of the portion between the points of junction
+with the long walls extending to the Peiraeus, but the
+whole circumference cannot have exceeded 37 stades. Possibly
+Thucydides, who in the passage referred to is dealing with
+the question of defence, included a portion of the contiguous
+long walls in his measurement; this explanation derives
+probability from his underestimate of the length of the long
+walls.</p>
+
+<p>The design of connecting Athens with the Peiraeus by long
+parallel walls is ascribed by Plutarch to Themistocles. The
+&ldquo;Long Walls&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="ta makra teichae, ta skelae">&#964;&#8048; &#956;&#945;&#954;&#961;&#8048; &#964;&#949;&#943;&#967;&#951;, &#964;&#8048; &#963;&#954;&#941;&#955;&#951;</span>) consisted
+of (1) the &ldquo;North Wall&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="to boreion teichos">&#964;&#8056; &#946;&#972;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#964;&#949;&#8150;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>), (2) the
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Long Walls&rdquo;.</span>
+&ldquo;Middle&rdquo; or &ldquo;South Wall&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="to dia mesou teichos">&#964;&#8056; &#948;&#953;&#8048; &#956;&#941;&#963;&#959;&#965; &#964;&#949;&#8150;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, Plato,
+<i>Gorg.</i> 555 &Epsilon;; <span class="grk" title="to notion teichos">&#964;&#8056; &#957;&#972;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#964;&#949;&#8150;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>); and (3) the &ldquo;Phaleric
+Wall&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="to Phalaerikon teichos">&#964;&#8056; &#934;&#945;&#955;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#964;&#949;&#8150;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>; The north and Phaleric walls
+were perhaps founded by Cimon, and were completed about
+457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in the early administration of Pericles; the middle wall
+was built about 445 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The lines of the north and middle walls
+have been ascertained from the remnants still existing in the
+18th century and the scantier traces now visible. The north
+wall, leaving the city circuit at a point near the modern
+Observatory, ran from north-east to south-west near the present road
+to the Peiraeus, until it reached the Peiraeus walls a little to the
+east of their northernmost bend. The middle wall, beginning
+south of the Pnyx near the Melitan Gate, gradually approached
+the northern wall and, following a parallel course at an interval
+of 550 ft., diverged to the east near the modern New Phalerum
+and joined the Peiraeus walls on the height of Munychia where
+they turn inland from the sea. The course of the Phaleric wall
+has been much disputed. The widely-received view of Curtius
+that it ran to Cape Kolias (now Old Phalerum) on the east of
+the Phaleric bay is not accepted by recent topographers. The
+exigencies of the defensive system planned by Themistocles could
+only have been satisfied by a juncture of the Phaleric wall with
+that of the Peiraeus. The existence of any third wall was denied
+by Leake, according to whose theory the southern parallel wall
+would be identical with the Phaleric. The language of Thucydides,
+however, seems decisive with regard to the existence of
+three walls. The Phaleric wall, branching from the city circuit
+at some point farther east than the middle or south wall, may
+have followed the ridge of the Sikelia heights, where some traces
+of fortifications remain, and then traversed the Phalerum plain
+till it reached the Peiraeus defences at a point a little to the
+north-west of their junction with the middle wall. The Phaleric
+wall, proving indefensible, was abandoned towards the close of
+the Peloponnesian war; with the other two walls it was completely
+destroyed after the surrender of the city, and was not
+rebuilt when they were restored by Conon in 393 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The
+parallel walls fell into decay, during the Hellenistic period, and
+according to Strabo (ix. 396) were once more demolished by
+Sulla.</p>
+
+<p>The great advantages which the Peiraic promontory with its
+three natural harbours offered for purposes of defence and
+commerce were first recognized by Themistocles, in
+whose archonship (493 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the fortifications of the
+<span class="sidenote">The Peiraeus.</span>
+Peiraeus were begun. Before his time the Athenians
+used as a port the roadstead of Phalerum at the north-eastern
+corner of Phalerum bay partly sheltered by Cape Kolias. As
+soon as the building of the city walls had been completed,
+Themistocles resumed the construction of the Peiraeus defences,
+which protected the larger harbour of Cantharus on the west
+and the smaller ports of Zea and Munychia (respectively south-west
+and south-east of the Munychia heights), terminating in
+moles at their entrances and enclosing the entire promontory on
+the land and sea sides except a portion of the south-west shore
+of the peninsula of Acte. The walls, built of finely compacted
+blocks, were about 10 ft. in thickness and upwards of 60 ft. in
+height, and were strengthened by towers. The town was laid
+out at great expense in straight, broad streets, intersecting each
+other at right angles, by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus
+in the time of Pericles. In the centre was the Agora of Hippodamus;
+on the western margin of the Cantharus harbour
+extended the emporium, or Digma, the centre of commercial
+activity, flanked by a series of porticoes; at its northern end,
+near the entrance to the inner harbour, was another Agora, on
+the site of the modern market-place, and near it the <span class="grk" title="makra stoa">&#956;&#945;&#954;&#961;&#8048; &#963;&#964;&#959;&#940;</span>,
+the corn depot of the state. This inner and shallower harbour,
+perhaps the <span class="grk" title="kophos limaen">&#954;&#969;&#966;&#8056;&#962; &#955;&#953;&#956;&#942;&#957;</span>, was afterwards excluded from the
+town precinct by the walls of Conon, which traversing its opening
+on an embankment (<span class="grk" title="to dia meson choma">&#964;&#8056; &#948;&#953;&#8048; &#956;&#941;&#963;&#959;&#965; &#967;&#8182;&#956;&#945;</span>) ran round the outer shore
+of the western promontory of Eëtionea, previously enclosed,
+with some space to the north-west, by the wider circuit of
+Themistocles. In the harbours of Zea and Munychia traces may
+be seen of the remarkable series of galley-slips in which the
+Athenian fleet was built and repaired. The galley-slips around
+Zea were roofed by a row of gables supported by stone columns,
+each gable sheltering two triremes. Among the other noteworthy
+buildings of the Peiraeus were the arsenal (<span class="grk" title="skeuothaekae">&#963;&#954;&#949;&#965;&#959;&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951;</span>) of Philo
+and the temples of Zeus Soter, the patron god of the sailors, of
+the Cnidian Artemis, built by Cimon, and of Artemis Munychia,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span>
+situated near the fort on the Munychia height; traces of a temple
+of Asclepius, of two theatres and of a hippodrome remain. The
+fine marble lion of the classical period which stood at the mouth
+of the Cantharus harbour gave the Peiraeus its medieval and
+modern names of Porto Leone and Porto Draco; it was carried
+away to Venice by Morosini.</p>
+
+<p>In 1870 the Greek Archaeological Society undertook a series
+of excavations in the Outer Ceramicus, which had already been
+partially explored by various scholars. The operations,
+which were carried on at intervals till 1890,
+<span class="sidenote">The Dipylon and Ceramicus.</span>
+resulted in the discovery of the Dipylon Gate, the
+principal entrance of ancient Athens. The Dipylon
+consists of an outer and an inner gate separated by an oblong
+courtyard and flanked on either side by towers; the gates were
+themselves double, being each composed of two apertures
+intended for the incoming and outgoing traffic. An opening in
+the city wall a little to the south-west, supposed to have been
+the Sacred Gate (<span class="grk" title="iera pylae">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8048; &#960;&#973;&#955;&#951;</span>), was in all probability an outlet
+for the waters of the Eridanus. This stream, which has hitherto
+been regarded as the eastern branch of the Ilissus rising at
+Kaesariane, has been identified by Dörpfeld with a brook
+descending from the south slope of Lycabettus and conducted in
+an artificial channel to the north-western end of the city, where
+it made its exit through the walls, eventually joining the Ilissus.
+The channel was open in Greek times, but was afterwards covered
+by Roman arches; it appears to have served as the main drain
+of the city. Between this outlet and the Dipylon were found a
+boundary-stone, inscribed <span class="grk" title="oros Kerameikou">&#8004;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#922;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#949;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8166;</span>, which remains in its
+place, and the foundations of a large rectangular building,
+possibly the Pompeium, which may have been a robing-room
+for the processions which passed this way. On either side of the
+Dipylon the walls of Themistocles, faced on the outside by a
+later wall, have been traced for a considerable distance. The
+excavation of the outlying cemetery revealed the unique &ldquo;Street
+of the Tombs&rdquo; and brought to light a great number of sepulchral
+monuments, many of which remain <i>in situ</i>. Especially noteworthy
+are the <i>stelae</i> (reliefs) representing scenes of leave-taking,
+which, though often of simple workmanship, are characterized
+by a touching dignity and restraint of feeling. In this neighbourhood
+were found a great number of tombs containing vases of all
+periods, which furnish a marvellous record of the development
+of Attic ceramic art. A considerable portion of the district
+remains unexplored.</p>
+
+<p>The Acropolis had been dismantled as a fortress after the
+expulsion of Hippias; its defenders against the Persians found
+it necessary to erect a wooden barricade at its entrance.
+The fortifications were again demolished by the
+<span class="sidenote">The Acropolis of the classical period: its fortifications and area.</span>
+Persians, after whose departure the existing north
+wall was erected in the time of Themistocles; many
+columns, metopes and other fragments from the
+buildings destroyed by the Persians were built into it,
+possibly owing to haste, as in the case of the city walls,
+but more probably with the design of commemorating the
+great historic catastrophe, as the wall was visible from the
+Agora. The fine walls of the south and east sides were built by
+Cimon after the victory of the Eurymedon, 468 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; they
+extend considerably beyond the old Pelasgic circuit, the
+intervening space being filled up with earth and the débris of the
+ruined buildings so as to increase the level space of the summit.
+On the northern side Cimon completed the wall of Themistocles
+at both ends and added to its height; the ground behind was
+levelled up on this side also, the platform of the Acropolis thus
+receiving its present shape and dimensions. The staircase leading
+down to the sanctuary of Aglaurus was enclosed in masonry.
+At the south-western corner, on the right of the approach to the
+old entrance, a bastion of early masonry was encased in a
+rectangular projection which formed a base for the temple of
+Nike. The great engineering works of Cimon provided a
+suitable area for the magnificent structures of the age of
+Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>The greater monuments of the classical epoch on the Acropolis
+are described in separate articles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parthenon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erechtheum</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Propylaea</a></span>). Next in interest to these noble structures is the
+beautiful little temple of Athena Nike, wrongly designated Nike
+<span class="sidenote">The monuments on the Acropolis.</span>
+Apteros (Wingless Victory), standing on the bastion already
+mentioned; it was begun after 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and was probably
+finished after the outbreak of the Peloponnesian
+War. The temple, which is entirely of Pentelic marble,
+is amphiprostyle tetrastyle, with fluted Ionic columns,
+on a stylobate of three steps; its length is 27 ft., its
+breadth 18˝ ft., and its total height, from the apex of the pediment
+to the bottom of the steps, 23 ft. The frieze, running round
+the entire building, represents on its eastern side a number of
+deities, on its northern and southern sides Greeks fighting with
+Persians, and on its western side Greeks fighting with Greeks.
+Before the east front was the altar of Athena Nike. The irregularly
+shaped precinct around the temple was enclosed by a balustrade
+about 3 ft. 2 in. in height, decorated on the outside with beautiful
+reliefs representing a number of winged Victories engaged in the
+worship of Athena. The elaborate treatment of the drapery
+enveloping these female figures suggests an approach to the
+mannerism of later times; this and other indications point to
+the probability that the balustrade was added in the latter years
+of the Peloponnesian War. The temple was still standing in
+1676; some eight years later it was demolished by the Turks,
+and its stones built into a bastion; on the removal of the bastion
+in 1835 the temple was successfully reconstructed by Ross with
+the employment of little new material. At either corner of the
+Propylaea entrance were equestrian statues dedicated by the
+Athenian knights; the bases with inscriptions have lately been
+recovered. From the inner exit of the Propylaea a passage led
+towards the east along the north side of the Parthenon; almost
+directly facing the entrance was the colossal bronze statue of
+Athena (afterwards called Athena Promachos) by Pheidias,
+probably set up by Cimon in commemoration of the Persian
+defeat. The statue, which was 30 ft. high, represented the goddess
+as fully armed; the gleam of her helmet and spear could be
+seen by the mariners approaching from Cape Sunium (Pausanias
+i. 28). On both sides of the passage were numerous statues,
+among them that of Athena Hygeďa, set up by Pericles to
+commemorate the recovery of a favourite slave who was injured
+during the building of the Parthenon, a colossal bronze image
+of the wooden horse of Troy, and Myron&rsquo;s group of Marsyas with
+Athena throwing away her flute. Another statue by Myron, the
+famous Perseus, stood near the precinct of Artemis Brauronia.
+In this sacred enclosure, which lay between the south-eastern
+corner of the Propylaea and the wall of Cimon, no traces of a
+temple have been found. Adjoining it to the east are the
+remains of a large rectangular building, which was apparently
+fronted by a colonnade; this has been identified with the
+<span class="grk" title="Chalkothaekae">&#935;&#945;&#955;&#954;&#959;&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951;</span>, a storehouse of bronze implements and arms, which
+was formerly supposed to lie against the north wall near the
+Propylaea. Beyond the Parthenon, a little to the north-east,
+was the great altar of Athena, and near it the statue and altar
+of Zeus Polieus. With regard to the buildings on the east end of
+the Acropolis, where the present museums stand, no certainty
+exists; among the many statues here were those of Xanthippus,
+the father of Pericles, and of Anacreon. Immediately west of the
+Erechtheum is the Pandroseum or temenos of Pandrosos, the
+daughter of Cecrops, the excavation of which has revealed no
+traces of the temple (<span class="grk" title="naos">&#957;&#945;&#972;&#962;</span>) seen here by Pausanias (i. 27). The
+site of this precinct, in which the sacred olive tree of Athena
+grew, has been almost certainly fixed by an inscription found in
+the bastion of Odysseus. At its north-western extremity is a
+platform of levelled rock which may have supported the altar of
+Zeus Hypsistus. Farther west, along the north wall of the Acropolis,
+is the space probably occupied by the abode and playground
+of the Errephori. Between this precinct and the Propylaea were
+a number of statues, among them the celebrated heifer of Myron,
+and perhaps his Erechtheus; the Lemnian Athena of Pheidias,
+and his effigy of his friend Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>The reconstruction of the city after its demolition by the
+Persians was not carried out on the lines of a definite plan like
+that of the Peiraeus. The houses were hastily repaired, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span>
+narrow, crooked streets remained; the influence of Themistocles,
+<span class="sidenote">The city in the classical period.</span>
+who aimed at transferring the capital to the Peiraeus, was
+probably directed against any costly scheme of restoration,
+except on the Acropolis. The period of Cimon&rsquo;s
+administration, however, especially the interval between
+his victory on the Eurymedon and his ostracism
+(468-461 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was marked by great architectural activity in
+the lower city as well as on the citadel. To his time may be
+referred many of the buildings around the Agora (probably
+rebuilt on the former sites) and elsewhere, and the passage, or
+<span class="grk" title="dromos">&#948;&#961;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, from the Agora to the Dipylon flanked by long porticos.
+The Theseum or temple of Theseus, which lay to the east of the
+Agora near the Acropolis, was built by Cimon: here he deposited
+the bones of the national hero which he brought from Scyros
+about 470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The only building in the city which can with
+certainty be assigned to the administration of Pericles is the
+Odeum, beneath the southern declivity of the Acropolis, a
+structure mainly of wood, said to have been built in imitation
+of the tent of Xerxes: it was used for musical contests and the
+rehearsal of plays. Of the various temples in which statues by
+Pheidias, Alcamenes and other great sculptors are known to
+have been placed, no traces have yet been discovered; excavation
+has not been possible in a large portion of the lower city, which
+has always been inhabited. The only extant structures of the
+classical period are the Hephaesteum, the Dionysiac theatre,
+and the choragic monument of Lysicrates. The remains of a
+small Ionic temple which were standing by the Ilissus in the
+time of Stuart have disappeared.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:1063px; height:568px" src="images/img838.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The Hephaesteum, the so-called Theseum, is situated on a
+slight eminence, probably the Colonus Agoraeus, to the west
+of the Agora. The best preserved Greek temple in
+the world, it possesses no record of its origin; the
+<span class="sidenote">The Hephaesteum or Theseum.</span>
+style of its sculptures and architecture leads to the
+conclusion that it was built about the same time
+as the Parthenon; it seems to have been finished by 421
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> It has been known as the Theseum since the middle
+ages, apparently because some of its sculptures represent the
+exploits of Theseus, but the Theseum was an earlier sanctuary
+on the east of the Agora (see above). The building has been
+supposed by Curtius, Wachsmuth and others to be the Heracleum
+in Melite, but its identification with the temple of Hephaestus
+and Athena seen in this neighbourhood by Pausanias (i. 14. 6),
+though not established, may be regarded as practically certain,
+notwithstanding the difficulty presented by the subjects of the
+sculptures, which bear no relation to Hephaestus. The temple
+is a Doric peripteral hexastyle <i>in antis</i>, with 13 columns at the
+sides; its length is 104 ft., its breadth 45˝ ft., its height, to the
+top of the pediment, 33 ft. The sculptures of the pediments
+have been completely lost, but their design has been ingeniously
+reconstructed by Sauer. The frieze of the entablature contains
+sculptures only in the metopes of the east front and in those
+of the sides immediately adjoining it; the frontal metopes
+represent the labours of Heracles, the lateral the exploits of
+Theseus. As in the Parthenon, there is a sculptured zophoros
+above the exterior of the cella walls; this, however, extends
+over the east and west fronts only and the east ends of the
+sides; the eastern zophoros represents a battle-scene with
+seated deities on either hand, the western a centauromachia.
+The temple is entirely of Pentelic marble, except the foundations
+and lowest step of the stylobate, which are of Peiraic stone, and
+the zophoros of the cella, which is in Parian marble. The
+preservation of the temple is due to its conversion into a church
+in the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The Dionysiac theatre, situated beneath the south side of the
+Acropolis, was partly hollowed out from its declivity. The
+representation of plays was perhaps transferred to
+this spot from the early Orchestra in the Agora at the
+<span class="sidenote">The Dionysiac theatre and Asclepieum.</span>
+beginning of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; it afterwards
+superseded the Pnyx as the meeting-place of the
+Ecclesia. The site, which had been accurately determined
+by Leake, was explored by Strack in 1862, and the
+researches subsequently undertaken by the Greek
+Archaeological Society were concluded in 1879. It was not, however,
+till 1886 that traces of the original circular Greek orchestra were
+pointed out by Dörpfeld. The arrangements of the stage and
+orchestra as we now see them belong to Roman times; the
+<i>cavea</i> or auditorium dates from the administration of the orator
+Lycurgus (337-323 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and nothing is left of the theatre in
+which the plays of Sophocles were acted save a few small remnants
+of polygonal masonry. These, however, are sufficient to mark
+out the circuit of the ancient orchestra, on which the subsequently
+built proscenia encroached. The oldest stage-building was
+erected in the time of Lycurgus; it consisted of a rectangular
+hall with square projections (<span class="grk" title="paraskenia">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#954;&#942;&#957;&#953;&#945;</span>) on either side; in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
+front of this was built in late Greek or early Roman times a
+stage with a row of columns which intruded upon the orchestra
+space; a later and larger stage, dating from the time of Nero,
+advanced still farther into the orchestra, and this was finally
+faced (probably in the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) by the &ldquo;bema&rdquo; of
+Phaedrus, a platform-wall decorated with earlier reliefs, the
+slabs of which were cut down to suit their new position. The
+remains of two temples of Dionysus have been found adjoining
+the stoa of the theatre, and an altar of the same god adorned
+with masks and festoons; the smaller and earlier temple probably
+dates from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the larger from the end of the
+5th or the beginning of the 4th century.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately west of the theatre of Dionysus is the sacred
+precinct of Asclepius, which was excavated by the Archaeological
+Society in 1876-1878. Here were discovered the foundations
+of the celebrated Asclepieum, together with several inscriptions
+and a great number of votive reliefs offered by grateful invalids
+and valetudinarians to the god of healing. Many of the reliefs
+belong to the best period of Greek art. A Doric colonnade with
+a double row of columns was found to have extended along the
+base of the Acropolis for a distance of 54 yds.; behind it in a
+chamber hewn in the rock is the sacred well mentioned by
+Pausanias. The colonnade was a place of resort for the patients;
+a large building close beneath the rock was probably the abode
+of the priests.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful choragic monument of Lysicrates, dedicated
+in the archonship of Euaenetus (335-334 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), is the only survivor
+of a number of such structures which stood in the
+&ldquo;Street of the Tripods&rdquo; to the east of the Dionysiac
+<span class="sidenote">The choragic monument of Lysicrates.</span>
+theatre, bearing the tripods given to the successful
+choragi at the Dionysiac festival. It owes its preservation
+to its former inclusion in a Capuchin convent.
+The monument consists of a small circular temple of Pentelic
+marble, 21˝ ft. in height and 9 ft. in diameter, with six engaged
+Corinthian columns and a sculptured frieze, standing on a rectangular
+base of Peiraic stone. The delicately carved convex
+roof, composed of a single block, was surmounted by the tripod.
+The spirited reliefs of the frieze represent the punishment
+of the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dionysus and their transformation
+into dolphins. Another choragic monument was that of
+Thrasyllus, which faced a cave in the Acropolis rock above the
+Dionysiac theatre. A portion of another, that of Nicias, was
+used to make the late Roman gate of the Acropolis. In one
+of these monuments was the famous Satyr of Praxiteles.</p>
+
+<p>The Cynosarges, from earliest times a sanctuary of Heracles,
+later a celebrated gymnasium and the school of Antisthenes
+the Cynic, has hitherto been generally supposed to
+have occupied the site of the Monastery of the Asomati
+<span class="sidenote">The Cynosarges.</span>
+on the eastern slope of Lycabettus; its situation,
+however, has been fixed by Dörpfeld at a point a little to the
+south of the Olympieum, on the left bank of the Ilissus. Here
+a series of excavations, carried out by the British School in
+1896-1897 under the direction of Cecil Smith, revealed the
+foundations of an extensive Greek building, the outlines of which
+correspond with those of a gymnasium; it possessed a large
+bath or cistern, and was flanked on two sides by water-courses.
+An Ionic capital found here possibly belonged to the palaestra.
+The identification, however, cannot be regarded as certain in
+the absence of inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>With the loss of political liberty the age of creative genius
+in Athenian architecture came to a close. The era of decadence,
+of honorary statues and fulsome inscriptions, began.
+The embellishments which the city received during
+<span class="sidenote">The Hellenistic period: the Stoa of Attalus.</span>
+the Hellenistic and Roman periods were no longer the
+artistic expression of the religious and political life of
+a great commonwealth; they were the tribute paid
+to the intellectual renown of Athens by foreign potentates or
+dilettanti, who desired to add their names to the list of its
+illustrious citizens and patrons. Among the first of these benefactions
+was the great gymnasium of Ptolemy, built in the neighbourhood
+of the Agora about 250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Successive princes of
+the dynasty of Pergamum interested themselves in the adornment
+of the city: Attalus I. set up a number of bronze statues on
+the Acropolis; Eumenes II. built the long portico west of the
+Dionysiac theatre, which was excavated and identified in 1877;
+Attalus II. erected the magnificent Stoa near the Agora, the remains
+of which were completely laid bare in 1898-1902 and have
+been identified by an inscription. The Stoa consisted of a series
+of 21 chambers, probably shops, faced by a double colonnade,
+the outer columns being of the Doric order, the inner unfluted,
+with lotus-leaf capitals; it possessed an upper storey fronted
+with Ionic columns.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest monument, however, of the Hellenistic period
+is the colossal Olympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, &ldquo;unum
+in terris inchoatum pro magnitudine dei&rdquo; (Livy
+xli. 20), the remains of which stand by the Ilissus
+<span class="sidenote">The Olympieum.</span>
+to the south-east of the Acropolis. The foundations
+of a temple were laid on the site&mdash;probably that of an ancient
+sanctuary-by Peisistratus, but the building in its ultimate
+form was for the greater part constructed under the auspices
+of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, king of Syria, by the Roman
+architect Cossutius in the interval between 174 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and 164 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+the date of the death of Antiochus. The work was then suspended
+and its proposed resumption in the time of Augustus seems not
+to have been realized; finally, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 129, the temple was
+completed and dedicated by Hadrian, who set up a chryselephantine
+statue of Zeus in the cella. The substructure was
+excavated in 1883 by F.C. Penrose, who proved the correctness
+of Dörpfeld&rsquo;s theory that the building was octostyle; its length
+was 318 ft., its breadth 132 ft. With the exception of the
+foundations and two lower steps of the stylobate, it was entirely
+of Pentelic marble, and possessed 104 Corinthian columns,
+56 ft. 7 in. in height, of which 48 stood in triple rows under the
+pediments and 56 in double rows at the sides; of these, 16 remained
+standing in 1852, when one was blown down by a storm.
+Fragments of Doric columns and foundations were discovered,
+probably intended for the temple begun by Peisistratus, the
+orientation of which differed slightly from that of the later
+structure. The peribolos, a large artificial platform supported
+by a retaining wall of squared Peiraic blocks with buttresses,
+was excavated in 1898 without important results; it is to be
+hoped that the stability of the columns has not been affected
+by the operations.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Roman Period</i>.&mdash;After 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Athens and its territory
+were included in the Roman province of Achaea. Among the
+earlier buildings of this period is the Horologium
+of Andronicus of Cyrrhus (the &ldquo;Tower of the Winds&rdquo;),
+<span class="sidenote">The Horologium of Andronicus.</span>
+still standing near the eastern end of the Roman Agora.
+The building may belong to the 2nd or 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>;
+it is mentioned by Varro (<i>De re rust</i>. iii. 5. 17), and therefore
+cannot be of later date than 35 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is an octagonal marble
+structure, 42 ft. in height and 26 ft. in diameter; the eight sides,
+which face the points of the compass, are furnished with a
+frieze containing inartistic figures in relief representing the
+winds; below it, on the sides facing the sun, are the lines of a
+sun-dial. The building was surmounted by a weathercock in the
+form of a bronze Triton; it contained a water-clock to record the
+time when the sun was not shining.</p>
+
+<p>The capture and sack of Athens by Sulla (March 1, 86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+seems to have involved no great injury to its architectural
+monuments beyond the burning of the Odeum of
+Pericles; a portion of the city wall was razed, the
+<span class="sidenote">Monuments of the Roman period.</span>
+groves of the Academy and Lyceum were cut down,
+and the Peiraeus, with its magnificent arsenal and other
+great buildings, burnt to the ground. After this catastrophe
+the benefactors of Athens were for the most part Romans; the
+influence of Greek literature and art had begun to affect the
+conquering race. The New, or Roman, Agora to the north of
+the Acropolis, perhaps mainly an oil market, was constructed
+after the year 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Its dimensions were practically determined
+by excavation in 1890-1891. It consisted of a large open rectangular
+space surrounded by an Ionic colonnade into which opened
+a number of shops or storehouses. The eastern gate was adorned
+with four Ionic columns on the outside and two on the inside, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
+western entrance being the well-known Doric portico of Athena
+Archegetis with an inscription recording its erection from
+donations of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The whole conclave
+may be compared with the enclosed bazaars or khans of Oriental
+cities which are usually locked at night. The Agrippeum, a
+covered theatre, derived its name from Vipsanius Agrippa,
+whose statue was set up, about 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, beneath the north wing
+of the Acropolis propylaea, on the high rectangular base still
+remaining. At the eastern end of the Acropolis a little circular
+temple of white marble with a peristyle of 9 Ionic columns
+was dedicated to Rome and Augustus; its foundations were discovered
+during the excavations of 1885-1888. The conspicuous
+monument which crowns the Museum Hill was erected as the
+mausoleum of Antiochus Philopappus of Commagene, grandson
+of Antiochus Epiphanes, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114-116. Excavations carried
+out in 1898-1899 showed that the structure was nearly square;
+the only portion remaining is the slightly curved front, with three
+niches between Corinthian pilasters; in the central niche is
+the statue of Philopappus.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor Hadrian was the most lavish of all the benefactors
+of Athens. Besides completing the gigantic Olympieum he
+enlarged the circuit of the city walls to the east,
+enclosing the area now covered by the royal
+<span class="sidenote">Novae Athenae: the buildings of Hadrian.</span>
+public gardens and the Constitution Square. This was
+the City of Hadrian (Hadrianapolis) or New Athens
+(Novae Athenae); a handsome suburb with numerous
+villas, baths and gardens; some traces remain of its walls,
+which, like those of Themistocles, were fortified with rectangular
+towers. An ornamental entrance near the Olympieum,
+the existing Arch of Hadrian, marked the boundary
+between the new and the old cities. The arch is surmounted by a
+triple attic with Corinthian columns; the frieze above the keystone
+bears, on the north-western side, the inscription <span class="grk" title="aid eis
+Athaenai, Thaeseos hae prin polis">&#945;&#7988;&#948;&#8125; &#949;&#7988;&#963;&#8125; &#7944;&#952;&#8134;&#957;&#945;&#953;, &#920;&#951;&#963;&#941;&#969;&#962; &#7969; &#960;&#961;&#8054;&#957; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span> and on the south-eastern,
+<span class="grk" title="aid eis Hadrianou kai onchi Thaeseos polis">&#945;&#7988;&#948;&#8125; &#949;&#7988;&#963;&#8125; &#7945;&#948;&#961;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#8166; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#959;&#8016;&#967;&#8054; &#920;&#951;&#963;&#941;&#969;&#962; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span>. One of the
+principal monuments of Hadrian&rsquo;s munificence was the sumptuous
+library, in all probability a vast rectangular enclosure,
+immediately north of the New Agora, the eastern side of which was
+explored in 1885-1886. A portion of its western front, adorned with
+monolith unfluted Corinthian columns, is still standing&mdash;the
+familiar &ldquo;Stoa of Hadrian&rdquo;; another well-preserved portion, with six
+pilasters, runs parallel to the west side of Aeolus Street. The
+interior consisted of a spacious court surrounded by a colonnade
+of 100 columns, into which five chambers opened at the eastern
+end. A portico of four fluted Corinthian columns on the western
+side formed the entrance to the quadrangle. This cloistered
+edifice may be identified with the library of Hadrian mentioned
+by Pausanias; the books were, perhaps, stored in a square
+building which occupied a portion of the central area. Strikingly
+similar in design and construction is a large quadrangular building,
+the foundations of which were discovered by the British
+School near the presumed Cynosarges; this may perhaps be the
+Gymnasium of Hadrian, which Pausanias tells us also possessed
+100 columns. A Pantheon and temples of Hera and Zeus
+Panhellenius were likewise built by Hadrian; the aqueduct,
+which he began, was completed by Antoninus Pius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 138-161);
+it was repaired in 1861-1869 and is still in use.</p>
+
+<p>The Stadium, in which the Panathenaic Games were held,
+was first laid out by the orator Lycurgus about 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was
+an oblong structure filling a natural depression near
+the left bank of the Ilissus beneath the eastern declivity
+<span class="sidenote">The Stadium and Odeum of Herodes Atticus.</span>
+of the Ardettus hill, the parallel sides and
+semicircular end, or <span class="grk" title="sphendonae">&#963;&#966;&#949;&#957;&#948;&#972;&#957;&#951;</span> around the arena being
+partially excavated from the adjoining slopes. The
+immense building, however, which was restored in
+1896 and the following years, was that constructed in Pentelic
+marble about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 143 by Tiberius Claudius Herodes Atticus, a
+wealthy Roman resident, whose benefactions to the city rivalled
+those of Hadrian. The seats, rising in tiers, as in a theatre,
+accommodated about 44,000 spectators; the arena was 670 ft.
+in length and 109 ft. in breadth. The Odeum, built beneath the
+south-west slope of the Acropolis after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 161 by Herodes
+Atticus in memory of his wife Regilla, is comparatively well
+preserved; it was excavated in 1848 and in 1857-1858. The
+plan is that of the conventional Roman theatre; the semicircular
+auditorium, which seated some 5000 persons, is, like
+that of the Dionysiac theatre, partly hollowed from the rock.
+The orchestra is paved with marble squares. The façade, in
+Peiraic stone, displays three storeys of arched windows. The
+whole building was covered with a cedar roof. The Stadium
+had been already completed and the Odeum had not yet been
+built when Pausanias visited Athens; these buildings were the
+last important additions to the architectural monuments of the
+ancient city.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. The Modern City</p>
+
+<p>At the conclusion of the Greek War of Independence, Athens
+was little more than a village of the Turkish type, the poorly
+built houses clustering on the northern and eastern slopes of
+the Acropolis. The narrow crooked lanes of this quarter still
+contrast with the straight, regularly laid-out streets of the
+modern city, which extends to the north-west, north and east of the
+ancient citadel. The greater commercial advantages offered
+by Nauplia, Corinth and Patras were outweighed by the historic
+claims of Athens in the choice of a capital for the newly founded
+kingdom, and the seat of government was transferred hither
+from Nauplia in 1833. The new town was, for the most part,
+laid out by the German architect Schaubert. It contains several
+squares and boulevards, a large public garden, and many handsome
+public and private edifices. A great number of the public
+institutions owe their origin to the munificence of patriotic
+Greeks, among whom Andreas Syngros and George Averoff may
+be especially mentioned. The royal palace, designed by Friedrich
+von Gärtner (1792-1847), is a tasteless structure; attached to
+it is a beautiful garden laid out by Queen Amalia, which contains
+a well-preserved mosaic floor of the Roman period. On the
+south-east is the newly built palace of the crown prince. The
+Academy, from designs by Theophil Hansen (1813-1891), is
+constructed of Pentelic marble in the Ionic style: the colonnades
+and pediments are richly coloured and gilded, and may perhaps
+convey some idea of the ancient style of decoration. Close by is
+the university, with a colonnade adorned with paintings, and
+the Vallianean library with a handsome Doric portico of Pentelic
+marble. The observatory, which is connected with the university,
+stands on the summit of the Hill of the Nymphs; like
+the Academy, it was erected at the expense of a wealthy Greek,
+Baron Sina of Vienna. In the public garden is the Zappeion, a
+large building with a Corinthian portico, intended for the display
+of Greek industries; here also is a monument to Byron, erected
+in 1896. The Boul&#275;, or parliament-house, possesses a considerable
+library. Other public buildings are the Polytechnic Institute,
+built by contributions from Greeks of Epirus, the theatre, the
+Arsakeion (a school for girls), the Varvakeion (a gymnasium),
+the military school (<span class="grk" title="scholae enelpidon">&#963;&#967;&#959;&#955;&#8052; &#949;&#8016;&#949;&#955;&#960;&#943;&#948;&#969;&#957;</span>),  and several
+hospitals and orphanages. The cathedral, a large, modern structure
+is devoid of architectural merit, but some of the smaller, ancient,
+Byzantine churches are singularly interesting and beautiful. Among
+private residences, the mansion built by Dr Schliemann, the
+discoverer of Troy, is the most noteworthy; its decorations are
+in the Pompeian style.</p>
+
+<p>The museums of Athens have steadily grown in importance
+with the progress of excavation. They are admirably arranged,
+and the remnants of ancient art which they contain
+have fortunately escaped injudicious restoration.
+<span class="sidenote">Museums.</span>
+The National Museum, founded in 1866, is especially rich in
+archaic sculptures and in sepulchral and votive reliefs. A copy
+of the Diadumenos of Polyclitus from Delos, and temple sculptures
+from Epidaurus and the Argive Heraeum, are among the
+more notable of its recent acquisitions. It also possesses the
+famous collection of prehistoric antiquities found by Schliemann
+at Tiryns and Mycenae, other &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; objects discovered
+at Nauplia and in Attica, as well as the still earlier remains
+excavated by Tsountas in the Cyclades and by the British School
+at Phylakopi in Melos; terra-cottas from Tanagra and Asia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span>
+Minor; bronzes from Olympia, Delphi and elsewhere, and
+numerous painted vases, among them the unequalled white
+<i>lekythi</i> from Athens and Eretria. The Epigraphical Museum
+contains an immense number of inscriptions arranged by H.G.
+Lolling and A. Wilhelm of the Austrian Institute. The Acropolis
+Museum (opened 1878) possesses a singularly interesting collection
+of sculptures belonging to the &ldquo;archaic&rdquo; period of Greek
+art, all found on the Acropolis; here, too, are some fragments
+of the pedimental statues of the Parthenon and several reliefs
+from its frieze, as well as the slabs from the balustrade of the
+temple of Nike. The Polytechnic Institute contains a museum
+of interesting objects connected with modern Greek life and
+history. In the Academy is a valuable collection of coins
+superintended by Svoronos. Of the private collections those of
+Schliemann and Karapanos are the most interesting: the latter
+contains works of art and other objects from Dodona. There is
+a small museum of antiquities at the Peiraeus.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the numbers and activity of its institutions, both
+native and foreign, for the prosecution of research and the
+encouragement of classical studies, Athens has become
+once more an international seat of learning. The
+<span class="sidenote">Scientific institutions.</span>
+Greek Archaeological Society, founded in 1837,
+numbers some distinguished scholars among its
+members, and displays great activity in the conduct of excavations.
+Important researches at Epidaurus, Eleusis, Mycenae,
+Amyclae and Rhamnus may be numbered among its principal
+undertakings, in addition to the complete exploration of the
+Acropolis and a series of investigations in Athens and Attica.
+The French École d&rsquo;Athčnes, founded in 1846, is under the
+scientific direction of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres.
+Among its numerous enterprises have been the extensive
+and costly excavations at Delos and Delphi, which have yielded
+such remarkable results. The monuments of the Byzantine
+epoch have latterly occupied a prominent place in its investigations.
+The German Archaeological Institute, founded in 1874,
+has carried out excavations at Thebes, Lesbos, Pares, Athens and
+elsewhere; it has also been associated in the great researches at
+Olympia, Pergamum and Troy, and in many other important
+undertakings. The British School, founded in 1886, has been
+unable, owing to insufficient endowment, to work on similar lines
+with the French and German institutions; it has, however,
+carried out extensive excavations at Megalopolis and in Melos,
+as well as researches at Abae, in Athens (presumed site of the
+Cynosarges), in Cyprus, at Naucratis and at Sparta. It has
+also participated in the exploration of Cnossus and other important
+sites in Crete. The American School, founded in 1882, is
+supported by the principal universities of the United States.
+In addition to researches at Sicyon, Plataea, Eretria and elsewhere,
+it has undertaken two works of capital importance&mdash;the
+excavation of the Argive Heraeum and of ancient Corinth.
+An Austrian Archaeological Institute was founded in 1898.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding certain disadvantages inherent in its situation,
+the trade and manufactures of Athens have considerably
+increased in recent years. Industrial and commercial
+activity is mainly centred at the Peiraeus, where
+<span class="sidenote">Industry and commerce.</span>
+cloth and cotton mills, 45 cognac distilleries, 14 steam
+flour mills, 8 soap manufactories, 13 shipbuilding and
+engineering works, chair manufactories, dye works, chemical
+works, tanneries and a dynamite factory have been established.
+The shipbuilding and engineering trades are active and advancing.
+The export trade is, however, inconsiderable, as the
+produce of the local industries is mainly absorbed by home
+consumption. The principal exports are wine, cognac and
+marble from Pentelicus. As a place of import, the Peiraeus
+surpasses Patras, Syra and all the other Greek maritime towns,
+receiving about 53% of all the merchandise brought into Greece.
+The principal imports are coal, grain, manufactured articles and
+articles of luxury. The total value of exports in 1904 was
+Ł459,565; of imports, Ł2,459,278. The number of ships entered
+and cleared in 1905 was 5020 with a tonnage of 5,796,590
+tons, of which 416, with a tonnage of 609,822 tons, were
+British.</p>
+
+<p>The Peiraeus, which had never revived since its destruction by
+the Romans in 86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was at the beginning of the 19th century
+a small fishing village known as Porto Leone. When
+Athens became the capital in 1833 the ancient name of
+<span class="sidenote">The Peiraeus.</span>
+its port was revived, and since that time piers and
+quays have been constructed, and spacious squares and broad
+regular streets have been laid out. The town now possesses an
+exchange, a large theatre, a gymnasium, a naval school, municipal
+buildings and several hospitals and charitable institutions erected
+by private munificence. The harbour, in which ships of all nations
+may be seen, as well as great numbers of the picturesque sailing
+craft engaged in the coasting trade, is somewhat difficult of
+access to larger vessels, but has been improved by the construction
+of new breakwaters and dry docks. The port and
+the capital are now connected by railway with Corinth and the
+principal towns of the Morea; the line opening up communication
+with northern Greece and Thessaly, when its proposed
+connexion with the Continental railway system has been effected,
+will greatly enhance the importance of the Peiraeus, already one
+of the most flourishing commercial towns in the Levant.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Athens has rapidly increased. In 1834 it
+was below 5000; in 1870 it was 44,510; in 1879, 63,374; in
+1889, 107,251; in 1896, 111,486. The Peiraeus, which
+<span class="sidenote">Population.</span>
+in 1834 possessed only a few hundred inhabitants,
+in 1879 possessed 21,618; in 1889, 34,327; in 1896,
+43,848. The total population of Athens in 1907 was 167,479
+and of Peiraeus 67,982.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc" style="clear: both;">III. History</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Prehistoric Period</i>.&mdash;The history of primitive Athens
+is involved in the same obscurity which enshrouds the early
+development of most of the Greek city-states. The Homeric
+poems scarcely mention Attica, and the legends, though numerous,
+are rarely of direct historical value. In the Minoan epoch Athens
+is proved by the archaeological remains to have been a petty
+kingdom scarcely more important than many other Attic communities,
+yet enjoying a more unbroken course of development
+than the leading states of that period. This accords with the
+cherished tradition which made the Athenians children of the
+soil, and free from admixture with conquering tribes. Many
+legends, however, and the later state organization, point to an
+immigration of an &ldquo;Ionian&rdquo; aristocracy in late Mycenaean days.
+These Ionian newcomers are almost certainly responsible for the
+absorption of the numerous independent communities of Attica
+into a central state of Athens under a powerful monarchy (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theseus</a></span>), for the introduction of new cults, and for the division
+of the people into four tribes whose names&mdash;Geleontes, Hopletes,
+Argadeis and Aegicoreis&mdash;recur in several true Ionian towns.
+This centralization of power (<i>Synoecism</i>), to which many Greek
+peoples never attained, laid the first foundations of Athenian
+greatness. But in other respects the new constitution tended to
+arrest development. When the monarchy was supplanted in the
+usual Greek fashion by a hereditary nobility&mdash;a process accomplished,
+according to tradition, between about 1000 and 683
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>&mdash;all power was appropriated by a privileged class of
+Eupatridae (<i>q.v.</i>); the Geomori and Demiurgi, who formed
+the bulk of the community, enjoyed no political rights. It was
+to their control over the machinery of law that the Eupatridae
+owed their predominance. The aristocratic council of the
+Areopagus (<i>q.v.</i>) constituted the chief criminal court, and
+nominated the magistrates, among whom the chief archon (<i>q.v.</i>)
+passed judgment in family suits, controlled admission to the
+genos or clan, and consequently the acquisition of the franchise.
+This system was further supported by religious prescriptions
+which the nobles retained as a corporate secret. Assisted no
+doubt by their judicial control, the Eupatridae also tended to
+become sole owners of the land, reducing the original freeholders
+or tenants to the position of serfs. During this period Athens
+seems to have made little use of her militia, commanded by the
+polemarch, or of her navy, which was raised in special local
+divisions known as Naucraries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naucrary</a></span>); hence no
+military <i>esprit de corps</i> could arise to check the Eupatrid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
+ascendancy. Nor did the commons obtain relief through any
+commercial or colonial enterprises such as those which alleviated
+social distress in many other Greek states. The first attack upon
+the aristocracy proceeded from a young noble named Cylon, who
+endeavoured to become tyrant about 630 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The people helped
+to crush this movement; yet discontent must have been rife
+among them, for in 611 the Eupatrids commissioned Draco (<i>q.v.</i>),
+a junior magistrate, to draft and publish a code of criminal law.
+This was a notable concession, by which the nobles lost that
+exclusive legal knowledge which had formed one of their main
+instruments of oppression.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Rise of Athens</i>.&mdash;A still greater danger grew out of the
+widespread financial distress, which was steadily driving many
+of the agricultural population into slavery and threatened the
+entire state with ruin. After a protracted war with the neighbouring
+Megarians had accentuated the crisis the Eupatridae
+gave to one of their number, the celebrated Solon (<i>q.v.</i>), free
+power to remodel the whole state (594). By his economic
+legislation Solon placed Athenian agriculture once more upon
+a sound footing, and supplemented this source of wealth by
+encouraging commercial enterprise, thus laying the foundation
+of his country&rsquo;s material prosperity. His constitutional reforms
+proved less successful, for, although he put into the hands of
+the people various safeguards against oppression, he could not
+ensure their use in practice. After a period of disorder and
+party-feud among the nobles the new constitution was superseded
+in fact, if not in form, by the autocratic rule of Peisistratus (<i>q.v.</i>), and his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. The age of despotism,
+which lasted, with interruptions, from 560 to 510, was a period
+of great prosperity for Athens. The rulers fostered agriculture,
+stimulated commerce and industry (notably the famous Attic
+ceramics), adorned the city with public works and temples,
+and rendered it a centre of culture. Their vigorous foreign policy
+first made Athens an Aegean power and secured connexions with
+numerous mainland powers. Another result of the tyranny was the
+weakening of the undue influence of the nobles and the creation
+of a national Athenian spirit in place of the ancient clan-feeling.</p>
+
+<p>The equalization of classes was already far advanced when
+towards the end of the century a nobleman of the Alcmaeonid
+family, named Cleisthenes (<i>q.v.</i>), who had taken the chief part
+in the final expulsion of the tyrants, acquired ascendancy as
+leader of the commons. The constitution which he promulgated
+(508/7) gave expression to the change of political feeling by
+providing a national basis of franchise and providing a new
+state organization. By making effective the powers of the
+Ecclesia (Popular Assembly) the Boul&#275; (Council) and Heliaea,
+Cleisthenes became the true founder of Athenian democracy.</p>
+
+<p>This revolution was accompanied by a conflict with Sparta
+and other powers. But a spirit of harmony and energy now
+breathed within the nation, and in the ensuing wars Athens
+worsted powerful enemies like Thebes and Chalcis (506). A
+bolder stroke followed in 500, when a force was sent to support
+the Ionians in revolt against Persia and took part in the sack
+of Sardis. After the failure of this expedition the Athenians
+apparently became absorbed in a prolonged struggle with Aegina
+(<i>q.v.</i>). In 493 the imminent prospect of a Persian invasion
+brought into power men like Themistocles and Miltiades (<i>qq.v.</i>),
+to whose firmness and insight the Athenians largely owed their
+triumph in the great campaign of 490 against Persia. After a
+second political reaction, the prospect of a second Persian war,
+and the naval superiority of Aegina led to the assumption of a
+bolder policy. In 483 Themistocles overcame the opposition of
+Aristides (<i>q.v.</i>), and passed his famous measure providing for a
+large increase of the Athenian fleet. In the great invasion of
+480-479 the Athenians displayed an unflinching resolution which
+could not be shaken even by the evacuation and destruction of
+their native city. Though the traditional account of this war
+exaggerates the services of Athens as compared with the other
+champions of Greek independence, there can be no doubt that
+the ultimate victory was chiefly due to the numbers and efficiency
+of the Athenian fleet, and to the wise policy of her great statesman
+Themistocles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Salamis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plataea</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Imperial Athens</i>.&mdash;After the Persian retreat and the
+reoccupation of their city the Athenians continued the war with
+unabated vigour. Led by Aristides and Cimon they rendered
+such prominent service as to receive in return the formal leadership
+of the Greek allies and the presidency of the newly formed
+Delian League (<i>q.v.</i>). The ascendancy acquired in these years
+eventually raised Athens to the rank of an imperial state. For
+the moment it tended to impair the good relations which had
+subsisted between Athens and Sparta since the first days of the
+Persian peril. But so long as Cimon&rsquo;s influence prevailed the
+ideal of &ldquo;peace at home and the complete humiliation of Persia&rdquo;
+was steadily unheld. Similarly the internal policy of Athens
+continued to be shaped by the conservatives. The only notable
+innovations since the days of Cleisthenes had been the reduction
+of the archonship to a routine magistracy appointed partly by
+lot (487), and the rise of the ten elective strategi (generals) as
+chief executive officers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>). But the triumph of
+the navy in 480 and the great expansion of commerce and
+industry had definitely shifted the political centre of gravity
+from the yeoman class of moderate democrats to the more radical
+party usually stigmatized as the &ldquo;sailor rabble.&rdquo; Though
+Themistocles soon lost his influence, his party eventually found
+a new leader in Ephialtes and after the failure of Cimon&rsquo;s foreign
+policy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>) triumphed over the conservatives. The year
+461 marks the reversal of Athenian policy at home and abroad.
+By cancelling the political power of the Areopagus and multiplying
+the functions of the popular law-courts, Ephialtes
+abolished the last checks upon the sovereignty of the commons.
+His successor, Pericles, who commonly ranked as the &ldquo;completer
+of the democracy,&rdquo; merely developed the full democracy so as
+to secure its effectual as well as its theoretical supremacy. The
+foreign policy of Athens was now directed towards an almost
+reckless expansion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>). The unparalleled success of
+the Athenian arms at this period extended the bounds of empire
+to their farthest limits. Besides securing her Aegean possessions
+and her commerce by the defeat of Corinth and Aegina, her
+last rivals on sea, Athens acquired an extensive dominion in
+central Greece and for a time quite overshadowed the Spartan
+land-power. The rapid loss of the new conquests after 447
+proved that Athens lacked a sufficient land-army to defend
+permanently so extensive a frontier. Under the guidance of
+Pericles the Athenians renounced the unprofitable rivalry with
+Sparta and Persia, and devoted themselves to the consolidation
+and judicious extension of their maritime influence.</p>
+
+<p>The years of the supremacy of Pericles (443-429) are on the
+whole the most glorious in Athenian history. In actual extent
+of territory the empire had receded somewhat, but in point of
+security and organization it now stood at its height. The Delian
+confederacy lay completely under Athenian control, and the
+points of strategic importance were largely held by cleruchies
+(<i>q.v.</i>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>) and garrisons. Out of a citizen body
+of over 50,000 freemen, reinforced by mercenaries and slaves, a
+superb fleet exceeding 300 sail and an army of 30,000 drilled
+soldiers could be mustered. The city itself, with its fortifications
+extending to the port of Peiraeus, was impregnable to a land
+attack. The commerce of Athens extended from Egypt and
+Colchis to Etruria and Carthage, and her manufactures, which
+attracted skilled operatives from many lands, found a ready sale
+all over the Mediterranean. With tolls, and the tribute of the
+Delian League, a fund of 9700 talents (Ł2,300,000) was amassed
+in the treasury.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the material prosperity of Athens under Pericles was
+less notable than her brilliant attainments in every field of
+culture. Her development since the Persian wars had been
+extremely rapid, but did not reach its climax till the latter part
+of the century. No city ever adorned herself with such an array
+of temples, public buildings and works of art as the Athens of
+Pericles and Pheidias. Her achievements in literature are hardly
+less great. The Attic drama of the period produced many great
+masterpieces, and the scientific thought of Europe in the departments
+of logic, ethics, rhetoric and history mainly owes its origin
+to a new movement of Greek thought which was largely fostered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
+by the patronage of Pericles himself. Besides producing
+numerous men of genius herself Athens attracted all the great
+intellects of Greece. The brilliant summary of the historian
+Thucydides in the famous Funeral Speech of Pericles (delivered
+in 430), in which the social life, the institutions and the culture
+of his country are set forth as a model, gives a substantially true
+picture of Athens in its greatest days.</p>
+
+<p>This brilliant epoch, however, was not without its darker side.
+The payment for public service which Pericles had introduced
+may have contributed to raise the general level of culture of the
+citizens, but it created a dangerous precedent and incurred the
+censure of notable Greek thinkers. Moreover, all this prosperity
+was obtained at the expense of the confederates, whom Athens
+exploited in a somewhat selfish and illiberal manner. In fact
+it was the cry of &ldquo;tyrant city&rdquo; which went furthest to rouse
+public opinion in Greece against Athens and to bring on the
+Peloponnesian War (<i>q.v.</i>) which ruined the Athenian empire
+(431-404). The issue of this conflict was determined less by any
+intrinsic superiority on the part of her enemies than by the
+blunders committed by a people unable to carry out a consistent
+foreign policy on its own initiative, and served since Pericles
+by none but selfish or short-sighted advisers. It speaks well for
+the patriotic devotion and discipline of her commons that
+Athens, weakened by plague and military disasters, should have
+withstood for so long the blows of her numerous enemies from
+without, and the damage inflicted by traitors within her walls
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antiphon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theramenes</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Fourth Century</i>&mdash;After the complete defeat of Athens
+by land and sea, it was felt that her former services on behalf
+of Greece and her high culture should exempt her from total
+ruin. Though stripped of her empire, Athens obtained very
+tolerable terms from her enemies. The democratic constitution,
+which had been supplanted for a while by a government of
+oligarchs, but was restored in 403 after the latter&rsquo;s misrule had
+brought about their own downfall (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Critias</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theramenes</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thrasybulus</a></span>), henceforth stood unchallenged by the Greeks.
+Indeed the spread of democracy elsewhere increased the prestige
+of the Athenian administration, which had now reached a high
+pitch of efficiency. Athenian art and literature in the 4th century
+declined but slightly from their former standard; philosophy
+and oratory reached a standard which was never again equalled
+in antiquity and may still serve as a model. In the wars of the
+period Athens took a prominent part with a view to upholding
+the balance of power, joining the Corinthian League in 395,
+and assisting Thebes against Sparta after 378, Sparta against
+Thebes after 369. Her generals and admirals, Conon, Iphicrates,
+Chabrias, Timotheus, distinguished themselves by their military
+skill, and partially recovered their country&rsquo;s predominance in
+the Aegean, which found expression in the temporary renewal
+of the Delian League (<i>q.v.</i>). By the middle of the century Athens
+was again the leading power in Greece. When Philip of Macedon
+began to grow formidable she seemed called upon once more
+to champion the liberties of Greece. This ideal, when put
+forward by the consummate eloquence of Demosthenes and
+other orators, created great enthusiasm among the Athenians,
+who at times displayed all their old vigour in opposing Philip,
+notably in the decisive campaign of 338. But these outbursts
+of energy were too spasmodic, and popular opinion repeatedly
+veered back in favour of the peace-party. With her diminished
+resources Athens could not indeed hope to cope with the great
+Macedonian king; however much we may sympathize with the
+generous ambition of the patriots, we must admit that in the
+light of hard facts their conduct appears quixotic.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Hellenistic Period</i>.&mdash;Philip and Alexander, who
+sincerely admired Athenian culture and courted a zealous
+co-operation against Persia, treated the conquered city with
+marked favour. But the people would not resign themselves
+to playing a secondary part, and watched for every opportunity
+to revolt. The outbreak headed by Athens after Alexander&rsquo;s
+death (323) led to a stubborn conflict with Macedonia. After
+his victory the regent Antipater punished Athens by the loss of
+her remaining dependencies, the proscription of her chief patriots,
+and the disfranchisement of 12,000 citizens. The Macedonian
+garrison which was henceforth stationed in Attic territory
+prevented the city from taking a prominent part in the wars
+of the Diadochi. Cassander placed Athens under the virtual
+autocracy of Demetrius of Phalerum (317-307), and after the
+temporary liberation by Demetrius Poliorcetes (306-300),
+secured his interests through a dictator named Lachares, who
+lost the place again to Poliorcetes after a siege (295). After a
+vain attempt to expel the garrison in 287, the Athenians regained
+their liberty while Macedonia was thrown into confusion by the
+Celts, and in 279 rendered good service against the invaders
+of the latter nation with a fleet off Thermopylae. When Antigonus
+Gonatas threatened to restore Macedonian power in
+Greece, the Athenians, supported perhaps by the king of Egypt,
+formed a large defensive coalition; but in the ensuing &ldquo;Chremonidean
+War&rdquo; (266-263) a naval defeat off Andros led to their
+surrender and the imposition of a Macedonian garrison. The
+latter was finally withdrawn in 229 by the good offices of Aratus
+(<i>q.v.</i>). At this period Athens was altogether overshadowed
+in material strength by the great Hellenistic monarchies and
+even by the new republican leagues of Greece; but she could
+still on occasion display great energy and patriotism. The
+prestige of her past history had now perhaps attained its zenith.
+Her democracy was respected by the Macedonian kings; the
+rulers of Egypt, Syria, and especially of Pergamum, courted her
+favour by handsome donations of edifices and works of art,
+to which the citizens replied by unbecoming flattery, even to
+the extent of creating new tribes named after their benefactors.
+If Athens lost her supremacy in the fields of science and scholarship
+to Alexandria, she became more than ever the home of
+philosophy, while Menander and the other poets of the New
+Comedy made Athenian life and manners known throughout the
+civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Relations with the Roman Republic</i>.&mdash;In 228 Athens
+entered into friendly intercourse with Rome, in whose interest
+she endured the desperate attacks of Philip V. of Macedonia
+(200-199). In return for help against King Perseus she acquired
+some new possessions, notably the great mart of Delos,
+which became an Athenian cleruchy (166). By her treacherous
+attack upon the frontier-town of Oropus (156) Athens indirectly
+brought about the conflict between Rome and the Achaean
+League which resulted in the eventual loss of Greek independence,
+but remained herself a free town with rights secured by treaty.
+In spite of the favours displayed by Rome, the more radical
+section of the people began to chafe at the loss of their international
+importance. This discontent was skilfully fanned by
+Mithradates the Great at the outset of his Roman campaigns.
+His emissary, the philosopher Aristion, induced the people to
+declare war against Rome and to place him in chief command.
+The town with its port stood a long siege against Sulla, but was
+stormed in 86. The conqueror allowed his soldiers to loot, but
+inflicted no permanent punishment upon the people. This
+war left Athens poverty-stricken and stripped of her commerce:
+her only importance now lay in the philosophical schools, which
+were frequented by many young Romans of note (Cicero,
+Atticus, Horace, &amp;c.). Greek became fashionable at Rome, and
+a visit to Athens a sort of pilgrimage for educated Romans
+(cf. Propertius iv. 21: &ldquo;Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci
+cogor Athenas&rdquo;). In the great civil wars Athens sided with
+Pompey and held out against Caesar&rsquo;s lieutenants, but received
+a free pardon &ldquo;in consideration of her great dead.&rdquo; Similarly
+the triumvirs after Philippi condoned her enthusiasm for the
+cause of Brutus. Antony repeatedly made Athens his headquarters
+and granted her several new possessions, including
+Eretria and Aegina&mdash;grants which Octavian subsequently
+revoked.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>The Roman Empire</i>.&mdash;Under the new settlement Athens
+remained a free and sovereign city&mdash;a boon which she repaid
+by zealous Caesar-worship, for the favours bestowed upon her
+tended to pauperize her citizens and to foster their besetting
+sin of calculating flattery. Hadrian displayed his special
+fondness for the city by raising new buildings and relieving
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
+financial distress. He amended the constitution in some respects,
+and instituted a new national festival, the Panhellenica. In the
+period of the Antonines the endowment of professors out of the
+imperial treasury gave Athens a special status as a university
+town. Her whole energies seem henceforth devoted to academic
+pursuits; the military training of her youth was superseded
+by courses in philosophy and rhetoric; the chief organs of
+administration, the revived Areopagus and the senior Strategus,
+became as it were an education office. Save for an incursion
+by Goths in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 267 and a temporary occupation by Alaric in
+395, Athens spent the remaining centuries of the ancient world
+in quiet prosperity. The rhetorical schools experienced a
+brilliant revival under Constantine and his successors, when
+Athens became the <i>alma mater</i> of many notable men, including
+Julian, Libanius, Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus, and in her
+professors owned the last representatives of a humane and
+moralized paganism. The freedom of teaching was first curtailed
+by Theodosius I.; the edict of Justinian (529), forbidding the
+study of philosophy, dealt the death-blow to ancient Athens.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The authorities for the history of ancient Athens will mostly be
+found under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History</i>, and the various biographies. The
+following books deal with special periods or subjects only:&mdash;(1)
+<i>Early Athens</i>: W. Warde Fowler, <i>The City-State</i>, ch. vi. (London,
+1893). (2) <i>The fifth and fourth centuries</i>: the &ldquo;Constitution of Athens,&rdquo;
+ascribed to Xenophon; W. Oncken, <i>Athen und Hellas</i> (Leipzig, 1865);
+U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, <i>Aus Kydathen</i> (Berlin, 1880);
+L. Whibley, <i>Political Parties at Athens</i> (Cambridge, 1889); G. Gilbert,
+<i>Beiträge zur inneren Geschichte Athens</i> (Leipzig, 1877); J. Beloch,
+<i>Die attische Politik seit Perikles</i> (Leipzig, 1884). (3) <i>The Hellenistic
+and Roman periods</i>: J.P. Mahaffy, <i>Greek Life and Thought</i>, from
+323 to 146 (London, 1887), chs. v., vi., xvii.; A. Holm, <i>Greek History</i>
+(Eng. trans., London, 1898), iv. chs. vi. and xxiii.; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,
+<i>Antigonos von Karystos</i> (Berlin, 1881), pp. 178-291;
+W. Capes, <i>University Life in Ancient Athens</i> (London, 1877); A.
+Dumont, <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;Ephebie attique</i> (Paris, 1875). (4) <i>The Latin
+rule</i>: G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (Oxford ed., 1877), vol. iv. ch. vi.
+(5) <i>Constitutional History</i>: The Aristotelian &ldquo;Constitution of
+Athens&rdquo;; U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, <i>Aristoteles und Athen</i>
+(Berlin and Leipzig, 1893), vol. ii.; G. Gilbert, <i>Greek Constitutional
+Antiquities</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1895), pp. 95-453; A.H.J.
+Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional History</i> (Oxford, 1896),
+ch. vi.; J.W. Headlam, <i>Election by Lot at Athens</i> (Cambridge, 1891).
+(6) <i>Finance and statistics</i>: A. Boeckh, <i>The Public Economy of the
+Athenians</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1828); Ed. Meyer, <i>Forschungen
+zur alten Geschichte</i> (Halle, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 149-195. (7) <i>Inscriptions</i>:
+<i>Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum</i>, with supplements (Berlin,
+1873-1895). (8) <i>Coins</i>: B.V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> (Oxford,
+1887), pp. 309-328.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div>
+
+<p>8. <i>Byzantine Period</i>.&mdash;The city now sank into the position
+of a provincial Byzantine town. Already it had been robbed
+of many of its works of art, among them the Athena Promachos
+and the Parthenos of Pheidias, for the adornment of Constantinople,
+and further spoliation took place when the church of St
+Sophia was built in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 532. The Parthenon, the Erechtheum,
+the &ldquo;Theseum&rdquo; and other temples were converted into Christian
+churches and were thus preserved throughout the middle ages.
+The history of Athens for the next four centuries is almost a
+blank; the city is rarely mentioned by the Byzantine chronicles
+of this period. The emperor Constantine II. spent some months
+here in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 662-663. In 869 the see of Athens became an archbishopric.
+In 995 Attica was ravaged by the Bulgarians under
+their tsar Samuel, but Athens escaped; after the defeat of
+Samuel at Belasitza (1014) the emperor Basil II., who blinded
+15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, came to Athens and celebrated
+his triumph by a thanksgiving service in the Parthenon (1018).
+From the Runic description on the marble lion of the Peiraeus it
+has been inferred that Harold Hardrasda and the Norsemen
+in the service of the Byzantine emperors captured the Peiraeus
+in 1040, but this conclusion is not accepted by Gregorovius
+(bk. i. pp. 170-172). Like the rest of Greece, Athens suffered
+greatly from the rapacity of its Byzantine administrators. The
+letters of Acominatus, archbishop of Athens, towards the close
+of the 12th century, bewail the desolate condition of the city in
+language resembling that of Jeremiah in regard to Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Period of Latin Rule: 1204-1458</i>.&mdash;After the Latin conquest
+of Constantinople in 1204, Otho de la Roche was granted
+the lordship of Athens by Boniface of Montferrat, king of Thessalonica,
+with the title of Megaskyr (<span class="grk" title="megas kyrios">&#956;&#941;&#947;&#945;&#962; &#954;&#973;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> = great lord). His
+nephew and successor, Guy I., obtained the title duke of Athens
+from Louis IX. of France in 1258. On the death of Guy II.,
+last duke of the house of la Roche, in 1308, the duchy passed
+to his cousin, Walter of Brienne. He was expelled in 1311 by
+his Catalonian mercenaries; the mutineers bestowed the duchy
+&ldquo;of Athens and Neopatras&rdquo; on their leader, Roger Deslaur, and,
+in the following year, on Frederick of Aragon, king of Sicily.
+The Sicilian kings ruled Athens by viceroys till 1385, when the
+Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli, lord of Corinth, defeated the
+Catalonians and seized the city. Nerio, who received the title
+of duke from the king of Naples, founded a new dynasty. His
+palace was in the Propylaea; the lofty &ldquo;Tower of the Franks,&rdquo;
+which adjoined the south wing of that building, was possibly
+built in his time. This interesting historical monument was
+demolished by the Greek authorities in 1874, notwithstanding
+the protests of Penrose, Freeman and other scholars. The
+Acciajuoli dynasty lasted till June 1458, when the Acropolis
+after a stubborn resistance was taken by the Turks under Omar,
+the general of the sultan Mahommed II., who had occupied the
+lower city in 1456. The sultan entered Athens in the following
+month; he was greatly struck by its ancient monuments and
+treated its inhabitants with comparative leniency.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Period of Turkish Rule: 1458-1833</i>.&mdash;After the Turkish
+conquest Athens disappeared from the eyes of Western civilization.
+The principal interest of the following centuries lies in
+the researches of successive travellers, who may be said to
+have rediscovered the city, and in the fate of its ancient monuments,
+several of which were still in fair preservation at the
+beginning of this period. The Parthenon was transformed
+into a mosque; the existing minaret at its south-western corner
+was built after 1466. The Propylaea served as the residence
+of the Turkish commandant and the Erechtheum as his harem.
+In 1466 the Venetians succeeded in occupying the city, but
+failed to take the Acropolis. About 1645 a powder magazine
+in the Propylaea was ignited by lightning and the upper portion
+of the structure was destroyed. Under Francesco Morosini
+the Venetians again attacked Athens in September 1687; a
+shot fired during the bombardment of the Acropolis caused a
+powder magazine in the Parthenon to explode, and the building
+was rent asunder. After capturing the Acropolis the Venetians
+employed material from its ancient edifices in repairing its walls.
+They withdrew in the following year, when the Turks set fire
+to the city. The central sculptures of the western pediment of
+the Parthenon, which Morosini intended to take to Venice, were
+unskilfully detached by his workmen, and falling to the ground
+were broken to pieces. Several ancient monuments were sacrificed
+to provide material for a new wall with which the Turks
+surrounded the city in 1778.</p>
+
+<p>During the 18th century many works of art, which still remained
+<i>in situ</i>, fell a prey to foreign collectors. The removal
+to London in 1812 of most of the remaining sculptures of the
+Parthenon by Lord Elgin possibly rescued many of them from
+injury in the period of warfare which followed. In 1821 the
+Greek insurgents surprised the city, and in 1822 captured the
+Acropolis. Athens again fell into the hands of the Turks in 1826,
+who bombarded and took the Acropolis in the following year;
+the Erechtheum suffered greatly, and the monument of Thrasyllus
+was destroyed. The Turks remained in possession of the
+Acropolis till 1833, when Athens was chosen as the capital of
+the newly established kingdom of Greece; since that date the
+history of the city forms part of that of modern Greece. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History, modern</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">General Bibliography</span>.&mdash;W.M. Leake, <i>Topography of Athens
+and the Demi</i> (2nd ed., London, 1841); C. Wachsmuth, <i>Die Stadt
+Athen im Alterthum</i> (vol. i., Leipzig, 1874; vol. ii. part i., Leipzig,
+1890); E. Burnouf, <i>La Ville et l&rsquo;acropole d&rsquo;Athčnes aux diverses
+époques</i> (Paris, 1877); F.C. Penrose, <i>Principles of Athenian Architecture</i>
+(London, 1888); J.E. Harrison, <i>Mythology and Monuments
+of Ancient Athens</i> (London, 1890); E. Curtius and A. Milchhöfer,
+<i>Stadtgeschichte von Athen</i> (Berlin, 1891); H. Hitzig and H. Blümner,
+<i>Pausanias</i> (text and commentary; vol. i., Berlin, 1896); J.G.
+Frazer, <i>Pausanias</i> (translation and commentary; 6 vols., London,
+1898. The commentary on Pausanias&rsquo; description of Athens,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
+contained in vol. ii. with supplementary notes in vol. v., is an invaluable
+digest of recent researches); H. Omont, <i>Athčnes au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> sičcle</i>
+(Paris, 1898, with plans and views of the town and acropolis and
+drawings of the sculptures of the Parthenon); J.H. Middleton and
+E.A. Gardner, <i>Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings</i> (London,
+1900); E.A. Gardner, <i>Ancient Athens</i> (London, 1902); W. Judeich,
+<i>Topographie von Athen</i> (Munich, 1905; forming vol. iii. part ii. second
+half, in 3rd edition of I. von Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der klass.
+Altertumswissenschaft</i>). The history of excavations on the Acropolis is
+summarized in M.L. d&rsquo;Ooge, <i>Acropolis of Athens</i> (1909); see also
+A. Bötticher, <i>Die Akropolis von Athen</i> (Berlin, 1888); O. Jahn,
+<i>Pausaniae descriptio arcis Athenarum</i> (Bonn, 1900); A. Furtwängler,
+<i>Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture</i> (appendix; London, 1895); A.
+Milchhöfer, <i>Über die alten Burgheiligtümer in Athen</i> (Kiel, 1899).
+For the Parthenon, A. Michaelis, <i>Der Parthenon</i> (texts and plates,
+Leipzig, 1871); L. Magne, <i>Le Parthénon</i> (Paris, 1895); J. Durm,
+<i>Der Zustand der antiken athenischen Bauwerken</i> (Berlin, 1895);
+F.C. Penrose in <i>Journal of Royal Institute of British Architects</i> for
+1897; N.M. Balanos in <span class="grk" title="Ephemeris tes kyberneseos">&#7960;&#966;&#942;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#954;&#965;&#946;&#949;&#961;&#957;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> (Athens,
+August 25, 1898). For the Dionysiac theatre, A.E. Haigh, <i>The
+Attic Theatre</i> (Oxford, 1889); W. Dörpfeld and E. Reisch, <i>Das
+griechische Theater</i> (Athens, 1896); Puchstein, <i>Die griechische Bühne</i>
+(Berlin, 1901). For the &ldquo;Theseum,&rdquo; B. Sauer, <i>Das sogenannte
+Theseion</i> (Leipzig, 1899). For the Peiraeus, E.I. Angelopoulos,
+<span class="grk" title="Peri Peiraios kai tun limenou">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#928;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#945;&#953;&#8182;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#955;&#953;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#8166;</span> (Athens, 1898). For the
+Attic Demes, A. Milchhöfer, <i>Untersuchungen über die Demenordnung
+des Kleisthenes</i> (in transactions of Berlin Academy, Berlin, 1892);
+Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie der class. Altertumswissenschaft</i>
+(supplement, part i., article &ldquo;Athenai&rdquo;; Stuttgart, 1903). For
+the controversies respecting the Agora, the Enneacrunus and the
+topography of the town in general, see W. Dörpfeld, <i>passim</i> in
+<i>Athenische Mittheilungen</i>; C. Wachsmuth, &ldquo;Neue Beiträge zur
+Topographie von Athen,&rdquo; in <i>Abhandlungen der sächsischen Gesellschaft
+der Wissenschaften</i> (Leipzig, 1897). A. Milchhöfer, &ldquo;Zur
+Topographie von Athen,&rdquo; in <i>Berlin. philol. Wochenschrift</i> (1900),
+Nos. 9, 11, 12. For the Byzantine and medieval periods, William
+Miller, <i>Latins in the Levant</i> (London, 1908); F. Gregorovius,
+<i>Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889).
+Periodical Literature. <i>Mittheilungen des kais. deutsch. arch. Instituts</i>
+(Athens, from 1876); <i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i> (Athens,
+from 1877); <i>Papers of the American School</i> (New York, 1882-1897);
+<i>Annual of the British School</i> (London, from 1894); <i>Journal of
+Hellenic Studies</i> (London, from 1880); <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>
+(New York, from 1885); <i>Jahrbuch des kais. deutsch. arch.
+Instituts</i> (Berlin, from 1886). The best maps are those in <i>Die Karten
+van Attika</i>, published with explanatory text by the German
+Archaeological Institute (Berlin, 1881). See also Baedeker&rsquo;s <i>Greece</i>
+(London, 1895); Murray&rsquo;s <i>Greece and the Ionian Islands</i> (London,
+1900); Guide Joanne, vol. i. <i>Athčnes et ses environs</i> (Paris, 1896);
+Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Turkei und Griechenländer</i> (5th ed., 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENS,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Clarke county, Georgia,
+U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 73 m. E. by N. of
+Atlanta. Pop. (1890) 8639; (1900) 10,245, of whom 5190
+were negroes and only 114 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
+14,913. It is served by the Georgia, the Central of Georgia, the
+Southern, the Seaboard Air Line and the Gainesville Midland
+railways. Athens is an important educational centre. It was
+founded in 1801 as the seat of the university of Georgia, which
+had been chartered in 1785. Franklin College, the academic
+department of the university, was opened in 1801, and afterwards
+the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (the School
+of Science, 1872), the State Normal School (co-educational, 1891),
+the School of Pharmacy (1903), the University Summer School
+(1903), the School of Forestry (1906), and the Georgia State
+College of Agriculture (1906), also branches of the university,
+were established at Athens, and what had been the Lumpkin
+Law School (incorporated in 1859) became the law department
+of the university in 1867. Branches of the university not in
+Athens are: the North Georgia Agricultural College (established
+in 1871; became a part of the university in 1872), at Dahlonega;
+the medical department, at Augusta (1873; founded as the
+Georgia Medical College in 1829); the Georgia School of Technology
+(1885), at Atlanta; the Georgia Normal and Industrial
+College for Girls (1889), at Milledgeville; and the Georgia
+Industrial College for Colored Youth (1890), near Savannah.
+At Athens also are several secondary schools, and the Lucy Cobb
+Institute (for girls), opened in 1858 and named in honour of a
+daughter of its founder, Gen. T.R.R. Cobb (1823-1862). The
+city has various manufactures, the most important being
+fertilizers, cotton goods, and cotton-seed oil and cake; the value
+of the total factory product in 1905 was $1,158,205, an increase
+of 70.9% in five years. Athens was chartered as a city in 1872.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ATHENS,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Athens county,
+Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of Athens, on the Hocking river,
+about 76 m. E.S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 2620; (1900)
+3066; (1910) 5463; of the township (1910) 10,156. It
+is served by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio Southwestern, the Toledo
+&amp; Ohio Central (Ohio Central Lines), and the Hocking Valley
+railways. The village is built on rolling ground rising about
+70 ft. above the river (which nearly encircles it), and commands
+views of some of the most beautiful scenery in the state. There
+are several ancient mounds in the vicinity. Athens is the seat
+of Ohio University (co-educational), a state institution established
+in 1804, and having in 1908 a college of liberal arts,
+a state normal college (1902), a commercial college, a college
+of music and a state preparatory school. In 1908 the University
+had 53 instructors and 1386 students. South of the village,
+and occupying a fine situation, is a state hospital for the insane.
+In the vicinity there are many coal mines, and among the manufactures
+are bricks, furniture, veneered doors, and shirts. The
+municipality operates the water-works. When the Ohio Company,
+through Manasseh Cutler, obtained from congress their
+land in what is now Ohio, it was arranged that the income from
+two townships was to be set aside &ldquo;for the support of a literary
+institution.&rdquo; In 1795 the townships (Athens and Alexander)
+were located and surveyed, and in 1800 Rufus Putnam and two
+other commissioners, appointed by the Territorial legislature,
+laid out a town, which was also called Athens. Settlers slowly
+came; the town became the county-seat in 1805, was incorporated
+as a village in 1811, and was re-incorporated in 1828.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Slice 7, by Various
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,21777 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 7
+       "Arundel, Thomas" to "Athens"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 4, 2010 [EBook #34209]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SLICE 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ATARGATIS: "... but the home of the goddess was
+      unquestionably not Palestine, but Syria proper, especially at
+      Hierapolis (q.v.), where she had a great temple". 'especially'
+      amended from 'expecially'.
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME II, SLICE VII
+
+         Arundel, Thomas to Athens
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ARUNDEL, THOMAS                 ASSAB
+  ARUNDEL (town)                  ASSAM
+  ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR             ASSAMESE
+  ARUSIANUS MESSIUS               ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  ARVAL BROTHERS                  ASSARY
+  ARVALS                          ASSASSIN
+  ARVERNI                         ASSAULT
+  ARYAN                           ASSAYE
+  ARYA SAMAJ                      ASSAYING
+  ARYTENOID                       ASSEGAI
+  ARZAMAS                         ASSELIJN, HANS
+  AS                              ASSEMANI
+  ASA                             ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL
+  ASAFETIDA                       ASSEN
+  ASAF-UD-DOWLAH                  ASSER
+  ASAPH                           ASSESSMENT
+  ASBESTOS                        ASSESSOR
+  ASBJORNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN      ASSETS
+  ASBURY, FRANCIS                 ASSIDEANS
+  ASBURY PARK                     ASSIGNATS
+  ASCALON                         ASSIGNMENT
+  ASCANIUS                        ASSINIBOIA
+  ASCENSION                       ASSINIBOIN
+  ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE         ASSISE
+  ASCETICISM                      ASSISI
+  ASCHAFFENBURG                   ASSIUT
+  ASCHAM, ROGER                   ASSIZE
+  ASCHERSLEBEN                    ASSMANNSHAUSEN
+  ASCIANO                         ASSOCIATE
+  ASCITANS                        ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
+  ASCITES                         ASSONANCE
+  ASCLEPIADES (Greek physician)   ASSUAN
+  ASCLEPIADES (of Samos)          ASSUMPSIT
+  ASCLEPIODOTUS                   ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF
+  ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA         ASSUR (land of Assyria)
+  ASCOLI PICENO                   ASSUR (capital of Assyria)
+  ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS      ASSUR (god of Assyria)
+  ASCOT                           ASSUR-BANI-PAL
+  ASCUS                           ASSUS
+  ASELLI, GASPARO                 ASSYRIA
+  ASGILL, JOHN                    AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH
+  ASH                             ASTARA
+  A'SHA                           ASTARABAD
+  ASHANTI                         ASTARTE
+  ASH'ARI                         ASTELL, MARY
+  ASHBOURNE                       ASTER
+  ASHBURNHAM, JOHN                ASTERIA
+  ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING     ASTERID
+  ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING         ASTERISK
+  ASHBURTON (river)               ASTERIUS (of Cappadocia)
+  ASHBURTON (town)                ASTERIUS (bishop of Amasia)
+  ASHBY, TURNER                   ASTHMA
+  ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH               ASTI
+  A-SHE-HO                        ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY
+  ASHER                           ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE
+  'ASHER BEN-YEHIEL               ASTON, ANTHONY
+  ASHEVILLE                       ASTON MANOR
+  ASHFORD                         ASTOR, JOHN JACOB
+  'ASHI                           ASTORGA, EMANUELE D'
+  ASHINGTON                       ASTORGA (city)
+  'ASHKENAZI, SEBI                ASTORIA
+  ASHLAND (Kentucky, U.S.A.)      ASTRAEA
+  ASHLAND (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)  ASTRAGAL
+  ASHLAND (Virginia, U.S.A.)      ASTRAKHAN (government of Russia)
+  ASHLAND (Wisconsin, U.S.A.)     ASTRAKHAN (town of Russia)
+  ASHLAR                          ASTROLABE
+  ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMES           ASTROLOGY
+  ASHMOLE, ELIAS                  ASTRONOMY
+  ASHRAF                          ASTROPALIA
+  ASHREF                          ASTROPHYSICS
+  ASHTABULA                       ASTRUC, JEAN
+  ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD            ASTURA
+  ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE               ASTURIAS
+  ASH WEDNESDAY                   ASTYAGES
+  ASHWELL, LENA                   ASTYLAR
+  ASIA (continent)                ASUNCION
+  ASIA (Roman province)           ASVINS
+  ASIA MINOR                      ASYLUM
+  ASIENTO                         ASYLUM, RIGHT OF
+  ASIR                            ATACAMA
+  ASISIUM                         ATACAMA, DESERT OF
+  ASKABAD                         ATACAMITE
+  ASKAULES                        ATAHUALLPA
+  ASKE, ROBERT                    ATALANTA
+  ASKEW, ANNE                     ATARGATIS
+  ASMA'I                          ATAULPHUS
+  ASMARA                          ATAVISM
+  ASMODEUS                        ATBARA
+  ASMONEUS                        ATCHISON
+  ASNIERES                        ATE
+  ASOKA                           ATELLA
+  ASOLO                           ATELLANAE FABULAE
+  ASOR                            ATESTE
+  ASP                             ATH
+  ASPARAGINE                      ATHABASCA
+  ASPARAGUS                       ATHALARIC
+  ASPASIA                         ATHALIAH
+  ASPASIUS                        ATHAMAS
+  ASPEN                           ATHANAGILD
+  ASPENDUS                        ATHANARIC
+  ASPER, AEMILIUS                 ATHANASIUS
+  ASPER, HANS                     ATHAPASCAN
+  ASPERGES                        ATHARVA VEDA
+  ASPERN-ESSLING                  ATHEISM
+  ASPHALT                         ATHELM
+  ASPHODEL                        ATHELNEY
+  ASPHYXIA                        ATHENA
+  ASPIC                           ATHENAEUM
+  ASPIDISTRA                      ATHENAEUS
+  ASPIROTRICHACEAE                ATHENAGORAS
+  ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE              ATHENODORUS
+  ASPROMONTE                      ATHENRY
+  ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY          ATHENS (Greece)
+  ASS                             ATHENS (Georgia, U.S.A.)
+  ASS, FEAST OF THE               ATHENS (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+
+
+
+
+ARUNDEL, THOMAS (1353-1414), archbishop of Canterbury, was the third son
+of Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel and Warenne, by his second wife,
+Eleanor, daughter of Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. His family
+was an old and influential one, and when Thomas entered the church his
+preferment was rapid. In 1373 he became archdeacon of Taunton, and in
+April 1374 was consecrated bishop of Ely. During the early years of the
+reign of King Richard II. he was associated with the party led by
+Thomas, duke of Gloucester, Henry, earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry
+IV., and his own brother Richard, earl of Arundel, and in 1386 he was
+sent with Gloucester to Eltham to persuade Richard to return to
+parliament. This mission was successful, and Arundel was made lord
+chancellor in place of Michael de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and assisted
+to make peace between the king and the supporters of the commission of
+regency. In April 1388 he was made archbishop of York, and, when Richard
+declared himself of age in 1389, he gave up the office of chancellor, to
+which, however, he returned in 1391. During his second tenure of this
+office he removed the courts of justice from London to York, but they
+were soon brought back to the metropolis. In September 1396 he was
+translated from York to Canterbury, and again resigned the office of
+chancellor. He began his new rule by a vigorous attempt to assert his
+rights, warned the citizens of London not to withhold tithes, and
+decided appeals from the judgments of his suffragans during a thorough
+visitation of his province. In November 1396 he had officiated at the
+marriage of Richard and Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., king of
+France, and his fall was the sequel of the king's sudden attack upon the
+lords appellant in 1397. After the arrest of Gloucester, Warwick and
+Arundel, the archbishop was impeached by the Commons with the king's
+consent, although Richard, who had not yet revealed his hostility, held
+out hopes of safety to him. He was charged with assisting to procure the
+commission of regency in derogation of the royal authority, and sentence
+of banishment was passed, forty days being given him during which to
+leave the realm. Towards the end of 1397 he started for Rome, and Pope
+Boniface IX., at the urgent request of the king, translated him to the
+see of St Andrews, a step which the pope afterwards confessed he
+repented bitterly. This translation virtually deprived Arundel of all
+authority, as St Andrews did not acknowledge Boniface. He then became
+associated with Henry of Lancaster, but did not return to England before
+1399, and the account which Froissart gives telling how he was sent by
+the Londoners to urge Henry to come and assume the crown is thought to
+refer to his nephew and namesake, Thomas, earl of Arundel. Landing with
+Henry at Ravenspur, he accompanied him to the west. He took his place at
+once as archbishop of Canterbury, witnessed the abdication of Richard in
+the Tower of London, led the new king, Henry IV., to his throne in
+presence of the peers, and crowned him on the 13th of October 1399.
+
+The main work of his later years was the defence of the church, and the
+suppression of heresy. To put down the Lollards, he called a meeting of
+the clergy, pressed on the statute _de haeretico comburendo_, and passed
+sentence of degradation upon William Sawtrey. He resisted the attempt of
+the parliament of 1404 to disendow the church, but failed to induce
+Henry to pardon Archbishop Scrope in 1405. In 1407 he became chancellor
+for the fourth time, and in 1408 summoned a council at Oxford, which
+drew up constitutions against the Lollards. These he published in
+January 1409, and among them was one forbidding the translation of the
+Bible into English without the consent of the bishop of the diocese, or
+of a provincial synod. In 1411 he went on an embassy abroad, and in 1412
+became chancellor again, his return to power being accompanied by a
+change in the foreign policy of Henry IV. In 1397 he had sought to
+vindicate his right of visitation over the university of Oxford, but the
+dispute remained unsettled until 1411 when a bull was issued by Pope
+John XXIII. recalling one issued by Pope Boniface IX., which had
+exempted the university from the archbishop's authority. In 1413 he took
+a leading part in the proceedings against Sir John Oldcastle, Lord
+Cobham, and in the following year he died on the 19th of February, and
+was buried at Canterbury. A legend of a later age tells how, just before
+his death, he was struck dumb for preventing the preaching of the word
+of God.
+
+  The chief authorities are T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, ed. by
+  H.T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); _Eulogium historiarum sive temporis_,
+  ed. by F.S. Haydon (London, 1858-1863); the Monk of Evesham, _Historia
+  vitae et regni Ricardi II._, ed. by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); W.F.
+  Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv. (London,
+  1860-1876).
+
+
+
+
+ARUNDEL, a market town and municipal borough in the Chichester
+parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 58 m. S.S.W. from London by
+the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 2739. It is
+pleasantly situated on the slope of a hill above the river Arun, which
+is navigable for small vessels to Littlehampton at the mouth, 6 m.
+south. From the summit of the hill rises Arundel Castle, which guarded
+the passage along the river through the hills. For its connexion with
+the title of earl of Arundel see ARUNDEL, EARLDOM OF. A castle existed
+in the time of King Alfred, and at the time of the Conquest it was
+rebuilt by Roger de Montgomerie, but it was taken from his son, who
+rebelled against the reigning monarch, Henry I. In 1397 it was the scene
+of a conspiracy organized by the earl of Arundel, archbishop of
+Canterbury and duke of Gloucester, to dethrone Richard II. and murder
+the lords of his council, a plot which was discovered before it could be
+carried into execution. During the civil wars of the 17th century, the
+stronghold was frequently assaulted by the contending parties, and
+consequently greatly damaged; but it was restored by Charles, 11th duke
+of Norfolk (d. 1815), who made it what it now is, one of the most
+splendid baronial mansions in England. Extensive reconstruction, in the
+style of the 13th century, was undertaken towards the close of the 19th
+century. The town, according to the whimsical etymology shown on the
+corporation seal, takes its name from _hirondelle_ (a swallow). The town
+hall is a castellated building, presented to the corporation by the duke
+of Norfolk. The church of St Nicholas, founded about 1375, is
+Perpendicular with a low tower rising from the centre. In the north
+aisle of the chancel there are several ancient monuments of the earls of
+Arundel. The church is otherwise remarkable for its reredos and iron
+work. The chancel is the property of the duke of Norfolk and is screened
+from the rest of the building, although in 1880 this exercise of right
+by the owner was made the subject of an action at law and subsequent
+appeal. The Roman Catholic church of St Philip Neri was built by the
+duke of Norfolk (1873). Some remains of a _Maison Dieu_, or hospital,
+erected in the time of Richard II., still exist. The borough is under a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2053 acres.
+
+  The first mention of Arundel (Harundell) comes as early as 877, when
+  it was left by King Alfred in his will to his nephew Aethelm. In the
+  time of Edward the Confessor the town seems to have consisted of the
+  mill and a fortification or earthwork which was probably thrown up by
+  Alfred as a defence against the Danes; but it had increased in
+  importance before the Conquest, and appears in Domesday as a thriving
+  borough and port. It was granted by the Conqueror to Roger de
+  Montgomery, who built the castle on the site of the ancient earthwork.
+  From very early times markets were held within the borough on Thursday
+  and Saturday, and in 1285 Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, obtained
+  a grant of two annual fairs on the 14th of May and the 17th of
+  December. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1302 to
+  1832 when the Reform Act reduced the membership to one; in 1868 it was
+  disfranchised altogether. There are no early charters extant, but in
+  1586 Elizabeth acknowledged the right of the mayor and burgesses to be
+  a body corporate and to hold a court for pleas under forty shillings,
+  two weekly markets and four annual fairs--which rights they claimed to
+  have exercised from time immemorial. James II. confirmed in 1688 a
+  charter given two years before, and incorporated the borough under the
+  title of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 burgesses. The town was half
+  destroyed by fire in 1338, but was soon rebuilt. Arundel was formerly
+  a thriving seaport, and in 1813 was connected by canal with London.
+
+  See M.A. Tierney, _The History and Antiquities of the Castle and Town
+  of Arundel_ (London, 1834); _Victoria County History--Sussex._
+
+
+
+
+ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR, THOMAS ARUNDELL, 1ST BARON (c. 1562-1639), son of
+Sir Mathew Arundell of Wardour Castle in Wiltshire, a member of the
+ancient family of Arundells of Lanherne in Cornwall, and of Margaret,
+daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, was born about 1562. In 1579 he was
+personally recommended by Queen Elizabeth to the emperor Rudolph II. He
+greatly distinguished himself while serving with the imperial troops
+against the Turks in Hungary, and at the siege of Gran or Esztergom on
+the 13th of August 1595, he captured the enemy's banner with his own
+hand. He was created by Rudolph II. a count of the Holy Roman Empire in
+December 1595, and returned to England after suffering shipwreck and
+barely preserving his life in January 1596. His assumption of the
+foreign title created great jealousy among the English peers, who were
+wont to give a precedence by courtesy to foreign nobles, and he incurred
+the resentment of his father, who objected to his superior rank and
+promptly disinherited him. The queen, moreover, was seriously
+displeased, declared that "as chaste wives should have no glances but
+for their own spouses, so should faithful subjects keep their eyes at
+home and not gaze upon foreign crowns," and committed him to the Fleet
+immediately on his arrival, while she addressed a long letter of
+remonstrance on the subject to the emperor. Arundell remained under
+arrest till April, when he was liberated after an examination. In April
+1597, however, he was again confined, but declared innocent of any
+charge save that of "practising to contrive the justification of his
+vain title with Ministers beyond the seas." In December he was liberated
+and placed under the care of his father, but next year he was again
+arrested and accused of a conspiracy against the government. His
+petitions for a licence to undertake an expedition by sea, wherein he
+declared "his end was honour which some base minds call ambition," were
+refused, but in 1599 he was apparently again restored to favour. On the
+4th of May 1605 he was created by James I. Baron Arundell of Wardour,
+but fell again under temporary suspicion at the time of the Gunpowder
+Plot. In 1623 he once more got into trouble by championing the cause of
+the recusants, of whom he was himself one, on the occasion of the visit
+of the Spanish envoys, and he was committed to custody, and in 1625 all
+the arms were removed by the government from Wardour Castle. After the
+accession of Charles I. he was pardoned, and attended the sittings of
+the House of Lords. He was indicted in the king's bench about the year
+1627 for not paying some contribution, and in 1632 he was accused of
+harbouring a priest. In 1637 he was declared exempt from the recusancy
+laws by the king's order, but in 1639 he again petitioned for relief.
+The same year he paid L500 in lieu of attending the king at York. He
+died on the 7th of November 1639. Arundell was an earnest Roman
+Catholic, but the suspicions of the government as to his loyalty were
+probably unfounded and stifled a career destined by nature for
+successful adventure. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry
+Wriothesley, 2nd earl of Southampton, by whom besides other children he
+had Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron; and (2) Anne, daughter of
+Miles Philipson, by whom he had several daughters.
+
+HENRY ARUNDELL, 3rd Baron Arundell of Wardour (c. 1607-1694), son of
+Thomas, 2nd baron, and of Blanche, daughter of Edward, earl of
+Worcester, was born on the 21st of July 1607, and succeeded on his
+father's death in 1643 to the family title and estates. A strong
+royalist and Roman Catholic, he supported the king's cause, and
+distinguished himself in 1644 by the recapture of his castle at Wardour
+from the parliamentarians, who had taken it in the previous year in
+spite of his mother's brave defence of the place. In 1648 he was one of
+the delinquents exempted from pardon in the proposals sent to Charles in
+the Isle of Wight. His estates had been confiscated, but he was
+permitted about 1653 to compound for them in the sum of L35,000. In
+1652, in consequence of his being second at a duel in which one of the
+combatants was killed, he was arrested, and tried in 1653; he pleaded
+his peerage, but the privilege was disallowed as the House of Lords had
+been abolished. At the Restoration he regained possession of the family
+estates, and in 1663 was made master of the horse to Henrietta Maria. He
+was one of the few admitted to the king's confidence concerning the
+projects for the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion and the
+alliance with France. In 1669 he took part in the secret council
+assembled by Charles II., and in October was sent to France, ostensibly
+for the funeral of Henrietta Maria, but in reality to negotiate with
+Louis XIV. the agreement which took shape in 1670 in the treaties of
+Dover (see CHARLES II.). In 1676 he was privy to James's negotiations
+with Rome through Coleman. He was accused in 1678 by Titus Oates of
+participation in the popish plot, and was one of the five Roman Catholic
+peers arrested and imprisoned in the Tower in October, found guilty by
+the Middlesex grand jury of high treason, and impeached subsequently by
+the parliament. Lord Stafford was found guilty and executed in December
+1680, but after the perpetration of this injustice the proceedings were
+interrupted, and the three surviving peers were released on bail on the
+12th of February 1684. On the 22nd of May 1685, after James II.'s
+accession, the charge was annulled, and on the 1st of June 1685 they
+obtained their full liberty. In February 1686, with other Roman
+Catholics, Arundell urged upon the king the removal of his mistress,
+Lady Dorchester, on account of her strong Protestantism. In spite of his
+religion he was made a privy councillor in August 1686, and keeper of
+the privy seal in 1687, being excused from taking the oaths by the
+king's dispensation. He presented the thanks of the Roman Catholics to
+James in June 1687 for the declaration of indulgence. His public career
+ended with the abdication of the king, and he retired to Breamore, the
+family residence since the destruction of Wardour Castle. He died on the
+28th of December 1694. He was the author of five religious poems said to
+be composed during his confinement in the Tower in 1679, published the
+same year and reprinted in _A Collection of Eighty-six Loyal Poems_ in
+1685. His piety and benevolence to his unfortunate co-religionists were
+conspicuous. Evelyn calls him "very good company" and he was a noted
+sportsman, the Quorn pack being descended from his pack of hounds at
+Breamore. He married Cecily, daughter of Sir Henry Compton, by whom
+besides other children he had Thomas, who succeeded him as 4th baron.
+
+The barony is still held in the Arundell family, which has never ceased
+to be Roman Catholic. The 14th baron (b. 1859) was a direct descendent
+of the 6th.
+
+
+
+
+ARUSIANUS MESSIUS, or MESSUS, Latin grammarian, flourished in the 4th
+century A.D. He was the author of a small extant work _Exempla
+Elocutionum_, dedicated to Olybrius and Probinus, consuls for the year
+395. It contains an alphabetical list, chiefly of verbs admitting more
+than one construction, with examples from each of the four writers,
+Virgil, Sallust, Terence and Cicero. Cassiodorus, the only writer who
+mentions Arusianus, refers to it by the term Quadriga.
+
+  See Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vii.; Suringar, _Historia Critica
+  Scholiastarum Latinorum_ (1834-1835); Van der Hoeven, _Specimen
+  Literarium_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+ARVAL BROTHERS (Fratres Arvales), in Roman antiquities, a college or
+priesthood, consisting of twelve members, elected for life from the
+highest ranks in Rome, and always apparently, during the empire,
+including the emperor. Their chief duty was to offer annually public
+sacrifice for the fertility of the fields (Varro, _L. L_. v. 85). It is
+generally held that the college was founded by Romulus (see ACCA
+LARENTIA). This legend probably arose from the connexion of Acca
+Larentia, as _mater Larum_, with the Lares who had a part in the
+religious ceremonies of the Arvales. But apart from this, there is proof
+of the high antiquity of the college, which was said to have been older
+than Rome itself, in the verbal forms of the song with which, down to
+late times, a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which is still
+preserved. It is clear also that, while the members were themselves
+always persons of distinction, the duties of their office were held in
+high respect. And yet it is singular that no mention of them occurs in
+Cicero or Livy, and that altogether literary allusions to them are very
+scarce. On the other hand, we possess a long series of the _acta_ or
+minutes of their proceedings, drawn up by themselves, and inscribed on
+stone. Excavations, commenced in the 16th century and continued to the
+19th, in the grove of the Dea Dia about 5 m. from Rome, have yielded 96
+of these records from A.D. 14 to 241. The brotherhood appears to have
+languished in obscurity during the republic, and to have been revived by
+Augustus. In his time the college consisted of a master (_magister_), a
+vice-master (_promagister_), a _flamen_, and a _praetor_, with eight
+ordinary members, attended by various servants, and in particular by
+four chorus boys, sons of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore
+a wreath of corn, a white fillet and the praetexta. The election of
+members was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a
+flamen, was himself elected for one year. The great annual festival
+which they had to conduct was held in honour of the anonymous Dea Dia,
+who was probably identical with Ceres. It occupied three days in May.
+The ceremony of the first day took place in Rome itself, in the house of
+the magister or his deputy, or on the Palatine in the temple of the
+emperors, where at sunrise fruits and incense were offered to the
+goddess. A sumptuous banquet took place, followed by a distribution of
+doles and garlands. On the second and principal day of the festival the
+ceremonies were conducted in the grove of the Dea Dia. They included a
+dance in the temple of the goddess, at which the song of the brotherhood
+was sung, in language so antiquated that it was hardly intelligible (see
+the text and translation in Mommsen, _Hist, of Rome_, bk. i. ch. xv.)
+even to Romans of the time of Augustus, who regarded it as the oldest
+existing document in their mother-tongue. Especial mention should be
+made of the ceremony of purifying the grove, which was held to be
+defiled by the felling of trees, the breaking of a bough or the presence
+of any iron tools, such as those used by the lapidary who engraved the
+records of the proceedings on stone. The song and dance were followed by
+the election of officers for the next year, a banquet and races. On the
+third day the sacrifice took place in Rome, and was of the same nature
+as that offered on the first day. The Arvales also offered sacrifice and
+solemn vows on behalf of the imperial family on the 3rd of January and
+on other extraordinary occasions. The brotherhood is said to have lasted
+till the time of Theodosius. The British Museum contains a bust of
+Marcus Aurelius in the dress of a Frater Arvalis.
+
+  Marini, _Atti e Monumenti de' Fratri Arvali_ (1795); Hoffmann, _Die
+  A._ (1858): Oldenberg, _De Sacris Fratrum A_. (1875); Bergk, _Das Lied
+  der Arvalbruder_ (1856); Breal, "Le Chant des Arvals" in _Mem. de la
+  Soc. de Linguistique_ (1881); Edon, _Nouvelle Etude sur le Chant
+  Lemural_ (1884); _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vi. 2023-2119;
+  Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (1874).
+
+
+
+
+ARVALS, ARVELS or ARTHELS (O. Norse _Arfr_, inheritance, and _ol_, A.S.
+Ale, a banquet), primarily the funeral dinner, and later, especially in
+the north of England, a thin, light, sweet cake, spiced with cinnamon
+and nutmeg, served to the poor at such feasts. The funeral meal was
+called the Arvel-dinner. The custom seems to have been to hold on such
+occasions an informal inquest, when the corpse was publicly exposed, to
+exculpate the heir and those entitled to the property of the dead from
+all accusations of foul play.
+
+
+
+
+ARVERNI, the name of an ancient Gaulish tribe in the Auvergne, which
+still bears its name. It resisted Caesar longer than most of Gaul; when
+once vanquished it adopted Roman civilization readily. Its tribal deity,
+the god of the mountain, the Puy de Dome, rechristened in Roman phrase
+Mercurius Dumias, was famous far beyond its territory. Part of his
+temple has been excavated recently.
+
+
+
+
+ARYAN, a term which has been used in a confusing variety of
+significations by different philologists. By Max Muller especially it
+was employed as a convenient short term for the whole body of languages
+more commonly known as Indo-European (q.v.) or Indo-Germanic. In the
+same way Max Muller used Aryas as a general term for the speakers of
+such languages, as in his book published in 1888, _Biographies of Words
+and the Home of the Aryas_. "Aryas are those who speak Aryan languages,
+whatever their colour, whatever their blood. In calling them Aryas we
+predicate nothing of them except that the grammar of their language is
+Aryan" (p. 245). It is to be observed, therefore, that Max Muller is
+careful to avoid any ethnological signification. The Aryas are those who
+speak Aryan without regard to the question whether Aryan is their
+_hereditary_ language or not. As he says still more definitely elsewhere
+in the same work (p. 120), "I have declared again and again that if I
+say Aryas, I mean neither blood nor bones, nor hair nor skull; I mean
+simply those who speak an Aryan language. The same applies to Hindus,
+Greeks, Romans Germans, Celts and Slaves. When I speak of them I commit
+myself to no anatomical characteristics. The blue-eyed and fair-haired
+Scandinavians may have been conquerors or conquered, they may have
+adopted the language of their darker lords or their subjects, or vice
+versa. I assert nothing beyond their language when I call them Hindus,
+Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts and Slaves; and in that sense, and in
+that sense only, do I say that even the blackest Hindus represent an
+earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest
+Scandinavians.... To me an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan
+blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who
+speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar."
+
+From the popularity of Max Muller's works on comparative philology this
+is the use of the word which is most familiar to the general public. The
+arguments in support of this use are set forth by him in the latter part
+of lecture vi. of the _Lectures on the Science of Language_ (first
+series) and as an appendix to chap. vii. of the final edition (i. pp. 291
+ff.). The Sanskrit usage of the word is fully illustrated by him from the
+early Sanskrit writings in the article "Aryan" in the ninth edition of
+this encyclopaedia. From the earliest occurrences of the word it is clear
+that it was used as a national name not only in India but also in Bactria
+and Persia (in Sanskrit _arya_- and _arya_, in Zend _airya_-, in Old
+Persian _ariya_-). That it is in any way connected with a Sanskrit word
+for earth, _ira_, as Max Muller asserts, is far from certain. As Spiegel
+remarks (_Die arische Periode_, p. 105), though it is easy enough to
+connect the word with a root _ar_-, there are several roots of that form
+which have different meanings, and there is no certain criterion whereby
+to decide to which of them it is related. Nor are the other connexions
+for the word outside this group free from doubt. It is, however, certain
+that the connexion with _Erin_ (Ireland), which Pictet in his article
+"Iren and Arier" (Kuhn and Schleicher's _Beitrage_, i. 1858, pp. 81 ff.)
+sought to establish, is impossible (Whitley Stokes in Max Muller's
+_Lectures_, 1891, i. pp. 299 f.), though the word may have the same
+origin as the _Ario_- of names like _Ariovistus_, which is found in both
+Celtic and Germanic words (Uhlenbeck, _Kurzgefasstes etymologisches
+Worterbuch der altindischen Sprache_, s.v.). The name of Armenia (Old
+Persian _Armina_-), which has often been connected, is of uncertain
+origin. Within Sanskrit itself probably two words have to be
+distinguished: (1) _arya_, the origin of Aryan, from which the usual term
+_arya_ is a derivative; (2) _arya_, which frequently appears in the _Rig
+Veda_ as an epithet of deities. In many passages, however, _aryas_ may
+equally well be the genitive of _ari_, which is explained as "active,
+devoted, pious." Even in this word probably two originally separate words
+have to be distinguished, for the further meanings which Grassmann in his
+dictionary to the _Rig Veda_ attaches to it, viz. "greedy" (for treasure
+and for battle), "godless," "enemy," seem more appropriately to be
+derived from the same source as the Greek [Greek: eri-s], "strife." The
+word _arya_- is not found as a national name in the _Rig Veda_, but
+appears in the _Vajasaneyi-sainhita_, where it is explained by Mahidhara
+as _Vaisya_-, a cultivator or a man of the third among the original four
+classes of the population. So in the _Atharva Veda_ (iv. 20. 4; xix. 62.
+1) it is contrasted with the Sudra or fourth class (Spiegel, _Arische
+Periode_, p. 102). In the _Avesta, airya_- is found both as adjective and
+substantive in the sense of Aryan, but no light is thrown upon the
+history of the word. Darius describes himself in an inscription as of
+Aryan stock, _Daraya[h]va[h]us ariya[h]civ[r]a[h]_. In the _Avesta_ the
+derivative _airyana_- is also found in the sense of Aryan. In both India
+and Persia a word is found (Skt. _aryaman_-; Zend _airyahman_-) which is
+apparently of the same origin. In both Sanskrit and Zend it means
+something like "comrade" or "bosom friend," but in Zend is used of the
+priestly or highest class. In Sanskrit, besides this use in which it is
+contrasted with the _Dasa_ or _Dasyu_, the enemies, the earlier
+inhabitants, the word is often used for the bridegroom's spokesman, and
+in both languages is also employed as the name of a divine being. In the
+_Rig Veda, Aryaman_- as a deity is most frequently coupled with Mitra and
+Varuna (Grassmann, _Worterbuch_, s.v.); in Zend, according to Bartholomae
+(_Altiranisches Worterbuch_, s.v.), from the earliest literature, the
+Gathas, there is nothing definite to be learnt regarding _Airyaman_.
+
+Whatever the origin of _arya_-, however, it is clear that it is a word
+with dignified associations, by which the peoples belonging to the
+Eastern section of the Indo-Europeans were proud to call themselves. It
+is now used uniformly by scholars to indicate the Eastern branch as a
+whole, a compound, _Indo-Aryan_, being employed for that part of the
+Eastern branch which settled in India to distinguish them from the
+Iranians (_Iran_ is of the same origin), who remained in Bactria and
+Persia, while _Aryo-Indian_ is sometimes employed to distinguish the
+Indian people of this stock from the Dravidian and other stocks which
+also inhabit parts of the Indian peninsula. Of the stages in the
+occupation of the Iranian table-land by the Aryan people nothing is
+known, the people themselves having apparently no tradition of a time
+when they did not hold these territories (Spiegel, _Arische Periode_, p.
+319). Though the Hindus have no tradition of their invasion of India, it
+is certain that they are not an indigenous people, and, if they are not,
+it is clear that they could have come in no other direction save from
+the other side of the Hindu Kush. At the period of their earliest
+literature, which may be assigned roughly to about 1000 B.C., they were
+still settled in the valley of the Indus, and at this time the
+separation probably had not long taken place, the Eastern portion of the
+stock having pushed their way along the Kabul valley into the open
+country of the Indus. According to Professor E.W. Hopkins (_India Old
+and New_, 1901, p. 31) the _Rig Veda_ was composed in the district about
+Umballa. He argues that the people must have been then to the west of
+the great rivers, otherwise the dawn could not be addressed as one who
+"in shining light, before the wind arises, comes gleaming over the
+waters, making good paths." The vocabulary is still largely the same;
+whole sentences can be transliterated from one language to the other
+merely by making regular phonetic changes and without the variation of a
+single word (for examples see Bartholomae, _Handbuch der altiranischen
+Dialekte_, 1883, p. v.; Williams Jackson, _Avesta Grammar_, 1892, pp.
+xxxi. f.; _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, 1895, i. p. 1). It is
+noteworthy that it is those who remain behind whose language has
+undergone most change.
+
+By four well-marked characteristics the Aryan group is easily
+distinguishable from the other Indo-European languages. (1) By the
+confusion of original _e_ and _o_, both long and short, with the
+original long and short _a_ sound; (2) the short schwa-sound [schwa] is
+represented here, and in this group only, by _i_ (_pita_, "father," as
+compared with [Greek: pataer], &c.); (3) original _s_ after _i_, _u_ and
+some consonants becomes s; (4) the genitive plural of stems ending in a
+vowel has a suffix-_nam_ borrowed by analogy from the stems ending in
+_-n_ (Skt. _asvanam_, "of horses"; Zend _aspanam_; Old Persian
+_aspanam_). The distinctions between Sanskrit and Iranian are also
+clear, (1) The Aryan voiced aspirates _gh, dh, bh_, which survive in
+Sanskrit, are confused in Iranian with original _g, d, b_, and further
+changes take place in the language of the later parts of the Avesta; (2)
+the Aryan breathed aspirates _kh, th, ph_, except in combination with
+certain consonants, become spirants in Iranian; (3) Aryan _s_ becomes
+_h_ initially before vowels in Iranian and also in certain cases
+medially, Iranian in these respects resembling Greek (cf. Skt. _sapta_;
+Zend _hapta_; Gr. [Greek: hepta], "seven"); (4) in Zend there are many
+vowel changes which it does not share with Old Persian. Some of these
+arise from the umlaut or epenthesis which is so prevalent, and which we
+have already seen in _airya_- as compared with the Skt. _arya_. In other
+respects the languages are remarkably alike, the only striking
+difference being in the numeral "one"--Skt. _eka_-; Zend _aeva_-; Old
+Persian _aiva_-, where the Iranian group has the same stem as that seen
+in the Greek [Greek: oi(f)o-s], "alone."
+
+For the subdivisions of the two groups see the articles on PERSIA:
+_Language_, and INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. Dr Grierson has shown in his
+monograph on "The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India" (Royal
+Asiatic Society, 1906) that there is good reason for regarding various
+dialects of the north-western frontier (Kafiristan, Chitral, Gilgit,
+Dardistan) as a separate group descended from Aryan but independent of
+either Sanskrit or Iranian.
+
+The history of the separation of the Aryan from the other Indo-European
+languages is not yet clear (see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). Various
+attempts have been made, with little success, to identify fragments of
+unknown languages in cuneiform inscriptions with members of this group.
+The investigation has entered a new and more favourable stage as the
+result of the discoveries made by German excavators at Boghaz Keui (said
+to be identical with Herodotus' Pteria in Cappadocia), where treaties
+between the king of the Hittites and the king of Mitanni, in the
+beginning of the 14th century B.C., seem almost certainly to contain the
+names of the gods Mitra, Varuna and Indra, which belong to the early
+Aryan mythology (H. Winckler, _Mitteilungen der deutschen
+Orientgesellschaft_, No. 35; E. Meyer, _Sitzungsberichte der Berliner
+Akademie_, 1908, pp. 14 ff.; _Zeitschrift fur vergleichende
+Sprachforschung_, 42, 1908, pp. 24 ff.). Still further light is to be
+expected when the vast collections of the German expedition to Turfan
+(Turkestan) have been sifted. Up to 1909 only a preliminary account had
+been given of Tocharish, a hitherto unknown Indo-European language,
+which is reported to be in some respects more akin to the Western groups
+than to Aryan. But further investigation is still required (see E. Sieg
+and W. Siegling, "Tocharisch, die Sprache der Indoskythen," in
+_Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad._ (July 1908, pp. 915 ff.).     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+ARYA SAMAJ, a Hindu religious association with reforming tendencies,
+which was founded by a Guzerati Brahman named Dayanand Saraswati. This
+man was born of a Saivite family about 1825, but in early manhood grew
+dissatisfied with idol-worship. He undertook many pilgrim-ages and
+studied the Vedic philosophy in the hope of solving the old problem of
+the Buddha,--how to alleviate human misery and attain final liberation.
+About 1866, when he had begun to teach and to gather disciples, he first
+saw the Christian scriptures, which he vehemently assailed, and the _Rig
+Veda_, which he correspondingly exalted, though in the conception which
+he ultimately formed of God the former was much more influential than
+the latter. Dayanand's treatment of the Vedas was peculiar, and
+consisted of reading into them his own beliefs and modern scientific
+discoveries. Thus he explains the _Yajna_ (sacrificial cult) as "the
+entertainment of the learned in proportion to their worth, the business
+of manufacture, the experiment and application of chemistry, physics and
+the arts of peace; the instruction of the people, the purification of
+the air, the nourishment of vegetables by the employment of the
+principles of meteorology, called _Agni-Notri_ in Sanskrit." He denied
+that the _Vedas_ warranted the caste system, but wished to retain the
+four grades as orders of learning to which admission should be won by
+examination.
+
+These views naturally met with scanty acceptance among the Brahmans to
+whom he introduced them, and Dayanand turned to the masses and
+established _Samajes_ in various parts of India, the first being at
+Bombay in 1875. He chose the epithet Arya as being more dignified than
+the slightly contemptuous term Hindu. After a successful series of
+tours, during which he debated publicly with orthodox pundits and with
+Christian missionaries, he died at Ajmere in 1883.
+
+The Arya Samaj is not an eclectic system like the Brahma Samaj, which
+strives to find the common basis underlying all the great religions, and
+its narrower scope and corresponding intensity of conviction have won it
+a greater strength. It seemed to meet the feeling of many educated
+natives whose faith in current Hinduism was undermined, but who were
+predisposed against any foreign religious influence. Their patriotic
+ardour gladly seized on "a view of the original faith of India that
+seemed to harmonize with all the discoveries of modern science and the
+ethics of European civilization," and they cheerfully supported their
+leader's strange polemic with the agnostic and rationalist literature of
+Europe. By 1890 their numbers had increased to 40,000, by 1900 to over
+92,000. Divisions had, however, set in, especially a cleavage into the
+_Ghasi_ or vegetarian, and the _Mansi_ or flesh-eating sections. To the
+latter belong those Rajputs who though generally in sympathy with the
+movement declined to adhere to the tenet of the _Samaj_ which forbade
+the destruction of animal life and the consumption of animal food. The
+age of admission to the Samaj is eighteen, and members are expected to
+contribute to its funds at least 1% of their income.
+
+The ten articles of their creed may be summarized thus:--
+
+   1. The source of all true knowledge is God.
+   2. God is "all truth, all knowledge, all bliss, boundless, almighty,
+        just, merciful, unbegotten, without a beginning, incomparable,
+        the support and Lord of all, all-pervading, omniscient,
+        imperishable, immortal, eternal, holy, and the cause of the
+        universe; worship is due to him alone."
+   3. The medium of true knowledge is the _Vedas_.
+   4. and 5. The truth is to be accepted and to become the guiding
+        principle.
+   6. The object of the Samaj is to benefit the world by improving
+        its physical, social, intellectual and moral conditions.
+   7. Love and justice are the right guides of conduct.
+   8. Knowledge must be spread.
+   9. The good of others must be sought.
+  10. In general interests members must subordinate themselves to
+        the good of others; in personal interests they should retain
+        independence.
+
+The sixth clause comprehends a wide programme of reform, including
+abstinence from spirituous liquors and animal food, physical cleanliness
+and exercise, marriage reform, the promotion of female education, the
+abolition of caste and of idolatry.
+
+
+
+
+ARYTENOID (or _arytaenoid_; from Gr. [Greek: arytaina], a funnel or
+pitcher), a term, meaning funnel-shaped, applied to cartilages such as
+those of the larynx.
+
+
+
+
+ARZAMAS, a town of Russia, in the government of, and 76 m. by rail S. of
+the town of, Nizhniy-Novgorod, on the Tesha river, at its junction with
+the Arsha. It is an important centre of trade, and has tanneries, oil,
+flour, tallow, dye, soap and iron works; knitting is an important
+domestic industry. Sheepskins and sail-cloth are articles of trade. The
+town has several churches. Pop. (1897) 10,591.
+
+
+
+
+AS, the Roman unit of weight and measure, divided into 12 _unciae_
+(whence both "ounce" and "inch"); its fractions being deunx 11/12,
+dextrans 5/6, dodrans 3/4, bes 2/3, septunx 7/12, semis 1/2, quincunx
+5/12, triens 1/3, quadrans 1/4, sextans 1/6, sescuncia 1/8, uncia 1/12.
+_As_ really denoted any integer or whole; whence the English word "ace."
+The unit or _as_ of weight was the _libra_ (pound: = about 11-4/5 oz.
+avoirdupois); of length, _pes_ (foot: = about 11-3/5 in.); of surface,
+_jugerum_ ( = about 2/3 acre); of measure, liquid _amphora_ (about 5-3/5
+gal.), dry _modius_ (about 9/10 peck). In the same way _as_ signified a
+whole inheritance; whence _heres ex asse_, the heir to the whole estate,
+_heres ex semisse_, heir to half the estate. It was also used in the
+calculation of rates of interest.
+
+_As_ was also the name of a Roman coin, which was of different weight
+and value at different periods (see NUMISMATICS, S _Roman_). The first
+introduction of coined money is ascribed to Servius Tullius. The old
+_as_ was composed of the mixed metal _aes_, an alloy of copper, tin and
+lead, and was called _as libralis_, because it nominally weighed 1 lb.
+or 12 ounces (actually 10). Its original shape seems to have been an
+irregular oblong bar, which was stamped with the figure of a sheep, ox
+or sow. This, as well as the word _pecunia_ for money (_pecus_, cattle),
+indicates the fact of cattle having been the earliest Italian medium of
+exchange. The value was indicated by little points or globules, or other
+marks. After the round shape was introduced, the one side was always
+inscribed with the figure of a ship's prow, and the other with the
+double head of Janus. The subdivisions of the _as_ had also the ship's
+prow on one side, and on the other the head of some deity. The First
+Punic War having exhausted the treasury, the _as_ was reduced to 2 oz.
+In the Second Punic War it was again reduced to half this weight, viz.
+to 1 oz. And lastly, by the Papirian law (89 B.C.) it was further
+reduced to the diminutive weight of half an ounce. It appears to have
+been still more reduced under Octavian, Lepidus and Antony, when its
+value was 1/3 of an ounce. Before silver coinage was introduced (269
+B.C.) the value of the _as_ was about 6d., in the time of Cicero less
+than a halfpenny. In the time of the emperor Severus it was again
+lowered to about 5/24 of an ounce. During the commonwealth and empire
+_aes grave_ was used to denote the old as in contradistinction to the
+existing depreciated coin; while _aes rude_ was applied to the original
+oblong coinage of primitive times.
+
+
+
+
+ASA, in the Bible, son (or, perhaps, rather brother) of Abijah, the son
+of Rehoboam and king of Judah (1 Kings xv. 9-24). Of his long reign,
+during which he was a contemporary of Baasha, Zimri and Omri of Israel,
+little is recorded with the exception of some religious reforms and
+conflicts with the first-named. Baasha succeeded in fortifying Ramah
+(_er-Ram_), 5 m. north of Jerusalem, and Asa was compelled to use the
+residue of the temple-funds (cf. 1 Kings xiv. 26) to bribe the king of
+Damascus to renounce his league with Baasha and attack Israel. Galilee
+was invaded and Baasha was forced to return; the building material which
+he had collected at Ramah being used by Asa to fortify Geba, and Mizpah
+to the immediate north of Jerusalem. The Book of Chronicles relates a
+story of a sensational defeat of Zerah the "Cushite," and a great
+religious revival in which Judah and Israel took part (2 Chron. xiv.-xv.
+15) (see CHRONICLES). Asa was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat.
+
+"Cushite" may designate an Ethiopian or, more probably, an Arabian
+(Cush, the "father" of the Sabaeans, Gen. x. 7). "If by Zerah the
+Ethiopian or Sabaean prince be meant, the only real difficulty of the
+narrative is removed. No king Zerah of Ethiopia is known at this period,
+nor does there seem to be room for such a person." (W.E. Barnes,
+_Cambridge Bible_, Chronicles, p. xxxi.). The identification with
+Osorkon I. or II. is scarcely tenable considering Asa's weakness; but
+inroads by desert hordes frequently troubled Judah, and if the tradition
+be correct in locating the battle at Mareshah it is probable that the
+invaders were in league with the Philistine towns. Similar situations
+recur in the reigns of Ahaz and Jehoram.
+
+  See also Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, 208; S.A. Cook, _Expositor_ (June
+  1906), p. 540 sq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+ASAFETIDA (_asa_, Lat. form of Persian _aza_ = mastic, and fetidus,
+stinking, so called in distinction to _asa dulcis_, which was a drug
+highly esteemed among the ancients as _laser cyrenaicum_, and is
+supposed to have been a gummy exudation from _Thapsis garganica_), a
+gum-resin obtained principally from the root of _Ferula fetida_, and
+probably also from one or two other closely allied species of
+umbelliferous plants. It is produced in eastern Persia and Afghanistan,
+Herat and Kandahar being centres of the trade. _Ferula fetida_ grows to
+a height of from 5 to 6 ft., and when the plant has attained the age of
+four years it is ready for yielding asafetida. The stems are cut down
+close to the root, and the juice flows out, at first of a milky
+appearance, but quickly setting into a solid resinous mass. Fresh
+incisions are made as long as the sap continues to flow, a period which
+varies according to the size and strength of the plant. A
+freshly-exposed surface of asafetida has a translucent, pearly-white
+appearance, but it soon darkens in the air, becoming first pink and
+finally reddish-brown. In taste it is acrid and bitter; but what
+peculiarly characterizes it is the strong alliaceous odour it emits,
+from which it has obtained the name asafetida, as well as its German
+name _Teufelsdreck_ (devil's dung). Its odour is due to the presence of
+organic sulphur compounds. Asafetida is found in commerce in "lump" or
+in "tear," the latter being the purer form. Medicinally, asafetida is
+given in doses of 5 to 15 grains and acts as a stimulant to the
+intestinal and respiratory tracts and to the nervous system. An enema
+containing it is useful in relieving flatus. It is sometimes useful in
+hysteria, which is essentially a lack of inhibitory power, as its nasty
+properties induce sufficient inhibitory power to render its
+readministration superfluous. It may also be used in an effervescing
+draught in cases of malingering, the drug "repeating" in the mouth and
+making the malingering not worth while. The gum-resin is relished as a
+condiment in India and Persia, and is in demand in France for use in
+cookery. In the regions of its growth the whole plant is used as a fresh
+vegetable, the inner portion of the full-grown stem being regarded as a
+luxury.
+
+
+
+
+ASAF-UD-DOWLAH, nawab wazir of Oudh from 1775 to 1797, was the son of
+Shuja-ud-Dowlah, his mother and grandmother being the begums of Oudh,
+whose spoliation formed one of the chief counts in the charges against
+Warren Hastings. When Shuja-ud-Dowlah died he left two million pounds
+sterling buried in the vaults of the zenana. The widow and mother of the
+deceased prince claimed the whole of this treasure under the terms of a
+will which was never produced. When Warren Hastings pressed the nawab
+for the payment of debt due to the Company, he obtained from his mother
+a loan of 26 lakhs of rupees, for which he gave her a _jagir_ of four
+times the value; he subsequently obtained 30 lakhs more in return for a
+full acquittal, and the recognition of her _jagirs_ without interference
+for life by the Company. These _jagirs_ were afterwards confiscated on
+the ground of the begum's complicity in the rising of Chai Singh, which
+was attested by documentary evidence. The evidence now available seems
+to show that Warren Hastings did his best throughout to rescue the nawab
+from his own incapacity, and was inclined to be lenient to the begums.
+
+  See _The Administration of Warren Hastings, 1772-1785_, by G.W.
+  Forrest (1892).
+
+
+
+
+ASAPH, the eponym of the Asaphite gild of singers, one of the hereditary
+choirs that superintended the musical services of the temple at
+Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The names occur in the titles of certain
+Psalms, and the writer of the Book of Chronicles makes Asaph a seer (2
+Chron. xxix. 30), contemporary with David and Solomon, and chief of the
+singers of his time.
+
+
+
+
+ASBESTOS, a fibrous mineral from Gr. [Greek: asbestos], unquenchable, by
+transference, incombustible, in allusion to its power of resisting the
+action of fire. The word was applied by Dioscorides and other Greek
+authors to quicklime, but Pliny evidently used it in its modern sense.
+It was occasionally woven by the ancients into handkerchiefs, and, it
+has been said, into shrouds which were used in cremation to prevent the
+ashes of the corpse from mingling with the wood-ashes of the pyre.
+
+In different varieties of asbestos the fibres vary greatly in character.
+When silky and flexible they are sometimes known as mountain flax. The
+finer kinds are often termed amianthus (q.v.). When the fibres are
+naturally interwoven, so as to form a felted mass, the mineral passes
+under such trivial names as mountain leather, mountain cork, mountain
+paper, &c. The asbestos formerly used in the arts was generally a
+fibrous form of some kind of amphibole, like tremolite, or
+anthophyllite, though occasionally perhaps a pyroxene. In recent years,
+however, most of the asbestos in the market is a fibrous variety of
+serpentine, known mineralogically as chrysotile, and probably some of
+the ancient asbestos was of this character (see AMIANTHUS). Both
+minerals possess similar properties, so far as resistance to heat is
+concerned. The amphibole-asbestos, or hornblende-asbestos, is usually
+white or grey in colour, and may present great length of fibre, some of
+the Italian asbestos reaching exceptionally a length of 5 or 6 ft., but
+it is often harsh and brittle. The serpentine-asbestos occurs in narrow
+veins, yielding fibres of only 2 or 3 in. in length, but of great
+tensile strength: they are usually of a delicate silky lustre, very
+flexible and elastic, and of yellowish or greenish colour.
+
+The Canadian asbestos, which of all kinds is at present the most
+important industrially, occurs in a small belt of serpentine in the
+province of Quebec, principally near Black Lake and Thetford, where it
+was first recognized as commercially valuable about 1877. The rock is
+generally quarried, cobbed by hand, dried if necessary, crushed in
+rock-breakers, and then passed between rollers; it is reduced to a finer
+state of division by so-called fiberizers, and graded on a shaking
+screen, where the loosened fibres are sorted. The process varies in
+different mills.
+
+In the United States asbestos is worked only to a very limited extent.
+An amphibole-asbestos is obtained from Sall Mountain, Georgia; and
+asbestos has also been worked in the serpentine of Vermont. It occurs
+also in South Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts, Arizona and elsewhere.
+Dr G.P. Merrill has shown that some asbestos results from a process of
+shearing in the rocks.
+
+Formerly asbestos was obtained almost exclusively from Italy and
+Corsica, and a large quantity is still yielded by Italian workings. This
+is mostly an amphibole. It is in some cases associated with nodules of
+green garnet known as "seeds"--_Semenze dell' amianto._ Asbestos is
+widely distributed, but only in a few localities does it occur in
+sufficient abundance and purity to be worked commercially; it is found,
+for example, to a limited extent, at many localities in Tirol, Hungary
+and Russia; Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand. In the British
+Isles it is not unknown, being found among the old rocks of North Wales
+and in parts of Ireland. Byssolite or asbestoid is a blue or green
+fibrous amphibole from Dauphiny.
+
+The Asbestos Mountains in Griqualand West, Cape Colony, yield a blue
+fibrous mineral which is worked under the name of Cape asbestos. This is
+referable to the variety of amphibole called crocidolite (q.v.). It
+occurs in veins in slaty rocks, associated with jaspers and quartzites
+rich in magnetite and brown iron-ore. Their geological position is in
+the Griqua Town series, belonging to what are known in South Africa as
+the Pre-Cape rocks.
+
+Asbestos was formerly spun and woven into fabrics as a rare curiosity.
+Charlemagne is said to have possessed a tablecloth of this material,
+which when soiled was purified by being thrown into the fire. At a
+meeting of the Royal Society in 1676 a merchant from China exhibited a
+handkerchief of "salamander's wool," or _linum asbesti._ By the Eskimos
+of Labrador asbestos has been used as a lamp-wick, and it received a
+similar application in some of the sacred lamps of antiquity. In recent
+times asbestos has been applied to a great variety of uses in the
+industrial arts, and its applications are constantly increasing. Its
+economic value depends not only on its power of withstanding a high
+temperature, but also on its low thermal conductivity and its partial
+resistance to the attack of acids: hence it is used for jacketing
+boilers and steam-pipes, and as a filtering medium for corrosive
+liquids. It has also come into use as an electric insulator. It is made
+into yarn, felt, millboard, &c., and is largely employed as packing for
+joints, glands and stopcocks in machinery. Fire-proof sheathing and felt
+are used for flooring and roofing; fire-proof curtains have been made
+for the stage, and even clothing for firemen. Asbestos enters into the
+composition of fire-proof cements, plasters and paints: it is used for
+packing safes; and is made into balls with fire-clay for gas-stoves.
+Various preparations of asbestos with other materials pass in trade
+under such names as uralite, salamandrite, asbestolith, gypsine, &c.
+"Asbestic" is the name given to a Canadian product formed by crushing
+the serpentine rock containing thin seams of asbestos, and mixing the
+result with lime so as to form a plaster.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Fritz Cirkel, _Asbestos, its Occurrence, Exploitation and
+  Uses_ (Ottawa, 1905); J.H. Pratt and J.S. Diller in Annual Reports on
+  Mineral Resources, U.S. Geol. Survey; G.P. Merrill, _The Non-metallic
+  Minerals_ (New York, 1904); R.H. Jones, _Asbestos and Asbestic_
+  (London, 1897).     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+ASBJORNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN (1812-1885), and MOE, JORGEN ENGEBRETSEN
+(1813-1882), collectors of Norwegian folklore, so closely united in
+their life's work that it is unusual to name them apart. Asbjornsen was
+born in Christiania on the 15th of January 1812; he belonged to an
+ancient family of the Gudbrandsdal, which is believed to have died with
+him. He became a student at the university in 1833, but as early as
+1832, in his twentieth year, he had begun to collect and write down all
+the fairy stories and legends which he could meet with. Later he began
+to wander on foot through the length and breadth of Norway, adding to
+his stores. Moe, who was born at Mo i Hole parsonage, in Sigdal
+Ringerike, on the 22nd of April 1813, met Asbjornsen first when he was
+fourteen years of age. A close friendship began between them, and lasted
+to the end of their lives. In 1834 Asbjornsen discovered that Moe had
+started independently on a search for the relics of national folklore;
+the friends eagerly compared results, and determined for the future to
+work in concert. By this time, Asbjornsen had become by profession a
+zoologist, and with the aid of the university made a series of
+investigating voyages along the coasts of Norway, particularly in the
+Hardanger fjord. Moe, meanwhile, having left Christiania University in
+1839, had devoted himself to the study of theology, and was making a
+living as a tutor in Christiania. In his holidays he wandered through
+the mountains, in the most remote districts, collecting stories. In
+1842-1843 appeared the first instalment of the great work of the two
+friends, under the title of _Norwegian Popular Stories (Norske
+Folkeeventyr)_, which was received at once all over Europe as a most
+valuable contribution to comparative mythology as well as literature. A
+second volume was published in 1844, and a new collection in 1871. Many
+of the _Folkeeventyr_ were translated into English by Sir George Dasent
+in 1859. In 1845 Asbjornsen published, without help from Moe, a
+collection of Norwegian fairy tales (_huldreeventyr og folkesagn_). In
+1856 the attention of Asbjornsen was called to the deforestation of
+Norway, and he induced the government to take up this important
+question. He was appointed forest-master, and was sent by Norway to
+examine in various countries of the north of Europe the methods observed
+for the preservation of timber. From these duties, in 1876, he withdrew
+with a pension; he died in Christiania on the 6th of January 1885. From
+1841 to 1852 Moe travelled almost every summer through the southern
+parts of Norway, collecting traditions in the mountains. In 1845 he was
+appointed professor of theology in the Military School of Norway. He
+had, however, long intended to take holy orders, and in 1853 he did so,
+becoming for ten years a resident chaplain in Sigdal, and then (1863)
+parish priest of Bragernes. He was moved in 1870 to the parish of Vestre
+Aker, near Christiania, and in 1875 he was appointed bishop of
+Christiansand. In January 1882 he resigned his diocese on account of
+failing health, and died on the following 27th of March. Moe has a
+special claim on critical attention in regard to his lyrical poems, of
+which a small collection appeared in 1850. He wrote little original
+verse, but in his slender volume are to be found many pieces of
+exquisite delicacy and freshness. Moe also published a delightful
+collection of prose stories for children, _In the Well and the Churn (_I
+Bronde og i Kjaernet), 1851; and _A Little Christmas Present (En liden
+Juleegave)_, 1860. Asbjornsen and Moe had the advantage of an admirable
+style in narrative prose. It was usually said that the vigour came from
+Asbjornsen and the charm from Moe, but the fact seems to be that from
+the long habit of writing in unison they had come to adopt almost
+precisely identical modes of literary expression.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASBURY, FRANCIS (1745-1816), American clergyman, was born at Hamstead
+Bridge in the parish of Handsworth, near Birmingham, in Staffordshire,
+England, on the 20th of August 1745. His parents were poor, and after a
+brief period of study in the village school of Barre, he was apprenticed
+at the age of fourteen to a maker of "buckle chapes," or tongues. It
+seems probable that his parents were among the early converts of Wesley;
+at any rate, Francis became converted to Methodism in his thirteenth
+year, and at sixteen became a local preacher. He was a simple, fluent
+speaker, and was so successful that in 1767 he was enrolled, by John
+Wesley himself, as a regular itinerant minister. In 1771 he volunteered
+for missionary work in the American colonies. When he landed in
+Philadelphia in October 1771, the converts to Methodism, which had been
+introduced into the colonies only three years before, numbered scarcely
+300. Asbury infused new life into the movement, and within a year the
+membership of the several congregations was more than doubled. In 1772
+he was appointed by Wesley "general assistant" in charge of the work in
+America, and although superseded by an older preacher, Thomas Rankin
+(1738-1810), in 1773, he remained practically in control. After the
+outbreak of the War of Independence, the Methodists, who then numbered
+several thousands, fell, unjustly, under suspicion of Loyalism,
+principally because of their refusal to take the prescribed oath; and
+many of their ministers, including Rankin, returned to England. Asbury,
+however, feeling his sympathies and duties to be with the colonies,
+remained at his post, and although often threatened, and once arrested,
+continued his itinerant preaching. The hostility of the Maryland
+authorities, however, eventually drove him into exile in Delaware, where
+he remained quietly, but not in idleness, for two years. In 1782 he was
+reappointed to supervise the affairs of the Methodist congregations in
+America. In 1784 John Wesley, in disregard of the authority of the
+Established Church, took the radical step of appointing the Rev. Thomas
+Coke (1747-1814) and Francis Asbury superintendents or "bishops" of the
+church in the United States. Dr Coke was ordained at Bristol, England,
+in September, and in the following December, in a conference of the
+churches in America at Baltimore, he ordained and consecrated Asbury,
+who refused to accept the position until Wesley's choice had been
+ratified by the conference. From this conference dates the actual
+beginning of the "Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States of
+America." To the upbuilding of this church Asbury gave the rest of his
+life, working with tireless devotion and wonderful energy. In 1785, at
+Abingdon, Maryland, he laid the corner-stone of Cokesbury College, the
+project of Dr Coke and the first Methodist Episcopal college in America;
+the college building was burned in 1795, and the college was then
+removed to Baltimore, where in 1796, after another fire, it closed, and
+in 1816 was succeeded by Asbury College, which lived for about fifteen
+years. Every year Asbury traversed a large area, mostly on horseback.
+The greatest testimony to the work that earned for him the title of the
+"Father of American Methodism" was the growth of the denomination from a
+few scattered bands of about 300 converts and 4 preachers in 1771, to a
+thoroughly organized church of 214,000 members and more than 2000
+ministers at his death, which occurred at Spottsylvania, Virginia, on
+the 31st of March 1816.
+
+  His _Journals_ (3 vols., New York, 1852), apart from their importance
+  as a history of his life work, constitute a valuable commentary on the
+  social and industrial history of the United States during the first
+  forty years of their existence. Consult also F.W. Briggs, _Bishop
+  Asbury_ (London, 1874); W.P. Strickland, _The Pioneer Bishop; or, The
+  Life and Times of Francis Asbury_ (New York, 1858); J.B. Wakeley,
+  _Heroes of Methodism_ (New York, 1856): W.C. Larrabee, _Asbury and His
+  Co-Laborers_ (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1853); H.M. Du Bose, _Francis
+  Asbury_ (Nashville, Tenn., 1909); see also under METHODISM.
+
+
+
+
+ASBURY PARK, a city of Monmouth county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
+Atlantic Ocean, about 35 m. S. of New York City (50 m. by rail). Pop.
+(1900) 4148; (1905) 4526; (1910) 10,150. It is served by the Central of
+New Jersey and the Pennsylvania railways, and by electric railway lines
+connecting it with other New Jersey coast resorts both north and south.
+Fresh-water lakes, one of which, Deal Lake, extends for some distance
+into the wooded country, form the northern and southern boundaries. It
+is one of the most popular seaside resorts on the Atlantic coast, its
+numerous hotels and cottages accommodating a summer population that
+approximates 50,000, and a large transient population in the autumn and
+winter months. There is an excellent beach, along which extends a
+board-walk about 1 m. long; the beach is owned and controlled by the
+municipality. The municipality owns and operates its water-works, water
+being obtained from artesian wells. Asbury Park was founded in 1869, was
+named in honour of the Rev. Francis Asbury, was incorporated as a
+borough in 1874, and was chartered as a city in 1897. In 1906 territory
+to the west with a population estimated at 6000 was annexed.
+
+
+
+
+ASCALON, now 'ASKALAN, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines,
+on the coast of the Mediterranean, 12 m. N. of Gaza. The place is
+mentioned several times in the Tell el-Amarna correspondence. It
+revolted from Egypt on two occasions, but was reconquered, and a
+sculpture at Thebes depicts the storming of the city. Ascalon was a
+well-fortified town, and the seat of the worship of the fish-goddess
+Derketo. Though situated in the nominal territory of the tribe of Judah,
+it was never for any length of time in the possession of the Israelites.
+The only incident in its history recorded in the Bible (the spoliation
+by Samson, Judg. xiv. 19) may possibly have actually occurred at another
+place of the same name, in the hill country of Judaea. Sennacherib took
+it in 701 B.C. The conquest of Alexander hellenized its civilization,
+and after his time it became tributary alternately to Syria and Egypt.
+Herod the Great was a native of the city, and added greatly to its
+beauty; but it suffered severely in the later wars of the Romans and
+Jews. In the 4th century it again rose to importance; and till the 7th
+century, when it was conquered by the Moslems, it was the seat of a
+bishopric and a centre of learning. During the first crusade a signal
+victory was gained by the Christians in the neighbouring plain on the
+15th of August 1099; but the city remained in the hands of the caliphs
+till 1157, when it was taken by Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, after a
+siege of five months. By Baldwin IV. it was given to his sister Sibylla,
+on her marriage with William of Montferrat in 1178. When Saladin (1187)
+had almost annihilated the Christian army in the plain of Tiberias,
+Ascalon offered but a feeble resistance to the victor. At first he
+repaired and strengthened its fortifications, but afterwards, alarmed at
+the capture of St Jean d'Acre (Acre) by Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191,
+he caused it to be dismantled. It was restored in the following year by
+the English king, but only to be again abandoned. From this time Ascalon
+lost much of its importance, and at length, in 1270, its fortifications
+were almost totally destroyed by Sultan Bibars, and its port was filled
+up with stones. The place is now a desolate heap of ruins, with remains
+of its walls and fragments of granite pillars. The surrounding country
+is well watered and very fertile.
+
+  See a paper by Guthe, "Die Ruinen Ascalons," in the _Zeitschrift_ of
+  the Deutsche Palastina-Verein, ii. 164 (translated in Palestine
+  Exploration Fund _Quarterly Statement_, 1880, p. 182). See also C.R.
+  Conder in the latter journal, 1875, p. 152.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCANIUS, in Roman legend, the son of Aeneas by Creusa or Lavinia. From
+Livy it would appear that tradition recognized two sons of Aeneas called
+by this name, the one the son of his Trojan, the other of his Latin
+wife. According to the usual account, he accompanied his father to Italy
+on his flight from Troy. On the death of Aeneas, the government of
+Latium was left in the hands of Lavinia, Ascanius being too young to
+undertake it. After thirty years he left Lavinium, and founded Alba
+Longa. Ascanius was also called Ilus and Iulus, and the Julian gens
+claimed to be descended from him. Several more or less contradictory
+traditions may be found in Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Strabo and other
+writers.
+
+  Virg. _Aen_. ii. 666; Livy i. 3; see also Klausen. _Aeneas und die
+  Penaten_ (1840).
+
+
+
+
+ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, between 7 deg. 53' and 8
+deg. S., and 14 deg. 18' and 14 deg. 26' W., 800 m. N.W. of St Helena,
+about 7-1/2 m. in length and 6 in breadth, with an area of 38 sq. m. and
+a circumference of about 22 m. The island lies within the immediate
+influence of the south-east trade-wind. The lee side of the island is
+subject to the visitation of "rollers," which break on the shore with
+very great violence. Ascension is a volcanic mass erected on a submarine
+platform. Numerous cones exist. Green Mountain, the principal elevation,
+is a huge elliptical crater, rising 2820 ft. above the sea, while the
+plains or table-lands surrounding it vary in height from 1200 to 2000
+ft. On the north side they sweep gradually down towards the shore, but
+on the south they terminate in bold and lofty precipices. Steep and
+rugged ravines intersect the plains, opening into small bays or coves on
+the shore, fenced with masses of compact and cellular lava; and all over
+the island are found products of volcanic action. Ascension was
+originally destitute of vegetation save on the summit of Green Mountain,
+which owes its verdure to the mists which frequently enshroud it, but
+the lower hills have been planted with grasses and shrubs. The air is
+clear and light, and the climate remarkably healthy, notwithstanding the
+high temperature--the average day temperature on the shore being 85 deg.
+F., on Green Mountain 75 deg. F. The average rainfall is about 20 in.,
+March and April being the rainy months. Ascension is noted for the
+number of turtles and turtle eggs found on its shores, the season
+lasting from December to May or June. The turtles are caught and kept in
+large ponds. The coasts abound with a variety of fish of excellent
+quality, of which the most important are the rock-cod, the cavalli, the
+conger-eel and the "soldier." Numbers of sheep are bred on the island,
+and there are a few cattle and deer, besides goats and wild cats.
+Feathered game is abundant. Like St Helena, the island does not possess
+any indigenous vertebrate land fauna. The "wideawake" birds frequent the
+island in large numbers, and their eggs are collected and eaten. Beetles
+and land-shells are well represented. Flies, ants, mosquitoes,
+scorpions, centipedes and crickets abound. The flora includes purslane,
+rock roses and several species of ferns and mosses.
+
+The island was discovered by the Portuguese navigator, Joao da Nova, on
+Ascension Day 1501, and was occasionally visited thereafter by ships. In
+1701 William Dampier was wrecked on its coast, and during his detention
+discovered the only spring of fresh water the island contains. Ascension
+remained uninhabited till after the arrival of Napoleon at St Helena
+(1815), when it was taken possession of by the British government, who
+sent a small garrison thither. A settlement, named George Town (locally
+known as Garrison), was made on the north-west coast, water being
+obtained from "Dampier's" springs in the Green Mountain, 6 m. distant.
+The island is under the rule of the admiralty, and was likened by Darwin
+to "a huge ship kept in first-rate order." It is governed by a naval
+captain borne on the books of the flagship of the admiral superintendent
+at Gibraltar. A depot of stores for the navy is maintained, but the
+island is used chiefly as a sanatorium. Ascension is connected by cable
+with Europe and Africa, and is visited once a month by mail steamers
+from the Cape. Formerly letters were left by passing ships in a crevice
+in one of the rocks. The population, about 300, consists of seamen,
+marines, and Krumen from Liberia.
+
+  See _Africa Pilot_, part ii., 5th ed. (London, 1901); C. Darwin,
+  _Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited during the
+  Voyage of H.M.S. "Beagle"_ (London, 1844); _Report of the Scientific
+  Results of the Voyage of the "Challenger,"_ vol. i. part 2 (London,
+  1885); and _Six Months in Ascension_, by Mrs Gill (London, 1878), an
+  excellent sketch of the island and its inhabitants. It was at
+  Ascension that Mr, afterwards Sir, David Gill determined, in 1877, the
+  solar parallax.
+
+
+
+
+ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE, one of the oecumenical festivals of the
+Christian Church, ranking in solemnity with those of Christmas, of
+Easter and of Pentecost. It is held forty days after Easter, or ten days
+before Whitsunday, in celebration of Christ's ascension into heaven
+forty days after the resurrection. It always falls on a Thursday, and
+the day is known as Ascension Day, or Holy Thursday. The festival is of
+great antiquity; and though there is no discoverable trace of it before
+the middle of the 4th century, subsequent references to it assume its
+long establishment. Thus St Augustine (_Ep. 54 ad Januar._) mentions it
+as having been kept from time immemorial and as probably instituted by
+the apostles. Chrysostom, in his homily on the ascension, mentions a
+celebration of the festival in the church of Romanesia outside Antioch,
+and Socrates (_Hist. eccles._ vii. 26) records that in the year 390 the
+people of Constantinople "of old custom" ([Greek: ex ethous]) celebrated
+the feast in a suburb of the city. As these two references suggest, the
+festival was associated with a professional pilgrimage, in commemoration
+of the passing of Christ and his apostles to the Mount of Olives; such a
+procession is described by Adamnan, abbot of Iona, as taking place at
+Jerusalem in the 7th century, when the feast was celebrated in the
+church on Mount Olivet (_de loc. sanct._ i. 22). The _Peregrinatio_ of
+Etheria (Silvia), which dates from c. A.D. 385, says that the festival
+was held in the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (Duchesne, _Chr.
+Worship_, p. 515). In the West, however, in the middle ages, the
+procession with candles and banners outside the church was taken as
+symbolical of Christ's triumphant entry into heaven.
+
+In the East the festival is known as the [Greek: analaepsis], "taking
+up," or [Greek: episozomenae], a term first used in the Cappadocian
+church, and of which the meaning has been disputed, but which probably
+signifies the feast "of completed salvation." The word _ascensio_,
+adopted in the West, implies the ascension of Christ by his own power,
+in contradistinction to the _assumptio_, or taking up into heaven of the
+Virgin Mary by the power of God.
+
+In the Roman Catholic Church the most characteristic ritual feature of
+the festival is now the solemn extinction of the paschal candle after
+the Gospel at high mass. This candle, lighted at every mass for the
+forty days after Easter, symbolizes the presence of Christ with his
+disciples, and its extinction his parting from them. The custom dates
+from 1263, and was formerly confined to the Franciscans; it was
+prescribed for the universal church by the Congregation of Rites on the
+19th of May 1697. Other customs, now obsolete, were formerly associated
+with the liturgy of this feast; e.g. the blessing of the new beans after
+the Commemoration of the Dead in the canon of the mass (Duchesne, p.
+183). In some churches, during the middle ages, an image of Christ was
+raised from the altar through a hole in the roof, through which a
+burning straw figure representing Satan was immediately thrown down.
+
+In the Anglican Church Ascension Day and its octave continue to be
+observed as a great festival, for which a special preface to the
+consecration prayer in the communion service is provided, as in the case
+of Christmas, Easter, Whitsunday, and Trinity Sunday. The celebration of
+the Feast of the Ascension was also retained in the Lutheran churches as
+warranted by Holy Scripture.
+
+  See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1900), s. _"Himmelfahrtsfest"_;
+  L. Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (2nd Eng. ed., London, 1904); _The
+  Catholic Encyclopaedia_ (London and New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+ASCETICISM, the theory and practice of bodily abstinence and
+self-mortification, generally religious. The word is derived from the
+Gr. verb [Greek: askeo], "I practise," whence the noun [Greek: askaesis]
+and the adjective [Greek: askaetikos]; and it embodies a metaphor taken
+from the ancient wrestling-place or palaestra, where victory rewarded
+those who had best trained their bodies. Not a few other technical terms
+of Greek philosophic asceticism, used in the first instance by Cynics
+and Neo-pythagoreans, and then continued among the Greek Jews and
+Christians, were metaphors taken from athletic contests--but only
+metaphors, for all asceticism, worthy of the name, has a moral purport,
+and is based on the eternal contrast of the proposition, "This is
+right," with the proposition, "That is pleasant." The ascetic instinct
+is probably as old as humanity, yet we must not forget that early
+religious practices are apt to be deficient in lofty spiritual meaning,
+many things being esteemed holy that are from a modern point of view
+trifling and even obscene. We may therefore expect in primitive
+asceticism to find many abstentions and much self-torture apparently
+valueless for the training of character and discipline of the feelings,
+which are the essence of any healthy asceticism. Nevertheless these
+non-moral _taboos_ or restraints may have played a part in building up
+in us that faculty of preferring the larger good to the impulse of the
+moment which is the note of real civilization. Aristotle in his _Ethics_
+defines, as the barbarian's ideal of life, "the living as one likes."
+Yet nothing is less true; for the savage, more than the civilized man,
+is tied down at every step with superstitious scruples and restrictions
+barely traceable in higher civilizations except as primitive survivals.
+It is not that savages are devoid of the ascetic instinct. It is on the
+contrary over-developed in them, but ill-informed and working in ways
+unessential or even morally harmful. It is the note of every great
+religious reformer, Moses, Buddha, Paul, Mani, Mahomet, St Francis,
+Luther, to enlighten and direct it to higher aims, substituting a true
+personal holiness for a ritual purity or _taboo_, which at the best was
+viewed as a kind of physical condition and contagion, inherent as well
+in things and animals as in man.
+
+It is useful, therefore, in a summary sketch of asceticism, to begin
+with the facts as they can be observed among less advanced races, or as
+mere survivals among people who have reached the level of genuine moral
+reflection; and from this basis to proceed to a consideration of
+self-denial consciously pursued as a method of ethical perfection. The
+latter is as a rule less cruel and rigorous than primitive forms of
+asceticism. Under this head fall the following:--Fasting, or abstention
+from certain meats and drinks; denial of sexual instinct; subjection of
+the body to physical discomforts, such as nakedness, vigils, sleeping on
+the bare ground, tattooing, deformation of skull, teeth, feet, &c., vows
+of silence to be observed throughout life or during pilgrimages,
+avoidance of baths, of hair-cutting and of clean raiment, living in a
+cave; actual self-infliction of pain, by scourging, branding, cutting
+with knives, wearing of hair shirts, fire-walking, burial alive, hanging
+up of oneself by hooks plunged into the skin, suspension of weights by
+such hooks to the tenderer parts of the body, self-mutilation and
+numerous other, often ingenious, modes of torture. Such customs repose
+on various superstitions; for example, the self-mutilation of the Galli
+or priests of Cybele was probably a magical ceremony intended to
+fertilize the soil and stimulate the crops. Others of the practices
+enumerated, probably the greater part of them, spring from demonological
+beliefs.
+
+Fasting (q.v.) is used in primitive asceticism for a variety of reasons,
+among which the following deserve notice. Certain animals and vegetables
+are _taboo_, i.e. too holy, or--what among Semites and others was the
+same thing--too defiling and unclean, to be eaten. Thus in Leviticus xi.
+the Jews are forbidden to eat animals other than cloven-footed
+ruminants; thus the camel, coney, hare and swine were forbidden; so also
+any water organisms that had not fins and scales, and a large choice of
+birds, including swan, pelican, stork, heron and hoopoe. All winged
+creeping things that have four feet were equally abominable. Lastly, the
+weasel, mouse and most lizards were _taboo_. All or nearly all of these
+were at one time totem animals among one or another of the Semitic
+tribes, and were not eaten because primitive men will not eat animals
+between which and themselves and their gods they believe a peculiar tie
+of kinship to exist. Men do not eat an animal for which they have a
+reverential dread, or if they eat it at all, it is only in a sacramental
+feast and in order to absorb into themselves its life and holy
+properties. Such abstinences as the above, though based on _taboo_, that
+is, on a reluctance to eat the totem or sacred animal, are yet ascetic
+in so far as they involve much self-denial. No flesh is more wholesome
+or succulent than beef, yet the Egyptians and Phoenicians, says Porphyry
+(_de Abst._ ii. 11), would rather eat human flesh than that of the cow,
+and so would two hundred and fifty millions of modern Hindus. The
+privation involved in abstention from the flesh of the swine, a _taboo_
+hardly less widespread, is obvious.
+
+Similar prohibitions are common in Africa, where fetish priests are
+often reduced to a diet of herbs and roots. That such dietary
+restrictions were merely ceremonial and superstitious, and not intended
+to prevent the consumption of meats which would revolt modern tastes, is
+certain from the fact that the Levitical law freely allowed the eating
+of locusts, grasshoppers, crickets and cockroaches, while forbidding the
+consumption of rabbits, hares, storks, swine, &c. The Pythagoreans were
+forbidden to eat beans.
+
+Another widespread reason for avoiding flesh diet altogether was the
+fear of absorbing the irrational soul of the animal, which especially
+resided in the blood. Hence the rule not to eat meats strangled, except
+in sacramental meals when the god inherent in the animal was partaken
+of. It is equally a soul or spirit in wine which inspires the
+intoxicated; the old Egyptian kings avoided wine at table and in
+libations, because it was the blood of rebels who had fought with the
+gods, and out of whose rotting bodies grew the vines; to drink the blood
+was to imbibe the soul of these rebels, and the frenzy of intoxication
+which followed was held to be possession by their spirits. The medieval
+Jews also held that there is a cardiac demon in wine which takes
+possession of drunken men; and the Mahommedan prohibition of
+wine-drinking is based on a similar superstition. The avoidance of wine,
+therefore, by Rechabites, Nazirites, Arab dervishes and Pythagoreans,
+and also of leaven in bread, is parallel to and explicable in the same
+way as abstention from flesh. Porphyry (_de Abst._ i. 19) acquaints us
+with another widespread scruple against flesh diet. It was this, that
+the souls of men transmigrated into animals, so that if you ate these,
+you might consume your own kind, cannibal-wise. Contemporary meat-eaters
+set themselves to combat this prejudice, and argued that it was a pious
+duty to kill animals and so release the human souls imprisoned. In the
+same tract Porphyry relates (ii. 48) how wizards acquired the mantic
+powers of certain birds, such as ravens and hawks, by swallowing their
+hearts. The soul of the bird, he explains, enters them with its flesh,
+and endows them with power of divination. The lover of wisdom, who is
+priest of the universal God, rather than risk the taking into himself of
+inferior souls and polluting demons, will abstain from eating animals.
+Such is Porphyry's argument.
+
+The same fear of imbibing the irrational soul of animals, and thereby
+reinforcing the lower appetites and instincts of the human being,
+inspired the vegetarianism of Apollonius of Tyana and of the Jewish
+Therapeutae, who in their sacred meals were careful to have a table free
+from blood-containing meats; and the fear of absorbing the animal's
+psychic qualities equally motived the Jewish and early Christian rule
+against eating things strangled. It was an early belief, which long
+survived among the Manichaean sects, that fish, being born in and of the
+waters, and without any sexual connexion on the part of other fishes are
+free from the taint which pollutes all animals _quae copulatione
+generantur_. Fish, therefore, unlike flesh, could be safely eaten. Here
+we have the origin of the Catholic rule of fasting, seldom understood by
+those who observe it. The same scruple against flesh-eating is conveyed
+in the beautiful confession, in the _Cretans_ of Euripides, of one who
+had been initiated in the mysteries of Orpheus and became a "Bacchos."
+The last lines of this, as rendered by Dr Gilbert Murray, are as
+follows:--
+
+  "Robed in pure white, I have borne me clean
+   From man's vile birth and coffined clay,
+   And exiled from my lips alway
+   Touch of all meat where life hath been."
+
+This Orphic fast from meat was only broken by an annual sacramental
+banquet, originally, perhaps, of human, but later of raw bovine flesh.
+
+The Manichaeans held that in every act of begetting, human or otherwise,
+a soul is condemned afresh to a cycle of misery by imprisonment in
+flesh--a thoroughly Indian notion, under the influence of which their
+perfect or elect ones scrupulously abstained from flesh. The prohibition
+of taking life, which they took over from the Farther East, in itself
+entailed fasting from flesh. A fully initiated Manichaean would not even
+cut his own salad, but employed a catechumen to commit on his behalf
+this act of murder, for which he subsequently shrived him.
+
+We come to a third widespread reason for fasting, common among savages.
+Famished persons are liable to morbid excitement, and fall into
+imaginative ecstasies, in the course of which they see visions and
+spectres, converse with gods and angels, and are the recipients of
+supernatural revelations. Accordingly King Saul "ate no bread all the
+day nor all the night" in which the witch of Endor revealed to him the
+ghost of Samuel. Weak and famished, he hardly wanted to eat the fatted
+calf when the vision was over. Among the North American Indians ecstatic
+fasting is regularly practised. A faster writes down his visions and
+revelations for a whole season. They are then examined by the elders of
+the tribe, and if events have verified them, he is recognized as a
+supernaturally gifted being, and rewarded with chieftaincy. All over the
+world fasting is a recognized mode of evoking, consulting and also of
+overcoming the spirit world. This is why the Zulus and other primitive
+races distrust a medicine man who is not an ascetic and lean with
+fasting. In the Semitic East it is an old belief that a successful fast
+in the wilderness of forty days and nights gives power over the Djinns.
+The Indian _yogi_ fasts till he sees face to face all the gods of his
+Pantheon; the Indian magician fasts twelve days before producing rain or
+working any cure. The Bogomils fasted till they saw the Trinity face to
+face. From the first, fasting was practised in the church for similar
+reason. In the _Shepherd of Hermas_ a vision of the church rewards
+frequent fasts and prayer; and it is related in extra-canonical sources
+that James the Less vowed that he would fast until he too was vouchsafed
+a vision of the risen Lord. After a long and rigorous fast the Lord
+appeared to him. Not a few saints were rewarded for their fasting by
+glimpses of the beatific vision. Dr Tylor writes on this point as
+follows (_Prim. Cult._ ii. 415): "Bread and meat would have robbed the
+ascetic of many an angel's visit: the opening of the refectory door must
+many a time have closed the gates of heaven to his gaze."
+
+Among the Semites and Tatars worshippers lacerate themselves before the
+god. So in I Kings xviii. 28 the priests of Baal engaged in a
+rain-making ceremony, gashed themselves with knives and lances till the
+blood gushed out upon them. The Syriac word _ethkashshaph_, which means
+literally to "cut oneself," is the regular equivalent of to "make
+supplication." Among Greeks and Arabs, mourners also cut themselves with
+knives and scratched their faces; the Hebrew law forbade such mourning,
+and we find the prohibition repeated in many canons of the Eastern
+churches. At first sight these rites seem intended to call down the pity
+of heaven on man, but as Robertson Smith points out, their real import
+was by shedding blood on a holy stone or in a holy place to tie or renew
+a blood-bond between the God and his faithful ones. We have no clear
+information about the mind of the Flagellants, who in 1259, and again in
+1349, swarmed through the streets of European cities, naked and
+thrashing themselves, till the blood ran, with leather thongs and iron
+whips. They were penitents, and no doubt imbued with the ancient belief
+that without the shedding of blood there is no remission of sins.
+
+Asceticism then in its origin was usually not ascetic in a modern sense,
+that is, not ethical. It was rather of the nature of the savage _taboo_
+(q.v.), the outcome of totemistic beliefs or a mode of averting the
+contaminating presence of djinns and demons. Above all, fasting was a
+mode of preparing oneself for the sacramental eating of a sacred animal,
+and as such often assisted by use of purgatives and aperients. It was
+essential in the old Greek rites of averting the _Keres_ or djinns, the
+ill regulated ghosts who return to earth and molest the living, to
+abstain from flesh. The Pythagoreans and Orphic _mystae_ so abstained
+all their life long, and Porphyry eloquently insists on such a
+discipline for all who "are not content merely to talk about Reason, but
+are really intent on casting aside the body and living through Reason
+with Truth. Naked and without the tunic of the flesh these will enter
+the arena and strive in the Olympic contest of the soul."
+
+It is time to pass on to Buddhist asceticism, in its essence a more
+ethical and philosophical product than some of the forms so far
+considered. The keynote of Buddhist asceticism is deliverance from life
+and its inevitable suffering. Once at a village where he rested the
+Blessed One (Buddha) addressed his brethren and said: "It is through not
+understanding and grasping four Noble Truths, O brethren, that we have
+had to run so long, to wander so long in this weary path of
+transmigration, both you and I." These noble truths were about sorrow,
+its cause, its cessation and the path which leads to that cessation.
+Once they are grasped the craving for existence is rooted out, that
+which leads to renewed existence is destroyed, and there is no more
+birth. The Buddha believed he had a way of Truth, which if an elect
+disciple possessed he might say of himself, "Hell is destroyed for me,
+and rebirth as an animal, or a ghost, or in any place of woe. I am
+converted, I am no longer liable to be reborn in a state of suffering,
+and am assured of final salvation."
+
+Suffering, said the sage in his great sermon at Benares, is inseparable
+from birth and old age. Sickness is suffering, so is death, so is union
+with the unloved, and separation from the loved; not to obtain what one
+desires is suffering; the entire fivefold clinging to the earthly is
+suffering. Its origin is the thirst for being which leads from birth to
+birth, together with lust and desire, which find gratification here and
+there; the thirst for pleasures, for being, for power. This thirst must
+be extinguished by complete annihilation of desire, by letting it go,
+expelling it, separating oneself from it, giving it no room. This
+extinction is achieved in eight ways, namely rectitude of faith,
+resolve, speech, action, living, effort, thought, self-concentration.
+
+In this gospel we must be done with the outer world, participation in
+which is not the self, yet means for the self birth and death,
+appetites, longings, emotions, change and suffering, pleasure and pain.
+He that has put off all lust and desire, all hope and fear, all will to
+exist as a sinful, because a sentient, being, has won to the heaven of
+extinction or Nirvana. He may still tread the earth, but he is a saint
+or Brahman, is in heaven, has quitted the transient and enjoys eternity.
+
+Such was the Buddha's gospel, as his most ancient scriptures enunciate
+it. Nirvana is constantly defined in them as supreme happiness. It is
+not even clear how far, if we interpret it strictly, this philosophy
+leaves any self to be happy. However this be, its practical expression
+is the life of the monk who has separated himself from the world. Five
+commandments must be observed by him who would even approach the higher
+life of saint and ascetic. They are these: to kill no living thing; not
+to lay hands on another's property; not to touch another's wife; not to
+speak what is untrue; not to drink intoxicating drinks.
+
+Though couched in the negative, these rules must be interpreted in the
+amplest and widest sense by all believers. The Order, however, which the
+would-be ascetic can enter by regular initiation, when he is twenty
+years of age, entails a discipline much more severe. He has gone forth
+from home into homelessness, and has not where to lay his head. He must
+eat only the morsels he gets by begging; must dress in such rags as he
+can pick up; must sleep under trees. Mendicancy is his recognized way of
+life. Furthermore, he must abstain all his life from sexual intercourse;
+he may not take even a blade of grass without permission of the owner;
+he must not kill even a worm or ant; he must not boast of his
+perfection. In practice the lives of Buddhist monks are not so squalid
+as these rules would lead us to suppose. Thanks to the reverent charity
+of the laymen, they do not live much worse than Benedictine monks; and
+the prohibition to live in houses does not extend to caves. Everywhere
+in India and Ceylon they hollowed out cells and churches in the cliffs
+and rocks, which are the wonder of the European tourist.
+
+But long before the advent of Buddhism, the hermit, or wandering beggar,
+was a familiar figure in India. No formal initiation was imposed on the
+would-be ascetic, save (in the case of young men) the duty to live at
+first in his teacher's house. One who had thus fulfilled the duties of
+the student order must "go forth remaining chaste," says the
+_Apastamba_, ii. 9. 8. He shall then "live without a fire, without a
+house, without pleasures, without protection; remaining silent and
+uttering speech only on the occasion of the daily recitation of the
+Veda; begging so much food only in the village as will sustain his life,
+he shall wander about, neither caring for this world nor for heaven. He
+shall only wear clothes thrown away by others. Some declare that he
+shall even go naked. Abandoning truth and falsehood, pleasure and pain,
+the Vedas, this world and the next, he shall seek the Universal Soul, in
+knowledge of which standeth eternal salvation."
+
+Such a life was specially recommended for one who has lived the life of
+a householder, and, having begotten sons according to the sacred law and
+offered sacrifices, desires in his old age to abandon worldly objects
+and direct his mind to final liberation. He leaves his wife, if she will
+not accompany him, and goes forth into the forest, committing her and
+his house to his sons. He must indeed take with him the sacred fire and
+implements for domestic sacrifice, but until death overtakes him he must
+wander silent, alone, possessing no hearth nor dwelling, begging his
+food in the villages, firm of purpose, with a potsherd for an alms bowl,
+the roots of trees for a dwelling, and clad in coarse worn out garments.
+"Let him not desire to die, let him not desire to live; let him wait for
+his appointed time, as a servant waits for the payment of his wages. Let
+him drink water purified by straining with a cloth, let him utter speech
+purified by truth, let him keep his heart pure. Let him patiently bear
+hard words, let him not insult anybody, let him not become any one's
+enemy for the sake of this perishable body.... Let him reflect on the
+transmigrations of men, caused by their sinful deeds, on their falling
+into hell, and on their torments in the world of Yama.... A twice-born
+man who becomes an ascetic thus shakes off sin here below and reaches
+the highest Brahman" (_Laws of Manu_, by G. Buhler, vi. 85).
+
+This old-world wisdom of the Hindus, a thousand years before our era, is
+worthily to be paralleled from the Manichaeism of about the year 400.
+Augustine has preserved (_contra Faustum_, v. 1) the portraiture of a
+Manichaean elect as drawn by himself:--
+
+  "I have given up father and mother, wife, children and all else that
+  the gospel bids us, and do you ask if I accept the gospel? Are you
+  then still ignorant of what the word gospel means? It is nothing else
+  than the preaching and precept of Christ. I have cast away gold and
+  silver, and have ceased to carry even copper in my belt, being content
+  with my daily bread, nor caring for the morrow, nor anxious how my
+  belly shall be filled or my body clothed; and do you ask me if I
+  accept the gospel? You behold in me those beatitudes of Christ which
+  make up the gospel, and you ask me if I accept it. You behold me
+  gentle, a peacemaker, pure of heart, a mourner, hungering, thirsting,
+  bearing persecutions and hatreds for righteousness' sake, and do you
+  doubt whether I accept the gospel.... All that was mine I have given
+  up, father, mother, wife, children, gold, silver, eating, drinking,
+  delights, pleasures. Deem this a sufficient answer to your question
+  and deem yourself on the way to be blessed, if you have not been
+  scandalized in me."
+
+The Greek Cynics (see CYNICS) played a great part in the history of
+Asceticism, and they were so much the precursors of the Christian
+hermits that descriptions of them in profane literature have been
+mistaken for pictures of early monasticism. In striving to imitate the
+rugged strength and independence of their master Socrates, they went to
+such extremes as rather to caricature him. They affected to live like
+beggars, bearing staff and wallet, owning nothing, renouncing pleasures,
+riches, honours. For older thinkers like Plato and Aristotle the perfect
+life was that of the citizen and householder; but the Cynics were
+individualists, citizens of the world without loyalty or respect for the
+ancient city state, the decay of which was coincident with their rise.
+Their zeal for renunciation often extended not to pleasures, marriage
+and property alone, but to cleanliness, knowledge and good manners as
+well, and in this respect also they were the forerunners of later monks.
+
+Philo (20 B.C.-A.D. 40) has left us many pictures of the life which to
+his mind impersonated the highest wisdom, and they are all inspired by
+the more respectable sort of cynicism, which had taken deep root among
+Greek Jews of the day. One such picture merits citation from his tract
+_On Change of Names_ (vol. i. 583, ed. Mangey): "All this company of the
+good and wise have of their own free will divested themselves of too
+copious wealth; nay, have spurned the things dear to the flesh. For of
+good habit and lusty are athletes, since they have fortified against
+the soul the body which should be its servant; but the disciples of
+wisdom are pale and wasted, and in a manner reduced to skeletons,
+because they have sacrificed the whole of their bodily strength to the
+faculties of the soul."
+
+His own favourite ascetics, the Therapeutae, whose chief centre was in
+Egypt, had renounced property and all its temptations, and fled,
+irrevocably abandoning brothers, children, wives, parents, throngs of
+kinsmen, intimacy of friends, the fatherlands where they were born and
+bred (see THERAPEUTAE). Here we have the ideal of early Christian
+renunciation at work, but apart from the influence of Jesus. In the
+pages of Epictetus the same ideal is constantly held up to us.
+
+In the Christian Church there was from the earliest age a leaning to
+excessive asceticism, and it needed a severe struggle on the part of
+Paul, and of the Catholic teachers who followed him, to secure for the
+baptized the right to be married, to own property, to engage in war and
+commerce, or to assume public office. One and all of the permanent
+institutions of society were condemned by the early enthusiasts,
+especially by those who looked forward to a speedy advent of the
+millennium, as alien to the kingdom of God and as impediments to the
+life of grace.
+
+Marriage and property had already been eschewed in the Jewish Essene and
+Therapeutic sects, and in Christianity the name of Encratite was given
+to those who repudiated marriage and the use of wine. They did not form
+a sect, but represented an impulse felt everywhere. In early and popular
+apocryphal histories the apostles are represented as insisting that
+their converts should either not contract wedlock or should dissolve the
+tie if already formed. This is the plot of the _Acts of Thecla_, a story
+which probably goes back to the first century. Repudiation of the tie by
+fervent women, betrothed or already wives, occasioned much domestic
+friction and popular persecution. In the Syriac churches, even as late
+as the 4th century, the married state seems to have been regarded as
+incompatible with the perfection of the initiated. Renunciation of the
+state of wedlock was anyhow imposed on the faithful during the lengthy,
+often lifelong, terms of penance imposed upon them for sins committed;
+and later, when monkery took the place, in a church become worldly,
+partly of the primitive baptism and partly of that rigorous penance
+which was the rebaptism and medicine of the lapsed, celibacy and
+virginity were held essential thereto, no less than renunciation of
+property and money-making.
+
+Together with the rage for virginity went the institution of _virgines
+subintroductae_, or of spiritual wives; for it was often assumed that
+the grace of baptism restored the original purity of life led by Adam
+and Eve in common before the Fall. Such rigours are encouraged in the
+_Shepherd of Hermas_, a book which emanated from Rome and up to the 4th
+century was read in church. They were common in the African churches,
+where they led to abuses which taxed the energy even of a Cyprian. They
+were still rife in Antioch in 260. We detect them in the Celtic church
+of St Patrick, and, as late as the 7th century, among the Celtic elders
+of the north of France. In the Syriac church as late as 340, such
+relations prevailed between the "Sons and daughters of the
+Resurrection." It continued among the Albigenses and other dissident
+sects of the middle ages, among whom it served a double purpose; for
+their elders were thus not only able to prove their own chastity, but to
+elude the inquisitors, who were less inclined to suspect a man of the
+catharism which regarded marriage as the "greater adultery" (_maius
+adulterium_) if they found him cohabiting (in appearance at least) with
+a woman. There was hardly an early council, great or small, that did not
+condemn this custom, as well as the other one, still more painful to
+think of, of self-emasculation. In the Catholic church, however, common
+sense prevailed, and those who desired to follow the Encratite ideal
+repaired to the monasteries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--E.B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (London, 1903);
+  Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_ (London, 1901); J.E.
+  Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_; F. Max Muller,
+  _The Sacred Books of the East_; Victor Henry, _La Magie dans l'Inde
+  antique_; J.G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_ (London, 1900), and _Adonis,
+  Attis, Osiris_ (London, 1906); Georges Lafay, _Culte des divinites
+  d'Alexandrie_ (Paris, 1884); Dollinger, _Sectengeschichte des
+  Mittelalters_ (Munich, 1890); Fr. Cumont, _Mysteries of Mithra_
+  (Chicago, 1903); Zockler, _Gesch. der Ascese_ (1863). See also under
+  PURIFICATION. Goldziher, "De l'ascetisme aux premiers temps de
+  l'Islam," in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_ (1898), p. 314;
+  Muratori, _De Synisactis et Agapetis_ (Pavia, 1709); Jas. Martineau,
+  _Types of Ethical Theory_ (Oxford, 1885); T.H. Green, _Prolegomena to
+  Ethics_ (Oxford, 1883); Franz Cumont, _Les Religions orientales dans
+  le paganisme romain_ (Paris, 1907); Porphyrius, _De Abstinentia_;
+  Plutarchus, _De Carnium Esu_.     (F. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCHAFFENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the
+right bank of the Main, at its confluence with the Aschaff, near the
+foot of the Spessart, 26 m. by rail S.E. of Frankfort-On-Main. Pop.
+(1900) 18,091; (1905) 25,275. Its chief buildings are the Johannisburg,
+built (1605-1614) by Archbishop Schweikard of Cronberg, which contains a
+library with a number of _incunabula_, a collection of engravings and
+paintings; the _Stiftskirche_, or cathedral, founded in 980 by Otto of
+Bavaria, but dating in the main from the early 12th and the 13th
+centuries, in which are preserved various monuments by the Vischers, and
+a sarcophagus, with the relics of St Margaret (1540); the Capuchin
+hospital; a theatre, which was formerly the house of the Teutonic order;
+and several mansions of the German nobility. The town, which has been
+remarkable for its educational establishments since the 10th century,
+has a gymnasium, lyceum, seminarium and other schools. There is an
+archaeological museum in the old abbey buildings. The graves of Klemens
+Brentano and his brother Christian (d. 1851) are in the churchyard; and
+Wilhelm Heinse is buried in the town. Coloured and white paper,
+ready-made clothing, cellulose, tobacco, lime and liqueurs are the chief
+manufactures, while a considerable export trade is done down the Main in
+wood, cattle and wine.
+
+Aschaffenburg, called in the middle ages Aschafaburg and also Askenburg,
+was originally a Roman settlement. The 10th and 23rd Roman legions had
+their station here, and on the ruins of their _castrum_ the Frankish
+mayors of the palace built a castle. Bonifacius erected a chapel to St
+Martin, and founded a Benedictine monastery. A stone bridge over the
+Main was built by Archbishop Willigis in 989. Adalbert increased the
+importance of the town in various ways about 1122. In 1292 a synod was
+held here, and in 1474 an imperial diet, preliminary to that of Vienna,
+in which the concordat was decided which has therefore been sometimes
+called the _Aschaffenburg Concordat_.
+
+The town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War, being held in
+turn by the various belligerents. In 1842-1849, King Louis built himself
+to the west of the town a country house, called the _Pompeianum_, from
+its being an imitation of the house of Castor and Pollux at Pompeii. In
+1866 the Prussians inflicted a severe defeat on the Austrians in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+The principality of Aschaffenburg, deriving its name from the city,
+comprehended an area of 654 English sq. m. It formed part of the
+electorate of Mainz, and in 1803 was made over to the archchancellor,
+Archbishop Charles of Dalberg. In 1806 it was annexed to the grand-duchy
+of Frankfort; and in 1814 was transferred to Bavaria, in virtue of a
+treaty concluded on the 19th of June between that power and Austria.
+With lower Franconia, it now forms a district of the kingdom of Bavaria.
+
+
+
+
+ASCHAM, ROGER (c. 1515-1568), English scholar and writer, was born at
+Kirby Wiske, a village in the North Riding of Yorkshire, near
+Northallerton, about the year 1515. His name would be more properly
+spelt Askham, being derived, doubtless, from Askham in the West Riding.
+He was the third son of John Ascham, steward to Lord Scrope of Bolton.
+The family name of his mother Margaret is unknown, but she is said to
+have been well connected. The authority for this statement, as for most
+others concerning Ascham's early life, is Edward Grant, headmaster of
+Westminster, who collected and edited his letters and delivered a
+panegyrical oration on his life in 1576.
+
+Ascham was educated not at school, but in the house of Sir Humphry
+Wingfield, a barrister, and in 1533 speaker of the House of Commons, as
+Ascham himself tells us, in the _Toxophilus_, p. 120 (not, as by a
+mistake which originated with Grant and has been repeated ever since,
+Sir Anthony Wingfield, who was nephew of the speaker). Sir Humphry
+"ever loved and used to have many children brought up in his house,"
+where they were under a tutor named R. Bond. Their sport was archery,
+and Sir Humphry "himself would at term times bring down from London both
+bows and shafts and go with them himself to the field and see them
+shoot." Hence Ascham's earliest English work, the _Toxophilus_, the
+importance which he attributed to archery in educational establishments,
+and probably the provision for archery in the statutes of St Albans,
+Harrow and other Elizabethan schools. From this private tuition Ascham
+was sent "about 1530," at the age, it is said, of fifteen, to St John's
+College, Cambridge, then the largest and most learned college in either
+university. Here he fell under the influence of John Cheke, who was
+admitted a fellow in Ascham's first year, and Sir Thomas Smith. His
+guide and friend was Robert Pember, "a man of the greatest learning and
+with an admirable facility in the Greek tongue." On his advice he
+practised seriously the precept embodied in the saying, "I know nothing
+about the subject, I have not even lectured on it," and "to learn Greek
+more quickly, while still a boy, taught Greek to boys." In Latin he
+specially studied Cicero and Caesar. He became B.A. on the 18th of
+February 1534/5. Dr Nicholas Metcalfe was then master of the college, "a
+papist, indeed, and yet if any young man given to the new learning as
+they termed it, went beyond his fellows," he "lacked neither open
+praise, nor private exhibition." He procured Ascham's election to a
+fellowship, "though being a new bachelor of arts, I chanced among my
+companions to speak against the Pope ... after grievous rebuke and some
+punishment, open warning was given to all the fellows, none to be so
+hardy, as to give me his voice at that election." The day of election
+Ascham regarded as his "birthday," and "the whole foundation of the poor
+learning I have and of all the furtherance that hitherto elsewhere I
+have obtained." He took his M.A. degree on the 3rd of July 1537. He
+stayed for some time at Cambridge taking pupils, among whom was William
+Grindal, who in 1544 became tutor to Princess Elizabeth. Ascham himself
+cultivated music, acquired fame for a beautiful handwriting, and
+lectured on mathematics. Before 1540, when the Regius professorship of
+Greek was established, Ascham "was paid a handsome salary to profess the
+Greek tongue in public," and held also lectures in St John's College. He
+obtained from Edward Lee, then archbishop of York, a pension of L2 a
+year, in return for which Ascham translated Oecumenius' Commentaries on
+the Pauline Epistles. But the archbishop, scenting heresy in some
+passage relating to the marriage of the clergy, sent it back to him,
+with a present indeed, but with something like a reprimand, to which
+Ascham answered with an assurance that he was "no seeker after
+novelties," as his lectures showed. He was on safer ground in writing in
+1542-1543 a book, which he told Sir William Paget in the summer of 1544
+was in the press, "on the art of Shooting." This was no doubt suggested
+partly by the act of parliament 33 Henry VIII. c. 9, "an acte for
+mayntenaunce of Artyllarie and debarringe of unlawful games," requiring
+every one under sixty, of good health, the clergy, judges, &c.,
+excepted, "to use shooting in the long bow," and fixing the price at
+which bows were to be sold. Under the title of _Toxophilus_ he presented
+it to Henry VIII. at Greenwich soon after his triumphant return from the
+capture of Boulogne, and promptly received a grant of a pension of L10 a
+year, equal to some L200 a year of our money. A novelty of the book was
+that the author had "written this Englishe matter in the Englishe tongue
+for Englishe men," though he thought it necessary to defend himself by
+the argument that what "the best of the realm think it honest to use" he
+"ought not to suppose it vile for him to write." It is a Platonic
+dialogue between Toxophilus and Philologus, and nowadays its chief
+interest lies in its incidental remarks. It may probably claim to have
+been the model for Izaak Walton's _Compleat Angler._
+
+From 1541, or earlier, Ascham acted as letter-writer to the university
+and also to his college. Perhaps the best specimen of his skill was the
+letter written to the protector Somerset in 1548 on behalf of Sedbergh
+school, which was attached to St John's College by the founder, Dr
+Lupton, in 1525, and the endowment of which had been confiscated under
+the Chantries Act. In 1546 Ascham was elected public orator by the
+university on Sir John Cheke's retirement.
+
+Shortly after the beginning of the reign of Edward VI., Ascham made
+public profession of Protestant opinions in a disputation on the
+doctrine of the Mass, begun in his own college and then removed for
+greater publicity to the public schools of the university, where it was
+stopped by the vice-chancellor. Thereon Ascham wrote a letter of
+complaint to Sir William Cecil. This stood him in good stead. In January
+1548, Grindal, the princess Elizabeth's tutor, died. Ascham had already
+corresponded with the princess, and in one of his letters says that he
+returns her pen which he has mended. Through Cecil and at the princess's
+own wish he was selected as her tutor against another candidate pressed
+by Admiral Seymour and Queen Katherine. Ascham taught Elizabeth--then
+sixteen years old--for two years, chiefly at Cheshunt. In a letter to
+Sturm, the Strassburg schoolmaster, he praises her "beauty, stature,
+wisdom and industry. She talks French and Italian as well as English:
+she has often talked to me readily and well in Latin and moderately so
+in Greek. When she writes Greek and Latin nothing is more beautiful than
+her handwriting ... she read with me almost all Cicero and great part of
+Titus Livius: for she drew all her knowledge of Latin from those two
+authors. She used to give the morning to the Greek Testament and
+afterwards read select orations of Isocrates and the tragedies of
+Sophocles. To these I added St Cyprian and Melanchthon's Commonplaces."
+In 1550 Ascham quarrelled with Elizabeth's steward and returned to
+Cambridge. Cheke then procured him the secretaryship to Sir Richard
+Morrison (Moryson), appointed ambassador to Charles V. It was on his way
+to join Morrison that he paid his celebrated morning call on Lady Jane
+Grey at Bradgate, where he found her reading Plato's _Phaedo_, while
+every one else was out hunting.
+
+The embassy went to Louvain, where he found the university very inferior
+to Cambridge, then to Innsbruck and Venice. Ascham read Greek with the
+ambassador four or five days a week. His letters during the embassy,
+which was recalled on Mary's accession, were published in English in
+1553, as a "Report" on Germany. Through Bishop Gardiner he was appointed
+Latin secretary to Queen Mary with a pension of L20 a year. His
+Protestantism he must have quietly sunk, though he told Sturm that "some
+endeavoured to hinder the flow of Gardiner's benevolence on account of
+his religion." Probably his never having been in orders tended to his
+safety. On the 1st of June 1554 he married Margaret Howe, whom he
+described as niece of Sir R. (? J., certainly not, as has been said,
+Henry) Wallop. By her he had two sons. From his frequent complaints of
+his poverty then and later, he seems to have lived beyond his income,
+though, like most courtiers, he obtained divers lucrative leases of
+ecclesiastical and crown property. In 1555 he resumed his studies with
+Princess Elizabeth, reading in Greek the orations of Aeschines and
+Demosthenes' _De Corona_. Soon after Elizabeth's accession, on the 5th
+of October 1559, he was given, though a layman, the canonry and prebend
+of Wetwang in York minster. In 1563 he began the work which has made him
+famous, _The Scholemaster_. The occasion of it was, he tells us (though
+he is perhaps merely imitating Boccaccio), that during the "great
+plague" at London in 1563 the court was at Windsor, and there on the
+10th of December he was dining with Sir William Cecil, secretary of
+state, and other ministers. Cecil said he had "strange news; that divers
+scholars of Eaton be run away from the schole for fear of beating"; and
+expressed his wish that "more discretion was used by schoolmasters in
+correction than commonly is." A debate took place, the party being
+pretty evenly divided between floggers and anti-floggers, with Ascham as
+the champion of the latter. Afterwards Sir Richard Sackville, the
+treasurer, came up to Ascham and told him that "a fond schoolmaster"
+had, by his brutality, made him hate learning, much to his loss, and as
+he had now a young son, whom he wished to be learned, he offered, if
+Ascham would name a tutor, to pay for the education of their respective
+sons under Ascham's orders, and invited Ascham to write a treatise on
+"the right order of teaching." _The Scholemaster_ was the result. It is
+not, as might be supposed, a general treatise on educational method, but
+"a plaine and perfite way of teachyng children to understand, write and
+speake in Latin tong"; and it was not intended for schools, but
+"specially prepared for the private brynging up of youth in gentlemen
+and noblemens houses." The perfect way simply consisted in "the double
+translation of a model book"; the book recommended by this professional
+letter-writer being "Sturmius' _Select Letters of Cicero_." As a method
+of learning a language by a single pupil, this method might be useful;
+as a method of education in school nothing more deadening could be
+conceived. The method itself seems to have been taken from Cicero. Nor
+was the famous plea for the substitution of gentleness and persuasion
+for coercion and flogging in schools, which has been one of the main
+attractions of the book, novel. It was being practised and preached at
+that very time by Christopher Jonson (c. 1536-1597) at Winchester; it
+had been enforced at length by Wolsey in his statutes for his Ipswich
+College in 1528, following Robert Sherborne, bishop of Chichester, in
+founding Rolleston school; and had been repeatedly urged by Erasmus and
+others, to say nothing of William of Wykeham himself in the statutes of
+Winchester College in 1400. But Ascham's was the first definite
+demonstration in favour of humanity in the vulgar tongue and in an easy
+style by a well-known "educationist," though not one who had any actual
+experience as a schoolmaster. What largely contributed to its fame was
+its picture of Lady Jane Grey, whose love of learning was due to her
+finding her tutor a refuge from pinching, ear-boxing and bullying
+parents; some exceedingly good criticisms of various authors, and a
+spirited defence of English as a vehicle of thought and literature, of
+which it was itself an excellent example. The book was not published
+till after Ascham's death, which took place on the 23rd of December
+1568, owing to a chill caught by sitting up all night to finish a New
+Year's poem to the queen.
+
+  His letters were collected and published in 1576, and went through
+  several editions, the latest at Nuremberg in 1611; they were re-edited
+  by William Elstob in 1703. His English works were edited by James
+  Bennett with a life by Dr Johnson in 1771, reprinted in 8vo in 1815.
+  Dr Giles in 1864-1865 published in 4 vols. select letters with the
+  _Toxophilus_ and _Scholemaster_ and the life by Edward Grant. _The
+  Scholemaster_ was reprinted in 1571 and 1589. It was edited by the
+  Rev. J. Upton in 1711 and in 1743, by Prof. J.E.B. Mayor in 1863, and
+  by Prof. Edward Arber in 1870. The _Toxophilus_ was republished in
+  1571, 1589 and 1788, and by Prof. Edward Arber in 1868 and 1902.
+       (A. F. L.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCHERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 36
+m. by rail N.W. from Halle, and at the junction of lines to Cothen and
+Nienhagen. Pop. (1900) 27,245; (1905) 27,876. It contains one Roman
+Catholic and four Protestant churches, a synagogue, a fine town-hall
+dating from the 16th century, and several schools. The discovery of coal
+in the neighbourhood stimulated and altered its industries. In addition
+to the manufacture of woollen wares, for which it has long been known,
+there is now extensive production of vinegar, paraffin, potash and
+especially beetroot-sugar; while the surrounding district, which was
+formerly devoted in great part to market-gardening, is now turned almost
+entirely into beetroot fields. There are also iron, zinc and chemical
+manufactures, and the cultivation of agricultural seeds is carried on.
+In the neighbourhood are brine springs and a spa (Wilhelmsbad).
+Aschersleben was probably founded in the 11th century by Count Esico of
+Ballenstedt, the ancestor of the house of Anhalt, whose grandson, Otto,
+called himself count of Ascania and Aschersleben, deriving the former
+part of the title from his castle in the neighbourhood of the town. On
+the death of Otto III. (1315) Aschersleben passed into the hands of the
+bishop of Halberstadt, and at the peace of 1648 was, with the bishopric,
+united to Brandenburg.
+
+
+
+
+ASCIANO, a town of Tuscany, in the province of Siena, 19 m. S.E. of the
+town of Siena by rail. Pop. (1901) 7618. It is surrounded by walls built
+by the Sienese in 1351, and has some 14th-century churches with
+paintings of the same period. Six miles to the south is the large
+Benedictine monastery of Monte Oliveto Maggiore, founded in 1320, famous
+for the frescoes by Luca Signorelli (1497-1498) and Antonio Bazzi,
+called Sodoma (1505), in the cloister, illustrating scenes from the
+legend of St Benedict; the latter master's work is perhaps nowhere
+better represented than here. The church contains fine inlaid choir
+stalls by Fra Giovanni da Verona. The buildings, which are mostly of red
+brick, are conspicuous against the gray clayey and sandy soil. The
+monastery is described by Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II.) in
+his _Commentaria_. Remains of Roman baths, with a fine mosaic pavement,
+were found within the town in 1898 (G. Pellegrini in _Notizie degli
+scavi_, 1899, 6).
+
+
+
+
+ASCITANS (or ASCITAE; from [Greek: askos], the Greek for a wine-skin), a
+peculiar sect of 2nd-century Christians (Montanists), who introduced the
+practice of dancing round a wine-skin at their meetings.
+
+
+
+
+ASCITES, ([Greek: askitaes] dropsical, from [Greek: askosaskos] _sc_.
+[Greek: nosos] disease), the term in medicine applied to an effusion of
+non-inflammatory fluid within the peritoneum. It is not a disease in
+itself, but is one of the manifestations of disease elsewhere--usually
+in the kidneys, heart, or in connexion with the liver (portal
+obstruction). Portal obstruction is the commonest cause of well-marked
+ascites. It is produced by (1) diseases within the liver, as cirrhosis
+(usually alcoholic) and cancer; (2) diseases outside the liver, as
+cancer of stomach, duodenum or pancreas, causing pressure on the portal
+vein, or enlarged glands in the fissure of the liver producing the same
+effect. Ascites is one of the late symptoms in the disease, and precedes
+dropsy of the leg, which may come on later, due to pressure on the large
+veins in the abdominal cavity by the ascitic fluid. In ascites due to
+heart disease, the dropsy of the feet and legs precedes the ascites, and
+there will be a history of palpitation, shortness of breath, and perhaps
+cough. In the ascites of kidney troubles there will be a history of
+general oedema--puffiness of face and eyes on rising in the morning
+probably having attracted the attention of the patient or his friends
+previously. Other less common causes of ascites are chronic peritonitis,
+either tuberculous in the young, or due to cancer in the aged, and more
+rarely still pernicious anaemia.
+
+
+
+
+ASCLEPIADES, Greek physician, was born at Prusa in Bithynia in 124 B.C.,
+and flourished at Rome in the end of the 2nd century B.C. He travelled
+much when young, and seems at first to have settled at Rome as a
+rhetorician. In that profession he did not succeed, but he acquired
+great reputation as a physician. He founded his medical practice on a
+modification of the atomic or corpuscular theory, according to which
+disease results from an irregular or inharmonious motion of the
+corpuscles of the body. His remedies were, therefore, directed to the
+restoration of harmony, and he trusted much to changes of diet,
+accompanied by friction, bathing and exercise, though he also employed
+emetics and bleeding. He recommended the use of wine, and in every way
+strove to render himself as agreeable as possible to his patients. His
+pupils were very numerous, and the school formed by them was called the
+Methodical. Asclepiades died at an advanced age.
+
+
+
+
+ASCLEPIADES, of Samos, epigrammatist and lyric poet, friend of
+Theocritus, flourished about 270 B.C. He was the earliest and most
+important of the convivial and erotic epigrammatists. Only a few of his
+compositions are actual "inscriptions"; others sing the praises of the
+poets whom he specially admired, but the majority of them are
+love-songs. It is doubtful whether he is the author of all the epigrams
+(some 40 in number) which bear his name in the Greek Anthology. He
+possibly gave his name to the Asclepiadean metre.
+
+
+
+
+ASCLEPIODOTUS, Greek military writer, flourished in the 1st century B.C.
+Nothing is known of him except that he was a pupil of Poseidonius the
+Stoic (d. 51 B.C.). He is the supposed author of a treatise on
+Graeco-Macedonian tactics ([Greek: Taktika Kephalaia]), which, however,
+is probably not his own work, but the skeleton outline of the lectures
+delivered by his master, who is known to have written a work on the
+subject.
+
+
+
+
+ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA (1820-1907), Italian philologist; of Jewish
+family, was born at Gorz at an early age showed a marked linguistic
+talent. In 1854 he published his _Studii orientali e linguistici_, and
+in 1860 was appointed professor of philology at Milan. He made various
+learned contributions to the study of Indo-European and Semitic
+languages, and also of the gipsy language, but his special field was the
+Italian dialects. He founded the _Archivio glottologico italiano_ in
+1873, publishing in it his _Saggi Ladini_, and making it in succeeding
+years the great organ of original scholarship on this subject. He was
+universally recognized as the greatest authority on Italian linguistics,
+and his article in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th ed., revised for
+this edition) became the classic exposition in English. (See ITALY:
+_Language_.)
+
+
+
+
+ASCOLI PICENO[1] (anc. _Ausculum_) a town and episcopal see of the
+Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Ascoli Piceno, 17 m. W.
+of Porto d' Ascoli (a station on the coast railway, 56 m. S.S.E. of
+Ancona), and 53 m. S. of Ancona direct, situated on the S. bank of the
+Tronto (anc. _Truentus_) at its confluence with the Castellano, 500 ft.
+above sea-level, and surrounded by lofty mountains. Pop. (1901) town,
+12,256; commune, 28,608. The Porta Romana is a double-arched Roman gate;
+adjacent are remains of the massive ancient city walls, in rectangular
+blocks of stone 2 ft. in height, and remains of still earlier
+fortifications have been found at this point (F. Barnabei in _Notizie
+degli scavi_, 1887, 252). The church of S. Gregorio is built into a
+Roman tetrastyle Corinthian temple, two columns of which and the _cella_
+are still preserved; the site of the Roman theatre can be distinguished;
+and the church and convent of the Annunziata (with two fine cloisters
+and a good fresco by Cola d' Amatrice in the refectory) are erected upon
+large Roman substructures of concrete, which must have supported some
+considerable building. Higher up is the castle, which now shows no
+traces of fortifications older than medieval; it commands a fine view of
+the town and of the mountains which encircle it. The town has many good
+pre-Renaissance buildings; the picturesque colonnaded market-place
+contains the fine Gothic church of S. Francesco and the original Palazzo
+del Comune, now the prefecture (Gothic with Renaissance additions). The
+cathedral is in origin Romanesque,[2] but has been much altered, and was
+stored in 1888 by Count Giuseppe Sacconi (1855-1905). The frescoes in
+the dome, of the same date, are by Cesare Mariani. The cope presented to
+the cathedral treasury by Pope Nicholas IV. was stolen in 1904, and sold
+to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, who generously returned it to the Italian
+government, and it was then placed for greater safety in the Galleria
+Corsini at Rome. The baptistery still preserves its ancient character;
+and the churches of S. Vittore and SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio are also
+good Romanesque buildings. The fortress of the Malatesta, constructed in
+1349, has been in the main destroyed; the part of it which remains is
+now a prison. The present Palazzo Comunale, a Renaissance edifice,
+contains a fine museum, chiefly remarkable for the contents of
+prehistoric tombs found in the district (including good bronze fibulae,
+necklaces, amulets, &c., often decorated with amber), and a large
+collection of acorn-shaped lead missiles (_glandes_) used by slingers,
+belonging to the time of the siege of Asculum during the Social War (89
+B.C.). There is also a picture gallery containing works by local
+masters, Pietro Alamanni, Cola d' Amatrice, Carlo Crivelli, &c. The
+bridges across the ravines which defend the town are of considerable
+importance; the Ponte di Porta Cappucina is a very fine Roman bridge,
+with a single arch of 71 ft. span. The Ponte di Cecco (so named from
+Cecco d' Ascoli), with two arches, is also Roman and belongs to the Via
+Salaria; the Ponte Maggiore and the Ponte Cartaro are, on the other
+hand, medieval, though the latter perhaps preserves some traces of Roman
+work. Near Ascoli is Castel Trosino, where an extensive Lombard
+necropolis of the 7th century was discovered in 1895; the contents of
+the tombs are now exhibited in the Museo Nazionale delle Terme at Rome
+(_Notizie degli scavi_, 1895, 35).
+
+The ancient Asculum was the capital of Picenum, and it occupied a strong
+position in the centre of difficult country. It was taken in 268 B.C. by
+the Romans, and the Via Salaria was no doubt prolonged thus far at this
+period; the distance from Rome is 120 m. It took a prominent part in the
+Social War against Rome, the proconsul Q. Servilius and all the Roman
+citizens within its walls being massacred by the inhabitants in 90 B.C.
+It was captured after a long siege by Pompeius Strabo in 89 B.C. The
+leader, Judacilius, committed suicide, the principal citizens were put
+to death, and the rest exiled. The Roman general celebrated his triumph
+on the 25th of December of that year. Caesar occupied it, however, as a
+strong position after crossing the Rubicon; and it received a Roman
+colony, perhaps under the triumvirs, and became a place of some
+importance. In A.D. 301 it became the capital of Picenum Suburbicarium.
+In 545 it was taken by Totila, but is spoken of by Paulus Diaconus as
+the chief city of Picenum shortly afterwards. From the time of
+Charlemagne it was under the rule of its bishops, who had the title of
+prince and the right to coin money, until 1185, when it became a free
+republic. It had many struggles with Fermo, and in the 15th century came
+more directly under the papal sway.
+
+  See N. Persichetti in _Romische Mitteilungen_ (1903), 295 seq. (T.
+  As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The epithet distinguishes it from Ascoli Satriano (anc.
+    _Ausculum_), which lies 19 m. S. of Foggia by rail.
+
+  [2] It contains a fine polyptych by Carlo Crivelli (1473).
+
+
+
+
+ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS (9 B.C.-A.D. 76; or A.D. 3-88), Roman
+grammarian and historian, was probably a native of Patavium (Padua). In
+his later years he resided at Rome, where he died, after having been
+blind for twelve years, at the age of eighty-five. During the reigns of
+Claudius and Nero he compiled for his sons, from various sources--e.g.
+the Gazette (_Acta Publica_), shorthand reports or "skeletons"
+(_commentarii_) of Cicero's unpublished speeches, Tiro's life of Cicero,
+speeches and letters of Cicero's contemporaries, various historical
+writers, e.g. Varro, Atticus, Antias, Tuditanus and Fenestella (a
+contemporary of Livy whom he often criticizes)--historical commentaries
+on Cicero's speeches, of which only five, viz. _in Pisonem_, _pro
+Scauro_, _pro Milone_, _pro Cornelio_ and _in toga Candida_, in a very
+mutilated condition, are preserved. In a note upon the speech _pro
+Scauro_, he speaks of Longus Caecina (d. A.D. 57) as still living, while
+his words imply that Claudius (d. 54) was not alive. This statement,
+therefore, must have been written between A.D. 54 and 57. These valuable
+notes, written in good Latin, relate chiefly to legal, historical and
+antiquarian matters. A commentary, of inferior Latinity and mainly of a
+grammatical character, on Cicero's Verrine orations, is universally
+regarded as spurious. Both works were found by Poggio in a MS. at St
+Gallen in 1416. This MS. is lost, but three transcripts were made by
+Poggio, Zomini (Sozomenus) of Pistoia and Bartolommeo da Montpulciano.
+That of Poggio is now at Madrid (Matritensis x. 81), and that of Zomini
+is in the Forteguerri library at Pistoia (No. 37). A copy of
+Bartolommeo's transcript exists in Florence (Laur. liv. 5). The later
+MSS. are derived from Poggio's copy. Other works attributed to Asconius
+were: a life of Sallust, a defence of Virgil against his detractors, and
+a treatise (perhaps a symposium in imitation of Plato) on health and
+long life.
+
+  Editions by Kiessling-Scholl (1875), and A.C. Clark (Oxford, 1906),
+  which contains a previously unpublished collation of Poggio's
+  transcript. See also Madvig, _De Asconio Pediano_ (1828).
+
+
+
+
+ASCOT, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire,
+England, famous for its race-meetings. Pop. of parish of Ascot Heath
+(1901), 1927. The station on the Southwestern railway, 29 m. W.S.W. of
+London, is called Ascot and Sunninghill; the second name belonging to an
+adjacent township with a population (civil parish) of 4719. The
+race-course is on Ascot Heath, and was laid out by order of Queen Anne
+in 1711, and on the 11th of August in that year the first meeting was
+held and attended by the queen. The course is almost exactly 2 m. in
+circumference, and the meetings are held in June. The principal race is
+that for the Ascot Gold Cup, instituted in 1807. The meeting is one of
+the most fashionable in England, and is commonly attended by members of
+the royal family. The royal procession, for which the meeting is
+peculiarly famous, was initiated by George IV. in 1820.
+
+  See R. Herod, _Royal Ascot_ (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+ASCUS (Gr. [Greek: askos], a bag), a botanical term for the membranous
+sacs containing the reproductive spores in certain lichens and fungi.
+Various compounds of the word are used, e.g. _ascophorous_, producing
+asci; _ascospore_, the spore (or sporule) developed in the ascus;
+_ascogonium_, the organ producing it, &c.
+
+
+
+
+ASELLI [ASELLIUS, or ASELLIO], GASPARO (1581-1626), Italian physician,
+was born at Cremona about 1581, became professor of anatomy and surgery
+at Pavia, and practised at Milan, where he died in 1626. To him is due
+the discovery of the lacteal vessels, published in _De Lactibus_ (Milan,
+1627).
+
+
+
+
+ASGILL, JOHN (1659-1738), English writer, was born at Hanley Castle, in
+Worcestershire, in 1659. He was bred to the law, and gained considerable
+reputation in his profession, increased by two pamphlets--the first
+(1696) advocating the establishment of some currency other than the
+usual gold and silver, the second (1698) on a registry for titles of
+lands. In 1699, when a commission was appointed to settle disputed
+claims in Ireland, he set out for that country, attracted by the hopes
+of practice. Before leaving London he put in the hands of the printer a
+tract, entitled _An Argument proving that, according to the Covenant of
+Eternal Life revealed in the Scripture, Man may be translated from hence
+into that Eternal Life without passing through Death_ (1700). Coleridge
+has highly praised the "genuine Saxon English," the "irony" and "humour"
+of this extraordinary pamphlet, which interpreted the relation between
+God and man by the technical rules of law, and insisted that, Christ
+having wiped out Adam's sin, the penalty of death must consequently be
+illegal for those who claim exemption. How far it was meant seriously
+was doubted at the time, and may be doubted now. But its fame preceded
+the author to Ireland, and was of material service in securing his
+professional success, so that he amassed money, purchased an estate, and
+married a daughter of the second Lord Kenmare. He was returned both to
+the Irish and English parliaments, but was expelled from both on account
+of his "blasphemous" pamphlet. He was also involved in money
+difficulties, and litigation about his Irish estate, and these
+circumstances may have had something to do with his trouble in
+parliament. In 1707 he was arrested for debt, and the remainder of his
+life was spent in the Fleet prison, or within the rules of the king's
+bench. He died in 1738. Asgill also wrote in 1714-1715 some pamphlets
+defending the Hanoverian succession against the claims of the Pretender.
+
+
+
+
+ASH[1] (Ger. _Esche_), a common name (Fr. _frene_) given to certain
+trees. The common ash (_Fraxinus excelsior_) belongs to the natural
+order Oleaceae, the olive family, an order of trees and shrubs which
+includes lilac, privet and jasmine. The Hebrew word _Oren_, translated
+"ash" in Isaiah xliv. 14, cannot refer to an ash tree, as that is not a
+native of Palestine, but probably refers to the Aleppo pine (_Pinus
+halepensis_). The ash is a native of Great Britain and the greater part
+of Europe, and also extends to Asia. The tree is distinguished for its
+height and contour, as well as for its graceful foliage. It attains a
+height of from 50 to 80 ft., and flowers in March and April, before the
+leaves are developed. The reddish flowers grow in clusters, but are not
+showy. They are naked, that is without sepals or petals, and generally
+imperfect, wanting either stamens or pistil. The large leaves, which are
+late in appearing, are pinnately compound, bearing four to seven pairs
+of gracefully tapering toothed leaflets on a slender stalk. The dry
+winged fruits, the so-called keys, are a characteristic feature and
+often remain hanging in bunches long after the leaves have fallen in
+autumn. The leaves fall early, but the greyish twigs and black buds
+render the tree conspicuous in winter and especially in early spring.
+
+The ash is in Britain next in value to the oak as a timber-tree. It
+requires a good deep loam with gravelly subsoil, and a situation
+naturally sheltered, such as the steep banks of glens, rivers or lakes;
+in cold and wet clay it does not succeed. As the value of the timber
+depends chiefly on its toughness and elasticity, it is best grown in
+masses where the soil is good; the trunk is thus drawn up free from
+large side-branches. The tree is easily propagated from seeds; it throws
+up strong root shoots. The ash requires much light, but grows rapidly,
+and its terminal shoots pierce easily through thickets of beech, with
+which it is often associated. Unmixed ash plantations are seldom
+satisfactory, because the foliage does not sufficiently cover the
+ground; but when mixed with beech it grows well, and attains great
+height and girth. Owing to the dense mass of roots which it sends out
+horizontally a little beneath the surface of the ground, the ash does
+much harm to vegetation beneath its shade, and is therefore obnoxious as
+a hedgerow tree. Coppice shoots yield excellent hop-poles, crates,
+hoops, whip-handles, &c. The timber is much used for agricultural
+implements, and by coach-builders and wheelwrights.
+
+A variety of the common species, known as var. _heterophylla_, has
+simple leaves. It occurs wild in woods in Europe and England. Another
+variety of ash (_pendula_) is met with in which the branches are
+pendulous and weeping. Sometimes this variety is grafted on the tall
+stem of the common ash, so as to produce a pleasing effect. It is said
+that the weeping variety was first observed at Gamlingay, in
+Cambridgeshire. A variety (_crispa_) occurs with curled leaves, and
+another with warty stems and branches, called _verrucosa_. _F. Ornus_ is
+the manna ash (see MANNA), a handsome tree with greenish-white flowers
+and native in south Europe. In southern Europe there is a small-leaved
+ash, called _Fraxinus parvifolia_. _F. floribunda_, a large tree with
+terminal panicles of white flowers, is a native of the Himalayas. In
+America there are several species--such as _Fraxinus americana_, the
+white ash; _F. pubescens_, the red ash; and _F. sambucifolia_, the black
+ash.
+
+The "mountain ash" belongs to a totally different family from the common
+ash. It is called _Pyrus Aucuparia_, and belongs to the natural order
+Rosaceae, and the tribe _Pomeae_, which includes also apples, pears, &c.
+Its common name is probably due to its resemblance to the true ash, in
+its smooth grey bark, graceful ascending branches, and especially the
+form of the leaf, which is also pinnately compound but smaller than in
+the true ash. Its common name in Scotland is the rowan tree; it is well
+known by its clusters of white blossoms and succulent scarlet fruit. The
+name of poison ash is given to _Rhus venenata_, the North American
+poison elder or sumach, belonging to the Anacardiaceae (Cashew family).
+The bitter ash of the West Indies is _Simaruba excelsa_, which belongs
+to the natural order Simarubaceae. The Cape ash is _Ekebergia capensis_,
+belonging to the natural order Meliaceae, a large tree, a native of the
+Cape of Good Hope. The prickly ash, _Xanthoxylon Clava-Herculis_ (nat.
+ord. Xanthoxyleae), a native of the south-eastern United States, is a
+small tree, the trunk of which is studded with corky tubercles, while
+the branches are armed with stout, sharp, brown prickles.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The homonym, ash or (pl.) ashes, the residue (of a body, &c.)
+    after burning, is a common Teutonic word, Ger. _Asche_, connected
+    with the root found in Lat. _ardere_, to burn.
+
+
+
+
+A'SHA [MAIMUN IBN QAIS], Arabian poet, was born before Mahomet, and
+lived long enough to accept the mission of the prophet. He was born in
+Manfuha, a village of al-Yemama in the centre of Arabia, and became a
+wandering singer, passing through all Arabia from Hadramut in the south
+to al-Hira in the north, and naturally frequenting the annual fair at
+Okaz (Ukaz). His love poems are devoted to the praise of Huraira, a
+black female slave. Even before the time of Mahomet he is said to have
+believed in the resurrection and last judgment, and to have been a
+monotheist. These beliefs may have been due to his intercourse with the
+bishop of Nejran (Najran) and the `Ibadites (Christians) of al-Hira. His
+poems were praised for their descriptions of the wild ass, for the
+praise of wine, for their skill in praise and satire, and for the
+varieties of metre employed. His best-known poem is that in praise of
+Mahomet.
+
+  His poems have been collected from various sources in L. Cheikho's
+  _Les Poetes arabes chretiens_ (Jesuit press, Beirut, 1890), pp.
+  357-399. His eulogy of Mahomet has been edited by H. Thorbecke, _Al
+  Asa's Lobgedicht auf Muhammad_ (Leipzig, 1875).     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHANTI, a British possession in West Africa, bounded W. by the (French)
+Ivory Coast colony, N. by the British Protectorate known as Northern
+Territories of the Gold Coast (see GOLD COAST), and E. by the river
+Volta (which separates it from the German colony of Togoland); the
+southern frontier is conterminous with the northern frontier of the
+(British) Gold Coast colony. It forms an irregular oblong, with a
+triangular projection (the country of the Adansi) southward. It has an
+area of 23,000 sq. m., and a population estimated (1907) at 500,000.
+
+_Physical Features; Flora and Fauna._--A great part of Ashanti is
+covered with primeval and almost impenetrable forest.[1] Many of the
+trees, chiefly silk-cotton and hardwood, attain splendid proportions,
+the bombax reaching a height of over 200 ft., but the monotony is
+oppressive, and is seldom relieved by the sight of flowers, birds or
+beasts. Ferns are abundant, and the mimosa rises to heights of from 30
+to 60 ft. All over the forest spread lianas, or monkey-ropes, their
+usual position being that of immense festoons hanging from tree to tree.
+To these lianas (species of which yield one kind of the rubber of
+commerce) is due largely the weird aspect of the forest. The country
+round the towns, however, is cultivated with care, the fields yielding
+in abundance grain, yams, vegetables and fruits. In the north-eastern
+districts the primeval forest gives place to park-like country,
+consisting of plains covered with high coarse grass, and dotted with
+occasional baobabs, as well as with wild plum, shea-butter, dwarf date,
+fan palms, and other small trees. Among the wild animals are the
+elephant (comparatively rare), the leopard, varieties of antelope, many
+kinds of monkeys and numerous venomous snakes. Crocodiles and two kinds
+of hippopotami, the ordinary and a pygmy variety, are found in the
+rivers. Of birds, parrots are the most characteristic. Insect life is
+abundant.
+
+About 25 m. south-east of Kumasi is Lake Busumchwi, the sacred lake of
+the Ashanti. It is surrounded by forest-clad hills some 800 ft. high, is
+nearly circular and has a maximum diameter of 6 m. The Black Volta, and
+lower down the Volta (q.v.), form the northern frontier, and various
+tributaries of the Volta, running generally in a northerly direction,
+traverse the eastern portion of the country. In the central parts are
+the upper courses of the Ofin and of some tributaries of the Prah.
+Farther west are the Tano and Bia rivers, which empty their waters into
+the Assini lagoon. In their course through Ashanti, the rivers, apart
+from the Volta, are navigable by canoes only. The elevation of the
+country is generally below 2000 ft., but it rises towards the north.
+
+_Climate._--The climate, although unsuited to the prolonged residence of
+Europeans, is less unhealthy than that of the coast towns of West
+Africa. The water-supply is good and abundant. The rainy season lasts
+from the end of May until October; storms are frequent and violent. The
+mean temperature at Kumasi is 76 deg. F., the mean annual rainfall 40
+ins.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The most probable tradition represents the Ashanti as
+deriving their origin from bands of fugitives, who in the 16th or 17th
+century were driven before the Moslem tribes migrating southward from
+the countries on the Niger and Senegal. Having obtained possession of a
+region of impenetrable forest, they defended themselves with a valour
+which, becoming part of their national character, raised them to the
+rank of a powerful and conquering nation. They are of the pure negro
+type, and are supposed to be originally of the same race as the Fanti,
+nearer the coast, and speak the same language. The separation of Fanti
+and Ashanti has been ascribed to a famine which drove the former south,
+and led them to live on _fan_, or herbs, while the latter subsisted on
+_san_, or Indian corn, &c., whence the names Fanti and Santi. The
+Ashanti are divided into a large number of tribes, of whom a dozen may
+be distinguished, namely, the Bekwai, Adansi, Juabin, Kokofu, Kumasi,
+Mampon, Nsuta, Nkwanta, Dadiassi, Daniassi, Ofinsu and Adjisu. Each
+tribe has its own king, but from the beginning of the 18th century the
+king of Kumasi was recognized as king paramount, and was spoken of as
+the king of Ashanti. As paramount king he succeeded to the "golden
+stool," the symbol of authority among the Ashanti. After the deposition
+of Prempeh (1896) no king of Kumasi was chosen; Prempeh himself was
+never "enstooled." The government of Ashanti was formerly a mixture of
+monarchy and military aristocracy. The confederate tribes were
+originally organized for purposes of war into six great divisions or
+clans, this organization developing into the main social fabric of the
+state. The chiefs of the clans, with a few sub-chiefs having hereditary
+rights, formed the King's Council, and the king, unless of exceptionally
+strong character, often exercised less power than the council of chiefs,
+each of whom kept his little court, making a profuse display of barbaric
+pomp. Land is held in common by the tribes, lands unallotted being
+attached to the office of head chief or king and called "stool lands."
+Polygamy is practised by all who can afford it. It is stated by the
+early chroniclers that the king of Ashanti was bound to maintain the
+"fetish" number of 3333 wives; many of these, however, were employed in
+menial services. The crown descended to the king's brother, or his
+sister's son, not to his own offspring. The queen mother exercised
+considerable authority in the state, but the king's wives had no power.
+The system of human sacrifices, practised among the Ashanti until the
+closing years of the 19th century, was founded on a sentiment of piety
+towards parents and other connexions--the chiefs believing that the rank
+of their dead relatives in the future world would be measured by the
+number of attendants sent after them. There were two periods, called the
+great Adai and little Adai, at which human victims, chiefly prisoners of
+war or condemned criminals, were immolated. There is reason to believe
+that the extent of this practice was not so great as was currently
+reported.
+
+There are a few Mahommedans in Ashanti, most of them traders from other
+countries, and the Basel and Wesleyan missionaries have obtained some
+converts to Christianity; but the great bulk of the people are
+spirit-worshippers. Unlike many West African races, the Ashanti in
+general show a repugnance to the doctrines of Islam.
+
+_Towns and Trade._--Besides the capital, Kumasi (q.v.), with a
+population of some 6000, there are few important towns in Ashanti.
+Obuassi, in the south-west, is the centre of the gold-mining industry.
+Wam is on the western border, Nkoranza, Atabubu and Kintampo in the
+north. Kintampo is a town of some size and is about 130 m. north-east of
+Kumasi. It is the meeting-place of traders from the Niger countries and
+from the coast. Formerly one of the great slave and ivory marts of West
+Africa, it is now a centre of the kola-nut commerce and a depot for
+government stores. The Ashanti are skilful in several species of
+manufacture, particularly in weaving cotton. Their pottery and works in
+gold also show considerable skill. A large quantity of silver-plate and
+goldsmiths' work of great value and considerable artistic elaboration
+was found in 1874 in the king's palace at Kumasi, not the least
+remarkable objects being masks of beaten gold. The influence of Moorish
+art is perceptible.
+
+The vegetable products do not differ greatly from those found on the
+Gold Coast; the most important commercially is the rubber tree
+(_Funtumia elastica_). The nut of the kola tree is in great demand, and
+since 1905 many cocoa plantations have been established, especially in
+the eastern districts. Tobacco is cultivated in the northern regions.
+Gum copal is exported. Part of the trade of Ashanti had been diverted to
+the French port of Assini in consequence of the wars waged between
+England and the Ashanti, but on the suppression of the revolt of 1900
+measures were taken to improve trade between Kumasi and Cape Coast.
+Kumasi is the distributing centre for the whole of Ashanti and the
+hinterland. Gold exists in the western districts of the country, and
+several companies were formed to work the mines in the period 1895-1901.
+Most of the gold exported from the Gold Coast in 1902 and following
+years came from the Obuassi mines. The gold output from Ashanti amounted
+in 1905 to 68,259 oz., valued at L254,790. The railway to Kumasi from
+Sekondi, which was completed in 1903, passes through the auriferous
+region. As far as the trade goes through British territory southward,
+the figures are included in those of the Gold Coast; but Ashanti does
+also a considerable trade with its French and German neighbours, and
+northwards with the Niger countries. Its revenue and expenditure are
+included in those of the Gold Coast. Revenue is obtained principally
+from caravan taxes, liquor licences, rents from government land and
+contributions from the gold-mining companies.
+
+_Communications._--The railway to Kumasi, cut through one of the densest
+forest regions, is described under GOLD COAST. The usual means of
+communication is by tortuous paths through the forest, too narrow to
+admit any wheeled vehicle. A wide road, 141 m. long, has been cut
+through the bush from Cape Coast to Kumasi, and from Kumasi ancient
+caravan routes go to the chief trading centres farther inland. Where
+rivers and swamps have to be crossed, ferries are maintained. A
+favourite mode of travelling in the bush is in a palanquin borne on the
+heads of four carriers. Telegraph lines connect Kumasi with the coast
+towns and with the towns in the Northern Territories. There is a
+well-organized postal service.
+
+
+  Early relations with the British.
+
+_History._--The Ashanti first came under the notice of Europeans early
+in the 18th century, through their successful wars with the kingdoms
+bordering the maritime territory. Osai Tutu may be considered as the
+real founder of the Ashanti power. He either built or greatly extended
+Kumasi; he subdued the neighbouring state of Denkera (1719) and the
+Mahommedan countries of Gaman (Jaman) and Banna, and extended the empire
+by conquests both on the east and west. At last he was defeated and
+slain (1731); but his successor, Osai Apoko, made further acquisitions
+towards the coast. In 1800, Osai Tutu Quamina, an enterprising and
+ambitious man, who appears early to have formed the desire of opening a
+communication with white nations, became king. About 1807, two chiefs of
+the Assin, whom he had defeated in battle, sought refuge among the
+Fanti, the ruling people on the coast. On the refusal of the Fanti to
+deliver up the fugitives, Osai Tutu invaded their country, defeated them
+and drove them towards the sea. The Ashanti reached the coast near
+Anamabo, where there was then a British fort. The governor exhorted the
+townsmen to come to terms and offered to mediate; but they resolved to
+abide the contest. The result was the destruction of the town, and the
+slaughter of 8000 of the inhabitants. The Ashanti, who lost over 2000
+men, failed, however, to storm the English fort, though the garrison was
+reduced from twenty-four to eight men. A truce was agreed to, and the
+king refusing to treat except with the governor of Cape Coast, Colonel
+G. Torrane (governor 1805-1807) repaired to Anamabo, where he was
+received with great pomp. Torrane determined to surrender the fugitive
+Assin chiefs, but one succeeded in escaping; the other, on being given
+up, was put to death by the Ashanti. Torrane concluded an agreement with
+the Ashanti, acknowledging their conquest of Fantiland, and delivering
+up to them half the fugitives in Anamabo fort (most of the remainder
+were sold by Torrane and the members of his council as slaves). The
+governor also agreed to pay rent to the Ashanti for Anamabo fort and
+Cape Coast castle. The character of this man, who died on the coast in
+1808, is indicated by Osai Tutu's eulogy of him. "From the hour Governor
+Torrane delivered up Tchibbu [one of the Assin fugitives] I took the
+English for my friends," said the king of Ashanti, "because I saw their
+object was trade only and they did not care for the people. Torrane was
+a man of sense and he pleased me much."
+
+In consequence of repeated invasions of Fantiland by the Ashanti, the
+British in 1817 sent Frederick James, commandant of Accra fort, T.E.
+Bowdich and W. Hutchinson on a mission to Kumasi. After one or two
+harmonious interviews, the king advanced a claim for the payment of the
+quit rents for Anamabo fort and Cape Coast castle, rents the major part
+of which the Fanti had induced the British to pay to them, leaving only
+a nominal sum for transmission to Kumasi. Mr James, the head of the
+mission, volunteered no satisfactory explanation, whereupon the king
+broke into uncontrollable rage, calling the emissaries cheats and liars.
+Bowdich and Hutchinson, thinking that British interests and the safety
+of the mission were endangered, took the negotiation into their own
+hands. Mr James was recalled, and a treaty was concluded, by which the
+king's demands were satisfied, and the right of the British to control
+the natives in the coast towns recognized.
+
+
+  Sir Charles M'Carthy's fate.
+
+The government at home, though they demurred somewhat to the course that
+had been pursued, saw the wisdom of cultivating intercourse with this
+powerful African kingdom. They sent out, therefore, to Kumasi, as
+consul, Mr Joseph Dupuis, formerly consul at Mogador, who arrived at
+Cape Coast in January 1819. By that time fresh difficulties had arisen
+between the coast natives, who were supported by the British, and the
+Ashanti. Dupuis set out on the 9th of February 1820, and on the 28th
+arrived at Kumasi. After several meetings with the king, a treaty was
+drawn up, which acknowledged the sovereignty of Ashanti over the
+territory of the Fanti, and left the natives of Cape Coast to the mercy
+of their enemies. Mr J. Hope Smith, the governor of Cape Coast, disowned
+the treaty, as betraying the interests of the natives under British
+protection. Mr Hope Smith was supported by the government in London,
+which in 1821 assumed direct control of the British settlements. Sir
+Charles M'Carthy, the first governor appointed by the crown, espoused
+the cause of the Fanti, but was defeated in battle by the Ashanti, the
+21st of January 1824, at a place beyond the Prah called Essamako. The
+Ashanti had 10,000 men to Sir Charles's 500. Sir Charles and eight other
+Europeans were killed. The skull of the governor was afterwards used at
+Kumasi as a royal drinking-cup. It was asserted that Sir Charles lost
+the battle through his ordnance-keeper bringing up kegs filled with
+vermicelli instead of ammunition. The fact is that the mistake, if made,
+only hastened the inevitable catastrophe. On the very day of this defeat
+Osai Tutu Quamina died and was succeeded by Osai Okoto. A state of
+chronic warfare ensued, until the Ashanti sustained a signal defeat at
+Dodowah on the 7th of August 1826. From this time the power of the
+Ashanti over the coast tribes waned, and in 1831 the king was obliged to
+purchase peace from Mr George Maclean, then administrator of the Gold
+Coast, at the price of 600 oz. of gold, and to send his son as a hostage
+to Cape Coast. The payment of ground rent for the forts held by the
+British had ceased after the battle of Dodowah, and by the treaty
+concluded by Maclean the river Prah was fixed as the boundary of the
+Ashanti kingdom, all the tribes south of it being under British
+protection.
+
+The king (Kwaka Dua I.), who had succeeded Osai Okoto in 1838, was a
+peace-loving monarch who encouraged trade, but in 1852 the Ashanti tried
+to reassert authority over the Fanti in the Gold Coast protectorate, and
+in 1863 a war was caused by the refusal of the king's demand for the
+surrender by the British of a fugitive chief and a runaway slave-boy.
+The Ashanti were victorious in two battles and retired unmolested. The
+governor, Mr Richard Pine, urged the advisability of an advance on
+Kumasi, but this the British government would not allow. No further
+fighting followed, but the prestige of the Ashanti greatly increased.
+"The white men" (said Kwaka Dua) "bring many cannon to the bush, but the
+bush is stronger than the cannon." In April 1867 Kwaka Dua died, and
+after an interval of civil war was succeeded by Kofi Karikari, who on
+being enstooled swore, "My business shall be war." Thereafter
+preparations were made throughout Ashanti to attack the Fanti tribes,
+and the result was the war of 1873-74.
+
+
+  The war of 1873-1874.
+
+Two distinct events were the immediate cause of the war. The principal
+was the transference of Elmina fort from the Dutch to the British, which
+took place on the 2nd of April 1872. The Elmina were regarded by the
+Ashanti as their subjects, and the king of Ashanti held the Elmina
+"custom-note,"--that is, he received from the Dutch an annual payment,
+in its origin a ground rent for the fort, but looked upon by the Dutch
+as a present for trade purposes. The Ashanti greatly resented the
+occupation by Britain of what they considered Ashanti territory. Another
+but minor cause of the war was the holding in captivity by the Ashanti
+of four Europeans. An Ashanti force invaded Krepi, a territory beyond
+the Volta, and in June 1869 captured Mr Fritz A. Ramseyer, his wife and
+infant son (the child died of privation shortly afterwards), and Mr J.
+Kuhne, members of the Basel mission. Monsieur M.J. Bonnat, a French
+trader, was also captured at another place. The captives were taken to
+Kumasi. Negotiations for their release were begun, but the Europeans
+were still prisoners when the sale of Elmina occurred. The Ashanti
+delayed war until their preparations were complete, whilst the Gold
+Coast officials appear to have thought the risk of hostilities remote.
+However, on the 22nd of January 1873 an Ashanti force crossed the Prah
+and invaded the British protectorate. They defeated the Fanti, stirred
+up disputes at Elmina, and encamped at Mampon near Cape Coast, to the
+great alarm of the inhabitants. Measures were taken for the defence of
+the territory and the punishment of the assailants, which culminated in
+the despatch of Sir Garnet (afterwards Viscount) Wolseley as British
+administrator, L800,000 being voted by parliament for the expenses of
+the expedition. On landing (October 2) at Cape Coast, Wolseley found the
+Ashanti, who had been decimated by smallpox and fever, preparing to
+return home. He determined, however, to march to Kumasi, whilst Captain
+(afterwards Sir) John Glover, R.N., administrator of Lagos, was with a
+force of native levies to co-operate from the east and take the Ashanti
+in rear. Meanwhile the enemy broke up camp, and, although harassed by
+native levies raised by the British, effected an orderly retreat. The
+Ashanti army re-entered Kumasi on the 22nd of December. Wolseley asked
+for the help of white troops, and the 2nd battalion Rifle Brigade, the
+23rd Fusiliers and 42nd Highlanders were despatched. Seeing the
+preparations made by his enemy, Kofi Karikari endeavoured to make peace,
+and in response to General Wolseley's demands the European captives were
+released (January 1874). Sir Garnet determined that peace must be signed
+in Kumasi and continued his advance. On the 20th of January the river
+Prah was crossed by the European troops; on the 24th the Adansi hills
+were reached; on the 31st there was severe fighting at Amoaful; on the
+1st of February Bekwai was captured; and on the evening of the 4th the
+victorious army was in Kumasi, after seven hours' fighting. The king,
+who had led his army, fled into the bush when he saw the day was lost.
+As the 42nd Highlanders pushed forward to Kumasi, the town was found
+full of Ashanti soldiers, but not a shot was fired at the invaders. Sir
+Garnet Wolseley sent messengers to the king, but Kofi Karikari refused
+to surrender. As his force was small, provisions scarce, and the rainy
+season setting in, and as he was encumbered with many sick and wounded,
+the British general decided to retire. On the 6th, therefore, the
+homeward march was commenced, the city being left behind in flames. In
+the meantime Captain Glover's force had crossed the Prah on the 15th of
+January, and the Ashanti opposition weakening after the capture of
+Kumasi, Glover was able to push forward. On the 11th of February,
+Captain (later General) R.W. Sartorius, who had been sent ahead with
+twenty Hausa only, found Kumasi still deserted. Captain Sartorius and
+his twenty men marched 50 m. through the heart of the enemy's country.
+On the 12th Glover and his force of natives entered the Ashanti capital.
+The news of Glover's approach induced the king, who feared also the
+return of the white troops, to sue for peace. On the 9th of February a
+messenger from Kofi Karikari overtook Sir Garnet, who on the 13th at
+Fomana received the Ashanti envoys. A treaty was concluded whereby the
+king agreed, among other conditions, to pay 50,000 oz. of gold, to
+renounce all claim to homage from certain neighbouring kings, and all
+pretensions of supremacy over any part of the former Dutch protectorate,
+to promote freedom of trade, to keep open a road from Kumasi to the
+Prah, and to do his best to check the practice of human sacrifice.
+Besides coloured troops, there were employed in this campaign about 2400
+Europeans, who suffered severely from fever and otherwise, though the
+mortality among the men was slight. Seventy-one per cent of the troops
+were on the sick list, and more than forty officers died--only six from
+wounds. The success of the expedition was facilitated by the exertions
+of Captain (afterwards General Sir William) Butler and Captain
+(afterwards General W. L.) Dalrymple, who effected diversions with very
+inadequate resources.
+
+
+  A British protectorate established.
+
+  Prempeh deposed.
+
+One result of the war of 1873-74 was that several states dependent on
+Ashanti declared themselves independent, and sought British protection.
+This was refused, and the inaction of the colonial office contributed to
+the reconsolidation of the Ashanti power.[2] Shortly after the war the
+Ashanti deposed Kofi Karikari, and placed on the golden stool--the
+symbol of sovereignty--his brother Mensa. This monarch broke almost
+every article of the Fomana treaty, and even the payment of the
+indemnity was not demanded. (In all, only 4000 oz. of gold, out of the
+50,000 stipulated for, were paid.) Mensa's rule was tyrannous and
+stained with repeated human sacrifices. In 1883 a revolution displaced
+that monarch, who was succeeded by Kwaka Dua II.--a young man who died
+(June 1884) within a few months of his election. In the same month died
+the ex-king Kofi Karikari, and disruption threatened Ashanti. At length,
+after a desolating civil war, Prince Prempeh--who took the name of Kwaka
+Dua III.--was chosen king (March 26, 1888), the colonial government
+having been forced to intervene in the dispute owing to the troubles it
+occasioned in the Gold Coast. The election of Prempeh took place in the
+presence and with the sanction of an officer of the Gold Coast
+government. Prempeh defeated his enemies, and for a time peace and
+prosperity returned to Ashanti. However in 1893 there was fresh trouble
+between Ashanti and the tribes of the protectorate, and the roads were
+closed to traders by Prempeh's orders. The British government was forced
+to interfere, more especially as the country, by international
+agreement, had been included in the British sphere of influence. A
+mission was despatched to Prempeh, calling upon him to fulfil the terms
+of the 1874 treaty, and further, to accept a British protectorate and
+receive a resident at Kumasi. The king declined to treat with the
+governor of the Gold Coast, and despatched informal agents to England,
+whom the secretary of state refused to receive. To the demands of the
+British mission relative to the acceptance of a protectorate and other
+matters, Prempeh made no reply in the three weeks' grace allowed, which
+expired on the 31st of October 1895. To enforce the British demands, to
+put an end to the misgovernment and barbarities carried on at Kumasi,
+and to establish law, order and security for trade, an expedition was at
+length decided upon. The force, placed under Colonel Sir Francis Scott,
+consisted of the 2nd West Yorkshire regiment, a "special service corps,"
+made up of detachments from various regiments in the United Kingdom,
+under specially selected officers, the 2nd West India regiment, and the
+Gold Coast and Lagos Hausa. The composition of the special service corps
+was much criticized at the time; but as it was not called upon for
+fighting purposes, no inferences as to its efficiency are possible. The
+details of the expedition were carefully organized. Before the arrival
+of the staff and contingent from England (December 1895) the native
+forces were employed in improving the road from Cape Coast to Prahsu (70
+m.), and in establishing road stations to serve as standing camps for
+the troops. About 12,000 carriers were collected, the load allotted to
+each being 50 lb. In addition, a force of native scouts, which
+ultimately reached a total of 860 men, was organized in eighteen
+companies, and partly armed with Snider rifles, to cover the advance of
+the main column, which started on the 27th of December, and to improve
+the road. The king of Bekwai having asked for British protection, a
+small force was pressed forward and occupied this native town, about 25
+m. from Kumasi, on the 4th of January 1896. The advance continued, and
+at Ordahsu a mission arrived from King Prempeh offering unconditional
+submission. On the 17th of January Kumasi was occupied, and Colonel Sir
+F. Scott received the king. Effective measures were taken to prevent
+his escape, and on the 20th Prempeh made submission to Mr (afterwards
+Sir W. E.) Maxwell, the governor of Cape Coast, in native fashion. After
+this act of public humiliation, the king and the queen mother with the
+principal chiefs were arrested and taken as prisoners to Cape Coast,
+where they were embarked on board H.M.S. "Racoon" for Elmina. The fetish
+buildings at Bantama were burned, and on the 22nd of January Bokro, a
+village 5 m. from Kumasi, and Maheer, the king's summer palace, were
+visited by the native scouts and found deserted. On the same day,
+leaving the Hausa at Kumasi, the expedition began the return march of
+150 m. to Cape Coast. The complete success of the expedition was due to
+the excellent organization of the supply and transport services, while
+the promptitude with which the operations were carried out probably
+accounts in great measure for the absence of resistance. Although no
+fighting occurred, a heavy strain was thrown upon all ranks, and fever
+claimed many victims, among whom was Prince Henry of Battenberg, who had
+volunteered for the post of military secretary to Colonel Sir F. Scott.
+
+
+  Siege and relief of Kumasi.
+
+After the deportation of Prempeh no successor was appointed to the
+throne of Ashanti. A British resident, Captain Donald W. Stewart, was
+installed at Kumasi, and whilst the other states of the confederacy
+retained their king and tribal system the affairs of the Kumasi were
+administered by chiefs under British guidance. Mr and Mrs Ramseyer (two
+of the missionaries imprisoned by King Kofi Karikari for four and a half
+years) returned to Kumasi, and other missionaries followed. A fort was
+built in Kumasi and garrisoned with Gold Coast constabulary. Though
+outwardly submissive, the Kumasi chiefs were far from reconciled to
+British rule, and in 1900 a serious rebellion broke out. The tribes
+involved were the Kumasi, Adansi and Kokofu; the other tribes of the
+Ashanti confederation remained loyal. The rebels were, however, able to
+command a force reported to number 40,000. On the 28th of March, before
+the rebellion had declared itself, the governor of the Gold Coast, Sir
+F. Hodgson, in a public palaver at Kumasi, announced that the Ashanti
+chiefs would have to pay the British government 4000 oz. of gold yearly,
+and he reproached the chiefs with not having brought to him the golden
+stool, which the Kumasi had kept hidden since 1896. Three days
+afterwards the Kumasi warriors attacked a party of Hausa sent with the
+chief object of discovering the golden stool. (In the previous January a
+secret attempt to seize the stool had failed.) The Kumasi, who were
+longing to wipe out the dishonour of having let Prempeh be deported
+without fighting, next threatened the fort of Kumasi. Mr Ramseyer and
+the other Basel missionaries, and Sir F. and Lady Hodgson, took refuge
+in the fort, and reinforcements were urgently asked for. On the 18th of
+April 100 Gold Coast constabulary arrived. On the 29th the Kumasi
+attacked in force, but were repulsed. The same day a party of 250 Lagos
+constabulary reached Kumasi. They had fought their way up, and came in
+with little ammunition. On the 15th of May Major A. Morris arrived from
+the British territory north of Ashanti, also with 250 men. The garrison
+now numbered 700. The 29 Europeans in the fort included four women.
+Outside the fort were gathered 3000 native refugees. Famine and disease
+soon began to tell their tale. Sir F. Hodgson sent out a message on the
+4th of June (it reached the relieving force on the 12th of June), saying
+that they could only hold out to the 11th of June. However, it was not
+till the 23rd of June that the governor and all the Europeans save
+three, together with 600 Hausa of all ranks, sallied out of the fort.
+Avoiding the main road, held by the enemy in force, they attacked a
+weakly held stockade, and succeeded in cutting their way through, with a
+loss of two British officers mortally wounded, 39 Hausa killed, and
+double that number wounded or missing. The governor's party reached Cape
+Coast safely on the 10th of July.
+
+A force of 100 Hausa, with three white men (Captain Bishop, Mr Ralph and
+Dr Hay), was left behind in Kumasi fort with rations to last three
+weeks. Meantime a relief expedition had been organized at Cape Coast by
+Colonel James Willcocks. This officer reached Cape Coast from Nigeria on
+the 26th of May. The difficulties before him were appalling. Carriers
+could scarcely be obtained, there were no local food supplies, the rainy
+season was at its height, all the roads were deep mire, the bush was
+almost impenetrable, and the enemy were both brave and cunning, fighting
+behind concealed stockades. It was not until the 2nd of July that
+Colonel Willcocks was able to advance to Fumsu. On the next day he heard
+of the escape of the governor and of the straits of the garrison left at
+Kumasi. He determined to relieve the fort in time, and on the 9th of
+July reached Bekwai, the king of which place had remained loyal. Making
+his final dispositions, the colonel spread a report that on the 13th he
+would attack Kokofu, east of Bekwai, and this drew off several thousands
+of the enemy from Kumasi. After feinting to attack Kokofu, Colonel
+Willcocks suddenly marched west. There was smart fighting on the 14th,
+and at 4.30 P.M. on the 15th, after a march since daybreak through roads
+"in indescribably bad condition," the main rebel stockade was
+encountered. It was carried at the point of the bayonet by the Yoruba
+troops, who proved themselves fully equal to the Hausa. "The charge
+could not have been beaten in _elan_ by any soldiers." Kumasi was
+entered the same evening, a bugler of the war-worn garrison of the fort
+sounding the "general salute" as the relieving column came in view. Most
+of the defenders were too weak to stand. Outside the fort nothing was to
+be seen but burnt-down houses and putrid bodies. The relieving force
+that marched into Kumasi consisted of 1000 fighting men (all West
+Africans), with 60 white officers and non-commissioned officers, two
+75-millimetre guns, four seven-pounder guns and six Maxims.
+
+Kumasi relieved, there remained the task of crushing the rebellion.
+Colonel Willcocks's force was increased by Yaos and a few Sikhs from
+Central Africa to a total of 3368 natives, with 134 British officers and
+35 British non-commissioned officers. In addition there were Ashanti
+levies. On the 30th of September the Kumasi were completely beaten at
+Obassa. Thereafter many of the rebel chiefs surrendered, and the only
+two remaining in the field were captured on the 28th of December. Thus
+1901 opened with peace restored. The total number of casualties during
+the campaign (including those who died of disease) was 1007. Nine
+British officers were killed in action, forty-three were wounded, and
+six died of disease. The commander, Colonel Willcocks, was promoted and
+created a K.C.M.G.
+
+
+  Progress under British administration.
+
+By an order in council, dated the 26th of September 1901, Ashanti was
+formally annexed to the British dominions, and given a separate
+administration under the control of the governor of the Gold Coast. A
+chief commissioner represents the governor in his absence, and is
+assisted by a staff of four commissioners and four assistant
+commissioners. A battalion of the Gold Coast regiment is stationed in
+the country with headquarters at Kumasi. The order in council mentioned,
+which may be described as the first constitution granted Ashanti by its
+British owners, provides that the governor, in issuing ordinances
+respecting the administration of justice, the raising of revenue, or any
+other matter, shall respect any native laws by which the civil relations
+of any chiefs, tribes or populations are regulated, "except so far as
+they may be incompatible with British sovereignty or clearly injurious
+to the welfare of the natives themselves." After the annexation of the
+country in 1901 the relations between the governing power and the
+governed steadily improved. Mr F.C. Fuller, who succeeded Sir Donald
+Stewart as chief commissioner early in 1905, was able to report in the
+following year that among the Ashanti suspicion of the "white man's"
+ulterior motives was speedily losing ground. The marked preference shown
+by the natives to resort to the civil and criminal courts established by
+the British demonstrated their faith in the impartial treatment awarded
+therein. Moreover, the maintenance of the tribal system and the support
+given to the lawful chiefs did much to win the confidence and respect of
+a people naturally suspicious, and mindful of their exiled king.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general survey of the country, see _Travels_ _in
+  Ashanti and Jaman_, by R.A. Freeman (London, 1898); _Historical
+  Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. iii. "West Africa," by C.P.
+  Lucas (Oxford, 1900); and the _Annual Reports, Ashanti_, issued from
+  1906 onward by the Colonial Office, London. _The Tshi-speaking Peoples
+  of the Gold Coast_, by Col. A.B. Ellis (London, 1887), deals with
+  ethnology. Of early works on the country the most valuable are _A
+  Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_, by T.E. Bowdich (London,
+  1819); and _Journal of a Residence in Ashantee_ (London, 1824), by J.
+  Dupuis. For history generally, see _A History of the Gold Coast of
+  West Africa_, by Col. A.B. Ellis (London, 1893); and _History of the
+  Gold Coast and Asante ... from about 1500 to 1860_, by C.C. Reindorf,
+  a native pastor of the Basel mission (Basel, 1895).
+
+  For the British military campaigns, in addition to the official
+  blue-books, consult: _Narrative of the Ashantee War_, 2 vols., by
+  (Sir) Henry Brackenbury (London, 1874); _The Story of a Soldier's
+  Life_ by Viscount Wolseley, vol. ii. chs. xliii.-l. (London, 1903);
+  _Coomassie_, by (Sir) H.M. Stanley, being the story of the 1873-74
+  expedition (new ed., London, 1896); _Life of Sir John Hawley Glover_,
+  by Lady Glover, chs. iii.-x. (London, 1897); _The Downfall of
+  Prempeh_, by (General) R.S.S. Baden-Powell, an account of the 1895-96
+  expedition (London, 1896); _From Kabul to Kumassi_ (chs. xv. to end),
+  by Sir James Willcocks, (London, 1904); _The Ashanti Campaign of
+  1900_, by Capt. C.H. Armitage and Lieut.-Col. A.F. Montanaro (London,
+  1901); _The Relief of Kumasi_, by Capt. H.C.J. Biss (London, 1901).
+  The two bocks following are by besieged residents in Kumasi: _The
+  Siege of Kumasi_, by Lady Hodgson (London, 1901); _Dark and Stormy
+  Days at Kumasi_, 1900, from the diary of the Rev. Fritz Ramseyer
+  (London, 1901). Many of the works quoted under GOLD COAST deal also
+  with Ashanti.     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The exact area of dense forest land is unknown, but is estimated
+    at fully 12,000 sq. m.
+
+  [2] An attempt was made late in 1875, by the despatch of Dr V.S.
+    Gouldsbury on a mission to Eastern Akim, Juabin and Kumasi, to repair
+    the effects of the previous inaction of the colonial government, but
+    without success.
+
+
+
+
+ASH'ARI [Abu-l Hasan 'Ali ibn Isma'il ul-Ash'ari], (873-935), Arabian
+theologian, was born of pure Arab stock at Basra, but spent the greater
+part of his life at Bagdad. Although belonging to an orthodox family, he
+became a pupil of the great Mu'tazalite teacher al-Jubba'i, and himself
+remained a Mu'tazalite until his fortieth year. In 912 he returned to
+the faith of his fathers and became its most distinguished champion,
+using the philosophical methods he had learned in the school of heresy.
+His theology, which occupied a mediate position between the extreme
+views on most points, became dominant among the Shafi'ites. He is said
+to have written over a hundred works, of which only four or five are
+known to be extant.
+
+  See W. Spitta, _Zur Geschichte Abu 'l-Hasan al As'ari's_ (Leipzig,
+  1876); A.F. Mehren, _Expose de la reforme de l'Islamisme commencee par
+  Abou. 'l-Hasan Ali el-Ash'ari_ (Leiden, 1878); and D.B. Macdonald's
+  _Muslim Theology_ (London, 1903), especially the creed of Ash'ari in
+  Appendix iii.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHBOURNE, a market-town in the western parliamentary division of
+Derbyshire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. of Derby, on the London &
+North-Western and the North Staffordshire railways. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 4039. It is pleasantly situated on rising ground between
+two small valleys opening into that of the Dove, and the most beautiful
+scenery of Dovedale is not far distant. The church of St Oswald is
+cruciform, Early English and later; a fine building with a central tower
+and lofty octagonal spire. Its monuments and brasses are of much
+interest. The town has a large agricultural trade and a manufacture of
+corsets. The streams in the neighbourhood are in favour with trout
+fishermen. Ashbourne Hall, an ancient mansion, has associations with
+"Prince Charlie," who occupied it both before and after his advance on
+Derby in 1745. There are also many connexions with Dr Johnson, a
+frequent visitor here to his friend Dr Taylor, who occupied a house
+opposite the grammar school.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURNHAM, JOHN (c. 1603-1671), English Royalist, was the son of Sir
+John Ashburnham of Ashburnham in Sussex. He early entered the king's
+service. In 1627 he was sent to Paris by his relative the duke of
+Buckingham to make overtures for peace, and in 1628 he prepared to join
+the expedition to Rochelle interrupted by the duke's assassination. The
+same year he was made groom of the bedchamber and elected member of
+parliament for Hastings, which borough he also represented in the Long
+Parliament of 1640. In this capacity he rendered services by reporting
+proceedings to the king. He made a considerable fortune and recovered
+the Ashburnham estates alienated by his father. He became one of the
+king's chief advisers and had his full confidence. He attended Charles
+at York on the outbreak of the war with Scotland. In the Civil War he
+was made treasurer of the royal army, in which capacity he aroused
+Hyde's jealousy and remonstrances by infringing on his province as
+chancellor of the exchequer. In 1644 he was a commissioner at Uxbridge.
+He accompanied Charles in his flight from Oxford in April 1646 to the
+Scots, and subsequently escaped abroad, joining the queen at Paris,
+residing afterwards at Rouen and being sent to the Hague to obtain aid
+from the prince of Orange. After the seizure of Charles by the army,
+Ashburnham joined him at Hampton Court in 1647, where he had several
+conferences with Cromwell and other army officers. When Charles escaped
+from Hampton Court on the 11th of November, he followed Ashburnham's
+advice in opposition to that of Sir John Berkeley, who urged the king to
+go abroad, and took refuge in the Isle of Wight, being placed by
+Ashburnham in the hands of Robert Hammond, the governor. "Oh, Jack," the
+king exclaimed when he understood the situation, "thou hast undone me!"
+when Ashburnham, "falling into a great passion of weeping, offered to go
+and kill Hammond." By this fatal step Ashburnham incurred the unmerited
+charge of treachery and disloyalty. Clarendon, however, who censures his
+conduct, absolves him from any crime except that of folly and excessive
+self-confidence, and he was acquitted both by Charles I. and Charles II.
+He was separated with Berkeley from Charles on the 1st of January 1648,
+waited on the mainland in expectation of Charles's escape, and was
+afterwards taken and imprisoned at Windsor, and exchanged during the
+second Civil War for Sir W. Masham and other prisoners. He was one of
+the delinquents specially exempted from pardon in the treaty of Newport.
+In November he was allowed to compound for his estates, and declared
+himself willing to take the covenant. After the king's death he remained
+in England, an object of suspicion to all parties, corresponded with
+Charles II., and underwent several terms of imprisonment in the Tower
+and in Guernsey. At the Restoration he was reinstated in his former
+place of groom of the bedchamber and was compensated for his losses. He
+represented Sussex in parliament from 1661 till the 22nd of November
+1667, when he was expelled the House for taking a bribe of L500 from
+French merchants for landing their wines. He died on the 15th of June
+1671.
+
+He had eight children, the eldest of whom, William, left a son John
+(1656-1710), who in 1689 was created Baron Ashburnham. John's second
+son, John (1687-1737), who became 3rd Baron Ashburnham on his brother's
+death in 1710, was created Viscount St Asaph and earl of Ashburnham in
+1730. The 5th earl (b. 1840) was his direct descendant. Bertram
+(1797-1878), the 4th earl, was the collector of the famous Ashburnham
+library, which was dispersed in 1883 and 1884.
+
+  _A Letter from Mr Ashburnham to a Friend_, defending John Ashburnham's
+  conduct with regard to the king, was published in 1648. His longer
+  _Narrative_ was published in 1830 by George, 3rd earl of Ashburnham
+  (the latter's championship of his ancestor, however, being entirely
+  uncritical and unconvincing); _A Letter to W. Lenthall_ (1647)
+  repudiates the charge brought against the king of violating his parole
+  (_Thomason Tracts_, Brit. Museum, E 418 [4]).
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING, 1ST BARON[1] (1774-1848), English
+politician and financier, 2nd son of Sir Francis Baring (the founder of
+the house of Baring Brothers & Co.) and of Harriet, daughter of William
+Herring, was born on the 27th of October 1774, and was brought up in his
+father's business. He was sent by the latter to the United States;
+married Anne, daughter of William Bingham, of Philadelphia, and formed
+wide connexions with American houses. In 1810, by his father's death, he
+became head of the firm. He sat in parliament for Taunton (1806-1826),
+Callington (1826-1831), Thetford (1831-1832), North Essex (1832-1835).
+He regarded politics from the point of view of the business man, opposed
+the orders in council, and the restrictions on trade with the United
+States in 1812, and in 1826 the act for the suppression of small
+bank-notes. He was a strong antagonist of Reform. He accepted the post
+of chancellor of the exchequer in the duke of Wellington's projected
+ministry of 1832; but afterwards, alarmed at the scene in parliament,
+declared "he would face a thousand devils rather than such a House of
+Commons," and advised the recall of Lord Grey. In 1834 he was president
+of the board of trade and master of the mint in Sir Robert Peel's
+government, and on the latter's retirement was created Baron Ashburton
+on the 10th of April 1835, taking the title previously held by John
+Dunning, his aunt's husband. In 1842 he was despatched to America, and
+the same year concluded the Ashburton or Webster-Ashburton treaty. A
+compromise was settled concerning the north-east boundary of Maine, the
+extradition of certain criminals was arranged, each state agreed to
+maintain a squadron of at least eighty guns on the coast of Africa for
+the suppression of the slave trade, and the two governments agreed to
+unite in an effort to persuade other powers to close all slave markets
+within their territories. Despite his earlier attitude, Lord Ashburton
+disapproved of Peel's free-trade projects, and opposed the Bank Charter
+Act of 1844. He was a trustee of the British Museum and of the National
+Gallery, a privy councillor and D.C.L. of Oxford. He published, besides
+several speeches, _An Enquiry into the Causes and Consequences of the
+Orders in Council_ (1808), and _The Financial and Commercial Crisis
+Considered_ (1847). He died on the 13th of May 1848, leaving a large
+family, his eldest son becoming 2nd baron. The 5th baron (b. 1866)
+succeeded to the title in 1889.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] i.e. in the existing line; see below for the earlier creation.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING, 1ST BARON[1] (1731-1783), English lawyer, the
+second son of John Dunning of Ashburton, Devonshire, an attorney, was
+born at Ashburton on the 18th of October 1731, and was educated at the
+free grammar school of his native place. At first articled to his
+father, he was admitted, at the age of nineteen, to the Middle Temple,
+and called to the bar in 1756, where he came very slowly into practice.
+He went the western circuit for several years without receiving a single
+brief. In 1762 he was employed to draw up a defence of the British East
+India Company against the Dutch East India Company, which had
+memorialized the crown on certain grievances, and the masterly style
+which characterized the document procured him at once reputation and
+emolument. In 1763 he distinguished himself as counsel on the side of
+Wilkes, whose cause he conducted throughout. His powerful argument
+against the validity of general warrants in the case of _Leach v. Money_
+(June 18, 1763) established his reputation, and his practice from that
+period gradually increased to such an extent that in 1776 he is said to
+have been in the receipt of nearly L10,000 per annum. In 1766 he was
+chosen recorder of Bristol, and in December 1767 he was appointed
+solicitor-general. The latter appointment he held till May 1770, when he
+retired with his friend Lord Shelburne. In 1771 he was presented with
+the freedom of the city of London. From this period he was considered as
+a regular member of the opposition, and distinguished himself by many
+able speeches in parliament. He was first chosen member for Calne in
+1768, and continued to represent that borough until he was promoted to
+the peerage. In 1780 he brought forward a motion that the "influence of
+the crown had increased, was increasing, and ought to be diminished,"
+which he carried by a majority of eighteen. He strongly opposed the
+system of sinecure officers and pensions; but his probity was not strong
+enough to prevent his taking advantage of it himself. In 1782, when the
+marquis of Rockingham became prime minister, Dunning was appointed
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, a rich sinecure; and about the
+same time he was advanced to the peerage, with the title of Lord
+Ashburton. Under Lord Shelburne's administration he accepted a pension
+of L4000 a year. He died at Exmouth on the 18th of August 1783. Though
+possessed of an insignificant person, an awkward manner and a provincial
+accent, Lord Ashburton was one of the most fluent and persuasive orators
+of his time. He had married Elizabeth Baring, and was succeeded as 2nd
+baron by his son Richard, at whose death in 1823 the title became
+extinct, being revived in 1835 by Alexander Baring.
+
+  Besides the answer to the Dutch memorial, Lord Ashburton is supposed
+  to have assisted in writing a pamphlet on the law of libel, and to
+  have been the author of _A Letter to the Proprietors of East India
+  Stock, on the subject of Lord Clive's Jaghire, occasioned by his
+  Lordship's Letter on that Subject_ (1764, 8vo). He was at one time
+  suspected of being the author of the _Letters of Junius_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] i.e. of the first creation; for the present title see above.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, a river of Western Australia, rising in the mountains west of
+the Great Sandy Desert, and following a course north-westward for 400
+m., into Exmouth Gulf. In its upper reaches it flows through a rich
+gold-bearing district to which it gives name, and nearer its mouth it
+traverses a vast tract of fine pastoral country. The outlet for both
+these districts is the port of Onslow, at the mouth of the river, near
+which there are several pearl-fishing stations. The river is not
+navigable.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBURTON, a market-town in the Ashburton parliamentary division of
+Devonshire, England, 24 m. N.W. by W. of Plymouth, on a branch of the
+Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2628. It lies in a
+valley surrounded by hills, at a short distance from the river Dart; the
+scenery, towards Dartmoor and in the neighbourhood of Buckland and Holne
+Chase, being unsurpassed in the county. The church of St. Andrew is
+cruciform with a lofty tower. It was built early in the 15th century,
+and contains a fine old oak roof over the north aisle, and a tablet in
+memory of John Dunning, solicitor-general and 1st Baron Ashburton
+(1731-1783). The inscription is by Dr Johnson. Lord Ashburton was
+educated at the grammar school, which was founded as a chantry in 1314.
+Serge is manufactured in Ashburton, and there are breweries, paint
+factories and saw-mills. A large deposit of umber is worked in the
+neighbourhood. Slate quarries and copper and tin mines were formerly
+valuable. A neighbouring centre of the serge industry is the urban
+district of BUCKFASTLEIGH (pop. 2520), 3 m. S S.W. Between the two towns
+is Buckfast Abbey, said to have been, before the Conquest, a Benedictine
+house, and refounded for Cistercians in 1137. It was restored to use in
+1882 by a French Benedictine community, the fine Perpendicular abbot's
+tower remaining, while other parts have been rebuilt on the original
+lines.
+
+  Ashburton (Essebretona, Asperton, Ashperton) is a borough by
+  prescription and an ancient stannary town. It was governed by a
+  portreeve and bailiff, elected annually at the court leet held by the
+  lord of the manor. According to Domesday, Ashburton was held in chief
+  by Osbern, bishop of Exeter, and rendered geld for six hides. In 1552,
+  as the two manors of Ashburton Borough and Ashburton Foreign, it was
+  sold by the bishop, and subsequently became crown property. Finally,
+  it was acquired in moieties by the Clinton family, and the present
+  Lord Clinton is joint lord of the manor with Sir Robert Jardine. In
+  1298 and 1407 Ashburton returned two members, from 1407 until 1640 one
+  member only, and then again two members, until deprived of one by the
+  Reform Act of 1832 and of the other by the Reform Act of 1885. In the
+  reign of Edward II. Bishop Stapledon obtained a Saturday market, and
+  two annual fairs lasting three days at the feasts of St Laurence
+  (August 10) and St Martin in winter (November 11). In 1672 John Ford
+  was granted a Tuesday market for the sale of wool and woollen goods
+  made from English yarn, and in 1705 Andrew Quicke obtained two annual
+  fairs, on the first Thursdays in March and June, for the sale of
+  cattle, corn and merchandise.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBY, TURNER (1824-1862), American cavalry leader in the Confederate
+army, was born in Fauquier county, Virginia, in 1824. Before the Civil
+War he was a planter in Markham, Fauquier county, and a local
+politician. When hostilities began he raised a regiment of cavalry,
+which he led with conspicuous success in the Valley campaigns of
+1861-62, under Joseph Johnston and Stonewall Jackson. He was promoted a
+brigadier-general shortly before his death, which took place in a
+cavalry skirmish at Harrisonburg, Va., on the 6th of June 1862. By his
+early death the Confederates lost one of the best cavalry officers in
+their service.
+
+
+
+
+ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a market-town in the Bosworth parliamentary division
+of Leicestershire, England; 118 m. N.W. by N. from London by the Midland
+railway, on the Leicester-Burton branch. Pop. of urban district (1901)
+4726. The church of St Helen is a fine Perpendicular building, restored
+and enlarged (1880); it contains monuments of the Huntingdon family, and
+an old finger-pillory for the punishment of misbehaviour in church. The
+Ivanhoe baths, erected in 1826, are frequented for their saline waters,
+which, as containing bromine, are found useful in scrofulous and
+rheumatic complaints. The springs are at Moira, 3 m. west. There is a
+Queen Eleanor cross commemorating the countess of Loudoun, by Sir
+Gilbert Scott. To the south of the town are the extensive remains of
+Ashby Castle. There are extensive coal-mines in the neighbouring
+district, as at Moira, whence the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal runs south to
+the Coventry canal.
+
+  At the time of the Domesday survey Ashby-de-la-Zouch formed part of
+  the estates of Hugh de Grentmaisnel. Soon after it was held by Robert
+  Beaumeis, from whom it passed by female descent to the family of la
+  Zouch, whence it derived the adjunct to its name, having been hitherto
+  known as Ashby or Essebi. The earliest record of a grant of market
+  rights is in 1219, when Roger la Zouch obtained a grant of a weekly
+  market and a two days' fair at the feast of St Helen, in consideration
+  of a fine of one palfrey. In the 15th century the manor was held by
+  James Butler, earl of Ormond, after whose attainder it was granted in
+  1461 to Lord Hastings, who in 1474 obtained royal licence to empark
+  3000 acres and to build and fortify a castle. At this castle Mary
+  queen of Scots was detained in 1569 under the custody of the earls of
+  Huntingdon and Shrewsbury. During the Civil War Colonel Henry Hastings
+  fortified and held it for the king, and it was visited by Charles in
+  1645. In 1648, at the close of the war, it was dismantled by order of
+  parliament. It plays a great part in Sir Walter Scott's _Ivanhoe_. In
+  the 18th century Ashby was celebrated as one of the best markets for
+  horses in England, and had besides prosperous factories for woollen
+  and cotton stockings and for hats.
+
+  See _Victoria County History--Leicestershire; History of
+  Ashby-de-la-Zouch_ (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1852).
+
+
+
+
+A-SHE-HO (Manch. _Alchuku_), a town of Manchuria, China, 125 m. N.E. of
+Kirin, and 30 m. S. of the Sungari. It is governed by a mandarin of the
+second class. Pop. about 60,000.
+
+
+
+
+ASHER, a tribe of Israel, called after the son of Jacob and Zilpah,
+Leah's maid. The name is taken by the narrator of Gen. xxx. 12 seq. (J)
+to mean happy or propitious, possibly an allusion to the fertility of
+the tribe's territory (with which cf. Gen. xlix. 20, Deut. xxxiii. 24);
+on the other hand, like Gad, it may have been originally a divine title.
+The district held by this tribe bordered upon Naphtali, and lay to the
+north of Issachar and Zebulun, and to the south of Dan. But the
+boundaries are not definite and the references to its territory are
+obscure. Asher is blamed for taking no part in the fight against Sisera
+(Judg. v. 17), and although it shares with Zebulun and Naphtali in
+Gideon's defeat of the Midianites (Judg. vi. 35, vii. 23), the narrative
+in question is not the older of the two accounts of the event, and the
+incorporation of the name is probably due to a late redactor. Lying as
+it did in the closest proximity to Phoenicians and Aramaeans, its
+population must have been exceptionally mixed, and the description of
+the occupation of Palestine in Judg. i. 31 seq. shows that it contained
+a strong Canaanite element. In the Blessing of Moses it is bidden to
+defend itself--evidently against invasion (Deut. xxxiii. 25).
+
+Even in the time of Seti I. and Rameses II. (latter half of 14th cent.
+B.C.) the district to the west of Galilee appears to have been known to
+the Egyptians as Aser(u), so that it is possible to infer either (a)
+that Asher was an Israelite tribe which, if it ever went down into
+Egypt, separated itself from its brethren in Egypt and migrated north,
+"an example which was probably followed by some of the other tribes as
+well" (Hommel, _Ancient Hebrew Tradition_, p. 228); or (b) it was a
+district which, if never closely bound to Israel, was at least regarded
+as part of the national kingdom, and treated as Israelite by the
+genealogical device of making it a "son" of Jacob. It is possible that
+some of its Israelite population had followed the example of Dan and
+moved from an earlier home in the south. Two of the clans of Asher,
+Heber and Malchiel, have been associated with Milk-ili and Habiri, the
+names of a hostile chief and people in the Amarna Tablets (Jastrow,
+_Journal Bibl. Lit._ xi. pp. 118 seq., xii. pp. 61 seq., Hommel), but it
+is scarcely probable that events of about 1400 B.C. should have survived
+only in this form. This applies also to the suggestion that the name
+Asher has been derived from a famous Abd-ashirta of the same period
+(Barton, _ib._ xv. p. 174). Some connexion with the goddess Ashir(t)a,
+however, is not unlikely.
+
+  See further H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bibl._ col. 327 seq.; E. Meyer,
+  _Israeliten_, pp. 540 sqq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+'ASHER BEN-YEHIEL (known as _Rosh_), Jewish rabbi and codifier, was born
+in the Rhine district c. 1250, and died in Toledo 1327. Endangered by
+the persecutions inflicted on the German Jews in the 13th century,
+'Asher fled to Spain, where he was made rabbi of Toledo. His enforced
+exile impoverished him, and from this date begins an important change in
+the status of medieval rabbis. Before the 14th century, rabbis had
+obtained a livelihood by the exercise of some secular profession,
+particularly medicine, and received no salary for performing the
+rabbinic function. This was now changed. A disciple of Meir of
+Rothenburg, 'Asher's sole interest was in the Talmud. He was a man of
+austere piety, profound and narrow. He was a determined opponent of the
+study of philosophy, and thus was antipathetic to the Spanish spirit.
+The Jews of Spain continued, nevertheless, devotees of secular sciences
+as well as of rabbinical lore. 'Asher was the first of the German rabbis
+to display strong talent for systematization, and his chief work partook
+of the nature of a compendium of the Talmud. Compiled between 1307 and
+1314, 'Asher's _Compendium_ resembled, and to a large extent superseded,
+the work of 'Al-phasi (q.v.). 'Asher's _Compendium_ is printed in most
+editions of the Talmud, and it differed from previous Compendia in
+greater simplicity and in the deference shown to German authorities.
+'Asher's son Jacob, who died at Toledo before 1340, was the author of
+the four _Turim_, a very profound and popular codification of rabbinical
+law. This work was the standard code until Joseph Qaro directly based on
+it his widely accepted Code of Jewish law, the _Shulhan 'Arukh_.
+     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Buncombe county, North
+Carolina, U.S.A., in the mountainous Blue Ridge region in the west part
+of the state, about 210 m. W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 10,235; (1900)
+14,692, of whom 4724 were negroes; (1910, census) 18,762. Asheville is
+situated at the junction of three branches of the Southern railway, on a
+high terrace on the east bank of the French Broad river, at the mouth of
+the Swannanoa, about 2300 ft. above the sea. The city is best known as
+one of the most popular health and pleasure resorts in the south, being
+a summer resort for southerners and a winter resort for northerners. It
+has a dry and equable climate and beautiful scenery. Among its social
+clubs are the Albemarle, the Asheville, the Elks, the Tahkeeostee and
+the Swannanoa Country clubs. An extensive system of city and suburban
+parks, connected by a series of beautiful drives, adds to the city's
+attractiveness. There are great forests in the vicinity. Among the
+public buildings are the city hall, the court house, the Federal
+building, the public library and an auditorium. In or near Asheville are
+a normal and collegiate institute for young women (1892), and, occupying
+the same campus, a home industrial school (1887) for girls, both under
+the control of the Woman's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian
+Church; the Asheville farm school for boys, an industrial school for
+negroes; the Asheville school for boys (5 m. west of Asheville); and the
+Bingham school (1793), founded at Pittsboro, N.C., by William Bingham
+(d. 1826), and removed to its present site (3 m. north-west of
+Asheville) in 1891. About 2 m. south-east of the city is Biltmore, the
+estate of George W. Vanderbilt, its 125,000 acres constituting what is
+probably the finest country place in the United States. The central
+feature of the estate is a chateau (375 X 150 ft.) of French Renaissance
+design, after the famous chateau at Blois, France. In the neighbourhood
+is a model village, with an elementary school, an industrial school for
+whites, a hospital and a church, maintained by Mr Vanderbilt. Both the
+chateau and the village were designed by Richard M. Hunt; the landscape
+gardening was done by Frederick Law Olmsted. A collection of woody
+plants, one of the largest and finest in the world, and a broad forest
+and hunting preserve, known as Pisgah Forest (100,000 acres), are also
+maintained by the owner. Asheville is a market for live-stock, dairy
+products, lumber and fruits, and has various manufactories (in which a
+good water-power is utilized), including tanneries, cotton mills, brick
+and tile factories, and a wood-working and veneer plant. The value of
+the city's factory products increased from $1,300,698 in 1900 to
+$1,918,362 in 1905, or 47.5%. The city was named in honour of Samuel
+Ashe (1725-1813), chief-justice of North Carolina from 1777 to 1796, and
+John Ashe (1720-1781), a North Carolina soldier who distinguished
+himself in the War of Independence, was settled about 1790, and was
+incorporated in 1835. The city's boundaries were enlarged in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+ASHFORD, a market-town in the Southern or Ashford parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 56 m. S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 12,808. It is pleasantly situated
+on a gentle eminence near the confluence of the upper branches of the
+river Stour. It has a fine Perpendicular church dedicated to St Mary,
+with a lofty, well-proportioned tower and many interesting monuments.
+The grammar school was founded by Sir Norman Knatchbull in the reign of
+Charles I. Ashford has agricultural implement works and breweries; and
+the large locomotive and carriage works of the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway are here. At Bethersden, between Ashford and Tenterden, marble
+quarries were formerly worked extensively, supplying material to the
+cathedrals of Canterbury and Rochester, and to many local churches. At
+Charing, north-west of Ashford, the archbishops of Canterbury had a
+residence from pre-Conquest times, and ruins of a palace, mainly of the
+Decorated period, remain. On the south-eastern outskirts of Ashford is
+the populous village of Willesborough (3602).
+
+  Ashford (Esselesford, Asshatisforde, Essheford) was held at the time
+  of the Domesday survey by Hugh de Montfort, who came to England with
+  William the Conqueror. A Saturday market and an annual fair were
+  granted to the lord of the manor by Henry III. in 1243. Further annual
+  fairs were granted by Edward III. in 1349 and by Edward IV. in 1466.
+  In 1672 Charles II. granted a market on every second Tuesday, with a
+  court of pie-powder. James I. in 1607, at the petition of the
+  inhabitants of Ashford, gave Sir John Smith, Kt., the right of holding
+  a court of record in the town on every third Tuesday. The fertility of
+  the pasture-land in Romney Marsh to the south and east of Ashford
+  caused the cattle trade to increase in the latter half of the 18th
+  century, and led to the establishment of a stock market in 1784. The
+  town has never been incorporated.
+
+  See Edward Hasted, _History and Survey of Kent_ (Canterbury,
+  1778-1799, 2nd ed. 1797-1801); _Victoria County History--Kent_.
+
+
+
+
+'ASHI (352-427), Jewish _'amora_, the first editor of the Talmud, was
+born at Babylon. He was head of the Sura Academy, and there began the
+Babylonian Talmud, spending thirty years of his life at it. He left the
+work incomplete, and it was finished by his disciple Rabina just before
+the year 500 A.D. (See TALMUD.)
+
+
+
+
+ASHINGTON, an urban district in the Wansbeck parliamentary division of
+Northumberland, England, 4 m. E. of Morpeth, on the Newbiggin branch of
+the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 13,956. The district, especially
+along the river Wansbeck, is not without beauty, but there are numerous
+collieries, from the existence of which springs the modern growth of
+Ashington. At Bothal on the river (from which parish that of Ashington
+was formed) is the castle originally belonging to the Bertram family, of
+which Roger Bertram probably built the gatehouse, the only habitable
+portion remaining, in the reign of Edward III. The ruins of the castle
+are fragmentary, but of considerable extent. The church of St Andrew
+here has interesting details from Early English to Perpendicular date,
+and in the neighbouring woods is a ruined chapel of St Mary. The mining
+centre of Ashington lies 2 m. north-east, on the high ground north of
+the Wansbeck.
+
+
+
+
+'ASHKENAZI, SEBI (1656-1718), known as Hakham Sebi, for some time rabbi
+of Amsterdam, was a resolute opponent of the followers of the
+pseudo-Messiah, Sabbatai Sebi (q.v.). He had a chequered career, owing
+to his independence of character. He visited many lands, including
+England, where he wielded much influence. His _Responsa_, are held in
+high esteem.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a city of Boyd county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river,
+about 130 m. E. by N. of Frankfort. Pop. (1890) 4195; (1900) 6800 (489
+negroes); (1910) 8688. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio (being a
+terminal of the Lexington and Big Sandy Divisions) and the Norfolk &
+Western railways, and is connected with Huntington, West Virginia, by an
+electric line. The city has a fine natural park (Central Park) of about
+30 acres; and Clyffeside Park (maintained by a private corporation), of
+about 75 acres, just east of the city, is a pleasure resort and a
+meeting-ground (with a casino seating 3000 people) for the Tri-State
+"Chautauqua" (for certain parts of Kentucky, Ohio and West Virginia).
+The surrounding country abounds in coal, iron ore, oil, clay, stone and
+timber, for which the city is a distributing centre. Ashland has
+considerable river traffic, and various manufactures, including pig
+iron, nails, wire rods, steel billets, sheet steel, dressed lumber
+(especially poplar), furniture, fire brick and leather. Ashland was
+settled in 1854, and was chartered as a city in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 50
+m. N.E. of Harrisburg and about 100 m. N.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890)
+7346; (1900) 6438 (969 foreign-born); (1910) 6855. It is served by the
+Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by the
+electric lines of the Schuylkill Railway Company and the Shamokin &
+Mount Carmel Transit Company. The borough is built on the slope of
+Locust Mountain, about 885 ft. above sea-level. Its chief industry is
+the mining of anthracite coal at several collieries in the vicinity; and
+at Fountain Springs, 1 m. south-east, is a state hospital for injured
+persons of the Anthracite Coal Region of Pennsylvania, opened in 1883.
+The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Ashland was laid out
+as a town in 1847, and was named in honour of Henry Clay's home at
+Lexington, Ky.; in 1857 it was incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a village of Hanover county, Virginia, U.S.A., 17 m. N.W. of
+Richmond. Pop. (1900) 1147; (1910) 1324. It is served by the Richmond,
+Fredericksburg & Potomac railway, and is a favourite resort from
+Richmond. Here is situated the Randolph-Macon College (Methodist
+Episcopal, South), one of the oldest Methodist Episcopal colleges in the
+United States. In 1832, two years after receiving its charter, it opened
+near Boydton, Mecklenburg county, Virginia, and in 1868 was removed to
+Ashland. The college in 1907-1908 had 150 students and a faculty of 16;
+it publishes an endowed historical series called _The John P. Branch
+Historical Papers of Randolph-Macon College_; and it is a part of the
+"Randolph-Macon System of Colleges and Academies," which includes,
+besides, Randolph-Macon Academy (1890) at Bedford City, Virginia, and
+Randolph-Macon Academy (1892) at Front Royal, Virginia, both for boys;
+Randolph-Macon Woman's College (1893) at Lynchburg, Virginia, which in
+1907-1908 had an enrolment of 390; and Randolph-Macon Institute, for
+girls, Danville, Virginia, which was admitted into the "System" in 1897.
+These five institutions are under the control of a single board of
+trustees; the work of the preparatory schools is thus correlated with
+that of the colleges. About 7 m. out of Ashland is the birthplace of
+Henry Clay, and about 15 m. distant is the birthplace of Patrick Henry.
+Ashland was settled in 1845 and was incorporated in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAND, a city and the county-seat of Ashland county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., situated about 315 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, and about 70 m. E. of
+Superior and Duluth, in the N. part of the state, at the head of
+Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Lake Superior. Pop. (1890) 9956; (1900)
+13,074, of whom 4417 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 11,594. It is
+served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Northern Pacific, the
+Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, and the Wisconsin Central
+railways, and by several steamboat lines on the Great Lakes. The city is
+attractively situated, has a dry, healthful climate, and is a summer
+resort. It has a fine Federal building, one of the best high-school
+buildings in Wisconsin, the Vaughn public library (1895), a Roman
+Catholic hospital, and the Rinehart hospital, and is the seat of the
+Northland College and Academy (Congregational). Ashland has an excellent
+harbour, has large iron-ore and coal docks, and is the principal port
+for the shipment of iron ore from the rich Gogebic Range, the annual ore
+shipment approximating 3,500,000 tons, valued at $12,000,000, and it has
+also an extensive export trade in lumber. Brownstone quarried in the
+vicinity is also an important export. The lake trade amounts to more
+than $35,000,000 annually. Ashland has large saw-mills, iron and steel
+rolling mills, foundries and machine shops, railway repair shops (of the
+Chicago & North-Western railway), knitting works, and manufactories of
+dynamite, sulphite fibre, charcoal and wood-alcohol. In 1905 its total
+factory product was valued at $4,210,265. Settled about 1854, Ashland
+was incorporated as a village in 1863 and received a city charter in
+1887.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLAR, also written ASHLER, ASHELERE, &c. (probably from Lat. _axilla_,
+diminutive of _axis_, an axle), hewn or squared stone, generally applied
+to that used for facing walls. In a contract of date 1398 we
+read--"Murus erit exterius de puro lapide vocato _achilar_, plane
+incisso, interius vero de lapide fracto vocato _roghwall_." "Clene hewen
+ashler" often occurs in medieval documents; this no doubt means tooled
+or finely worked, in contradistinction to rough-axed faces.
+
+An "ashlar piece" in building is an upright piece of timber framed
+between the common rafters and the wall plate.
+
+
+
+
+ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMES (1860-   ), English economist, was born in London
+on the 25th of February 1860. He was educated at St Olave's grammar
+school and Balliol College, Oxford, and became a fellow of Lincoln
+College. In 1888 he was appointed professor of political economy and
+constitutional history in Toronto University, a post which he resigned
+in 1892, in order to become professor of economic history at Harvard
+University. In 1901 he was appointed professor of commerce and finance
+in Birmingham University and in 1902 dean of the faculty of commerce.
+Professor Ashley became well known for his work on the early history of
+English industry, and for his prominence among those English economists
+who supported Mr Chamberlain's tariff reform movement. His most
+important works are _Early History of the English Woollen Industry_
+(1887); _Introduction to English Economic History and Theory_ (2 parts,
+1888-1893); _Surveys, Historic and Economic_ (1900); _Adjustment of
+Wages_ (1903); the _Tariff Problem_ (2nd ed. 1904); _Progress of the
+German Working Classes_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+ASHMOLE, ELIAS (1617-1692), English antiquarian, and founder of the
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, was born at Lichfield on the 23rd of May
+1617, the son of a saddler. In 1638 he became a solicitor, and in 1644
+was appointed commissioner of excise. At Oxford, whither this brought
+him when the Royalist Parliament was sitting there, he made friends with
+Captain (afterwards Sir) George Wharton, through whose influence he
+obtained the king's commission as captain of horse and comptroller of
+the ordnance. In 1646 he was initiated as a Freemason--the first
+gentleman, or amateur, to be "accepted." In 1649 he married Lady
+Mainwaring, some twenty years his senior and a relative of his first
+wife who had died eight years before. This marriage placed him in a
+position of affluence that enabled him to devote his whole time to his
+favourite studies. His interest in astrology, aroused by Wharton, and by
+William Lilly,--whom with other astrologers he met in London in
+1646,--seems, in the following years, to have subsided in favour of
+heraldry and antiquarian research. In 1657 his wife petitioned for a
+separation, but failing to gain her case returned to live with him.
+Between this crisis in his domestic life and the time of her death in
+1668, Ashmole was in high favour at court. He was made successively
+Windsor herald, commissioner, comptroller and accountant-general of
+excise, commissioner for Surinam and comptroller of the White Office. He
+afterwards refused the office of Garter king-at-arms in favour of Sir
+William Dugdale, whose daughter he had married in 1668. In 1672 he
+published his _Institutions, Laws and Ceremonies of the Order of the
+Garter_, a work which was practically exhaustive, and is an example of
+his diligence and years of patient antiquarian research. Five years
+later he presented the Ashmolean Museum, the first public museum of
+curiosities in the kingdom, the larger part of which he had inherited
+from a friend, John Tradescant, to the university of Oxford. He made it
+a condition that a suitable building should be erected for its
+reception, and the collection was not finally installed until 1683.
+Subsequently he made the further gift to the university of his library.
+He died on the 18th of May 1692.
+
+
+
+
+ASHRAF (SHUREFA, SHERIFS), a small scattered tribe of African "Arabs"
+settled near Tokar, in the valleys of the Gash and Baraka, and in the
+Amarar country north of Suakin. They call themselves Beni Hashin, and
+claim descent from Mahomet; hence their name, _sherif_ (plural _ashraf_)
+being the title applied to descendants of the prophet. In the time of
+the khalifa Abdulla (1885-1898), Ashraf was the name by which the family
+and adherents of his late master the mahdi were known, the mahdi's
+family claiming to be Ashraf. The Ashraf of Tokar remained loyal to
+Egypt during the Sudan troubles.
+
+  See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905);
+  _Fire and Sword in the Sudan_, by Slatin Pasha (London, 1896); for the
+  Ashraf or Sherifs in Arabia, see ARABIA: _Geography_.
+
+
+
+
+ASHREF, a town of Persia in the province of Mazandaran, about 50 m. W.
+of Astarabad and 5 m. inland from the Caspian Sea, in 36 deg. 42' N. and
+53 deg. 32' E. The population is about 6000, comprising descendants of
+some Georgians introduced by Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) and a number of
+Gudars, a peculiar pariah race, probably of Indian origin. The place was
+without importance until 1612, when Shah Abbas began building and laying
+out the palaces and gardens in the neighbourhood now collectively known
+as Bagh i Shah (the garden of the shah). The palaces, completed in 1627,
+are now in ruins, but the gardens with their luxuriant vegetation and
+gigantic cypress and orange trees ate well worth a visit. There were
+originally six separate gardens, all contained within one large wall but
+separated one from another by high walls. The principal palace was the
+Chehel Situn (forty pillars), destroyed by the Afghans in 1723, and,
+although rebuilt by Nadir Shah in 1731, already in ruins in 1743. About
+3/4 m. north of the town is the Safi-abad garden, with a palace built by
+Shah Safi (1629-1642) for his daughter. It is situated on a lovely
+wooded hill, and was repaired and in part renovated about 1870 by
+Nasiru'd-Din Shah.
+
+
+
+
+ASHTABULA, a city of Ashtabula county, Ohio, U.S.A., in Ashtabula
+township, on the Ashtabula river and Lake Erie, and 54 m. N.E. of
+Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 8338; (1900) 12,949, of whom 3688 were
+foreign-born; (1910, census) 18,266. There is a large Finnish-born
+population in the city and in Ashtabula county, and the _Amerikan
+Sanomat_, established here in 1897, is one of the most widely read
+Finnish weeklies in the country. Ashtabula is served by the
+Pennsylvania, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the New York,
+Chicago & St Louis railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. The city
+is built on the high bank of the river about 75 ft. above the lake, and
+commands good views of diversified scenery. There is a public library.
+Ashtabula has an excellent harbour, to and from which large quantities
+of iron ore and coal are shipped. More iron ore is received at this port
+annually than at any other port in the country, or, probably, in the
+world; the ore is shipped thence by rail to Pittsburg, Youngstown and
+other iron manufacturing centres. In 1907 the port received 7,542,149
+gross tons of iron ore, and shipped 2,632,027 net tons of soft coal.
+Among the city's manufactures are leather, worsted goods, agricultural
+implements, and foundry and machine shop products; in 1905 the total
+value of the factory product was $1,895,454, an increase of 114.3% in
+five years. There are large green-houses in and near Ashtabula, and
+quantities of lettuce, cucumbers and tomatoes are raised under glass and
+shipped to Pittsburg and other large cities. The first settlement here
+was made about 1801. Ashtabula township was created in 1808, and from it
+the townships of Kingsville, Plymouth and Sheffield have subsequently
+been formed. The village of Ashtabula was incorporated in 1831, and
+received a city charter in 1891. The name _Ashtabula_ is an Indian word
+first applied to the river and said to mean "fish river."
+
+
+
+
+ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, an urban district in the Newton parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. S. of Wigan, on the Great Central
+railway. Pop. (1901) 18,687. The district is rich in minerals, and has
+large collieries, and a colliery company's institute; iron goods are
+manufactured.
+
+
+
+
+ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a market-town and municipal and parliamentary borough
+of Lancashire, England, on the river Tame, a tributary of the Mersey,
+185 m. N. W. by N. from London and 6-1/2 E. from Manchester. Area, 1346
+acres. Pop. (1891) 40,486; (1901) 43,890. It is served by the London &
+North-Western and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Charlestown
+station), and by the Great Central (Park Parade station). The church of
+St Michael is Perpendicular, but almost wholly rebuilt. In the vicinity
+are barracks. The Old Hall, or manor house of the Asshetons, remains in
+an altered form, with an ancient prison adjoining, and the name of
+Gallows Meadow, still preserved, recalls the summary execution of
+justice by the lords of the manor. In the vicinity of Ashton a few
+picturesque old houses remain among the numerous modern residences.
+Stamford Park, presented by Lord Stamford, is shared by the towns of
+Ashton and Stalybridge, which extends across the Tame into Cheshire. A
+technical school, school of art and free library, and several hospitals
+are maintained. Chief among industries are cotton-spinning, hat-making
+and iron-founding and machinery works; and there are large collieries in
+the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough, which returns one member,
+extends into Cheshire. The corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen
+and 24 councillors.
+
+The derivation from the Saxon _aesc_ (ash) and _tun_ (an enclosed place)
+accounts for the earliest orthography Estun. The addition _subtus
+lineam_ is found in ancient deeds and is due to the position of the
+place below the line or boundary of Cheshire, which once formed the
+frontier between the kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia. The manor was
+granted to Roger de Poictou by William I., but before the end of his
+reign came to the Greslets as part of the barony of Manchester. It was
+held by the Asshetons from 1335 to 1515, when it passed by marriage to
+the Booths of Dunham Massey, and is now held by the earl of Stamford,
+the representative of that family. The lord of the manor still holds the
+ancient court-leet and court-baron half-yearly in May and November, in
+which cognizance is taken of breaches of agreement among the tenants,
+especially concerning the repair of roads and cultivation of lands. The
+place had long enjoyed the name of borough, but it was not till 1847
+that a charter of incorporation was granted. Under the Reform Act (1832)
+it returns one member. One of the markets dates back to 1436. The
+ancient industry was woollen, but soon after the invention of the
+spinning frame the cotton trade was introduced, and as early as 1769 the
+weaving of ginghams, nankeens and calicoes was carried on, and the
+weaving of cotton yarn by machinery soon became the staple industry. A
+chapel or church existed here as early as 1261-1262.
+
+
+
+
+ASH WEDNESDAY, in the Western Church, the first day of Lent (q.v.), so
+called from the ceremonial use of ashes, as a symbol of penitence, in
+the service prescribed for the day. The custom, which is ultimately
+based on the penance of "sackcloth and ashes" spoken of by the prophets
+of the Old Testament, has been dropped in those of the reformed Churches
+which still observe the fast; but it is retained in the Roman Catholic
+Church, the day being known as _dies cinerum_ (day of ashes) or _dies
+cineris et cilicii_ (day of ash and sackcloth). The ashes, obtained by
+burning the palms or their substitutes used in the ceremonial of the
+previous Palm Sunday, are placed in a vessel on the altar before High
+Mass. The priest, vested in a violet cope, prays that God may send His
+angel to hallow the ash, that it become a _remedium salubre_ for all
+penitents. After another prayer the ashes are thrice sprinkled with holy
+water and thrice censed. Then the priest invites those present to
+approach and, dipping his thumb in the ashes, marks them as they kneel
+with the sign of the cross on the forehead (or in the case of clerics on
+the place of tonsure), with the words: _Memento, homo, quid pulvis es et
+in pulverem reverteris_ (Remember, man, that thou art dust and unto dust
+thou shall return). The celebrant himself either sprinkles the ash on
+his own head in silence, or receives it from the priest of highest
+dignity present.
+
+This ceremony is derived from the custom of public penance in the early
+Church, when the sinner to be reconciled had to appear in the
+congregation clad in sackcloth and covered with ashes (cf. Tertullian,
+_De Pudicitia_, 13). At what date this use was extended to the whole
+congregation is not known. The phrase _dies cinerum_ appears in the
+earliest extant copies of the Gregorian Sacramentary, and it is probable
+that the custom was already established by the 8th century. The
+Anglo-Saxon homilist Aelfric, in his _Lives of the Saints_ (996 or 997),
+refers to it as in common use; but the earliest evidence of its
+authoritative prescription is a decree of the synod of Beneventum in
+1091.
+
+Of the reformed Churches the Anglican Church alone marks the day by any
+special service. This is known as the Commination service, its
+distinctive element being the solemn reading of "the general sentences
+of God's cursing against sinners, gathered out of the seven and
+twentieth chapter of Deuteronomy, and other places of Scripture." The
+lections for the day are the same as in the Roman Church (Joel ii. 12,
+&c., and Matt. vi. 16, &c.). In the American Prayer Book the office of
+Commination is omitted, with the exception of the three concluding
+prayers, which are derived from the prayers and anthems said or sung
+during the blessing and distribution of the ashes according to the Sarum
+Missal. The ceremonial of the ashes was not proscribed in England at the
+Reformation; it was indeed enjoined by a proclamation of Henry VIII.
+(February 26, 1538) and again in 1550 under Edward VI.; but it had
+fallen into complete disuse by the beginning of the 17th century.
+
+  See Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, and Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), s. "_Aschermittuoch_"; L. Duchesne,
+  _Christian Worship_, trans. by M.L. McClure (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+ASHWELL, LENA (1872-   ), English actress, was the daughter of Commander
+Pocock, R.N. In 1896 she married the actor Arthur Playfair, whom she
+divorced in 1908; later in the latter year she married Dr Simson. In
+1895 she played Elaine in Sir Henry Irving's production of _King Arthur_
+at the Lyceum, and again acted with him in 1903 in _Dante_. She made her
+first striking success, however, on the London stage in _Mrs Dane's
+Defence_ with Sir Charles Wyndham in 1900, and a few years later her
+acting in _Leah Kleschna_ confirmed her position as one of the leading
+actresses in London. In 1907 she started under her own management at the
+Kingsway theatre.
+
+
+
+
+ASIA, the name of one of the great continents into which the earth's
+surface is divided, embracing the north-eastern portion of the great
+mass of land which constitutes what is generally known as the Old World,
+of which Europe forms the north-western and Africa the south-western
+region.
+
+Much doubt attaches to the origin of the name. Some of the earliest
+Greek geographers divided their known world into two portions only,
+Europe and Asia, in which last Libya (the Greek name for Africa) was
+included. Herodotus, who ranks Libya as one of the chief divisions of
+the world, separating it from Asia, repudiates as fables the ordinary
+explanations assigned to the names Europe and Asia, but confesses his
+inability to say whence they came. It would appear probable, however,
+that the former of these words was derived from an Assyrian or Hebrew
+root, which signifies the west or setting sun, and the latter from a
+corresponding root meaning the east or rising sun, and that they were
+used at one time to imply the west and the east. There is ground also
+for supposing that they may at first have been used with a specific or
+restricted local application, a more extended signification having
+eventually been given to them. After the word Asia had acquired its
+larger sense, it was still specially used by the Greeks to designate the
+country around Ephesus. The idea of Asia as originally formed was
+necessarily indefinite, and long continued to be so; and the area to
+which the name was finally applied, as geographical knowledge increased,
+was to a great extent determined by arbitrary and not very precise
+conceptions, rather than on the basis of natural relations and
+differences subsisting between it and the surrounding regions.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY
+
+  Boundaries.
+
+The northern boundary of Asia is formed by the Arctic Ocean; the
+coast-line falls between 70 deg. and 75 deg. N., and so lies within the
+Arctic circle, having its extreme northern point in Cape
+Sivero-Vostochnyi (i.e. north-east) or Chelyuskin, in 78 deg. N. On the
+south the coast-line is far more irregular, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of
+Bengal, and the China Sea reaching about to the northern tropic at the
+mouths of the Indus, of the Ganges and of the Canton river; while the
+great peninsulas of Arabia, Hindostan and Cambodia descend to about 10
+deg. N., and the Malay peninsula extends within a degree and a half of
+the equator. On the west the extreme point of Asia is found on the shore
+of the Mediterranean, at Cape Baba, in 26 deg. E., nor far from the
+Dardanelles. Thence the boundary passes in the one direction through the
+Mediterranean, and down the Red Sea to the southern point of Arabia, at
+the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in 45 deg. E.; and in the other through the
+Black Sea, and along the range of Caucasus, following approximately 40
+deg. N. to the Caspian, whence it turns to the north on a line not far
+from the 60th meridian, along the Ural Mountains, and meets the Arctic
+Ocean nearly opposite the island of Novaya Zemlya. The most easterly
+point of Asia is East Cape (Vostochnyi, i.e. east, or Dezhnev), in 190
+deg. E., at the entrance of Bering Strait. The boundary between this
+point and the extremity of the Malay Peninsula follows the coast of the
+Northern Pacific and the China Sea, on a line deeply broken by the
+projection of the peninsulas of Kamchatka and Korea, and the recession
+of the Sea of Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea, and the Gulfs of Tongking and
+Siam.
+
+
+  Islands.
+
+On the east and south-east of Asia are several important groups of
+islands, the more southern of which link this continent to Australia,
+and to the islands of the Pacific. The Kurile islands, the Japanese
+group, Luchu, Formosa and the Philippines, may be regarded as
+unquestionable outliers of Asia. Between the islands of the Malay
+archipelago from Sumatra to New Guinea, and the neighbouring Asiatic
+continent, no definite relations appear ever to have existed, and no
+distinctly marked boundary for Asia has been established by the old
+geographers in this quarter. Modern science, however, has indicated a
+line of physical separation along the channel between Borneo and
+Celebes, called the Straits of Macassar, which follows approximately
+120 deg. E., to the west of which the flora and fauna are essentially
+Asiatic in their type, while to the south and east the Australian
+element begins to be distinctly marked, soon to become predominant. To
+this boundary has been given the name of Wallace's line, after the
+eminent naturalist, A.R. Wallace, who first indicated its existence.
+
+
+  Form of continent.
+
+Owing to the great extent of Asia, it is not easy to obtain a correct
+conception of the actual form of its outline from ordinary maps, the
+distortions which accompany projections of large spherical areas on a
+flat surface being necessarily great and misleading. Turning, therefore,
+to a globe, Asia, viewed as a whole, will be seen to have the form of a
+great isosceles spherical triangle, having its north-eastern apex at
+East Cape (Vostochnyi), in Bering Strait; its two equal sides, in length
+about a quadrant of the sphere, or 6500 m., extending on the west to the
+southern point of Arabia, and on the east to the extremity of the Malay
+peninsula; and the base between these points occupying about 60 deg. of
+a great circle, or 4500 m., and being deeply indented by the Arabian Sea
+and the Bay of Bengal on either side of the Indian peninsula. A great
+circle, drawn through East Cape and the southern point of Arabia, passes
+nearly along the coast-line of the Arctic Ocean, over the Ural
+Mountains, through the western part of the Caspian, and nearly along the
+boundary between Persia and Asiatic Turkey. Asia Minor and the
+north-western half of Arabia lie outside such a great circle, which
+otherwise indicates, with fair accuracy, the north-western boundary of
+Asia. In like manner a great circle drawn through East Cape and the
+extremity of the Malay peninsula, passes nearly over the coasts of
+Manchuria, China and Cochin-China, and departs comparatively little from
+the eastern boundary.
+
+
+    General physiography.
+
+  Asia is divided laterally along the parallel of 40 deg. north by a
+  depression which, beginning on the east of the desert of Gobi, extends
+  westwards through Mongolia to Chinese Turkestan. To the west of
+  Kashgar the central depression is limited by the meridional range of
+  Sarikol and the great elevation of the Pamir, of which the Sarikol is
+  the eastern face. The level of this depression (once a vast inland
+  sea) between the mountains which enclose the sources of the Hwang-ho
+  and the Sarikol range probably never exceeds 2000 ft. above sea, and
+  modern researches tend to prove that in the central portions of the
+  Gobi (about Lop Nor) it may be actually below sea-level. A vast
+  proportion of the continent north of this central line is but a few
+  hundred feet in altitude. Shelving gradually upward from the low flats
+  of Siberia the general continental level rises to a great central
+  water-parting, or divide, which stretches from the Black Sea through
+  the Elburz and the Hindu Kush to the Tian-shan mountains in the Pamir
+  region, and hence to Bering Strait on the extreme north-east. This
+  great divide is not always marked by well-defined ranges facing
+  steeply either to the north or south. There are considerable spaces
+  where the strike, or axis, of the main ranges is transverse to the
+  water-parting, which is then represented by intermediate highlands
+  forming lacustrine regions with an indefinite watershed. Only a part
+  of this great continental divide (including such ranges as the Hindu
+  Kush, Tian-shan, Altai or Khangai) rises to any great height, a
+  considerable portion of it being below 5000 ft. in altitude. South of
+  the divide the level at once drops to the central depression of Gobi,
+  which forms a vast interior, almost waterless space, where the local
+  drainage is lost in deserts or swamps. South of this enclosed
+  depression is another great hydrographic barrier which parts it from
+  the low plains of the Amur, of China, Siam and India, bordered by the
+  shallows of the Yellow Sea and the shoals which enclose the islands of
+  Japan and Formosa, all of them once an integral part of the continent.
+  This second barrier is one of the most mighty upheavals in the world,
+  by reason both of its extent and its altitude. Starting from the Amur
+  river and reaching along the eastern margin of the Gobi desert towards
+  the sources of the Hwang-ho, it merges into the Altyn-tagh and the
+  Kuen-lun, forming the northern face of the vast Tibetan highlands
+  which are bounded on the south by the Himalaya. The Pamir highlands
+  between the base of the Tian-shan mountains and the eastern buttresses
+  of the Hindu Kush unite these two great divides, enclosing the Gobi
+  depression on the west; and they would again be united on the east but
+  for the transverse valley of the Amur, which parts the Khingan
+  mountains from the Yablonoi system to the east of Lake Baikal.
+
+  If we consider the whole continent to be divided into three sections,
+  viz. a northern section with an average altitude of less than 5000 ft.
+  above sea, where all the main rivers flow northward to the
+  Mediterranean, the Arctic Sea, or the Caspian; a central section of
+  depression, where the drainage is lost in swamps or _hamuns_, and of
+  which the average level probably does not exceed 2000 ft. above sea;
+  and a southern section divided between highly elevated table-lands
+  from 15,000 to 16,000 ft. in altitude, and lowlands of the Arabian,
+  Indian, Siamese and Chinese peninsulas, with an ocean outlet for its
+  drainage; we find that there is only one direct connexion between
+  northern and southern sections which involves no mountain passes, and
+  no formidable barrier of altitudes. That one is afforded by the narrow
+  valley of the Hari Rud to the west of Herat. From the Caspian to
+  Karachi it is possible to pass without encountering any orographic
+  obstacle greater than the divide which separates the valley of the
+  Hari Rud from the Helmund _hamun_ basin, which may be represented by
+  an altitude of about 4000 ft. above sea-level. This fact possesses
+  great significance in connexion with the development of Asiatic
+  railways.
+
+
+    Hydrography.
+
+  If we examine the hydrographic basins of the three divisions of Asia
+  thus indicated we find that the northern division, including the
+  drainage falling into the Arctic Sea, the Aralo-Caspian depression, or
+  the Mediterranean, embraces an area of about 6,394,500 sq. m., as
+  follows:--
+
+                                      Sq. m.
+    Area of Arctic river basins    4,367,000
+       "    Aralo-Caspian basin    1,759,000
+       "    Mediterranean            268,500
+                                   ---------
+                      Total        6,394,500
+
+  The southern division is nearly equal in extent--
+
+                                      Sq. m.
+    Pacific drainage               3,641,000
+    Indian Ocean                   2,873,000
+                                   ---------
+                      Total        6,514,000
+
+  The interior or inland basins, including the lacustrine regions south
+  of the Arctic watershed, the Gobi depression, Tibetan plateau, the
+  Iranian (or Perso-Afghan) uplands, the Syro-Arabian inland basin, and
+  that of Asia Minor, amount to 3,141,500 sq. m. or about half the
+  extent of the other two.
+
+  By far the largest Asiatic river basin is that of the Ob, which
+  exceeds 1,000,000 sq. m. in extent. On the east and south the Amur
+  embraces no less than 776,000 sq. m., the Yang-tsze-kiang including
+  685,000, the Ganges 409,500, and the Indus 370,000 sq. m.[1]
+
+  The lakes of Asia are innumerable, and vary in size from an inland sea
+  (such as Lakes Baikal and Balkash) to a highland loch, or the
+  indefinitely extended swamps of Persia. Many of them are at high
+  elevations (Lake Victoria, 13,400 ft., being probably the most
+  elevated), and are undoubted vestiges of an ancient period of
+  glaciation. Such lakes, as a rule, show indications of a gradual
+  decrease in size. Others are relics of an earlier geological period,
+  when land areas recently upheaved from the sea were spread at low
+  levels with alternate inundations of salt and fresh water. Of these
+  Lop Nor and the Helmund _hamuns_ are typical. Such lakes (in common
+  with all the plateau _hamuns_ of south-west Baluchistan and Persia)
+  change their form and extent from season to season, and many of them
+  are impregnated with saline deposits from the underlying strata. The
+  _kavirs_, or salt depressions, of the Persian desert are more
+  frequently widespread deposits of mud and salt than water-covered
+  areas.
+
+
+    Political divisions.
+
+  Although for the purposes of geographical nomenclature, boundaries
+  formed by a coast-line--that is, by depressions of the earth's solid
+  crust _below_ the ocean level--are most easily recognized and are of
+  special convenience; and although such boundaries, from following
+  lines on which the continuity of the land is interrupted, often
+  necessarily indicate important differences in the conditions of
+  adjoining countries, and of their political and physical relations,
+  yet variations of the elevation of the surface _above_ the sea-level
+  frequently produce effects not less marked. The changes of temperature
+  and climate caused by difference of elevation are quite comparable in
+  their magnitude and effect on all organized creatures with those due
+  to differences of latitude; and the relative position of the high and
+  low lands on the earth's surface, by modifying the direction of the
+  winds, the fall of rain, and other atmospheric phenomena, produce
+  effects in no sense less important than those due to the relative
+  distribution of the land and sea. Hence the study of the mountain
+  ranges of a continent is, for a proper apprehension of its physical
+  conditions and characteristics, as essential as the examination of its
+  extent and position in relation to the equator and poles, and the
+  configuration of its coasts.
+
+
+    Himalayan boundary.
+
+  From such causes the physical conditions of a large part of Asia, and
+  the history of its population, have been very greatly influenced by
+  the occurrence of the mass of mountain above described, which includes
+  the Himalaya and the whole elevated area having true physical
+  connexion with that range, and occupies an area about 2000 m. in
+  length and varying from 100 to 500 m. in width, between 65 deg. and
+  100 deg. east and between 28 deg. and 35 deg. north. These mountains,
+  which include the highest peaks in the world, rise, along their entire
+  length, far above the line of perpetual snow, and few of the passes
+  across the main ridges are at a less altitude than 15,000 or 16,000
+  ft. above the sea. Peaks of 20,000 ft. abound along the whole chain,
+  and the points that exceed that elevation are numerous. A mountain
+  range such as this, attaining altitudes at which vegetable life
+  ceases, and the support of animal life is extremely difficult,
+  constitutes an almost impassable barrier against the spread of all
+  forms of living creatures. The mountain mass, moreover, is not less
+  important in causing a complete separation between the atmospheric
+  conditions on its opposite flanks, by reason of the extent to which it
+  penetrates that stratum of the atmosphere which is in contact with the
+  earth's surface and is effective in determining climate. The highest
+  summits create serious obstructions to the movements of nearly
+  three-fourths of the mass of the air resting on this part of the
+  earth, and of nearly the whole of the moisture it contains; the
+  average height of the entire chain is such as to make it an almost
+  absolute barrier to one-half of the air and three-fourths of the
+  moisture; while the lower ranges also produce important atmospheric
+  effects, one-fourth of the air and one-half of the watery vapour it
+  carries with it lying below 9000 ft.
+
+  This great mass of mountain, constituting as it does a complete
+  natural line of division across a large part of the continent, will
+  form a convenient basis from which to work, in proceeding, as will now
+  be done, to give a general view of the principal countries contained
+  in Asia.
+
+
+    Tibet.
+
+  The summit of the great mountain mass is occupied by Tibet, a country
+  known by its inhabitants under the name of _Bod_ or _Bodyul_. Tibet is
+  a rugged table-land, narrow as compared with its length, broken up by
+  a succession of mountain ranges, which follow as a rule the direction
+  of the length of the table-land, and commonly rise into the regions of
+  perpetual snow; between the flanks of these lie valleys, closely
+  hemmed in, usually narrow, having a very moderate inclination, but at
+  intervals opening out into wide plains, and occupied either by rivers,
+  or frequently by lakes from which there is no outflow and the waters
+  of which are salt. The eastern termination of Tibet is in the line of
+  snowy mountains which flanks China on the west, between the 27th and
+  35th parallels of latitude, and about 103 deg. east. On the west the
+  table-land is prolonged beyond the political limits of Tibet, though
+  with much the same physical features, to about 70 deg. east, beyond
+  which it terminates; and the ranges which are covered with perpetual
+  snow as far west as Samarkand, thence rapidly diminish in height, and
+  terminate in low hills north of Bokhara.
+
+  The mean elevation of Tibet may be taken as 15,000 ft. above the sea.
+  The broad mountainous slope by which it is connected with the lower
+  levels of Hindostan contains the ranges known as the Himalaya; the
+  name Kuen-lun is generally applied to the northern slope that descends
+  to the central plains of the Gobi, though these mountains are not
+  locally known under those names, Kuen-lun being apparently a Chinese
+  designation.
+
+  The extreme rigour of the climate of Tibet, which combines great cold
+  with great drought, makes the country essentially very poor, and the
+  chief portion of it little better than desert. The vegetation is
+  everywhere most scanty, and scarcely anything deserving the name of a
+  tree is to be found unless in the more sheltered spots, and then
+  artificially planted. The population in the lower and warmer valleys
+  live in houses, and follow agriculture; in the higher regions they are
+  nomadic shepherds, thinly scattered over a large area.
+
+
+    China.
+
+  China lies between the eastern flank of the Tibetan plateau and the
+  North Pacific, having its northern and southern limits about on 40
+  deg. and 20 deg. N. respectively. The country, though generally broken
+  up with mountains of moderate elevation, possesses none of very great
+  importance apart from those of its western border. It is well watered,
+  populous, and, as a rule, highly cultivated, fertile, and well wooded;
+  the climate is analogous to that of southern Europe, with hot summers,
+  and winters everywhere cold and in the north decidedly severe.
+
+
+    Indo-Chinese region.
+
+  From the eastern extremity of the Tibetan mountains, between the 95th
+  and 100th meridians, high ranges extend from about 35 deg. N. in a
+  southerly direction, which, spreading outwards as they go south, reach
+  the sea at various points in Cochin-China, the Malay peninsula, and
+  the east flank of Bengal. Between these ranges, which are probably
+  permanently snowy to about 27 deg. N., flow the great rivers of the
+  Indo-Chinese peninsula, the Mekong, the Menam, the Salween, and the
+  Irrawaddy, the valleys of which form the main portions of the states
+  of Cochin-China (including Tongking and Cambodia), of Siam (including
+  Laos) and of Burma. The people of Cochin-China are called Anam; it is
+  probably from a corruption of their name for the capital of Tongking,
+  Kechao, that the Portuguese Cochin has been derived. All these
+  countries are well watered, populous and fertile, with a climate very
+  similar to that of eastern Bengal. The geography of the region in
+  which the mountains of Cochin-China and Siam join Tibet is still
+  imperfectly known, but there is no ground left for doubting that the
+  great river of eastern Tibet, the Tsanpo, supplies the main stream of
+  the Brahmaputra. The two great rivers of China, the Hwang-ho and the
+  Yang-tsze-kiang take their rise from the eastern face of Tibet, the
+  former from the north-east angle, the latter from the south-east. The
+  main stream of this last is called Dichu in Tibet, and its chief
+  feeder is the Ya-lung-kiang, which rises not far from the Hwang-ho,
+  and is considered the territorial boundary between China and Tibet.
+
+
+    British India.
+
+  British India comprises approximately the area between the 95th and
+  70th meridians, and between the Tibetan table-land and the Indian
+  Ocean. The Indian peninsula from 25 deg. N. southwards is a
+  table-land, having its greatest elevation on the west, where the
+  highest points rise to over 8000 ft., though the ordinary altitude of
+  the higher hills hardly exceeds 4000 ft.; the general level of the
+  table-land lies between 3000 ft. as a maximum and 1000 ft.
+
+  From the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra on the east to that of
+  the Indus on the west, and intervening between the table-land of the
+  peninsula and the foot of the Himalayan slope of the Tibetan plateau,
+  lies the great plain of northern India, which rises at its highest
+  point to about 1000 ft., and includes altogether, with its
+  prolongation up the valley of Assam, an area of about 500,000 sq. m.,
+  comprising the richest, the most populous and most civilized districts
+  of India. The great plain extends, with an almost unbroken surface,
+  from the most western to the most eastern extremity of British India,
+  and is composed of deposits so finely comminuted, that it is no
+  exaggeration to say that it is possible to go from the Bay of Bengal
+  up the Ganges, through the Punjab, and down the Indus again to the
+  sea, over a distance of 2000 m. and more, without finding a pebble,
+  however small.
+
+  The great rivers of northern India--the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and
+  the Indus--all derive their waters from the Tibetan mountain mass; and
+  it is a remarkable circumstance that the northern water-parting of
+  India should lie to the north of the Himalaya in the regions of
+  central Tibet.
+
+  The population of India is very large, some of its districts being
+  among the most densely peopled in the world. The country is generally
+  well cleared, and forests are, as a rule, found only along the flanks
+  of the mountains, where the fall of rain is most abundant. The more
+  open parts are highly cultivated, and large cities abound. The climate
+  is generally such as to secure the population the necessaries of life
+  without severe labour; the extremes of heat and drought are such as to
+  render the land unsuitable for pasture, and the people everywhere
+  subsist by cultivation of the soil or commerce, and live in settled
+  villages or towns.
+
+  The island of Ceylon is distinguished from the neighbouring parts of
+  British India by little more than its separate administration and the
+  Buddhistic religion of its population. The highest point in Ceylon
+  rises to about 9000 ft. above the sea, and the mountain slopes are
+  densely covered with forest. The lower levels are in climate and
+  cultivation quite similar to the regions in the same latitude on the
+  Malay peninsula.
+
+  Of the islands in the Bay of Bengal the Nicobar and Andaman groups are
+  alone worth notice. They are placed on a line joining the north end of
+  Sumatra and Cape Negrais, the south-western extremity of Burma. They
+  possibly owe their existence to the volcanic agencies which are known
+  to extend from Sumatra across this part of the Indian Ocean.
+
+  [Illustration: map of Asia.]
+
+  The Laccadives and Maldives are groups of small coral islands,
+  situated along the 73rd meridian at no great distance from the
+  Indian peninsula on which they have a political dependency.
+
+
+    The Nearer East.
+
+  The portion of Asia west of British India excluding Arabia and Syria
+  forms another extensive plateau covering an area as large as that of
+  Tibet though at a much lower altitude. Its southern border runs along
+  the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Tigris and thence westward to
+  the north-east angle of the Levant, on the north the high land follows
+  nearly 36 deg. N. to the southern shore of the Caspian and thence to
+  the Black Sea and Sea of Marmora. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran or
+  Persia, Armenia and the provinces of Asia Minor occupy this high
+  region with which they are nearly conterminous. The eastern flank of
+  this table-land follows a line of hills drawn a short distance from
+  the Indus between the mouth of that river and the Himalaya, about on
+  the 72nd meridian, these hills do not generally exceed 4000 or 5000
+  ft. in elevation but a few of the summits reach 10,000 ft. or more.
+  The southern and south western face follows the coast closely up the
+  Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Indus, and is formed farther west
+  by the mountain scarp, which, rising in many points to 10,000 ft.
+  flanks the Tigris and the Mesopotamian plains, and extends along
+  Kurdistan and Armenia nearly to the 40th meridian, beyond which it
+  turns along the Taurus range, and the north eastern angle of the
+  Mediterranean. The north eastern portion of the Afghan table-land
+  abuts on the Himalaya and Tibet, with which it forms a continuous mass
+  of mountain between the 71st and 72nd meridians and 34 deg. and 36
+  deg. N. From the point of intersection of the 71st meridian with the
+  36th parallel of latitude, an unbroken range of mountain stretches on
+  one side towards the north east, up to the crest of the northern slope
+  of the Tibetan plateau, and on the other nearly due west as far as the
+  Caspian. The north eastern portion of this range is of great altitude,
+  and separates the headwaters of the Oxus, which run off to the Aral
+  Sea, from those of the Indus and its Kabul tributary, which, uniting
+  below Peshawar are thence discharged southward into the Arabian Sea.
+  The western part of the range, which received the name of Paropamisus
+  Mons from the ancients, diminishes in height west of the 65th meridian
+  and constitutes the northern face of the Afghan and Persian plateau
+  rising abruptly from the plains of the Turkoman desert which lies
+  between the Oxus and the Caspian. These mountains at some points
+  attain a height of 10,000 or 12,000 ft. Along the south coast of the
+  Caspian this line of elevation is prolonged as the Elburz range (not
+  to be confused with the Elburz of the Caucasus), and has its
+  culminating point in Demavend, which rises to 19,400 ft. above the sea
+  thence it extends to the north west to Ararat, which rises to upwards
+  of 17,000 ft. from the vicinity of which the Euphrates flows off to
+  the south west across the high lands of Armenia. Below the north east
+  declivity of this range lies Georgia, on the other side of which
+  province rises the Caucasus, the boundary of Asia and Europe between
+  the Caspian and Black Seas, the highest points of which reach an
+  elevation of nearly 19,000 ft. West of Ararat high hills extend along
+  the Black Sea between which and the Taurus range lies the plateau of
+  Asia Minor reaching to the Aegean Sea, the mountains along the Black
+  Sea, on which are the Olympus and Ida of the ancients rise to 6000 or
+  7000 ft., the Taurus is more lofty--reaching 8000 and 10,000 ft.--both
+  ranges decline in altitude as they approach the Mediterranean.
+
+  This great plateau extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus has a
+  length of about 2500 m. from east to west, and a breadth of upwards of
+  600 m. on the west and nowhere of less than 250 m. It lies generally
+  at altitudes between 2000 ft. and 8000 ft. above the sea level. Viewed
+  as a whole the eastern half of this region, comprising Persia,
+  Afghanistan and Baluchistan, is poor and unproductive. The climate is
+  very severe in the winter and extremely hot in summer. The rainfall is
+  very scanty, and running waters are hardly known excepting among the
+  mountains which form the scarps of the elevated country. The
+  population is sparse, frequently nomadic, and addicted to plunder,
+  progress in the arts and habits of civilization is small. The western
+  part of the area falls within the Turkish empire. Its climate is less
+  hot and and its natural productiveness much greater and its population
+  more settled and on the whole more advanced.
+
+
+    Arabia.
+
+  The peninsula of Arabia with Syria, its continuation to the
+  north-west, has some of the characteristics of the hottest and driest
+  parts Persia and Baluchistan. Excepting the northern part of this
+  tract which is conterminous with the plain of Mesopotamia (which at
+  its highest point reaches an elevation of about 700 ft. above the sea)
+  the country is covered with low mountains, rising to 3000 or 4000 ft.
+  in altitude having among them narrow valleys in which the vegetation
+  is scanty with exceptional regions of greater fertility in the
+  neighbourhood of the coasts where the rainfall is greatest. In
+  northern Syria the mountains of Lebanon rise to about 10,000 ft. and
+  with a more copious water supply the country becomes more productive.
+  The whole tract, excepting south eastern Arabia is nominally subject
+  to Turkey but the people are to no small extent practically
+  independent living a nomadic pastoral and freebooting life under petty
+  chiefs in the more arid districts, but settled in towns in the more
+  fertile tracts where agriculture becomes more profitable and external
+  commerce is established.
+
+
+    Trans-Caspian region and central Asia.
+
+  The area between the northern border of the Persian high lands and the
+  Caspian and Aral Seas is a nearly desert low lying plain, extending to
+  the foot of the north-western extremity of the great Tibeto-Himalayan
+  mountains and prolonged eastward up the valleys of the Oxus (Amu
+  Darya) and Jaxartes (Syr-Darya), and northward across the country of
+  the Kirghiz to the south western border of Siberia. It includes
+  Bokhara, Khiva and Turkestan proper in which the Uzbeg Turks are
+  dominant, and for the most part is inhabited by nomadic tribes, who
+  are marauders, enjoying the reputation of being the worst among a race
+  of professed robbers. The tribes to the north, subject to Russia, are
+  naturally more peaceable, and have been brought into some degree of
+  discipline. In this tract the rainfall is nowhere sufficient for the
+  purposes of agriculture, which is only possible by help of irrigation,
+  and the fixed population (which contains a non-Turkish element) is
+  comparatively small, and restricted to the towns and the districts
+  near the rivers.
+
+  The north-western extremity of the elevated Tibeto-Himalayan mountain
+  plateau is situated about on 73 deg. E. and 39 deg. N. This region is
+  known as Pamir, it has all the characteristics of the highest regions
+  of Tibet, and so far fitly receives the Russian designation of steppe,
+  but it seems to have no special peculiarities, and the reason of its
+  having been so long regarded as a geographical enigma is not obvious.
+  From it the Oxus, or Amu, flows off to the west, and the Jaxartes, or
+  Syr, to the north, through the Turki state of Khokand, while to the
+  east the waters run down past Kashgar to the central desert of the
+  Gobi, uniting with the streams from the northern slope of the Tibetan
+  plateau that traverse the principalities of Yarkand and Khotan, which
+  are also Turki. Here the Tibetan mountains unite with the line of
+  elevation which stretches across the continent from the Pacific, and
+  which separates Siberia from the region commonly spoken of under the
+  name of central Asia.
+
+
+    Manchuria.
+
+  A range of mountains, called Stanovor, rising to heights of 4000 or
+  5000 ft., follows the southern coast of the eastern extremity of Asia
+  from Kamchatka to the borders of Manchuria, as far as the 135th
+  meridian, in lat. 55 deg. N. Thence the Yablonoi range, continuing in
+  the same direction, divides the waters of the river Lena, which flows
+  through Siberia into the Arctic Sea, from those of the river Amur,
+  which falls into the North Pacific, the basin of this river, with its
+  affluents, constitutes Manchuria. From the north of Manchuria the
+  Khingan range stretches southward to the Chinese frontier near Peking,
+  east of which the drainage falls into the Amur and the Yellow Sea,
+  while to the west is an almost rainless region, the inclination of
+  which is towards the central area of the continent, Mongolia.
+
+
+    Mongolia.
+
+  From the western end of the Yablonoi range, on the 115th meridian, a
+  mountainous belt extends along a somewhat irregular line to the
+  extremity of Pamir, known under various names in its different parts,
+  and broken up into several branches, enclosing among them many
+  isolated drainage areas, from which there is no outflow, and within
+  which numerous lakes are formed. The most important of these ranges is
+  the Tian-shan or Celestial Mountains, which form the northern boundary
+  of the Gobi desert, they lie between 40 deg. and 43 deg. N., and
+  between 75 deg. and 95 deg. E., and some of the summits are said to
+  exceed 20,000 ft. in altitude, along the foot of this range are the
+  principal cultivated districts of central Asia, and here too are
+  situated the few towns which have sprung up in this barren and thinly
+  peopled region. Next may be named the Ala-tau, on the prolongation of
+  the Tian-shan, flanking the Syr on the north, and rising to 14,000 or
+  15,000 ft. It forms the barrier between the Issyk-kul and Balkash
+  lakes, the elevation of which is about 5000 ft. Last is the Altai,
+  near the 50th parallel, rising to 10,000 or 12,000 ft., which
+  separates the waters of the great rivers of western Siberia from those
+  that collect into the lakes of north-west Mongolia, Dzungaria and
+  Kalka. A line of elevation is continued west of the Altai to the Ural
+  Mountains, not rising to considerable altitudes; this divides the
+  drainage of south-west Siberia from the great plains lying north east
+  of the Aral Sea.
+
+  The central area bounded on the north and north-west by the Yablonoi
+  Mountains and their western extension in the Tian-shan, on the south
+  by the northern face of the Tibetan plateau and on the east by the
+  Khingan range before alluded to, forms the great desert of central
+  Asia, known as the Gobi. Its eastern part is nearly conterminous with
+  south Mongolia, its western forms Chinese or eastern Turkestan. It
+  appears likely that no part of this great central Asiatic desert is
+  less than 2000 ft. above the sea level. The elevation of the plain
+  about Kashgar and Yarkand is from 4000 to 6000 ft. The more northern
+  parts of Mongolia are between 4000 and 6000 ft., and no portion of the
+  route across the desert between the Chinese frontier and Kiakhta is
+  below 3000 ft. The precise positions of the mountain ridges that
+  traverse this central area are not properly known, their elevation is
+  everywhere considerable, and many points are known to exceed 10,000 or
+  12,000 ft.
+
+  In Mongolia the population is essentially nomadic, its wealth
+  consisting in herds of horned cattle, sheep, horses and camels. The
+  Turki tribes, occupying western Mongolia, are among the least
+  civilized of human beings, and it is chiefly to their extreme
+  barbarity and cruelty that our ignorance of central Asia is due. The
+  climate is very severe, with great extremes of heat and cold. The
+  drought is very great, rain falls rarely and in small quantities. The
+  surface is for the most part a hard stony desert, areas of blown sand
+  occurring but exceptionally. There are few towns or settled villages,
+  except along the slopes of the higher mountains, on which the rain
+  falls more abundantly, or the melting snow supplies streams for
+  irrigation. It is only in such situations that cultivated lands are
+  found, and beyond them trees are hardly to be seen.
+
+
+    Siberia.
+
+  The portion of Asia which lies between the Arctic Ocean and the
+  mountainous belt bounding Manchuria, Mongolia and Turkestan on the
+  north is Siberia. It includes an immense high and broken plateau which
+  spreads from south-west to north-east, losing in width and altitude as
+  it advances north-east. It is fringed on either side by high border
+  ridges, which subside on the north-west into a stretch of high plains,
+  1500 to 2000 ft. high, finally dropping to lowlands a few hundred feet
+  above sea-level. The extremes of heat and cold are very great. The
+  rainfall, though not heavy, is sufficient to maintain such vegetation
+  as is compatible with the conditions of temperature, and the surface
+  is often swampy or peaty. The mountain-sides are commonly clothed with
+  pine forests, and the plains with grasses or shrubs. The population is
+  very scanty; the cultivated tracts are comparatively small in extent
+  and restricted to the more settled districts. The towns are entirely
+  Russian. The indigenous races are nomadic Mongols, of a peaceful
+  character, but in a very backward state of civilization. The Ural
+  Mountains do not exceed 2000 or 3000 ft. in average altitude, the
+  highest summits not exceeding 6000 ft., and one of the passes being as
+  low as 1400 ft. In the southern half of the range are the chief mining
+  districts of Russia. The Ob, Yenisei and Lena, which traverse Siberia,
+  are among the largest rivers in the world.
+
+
+    Malay Archipelago.
+
+  The southern group of the Malay Archipelago, from Sumatra to Java and
+  Timor, extends in the arc of a circle between 95 deg. and 127 deg. E.,
+  and from 5 deg. to 10 deg. S. The central part of the group is a
+  volcanic region, many of the volcanoes being still active, the summits
+  frequently rising to 10,000 ft. or more.
+
+  Sumatra, the largest of the islands, is but thinly peopled; the
+  greater part of the surface is covered with dense forest, the
+  cultivated area being comparatively small, confined to the low lands,
+  and chiefly in the volcanic region near the centre of the island. Java
+  is the most thickly peopled, best cultivated and most advanced island
+  of the whole Eastern archipelago. It has attained a high degree of
+  wealth and prosperity under the Dutch government. The people are
+  peaceful and industrious, and chiefly occupied with agriculture. The
+  highest of the volcanic peaks rises to 12,000 ft. above the sea. The
+  eastern islands of this group are less productive and less advanced.
+
+  Borneo, the most western and the largest of the northern group of
+  islands which extends between 110 deg. and 150 deg. E., as far as New
+  Guinea or Papua, is but little known. The population is small, rude
+  and uncivilized; and the surface is rough and mountainous and
+  generally covered with forest except near the coast, to the alluvial
+  lands on which settlers have been attracted from various surrounding
+  countries. The highest mountain rises to nearly 14,000 ft., but the
+  ordinary elevations do not exceed 4000 or 5000 ft.
+
+  Of Celebes less is known than of Borneo, which it resembles in
+  condition and natural characteristics. The highest known peaks rise to
+  8000 ft., some of them being volcanic.
+
+
+    Pacific Islands.
+
+  New Guinea extends almost to the same meridian as the eastern coast of
+  Australia, from the north point of which it is separated by Torres
+  Straits. Very little is known of the interior. The mountains are said
+  to rise to 20,000 ft., having the appearance of being permanently
+  covered with snow; the surface seems generally to be clothed with
+  thick wood. The inhabitants are of the Negrito type, with curly or
+  crisp and bushy hair; those of the west coast have come more into
+  communication with the traders of other islands and are fairly
+  civilized. Eastward, many of the tribes are barbarous savages.
+
+  The Philippine Islands lie between 5 deg. and 20 deg. N., between
+  Borneo and southern China. The highest land does not rise to a greater
+  height than 10,250 ft.; the climate is well suited for agriculture,
+  and the islands generally are fertile and fairly cultivated, though
+  not coming up to the standard of Java either in wealth or population.
+
+  Formosa, which is situated under the northern tropic, near the coast
+  of China, is traversed by a high range of mountains, reaching nearly
+  13,000 ft. in elevation. On its western side, which is occupied by an
+  immigrant Chinese population, are open and well-cultivated plains; on
+  the east it is mountainous, and occupied by independent indigenous
+  tribes in a less advanced state.
+
+  The islands of Japan, not including Sakhalin, of which half is
+  Japanese, lie between the 30th and 45th parallels. The whole group is
+  traversed by a line of volcanic mountains, some of which are in
+  activity, the highest point being about 13,000 ft. above the sea. The
+  country is generally well watered, fertile and well cultivated. The
+  Japanese people have added to their ancient civilization and their
+  remarkable artistic faculty, an adaptation of Western methods, and a
+  capacity for progress in war and commerce, which single them out among
+  Eastern races as a great modern world-force.
+
+
+  EXPLORATION
+
+  The progress of geodetic surveys in Russia had long ago extended
+  across the European half of the great empire, St Petersburg being
+  connected with Tiflis on the southern slopes of the Caucasus by a
+  direct system of triangulation carried out with the highest scientific
+  precision. St Petersburg, again, is connected with Greenwich by
+  European systems of triangulation; and the Greenwich meridian is
+  adopted by Russia as the zero for all her longitude values. But beyond
+  the eastern shores of the Caspian no system of direct geodetic
+  measurements by first-class triangulation has been possible, and the
+  surveys of Asiatic Russia are separated from those of Europe by the
+  width of that inland sea. The arid nature of the trans-Caspian deserts
+  has proved an insuperable obstacle to those rigorous methods of
+  geodetic survey which distinguish Russian methods in Europe, so that
+  Russian geography in central Asia is dependent on other means than
+  that of direct measurement for the co-ordinate values in latitude and
+  longitude for any given point. The astronomical observatory at
+  Tashkent is adopted for the initial starting-point of the
+  trans-Caspian triangulation of Russia; the triangulation ranks as
+  second-class only, and now extends to the Pamir frontier beyond Osh.
+  The longitude of the Tashkent observatory has been determined by
+  telegraph differentially with Pulkova as follows:--
+
+                                            H. M.    S.
+    In 1875 via Ekaterinburg and Omsk       2  35  52.151
+    "  1891  "  Saratov       "  Orenburg   2  35  52.228
+    "  1895  "  Kiev          "  Baku       2  35  51.997
+
+  With these three independent values, all falling within a range of
+  0^S.25, it is improbable that the mean value has an error as large as
+  0^S.10.
+
+
+    Extent of exact surveys in Asia.
+
+  Exact surveys in Russia, based upon triangulation, extend as far east
+  as Chinese Turkestan in longitude about 75 deg. E. of Greenwich. In
+  India geodetic triangulation furnishes the basis for exact surveys as
+  far east as the eastern boundaries of Burma in longitude about 100
+  deg. E.
+
+  The close of the 19th century witnessed the forging of the final links
+  in the great geodetic triangulation of India, so far as the peninsula
+  is concerned. Further geodetic connexion with the European systems
+  remains to be accomplished. Since 1890 further and more rigorous
+  application of the telegraphic method of determining longitudes
+  differentially with Greenwich has resulted in a slight correction
+  (amounting to about 2" of arc) to the previous determination by the
+  same method through Suez. This last determination was effected through
+  four arcs as follows:--
+
+      I. Greenwich--Potsdam.
+     II. Potsdam--Teheran.
+    III. Teheran--Bushire.
+     IV. Bushire--Karachi.
+
+  Each arc was measured with every precaution and a multitude of
+  observations. The only element of uncertainty was caused by the
+  retardation of the current, which between Potsdam and Teheran (3000
+  m.) took 0^S.20 to travel; but it is probable that the final value can
+  be accepted as correct to within 0^S.05.
+
+  The final result of this latest determination is to place the Madras
+  observatory 2' 27" to the west of the position adopted for it on the
+  strength of absolute astronomical determinations.
+
+
+    Connexion between Russian and Indian surveys.
+
+  But while we have yet to wait for that expansion of principal
+  triangulation which will bring Asia into connexion with Europe by the
+  direct process of earth measurement, a topographical connexion has
+  been effected between Russian and Indian surveys which sufficiently
+  proves that the deductive methods employed by both countries for the
+  determination of the co-ordinate values of fixed points so far agree
+  that, for all practical purposes of future Asiatic cartography, no
+  difficulty in adjustment between Indian and Russian mapping need be
+  apprehended.
+
+
+    Extension of geographical surveys.
+
+  In connexion with the Indian triangulation minor extensions carried
+  out on systems involving more or less irregularity have been pushed
+  outwards on all sides. They reach through Afghanistan and Baluchistan
+  to the eastern districts of Persia, and along the coast of Makran to
+  that of Arabia. They have long ago included the farther mountain peaks
+  of Nepal, and they now branch outwards towards western China and into
+  Siam. These far extensions furnish the basis for a vast amount of
+  exploratory survey of a strictly geographical character, and they have
+  contributed largely towards raising the standard of accuracy in
+  Asiatic geographical surveys to a level which was deemed unattainable
+  fifty years ago. There is yet a vast field open in Asia for this class
+  of surveys. While at the close of the 19th century western Asia
+  (exclusive of Arabia) may be said to have been freed from all
+  geographical perplexity, China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia still
+  include enormous areas of which geographical knowledge is in a
+  primitive stage of nebulous uncertainty.
+
+
+    Indian explorers.
+
+  Of scientific geographical exploration in Asia (beyond the limits of
+  actual surveys) the modern period has been so prolific that it is only
+  possible to refer in barest outline to some of the principal
+  expeditions, most of which have been directed either to the great
+  elevated table-land of Tibet or to the central depression which exists
+  to the north of it. In southern Tibet the trans-Himalayan explorations
+  of the native surveyors attached to the Indian survey, notably Pundits
+  Nain Singh and Krishna, added largely to our knowledge of the great
+  plateau. Nain Singh explored the sources of the Indus and of the Upper
+  Brahmaputra in the years 1865-1867; and in 1874-1875 he followed a
+  line from the eastern frontiers of Kashmir to the Tengri Nor lake and
+  thence to Lhasa, in which city he remained for some months. Krishna's
+  remarkable journey in 1879-1882 extended from Lhasa northwards through
+  Tsaidam to Sachu, or Saitu, in Mongolia. He subsequently passed
+  through eastern Tibet to the town of Darchendo, or Tachienlu, on the
+  high road between Lhasa and Peking, and on the borders of China.
+  Failing to reach India through Upper Assam he returned to the
+  neighbourhood of Lhasa, and crossed the Himalayas by a more westerly
+  route. Both these explorers visited Lhasa.
+
+
+    Russian explorers.
+
+  In 1871-1873 the great Russian explorer, Nicolai Prjevalsky, crossed
+  the Gobi desert from the north to Kansu in western China. He first
+  defined the geography of Tsaidam, and mapped the hydrography of that
+  remarkable region, from which emanate the great rivers of China, Siam
+  and Burma. He penetrated southwards to within a month's march of
+  Lhasa. In 1876 he visited the Lop Nor and discovered the Altyn Tagh
+  range. In 1879 he followed up the Urangi river to the Altai Mountains,
+  and demonstrated to the world the extraordinary physical changes which
+  have passed over the heart of the Asiatic continent since Jenghiz Khan
+  massed his vast armies in those provinces. He crossed, and named, the
+  Dzungarian extension of the Gobi desert, and then traversed the Gobi
+  itself from Hami to Sachu, which became a point of junction between
+  his journeys and those of Krishna. He visited the sources of the
+  Hwang-ho (Yellow river) and the Salween, and then returned to Russia.
+  His fourth journey in 1883-1885 was to Sining (the great trade centre
+  of the Chinese borderland), and thence through northern Tibet
+  (crossing the Altyn Tagh to Lop Nor), and by the Cherchen-Keriya trade
+  route to Khotan. From Khotan he followed the Tarim to Aksu.
+
+  Following Prjevalsky the Russian explorers, Pevtsov and Roborovski, in
+  1889-1890 (and again in 1894), added greatly to our knowledge of the
+  topography of western Chinese Turkestan and the northern borders of
+  Tibet; all these Russian expeditions being conducted on scientific
+  principles and yielding results of the highest value. Among other
+  distinguished Russian explorers in Asia, the names of Lessar,
+  Annentkov (who bridged the Trans-Caspian deserts by a railway), P.K.
+  Kozlov and Potanin are conspicuous during the 19th century.
+
+
+    Other explorations in central Asia.
+
+  Although the establishment of a lucrative trade between India and
+  central Asia had been the dream of many successive Indian viceroys,
+  and much had been done towards improving the approaches to Simla from
+  the north, very little was really known of the highlands of the
+  Pamirs, or of the regions of the great central depression, before the
+  mission of Sir Douglas Forsyth to Yarkand in 1870. Robert Barkley Shaw
+  and George Hayward were the European pioneers of geography into the
+  central dominion of Kashgar, arriving at Yarkand within a few weeks of
+  each other in 1868. Shaw subsequently accompanied Forsyth's mission in
+  1870, when Henry Trotter made the first maps of Chinese Turkestan. The
+  next great accession to our knowledge of central Asiatic geography was
+  gained with the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886, when
+  Afghan Turkestan and the Oxus regions were mapped by Colonel Sir T.H.
+  Holdich, Colonel St George Gore and Sir Adelbert Talbot; and when Ney
+  Elias crossed from China through the Pamirs and Badakshan to the camp
+  of the commission, identifying the great "Dragon Lake," Rangkul, on
+  his way. About the same time a mission, under Captain (afterwards Sir
+  Willaim) Lockhart, crossed the Hindu Kush into Wakhan, and returned to
+  India by the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This was Colonel
+  Woodthorpe's opportunity, and he was then enabled to verify the
+  results of W.W. M'Nair's previous explorations, and to determine the
+  conformation of the Hindu Kush. In 1885 Arthur Douglas Carey and
+  Andrew Dalgleish, following more or less the tracks of Prjevalsky,
+  contributed much that was new to the map of Asia; and in 1886 Captain
+  (afterwards Sir Francis) Younghusband completed a most adventurous
+  journey across the heart of the continent by crossing the Muztagh, the
+  great mountain barrier between China and Kashmir.
+
+
+    Tibetan explorations.
+
+  It was in 1886-1887 that Pierre G. Bonvalot, accompanied by Prince
+  Henri d'Orleans, crossed the Tibetan plateau from north to south but
+  failed to enter Lhasa. In 1889-1891 the American traveller, W.W.
+  Rockhill, commenced his Tibetan journeys, and also attempted to reach
+  Lhasa, without success. By his writings, as much as by his
+  explorations, Rockhill has made his name great in the annals of
+  Asiatic research. In 1891 Hamilton Bower made his famous journey from
+  Leh to Peking. He, too, failed to penetrate the jealously-guarded
+  portals of Lhasa; but he secured (with the assistance of a native
+  surveyor) a splendid addition to our previous Tibetan mapping. In
+  1891-1892-1893 the gallant French explorer, Dutreuil de Rhins, was in
+  the field of Tibet, where he finally sacrificed his life to his work;
+  and the same years saw George N. (afterwards Lord) Curzon in the
+  Pamirs, and St George Littledale on his first great Tibetan journey,
+  accompanied by his wife. Littledale's first journey ended at Peking;
+  his second, in 1894-1895, took him almost within sight of the sacred
+  walls of Lhasa, but he failed to pass inside. Greatest among modern
+  Asiatic explorers (if we except Prjevalsky) is the brave Swede,
+  Professor Sven Hedin, whose travels through the deserts of Takla Makan
+  and Tibet, and whose investigations in the glacial regions of the
+  Sarikol mountains, occupied him from 1894 to 1896. His is a truly
+  monumental record. From 1896 to 1898 we find two British cavalry
+  officers taking the front position in the list of Tibetan
+  travellers-Captain M.S. Wellby of the 18th Hussars and Captain H.
+  Deasy of the 16th Lancers, each striking out a new line, and rendering
+  most valuable service to geography. The latter continued the Pamir
+  triangulation, which had been carried across the Hindu Kush by
+  Colonels Sir T.H. Holdich and R.A. Wahab during the Pamir Boundary
+  Commission of 1895, into the plains of Kashgar and to the sources of
+  the Zarafshan.
+
+  Since the beginning of the century the work of Deasy in western Tibet
+  has been well extended by Dr M.A. Stein and Captain C. G. Rawling, who
+  have increased our knowledge of ancient fields of industry and
+  commerce in Turkestan and Tibet. Ellsworth Huntington threw new light
+  on the Tian-shan plateau and the Alai range by his explorations of
+  1903; and Sven Hedin, between 1899 and 1902, was collecting material
+  in Turkestan and Tibetan fields, and resumed his journeys in
+  1905-1908, the result being to revolutionize our knowledge of the
+  region north of the upper Tsanpo (see TIBET). The mission of Sir
+  Francis Younghusband to Lhasa in 1904 resulted in an extension of the
+  Indian system of triangulation which finally determined the
+  geographical position of that city, and in a most valuable
+  reconnaissance of the valleys of the Upper Brahmaputra and Indus by
+  Captains C.H.D. Ryder and C.G. Rawling.
+
+
+    Chinese explorations.
+
+  Meanwhile, in the Farther East so rapid has been the progress of
+  geographical research since the first beginnings of investigation into
+  the route connexion between Burma and China in 1874 (when the brave
+  Augustus Margary lost his life), that a gradually increasing tide of
+  exploration, setting from east to west and back again, has culminated
+  in a flood of inquiring experts intent on economic and commercial
+  development in China, essaying to unlock those doors to trade which
+  are hereafter to be propped open for the benefit of humanity. Captain
+  William Gill, of the Indian survey, first made his way across China to
+  eastern Tibet and Burma, and subsequently delighted the world with his
+  story of the _River of Golden Sand_. Then followed another charming
+  writer, E.C. Baber, who, in 1877-1878, unravelled the geographic
+  mysteries of the western provinces of the Celestial empire. Mark Bell
+  crossed the continent in 1887 and illustrated its ancient trade
+  routes, following the steps of Archibald Colquhoun, who wandered from
+  Peking to Talifu in 1881. Meanwhile, the acquisition of Burma and the
+  demarcation of boundaries had opened the way to the extension of
+  geographical surveys in directions hitherto untraversed. Woodthorpe
+  was followed into Burmese fields by many others; and amongst the
+  earliest travellers to those mysterious mountains which hide the
+  sources of the Irrawaddy, the Salween and the Mekong, was Prince Henri
+  d'Orleans. Burma was rapidly brought under survey; Siam was already in
+  the map-making hands of James M'Carthy, whilst Curzon and Warrington
+  Smyth added much to our knowledge of its picturesque coast districts.
+  No more valuable contribution to the illustration of western Chinese
+  configuration has been given to the public than that of C.C. Manifold
+  who explored and mapped the upper basin of the Yang-tsze river between
+  the years 1900 and 1904, whilst our knowledge of the geography of the
+  Russo-Chinese borderland on the north-east has been largely advanced
+  by the operations attending the Russo-Japanese war which terminated in
+  1905.
+
+
+    Indian frontiers--Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia.
+
+  Turning our attention westwards, no advance in the progress of
+  scientific geography is more remarkable than that recorded on the
+  northern and north-western frontiers of India. Here there is little
+  matter of exploration. It has rather been a wide extension of
+  scientific geographical mapping. Afghan war of 1878-80; the
+  Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1885; the occupation of
+  Gilgit and Chitral; the extension of boundaries east and north of
+  Afghanistan, and again, between Baluchistan and Persia--these, added
+  to the opportunities afforded by the systematic survey of Baluchistan
+  which has been steadily progressing since 1880--combined to produce a
+  series of geographical maps which extend from the Oxus to the Indus,
+  and from the Indus to the Euphrates.
+
+  In these professional labours the Indian surveyors have been assisted
+  by such scientific geographers as General Sir A. Houtum Schindler,
+  Captain H.B. Vaughan and Major Percy M. Sykes in Persia, and by Sir
+  George Robertson and Cockerill in Kafiristan and the Hindu Kush.
+
+
+    Arabia.
+
+  In still more western fields of research much additional light has
+  been thrown since 1875 on the physiography of the great deserts and
+  oases of Arabia. The labours of Charles Doughty and Wilfrid S. Blunt
+  in northern Arabia in 1877-1878 were followed by those of G.
+  Schweinfurth and E. Glaser in the south-west about ten years later. In
+  1884-1885 Colonel S.B. Miles made his adventurous journey through
+  Oman, while Theodore Bent threw searchlights backwards into ancient
+  Semitic history by his investigations in the Bahrein Islands in 1888
+  and in Hadramut in 1894-1895.
+
+
+    Northern Asia, Siberia, &c.
+
+  In northern Asia it is impossible to follow in detail the results of
+  the organized Russian surveys. The vast steppes and forest-clad
+  mountain regions of Siberia have assumed a new geographical aspect in
+  the light of these revelations, and already promise a new world of
+  economic resources to Russian enterprise in the near future. A
+  remarkable expedition by Baron Toll in 1892 through the regions
+  watered by the Lena, resulted in the collection of material which
+  will greatly help to elucidate some of the problems which beset the
+  geological history of the world, proving _inter alia_ the primeval
+  existence of a boreal zone of the Jurassic sea round the North Pole.
+
+
+    General results of investigation.
+
+  In no other period of the world's history, of equal length of time,
+  has so much scientific enterprise been directed towards the field of
+  Asiatic inquiry. The first great result of recent geographical
+  research has been to modify pre-existing ideas of the orography of the
+  vast central region represented by Tibet and Mongolia. The great
+  highland plateau which stretches from the Himalaya northwards to
+  Chinese Turkestan, and from the frontier of Kashmir eastwards to
+  China, has now been defined with comparative geographical exactness.
+  The position of Sachu (or Saitu) in Mongolia may be taken as an
+  obligatory point in modern map construction. The longitude value now
+  adopted is 94 deg. 54' E. of Greenwich, which is the revised value
+  given by Prjevalsky in the map accompanying the account of his fourth
+  exploration into central Asia. Other values are as follows:--
+
+    Prjevalsky, by his second and third explorations  94 deg. 26'
+    Krishna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94 deg. 23'
+    Carey and Dalgleish . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94 deg. 48'
+    Littledale  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94 deg. 49'
+    Kreitner (with Szecheny's expedition) . . . . .   94 deg. 58'
+
+  The longitude of Darchendo, or Tachienlu, on the extreme east, may be
+  accepted as another obligatory point. The adopted value by the Royal
+  Geographical Society is 102 deg. 12". Krishna gives 102 deg. 15",
+  Kreitner 102 deg. 5", Baber 102 deg. 18".
+
+  South and west the bounding territories are well fixed in geographical
+  position by the Indian survey determinations of the value of Himalayan
+  peaks. On the north the Chinese Turkestan explorations are now brought
+  into survey connexion with Kashmir and India.
+
+  No longer do we regard the Kuen-lun mountains, which extend from the
+  frontiers of Kashmir, north of Leh, almost due east to the Chinese
+  province of Kansu, as the southern limit of the Gobi or Turkestan
+  depression. This very remarkable longitudinal chain is undoubtedly the
+  northern limit of the Chang Tang, the elevated highland steppes of
+  Tibet; but from it there branches a minor system to the north-east
+  from a point in about 83 deg. E. longitude, which culminates in the
+  Altyn Tagh, and extends eastwards in a continuous water-divide to the
+  Nan Shan mountains, north of the Koko Nor basin. Thus between Tibet
+  and the low-lying sands of Gobi we have, thrust in, a system of
+  elevated valleys (Tsaidam), 8000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, forming
+  an intermediate steppe between the highest regions and the lowest,
+  east of Lop Nor. All this is comparatively new geography, and it goes
+  far to explain why the great trade routes from Peking to the west were
+  pushed so far to the north.
+
+
+    Russo-Chinese boundary.
+
+  On the western edge of the Kashgar plains, the political boundary
+  between Russia and China is defined by the meridional range of
+  Sarikol. This range (known to the ancients as Taurus and in medieval
+  times as Bolor) like many others of the most important great natural
+  mountain divisions of the world, consists of two parallel chains, of
+  which the western is the water-divide of the Pamirs, and the eastern
+  (which has been known as the Kashgar or Kandar range) is split at
+  intervals by lateral gorges to allow of the passage of the main
+  drainage from the eastern Pamir slopes.
+
+
+    Indian frontiers--Afghanistan, &c.
+
+  In western Asia we have learned the exact value of the mountain
+  barrier which lies between Merv and Herat, and have mapped its
+  connexion with the Elburz of Persia. We can now fully appreciate the
+  factor in practical politics which that definite but somewhat
+  irregular mountain system represents which connects the water-divide
+  north of Herat with the southern abutment of the Hindu Kush, near
+  Bamian. Every pass of importance is known and recorded; every route of
+  significance has been explored and mapped; Afghanistan has assumed a
+  new political entity by the demarcation of a boundary; the value of
+  Herat and of the Pamirs as bases of aggression has been assessed, and
+  the whole intervening space of mountain and plain thoroughly examined.
+
+
+    Persia.
+
+  Although within the limits of western Asiatic states, still under
+  Asiatic government and beyond the active influence of European
+  interests, the material progress of the Eastern world has appeared to
+  remain stationary, yet large accessions to geographical knowledge have
+  at least been made, and in some instances a deeper knowledge of the
+  surface of the country and modern conditions of life has led to the
+  straightening of many crooked paths in history, and a better
+  appreciation of the slow processes of advancing civilization. The
+  steady advance of scientific inquiry into every corner of Persia,
+  backed by the unceasing efforts of a new school of geographical
+  explorers, has left nothing unexamined that can be subjected to
+  superficial observation. The geographical map of the country is fairly
+  complete, and with it much detailed information is now accessible
+  regarding the coast and harbours of the Persian Gulf, the routes and
+  passes of the interior, and the possibilities of commercial
+  development by the construction of trade roads uniting the Caspian,
+  the Karun, the Persian Gulf, and India, via Seistan. Persia has
+  assumed a comprehensible position as a factor in future Eastern
+  politics.
+
+
+    Arabia.
+
+  In Arabia progress has been slower, although the surveys carried out
+  by Colonel Wahab in connexion with the boundary determined in the Aden
+  hinterland added more exact geographical knowledge within a limited
+  area. Little more is known of the wide spaces of interior desert than
+  has already been given to the world in the works of Sir Richard F.
+  Burton, Wm. Gifford Palgrave and Sir Lewis Pelly amongst Englishmen,
+  and Karsten Niebuhr, John Lewis Burckhardt, Visconte, Joseph Halevy
+  and others, amongst foreign travellers. Charles Doughty and Wilfrid S.
+  Blunt have visited and illustrated the district of Nejd, and described
+  the waning glories of the Wahabi empire. But extended geographical
+  knowledge does not point to any great practical issue. Commercial
+  relations with Arabia remain much as they were in 1875.
+
+
+    Asia Minor, &c.
+
+  In Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia there is little to record of
+  progress in material development beyond the promises held out by the
+  Euphrates Valley railway concession to a German company. The exact
+  information obtained by the researches of English surveyors in
+  Palestine and beyond Jordan, or by the efforts of explorers in the
+  regions that lie between the Mediterranean and the Caspian, have so
+  far led rather to the elucidation of history than to fresh commercial
+  enterprise or the possible increase of material wealth.
+
+
+    Russia in Asia.
+
+  Asiatic Russia, especially eastern Siberia and Mongolia, have been
+  brought within the sphere of Russian exploration, with results so
+  surprising as to form an epoch in the history of Asia. Here there has
+  been a development of the resources of the Old World which parallels
+  the best records of the New.
+
+
+    Chinese Turkestan and Oxus basin.
+
+  The great central depression of the continent which reaches from the
+  foot of the Pamir plateau on the west through the Tarim desert to Lop
+  Nor and the Gobi has yielded up many interesting secrets. The
+  remarkable phenomenon of the periodic shifting of the Lop Nor system
+  has been revealed by the researches of Sven Hedin, and the former
+  existence of highly civilized centres of Buddhist art and industry in
+  the now sand-strewn wastes of the Turkestan desert has been clearly
+  demonstrated by the same great explorer and by Dr M.A. Stein. The
+  depression westward of the Caspian and Aral basins, and the original
+  connexion of these seas, have also come under the close investigation
+  of Russian scientists, with the result that the theory of an ancient
+  connexion between the Oxus and the Caspian has been displaced by the
+  more recent hypothesis of an extension of the Caspian Sea eastwards
+  into Trans-Caspian territory within the post-Pleiocene age. The
+  discovery of shells (now living in the Caspian) at a distance of about
+  100 m. inland, at an altitude of 140 to 280 ft. above the present
+  level of the Caspian, gives support to this hypothesis, which is
+  further advanced by the ascertained nature of the Kara-kum sands,
+  which appear to be a purely marine formation exhibiting no traces of
+  fluviatile deposits which might be considered as delta deposits of the
+  Oxus.
+
+  In the discussion of this problem we find the names of Baron A.
+  Kaulbars, Annentkov, P.M. Lessar, and A.M. Konshin prominent. Further
+  matter of interest in connexion with the Oxus basin was elucidated by
+  the researches of L. Griesbach in connexion with the Russo-Afghan
+  Boundary Commission. He reported the gradual formation of an
+  anticlinal or ridge extending longitudinally through the great Balkh
+  plain of Afghan Turkestan, which effectually shuts off the northern
+  affluents of that basin from actual junction with the river. This
+  evidence of a gradual process of upheaval still in action may throw
+  some light on the physical (especially the climatic) changes which
+  must have passed over that part of Asia since Balkh was the "mother of
+  cities," the great trade centre of Asia, and the plains of Balkh were
+  green with cultivation. In the restoration of the outlines of ancient
+  and medieval geography in Asia Sven Hedin's discoveries of the actual
+  remains of cities which have long been buried under the advancing
+  waves of sand in the Takla Makan desert, cities which flourished in
+  the comparatively recent period of Buddhist ascendancy in High Asia,
+  is of the very highest interest, filling up a blank in the
+  identification of sites mentioned by early geographers and
+  illustrating more fully the course of old pilgrim routes.
+
+
+    Baluchistan and Makran.
+
+  With the completion of the surveys of Baluchistan and Makran much
+  light has also been thrown on the ancient connexion between east and
+  west; and the final settlement of the southern boundaries of
+  Afghanistan has led to the reopening of one at least of the old trade
+  routes between Seistan and India.
+
+
+    Burma and China.
+
+  Farther east no part of Asia has been brought under more careful
+  investigation than the hydrography of the strange mountain wilderness
+  that divides Tibet and Burma from China. In this field the researches
+  of travellers already mentioned, combined with the more exact
+  reconnaissance of native surveyors and of those exploring parties
+  which have recently been working in the interests of commercial
+  projects, have left little to future inquiry. We know now for certain
+  that the great Tsanpo of Tibet and the Brahmaputra are one and the
+  same river; that north of the point where the great countermarch of
+  that river from east to west is effected are to be found the sources
+  of the Salween, the Mekong, the Yang-tsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho, or
+  Yellow river, in order, from west to east; and that south of it,
+  thrust in between the extreme eastern edge of the Brahmaputra basin
+  and the Salween, rise the dual sources of the Irrawaddy. From the
+  water-divide which separates the most eastern affluent of the
+  Brahmaputra, eastwards to the deep gorges which enclose the most
+  westerly branch of the upper Yang-tsze-kiang (here running from north
+  to south), is a short space of 100 m.; and within that space two
+  mighty rivers, the Salween and the Mekong, send down their torrents to
+  Burma and Siam. These three rivers flow parallel to each other for
+  some 300 m., deep hidden in narrow and precipitous troughs, amidst
+  some of the grandest scenery of Asia; spreading apart where the
+  Yank-tsze takes its course eastwards, not far north of the parallel of
+  25 deg.
+
+  The comparatively restricted area which still remains for close
+  investigation includes the most easterly sources of the Brahmaputra,
+  the most northerly sources of the Irrawaddy, and some 300 m. of the
+  course of the upper Salween.
+
+  _Modern Boundary Demarcation._--The period from about 1880 has been an
+  era of boundary-making in Asia, of defining the politico-geographical
+  limits of empire, and of determining the responsibilities of
+  government. Russia, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, India and China
+  have all revised their borders, and with the revision the political
+  relations between these countries have acquired a new and more assured
+  basis. See also the articles on the different countries. We are not
+  here concerned with understandings as to "spheres of influence," or
+  with arrangements such as the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907
+  concerning Persia.
+
+
+    Southern boundary of Russia in Asia.
+
+  The advance of Russia to the Turkoman deserts and the Oxus demanded a
+  definite boundary between her trans-Caspian conquests and the kingdom
+  of Afghanistan. This was determined on the north-west by the
+  Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886. A boundary was then
+  fixed between the Hari Rud (the river of Herat) and the Oxus, which is
+  almost entirely artificial in its construction. Zulfikar, where the
+  boundary leaves the Hari Rud, is about 70 m. south of Sarakhs, and the
+  most southerly point of the boundary (where it crosses the Kushk) is
+  about 60 m. north of Herat. From the junction of the boundary with the
+  Oxus at Khamiab about 150 m. above the crossing-point of the Russian
+  Trans-Caspian railway at Charjui, the main channel of the Oxus river
+  becomes the northern boundary of Afghanistan, separating that country
+  from Russia, and so continues to its source in Victoria Lake of the
+  Great Pamir. Beyond this point the Anglo-Russian Commission of 1895
+  demarcated a line to the snowfields and glaciers which overlook the
+  Chinese border. Between the Russian Pamirs and Chinese Turkestan the
+  rugged line of the Sarikol range intervenes, the actual dividing line
+  being still indefinite. Beyond Kashgar the southern boundary of
+  Siberia follows an irregular course to the north-east, partly defined
+  by the Tian-shan and Alatau mountains, till it attains a northerly
+  point in about 53 deg. N. lat. marked by the Sayan range to the west
+  of Irkutsk. It then deflects south-east till it touches the Kerulen
+  affluent of the Amur river at a point which is shown in unofficial
+  maps as about 117 deg. 30' E. long, and 49 deg. 20' N. lat. From here
+  it follows this affluent to its junction with the Amur river, and the
+  Amur river to its junction with the Usuri. It follows the Usuri to its
+  head (its direction now being a little west of south), and finally
+  strikes the Pacific coast on about 42 deg. 30' N. lat. at the mouth of
+  the Tumen river 100 m. south of the Amur bay, at the head of which
+  lies the Russian port of Vladivostok. At two points the Russian
+  boundary nearly approaches that of provinces which are directly under
+  British suzerainty. Where the Oxus river takes its great bend to the
+  north from Ishkashim, the breadth of the Afghan territory intervening
+  between that river and the main water-divide of the Hindu Kush is not
+  more than 10 or 12 m.; and east of the Pamir extension of Afghanistan,
+  where the Beyik Pass crosses the Sarikol range and drops into the
+  Taghdumbash Pamir, there is but the narrow width of the Karachukar
+  valley between the Sarikol and the Muztagh. Here, however, the
+  boundary is again undefined. Eastwards of this the great Kashgar
+  depression, which includes the Tarim desert, separates Russia from the
+  vast sterile highlands of Tibet; and a continuous series of desert
+  spaces of low elevation, marking the limits of a primeval inland sea
+  from the Sarikol meridional watershed to the Khingan mountains on the
+  western borders of Manchuria, divide her from the northern provinces
+  of China. From the Khingan ranges to the Pacific, south of the Amur,
+  stretch the rich districts of Manchuria, a province which connects
+  Russia with the Korea by a series of valleys formed by the Sungari and
+  its affluents--a land of hill and plain, forest and swamp, possessing
+  a delightful climate, and vast undeveloped agricultural resources.
+  Throughout this land of promise Russian influence was destroyed by
+  Japan in the war of 1904. The possession of Port Arthur, and direct
+  political control over Korea, place Japan in the dominant position as
+  regards Manchuria.
+
+
+    Afghan political boundaries.
+
+  Coincident with the demarcation of Russian boundaries in Turkestan was
+  that of northern Afghanistan. From the Hari Rud on the west to the
+  Sarikol mountains on the east her northern limits were set by the
+  Boundary Commissions of 1884-1886 and of 1895 respectively. Her
+  southern and eastern boundaries were further defined by a series of
+  minor commissions, working on the basis of the Kabul agreement of
+  1893, which lasted for nearly four years, terminating with the Mohmand
+  settlement at the close of an expedition in 1897.
+
+  The Pamir extension of Afghan territory to the north-east reaches to a
+  point a little short of 75 deg. E., from whence it follows the
+  water-divide to the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, and is
+  thenceforward defined by the water-parting of the Hindu Kush. It
+  leaves the Hindu Kush near the Dorah Pass at the head of one of the
+  minor Chitral affluents, and passing south-west divides Kafiristan
+  from Chitral and Bajour, separates the sections of the Mohmands who
+  are within the respective spheres of Afghan and British sovereignty,
+  and crosses the Peshawar-Kabul route at Lundi-Khana. It thus places a
+  broad width of independent territory between the boundaries of British
+  India (which have remained practically, though not absolutely,
+  untouched) and Afghanistan; and this independent belt includes Swat,
+  Bajour and a part of the Mohmand territory north of the Kabul river.
+  The same principle of maintaining an intervening width of neutral
+  territory between the two countries is definitely established
+  throughout the eastern borders of Afghanistan, along the full length
+  of which a definite boundary has been demarcated to the point where it
+  touches the northern limits of Baluchistan on the Gomal river. From
+  the Gomal Baluchistan itself becomes an intervening state between
+  British India and Afghanistan, and the dividing line between
+  Baluchistan and Afghanistan is laid down with all the precision
+  employed on the more northerly sections of the demarcation.
+
+
+    Baluchistan.
+
+  Baluchistan can no longer be regarded as a distinct entity amongst
+  Asiatic nations, such as Afghanistan undoubtedly is. Baluchistan
+  independence demands qualification. There is British Baluchistan _par
+  excellence_, and there is the rest of Baluchistan which exists in
+  various degrees of independence, but is everywhere subject to British
+  control. British Baluchistan officially includes the districts of
+  Peshin, Sibi and of Thal-Chotiali. As these districts had originally
+  been Afghan, they were transferred to British authority by the treaty
+  of Gandamak in 1879, although nominally they had been handed over to
+  Kalat forty years previously. Now they form an official province of
+  British Baluchistan within the Baluchistan Agency; and the agency
+  extends from the Gomal to the Arabian Sea and the Persian frontier.
+  Within this agency there are districts as independent as any in
+  Afghanistan, but the political status of the province as a whole is
+  almost precisely that of the native states of the Indian peninsula.
+  The agent to the governor-general of India, with a staff of political
+  assistants, practically exercises supreme control.
+
+
+    Kirman.
+
+  The increase of Russian influence on the northern Persian border and
+  its extension southwards towards Seistan led to the appointment of a
+  British consul at Kirman, the dominating town of southern Khorasan,
+  directly connected with Meshed on the north; and the acquisition of
+  rights of administration of the Nushki district secured to Great
+  Britain the trade between Seistan and Quetta by the new Helmund desert
+  route.
+
+
+    Boundary between French territory and India.
+
+  While British India has so far avoided actual geographical contact
+  with one great European power in Asia on the north and west, she has
+  touched another on the east. The Mekong river which limits British
+  interests in Burma limits also those of France in Tongking. The
+  eastern boundaries of Burma are not yet fully demarcated on the
+  Chinese frontier. At a point level in latitude with Mogaung, near the
+  northern termination of the Burmese railway system, this boundary is
+  defined by the eastern watershed of the Nmaikha, the eastern of the
+  two great northern affluents of the Irrawaddy. Then it follows an
+  irregular course southwards to a position south-east of Bhamo in lat.
+  24 deg. It next defines the northern edge of the Shan States, and
+  finally strikes the Mekong river in lat. 21 deg. 45' (approximately).
+  From that point southwards the river becomes the boundary between the
+  Shan States and Tongking for some 200 m., the channel of the river
+  defining the limits of occupation (though not entirely of interest)
+  between French and British subjects. Approximately on the parallel of
+  20 deg. N. lat. the Burmese boundary leaves the Mekong to run
+  westwards towards the Salween, and thereafter following the eastern
+  watershed of the Salween basin it divides the Lower Burma provinces
+  from Siam.
+
+
+    Area and political division.
+
+  The following table shows the areas of territories in Asia
+  (continental and insular) dependent on the various extra-Asiatic
+  powers, and of those which are independent or nominally so:--
+
+     Territory.                        Sq. m.
+    Russian . . . . . . . . . . . .  6,495,970
+    British . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,998,220
+    Dutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  586,980
+    French  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  247,580
+    U.S.A.  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  114,370
+    German  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  193
+    Turkish . . . . . . . . . . . . .  681,980
+    Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . .  4,299,600
+    Japanese  . . . . . . . . . . . .  161,110
+    Other independent territories .  2,232,270
+
+  The total area of Asia, continental and insular, is therefore somewhat
+  over 16,819,000 sq. m. (but various authorities differ considerably in
+  their detailed estimates). The population may be set down roughly as
+  823,000,000, of which 330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory,
+  302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000 Russian.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+  [Illustration: Geological map of Asia]
+
+
+  GEOLOGY
+
+  The geology of Asia is so complex and over wide areas so little known
+  that it is difficult to give a connected account of either the
+  structure or the development of the continent, and only the broader
+  features can be dealt with here.
+
+  In the south, in Syria, Arabia and the peninsula of India, none but
+  the oldest rocks are folded, and the Upper Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic
+  and the Tertiary beds lie almost horizontally upon them. It is a
+  region of quiescence or of faulting, but not of folding. North of this
+  lies a broad belt in which the Mesozoic deposits and even the lower
+  divisions of the Tertiary system are thrown into folds which extend in
+  a series of arcs from west to east and now form the principal mountain
+  ranges of central Asia. This belt includes Asia Minor, Persia,
+  Afghanistan, Baluchistan, the Himalayas, the Tian-shan, and, although
+  they are very different in direction, the Burmese ranges. The
+  Kuen-lun, Nan-shan and the mountain ranges of southern China are,
+  perhaps, of earlier date, but nevertheless they be in the same belt.
+  It is not true that throughout the whole width of this zone the beds
+  are folded. There are considerable tracts which are but little
+  disturbed, but these tracts are enclosed within the arcs formed by the
+  folds, and the zone taken as a whole is distinctly one of crumpling.
+  North of the folded belt, and including the greater part of Siberia,
+  Mongolia and northern China, lies another area which is, in general,
+  free from any important folding of Mesozoic or Tertiary age. There
+  are, it is true, mountain ranges which are formed of folded beds; but
+  in many cases the direction of the chains is different from that of
+  the folds, so that the ranges must owe their elevation to other
+  causes; and the folds, moreover, are of ancient date, for the most
+  part Archaean or Palaeozoic. The configuration of the region is
+  largely due to faulting, trough-like or tray-like depressions being
+  formed, and the intervening strips, which have not been depressed,
+  standing up as mountain ridges. Over a large part of Siberia and in
+  the north of China, even the Cambrian beds still lie as horizontally
+  as they were first laid down. In the extreme north, in the Verkhoyansk
+  range and in the mountains of the Taimyr peninsula, there are
+  indications of another zone of folding of Mesozoic or later date, but
+  our information concerning these ranges is very scanty. Besides the
+  three chief regions into which the mainland is thus seen to be
+  divided, attention should be drawn to the festoons of islands which
+  border the eastern side of the continent, and which are undoubtedly
+  due to causes similar to those which produced the folds of the folded
+  belt.
+
+  Of all the Asiatic ranges the Himalayan is, geologically, the best
+  known; and the evidence which it affords shows clearly that the folds
+  to which it owes its elevation were produced by an overthrust from
+  the north. It is, indeed, as if the high land of central Asia had been
+  pushed southward against and over the unyielding mass formed by the
+  old rocks of the Indian peninsula, and in the process the edges of the
+  over-riding strata had been crumpled and folded. Overlooking all
+  smaller details, we may consider Asia to consist of a northern mass
+  and a southern mass, too rigid to crumple, but not too strong to
+  fracture, and an intermediate belt of softer rock which was capable of
+  folding. If then by the contraction of the earth's interior the outer
+  crust were forced to accommodate itself to a smaller nucleus, the
+  central softer belt would yield by crumpling, the more rigid masses to
+  the north and south, if they gave way at all, would yield by faulting.
+  It is interesting to observe, as will be shown later, that during the
+  Mesozoic era there was a land mass in the north of Asia and another in
+  the south, and between them lay the sea in which ordinary marine
+  sediments were deposited. The belt of folding does not precisely
+  coincide with this central sea, but the correspondence is fairly
+  close.
+
+  The present outline of the eastern coast and the nearly enclosed seas
+  which lie between the islands and the mainland, are attributed by
+  Richthofen chiefly to simple faulting.
+
+  Little is known of the early geological history of Asia beyond the
+  fact that a large part of the continent was covered by the sea during
+  the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. But there is positive evidence
+  that much of the north and east of Asia has been land since the
+  Palaeozoic era, and it has been conclusively proved that the peninsula
+  of India has never been beneath the sea since the Carboniferous period
+  at least. Between these ancient land masses lies an area in which
+  marine deposits of Mesozoic age are well developed and which was
+  evidently beneath the sea during the greater part of the Mesozoic era.
+  The northern land mass has been named Angaraland by E. Suess; the
+  southern, of which the Indian peninsula is but a fragment, is called
+  Gondwanaland by Neumayr, Suess and others, while the intervening sea
+  is the central Mediterranean sea of Neumayr and the Tethys of Suess.
+  The greater part of western Asia, including the basin of the Obi, the
+  drainage area of the Aral Sea, together with Afghanistan, Baluchistan,
+  Persia and Arabia, was covered by the sea during the later stages of
+  the Cretaceous period, but a considerable part of this region was
+  probably dry land in Jurassic times.
+
+  The northern land mass begins in the north with the area which lies
+  between the Yenisei and the Lena. Here the folded Archean rocks are
+  overlaid by Cambrian and Ordovician beds, which still lie for the most
+  part flat and undisturbed. Upon these rest patches of freshwater
+  deposits containing numerous remains of plants. They consist chiefly
+  of sandstone and conglomerate, but include workable seams of coal.
+  Some of the deposits appear to be of Permian age, but others are
+  probably Jurassic, and they are all included under the general name of
+  the Angara series. Excepting in the extreme north, where marine
+  Jurassic and Cretaceous fossils have been found, there is no evidence
+  that this part of Siberia has been beneath the sea since the early
+  part of the Palaeozoic era. Besides the plant beds extensive outflows
+  of basic lava rest directly upon the Cambrian and Ordovician strata.
+  The date of these eruptions is still uncertain, but they probably
+  continued to a very recent period.
+
+  South and east of the Palaeozoic plateau is an extensive area
+  consisting chiefly of Archean rocks, and including the greater part of
+  Mongolia north of the Tian-shan. Here again there are no marine beds
+  of Mesozoic or Tertiary age, while plant-bearing deposits belonging to
+  the Angara series are known. Structurally, the folds of this region
+  are of ancient date, but the area is crossed by a series of
+  depressions formed by faults, and the intervening strips, which have
+  not been depressed to the same extent, now stand up as mountain
+  ranges. Farther south, in the Chinese provinces of Shansi and Shensi,
+  the geological succession is similar in some respects to that of the
+  Siberian Palaeozoic plateau, but the sequence is more complete. There
+  is again a floor of folded Archean rocks overlaid by nearly horizontal
+  strata of Lower Palaeozoic age, but these are followed by marine beds
+  belonging to the Carboniferous period. From the Upper Carboniferous
+  onward, however, no marine deposits are known; and, as in Siberia,
+  plant bearing beds are met with. Southern China is very different in
+  structure, consisting largely of folded mountain chains; but the
+  geological succession is very similar, and excepting near the Tibetan
+  and Burmese borders, there are no marine deposits of Mesozoic or
+  Tertiary age.
+
+  Thus it appears that from the Arctic Ocean there stretches a broad
+  area as far as the south of China, in which no marine deposits of
+  later date than Carboniferous have yet been found, except in the
+  extreme north. Freshwater and terrestrial deposits of Mesozoic age
+  occur in many places, and the conclusion is irresistible that the
+  greater part of this area has been land since the close of the
+  Palaeozoic era. The Triassic deposits of the Verkhoyansk Range show
+  that this land did not extend to the Bering Sea, while the marine
+  Mesozoic deposits of Japan on the east, the western Tian-shan on the
+  west and Tibet on the south give us some idea of its limits in other
+  directions.
+
+  In the same way the entire absence of any marine fossils in the
+  peninsula of India, excepting near its borders, and the presence of
+  the terrestrial and freshwater deposits of the Gondwana series,
+  representing the whole of the geological scale from the top of the
+  Carboniferous to the top of the Jurassic, show that this region also
+  has been land since the Carboniferous period. It was a portion of a
+  great land mass which probably extended across the Indian Ocean and
+  was at one time united with the south of Africa.
+
+  But these two land masses were not connected. Between India and China
+  there is a broad belt in which marine deposits of Mesozoic and
+  Tertiary age are well developed. Marine Tertiary beds occur in Burma;
+  in the Himalayas and in south Tibet there is a nearly complete series
+  of marine deposits from the Carboniferous to the Eocene; in
+  Afghanistan the Mesozoic beds are in part marine and in part
+  fluviatile. The sea in which these strata were deposited seems to have
+  attained its greatest extension in Upper Cretaceous times when its
+  waters spread over the whole of western Asia and even encroached
+  slightly upon the Indian land. The Eocene sea however cannot have been
+  much inferior in extent.
+
+  It was after the Eocene period that the main part of the elevation of
+  the Himalayas took place, as is shown by the occurrence of nummulitic
+  limestone at a height of 20,000 ft. The formation of this and of the
+  other great mountain chains of central Asia resulted in the isolation
+  of portions of the former central sea, and the same forces finally led
+  to the elevation of the whole region and the union of the old
+  continents of Angara and Gondwana. Gondwanaland, however, did not long
+  survive, and the portion which lay between India and South Africa sank
+  beneath the waves in Tertiary times.
+
+  Leaving out of consideration all evidence of more ancient volcanic
+  activity, each of the three regions into which, as we have seen, the
+  continent may be divided has been, during or since the Cretaceous
+  period, the seat of great volcanic eruptions. In the southern region
+  of unfolded beds are found the lavas of the "harras" of Arabia, and in
+  India the extensive flows of the Deccan Trap. In the central folded
+  belt lie the great volcanoes, now mostly extinct, of Asia Minor,
+  Armenia, Persia and Baluchistan. In Burma also there is at least one
+  extinct volcano. In the northern unfolded region great flows of basic
+  lava lie directly upon the Cambrian and Ordovician beds of Siberia,
+  but are certainly in part of Tertiary age. Similar flows on a smaller
+  scale occur in Manchuria, Korea and northern China.
+
+  In all these cases, however, the eruptions have now almost ceased, and
+  the great volcanoes of the present day lie in the islands off the
+  eastern and south eastern coasts.
+
+  REFERENCES--E. Suess, _Das Antlitz der Erde_ (see, especially, vol.
+  iii. part 1.); F.V. Richthofen, "Ueber Gestalt und Gliederung einer
+  Grundlinie in der Morphologie Ost-Asiens," _Sitz. k. preuss. Akad.
+  Wiss._ (Berlin, 1900), pp. 888-925, and Geomorphologische Studien aus
+  Ostasien, _ibid._, 1901, pp. 782-808, 1902, pp. 944-975, 1903, pp.
+  867-918.     (P. La.)
+
+
+  CLIMATE.
+
+    Temperature.
+
+  Among the places on the globe where the temperature falls lowest are
+  some in northern Asia; and among those where it rises highest are some
+  in southern Asia. The mean temperature of the north coast of eastern
+  Siberia is but a few degrees above the zero of Fahrenheit; the lowest
+  mean temperature anywhere observed is about 4 deg. Fahr., at Melville
+  Island, north of the American continent. The isothermals of mean
+  annual temperature lie over northern Asia on curves tolerably regular
+  in their outline, having their western branches in a somewhat higher
+  latitude than their eastern; a reduction of 1 deg. of latitude
+  corresponds approximately--and irrespective of modifications due to
+  elevation--to a rise of 1/2 deg. Fahr., as far say as 30 deg. N, where
+  the mean temperature is about 75 deg. Fahr. Farther south the increase
+  is slower, and the highest mean temperature anywhere attained in
+  southern Asia is not much above 82 deg. Fahr.
+
+  The variations of temperature are very great in Siberia, amounting
+  near the coast to more than 100 deg. Fahr., between the mean of the
+  hottest and coldest months, and to still more between the extreme
+  temperatures of those months. In southern Asia, and particularly near
+  the sea, the variation between the hottest and coldest monthly means
+  is very much less, and under the equator it is reduced to about 5 deg.
+  In Siberia the difference between the means of the hottest and coldest
+  months is hardly anywhere less than 60 deg. Fahr. On the Sea of Aral
+  it is 80 deg. Fahr., and at Astrakhan, on the Caspian, more than 50
+  deg. At Tiflis it is 45 deg. In northern China, at Peking, it is 55
+  deg., reduced to 30 deg. at Canton, and to 20 deg. at Manila. In
+  northern India the greatest difference does not exceed 40 deg., and it
+  falls off to about 15 deg. at Calcutta and to about 10 deg. or 12 deg.
+  at Bombay and Madras. The temperatures at the head of the Persian Gulf
+  approximate to those of northern India, and those of Aden to Madras.
+  At Singapore the range is less than 5 deg., and at Batavia in Java,
+  and Galle in Ceylon, it is about the same. The extreme temperatures in
+  Siberia may be considered to lie between 80 deg. and 90 deg. Fahr. for
+  maxima, and between -40 deg. and -70 deg. Fahr. for minima. The
+  extreme of heat near the Caspian and Aral Seas rises to nearly 100
+  deg. Fahr., while that of cold falls to -20 deg. Fahr. or lower.
+  Compared with these figures, we find in southern Asia 110 deg. or 112
+  deg. Fahr. as a maximum hardly ever exceeded. The absolute minimum in
+  northern India, in lat. 30 deg., hardly goes below 32 deg.; at
+  Calcutta it is about 40 deg., though the thermometer seldom falls to
+  50 deg. At Madras it rarely falls as low as 65 deg., or at Bombay
+  below 60 deg. At Singapore and Batavia the thermometer very rarely
+  falls below 70 deg., or rises above 90 deg. At Aden the minimum is a
+  few degrees below 70 deg., the maximum not much exceeding 90 deg.
+
+  These figures sufficiently indicate the main characteristics of the
+  air temperatures of Asia. Throughout its northern portion the winter
+  is long and of extreme severity; and even down to the circle of 35
+  deg. N. lat., the minimum temperature is almost as low as zero of
+  Fahrenheit. The summers are hot, though short in the northern
+  latitudes, the maximum of summer heat being comparatively little less
+  than that observed in the tropical countries farther south. The
+  moderating effect of the proximity of the ocean is felt in an
+  important degree along the southern and eastern parts of Asia, where
+  the land is broken up into islands or peninsulas. The great elevations
+  above the sea-level of the central part of Asia, and of the
+  table-lands of Afghanistan and Persia, tend to exaggerate the winter
+  cold; while the sterility of the surface, due to the small rainfall
+  over the same region, operates powerfully in the opposite direction in
+  increasing the summer heat. In the summer a great accumulation of
+  solar heat takes place on the dry surface soil, from which it cannot
+  be released upwards by evaporation, as might be the case were the soil
+  moist or covered with vegetation, nor can it be readily conveyed away
+  downwards as happens on the ocean. In the winter similar consequences
+  ensue, in a negative direction, from the prolonged loss of heat by
+  radiation in the long and clear nights--an effect which is intensified
+  wherever the surface is covered with snow, or the air little charged
+  with vapour. In illustration of the very slow diffusion of heat in the
+  solid crust of the earth, and as affording a further indication of the
+  climate of northern Asia, reference may here be made to the frozen
+  soil of Siberia, in the vicinity of Yakutsk. In this region the earth
+  is frozen permanently to a depth of more than 380 ft. at which the
+  temperature is still 5 deg. or 6 deg. Fahr. below the freezing point
+  of water, the summer heat merely thawing the surface to a depth of
+  about 3 ft. At a depth of 50 ft. the temperature is about 15 Fahr.
+  below the freezing point. Under such conditions of the soil, the land,
+  nevertheless, produces crops of wheat and other grain from fifteen to
+  forty fold.
+
+  The very high summer temperatures of the area north of the tropic of
+  Cancer are sufficiently accounted for, when compared with those
+  observed south of the tropic, by the increased length of the day in
+  the higher latitude, which more than compensates for the loss of heat
+  due to the smaller mid-day altitude of the sun. The difference between
+  the heating power of the sun's rays at noon on the 21st of June, in
+  latitude 20 deg. and in latitude 45 deg., is only about 2%; while the
+  accumulated heat received during the day, which is lengthened to
+  15-1/2 hours in the higher latitude, is greater by about 11% than in
+  the lower latitude, where the day consists only of 13-1/4 hours.
+
+  Although the foregoing account of the temperatures of Asia supplies
+  the main outline of the observed phenomena, a very important modifying
+  cause, of which more will be said hereafter, comes into operation over
+  the whole of the tropical region, namely, the periodical summer rains.
+  These tend very greatly to arrest the increase of the summer heat over
+  the area where they prevail, and otherwise give it altogether peculiar
+  characteristics.
+
+
+    Pressure and Winds.
+
+  The great summer heat, by expanding the air upwards, disturbs the
+  level of the planes of equal pressure, and causes an outflow of the
+  upper strata from the heated area. The winter cold produces an effect
+  of just an opposite nature, and causes an accumulation of air over the
+  cold area. The diminution of barometric pressure which takes place all
+  over Asia during the summer months, and the increase in the winter,
+  are hence, no doubt, the results of the alternate heating and cooling
+  of the air over the continent.
+
+  The necessary and immediate results of such periodical changes of
+  pressure are winds, which, speaking generally, blow from the area of
+  greatest to that of least pressure--subject, however, to certain
+  modifications of direction, arising from the absolute motion of the
+  whole body of the air due to the revolution of the earth on its axis
+  from west to east. The south-westerly winds which prevail north of the
+  equator during the hot half of the year, to which navigators have
+  given the name of the south-west monsoon (the latter word being a
+  corruption of the Indian name for season), arise from the great
+  diminution of atmospheric pressure over Asia, which begins to be
+  strongly marked with the great rise of temperature in April and May,
+  and the simultaneous relatively higher pressure over the equator and
+  the regions south of it. This diminution of pressure, which continues
+  as the heat increases till it reaches its maximum in July soon after
+  the solstice, is followed by the corresponding development of the
+  south-west monsoon; and as the barometric pressure is gradually
+  restored, and becomes equalized within the tropics soon after the
+  equinox in October, with the general fall of temperature north of the
+  equator, the south-west winds fall off, and are succeeded by a
+  north-east monsoon, which is developed during the winter months by the
+  relatively greater atmospheric pressure which then occurs over Asia,
+  as compared with the equatorial region.
+
+  Although the succession of the periodical winds follows the progress
+  of the seasons as just described, the changes in the wind's direction
+  everywhere take place under the operation of special local influences
+  which often disguise the more general law, and make it difficult to
+  trace. Thus the south-west monsoon begins in the Arabian Sea with west
+  and north-westerly winds, which draw round as the year advances to
+  south-west and fall back again in the autumn by north-west to north.
+  In the Bay of Bengal the strength of the south-west monsoon is rather
+  from the south and south-east, being succeeded by north-east winds
+  after October, which give place to northerly and north-westerly winds
+  as the year advances. Among the islands of the Malay Archipelago the
+  force of the monsoons is much interrupted, and the position of this
+  region on the equator otherwise modifies the directions of the
+  prevailing winds. The southerly summer winds of the Asiatic seas
+  between the equator and the tropic do not extend to the coasts of
+  Java, and the south-easterly trade winds are there developed in the
+  usual manner. The China Sea is fully exposed to both monsoons, the
+  normal directions of which nearly coincide with the centre of the
+  channel between the continent of Asia and the eastern islands.
+
+  The south-west monsoon does not generally extend, in its character of
+  a south-west wind, over the land. The current of air flowing in from
+  over the sea is gradually diverted towards the area of least pressure,
+  and at the same time is dissipated and loses much of its original
+  force. The winds which pass northward over India blow as
+  south-easterly and easterly winds over the north-eastern part of the
+  Gangetic plain, and as south winds up the Indus. They seem almost
+  entirely to have exhausted their northward velocity by the time they
+  have reached the northern extremity of the great Indian plain; they
+  are not felt on the table-lands of Afghanistan, and hardly penetrate
+  into the Indus basin or the ranges of the Himalaya, by which
+  mountains, and those which branch off from them into the Malay
+  peninsula, they are prevented from continuing their progress in the
+  direction originally imparted to them.
+
+  Among the more remarkable phenomena of the hotter seas of Asia must be
+  noticed the revolving storms or cyclones, which are of frequent
+  occurrence in the hot months in the Indian Ocean and China Sea, in
+  which last they are known under the name of typhoon. The cyclones of
+  the Bay of Bengal appear to originate over the Andaman and Nicobar
+  islands, and are commonly propagated in a north-westward direction,
+  striking the east coast of the Indian peninsula at various points, and
+  then often advancing with an easterly tendency over the land, and
+  passing with extreme violence across the delta of the Ganges. They
+  occur in all the hot months, from June to October, and more rarely in
+  November, and appear to be originated by adverse currents from the
+  north meeting those of the south-west monsoon. The cyclones of the
+  China Sea also occur in the hot months of the year, but they advance
+  from north-east to south-west, though occasionally from east to west;
+  they originate near the island of Formosa, and extend to about the
+  10th degree of N. lat. They are thus developed in nearly the same
+  latitudes and in the same months as those of the Indian Sea, though
+  their progress is in a different direction. In both cases, however,
+  the storms appear to advance towards the area of greatest heat. In
+  these storms the wind invariably circulates from north by west through
+  south to east.
+
+
+    Rainfall.
+
+  The heated body of air carried from the Indian Ocean over southern
+  Asia by the south-west monsoon comes up highly charged with watery
+  vapour, and hence in a condition to release a large body of water as
+  rain upon the land, whenever it is brought into circumstances which
+  reduce its temperature in a notable degree. Such a reduction of
+  temperature is brought about along the greater part of the coasts of
+  India and of the Burmo-Siamese peninsula by the interruption of the
+  wind current by continuous ranges of mountains, which force the mass
+  of air to rise over them, whereby the air being rarefied, its specific
+  capacity for heat is increased and its temperature falls, with a
+  corresponding condensation of the vapour originally held in
+  suspension.
+
+  This explanation of the principal efficient cause of the summer rains
+  of south Asia is immediately based on an analysis of the complicated
+  phenomena actually observed, and it serves to account for many
+  apparent anomalies. The heaviest falls of rain occur along lines of
+  mountain of some extent directly facing the vapour-bearing winds, as
+  on the Western Ghats of India and the west coast of the Malay
+  peninsula. The same results are found along the mountains at a
+  distance from the sea, the heaviest rainfall known to occur anywhere
+  in the world (not less than 600 in. in the year) being recorded on the
+  Khasi range about 100 m. north-east of Calcutta, which presents an
+  abrupt front to the progress of the moist winds flowing up from the
+  Bay of Bengal. The cessation of the rains on the southern border of
+  Baluchistan, west of Karachi, obviously arises from the projection of
+  the south-east coast of Arabia, which limits the breadth of the
+  south-west monsoon air current and the length of the coast-line
+  directly exposed to it. The very small and irregular rainfall in Sind
+  and along the Indus is to be accounted for by the want of any obstacle
+  in the path of the vapour-bearing winds, which, therefore, carry the
+  uncondensed rain up to the Punjab, where it falls on the outer ranges
+  of the western Himalaya and of Afghanistan.
+
+  The diurnal mountain winds are very strongly marked on the Himalaya,
+  where they probably are the most active agents in determining the
+  precipitation of rain along the chain--the monsoon currents, as before
+  stated, not penetrating among the mountains. The formation of dense
+  banks of cloud in the afternoon, when the up wind is strongest, along
+  the southern face of the snowy ranges of the Himalaya, is a regular
+  daily phenomenon during the hotter months of the year, and heavy rain,
+  accompanied by electrical discharges, is the frequent result of such
+  condensation.
+
+  Too little is known of the greater part of Asia to admit of any more
+  being said with reference to this part of the subject, than to
+  mention a few facts bearing on the rainfall. In northern Asia there
+  is a generally equal rainfall of 19 to 29 in. between the Volga and
+  the Lena in Manchuria and northern China, rather more considerable
+  increase in Korea, Siam and Japan. At Tiflis the yearly fall is 22
+  in.; on the Caspian about 7 or 8 in.; on the Sea of Aral 5 or 6 in. In
+  south-western Siberia it is 12 or 14 in., diminishing as we proceed
+  eastward to 6 or 7 in. at Barnaul, and to 5 or 6 in. at Urga in
+  northern Mongolia. In eastern Siberia it is about 15 to 20 in. In
+  China we find about 23 in. to be the fall at Peking; while at Canton,
+  which lies nearly on the northern tropic and the region of the
+  south-west monsoon is entered, the quantity is increased to 78 in. At
+  Batavia in Java the fall is about 78 in.; at Singapore it is nearly
+  100 in. The quantity increases considerably on that part of the coast
+  of the Malay peninsula which is not sheltered from the south-west by
+  Sumatra. On the Tenasserim and Burmese coast falls of more than 200
+  in. are registered, and the quantity is here nowhere less than 75 or
+  80 in., which is about the average of the eastern part of the delta of
+  the Ganges, Calcutta standing at about 64 in. On the hills that flank
+  Bengal on the east the fall is very great. On the Khasi hills, at an
+  elevation of about 4500 ft., the average of ten years is more than 550
+  in. As much as 150 in. has been measured in one month, and 610 in. in
+  one year. On the west coast of the Indian peninsula the fall at the
+  sea-level varies from about 75 to 100 in., and at certain elevations
+  on the mountains more than 250 in. is commonly registered, with
+  intermediate quantities at intervening localities. On the east coast
+  the fall is far less, nowhere rising to 50 in., and towards the
+  southern apex of the peninsula being reduced to 25 or 30 in. Ceylon
+  shows from 60 to 80 in. As we recede from the coast the fall
+  diminishes, till it is reduced to about 25 or 30 in. at the head of
+  the Gangetic plain. The tract along the Indus to within 60 or 80 m. of
+  the Himalaya is almost rainless, 6 or 8 in. being the fall in the
+  southern portion of the Punjab. On the outer ranges of the Himalaya
+  the yearly fall amounts to about 200 in. on the east in Sikkim, and
+  gradually diminishes on the west, where north of the Punjab it is
+  about 70 or 80 in. In the interior of the chain the rain is far less,
+  and the quantity of precipitation is so small in Tibet that it can be
+  hardly measured. It is to the greatly reduced fall of snow on the
+  northern faces of the highest ranges of the Himalaya that is to be
+  attributed the higher level of the snow-line, a phenomenon which was
+  long a cause of discussion.
+
+  In Afghanistan, Persia, Asia Minor and Syria, winter and spring appear
+  to be the chief seasons of condensation. In other parts of Asia the
+  principal part of the rain falls between May and September, that is,
+  in the hottest half of the year. In the islands under the equator the
+  heaviest fall is between October and February.     (R. S.)
+
+
+  FLORA AND FAUNA
+
+  The general assemblage of animals and plants found over northern Asia
+  resembles greatly that found in the parts of Europe which are adjacent
+  and have a similar climate. Siberia, north of the 50th parallel, has a
+  climate not much differing from a similarly situated portion of
+  Europe, though the winters are more severe and the summers hotter. The
+  rainfall, though moderate, is still sufficient to maintain the supply
+  of water in the great rivers that traverse the country to the Arctic
+  Sea, and to support an abundant vegetation. A similar affinity exists
+  between the life of the southern parts of Europe and that in the zone
+  of Asia extending from the Mediterranean across to the Himalaya and
+  northern China. This belt, which embraces Asia Minor, northern Persia,
+  Afghanistan, and the southern slopes of the Himalaya, from its
+  elevation has a temperate climate, and throughout it the rainfall is
+  sufficient to maintain a vigorous vegetation, while the summers,
+  though hot. and the winters, though severe, are not extreme. The
+  plants and animals along it are found to have a marked similarity of
+  character to those of south Europe, with which region the zone is
+  virtually continuous.
+
+  The extremely dry and hot tracts which constitute an almost unbroken
+  desert from Arabia, through south Persia and Baluchistan, to Sind, are
+  characterized by considerable uniformity in the types of life, which
+  closely approach to those of the neighbouring hot and dry regions of
+  Africa. The region of the heavy periodical summer rains and high
+  temperature, which comprises India, the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and
+  southern China, as well as the western part of the Malay Archipelago,
+  is also marked by much similarity in the plants and animals throughout
+  its extent. The area between the southern border of Siberia and the
+  margin of the temperate alpine zone of the Himalaya and north China,
+  comprising what are commonly called central Asia, Turkestan, Mongolia
+  and western Manchuria, is an almost rainless region, having winters of
+  extreme severity and summers of intense heat. Its animals and plants
+  have a special character suited to the peculiar climatal conditions,
+  more closely allied to those of the adjacent northern Siberian tract
+  than of the other bordering regions. The south-eastern parts of the
+  Malay Archipelago have much in common with the Australian continent,
+  to which they adjoin, though their affinities are chiefly Indian.
+  North China and Japan also have many forms of life in common. Much
+  still remains to be done in the exploration of China and eastern Asia;
+  but it is known that many of the special forms of this region extend
+  to the Himalaya, while others clearly indicate a connexion with North
+  America.
+
+  The foregoing brief review of the principal territorial divisions
+  according to which the forms of life are distributed in Asia,
+  indicates how close is the dependence of this distribution on climatic
+  conditions, and this will be made more apparent by a somewhat fuller
+  account of the main features of the flora and fauna.
+
+
+    Northern Asia.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora of the whole of northern Asia is in essentials the
+  same as that of northern Europe, the differences being due rather to
+  variations of species than of genera. The absence of the oak and of
+  all heaths east of the Ural may be noticed. Pines, larch, birch are
+  the principal trees on the mountains; willow, alders and poplars on
+  the lower ground. The northern limit of the pine in Siberia is about
+  70 deg. N.
+
+  Along the warm temperate zone, from the Mediterranean to the Himalaya,
+  extends a flora essentially European in character. Many European
+  species reach the central Himalaya, though few are known in its
+  eastern parts. The genera common to the Himalaya and Europe are much
+  more abundant, and extend throughout the chain, and to all elevations.
+  There is also a corresponding diffusion of Japanese and Chinese forms
+  along this zone, these being most numerous in the eastern Himalaya,
+  and less frequent in the west.
+
+  The truly tropical flora of the hotter and wetter regions of eastern
+  India is continuous with that of the Malayan peninsula and islands,
+  and extends along the lower ranges of the Himalaya, gradually becoming
+  less marked and rising to lower elevations as we go westward, where
+  the rainfall diminishes and the winter cold increases.
+
+  The vegetation of the higher and therefore cooler and less rainy
+  ranges of the Himalaya has greater uniformity of character along the
+  whole chain, and a closer general approach to European forms is
+  maintained; an increased number of species is actually identical,
+  among these being found, at the greatest elevations, many alpine
+  plants believed to be identical with species of the north Arctic
+  regions. On reaching the Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness
+  the flora assumes many features of the Siberian type. Many true
+  Siberian species are found, and more Siberian genera. Some of the
+  Siberian forms, thus brought into proximity with the Indian flora,
+  extend to the rainy parts of the mountains, and even to the plains of
+  upper India. Assemblages of marine plants form another remarkable
+  feature of Tibet, these being frequently met with growing at
+  elevations of 14,000 to 15,000 ft. above the sea, more especially in
+  the vicinity of the many salt lakes of those regions.
+
+  The vegetation of the hot and dry region of the south-west of the
+  continent consists largely of plants which are diffused over Africa,
+  Baluchistan and Sind; many of these extend into the hotter parts of
+  India, and not a few common Egyptian plants are to be met with in the
+  Indian peninsula.
+
+
+    Indian region.
+
+  The whole number of species of plants indigenous in the region of
+  south-eastern Asia, which includes India and the Malayan peninsula and
+  islands, from about the 65th to the 105th meridian, was estimated by
+  Sir J.D. Hooker at 12,000 to 15,000. The principal orders, arranged
+  according to their numerical importance, are as follows:--Leguminosae,
+  Rubiaceae, Orchidaceae, Compositae, Gramineae, Euphorbiaceae,
+  Acanthaceae, Cyperaceae and Labiatae. But within this region there is
+  a very great variation between the vegetation of the more humid and
+  the more arid regions, while the characteristics of the flora on the
+  higher mountain ranges differ wholly from those of the plains. In
+  short, we have a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of tropical,
+  temperate and alpine plants, as has been already briefly indicated, of
+  which, however, the tropical are so far dominant as to give their
+  character to the flora viewed as a whole. The Indian flora contains a
+  more general and complete illustration of almost all the chief natural
+  families of all parts of the world than any other country. Compositae
+  are comparatively rare; so also Gramineae and Cyperaceae are in some
+  places deficient, and Labiatae, Leguminosae and ferns in others.
+  Euphorbiaceae and Scrophulariaceae and Orchidaceae are universally
+  present, the last in specially large proportions.
+
+  The perennially humid regions of the Malayan peninsula and western
+  portion of the archipelago are everywhere covered with dense forest,
+  rendered difficult to traverse by the thorny cane, a palm of the genus
+  _Calamus_, which has its greatest development in this part of Asia.
+  The chief trees belong to the orders of Terebinthaceae, Sapindaceae,
+  Meliaceae, Clusiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Ternstroemiaceae,
+  Leguminosae, laurels, oaks and figs, with Dilleniaceae, Sapotaceae and
+  nutmegs. Bamboos and palms, with _Pandanus_ and _Dracaena_, are also
+  abundant. A similar forest flora extends along the mountains of
+  eastern India to the Himalaya, where it ascends to elevations varying
+  from 6000 to 7000 ft. on the east to 3000 or 4000 ft. on the west.
+
+  The arboreous forms which least require the humid and equable heat of
+  the more truly tropical and equatorial climates, and are best able to
+  resist the high temperatures and excessive drought of the northern
+  Indian hot months from April to June, are certain Leguminosae,.
+  _Bauhinia, Acacia, Butea_ and _Dalbergia, Bombax, Skorea, Nauclea,
+  Lagerstroemia_, and _Bignonia_, a few bamboos and palms, with others
+  which extend far beyond the tropic, and give a tropical aspect to the
+  forest to the extreme northern border of the Indian plain.
+
+  Of the herbaceous vegetation of the more rainy regions may be noted
+  the Orchidaceae, Orontiaceae, Scitamineae, with ferns and other
+  Cryptogams, besides Gramineae and Cyperaceae. Among these some forms,
+  as among the trees, extend much beyond the tropic and ascend into the
+  temperate zones on the mountains, of which may be mentioned _Begonia,
+  Osbeckia_, various Cyrtandraceae, Scitamineae, and a few epiphytical
+  orchids.
+
+  Of the orders most largely developed in south India, and more
+  sparingly elsewhere, may be named Aurantiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
+  Balsaminaceae, Ebenaceae, Jasmineae, and Cyrtandraceae; but of these
+  few contain as many as 100 peculiar Indian species. _Nepenthes_ may be
+  mentioned as a genus specially developed in the Malayan area, and
+  extending from New Caledonia to Madagascar; it is found as far north
+  as the Khasi hills, and in Ceylon, but does not appear on the Himalaya
+  or in the peninsula of India. The Balsaminaceae may be named as being
+  rare in the eastern region and very abundant in the peninsula. A
+  distinct connexion between the flora of the peninsula and Ceylon and
+  that of eastern tropical Africa is observable not only in the great
+  similarity of many of the more truly tropical forms, and the identity
+  of families and genera found in both regions, but in a more remarkable
+  manner in the likeness of the mountain flora of this part of Africa to
+  that of the peninsula, in which several species occur believed to be
+  identical with Abyssinian forms. This connexion is further established
+  by the absence from both areas of oaks, conifers and cycads, which, as
+  regards the first two families, is a remarkable feature of the flora
+  of the peninsula and Ceylon, as the mountains rise to elevations in
+  which both of them are abundant to the north and east. With these
+  facts it has to be noticed that many of the principal forms of the
+  eastern flora are absent or comparatively rare in the peninsula and
+  Ceylon.
+
+  The general physiognomy of the Indian flora is mainly determined by
+  the conditions of humidity of climate. The impenetrable shady forests
+  of the Malay peninsula and eastern Bengal, of the west coast of the
+  Indian peninsula, and of Ceylon, offer a strong contrast to the more
+  loosely-timbered districts of the drier regions of central India and
+  the north-western Himalaya. The forest areas of India include the
+  dense vegetation and luxuriant growth of the Tarai jungles at the foot
+  of the eastern Himalaya, and wide stretches of loosely-timbered
+  country which are a prevailing feature in the Central Provinces and
+  parts of Madras. Where the lowlands are highly cultivated they are
+  adorned with planted wood, and where they are cut off from rain they
+  are nearly completely desert.
+
+  The higher mountains rise abruptly from the plains; on their slopes,
+  clothed below almost exclusively with the more tropical forms, a
+  vegetation of a warm temperate character, chiefly evergreen, soon
+  begins to prevail, comprising Magnoliaceae, Ternstroemiaccae,
+  subtropical Rosaceae, rhododendron, oak, _Ilex, Symplocos_, Lauraceae,
+  _Pinus longifolia_, with mountain forms of truly tropical orders,
+  palms, _Pandanus, Musa, Vitis, Vernonia_, and many others. On the east
+  the vegetation of the Himalaya is most abundant and varied. The forest
+  extends, with great luxuriance, to an elevation of 12,000 ft., above
+  which the sub-alpine region may be said to begin, in which
+  rhododendron scrub often covers the ground up to 13,000 or 14,000 ft.
+  Only one pine is found below 8000 ft., above which several other
+  Coniferae occur. Plantains, tree-ferns, bamboos, several _Calami_, and
+  other palms, and _Pandanus_, are abundant at the lower levels. Between
+  4000 and 8000 ft. epiphytal orchids are very frequent, and reach even
+  to 10,000 ft. Vegetation ascends on the drier and less snowy mountain
+  slopes of Tibet to above 18,000 ft. On the west, with the drier
+  climate, the forest is less luxuriant and dense, and the hill-sides
+  and the valleys better cultivated. The warm mountain slopes are
+  covered with _Pinus longifolia_, or with oaks and rhododendron, and
+  the forest is not commonly dense below 8000 ft., excepting in some of
+  the more secluded valleys at a low elevation. From 8000 to 12,000 ft.,
+  a thick forest of deciduous trees is almost universal, above which a
+  sub-alpine region is reached, and vegetation as on the east continues
+  up to 18,000 ft. or more. The more tropical forms of the east, such as
+  the tree-ferns, do not reach west of Nepal. The cedar or deodar is
+  hardly indigenous east of the sources of the Ganges, and at about the
+  same point the forms of the west begin to be more abundant, increasing
+  in number as we advance towards Afghanistan.
+
+  The cultivated plants of the Indian region include wheat, barley, rice
+  and maize; various millets, _Sorghum, Penicillaria, Panicum_ and
+  _Eleusine_; many pulses, peas and beans; mustard and rape; ginger and
+  turmeric; pepper and capsicum; several Cucurbitaceae; tobacco,
+  _Sesamum_, poppy, _Crotolaria_ and _Cannabis_; cotton, indigo and
+  sugar; coffee and tea; oranges, lemons of many sorts; pomegranate,
+  mango, figs, peaches, vines and plantains. The more common palms are
+  _Cocos, Phoenix_ and _Borassus_, supplying cocoa-nut and toddy. Indian
+  agriculture combines the harvests of the tropical and temperate zones.
+  North of the tropic the winter cold is sufficient to admit of the
+  cultivation of almost all the cereals and vegetables of Europe, wheat
+  being sown in November and reaped early in April. In this same region
+  the summer heat and rain provide a thoroughly tropical climate, in
+  which rice and other tropical cereals are freely raised, being as a
+  rule sown early in July and reaped in September or October. In
+  southern India, and the other parts of Asia and of the islands having
+  a similar climate, the difference of the winter and summer half-years
+  is not sufficient to admit of the proper cultivation of wheat or
+  barley. The other cereals may be seen occasionally, where artificial
+  irrigation is practised, in all stages of progress at all seasons of
+  the year, though the operations of agriculture are, as a general rule,
+  limited to the rainy months, when alone is the requisite supply of
+  water commonly forthcoming.
+
+  The trees of India producing economically useful timber are
+  comparatively few, owing to the want of durability of the wood, in the
+  extremely hot and moist climate. The teak, _Tectona grandis_, supplies
+  the finest timber. It is found in greatest perfection in the forests
+  of the west coasts of Burma and the Indian peninsula, where the
+  rainfall is heaviest, growing to a height of 100 or 150 ft., mixed
+  with other trees and bamboos. The sal, _Shorea robusta_, a very
+  durable wood, is most abundant along the skirts of the Himalaya from
+  Assam to the Punjab, and is found in central India, to which the teak
+  also extends. The sal grows to a large size, and is more gregarious
+  than the teak. Of other useful woods found in the plains may be named
+  the babool, _Acacia_; toon, _Cedrela_; and sissoo, _Dalbergia_. The
+  only timber in ordinary use obtained from the Himalaya proper is the
+  deodar, _Cedrus deodara_. Besides these are the sandalwood,
+  _Santalum_, of southern India, and many sorts of bamboo found in all
+  parts of the country. The cinchona has recently been introduced with
+  complete success; and the mahogany of America reaches a large size,
+  and gives promise of being grown for use as timber.
+
+
+    Western Asia.
+
+  The flora of the rainless region of south-western Asia is continuous
+  with the desert flora of northern and eastern Africa, and extends from
+  the coast of Senegal to the meridian of 75 deg. E., or from the great
+  African desert to the border of the rainless tract along the Indus and
+  the southern parts of the Punjab. It includes the peninsula of Arabia,
+  the shores of the Persian Gulf, south Persia, and Afghanistan and
+  Baluchistan. On the west its limit is in the Cape Verde Islands, and
+  it is partially represented in Abyssinia.
+
+  The more common plants in the most characteristic part of this region
+  in southern Arabia are Capparidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and a few
+  Leguminosae, a _Reseda_ and _Dipterygium_; palms, Polygonaceae, ferns,
+  and other cryptogams, are rare. The number of families relative to the
+  area is very small, and the number of genera and species equally
+  restricted, in very many cases a single species being the only
+  representative of an order. The aspect of the vegetation is very
+  peculiar, and is commonly determined by the predominance of some four
+  or five species, the rest being either local or sparingly scattered
+  over the area. The absence of the ordinary bright green colours of
+  vegetation is another peculiarity of this flora, almost all the plants
+  having glaucous or whitened stems. Foliage is reduced to a minimum,
+  the moisture of the plant being stored up in massive or fleshy stems
+  against the long-continued drought. Aridity has favoured the
+  production of spines as a defence from external attack, sharp thorns
+  are frequent, and asperities of various sorts predominate. Many
+  species produce gums and resins, their stems being encrusted with the
+  exudations, and pungency and aromatic odour is an almost universal
+  quality of the plants of desert regions.
+
+  The cultivated plants of Arabia are much the same as those of northern
+  India--wheat, barley, and the common _Sorghum_, with dates and lemons,
+  cotton and indigo. To these must be added coffee, which is restricted
+  to the slopes of the western hills. Among the more mountainous regions
+  of the south-western part of Arabia, known as Arabia Felix, the
+  summits of which rise to 6000 or 7000 ft., the rainfall is sufficient
+  to develop a more luxuriant vegetation, and the valleys have a flora
+  like that of similarly situated parts of southern Persia, and the less
+  elevated parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, partaking of the
+  characters of that of the hotter Mediterranean region. In these
+  countries aromatic shrubs are abundant. Trees are rare, and almost
+  restricted to _Pistacia, Celtis_ and _Dodonaea_, with poplars, and the
+  date palm. Prickly forms of _Statice_ and _Astragalus_ cover the dry
+  hills. In the spring there is an abundant herbaceous vegetation,
+  including many bulbous plants, with genera, if not species, identical
+  with those of the Syrian region, some of which extend to the Himalaya.
+
+  The flora of the northern part of Afghanistan approximates to that of
+  the contiguous western Himalaya. _Quercus Ilex_, the evergreen oak of
+  southern Europe, is found in forests as far east as the Sutlej,
+  accompanied with other European forms. In the higher parts of
+  Afghanistan and Persia Boraginaceae and thistles abound; gigantic
+  Umbelliferae, such as _Ferula, Galbanum, Dorema, Bubon, Peucedanum,
+  Prangos_, and others, also characterize the same districts, and some
+  of them extend into Tibet.
+
+  The flora of Asia Minor and northern Persia differs but little from
+  that of the southern parts of Europe. The mountains are clothed, where
+  the fall of rain is abundant, with forests of _Quercus, Fagus, Ulmus,
+  Acer, Carpinus_ and _Corylus_, and various Coniferae. Of these the
+  only genus that is not found on the Himalaya is _Fagus_. Fruit trees
+  of the plum tribe abound. The cultivated plants are those of southern
+  Europe.
+
+
+    Eastern Asia.
+
+  The vegetation of the Malayan Islands is for the most part that of the
+  wetter and hotter region of India; but the greater uniformity of the
+  temperature and humidity leads to the predominance of certain tropical
+  forms not so conspicuous in India, while the proximity of the
+  Australian continent has permitted the partial diffusion of Australian
+  types which are not seen in India. The liquidambar and nutmeg may be
+  noticed among the former, the first is one of the most conspicuous
+  trees in java, on the mountains of the eastern part of which the
+  casuarina, one of the characteristic forms of Australia, is also
+  abundant. Rhododendrons occur in Borneo and Sumatra, descending to the
+  level of the sea. On the mountains of Java there appears to be no
+  truly alpine flora, _Saxifraga_ is not found. In Borneo some of the
+  temperate forms of Australia appear on the higher mountains. On the
+  other islands similar characteristics are to be observed, Australian
+  genera extending to the Philippines, and even to southern China.
+
+  The analysis of the Hong Kong flora indicates that about three-fifths
+  of the species are common to the Indian region, and nearly all the
+  remainder are either Chinese or local forms. The number of species
+  common to southern China, Japan and northern Asia is small. The
+  cultivated plants of China are, with a few exceptions, the same as
+  those of India South China, therefore seems, botanically hardly
+  distinct from the great Indian region, into which many Chinese forms
+  penetrate, as before noticed. The flora of north China, which is akin
+  to that of Japan, shows manifest relation to that of the neighbouring
+  American continent, from which many temperate forms extend, reaching
+  to the Himalaya, almost as far as Kashmir. Very little is known of the
+  plants of the interior of northern China, but it seems probable that a
+  complete botanical connexion is established between it and the
+  temperate region of the Himalaya.
+
+
+    Central Asia.
+
+  The vegetation of the dry region of central Asia is remarkable for the
+  great relative number of Chenopodiaceae, _Salicornia_ and other salt
+  plants being common; Polygonaceae also are abundant, leafless forms
+  being of frequent occurrence, which gives the vegetation a very
+  remarkable aspect. Peculiar forms of Leguminosae also prevail, and
+  these with many of the other plants of the southern and drier regions
+  of Siberia, or of the colder regions of the desert tracts of Persia
+  and Afghanistan, extend into Tibet, where the extreme drought and the
+  hot (nearly vertical) sun combine to produce a summer climate not
+  greatly differing from that of the plains of central Asia.
+
+
+    Zoological Regions.
+
+  _Fauna._--The zoological provinces of Asia correspond very closely
+  with the botanical. The northern portion of Asia, as far south as the
+  Himalaya, is not zoologically distinct from Europe, and these two
+  areas, with the strip of Africa north of the Atlas, constitute the
+  Palaearctic region of Dr. Sclater, whose zoological primary divisions
+  of the earth have met with the general approval of naturalists. The
+  south-eastern portion of Asia with the adjacent islands of Sumatra,
+  Java, Borneo and the Philippines, form his Indian region. The extreme
+  south-west part of the continent constitutes a separate zoological
+  district, comprising Arabia, Palestine and southern Persia, and
+  reaching, like the hot desert botanical tract, to Baluchistan and
+  Sind, it belongs to what Dr. Sclater calls the Ethiopian region, which
+  extends over Africa, south of the Atlas. Celebes, Papua, and the other
+  islands east of Java beyond Wallace's line fall within the Australian
+  region.
+
+
+    Mammals and birds.
+
+  Nearly all the mammals of Europe also occur in northern Asia, where
+  however, the Palaearctic fauna is enriched by numerous additional
+  species. The characteristic groups belong mostly to forms which are
+  restricted to cold and temperate regions. Consequently the Quadrumana,
+  or monkeys, are nearly unrepresented, a single species occurring in
+  Japan, and one or two others in northern China and Tibet.
+  Insectivorous bats are numerous, but the frugivorous division of this
+  order is only represented by a single species in Japan. Carnivora are
+  also numerous, particularly the frequenters of cold climates, such as
+  bears, weasels, wolves and foxes. Of the Insectivora, numerous forms
+  of moles, shrews and hedgehogs prevail. The Rodents are also well
+  represented by various squirrels, mice, and hares. Characteristic
+  forms ot this order in northern Asia are the marmots (_Arctomys_) and
+  the pikas or tailless hares (_Lagomys_). The great order of Ungulata
+  is represented by various forms of sheep, as many as ten or twelve
+  wild species of _Ovis_ being met with in the mountain chains of Asia,
+  and more sparingly by several peculiar forms of antelope, such as the
+  saiga (_Saiga tatarica_) and the _Gazella gutturosa_, or yellow sheep.
+  Coming to the deer, we also meet with characteristic forms in northern
+  Asia, especially those belonging to the typical genus _Cervus_. The
+  musk deer (_Moschus_) is also quite restricted to northern Asia, and
+  is one of its most peculiar types.
+
+  The ornithology ot northern Asia is even more closely allied to that
+  of Europe than the mammal fauna. Nearly three fourths of the
+  well-known species of Europe extend through Siberia into the islands
+  of the Japanese empire. Here again, we have an absence of all tropical
+  forms, and a great development of groups characteristic of cold and
+  temperate regions. One of the most peculiar of these is the genus
+  _Phasianus_, of which splendid birds all the species are restricted in
+  their wild state to northern Asia. The still more magnificently clad
+  gold pheasants (_Thaumalea_), and the eared pheasants (_Crossoptilon_)
+  are also confined to certain districts in the mountains of north
+  eastern Asia. Amongst the _Passeres_, such forms as the larks, stone
+  chats, finches, linnets, and grosbeaks are well developed and exhibit
+  many species.
+
+  The mammal fauna of the Indian region of Asia is much more highly
+  developed than that of the Palaearctic. The Quadrumana are represented
+  by several peculiar genera, amongst which are _Semnopithecus_,
+  _Hylobates_ and _Simia_. Two peculiar forms of the Lemurine group are
+  also met with. Both the insectivorous and frugivorous divisions of the
+  bats are well represented. Amongst the Insectivora very peculiar forms
+  are found, such as _Gymnura_ and _Tupaia_. The _Carnivora_ are
+  likewise numerous, and this region may be considered as the true home
+  of the tiger, though this animal has wandered far north into the
+  Palaearctic division of Asia. Other characteristic Carnivora are
+  civets, various ichneumons, and the benturong (_Arctictis_). Two
+  species of bears are likewise restricted to the Indian region. In the
+  order of Rodents squirrels are very numerous and porcupines of two
+  genera are met with. The Indian region is the home of the Indian
+  elephant--one of the two sole remaining representatives of the order
+  Proboscidea. Of the Ungulates, four species of rhinoceros and one of
+  tapir are met with, besides several peculiar forms of the swine
+  family. The Bovidae or hollow-horned ruminants, are represented by
+  several genera of antelopes, and by species of true _Bos_--such as _B.
+  sondaicus_, _B. frontalis_ and _B. bubalus_. Deer are likewise
+  numerous, and the peculiar group of chevrotains (_Tragulus_) is
+  characteristic of the Indian region. Finally, this region affords us
+  representatives of the order Edentata, in the shape of several species
+  of _Manis_, or scaly ant-eater.
+
+  The assemblage of birds of the Indian region is one of the richest and
+  most varied in the world, being surpassed only by that of tropical
+  America. Nearly every order, except that of the Struthiones or
+  ostriches, is well represented, and there are many peculiar genera not
+  found elsewhere, such as _Buceros_, _Harpactes_, _Lophophorus_,
+  _Euplocamus_, _Pajo_ and _Ceriornis_. The _Phasianidae_ (exclusive of
+  true _Phasianus_) are highly characteristic ot this region, as are
+  likewise certain genera of barbets (_Megalaema_), parrots
+  (_Palaeornis_), and crows (_Dendrocitta_, _Urocissa_ and _Cissa_). The
+  family _Eurylaemidae_ is entirely confined to this part of Asia.
+
+  The Ethiopian fauna plays but a subordinate part in Asia, intruding
+  only into the south-western corner, and occupying the desert districts
+  of Arabia and Syria, although some of the characteristic species reach
+  still farther into Persia and Sind, and even into western India. The
+  lion and the hunting leopard, which may be considered as in this epoch
+  at least, Ethiopian types extend thus far, besides various species of
+  jerboa and other desert-loving forms.
+
+  In the birds, the Ethiopian type is shown by the prevalence of larks
+  and stone chats, and by the complete absence of the many peculiar
+  genera of the Indian region.
+
+  The occurrence of mammals of the Marsupial order in the Molucca
+  Islands and Celebes, while none have been found in the adjacent
+  islands of Java and Borneo, lying on the west of Wallace's line, or in
+  the Indian region, shows that the margin of the Australian region has
+  here been reached. The same conclusion is indicated by the absence
+  from the Moluccas and Celebes of various other Mammals, Quadrumana,
+  Carnivora, Insectivora and Ruminants, which abound in the western part
+  of the Archipelago. Deer do not extend into New Guinea, in which
+  island the genus _Sus_ appears to have its eastern limit. A peculiar
+  form of baboon, _Cynopithecus_, and the singular ruminant, _Anoa_,
+  found in Celebes, seem to have no relation to Asiatic animals, and
+  rather to be allied to those in Africa.
+
+  The birds of these islands present similar peculiarities. Those of the
+  Indian region abruptly disappear at, and many Australian forms reach
+  but do not pass, the line above spoken of. Species of birds akin to
+  those of Africa also occur in Celebes.
+
+  Of the marine orders of Sirenia and Cetacea the Dugong, _Halicore_, is
+  exclusively found in the Indian Ocean and a dolphin, _Platanista_,
+  peculiar to the Ganges, ascends that river to a great distance from
+  the sea.
+
+
+    Fishes.
+
+  Of the sea fishes of Asia, among the Acanthopterygii, or spiny-rayed
+  fishes, the _Percidae_, or perches, are largely represented, the genus
+  _Serranus_, which has only one species in Europe, is very numerous in
+  Asia, and the forms are very large. Other allied genera are abundant
+  and extend from the Indian seas to eastern Africa. The Squamipennes,
+  or scaly-finned fishes, are principally found in the seas of southern
+  Asia, and especially near coral reefs. The _Mullidae_ or red mullets
+  are largely represented by genera differing from those of Europe. The
+  _Polynemidae_, which range from the Atlantic through the Indian Ocean
+  to the Pacific, supply animals from which isinglass is prepared; one
+  of them, the mango fish, esteemed a great delicacy, inhabits the seas
+  from the Bay of Bengal to Siam. The _Sciaenidae_ extend from the Bay
+  of Bengal to China, but are not known to the westward. The
+  _Stromateidae_, or pomfrets, resemble the dory, a Mediterranean form,
+  and extend to China and the Pacific. The sword fishes _Xiphidae_, the
+  lancet fishes, _Acanthuridae_, and the scabbard fishes, _Trichuridae_,
+  are distributed through the seas of south Asia. Mackerels of various
+  genera abound, as well as gobies, blenniesm and mullets.
+
+  Among the Anacanthim, the cod family so well known in Europe shows but
+  one or two species in the seas of south Asia, though the soles and
+  allied fishes are numerous along the coasts. Of the Physostomi, the
+  siluroids are abundant in the estuaries and muddy waters; the habits
+  of some of these fishes are remarkable, such as that of the males
+  carrying the ova in their mouths till the young are hatched. The small
+  family of _Scopelidae_ affords the gelatinous _Harpodon_, or bumalo.
+  The gar-fish and flying fishes are numerous, extending into the seas
+  of Europe. The _Clupeidae_ or herrings, are most abundant, and
+  anchovies, or sardines, are found in shoals, but at irregular and
+  uncertain intervals. The marine eels, _Muraenidae_, are more numerous
+  towards the Malay Archipelago than in the Indian seas. Forms of
+  sea-horses (_Hippocampus_), pipe-fishes (_Syngnathus_), fife-fishes
+  (_Sclerodermus_), and sun-fish, globe-fish, and other allied forms of
+  _Gymnodontes_, are not uncommon.
+
+  Of the cartilaginous fishes, Chondropterygii, the true sharks and
+  hammer-headed sharks, are numerous. The dog-fish also is found, one
+  species extending from the Indian seas to the Cape of Good Hope. The
+  saw-fishes, _Pristidae_, the electrical rays, _Torpedinae_, and
+  ordinary rays and skates, are also found in considerable numbers.
+
+  The fresh waters of southern Asia are deficient in the typical forms
+  of the Acanthopterygii, and are chiefly inhabited by carp, siluroids,
+  simple or spined eels, and the walking and climbing fishes. The
+  _Siluridae_ attain their chief development in tropical regions. Only
+  one _Silurus_ is found in Europe, and the same species extends to
+  southern Asia and Africa. The _Salmonidae_ are entirely absent from
+  the waters of southern Asia, though they exist in the rivers that flow
+  into the Arctic Ocean and the neighbouring parts of the northern
+  Pacific, extending perhaps to Formosa; and trout, though unknown in
+  Indian rivers, are found beyond the watershed of the Indus, in the
+  streams flowing into the Caspian. The _Cyprinidae_, or carp, are
+  largely represented in southern Asia, and there grow to a size unknown
+  in Europe; a _Barbus_ in the Tigris has been taken of the weight of
+  300 lb. The chief development of this family, both as to size and
+  number of forms, is in the mountain regions with a temperate climate;
+  the smaller species are found in the hotter regions and in the
+  low-lying rivers. Of the _Clupeidae_, or herrings, numerous forms
+  occur in Asiatic waters, ascending the rivers many hundred miles; one
+  of the best-known of Indian fishes, the hilsa, is of this family. The
+  sturgeons, which abound in the Black Sea and Caspian, and ascend the
+  rivers that fall into them, are also found in Asiatic Russia, and an
+  allied form extends to southern China. The walking or climbing fishes,
+  which are peculiar to south-eastern Asia and Africa, are organized so
+  as to be able to breathe when out of the water, and they are thus
+  fitted to exist under conditions which would be fatal to other fishes,
+  being suited to live in the regions of periodical drought and rain in
+  which they are found.
+
+
+    Insects.
+
+  The insects of all southern Asia, including India south of the
+  Himalaya, China, Siam and the Malayan Islands, belong to one group;
+  not only the genera, but even the species are often the same on the
+  opposite sides of the Bay of Bengal. The connexion with Africa is
+  marked by the occurrence of many genera common to Africa and India,
+  and confined to those two regions, and similarities of form are not
+  uncommon there in cases in which the genera are not peculiar. Of
+  Coleopterous insects known to inhabit east Siberia, nearly one-third
+  are found in western Europe. The European forms seem to extend to
+  about 30 deg. N., south of which the Indo-Malayan types are met with,
+  Japan being of the Europeo-Asiatic group. The northern forms extend
+  generally along the south coast of the Mediterranean up to the border
+  of the great desert, and from the Levant to the Caspian.
+
+
+    Domesticated animals.
+
+  Of the domesticated animals of Asia may first be mentioned the
+  elephant. It does not breed in captivity, and is not found wild west
+  of the Jumna river in northern India. The horse is produced, in the
+  highest perfection in Arabia and the hot and dry countries of western
+  Asia. Ponies are most esteemed from the wetter regions of the east,
+  and the hilly tracts. Asses are abundant in most places, and two wild
+  species occur. The horned cattle include the humped oxen and buffaloes
+  of India, and the yak of Tibet. A hybrid between the yak and Indian
+  cattle, called zo, is commonly reared in Tibet and the Himalaya. Sheep
+  abound in the more temperate regions, and goats are universally met
+  with; both of these animals are used as beasts of burden in the
+  mountains of Tibet. The reindeer of northern Siberia call also for
+  special notice; they are used for the saddle as well as for draught.
+       (R. S.)
+
+
+  ETHNOLOGY
+
+    Racial types.
+
+  Asia, including its outlying islands, has become the dwelling-place of
+  all the great families into which the races of men have been divided.
+  By far the largest area is occupied by the Mongolian group. These have
+  yellow-brown skins, black eyes and hair, flat noses and oblique eyes.
+  They are short in stature, with little hair on the body and face. In
+  general terms they extend, with modifications of character probably
+  due to admixture with other types and to varying conditions of life,
+  over the whole of northern Asia as far south as the plains bordering
+  the Caspian Sea, including Tibet and China, and also over the
+  Indo-Malayan peninsula and Archipelago, excepting Papua and some of
+  the more eastern islands.
+
+  Next in numerical importance to the Mongolians are the races which
+  have been called by Professor Huxley _Melanochroic_ and
+  _Xanthochroic_. The former includes the dark-haired people of southern
+  Europe, and extends over North Africa, Asia Minor, Syria to
+  south-western Asia, and through Arabia and Persia to India. The latter
+  race includes the fair-haired people of northern Europe, and extends
+  over nearly the same area as the Melanochroi, with which race it is
+  greatly intermixed. The Xanthochroi have fair skins, blue eyes and
+  light hair; and others have dark skins, eyes and hair, and are of a
+  slighter frame. Together they constitute what were once called the
+  Caucasian races. The Melanochroi are not considered by Huxley to be
+  one of the primitive modifications of mankind, but rather to be the
+  result of the admixture of the Xanthochroi with the Australoid type,
+  next to be mentioned.
+
+  The third group is that of the Australoid type. Their hair is dark,
+  generally soft, never woolly. The eyes and skin are dark, the beard
+  often well developed, the nose broad and flat, the lips coarse, and
+  jaws heavy. This race is believed to form the basis of the people of
+  the Indian peninsula, and of some of the hill tribes of central India,
+  to whom the name Dravidian has been given, and by its admixture with
+  the Melanochroic group to have given rise to the ordinary population
+  of the Indian provinces. It is also probable that the Australoid
+  family extends into south Arabia and Egypt.
+
+  The last group, the Negroid, is represented by the races to which has
+  been given the name of _Negrito_, from the small size of some of them.
+  They are closely akin to the negroes of South Africa, and possess the
+  characteristic dark skins, woolly but scanty beard and body hair,
+  broad flat noses, and projecting lips of the African; and are diffused
+  over the Andaman Islands, a part of the Malay peninsula, the
+  Philippines, Papua, and some of the neighbouring islands. The Negritos
+  appear to be derived from a mixture of the true Negro with the
+  Australoid type.
+
+
+    Mongolians.
+
+  The distribution of the Mongolian group in Asia offers no particular
+  difficulty. There is complete present, and probably previous
+  long-existing, geographical continuity in the area over which they are
+  found. There is also considerable similarity of climate and other
+  conditions throughout the northern half of Asia which they occupy. The
+  extension of modified forms of the Mongolian type over the whole
+  American continent may be mentioned as a remarkable circumstance
+  connected with this branch of the human race.
+
+  The Mongolians of the northern half of Asia are almost entirely
+  nomadic, hunters and shepherds or herdsmen. The least advanced of
+  these, but far the most peaceful, are those that occupy Siberia.
+  Farther south the best-known tribes are the Manchus, the Mongols
+  proper, the Moguls and the Turks, all known under the name of Tatars,
+  and to the ancients as Scythians, occupying from east to west the zone
+  of Asia comprised between the 40th and 50th circles of N. lat. The
+  Turks are Mahommedans; their tribes extend up the Oxus to the borders
+  of Afghanistan and Persia, and to the Caspian, and under the name of
+  Kirghiz into Russia, and their language is spoken over a large part of
+  western Asia. Their letters are those of Persia. The Manchus and
+  Mongols are chiefly Buddhist, with letters derived from the ancient
+  Syriac. The Manchus are now said to be gradually falling under the
+  influence of Chinese civilization, and to be losing their old nomadic
+  habits, and even their peculiar language. The predatory habits of the
+  Turkish, Mongolian and Manchu population of northern Asia, and their
+  irruptions into other parts of the continent and into Europe, have
+  produced very remarkable results in the history of the world.
+
+  The Chinese branch of the Mongolian family are a thoroughly settled
+  people of agriculturists and traders. They are partially Buddhist, and
+  have a peculiar monosyllabic, uninflected language, with writing
+  consisting of symbols, which represent words, not letters.
+
+  The countries lying between India and the Mongolian are occupied by
+  populations chiefly of the Mongolian and Chinese type, having
+  languages fundamentally monosyllabic, but using letters derived from
+  India, and adopting their religion, which is almost everywhere
+  Buddhist, from the Indians. Of these may be named the Tibetans, the
+  Burmese and the Siamese. Cochin-China is more nearly Chinese in all
+  respects. It is known that to the Tibeto-Chinese modifications of the
+  pure Mongolian type all the eastern Burmese tribes--Chins, Kachins,
+  Shans, &c.--belong (as indeed do the Burmese themselves), and that a
+  cognate race occupies the Himalaya to the eastern limits of Kashmir.
+
+  Some light has been thrown on the connexion between the Tibetan race
+  and certain tribes of central India, the Bhils and Kols; and it seems
+  more probable that these tribes are the remnants of a Mongolian race
+  which first displaced a yet earlier Negroid population, and was then
+  itself shouldered out by a Caucasian irruption, than that they entered
+  India by any of the northern passages within historic times. Mongolian
+  settlements have lately been found very much farther extended into the
+  border countries of north-west India than has been hitherto
+  recognized. The Mingals, who, conjointly with the Brahuis, occupy the
+  hills south of Kalat to the limits of the Rajput province of Las Bela,
+  claim Mongolian descent, and traces of a Mongolian colony have been
+  found in Makran.
+
+
+    Malays.
+
+  The Malays, who occupy the peninsula and most of the islands of the
+  Archipelago called after them, are Mongols apparently modified by
+  their very different climate, and by the maritime life forced upon
+  them by the physical conditions of the region they inhabit. As they
+  are now known to us, they have undergone a process of partial
+  civilization, first at the hands of the Brahminical Indians, from whom
+  they borrowed a religion, and to some extent literature and an
+  alphabet, and subsequently from intercourse with the Arabs, which has
+  led to the adoption of Mahommedanism by most of them.
+
+
+    Aryans.
+
+  The name of Aryan has been given to the races speaking languages
+  derived from, or akin to, the ancient form of Sanskrit, who now occupy
+  the temperate zone extending from the Mediterranean, across the
+  highlands of Asia Minor, Persia and Afghanistan, to India. The races
+  speaking the languages akin to the ancient Assyrian, which are now
+  mainly represented by Arabic, have been called Semitic, and occupy the
+  countries south-west of Persia, including Syria and Arabia, besides
+  extending into North Africa. Though the languages of these races are
+  very different they cannot be regarded as physically distinct, and
+  they are both without doubt branches of the Melanochroi, modified by
+  admixture with the neighbouring races, the Mongols, the Australoids
+  and the Xanthochroi.
+
+  The Aryans of India are probably the most settled and civilized of all
+  Asiatic races. This type is found in its purest form in the north and
+  north-west, while the mixed races and the population referred to the
+  Australoid type predominate in the peninsula and southern India. The
+  spoken languages of northern India are very various, differing one
+  from another in the sort of degree that English differs from German,
+  though all are thoroughly Sanskritic in their vocables, but with an
+  absence of Sanskrit grammar that has given rise to considerable
+  discussion. The languages of the south are Dravidian, not Sanskritic.
+  The letters of both classes of languages, which also vary
+  considerably, are all modifications of the ancient Pali, and probably
+  derived from the Dravidians, not from the Aryans. They are written
+  from left to right, exception being made of Urdu or Hindostani, the
+  mixed language of the Mahommedan conquerors of northern India, the
+  character used for writing which is the Persian. From the river Sutlej
+  and the borders of the Sind desert, as far as Burma and to Ceylon, the
+  religion of the great bulk of the people of India is Hindu or
+  Brahminical, though the Mahommedans are often numerous, and in some
+  places even in a majority. West of the Sutlej the population of Asia
+  may be said to be wholly Mahommedan with the exception of certain
+  relatively small areas in Asia Minor and Syria, where Christians
+  predominate. The language of the Punjab does not differ very
+  materially from that of Upper India. West of the Indus the dialects
+  approach more to Persian, which language meets Arabic and Turki west
+  of the Tigris, and along the Turkoman desert and the Caspian. Through
+  the whole of this tract the letters are used which are common to
+  Persian, Arabic and Turkish, written from right to left.
+
+
+    Racial distribution.
+
+  Considerable progress has been made in the classification of the
+  various races which occupy the continent to the west of the great
+  Mongolian region. The ancient Sacae, or Scyths, are recognized in the
+  Aryan population, who may be found in great numbers and in their
+  purest form in the more inaccessible mountains and glens of the
+  central highlands. These Tajiks (as they are usually called) form the
+  underlying population of Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and
+  Badakshan, and their language (in the central districts of Asia) is
+  found to contain words of Aryan or Sanskrit derivation which are not
+  known in Persian. They have been for the most part dispossessed of
+  their country by Turkish immigration and conquests, but they still
+  retain their original intellectual superiority over the Turkish and
+  other mixed tribes by which they are surrounded. Uzbegs and Kirghiz
+  have but small affinity with the Mongol element of Asia. They are the
+  representatives of those countless Turkish irruptions which have taken
+  place through all history. Of the two divisions (Kara Kirghiz and
+  Kassak Kirghiz) into which the Kirghiz tribes are divided by Russian
+  authorities, the Kassak Kirghiz is the more closely allied to the
+  Mongol type; the Kara Kirghiz, who are found principally in the
+  valleys of the Tian-shan and Altai mountains, being unmistakably
+  Turkish. The Kipchaks are only a Kirghiz clan. The language of the
+  Kirghiz is Turki and their religion that of Mahomet. As a nomadic
+  people they have great contempt for the Sarts, who represent the town
+  dwellers of the tribe. The Kalmucks are a Buddhist and Mongolian
+  people who originated in a confederacy of tribes dwelling in
+  Dzungaria, migrated to Siberia, and settled on the Lower Volga. From
+  thence they returned late in the 18th century to the reoccupation of
+  their old ground in Kulja under the Chinese. The Turkoman is the
+  purest form of the Turk element, and his language is the purest form
+  of the Turkish tongue, which is represented at Constantinople by a
+  comparatively mongrel, or mixed, dialect. Ethnographers have traced a
+  connexion between the Turkoman of central Asia and the Teutonic races
+  of Europe, based on a similarity of national customs and immemorial
+  usage. Evidence of an original affinity between Turkoman and Rajput
+  has also been found in the mutual possession by these races of a ruddy
+  skin, so that as ethnographical inquiry advances the Turk appears to
+  recede from his Mongolian affinities and to approach the Caucasian.
+  Turks and Mongols alike were doubtless included under the term Scyth
+  by the ancients, and as Tatars by more modern writers, insomuch that
+  the Turkish dynasty at Delhi, founded by Baber, is usually termed the
+  Mogul dynasty, although there can be no distinction traced between the
+  terms Mogul and Mongol. The general results of recent inquiry into the
+  ethnography of Afghanistan is to support the general correctness of
+  Bellew's theories of the origin of the Afghan races. The claim of the
+  Durani Afghan to be a true Ben-i-Israel is certainly in no way
+  weakened by any recent investigation. The influence of Greek culture
+  in northern India is fully recognized, and the distribution of Greek
+  colonies previous to Alexander's time is attested by practical
+  knowledge of the districts they were said to occupy. The _habitat_ of
+  the Nysaeana, and the identity of certain tribes of Kafiristan with
+  the descendants of these pre-Alexandrian colonists from the west, are
+  also well established. To this day hymns are unwittingly sung to
+  Bacchus in the dales and glens of Kafiristan. The ethnographical
+  status of the mixed tribes of the mountains that lie between Chitral
+  and the Peshawar plains has been fairly well fixed by John Biddulph,
+  and much patient inquiry in the vast fields of Baluchistan by Major
+  Mockler, G.P. Tate and others has resulted in quite a new appreciation
+  of the tribal origin of the great conglomeration of Baluch peoples.
+
+  The result of trans-border surveys to the north and west of India has
+  been to establish the important geographical fact that it is by two
+  gateways only, one on the north-west and one on the west of India,
+  that the central Asiatic tides of immigration have flowed into the
+  peninsula. The Kabul valley indicates the north-western entrance, and
+  Makran indicates that on the west. By the Kabul valley route, which
+  includes at its head the group of passes across the Hindu Kush which
+  extend from the Khawak to the Kaoshan, all those central Asian hordes,
+  be they Sacae, Yue-chi, Jats, Goths or Huns, who were driven towards
+  the rich plains of the south, entered the Punjab. Some of them
+  migrated from districts which belong to eastern Asia, but none of them
+  penetrated into India by eastern passes. Such tides as set towards the
+  Himalaya broke against their farther buttresses, leaving an
+  interesting ethnographical flotsam in the northern valleys; but they
+  never overflowed the Himalayan barrier. Later most of the historic
+  invasions of India from central Asia followed the route which leads
+  directly from Kabul to Peshawar and Delhi.
+
+  By the western gates of Makran prehistoric irruptions from Mesopotamia
+  broke into the plains of Lower Sind, and either passed on towards the
+  central provinces of India or were absorbed in the highlands south of
+  Kalat. In later centuries the Arabs from the west reached the valley
+  of the Indus by their western route, and there established a dynasty
+  which lasted for 300 years. The identification of existing peoples
+  with the various Scythic, Persian and Arab races who have passed from
+  High Asia into the Indian borderland, has opened up a vast field of
+  ethnographical inquiry which has hardly yet found adequate workers for
+  its investigation. To such fields may be added the yet more
+  complicated problems of those reflex waves which flowed backwards from
+  India into the border highlands.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+1. The borders assigned to Asia on the west are somewhat arbitrary. The
+Urals indicate no real division of races, and in both Greek and Turkish
+times Asia Minor has been connected with the opposite shores of Europe
+rather than with the lands lying to the east. A juster view of early
+history is probably obtained by thinking of the countries round the
+Mediterranean as interacting on one another than by separating Palestine
+and Asia Minor as Asiatic.
+
+
+  Asiatic characteristics.
+
+2. The words "Asiatic" and "Oriental" are often used as if they denoted
+a definite and homogeneous type, but Russians resemble Asiatics in many
+ways, and Turks, Hindus, Chinese, &c., differ in so many important
+points that the common substratum is small. It amounts to this, that
+Asiatics stand on a higher level than the natives of Africa or America,
+but do not possess the special material civilization of western Europe.
+As far as any common mental characteristic can be assigned it is also
+somewhat negative, namely, that Asiatics have not the same sentiment of
+independence and freedom as Europeans. Individuals are thought of as
+members of a family, state or religion, rather than as entities with a
+destiny and rights of their own. This leads to autocracy in politics,
+fatalism in religion and conservatism in both. Hence, too, Asiatic
+history has large and simple outlines. Though longer chronologically
+than the annals of Europe, it is less eventful, less diversified and
+offers fewer personalities of interest. But the same conditions which
+render individual eminence difficult procure for it when once attained a
+more ready recognition, and the conquerors and prophets of Asia have had
+more power and authority than their parallels in Europe. Jenghiz Khan
+and Timur covered more ground than Napoleon, and no European has had
+such an effect on the world as Mahomet.
+
+
+  Religion and civilisation.
+
+3. Attention has often been called to the religious character of Asia.
+Not only the great religions of the world--Buddhism, Christianity,
+Islam--but those of secondary importance, such as Judaism, Parseeism,
+Taoism, are all Asiatic. No European race left to itself has developed
+any thing more than an unsystematic paganism. It is true that Greek
+philosophy advanced far beyond this stage, but it produced nothing
+sufficiently popular to be called a religion. On the other hand
+Christianity, though Asiatic in its origin and essential ideas, has to a
+large extent taken its present form on European soil, and some of its
+most important manifestations--notably the Roman Church--are European
+reconstructions in which little of the Asiatic element remains.
+Christianity has made little way farther east then Asia Minor. Modern
+missions have made no great conquests there, and in earlier times the
+Nestorians and Jacobites who penetrated to central Asia, China and
+India, received respectful hearing, but never had anything like the
+success which attended Buddhism and Islam. Yet Buddhism has never made
+much impression west of India; and Islam is clearly repugnant to
+Europeans, for even when under Moslem rule (as in Turkey) they refuse to
+accept it in a far larger proportion than did the Hindus in similar
+circumstances. Hence there is clearly a deep-seated difference between
+the religious feelings of the two continents.
+
+Since Asiatic records go back much farther than those of Europe, it is
+natural that Asia should be thought the birthplace of civilization. But
+this originality cannot be absolute, for, whatever may have been the
+relations of Babylonia and the Aryans, the latter brought civilization
+to India from the west, and it is not always clear whether similarity of
+government and institutions is the result of borrowing or of parallel
+development. Both in Europe and in Asia small feudal or aristocratic
+states tended to consolidate themselves into monarchies, but whereas in
+Europe from the early days of Rome onwards royalty has often been driven
+out and replaced temporarily or permanently by popular government, this
+change seems not to occur in Asia, where revolution means only a change
+of dynasty. The few cases where the government is not monarchical, as
+Arabia, seem to represent the persistence of very ancient conditions.
+
+The contemplation of Asia suggests that progress is most rapid when
+accompanied by the migration of races or the transplantation of ideas
+and institutions. Thus Greece excelled the Eastern countries from whom
+she may have derived her civilization, and Buddhism had a far more
+brilliant career outside India than in it.
+
+
+  General historical outlines.
+
+4. In many parts of southern Asia are found semi-barbarous races
+representing the earliest known stratum of population, such as the
+Veddahs of Ceylon, and various tribes in China and the Malay
+Archipelago. Some of them offer analogies to the Australians. This
+connexion, if true, must be very ancient, since it apparently goes back
+to a time when the distribution of land and water was other than at
+present. In northern Asia are found other aborigines, such as the Ainus
+of Japan and the so-called hyperborean races (Chukchis, &c.), but no
+materials are at present forthcoming for their history. There is some
+record of the migrations of the later races superimposed on these
+aborigines. The Chinese came from the west, though how far west is
+unknown: the Hindus and Persians from the north-west: the Burmese and
+Siamese from the north. We do not know if the Mongols, Turks, &c., had
+any earlier home than central Asia, but their extensive movements from
+that region are historical.
+
+The antiquity of Asiatic history is often exaggerated. With the
+exception of Babylonia and Assyria, we can hardly even conjecture what
+was the condition of this continent much before 1500 B.C. At that period
+the Chinese were advancing along the Hwang-ho, and the Aryans were
+entering India from the north-west. Both were in conflict with earlier
+races. The influence of Babylonian civilization was probably widespread.
+Some connexion between Babylonia and China is generally admitted, and
+all Indian alphabets seem traceable to a Semitic original borrowed in
+the course of commerce from the Persian Gulf.
+
+Apart from European conquests, the internal history of Asia in the last
+2000 years is the result of the interaction of four main influences: (a)
+Chinese, (b) Indian, (c) Mahommedan, (d) Central Asian. Of these the
+first three represent different types of civilization: the fourth has
+little originality, but has been of great importance in affecting the
+distribution of races and political power.
+
+(a) China has moulded the civilization of the eastern mainland and
+Japan, without much affecting the Malay Archipelago. In the sphere of
+direct influence fall Korea, Japan and Annam; in the outer sphere are
+Mongolia, Tibet, Siam, Cambodia and Burma, where Indian and Chinese
+influence are combined, the Indian being often the stronger. These
+countries, except Japan, have all been at some time at least nominal
+tributaries of China. Where Chinese influence had full play it
+introduced Confucianism, a special style in art and the Chinese system
+of writing. After the Christian era it was accompanied by Chinese
+Buddhism. The cumbrous Chinese script maintains itself in the Far East,
+but has not advanced west of China proper and Annam.
+
+(b) Indian influence may be defined as Buddhism, if it is understood
+that Buddhism is not at all periods clearly distinguishable from
+Hinduism. Its sphere includes Indo-China, much of the Malay Archipelago,
+Tibet and Mongolia, Moreover, China and Japan themselves may be said to
+fall within this sphere, in view of the part which Buddhism has played
+in their development. The Buddhist influence is not merely religious,
+for it is always accompanied by Indian art and literature, and often by
+an Indian alphabet. Much of this art is Greek in origin, being derived
+from the Perso-Greek states on the north-west frontiers of India. Indian
+alphabets have spread to Tibet, Cambodia, Java and Korea. The history of
+Indian civilization in Indo-China and the Archipelago is still obscure,
+in spite of the existence of gigantic ruins, but it would appear that in
+some parts at least two periods must be distinguished, first the
+introduction of Hinduism (or mixed Hinduism and Buddhism), perhaps under
+Indian princes, and secondly a later and more purely ecclesiastical
+introduction of Sinhalese Buddhism, with its literature and art.
+
+(c) Mahommedanism or Islam is perhaps the greatest transforming force
+which the world has seen. It has profoundly affected and to a large
+extent subjugated all western Asia including India, all eastern and
+northern Africa as well as Spain, and all eastern Europe. Its open
+advocacy of force attracts warlike races, and the intensity of its
+influence is increased by the fusion of secular and religious power, so
+that the Moslem Church is a Moslem state characterized by slavery,
+polygamy, and, subject to the autocracy of the ruler, by the theoretical
+equality of Moslems, who in political status are superior to
+non-Moslems. Thus, whenever the population of a Moslem country is of
+mixed belief, a ruling caste of Moslems is formed, as in Turkey at the
+present day and India under the Moguls. Islam is paramount in Turkey,
+Persia, Arabia and Afghanistan. India is the dividing line: Islam is
+strong in northern and central India, weaker in the south. But only
+one-fifth of the whole population is Moslem. Beyond India it has spread
+to Malacca and the Malay Archipelago, where it overwhelmed Hindu
+civilization, and reached the southern Philippines. But it made no
+progress in Indo-China or Japan; and though there is a large Moslem
+population in China the Chinese influence has been stronger, for alone
+of all Asiatics the Chinese have succeeded in forcing Islam to accept
+the ordinary limitations of a religion and to take its place as a creed
+parallel to Buddhism or any other.
+
+Even more than Buddhism Islam has carried with it a special style of art
+and civilization. It is usually accompanied by the use of the Arabic
+alphabet, and in the languages of Moslem nations (notably Turkish,
+Persian, Hindustani and Malay) a large proportion of the vocabulary is
+borrowed from Arabic. Hindi and Hindustani, two forms of the same
+language as spoken by Hindus and Mahommedans respectively, are a curious
+example of how deeply religion may affect culture.
+
+(d) The great part which central Asian tribes have played in history is
+obscured by the absence of any common name for them. Linguistically they
+can be divided into several groups such as Turks, Mongols and Huns, but
+they were from time to time united into states representing more than
+one group, and their armies were recruited, like the Janissaries, from
+all the military races in the neighbourhood. Soon after the Christian
+era central Asia began to boil over, and at least seven great invasions
+and more or less complete conquests can be ascribed to these tribes
+without counting minor movements, (i.) The early invasions of Europe by
+the Avars, Huns and Bulgarians. (ii.) The invasion and temporary
+subjection of Russia by the Mongols, who penetrated as far west as
+Silesia, (iii.) The conquests of Timur. (iv.) The conquest of Asia Minor
+and eastern Europe by the Turks. (v.) The conquest of India by the
+Moguls. (vi.) The conquest of China by the Mongols under Kublai. (vii.)
+The later conquest of China by the Manchus. To these may be added
+numerous lesser invasions of India, China and Persia.
+
+These tribes have a genius for warfare rather than for government, art
+or literature, and with few exceptions (e.g. the Moguls in India) have
+proved poor administrators. Apart from conquest their most important
+function has been to keep up communications in central Asia, and to
+transport religions and civilizations from one region to another. Thus
+they are mainly responsible for the introduction of Islam with its
+Arabic or Persian civilization into India and Europe, and in earlier
+times their movements facilitated the infiltration of Graeco-Bactrian
+civilization into India, besides maintaining communication between China
+and the West.
+
+5. _Babylonia and Assyria._--The movements mentioned above have been the
+chief factors of relatively modern Asiatic history, but in early times
+the centre of activity and culture lay farther west, in Babylonia and
+Assyria. These ancient states began to decline in the 7th century B.C.,
+and on their ruins rose the Persian empire, which with various political
+metamorphoses continued to be an important power till the 7th century
+A.D., after which all western Asia was overwhelmed by the Moslem wave,
+and old landmarks and kingdoms were obliterated.
+
+The materials for the study of their institutions and population are
+abundant, but lend themselves to discussion rather than to a summary of
+admitted facts. In the early history of south-western Asia the Semites
+form the most important ethnic group, which is primarily linguistic but
+also shares other remarkable characteristics. Two of the greatest
+religions of the world, Christianity and Islam, are Semitic in origin,
+as well as Judaism. In politics these races have been less successful in
+modern times, but the Semitic states of Babylonia and Assyria were once
+the principal centres for the development and distribution of
+civilization. It is generally agreed that this civilization can be
+traced back to an earlier race, the Sumero-Akkadians, whose language
+seems allied to the agglutinative idioms of central Asia. If this
+ancient civilized race was really allied to the ancestors of the Turks
+and Huns, it is a remarkable instance of how civilization thrives best
+by being transplanted at a certain period of growth. Still less is known
+of the early non-Aryan races of Asia Minor such as the Hittites and
+Alorodians. One hypothesis supposes that the shores of the Mediterranean
+were originally inhabited by a homogeneous race neither Aryan nor
+Semitic.
+
+The earliest Sumerian records seem to be anterior to 4000 B.C. Shortly
+after that period Babylonia was invaded by Semites, who became the
+ruling race. The city of Babylon came to the fore as metropolis about
+2285 B.C. under Khammurabi. Assyria was an offshoot of Babylonia lying
+to the north-west, and apparently colonized before the second
+millennium. While using the same language as the Babylonians, the
+Assyrians had an individuality which showed itself in art and religion.
+In the 9th and 8th centuries B.C. they became the chief power within
+their sphere and the suzerain of their parent Babylon. But they
+succumbed before the advance of the Medo-Persian power in 606 B.C.,
+whereas it was not till 555 that Cyrus took Babylon. Assyria, being
+essentially a military power, disappeared with the destruction of
+Nineveh, but Babylon continued to exercise an influence on culture and
+religion for many centuries after the Persian conquest.
+
+6. _China._--This is the oldest of existing states, though its authentic
+history does not go back much beyond 1000 B.C. It is generally admitted
+that there was some connexion between the ancient civilizations of China
+and Babylonia, but its precise nature is still uncertain. It is clear,
+however, that the Chinese came from the west, and entered their present
+territory along the course of the Hwang-ho at an unknown period,
+possibly about 3000 B.C. In early historical times China consisted of a
+shifting confederacy of feudal states, but about 220 B.C. the state of
+Tsin or Chin (whence the name China) came into prominence, and succeeded
+in forming a homogeneous empire, which advanced considerably towards the
+south. The subsequent history of China is mainly a record of struggles
+with various tribes, commonly, but not very correctly, called Tatars.
+The empire was frequently broken up by successful incursions, or divided
+between rival dynasties, but at least twice became a great Asiatic
+power: under the Han dynasty (about 200 B.C.-A.D. 220), and the T'ang
+(A.D. 618-906). The dominions of the latter extended across central Asia
+to northern India, but were dismembered by the attacks of the Kitans,
+whence the name Cathay. China proper, minus these external provinces,
+was again united under the Sung dynasty (960-1127), but split into the
+northern (Tatar) and southern (Chinese) kingdoms. In the 13th century
+arose the Mongol power, and Kublai Khan conquered China. The Mongol
+dynasty lasted less than a century, but the Ming, the native Chinese
+dynasty which succeeded it, reigned for nearly 300 years and despatched
+expeditions which reached India, Ceylon and East Africa. In 1644 the
+Ming succumbed to the attacks of the Manchus, a northern tribe who
+captured Peking and founded the present imperial house.
+
+Until the advent of Europeans, the Chinese were always in contact with
+inferior races. Whether they expanded at the expense of weak aboriginal
+tribes or were conquered by more robust invaders, Chinese civilization
+prevailed and assimilated alike the conquered and the conquerors. It is
+largely to this that we must ascribe the national conservatism and
+contempt for foreigners. The spirit of the Chinese polity is
+self-contained, anti-military and anti-sacerdotal. Rank is nominally
+determined by merit, as tested by competitive examinations. Society is
+conceived as regulated by mutual obligations, of which the duties of
+parents and children are the most important. The emperor is head of the
+state and the high priest, who sacrifices to Heaven on behalf of his
+people, but he can be deposed, and no divine right is inherent in
+certain families as in Japan and Turkey. On the contrary there have been
+20 dynasties since the Christian era.
+
+The most conspicuous figure in Chinese literature is Confucius (551-475
+B.C.). Though he laid no claim to originality and merely sought to
+collect and systematize the traditions of antiquity, his influence in
+the Far East has been unbounded, and he must be pronounced one of the
+most powerful advocates of peace and humanity that have ever existed.
+Confucianism is an ethical rather than a religious system, and hence was
+able to co-exist, though not on very friendly terms, with Buddhism,
+which reached China about the 1st century A.D. and was the chief source
+of Chinese religious ideas, except the older ancestor worship. But they
+are not a religious people, and like many Europeans regard the church as
+a department of the state.
+
+7. _Japan_ appears to have been formerly inhabited by the Ainus, who
+have traditions of an older but unknown population, but was invaded in
+prehistoric times by a race akin to the Koreans, which was possibly
+mingled with Malay elements after occupying the southern part of the
+islands. Authentic history does not begin till about the 6th century
+A.D., when Chinese civilization and Buddhism were introduced. The
+government was originally autocratic, but as early as the 7th century
+the most characteristic feature of Japanese politics--the power of great
+families who overshadowed the throne--makes its appearance. We hear
+first of the Fujiwara family, and then of the rivalry between the houses
+of Taira and Minamoto. The latter prevailed, and in 1192 established the
+dual system of government under which the emperor or Mikado ruled only
+in name, and the real power was in the hands of a hereditary military
+chief called Shogun. Japan has never been invaded in historical times,
+but an attempt made by Kublai Khan to conquer it was successfully
+repulsed. The chief power then passed to the Ashikaga dynasty of
+Shoguns, who retained it for about 200 years and were distinguished for
+their patronage of the arts. The second half of the 16th century was a
+period of ferment and anarchy, marked by the arrival of the Portuguese
+and the rise of some remarkable adventurers, one of whom, Hideyoshi,
+conquered Korea and apparently meditated the invasion of China. His
+plans were interrupted by his death, and his successor, Ieyasu, who
+shaped the social and political life of Japan for nearly 300 years
+(1603-1868), definitely decided on a policy of seclusion and isolation.
+All ideas of external conquest were abandoned, Christianity was
+forbidden, and Japan closed to foreigners, only the Dutch being allowed
+a strictly limited commerce. In 1854-1859 the Christian powers,
+beginning with the United States, successfully asserted their right to
+trade with Japan. The influx of new ideas provoked civil war, in which
+the already decadent Shogunate was abolished and the authority of the
+Mikado restored. Recognizing that their only chance of competing with
+Europeans was to fight them with their own weapons, the Japanese set
+themselves deliberately to assimilate the material civilization and to
+some extent the institutions of Europe, such as constitutional
+government. Their progress and success are without parallel. In 1895
+they defeated the Chinese and ten years later the Russians. Their
+exceptional status among Asiatic nations has been recognized by treaties
+which, contrary to the general practice in non-Christian countries,
+place all foreigners in Japan under Japanese law.
+
+This sudden development of the Japanese is perhaps the most important
+event of the second half of the 19th century, since it marks the rise of
+an Asiatic power capable of competing with Europe on equal terms. Their
+history is so different from that of the rest of Asia that it is not
+surprising if the result is different. The nation hardly came into
+existence till China and India had passed their prime, and remained
+secluded and free from the continual struggle against barbarian
+invaders, which drained the energies of its neighbours. It was left
+untouched by Mahommedanism, and for an unprecedentedly long period kept
+Europeans at bay without wasting its strength in hostilities. The
+military spirit was evolved, not in raids and massacres of the usual
+Asiatic type which create little but intense racial hatred, but in feuds
+between families and factions of the same race, which restrained
+ferocity and tended to create a temper like that of the feudal chivalry
+of Europe. On the other hand it is noticeable that the Japanese have
+little which is original in the way of religion, literature or
+philosophy. Unlike the Chinese and Indians, they have hitherto not had
+the smallest influence on the intellectual development of Asia, and
+though they have in the past sometimes shown themselves intensely
+nationalist and conservative, they have, compared with India and China,
+so little which is really their own that their assimilation of foreign
+ideas is explicable.
+
+8. _Korea_ received its civilization and religion from China, but
+differs in language, and to some extent in customs. An alphabet derived
+from Indian sources is in use as well as Chinese writing. The country
+was at most periods independent though nominally tributary to China. In
+the 16th century the Japanese occupied it for a short period, and in
+1894 they went to war with China on account of her claims to suzerainty.
+In 1895 Korea was declared independent.
+
+9. _India._--The population of India comprises at least three strata:
+firstly, uncivilized aborigines, such as the Kols and Santhals, and
+secondly, the Dravidians (Tamils, Kanarese, &c.), who perhaps represent
+the earliest northern invaders, and appear to have attained some degree
+of culture on their own account. The most recent authorities are of
+opinion that the Kolarians and Dravidians represent a single physical
+type; but, whatever the historical explanation may be, they certainly
+have different languages and show different stages of civilization. In
+prehistoric times they were spread over the whole of India, but were
+driven to the centre and south of the peninsula by the third stratum of
+Aryans, and perhaps also by invasions of so-called Mongolian races from
+the north-west. No historical record has been preserved of these latter,
+but they appear to have profoundly affected the population of Bengal,
+which is believed to be Mongolo-Dravidian in composition. The Aryans
+appear to have been settled to the north of the Hindu Kush, and to have
+migrated south-eastwards about 1500 B.C. Their original home has been a
+subject of much discussion, but the view now prevalent is that they
+arose in southern Russia or Asia Minor, whence a section spread
+eastwards and divided into two closely related branches--the Hindus and
+Iranians. There were probably two successive Aryan immigrations, and the
+tradition of a struggle between them may be preserved in the
+_Mahabharata_. The life of the ancient Aryans, as portrayed in their
+sacred songs, the _Rig Veda_, was quasi-nomadic and in many ways
+democratic, but by the 6th century B.C. settled states had been formed
+in the Ganges valley. They were absolute monarchies, but the power of
+the king was tempered by the extraordinary influence possessed by the
+hereditary sacerdotal class or Brahmans. The position of this class,
+which has remained till the present day, is connected with the
+institution of caste, a division of the population into groups founded
+partly on racial distinctions. The peaceful progress of Brahmanism was
+hindered by the doctrine of the Indian prince Gotama, called the Buddha,
+which grew into one of the greatest religions of the world. For many
+centuries the culture and development of the Hindus depended mainly on
+the interaction of the old Brahmanical religion and Buddhism. The latter
+was finally absorbed, and disappeared in India itself, but has spread
+Indian influence over the whole of eastern Asia, where it still
+flourishes.
+
+In 326 B.C. Alexander invaded the Punjab. The immediate result was
+small, but the establishment of Perso-Greek kingdoms in central Asia had
+a powerful influence on Indian art and culture. It may also have helped
+to familiarize the Hindu mind with the idea of an empire, which appeared
+among them later than in other Asiatic countries. The first empire,
+called Maurya, reached its greatest extent in the time of Asoka (264-227
+B.C.), who ruled from Afghanistan to Madras. He was a zealous Buddhist
+and gave the first example of a missionary religion, for by his
+exertions the faith was spread over all India and Ceylon. No Hindu
+empires have lasted long, and the Maurya dominions broke up fifty years
+after his death.
+
+In the next period (c. 150 B.C.-A.D. 300) India was invaded from the
+north by tribes partly of Parthian and partly of Turki (Yue-chi, &c.)
+origin. Owing to the absence of dated records, the chronology of these
+invasions has not yet been set beyond dispute, but the most important
+was that of the Kushans, whose king Kanishka founded a state which
+comprised northern India and Kashmir. They were Buddhists, and it is
+probable that the Mahayana or northern form of Buddhism was due to an
+amalgamation of Gotama's doctrines with the ideas (largely Greek and
+Persian) which they brought with them. Much of Sivaism has probably the
+same origin. Another native empire, known as Gupta, rose on the ruins of
+the Kushan kingdom, and embraced nearly the whole peninsula, but it
+broke up in the 5th century, partly owing to the attacks of new northern
+invaders, the Huns. The Malava dynasty maintained Hindu civilization in
+the 6th century, and from 606 to 646 Harsha established a brief but
+brilliant empire in the north with its capital at Kanauj. This epoch is
+marked by the renaissance of Sanskrit literature and the gradual revival
+of Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. But after Harsha Hindu history
+is lost in a maze of small and transitory states, incapable of resisting
+the ever advancing Mahommedan peril. As early as 712 the Arabs conquered
+Sind, and by the end of the 11th century the whole of northern India was
+in Moslem hands. Two periods may be distinguished, namely the Turki
+(1200-1526) and the Mogul empire. The former comprised several dynasties
+of mixed Turki and Iranian race, but was wanting in coherency. In the
+neighbourhood of the Moslem capitals, Islam spread rapidly, but in such
+districts as Rajputana and specially Vijayanagar (Mysore) Hindu
+civilization and religion maintained themselves.
+
+In 1526 the Moguls descended on India from Transoxiana and seized the
+throne of Delhi. They never subjugated the south, but the empire which
+they founded in the north was for about two centuries, under such rulers
+as Akbar and Shah Jehan, one of the most brilliant which Asia has seen.
+After 1707 it began to decline: the governors became independent: a
+powerful Mahratta confederacy arose in central India; Nadir Shah of
+Persia sacked Delhi; and Ahmed Shah made repeated invasions. A still
+more formidable danger, the power of the French and English, continued
+to increase. Amidst such confusion the authority of the Mogul empire
+rapidly disappeared, but it lasted as a name till the Mutiny (1857).
+
+Indian history until Mahommedan times is marked by the unusual
+prominence of religious ideas, and is a record of intellectual
+development rather than of political events. Whatever national unity the
+Hindu peoples possessed came from the persistent and penetrating
+influence of the Brahman caste. Kings held a secondary position, and
+were generally regarded as adventitious tyrants, rather than as the
+heads and representatives of the nation. Even the great dynasties have
+left few traces, and it is with difficulty that the patient historian
+disinters the minor kingdoms from obscurity, but Indian religion,
+literature and art have influenced all Asia from Persia to Japan.
+
+10._Persia._-- The Persians, with whom are often coupled the Medes,
+appear to be pure Aryans in origin, and the earliest form of their
+language and religion offers remarkable analogies to the Vedas. It is
+reasonable to suppose that their ancestors and those of the Hindus at
+one time formed a single tribe somewhere in central Asia. The religion
+was remodelled by Zoroaster, who seems to be a historical character and
+to have lived about the 7th century B.C. About the same time they shook
+off the domination of Assyria. From the 6th century onwards their
+empire, then known as Median, began to expand at the expense of the
+surrounding states. They destroyed Nineveh in alliance with the
+Babylonians, and half a century later Cyrus took Babylon and founded the
+great dynasty of the Achaemenidae. The substitution of the Persian for
+the Median power, which took place with the advent of Cyrus, seems to
+indicate merely the pre-eminence of a particular tribe and not conquest
+by another race. The power of the Achaemenidae, when at its maximum,
+extended from the Oxus and Indus in the east to Thrace in the west and
+Egypt in the south, but fell before Greece, after lasting for rather
+more than 200 years. Darius and Xerxes were repulsed in their efforts to
+subjugate the Greek Peninsula, and Alexander the Great conquered their
+successor Darius III. in 329. But the greater part of the empire
+continued to exist under new masters, the Seleucids, as a Hellenistic
+power which was of great importance for the dissemination of Greek
+culture in the East. Bactria soon became independent under an Indo-Greek
+dynasty, and the blending of Greek, Persian, central Asiatic and Hindu
+influences had an important effect on the art and religion of India, and
+through India on all eastern Asia. About the same period (250 B.C.-A.D.
+227) the Parthian empire arose under the Arsacids in Khorasan and the
+adjacent districts. The Parthians appear to have been a Turanian tribe
+who had adopted many Persian customs. They successfully withstood the
+Romans, and at one time their power extended from India to Syria. They
+succumbed to the Persian dynasty of the Sassanids, who ruled
+successfully for about four centuries, established the Zoroastrian faith
+as their state religion, and maintained a creditable conflict with the
+East Roman empire. But in the 7th century they were defeated by
+Heraclius, and shortly afterwards were annihilated before the first
+impetus of the Mahommedan conquest, which established Islam in Persia
+and the neighbouring lands, sweeping away old civilizations and
+boundaries. During the greater part of the Mahommedan period Persia has
+been ruled by troubled and short-lived dynasties. It attained a certain
+dignity and unity under Abbas Shah (1585-1628), but in later times was
+distracted and disorganized by Afghan invasions. The present dynasty,
+which is of Turkoman origin, dates from 1789.
+
+The achievements of the Persians in art, literature and religion are by
+no means contemptible, but somewhat mixed and cosmopolitan. Owing to its
+position, the Persian state, when it from time to time became a
+conquering empire, overlapped Asia Minor, Babylon and India, and hence
+acted as an intermediary for transmitting art and ideas, sending for
+instance Greek sculpture to India and the cult of Mithra to western
+Europe. It is perhaps on account of this intermediate flavour that the
+literature of Persia--for instance the adaptations of Omar Khayyam--is
+more appreciated in Europe than that of other Oriental nations. On the
+other hand, the wars between Persia and Greece were recognized both at
+the time and afterwards as a struggle between Europe and Asia; the fact
+that both combatants were Aryans was not felt, and has no importance
+compared to the difference of continent.
+
+11. _Jews._--The Israelites appear to have been originally a nomadic
+tribe akin to the Arabs, whom they resemble in their want of political
+instinct and in their extraordinary religious genius. Among many
+remarkable qualities they have been distinguished from the earliest
+times by a species of commensalism, or power of living among other
+nations without becoming either socially merged or politically distinct.
+Their traditional history represents them as migrating to the borders of
+Egypt and living there for some centuries. After the exodus, which
+perhaps took place about 1300 B.C., they moved northwards again and
+founded a state of modest dimensions, which attained a short-lived unity
+under Solomon, but succumbed to internal dissensions and to the attacks
+of Assyria and Babylon. Shalmanezer destroyed the northern kingdom or
+Israel in 720, and following the practice of the times deported the
+majority of the population, whose traces became lost to history. There
+is no reason why their descendants should not be found to-day in various
+tribes, but the physical type commonly called Jewish is characteristic
+not so much of Israel as of western Asia generally. In 588
+Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews in captivity, but after the Persian
+conquest of Babylonia they were allowed to return to Palestine in 538.
+Their institutions and ideas were probably considerably modified during
+this period. Babylon long continued to be a Jewish centre whence the
+Jews radiated to other countries. The restored state of Jerusalem lived
+for about six centuries in partial independence under Persian, Egyptian,
+Syrian and Roman rule, often showing an aggressively heroic attachment
+to its national customs, which brought it into collision with its
+suzerains, until the temple was destroyed by Titus in A.D. 70, and the
+country laid waste in the succeeding years. But long before this period
+the Jews of the Dispersion had become as important as the inhabitants of
+Palestine. From choice or compulsion large numbers settled in Egypt in
+the time of the Ptolemies, and added an appreciable element to
+Alexandrine culture, while gradual voluntary emigration established
+Jewish communities in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, who
+facilitated the first spread of Christianity. In spite of chronic
+unpopularity and recurring persecutions they have spread over nearly all
+Europe. At the end of the 13th century they were expelled from Spain and
+many of the exiles moved eastwards. At present the largest numbers are
+to be found in the eastern parts of Europe. It is remarkable that though
+the Jews live in relative peace with Asiatics, the great majority of
+them prefer Europe as a residence.
+
+12. _Arabs._--The Arabs have hardly any history before the rise of
+Islam, although their name is mentioned by surrounding nations from the
+9th century B.C. onwards. They appear to have had few states or kings,
+but rather tribes and chiefs. Their relationship to the Babylonians and
+Jews is indicated by linguistic and ethnological data. The language and
+writing of the Semites who, at an unknown period, settled in what is now
+Abyssinia, show affinities with those of South Arabia, and these Semites
+may have been immigrants into Africa from that region. It is plain from
+early Moslem literature that Persian, Christian and especially Jewish
+ideas had penetrated into Arabia.
+
+With the rise of Mahommedanism occurred a sudden effervescence of the
+Arabs, who during some centuries threatened to impose not only their
+political authority but their civilization and new religion on the whole
+known world. They successfully invaded India and central Asia in the
+east, Spain and Morocco in the west. The Caliphate under the Omayyads of
+Damascus, and then the Abbasids of Bagdad, became the principal power in
+the nearer East. It had not, however, a sufficiently coherent
+organization for permanence; parts of it became independent, others
+were first protected and then absorbed by the Turks. The Arab rule in
+Spain, which once threatened to overwhelm Europe and was turned back
+near Tours by Charles Martel, was distinguished by its tolerance and
+civilization, and lingered on till the 15th century.
+
+The collapse of the political power of the Arabs was singularly
+complete. The Caliphate, though Arabian, was always geographically
+outside Arabia, and on its fall Arabia remained as it was before Islam,
+isolated and inaccessible. It is still one of the least known parts of
+the globe, and has hardly any political link with the outside, for the
+Arabs of northern Africa form separate states. But in spite of this
+total political collapse, Arabic religion and literature are still one
+of the greatest forces working in the western half of Asia, in northern
+Africa and to some extent in eastern Europe.
+
+13. _Ceylon_, though geographically an annex of India, has not followed
+its fortunes historically. According to tradition it was invaded by an
+Aryan-speaking colony from the valley of the Ganges in the 6th century
+B.C. It received Buddhism from north India in the time of Asoka, and has
+had considerable importance as a centre of religious culture which has
+influenced Burma and Siam. Its medieval history consists of struggles
+between the native sovereigns and Tamil invaders. A powerful native
+dynasty reigned in the 12th century, but in 1408 the island was attacked
+by Chinese, and from 1505 onwards it was distracted by the attacks and
+squabbles of Europeans. It was partially subjugated, first by the
+Portuguese and then by the Dutch. In 1796 the Dutch were expelled by the
+English.
+
+14. _Indo-China._--This is an appropriate name for Burma, Siam,
+Cambodia, Annam, &c., for both in position and in civilization they lie
+between India and China. Indian influence is predominant as far as
+Cambodia (though with a Chinese tinge), Indian alphabets being employed
+and the Buddhism being of the Sinhalese type, but in Annam and Tongking
+the Chinese script and many Chinese institutions are in use. The
+population belongs to various races, and also comprises little-known
+wild tribes, (i.) Languages of the group known as Mon-Annam are spoken
+in Annam and in Pegu, an ancient kingdom originally distinct from Burma
+though now confounded with it. This distribution seems to indicate that
+they once spread over the whole region, and were divided by the later
+advance of the Siamese and others. Until Annam was taken by the French,
+its history consisted of a struggle with the Chinese, who alternately
+asserted and lost their sovereignty. The Annamese are, however, a
+distinct race. Cochin China was once the seat of a kingdom called
+Champa, which appears to have had a hinduized Malay civilization and to
+have been subsequently absorbed by Annam. (ii.) The Burmese are
+linguistically allied to the Tibetans, and probably entered Burma from
+the north-west. The early history consists largely of conflicts between
+the Burmese and Talaings. The kingdom which was annexed by Britain in
+1885 was founded about 1750 by Alompra, who united his countrymen and
+broke the power of the Talaings. He also invaded Siam. (iii.) The Khmers
+or Cambodians, whose languages appear to belong to the Mon-Annam group,
+form a relatively ancient kingdom, much reduced in the last few
+centuries by the advance of the Siamese and new a French protectorate.
+Remarkable ruins dating from perhaps A.D. 800 to 1000 attest the former
+prevalence of strong Hindu influence, (iv.) The Siamese or Thai, who
+speak a monosyllabic language of the Chinese type, but written in an
+Indian alphabet, represent a late invasion from southern China, whence
+they descended about the 13th century.
+
+15. _Malays._--This widely-scattered race has no political union and its
+distribution is a puzzle for ethnography. At present it occupies the
+extremity of the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines
+and other islands of the Malay Archipelago as well as Madagascar, while
+the inhabitants of most islands in the South Seas, including New Zealand
+and Hawaii, speak languages which if not Malay have at least undergone a
+strong Malay influence. It would seem from this distribution that the
+Malays are not continental, but a seafaring race with exceptional powers
+of dispersal, who have spread over the ocean from some island
+centre--perhaps Java. The latest theory, however, is that there is a
+great linguistic group (which may or may not prove to correspond to an
+ethnic unity) comprising the Munda, Monkhmer, Malay, Polynesian and
+Micronesian languages, and that the stream of immigration which
+distributed them started from the extreme west. Three periods can be
+traced in the history of the Asiatic Malays. In the first (in which such
+tribes as the Dyaks have remained) they were semi-barbarous. In the
+second, Hindu civilization reached the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra
+and other islands. The presence of Hindu ruins, as well as of numerous
+Indian words and customs, testifies to the strength of this influence.
+It was, however, superseded by Islam, which spread to the Malay
+Archipelago and Peninsula before the 16th century. At the present time
+the Arabic alphabet is used on the mainland, but Indian alphabets in
+Java, Sumatra, &c.
+
+16. _Tibet._--This remote and mountainous country has a peculiar
+civilization. It has entirely escaped Islam, and though it is a nominal
+vassal of China, direct Chinese influence has not been strong. The most
+striking feature is the religion, a corrupt form of late Indian
+Buddhism, known as Lamaism, which, largely in consequence of the favour
+shown by Jenghiz Khan and his successors, has attained temporal power
+and developed into an ecclesiastical state curiously like the papacy.
+
+17. _Mongols._--Such civilization as the Mongols possess is a mixture of
+Chinese and Indian, the latter derived chiefly through Tibet, but their
+alphabet is a curious instance of transplantation. It is an adaptation
+of the Syriac writing introduced by the early Nestorian missionaries.
+
+
+  Literature, art, science.
+
+18. Almost all Asiatic countries have a literature, but it is often not
+indigenous and consists of foreign works, chiefly religious, read either
+in translations or the original. Thus with the exception of a little
+folklore the literature of Indo-China, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea and
+Manchuria is mainly Indian or Chinese. The chief original literatures
+are Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic and Persian. The Japanese have
+produced few books of importance, and their compositions are chiefly
+remarkable as being lighter and more secular than is usual in Asia, but
+the older Chinese works take high rank both for their merits and the
+effect they have had. The extensive Sanskrit literature, which has
+reached in translations China, Japan and Java, is chiefly theological
+and poetical, history being conspicuously absent. India has also a
+considerable medieval and modern literature in various languages. Pali,
+though only a form of Hindu literature, has a separate history, for it
+died in India and was preserved in Ceylon, whence it was imported to
+Burma and Siam as the language of religion. The Pali versions of
+Buddha's discourses are among the most remarkable products of Asia. The
+literatures of all Moslem peoples are largely inspired by Arabic, which
+has produced a voluminous collection of works in prose and poetry.
+Persian, after being itself transformed by Arabic, has in its turn
+largely influenced all west Asiatic Moslem literature from Hindustani to
+Turkish.
+
+If one excepts the Old Testament, which is a product of the extreme west
+of Asia, it is remarkable how small has been the influence of Asiatic
+literature on Europe. Though Greek and Slavonic almost ceased to be
+written languages under Turkish rule, Europeans showed no disposition to
+replace them by Ottoman or Arabic literature.
+
+Without counting subdivisions there would seem to be three main schools
+of art in Asia at present--Chinese, Indian and Moslem. The first
+contains many original elements. It is feeblest in architecture and
+strongest in the branches demanding skill and care in a limited compass,
+such as painting, porcelain and enamel. It is the main inspiration of
+Japanese art, which, however, shows great originality in its treatment
+of borrowed themes. Both China and Japan have felt through Buddhism the
+influence of Indian art, which contains at least two elements--one
+indigenous and the other Greco-Persian. Unlike Chinese art it has a
+genius for architecture and sculpture rather than painting. Mahommedan
+art is also largely architectural and has affected nearly all Moslem
+countries. Except that the use of Arabic inscriptions is one of its
+principal methods of decoration, it owes little to Arabia and much to
+Byzantium. The Persian variety of this art is more ornate, and less
+averse to representations of living beings. Both Moslem and Chinese art
+are closely connected with calligraphy, but Hindus rarely use writing
+for ornament.
+
+In both art and literature modern Asia is inferior to the past more
+conspicuously than Europe.
+
+As for science, astronomy was cultivated by the Babylonians at an early
+period, and it is probably from them that a knowledge of the heavenly
+bodies and their movements spread over Asia. Grammar and prosody were
+studied in India with a marvellous accuracy and minuteness several
+centuries before Christ. Mathematics were cultivated by the Chinese,
+Indians and Arabs, but nearly all the sciences based on the observation
+of nature, including medicine, have remained in a very backward
+condition. Much the same, however, might have been said of Europe until
+two centuries ago, and the scientific knowledge of the Arabs under the
+earlier Caliphates was equal or superior to that of any of their
+contemporaries. Histories and accounts of travels have been composed
+both in Arabic and Chinese.
+
+
+  Influence of Asia on other continents.
+
+19. It is only natural that Europe should have chiefly felt the
+influence of western Asia. Though Europeans may be indebted to China for
+some mechanical inventions, she was too distant to produce much direct
+effect, and the influence of India has been mainly directed towards the
+East. The resemblances between primitive Christianity and Buddhism
+appear to be coincidences, and though both early Greek philosophy and
+later Alexandrine ideas suggest Indian affinities, there is no clear
+connexion such as there is between certain aspects of Chinese thought
+and India.
+
+Any general statement as to the debt owed by early European
+civilizations to western Asia would at present be premature, for though
+important discoveries have been made in Crete and Babylonia the best
+authorities are chary of positive conclusions as to the relations of
+Cretan civilization to Egypt and Babylonia. Egyptian influence within
+the Aegean area seems certain, and the theory that Greek writing and
+systems for reckoning time are Babylonian in origin has not been
+disproved, though the history of the alphabet is more complex than was
+supposed.
+
+In historic times Asia has attempted to assert her influence over Europe
+by a series of invasions, most of which have been repulsed. Such were
+the Persian wars of Greece, and perhaps one may add Hannibal's invasion
+of Italy, if the Carthaginians were Phoenicians transplanted to Africa.
+The Roman empire kept back the Persians and Parthians, but could not
+prevent a series of incursions by Avars, Huns, Bulgarians, and later by
+Mongols and Turks. Islam has twice obtained a footing in Europe, under
+the Arabs in Spain and under the Turks at Constantinople. The earlier
+Asiatic invasions were conducted by armies operating at a distance from
+their bases, and had little result, for the soldiery retired after a
+time (like Alexander from India), or more rarely (e.g. the Bulgarians)
+settled down without keeping up any connexion with Asia. The Turks, and
+to some extent the Arabs in Spain, were successful because they first
+conquered the parts of Asia and Africa adjoining Europe, so that the
+final invaders were in touch with Asiatic settlements. Though the Turks
+have profoundly affected the whole of eastern Europe, the result of
+their conquests has been not so much to plant Asiatic culture in Europe
+as to arrest development entirely, the countries under their rule
+remaining in much the same condition as under the moribund Byzantine
+empire.
+
+In general, Europe has in historic times shown itself decidedly hostile
+to Asiatic institutions and modes of thought. It is only of recent years
+that the writings of Schopenhauer and the researches of many
+distinguished orientalists have awakened some interest in Asiatic
+philosophy.
+
+The influence of Asia on Africa has been considerable, and until the
+middle of the 10th century greater than that of Europe. Some authorities
+hold that Egyptian civilization came from Babylonia, and that the
+so-called Hamitic languages are older and less specialized members of
+the Semitic family. The connexion between Carthage and Phoenicia is more
+certain, and the ancient Abyssinian kingdom was founded by Semites from
+south Arabia. The traditions of the Somalis derive them from the same
+region. The theory that the ruins in Mashonaland were built by
+immigrants from south Arabia is now discredited, but there was certainly
+a continuous stream of Arab migration to East Africa which probably
+began in pre-Moslem times and founded a series of cities on the coast.
+The whole of the north of Africa from Egypt to Morocco has been
+mahommedanized, and Mahommedan influence is general and fairly strong
+from Timbuktu to Lake Chad and Wadai. South of the equator, Arab
+slave-dealers penetrated from Zanzibar to the great lakes and the Congo
+during the second and third quarters of the 19th century, but their
+power, though formidable, has disappeared without leaving any permanent
+traces.
+
+The relation to Asia of the pre-European civilizations of America is
+another of those questions which admit of no definite answer at present,
+though many facts support the theory that the semi-civilized inhabitants
+of Mexico and Central America crossed from Asia by Bering Straits and
+descended the west coast. Some authorities hold that Peruvian
+civilization had no connexion with the north and was an entirely
+indigenous product, but Kechua is in structure not unlike the
+agglutinative languages of central and northern Asia.
+
+
+  Influence of Europe on Asia.
+
+20. European influence on Asia has been specially strong at two epochs,
+firstly after the conquests of Alexander the Great, and secondly from
+the 16th century onwards. Alexander's conquests resulted in the
+foundation of Perso-Greek kingdoms in Asia, which not only hellenized
+their own area but influenced the art and religion of India and to some
+extent of China. Then follows a long period in which eastern Europe was
+mainly occupied in combating Asiatic invasions, and had little
+opportunity of Europeanizing the East. Somewhat later the Crusades kept
+up communication with the Levant, and established there the power of the
+Roman Church, somewhat to the detriment of oriental Christianity, but
+intercourse with farther Asia was limited to the voyages of a few
+travellers. Looking at eastern Europe and western Asia only, one must
+say that Asiatic influences have on the whole prevailed hitherto (though
+perhaps the tide is turning), for Islam is paramount in this region and
+European culture at a low ebb. But the case is quite different if one
+looks at the two continents as a whole, for improvement in means of
+communication has brought about strange vicissitudes, and western Europe
+has asserted her power in middle and eastern Asia.
+
+In the 16th century a new era began with the discovery by the Portuguese
+of the route to India round the Cape, and the naval powers of Europe
+started one after another on careers of oriental conquest. The movement
+was maritime and affected the nations in the extreme west of Europe
+rather than those nearer Asia, who were under the Turkish yoke. Also the
+parts of Asia affected were chiefly India and the extreme East. The
+countries west of India, being less exposed to naval invasion, remained
+comparatively untouched. It will thus be seen that European (excluding
+Russian) power in Asia is based almost entirely on improved navigation.
+There was no attempt to overwhelm whole empires by pouring into them
+masses of troops, but commerce was combined with territorial
+acquisition, and a continuity of European interest secured by the
+presence of merchants and settlers. The course of oriental conquest
+followed the events of European politics, and the possessions of
+European powers in the East generally changed hands according to the
+fortunes of their masters at home. Portugal was first on the scene, and
+in the 16th century established a considerable littoral empire on the
+coasts of East Africa, India and China, fragments of which still remain,
+especially Goa, where Portuguese influence on the natives was
+considerable. Before the century was out the Dutch appeared as the
+successful rivals of the Portuguese, but the real struggle for supremacy
+in southern Asia took place between France and England about 1740-1783.
+Both entered India as commercial companies, but the disorganized
+condition of the Mogul empire necessitated the use of military force to
+protect their interests, and allured them to conquest. The companies
+gradually undertook the financial control of the districts where they
+traded and were recognized by the natives as political powers. The
+ultimate victory of England seems due less to any particular aptitude
+for dealing with oriental problems than to a better command of the seas
+and to considerations of European politics. At the end of the Napoleonic
+wars Portugal had Macao and Goa, Holland Java, Sumatra and other
+islands, France some odds and ends in India, while England emerged with
+Hong Kong, Singapore, Ceylon and a free hand in India. Guided by such
+administrators as Warren Hastings, the East India Company had assumed
+more and more definitely the functions of government for a great part of
+India. In 1809 its exclusive trading rights were taken away by
+Parliament, but its administrative status was thus made clearer, and
+when after the mutiny of 1857 it was desirable to define British
+authority in India there seemed nothing unnatural in declaring it to be
+a possession of the crown.
+
+Another category of European possessions in Asia comprises those
+acquired towards the end of the 19th century, such as Indo-China
+(France), Burma and Wei-Hai-Wei (Britain), and Kiao-Chow (Germany).
+Whereas the earlier conquests were mostly the results of large
+half-conscious national movements working out their destinies in the
+East, these later ones were annexations deliberately planned by European
+cabinets. It seemed to be assumed that Asia was to be divided among the
+powers of Europe, and each was anxious to get its share or more.
+
+The advance of Russia in Asia is entirely different from that of the
+other powers, since it has taken place by land and not by sea. Though
+the geographical extent of Russian territory and influence is enormous,
+she has always moved along the line of least resistance. She is a
+moderately strong empire lying to the north of the great Moslem states,
+and having for neighbours a series of very weak principalities or
+semi-civilized tribes. The conquest of Siberia and central Asia
+presented no real difficulties: Persia and Constantinople were left on
+one side, and Russia was defeated as soon as she was opposed by a
+vigorous power in the Far East. As the Russian possessions in Asia are
+continuous with European Russia, it is only natural that they should
+have been russified far more thoroughly than the British possessions
+have been anglicized.
+
+There has been great difference of opinion as to the extent to which
+Alexander's conquests influenced Asia, and it is equally hard to say
+what is the effect now being produced by Europe. Clearly such
+alterations as the construction of railways in nearly all parts of the
+continent, and the establishment of peace over formerly disturbed areas
+like India, are of enormous importance, and must change the life of the
+people. But the mental constitution of Asiatics is less easily modified
+than their institutions, and even Japan has assimilated European methods
+rather than European ideas. (C. El.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The modern bibliography of Asia, including the works of
+  travellers and explorers since 1880, is voluminous. It is impossible
+  to refer to all that has been written in the Survey Reports and
+  Gazetteers of the government of India, or in the records of the Royal
+  Asiatic Society, or the Asiatic Society, Bengal; but amongst the more
+  important popular works are the following:--Richthofen, "China, Japan,
+  and Korea," vol. iv. _Jour. R.G.S._, _China_ (Berlin, 1877); Regel,
+  "Upper Oxus," vol. i. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1879; Dr Bellew, _Afghanistan
+  and the Afghans_ (London, 1879); Nicolas Prjevalski, "Explorations in
+  Asia," see vols. i., ii., v., ix. and xi. of the _Proc. R.G.S._,
+  1879-1889; W. Blunt, "A Visit to Jebel Shammar," vol ii. _Proc.
+  R.G.S._, 1880; Captain W Gill, _The River of Golden Sand_ (London,
+  1880); Sir R. Temple, "Central Plateau of Asia," vol. iv. _Proc.
+  R.G.S._ 1882; Baker, "A Journey of Exploration in Western Ssu-Chuan,"
+  vol. i. _Supplementary Papers R.G.S._, 1882-1885; Sir C. Wilson,
+  "Notes on Physical and Historical Geography of Asia Minor," vol. vi.
+  _Proc. R.G.S._, 1884; General J.T. Walker, "Asiatic Explorers of the
+  Indian Survey," vol. viii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1885; Samuel Beal,
+  _Buddhist Records of the Western World_ (Boston, 1885); Charles
+  Doughty, _Travels in Northern Arabia_ (Cambridge, 1886); _Travels in
+  Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888); Venukoff, "Explorations," vol.
+  viii. _Proc. G.R.S._, 1886; Ney Elias, "Explorations in Central Asia,"
+  see vols. viii. and ix. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1886-1887; Arthur Carey,
+  "Explorations in Turkestan," see vol. ix. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1887; Henry
+  Lansdell, _Through Central Asia_ (London, 1887); Archibald Colquhoun,
+  _Report on Railway Connexion between Burma and China_ (London, 1887);
+  Major C. Yate, _Northern Afghanistan_ (Edinburgh, 1888); Captain F.
+  Younghusband, _The Heart of a Continent_ (London, 1893); _A Journey
+  through Manchuria, &c._ (Lahore, 1888); also see vol. x. _Proc.
+  R.G.S._, and vol. v. _Jour. R.G.S._; Dutreuil de Rhins, _L'Asie
+  Centrale_ (Paris, 1889); Pierre Bonvalot, _Through the Heart of Asia_,
+  trans. Pitman (London, 1889); _From Paris to Tonkin_, trans. Pitman
+  (London, 1891); Roborovski, translation from Russian _Invalide_,
+  October 1889, vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._; "Central Asia," vol. viii.
+  _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Colonel Mark Bell, "Trade Routes of Asia," vol.
+  xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; W.W. Rockhill, "An American in Tibet,"
+  _Century Magazine_, November 1890; _The Land of the Lamas_ (London,
+  1891); Theodore Bent, "Hadramut," vol. iv. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894;
+  "Southern Arabia," vol. vi. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; "Bahrein Islands,"
+  vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; Grombcherski, "Explorations in Kuen
+  Lun," vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; Lydekker, "The Geology of the
+  Kashmir Valley and Chamba Territories," vols. xiii. and xiv.
+  _Geological Survey of India_; Max Muller, _The Sacred Books of the
+  East_ (Oxford, 1890-1894); Elisee Reclus, _The Earth and its
+  Inhabitants_ (series, 1890); G.W. Leitner, _Dardistan_; H.F. Blanford,
+  _Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and Ceylon_ (London, 1890);
+  _Guide to the Climate and Weather of India_ (London, 1889); Lord
+  Dunmore, _The Pamirs_ (London, 1892); A. Tissandier, _Voyage au tour
+  du monde_ (Paris, 1892); Lord Curzon, _Persia and the Persian
+  Question_ (London, 1892); _Russia and the Anglo-Russian Question_
+  (London, 1889); _Problems of the Far East_ (London, 1894); Captain
+  Hamilton Bower, _Diary of a Journey across Tibet_ (Calcutta, 1893);
+  Szechenyi, _Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Reise des Grafen
+  Bela Szechenyi in Ostasien_ (Wien, 1893); R.D. Oldham, "Evolution of
+  Indian Geology," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894; Baron Toll,
+  "Siberia," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894; Delmar Morgan, "The
+  Mountain Systems of Central Asia," _Scottish Geological Magazine_, No.
+  10, of 1894; Sir Frederick Goldsmid, "Persian Geography," vol. vi.
+  _Jour. R.G.S._, 1895; Warrington Smyth, "Siam," vol. vi. _Jour.
+  R.G.S._, 1895; "Siamese East Coast," vol xi. _Jour._ 1898; Prince
+  Kropotkin, "Siberian Railway," vol. v. _R.G.S. Jour._, 1895; W.R.
+  Lawrence, _The Vale of Kashmir_ (Oxford, 1895); Captain Vaughan,
+  "Persia," vol. viii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Prince H. d'Orleans, "Yunan
+  to India," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; "Tonkin to Talifu," vol.
+  viii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Sir T. Holdich, "Ancient and Medieval
+  Makran," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; _The Indian Borderland_
+  (London, 1901); India (Oxford, 1904); Colonel Woodthorpe, "Shan
+  States," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; _Report of the Pamir Boundary
+  Commission_ (Calcutta, 1896); St George Littledale, "Journey Across
+  the Pamirs from North to South," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894, and
+  vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Sir G. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the
+  Hindu Kush_ (London, 1896); Captain Stiffe, "Persian Gulf Trading
+  Centres," vols. viii., ix. and x. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1897; Ney Elias and
+  Ross, _A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia, from the
+  Tarskh-i-Rastisdi of Mirza Haidar_ (London, 1898); Grenard, _Mission
+  scientifique sur la Haute Asie_ (Paris, 1898); Dr Sven Hedin, _Through
+  Asia_ (London, 1898); Central Asia and Tibet (1903); _Geographie des
+  Hochlandes van Pamir_ (Berlin, 1894); Captain M.S. Wellby, "Through
+  Tibet," _R.G.S. Jour._, September 1898; Captain P.M. Sykes, "Persian
+  Explorations," vol. x. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1898; _Ten Thousand Miles in
+  Persia_ (1902); Kronshin, "Old Beds of the Oxus," _Jour. R.G.S._,
+  September 1898; Sir W. Hunter, _History of British India_, vol. i.
+  (London, 1898); Captain H. Deasy, "Western Tibet," vol. ix. _Jour.
+  R.G.S._; In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan (London, 1901); A. Little,
+  _The Far East_ (Oxford, 1905); Captain Rawling, _The Great Plateau_
+  (London, 1905); _Journal of the Royal Geogl. Society_, vols. xv. to
+  xxv. (1900-1905); Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a Frontier_
+  (London, 1899); R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_ (London, 1900).
+       (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Authorities differ in their methods and results of computation of
+    these and other similar measurements.
+
+
+
+
+ASIA, in a restricted sense, the name of the first Roman province east
+of the Aegean, formed (133 B.C.) out of the kingdom left to the Romans
+by the will of Attalus III. Philometor, king of Pergamum. It included
+Mysia, Lydia, Caria and Phrygia, and therefore, of course, Aeolis, Ionia
+and the Troad. In 84 B.C., on the close of the Mithradatic War, Sulla
+reorganized the province, forming 40 _regiones_ for fiscal purposes, and
+it was later divided into _conventus_. From 80 to 50 B.C. the upper
+Maeander valley and all Phrygia, except the extreme north, were detached
+and added to Cilicia. In 27 B.C. Asia was made a senatorial province
+under a pro-consul. As the wealthiest of Roman provinces it had most to
+gain by the _pax Romana_, and therefore welcomed the empire, and
+established and maintained the most devout cult of Augustus by means of
+the organization known as the _Koinon_ or Commune, a representative
+council, meeting in the various _metropoleis_. In this cult the emperor
+came to be associated with the common worship of the Ephesian Artemis.
+By the reorganization of Diocletian, A.D. 297, Asia was broken up into
+several small provinces, and one of these, of which the capital was
+Ephesus, retained the name of the original province (see ASIA MINOR).
+
+
+
+
+ASIA MINOR, the general geographical name for the peninsula, forming
+part of the empire of Turkey, on the extreme west of the continent of
+Asia, bounded on the N. by the Black Sea, on the W. by the Aegean, and
+on the S. by the Mediterranean, and at its N.W. extremity only parted
+from Europe by the narrow straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On
+the east, no natural boundary separates it from the Armenian plateau;
+but, for descriptive purposes, it will suffice to take a line drawn from
+the southern extremity of the Giaour Dagh, east of the Gulf of
+Alexandretta along the crest of that chain, then along that of the
+eastern Taurus to the Euphrates near Malatia, then up the river, keeping
+to the western arm till Erzingan is reached, and finally bending north
+to the Black Sea along the course of the Churuk Su, which flows out west
+of Batum. This makes the Euphrates the main eastern limit, with radii to
+the north-east angle of the Levant and the south-east angle of the Black
+Sea, and roughly agrees with the popular conception of Asia Minor as a
+geographical region. But it must be remembered that this term was not
+used by classical geographers (it is first found in Orosius in the 5th
+century A.D.), and is not in local or official use now. It probably
+arose in the first instance from a vague popular distinction between the
+continent itself and the Roman province of "Asia" (q.v.), which at one
+time included most of the peninsula west of the central salt desert
+(_Axylon_). The name _Anatolia_, in the form _Anadol_, is used by
+natives for the western part of the peninsula (_cis Halym_) and not as
+including ancient Cappadocia and Pontus. Before the reconstitution of
+the provinces as _vilayets_ it was the official title of the principal
+_eyalet_ of Asia Minor, and was also used more generally to include all
+the peninsular provinces over which the beylerbey of Anadoli, whose seat
+was at Kutaiah, had the same paramount military jurisdiction which the
+beylerbey of "Rumili" enjoyed in the peninsular provinces of Europe. The
+term "Anatolia" appears first in the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus
+(10th century).
+
+  The greatest length of Asia Minor, as popularly understood, is along
+  its north edge, 720 m. Along the south it is about 650 m. The greatest
+  breadth is 420 m. from _C. Kerembe_ to _C. Anamur_; but at the waist
+  of the peninsula, between the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta and the
+  southernmost bight of the Black Sea (at Ordu), it is not quite 300 m.
+  The greater portion of Asia Minor consists of a plateau rising
+  gradually from east to west, 2500 ft. to 4500 ft.; east of the Kizil
+  Irmak (Halys), the ground rises more sharply to the highlands of
+  Armenia (q.v.). On the south the plateau is buttressed by the Taurus
+  range, which stretches in a broken irregular line from the Aegean to
+  the Persian frontier. On the north the plateau is supported by a range
+  of varying altitude, which follows the southern coast of the Black Sea
+  and has no distinctive name. On the west the edge of the plateau is
+  broken by broad valleys, and the deeply indented coast-line throws out
+  long rocky promontories towards Europe. On the north, excepting the
+  deltas formed by the Kizil and Yeshil Irmaks, there are no
+  considerable coast plains, no good harbours except Sinope and Vona,
+  and no islands. On the west there are narrow coast plains of limited
+  extent, deep gulfs, which offer facilities for trade and commerce, and
+  a fringe of protecting islands. On the south are the isolated plains
+  of Pamphylia and Cilicia, the almost land-locked harbours of
+  Marmarice, Makri and Kekova, the broad bay of Adalia, the deep-seated
+  gulf of Alexandretta (Iskanderun), and the islands of Rhodes with
+  dependencies, Castelorizo and Cyprus.
+
+  _Mountains._--The Taurus range, perhaps the most important feature in
+  Asia Minor, runs the whole length of the peninsula on the south,
+  springing east of Euphrates in the Armeno-Kurdish highlands, and being
+  prolonged into the Aegean Sea by rocky promontories and islands. It
+  attains in Lycia an altitude of 10,500 ft., and in the Bulgar Dagh
+  (Cilicia) of over 10,000 ft. The average elevation is about 7000 ft.
+  East of the Bulgar Dagh the range is pierced by the Sihun and Jihun
+  rivers, and their tributaries, but its continuity is not broken. The
+  principal passes across the range are those over which Roman or
+  Byzantine roads ran:--(1) from Laodicea to Adalia (Attalia), by way of
+  the Khonas pass and the valley of the Istanoz Chai; (2) from Apamea or
+  from Pisidian Antioch to Adalia, by Isbarta and Sagalassus; (3) from
+  Laranda, by Coropissus and the upper valley of the southern
+  Calycadnus, to Germanicopolis and thence to Anemourium or Kelenderis;
+  (4) from Laranda, by the lower Calycadnus, to Claudiopolis and thence
+  to Kelenderis or Seleucia; (5) from Iconium or Caesarea Mazaca,
+  through the Cilician Gates (Gulek Boghaz, 3300 ft.) to Tarsus; (6)
+  from Caesarea to the valley of the Sarus and thence to Flaviopolis on
+  the Cilician Plain; (7) from Caesarea over Anti-Taurus by the Kuru
+  Chai to Cocvsus (Geuksun) and thence to Germanicia (Marash). Large
+  districts on the southern slopes of the Taurus chain are covered with
+  forests of oak and fir, and there are numerous _yailas_ or grassy
+  "alps," with abundant water, to which villagers and nomads move with
+  their flocks during the summer months.
+
+  Anti-Taurus is a term of rather vague and doubtful application, (a)
+  Some have regarded it as meaning the more or less continuous range
+  which buttresses up the central plateau on the north, parallel to the
+  Taurus, (b) Others take it to mean the line of heights and mountain
+  peaks which separates the waters running to the Black Sea and the
+  Anatolian plateau from those falling to the Persian Gulf and the
+  Mediterranean. This has its origin in the high land, near the source
+  of the Kizil Irmak, and thence runs south-west towards the volcanic
+  district of Mt. Argaeus, which, however, can hardly be regarded as
+  orographically one with it. After a low interval it springs up again
+  at its southern extremity in the lofty sharp-peaked ridge of Ala Dagh
+  (11,000 ft.), and finally joins Taurus. (c) South of Sivas a line of
+  bare hills connects this chain with another range of high forest-clad
+  mountains, which loses itself southwards in the main mass of Taurus,
+  and is held to be the true Anti-Taurus by geographers. It throws off,
+  in the latitude of Kaisarieh, a subsidiary range, the Binboa Dagh,
+  which separates the waters of the Sihun from those of the Jihun. The
+  principal passes are those followed by the old roads:--(1) from
+  Sebasteia to Tephrike and the upper valley of the western Euphrates;
+  (2) from Sebasteia to Melitene, by way of the pass of Delikli Tash and
+  the basin of the Tokhma Su; (3) from Caesarea to Arabissus, by the
+  Kuru Chai and the valley of Cocysus (Geuksun). The range of Amanus
+  (Giaour Dagh) is separated from the mass of Taurus by the deep gorge
+  of the Jihun, whence it runs south-south-west to Ras el-Khanzir,
+  forming the limit between Cilicia and Syria, various parts bearing
+  different names, as Elma Dagh above Alexandretta. It attains its
+  greatest altitude in Kaya Duldul (6500 ft.), which rises abruptly from
+  the bed of the Jihun, and it is crossed by two celebrated passes:--(1)
+  the Amanides Pylae (Baghche Pass), through which ran the road from the
+  Cilician Plain to Apamea-Zeugma, on the Euphrates; (2) the Pylae
+  Syriae or "Syrian Gates" (Beilan Pass), through which passed the great
+  Roman highway from Tarsus to Syria. On the western edge of the plateau
+  several short ranges, running approximately east and west, rise above
+  the general level:--Sultan Dagh (6500 ft.); Salbacus-Cadmus (8000
+  ft.); Messogis (3600 ft.); Latmus (6000 ft.); Tmolus (5000 ft.);
+  Dindymus (8200 ft.); Ida (5800 ft.); and the Mysian Olympus (7600
+  ft.). The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and Caicus facilitate
+  communication between the plateau and the Aegean, and the descent to
+  the Sea of Marmora along the valleys of the Tembris and Sangarius
+  presents no difficulties. The northern border range, though not
+  continuous, rises steadily from the west to its culmination in the
+  Galatian Olympus (Ilkaz Dagh), south of Kastamuni. East of the Kizil
+  Irmak there is no single mountain chain, but there are several short
+  ranges with elevations sometimes exceeding 9000 ft. The best routes
+  from the plateau to the Black Sea were followed by the Roman roads
+  from Tavium and Sebasteia to Sinope and Amisus, and those from
+  Sebasteia to Cotyora and Cerasus-Pharnacia, which at first ascend the
+  upper Halys. Several minor ranges rise above the level of the eastern
+  plateau, and in the south groups of volcanic peaks and cones extend
+  for about 150 m. from Kaisarieh (Caesarea) to Karaman. The most
+  important are Mt. Argaeus (Erjish Dagh, 13,100 ft.) above Kaisarieh
+  itself, the highest peak in Asia Minor; Ali Dagh (6200 ft.); Hassan
+  Dagh (8000 ft.); Karaja Dagh; and Kara Dagh (7500 ft.). On the west of
+  the plateau evidences of volcanic activity are to be seen in the
+  district of Kula (Katakekaumene), coated with recent erupted matter,
+  and in the numerous hot springs of the Lycus, Maeander, and other
+  valleys. Earthquakes are frequent all over the peninsula, but
+  especially in the south-east and west, where the Maeander valley and
+  the Gulf of Smyrna are notorious seismic foci. The centre of the
+  plateau is occupied by a vast treeless plain, the _Axylon_ of the
+  Greeks, in which lies a large salt lake, Tuz Geul. The plain is
+  fertile where cultivated, fairly supplied with deep wells, and in many
+  places covered with good pasture. Enclosed between the Taurus and
+  Amanus ranges and the sea are the fertile plains of Cilicia Pedias,
+  consisting in great part of a rich, stoneless loam, out of which rise
+  rocky crags that are crowned with the ruins of Greco-Roman and
+  Armenian strongholds, and of Pamphylia, partly alluvial soil, partly
+  travertine, deposited by the Taurus rivers.
+
+  _Rivers._--The rivers of Asia Minor are of no great importance. Some
+  do not flow directly to the sea; others find their way to the coast
+  through deep rocky gorges, or are mere torrents; and a few only are
+  navigable for boats for short distances from their mouths. They cut so
+  deep into the limestone formation of the plateau as to over-drain it,
+  and often they disappear into swallow holes (_duden_) to reappear
+  lower down. The most important rivers which flow to the Black Sea are
+  the following:--the Boas (Churuk Su) which rises near Baiburt, and
+  flows out near Batum; the Iris (Yeshil Irmak), with its tributaries
+  the Lycus (Kelkit Irmak), which rises on the Armenian plateau, the
+  Chekerek Irmak, which has its source near Yuzgat, and the Tersakan Su;
+  the Halys (Kizil Irmak) is the longest river in Asia Minor, with its
+  tributaries the Delije Irmak (Cappadox), which flows through the
+  eastern part of Galatia, and the Geuk Irmak, which has its sources in
+  the mountains above Kastamuni. With the exception of Sivas, no town
+  of importance lies in the valley of the Kizil Irmak throughout its
+  course of over 600 m. The Sangarius (Sakaria) rises in the Phrygian
+  mountains and, after many changes of direction, falls into the Black
+  Sea, about 80 m. east of the Bosporus. Its tributaries are the Pursak
+  Su (Tembris), which has its source in the Murad Dagh (Dindymus), and,
+  after running north to Eski-shehr, flows almost due east to the
+  Sakaria, and the Enguri Su, which joins the Sakaria a little below the
+  junction of the Pursak. To the Black Sea, about 40 m. east of Eregli,
+  also flows the Billaeus (Filiyas Chai). Into the Sea of Marmora run
+  the Rhyndacus (Edrenos Chai) and the Macestus (Susurlu Chai), which
+  unite about 12 m. from the sea. The most celebrated streams of the
+  Troad are the Granicus (Bigha Chai) and the Scamander (Menderes Su),
+  both rising in Mt. Ida (Kaz Dagh). The former flows to the Sea of
+  Marmora; the latter to the Dardanelles. The most northerly of the
+  rivers that flow to the Aegean is the Caicus (Bakir Chai), which runs
+  past Soma, and near Pergamum, to the Gulf of Chanderli. The Hermus
+  (Gediz Chai) has its principal sources in the Murad Dagh, and,
+  receiving several streams on its way, runs through the volcanic
+  district of Katakekaumene to the broad fertile valley through which it
+  flows past Manisa to the sea, near Lefke. So recently as about 1880 it
+  discharged into the Gulf of Smyrna, but the shoals formed by its
+  silt-laden waters were so obstructive to navigation that it was turned
+  back into its old bed. Its principal tributaries are--the Phrygius
+  (Kum Chai), which receives the waters of the Lycus (Gurduk Chai), and
+  the Cogamus (Kuzu Chai), which in its upper course is separated from
+  the valley of the Maeander by hills that were crossed by the Roman
+  road from Pergamum to Laodicea. The Caystrus (Kuchuk Menderes) flows
+  through a fertile valley between Mt. Tmolus and Messogis to the sea
+  near Ephesus, where its silt has filled up the port. The Maeander
+  (Menderes Chai) takes its rise in a celebrated group of springs near
+  Dineir, and after a winding course enters the broad valley, through
+  which it "meanders" to the sea. Its deposits have long since filled up
+  the harbours of Miletus, and converted the islands which protected
+  them into mounds in a swampy plain. Its principal tributaries are the
+  Glaucus, the Senarus (Banaz Chai), and the Hippurius, on the right
+  bank. On the left bank are the Lycus (Churuk Su), which flows
+  westwards by Colossae through a broad open valley that affords the
+  only natural approach to the eleated plateau, the Harpasus (Ak Chai),
+  and the Marsyas (China Chai). The rivers that flow to the
+  Mediterranean, with two exceptions, rise in Mt. Taurus, and have short
+  courses, but in winter and spring they bring down large bodies of
+  water. In Lycia are the Indus (Gereniz Chai), and the Xanthus (Eshen
+  Chai). The Pamphylian plain is traversed by the Cestrus (Ak Su), the
+  Eurymedon (Keupri Su), and the Melas (Menavgat Chai), which, where it
+  enters the sea, is a broad, deep stream, navigable for about 6 m. The
+  Calycadnus (Geuk Su) has two main branches which join near Mut and
+  flow south-east, and enter the sea, a deep rapid river, about 12 m.
+  below Selefke. The Cydnus (Tersous or Tarsus Chai) is formed by the
+  junction of three streams that rise in Mt. Taurus, and one of these
+  flows through the narrow gorge known as the Cilician Gates. After
+  passing Tarsus, the river enters a marsh which occupies the site of
+  the ancient harbour. The Cydnus is liable to floods, and its deposits
+  have covered Roman Tarsus to a depth of 20 ft. The Sarus (Sihun) is
+  formed by the junction of the Karmalas (Zamanti Su), which rises in
+  Uzun Yaila, and the Sarus (Saris), which has its sources in the hills
+  to the south of the same plateau. The first, after entering Mt.
+  Taurus, flows through a deep chasm walled in by lofty precipices, and
+  is joined in the heart of the range by the Saris. Before reaching the
+  Cilician Plain the river receives the waters of the Kerkhun Su, which
+  cuts through the Bulgar Dagh, and opens a way for the roads from the
+  Cilician Gates to Konia and Kaisarieh. After passing Adana, to which
+  point small craft ascend, the Sihun runs south-west to the sea. There
+  are, however, indications that at one period it flowed south-east to
+  join the Pyramus. The Pyramus (Jihun) has its principal source in a
+  group of large springs near Albistan; but before it enters Mt. Taurus
+  it is joined by the Sogutli Irmak, the Khurman Su and the Geuk Su. The
+  river emerges from Taurus, about 7 m. west of Marash, and here it is
+  joined by the Ak Su, which rises in some small lakes south of Taurus.
+  The Jihun now enters a remarkable defile which separates Taurus from
+  the Giaour Dagh, and reaches the Cilician Plain near Budrun. From this
+  point it flows west, and then south-west past Missis, until it makes a
+  bend to discharge its waters south of Ayas Bay. The river is navigable
+  as far as Missis. The only considerable tributary of the Euphrates
+  which comes within our region is the Tokhma Su, which rises in Uzun
+  Yaila and flows south-east to the main river not far from Malatia. In
+  the central and southern portions of the plateau the streams either
+  flow into salt lakes, where their waters pass off by evaporation, or
+  into freshwater lakes, which have no visible outlets. In the latter
+  cases the waters find their way beneath Taurus in subterranean
+  channels, and reappear as the sources of rivers flowing to the coast.
+  Thus the Ak Geul supplies the Cydnus, and the Beishehr, Egirdir and
+  Kestel lakes feed the rivers of the Pamphylian plain.
+
+  _Lakes._--The salt lakes are Tuz Geul (anc. _Tatta_), which lies in
+  the great central plain, and is about 60 m. long and 10 to 30 m. broad
+  in winter, but in the dry season it is hardly more than a saline
+  marsh; Buldur Geul, 2900 ft. above sea-level; and Aji-tuz Geul, 2600
+  ft. The freshwater lakes are Beishehr Geul (anc. _Karalis_), 3770 ft.,
+  a fine sheet of water 30 m. long, which discharges south-east to the
+  Soghla Geul; Egirdir Geul (probably anc. _Limnae_, a name which
+  included the two bays of Hoiran and Egirdir, forming the lake), 2850
+  ft., which is 30 m. long, but less broad than Beishehr and noted for
+  the abundance and variety of its fish. In the north-west portion of
+  Asia Minor are Isnik Geul (L. Ascania), Abulliont Geul (L. Apollonia),
+  and Maniyas Geul (L. Miletopolis).
+
+  _Springs._--Asia Minor is remarkable for the number of its thermal and
+  mineral springs. The most important are:--Yalova, in the Ismid sanjak;
+  Brusa, Chitli, Terje and Eskishehr, in the Brusa vilayet; Tuzla, in
+  the Karasi; Cheshme, Ilija, Hierapolis (with enormous alum deposits),
+  and Alashehr, in the Aidin; Terzili Hammam and Iskelib in the Angora;
+  Boli in the Kastamuni; and Khavsa, in the Sivas. Many of these were
+  famous in antiquity and occur in a list given by Strabo. The Maeander
+  valley is especially noted for its hot springs.
+
+  _Geology._--The central plateau of Asia Minor consists of nearly
+  horizontal strata, while the surrounding mountain chains form a
+  complex system, in which the beds are intensely folded. Around the
+  coast flat-lying deposits of Tertiary age are found, and these often
+  extend high up into the mountain region. The deposits of the central,
+  or Lycaonian, plateau consist of freshwater marls and limestones of
+  late Tertiary or Neogene age. Along the south-eastern margin, in front
+  of the Taurus, stands a line of great volcanoes, stretching from
+  Kara-Dagh to Argaeus. They are now extinct, but were probably active
+  till the close of the Tertiary period. On its southern side the
+  plateau is bounded by the high chains of the Taurus and the
+  Anti-Taurus, which form a crescent with its convexity facing
+  southwards. Devonian and Carboniferous fossils have been found in
+  several places in the Anti-Taurus. Limestones of Eocene or Cretaceous
+  age form a large part of the Taurus, but the interior zone probably
+  includes rocks of earlier periods. The folding of the Anti-Taurus
+  affects the Eocene but not the Miocene, while in the Taurus the
+  Miocene beds have been elevated, but without much folding, to great
+  heights. North of the Lycaonian plateau lies another zone of folding
+  which may be divided into the East Pontian and West Pontian arcs. In
+  the east a well-defined mountain system runs nearly parallel to the
+  Black Sea coast from Batum to Sinope, forming a gentle curve with its
+  convexity facing southwards. Cretaceous limestones and serpentine take
+  a large part in the formation of these mountains, while even the
+  Oligocene is involved in the folds. West of Sinope Cretaceous beds
+  form a long strip parallel to the shore line. Carboniferous rocks
+  occur at Eregli (Heraclea Pontica), where they have been worked for
+  coal. Devonian fossils have been found near the Bosporus and
+  Carboniferous fossils at Balia Maden in Mysia. Triassic, Jurassic and
+  Cretaceous beds form a band south of the Sea of Marmora, probably the
+  continuation of the Mesozoic band of the Black Sea coast. Farther
+  south there are zones of serpentine, and of crystalline and schistose
+  rocks, some of which are probably Palaeozoic. The direction of the
+  folds of this region is from west to east, but on the borders of
+  Phrygia and Mysia they meet the north-westerly extension of the Taurus
+  folds and bend around the ancient mass of Lydia. Marine Eocene beds
+  occur near the Dardanelles, but the Tertiary deposits of this part of
+  Asia Minor are mostly freshwater and belong to the upper part of the
+  system. In western Mysia they are much disturbed, but in eastern Mysia
+  they are nearly horizontal. They are often accompanied by volcanic
+  rocks, which are mainly andesitic, and they commonly lie unconformably
+  upon the older beds. In the western part of Asia Minor there are
+  several areas of ancient rocks about which very little is known. The
+  Taurus folds here meet another system which enters the region from the
+  Aegean Sea.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is varied, but systematic observations are
+  wanting. On the plateau the winter is long and cold, and in the
+  northern districts there is much snow. The summer is very hot, but the
+  nights are usually cool. On the north coast the winter is cold, and
+  the winds, sweeping across the Black Sea from the steppes of Russia,
+  are accompanied by torrents of rain and heavy falls of snow. East of
+  Samsun, where the coast is partially protected by the Caucasus, the
+  climate is more moderate. In summer the heat is damp and enervating,
+  and, as Trebizond is approached, the vegetation becomes almost
+  subtropical. On the south coast the winter is mild, with occasional
+  frosts and heavy rain; the summer heat is very great. On the west
+  coast the climate is moderate, but the influence of the cold north
+  winds is felt as far south as Smyrna, and the winter at that place is
+  colder than in corresponding latitudes in Europe. A great feature of
+  summer is the _inbat_ or north wind, which blows almost daily, often
+  with the force of a gale, off the sea from noon till near sunset.
+
+  _Products, &c._--The mineral wealth of Asia Minor is very great, but
+  few mines have yet been opened. The minerals known to exist are--alum,
+  antimony, arsenic, asbestos, boracide, chrome, coal, copper, emery,
+  fuller's earth, gold, iron, kaolin, lead, lignite, magnetic iron,
+  manganese, meerschaum, mercury, nickel, rock-salt, silver, sulphur and
+  zinc. The vegetation varies with the climate, soil and elevation. The
+  mountains on the north coast are clothed with dense forests of pine,
+  fir, cedar, oak, beech, &c. On the Taurus range the forests are
+  smaller, and there is a larger proportion of pine. On the west coast
+  the ilex, plane, oak, valonia oak, and pine predominate. On the
+  plateau willows, poplars and chestnut trees grow near the streams,
+  but nine-tenths of the country is treeless, except for scrub. On the
+  south and west coasts the fig and olive are largely cultivated. The
+  vine yields rich produce everywhere, except in the higher districts.
+  The apple, pear, cherry and plum thrive well in the north; the orange,
+  lemon, citron and sugar-cane in the south; styrax and mastic in the
+  south-west; and the wheat lands of the Sivas vilayet can hardly be
+  surpassed. The most important vegetable productions are--cereals,
+  cotton, gum tragacanth, liquorice, olive oil, opium, rice, saffron,
+  salep, tobacco and yellow berries. Silk is produced in large
+  quantities in the vicinity of Brusa and Amasia, and mohair from the
+  Angora goat all over the plateau. The wild animals include bear, boar,
+  chamois, fallow red and roe deer, gazelle, hyena, ibex, jackal,
+  leopard, lynx, moufflon, panther, wild sheep and wolf. The native
+  reports of a maneless lion in Lycia (_arslan_) are probably based on
+  the existence of large panthers. Amongst the domestic animals are the
+  buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel, bred from a Bactrian sire
+  and Syrian mother. Large numbers of sheep and Angora goats are reared
+  on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on the Uzun Yaila; but no
+  effort is made to improve the quality of the wool and mohair or the
+  breed of horses. Good mules can be obtained in several districts, and
+  small hardy oxen are largely bred for ploughing and transport. The
+  larger birds are the bittern, great and small bustard, eagle,
+  francolin, goose; giant, grey and red-legged partridge, sand grouse,
+  pelican, pheasant, stork and swan. The rivers and lakes are well
+  supplied with fish, and the mountain streams abound with small trout.
+
+  The principal manufactures are:--Carpets, rugs, cotton, tobacco,
+  mohair and silk stuffs, soap, wine and leather. The exports
+  are:--Cereal, cotton, cotton seed, dried fruits, drugs, fruit, gall
+  nuts, gum tragacanth, liquorice root, maize, nuts, olive oil, opium,
+  rice, sesame, sponges, storax, timber, tobacco, valonia, walnut wood,
+  wine, yellow berries, carpets, cotton yarn, cocoons, hides, leather,
+  mohair, silk, silk stuffs, rugs, wax, wool, leeches, live stock,
+  minerals, &c. The imports are:--Coffee, cotton cloths, cotton goods,
+  crockery, dry-salteries, fezzes, glass-ware, haberdashery, hardware,
+  henna, ironware, jute, linen goods, manufactured goods, matches,
+  petroleum, salt, sugar, woollen goods, yarns, &c.
+
+  _Communications._--There are few metalled roads, and those that exist
+  are in bad repair, but on the plateau light carts can pass nearly
+  everywhere. The lines of railway now open are:--(1) From Haidar Pasha
+  to Ismid, Eski-shehr and Angora; (2) from Mudania to Brusa; (3) from
+  Eski-shehr to Afium-Kara-hissar, Konia and Bulgurli, east of Eregli
+  (the first section of the Bagdad railway). These lines are worked by
+  the German _Gesellschaft der anatolischen Eisenbahnen_. (4) From
+  Smyrna to Manisa, Ala-shehr and Afium-Kara-hissar, with a branch line
+  from Manisa to Soma. This line is worked by a French company. (5) From
+  Smyrna to Aidin and Dineir, with branches to Odemish, Tireh, Sokia,
+  Denizli, Ishekli, Seidi Keui and Bouja, constructed and worked by an
+  English company. (6) From Mersina to Tarsus and Adana, an English line
+  under a control mainly French. There are two competing routes for the
+  eastern trade--one running inland from Constantinople (Haidar Pasha),
+  the other from Smyrna. The first is connected by ferry with the
+  European railway system; the second with the great sea routes from
+  Smyrna to Trieste, Marseilles and Liverpool. The right to construct
+  all railways in Armenia and north-eastern Asia Minor has been conceded
+  to Russia, and the Germans have a virtual monopoly of the central
+  plateau.
+
+_Ethnology._--None of the conquering races that invaded Asia Minor,
+whether from the east or from the west, wholly expelled or exterminated
+the race in possession. The vanquished retired to the hills or absorbed
+the victors. In the course of ages race distinction has been almost
+obliterated by fusion of blood; by the complete Hellenization of the
+country, which followed the introduction of Christianity; by the later
+acceptance of Islam; and by migrations due to the occupation of
+cultivated lands by the nomads. It will be convenient here to adopt the
+modern division into Moslems, Christians and Jews:--(a) _Moslems._ The
+Turks never established themselves in such numbers as to form the
+predominant element in the population. Where the land was unsuitable for
+nomad occupation the agricultural population remained, and it still
+retains some of its original characteristics. Thus in Cappadocia the
+facial type of the non-Aryan race is common, and in Galatia there are
+traces of Gallic blood. The Zeibeks of the west and south-west are
+apparently representatives of the Carians and Lycians; and the peasants
+of the Black Sea coast range of the people of Bithynia, Paphlagonia and
+Pontus. Wherever the people accepted Islam they called themselves Turks,
+and a majority of the so-called "Turks" belong by blood to the races
+that occupied Asia Minor before the Seljuk invasion. Turkish and
+Zaza-speaking Kurds (see KURDISTAN) are found in the Angora and Sivas
+vilayets. There are many large colonies of Circassians and smaller ones
+of Noghai (Nogais), Tatars, Georgians, Lazis, Cossacks, Albanians and
+Pomaks. East of Boghaz Keui there is a compact population of Kizilbash,
+who are partly descendants of Shia Turks transplanted from Persia and
+partly of the indigenous race. In the Cilician plain there are large
+settlements of Nosairis who have migrated from the Syrian mountains (see
+SYRIA). The nomads and semi-nomads are, for the most part,
+representatives of the Turks, Mongols and Tatars who poured into the
+country during the 350 years that followed the defeat of Romanus.
+Turkomans are found in the Angora and Adana vilayets; Avshars, a tribe
+of Turkish origin, in the valleys of Anti-Taurus; and Tatars in the
+Angora and Brusa vilayets; Yuruks are most numerous in the Konia
+vilayet. They speak Turkish and profess to be Moslems, but have no
+mosques or imams. The Turkomans have villages in which they spend the
+winter, wandering over the great plains of the interior with their
+flocks and herds during the summer. The Yuruks on the contrary are a
+truly nomad race. Their tents are made of black goats' hair and their
+principal covering is a cloak of the same material. They are not limited
+to the milder districts of the interior, but when the harvest is over,
+descend into the rich plains and valleys near the coast. The Chepmi and
+Takhtaji, who live chiefly in the Aidin vilayet, appear to be derived
+from one of the early races. (b) _Christians._ The Greeks are in places
+the descendants of colonists from Greece, many of whom, e.g. in
+Pamphylia and the Smyrna district, are of very recent importation; but
+most of them belong by blood to the indigenous races. These people
+became "Greeks" as being subjects of the Byzantine empire and members of
+the Eastern Church. On the west coast, in Pontus and to some extent of
+late in Cappadocia, and in the mining villages, peopled from the
+Trebizond Greeks, the language is Romaic; on the south coast and in many
+inland villages (e.g. in Cappadocia) it is either Turkish, which is
+written in Greek characters, or a Greco-Turkish jargon. In and near
+Smyrna there are large colonies of Hellenes. Armenians are most numerous
+in the eastern districts, where they have been settled since the great
+migration that preceded and followed the Seljuk invasion. There are,
+however, Armenians in every large town. In central and western Asia
+Minor they are the descendants of colonists from Persia and Armenia (see
+ARMENIA), (c) The _Jews_ live chiefly on the Bosporus; and in Smyrna,
+Rhodes, Brusa and other western towns. _Gypsies_--some Moslem, some
+Christian--are also numerous, especially in the south.
+
+_History._--Asia Minor owes the peculiar interest of its history to its
+geographical position. "Planted like a bridge between Asia and Europe,"
+it has been from the earliest period a battleground between the East and
+the West. The central plateau (2500 to 4500 ft.), with no navigable
+river and few natural approaches, with its monotonous scenery and severe
+climate, is a continuation of central Asia. The west coast, with its
+alternation of sea and promontory, of rugged mountains and fertile
+valleys, its bright and varied scenery, and its fine climate, is almost
+a part of Europe. These conditions are unfavourable to permanence, and
+the history of Asia Minor is that of the march of hostile armies, and
+rise and fall of small states, rather than that of a united state under
+an independent sovereign. At a very early period Asia Minor appears to
+have been occupied by non-Aryan tribes or races which differed little
+from each other in religion, language and social system. During the past
+generation much light has been thrown upon one of these races--the
+"Hittites" or "Syro-Cappadocians," who, after their rule had passed
+away, were known to Herodotus as "White Syrians," and whose descendants
+can still be recognised in the villages of Cappadocia.[1] The centre of
+their power is supposed to have been Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA), east of
+the Halys, whence roads radiated to harbours on the Aegean, to Sinope,
+to northern Syria and to the Cilician plain. Their strange sculptures
+and inscriptions have been found at Pteria, Euyuk, Fraktin, Kiz Hissar
+(Tyana), Ivriz, Bulgar, Muden and other places between Smyrna and the
+Euphrates (see HITTITES). When the great Aryan immigration from Europe
+commenced is unknown, but it was dying out in the 11th and 10th
+centuries B.C. In Phrygia the Aryans founded a kingdom, of which traces
+remain in various rock tombs, forts and towns, and in legends preserved
+by the Greeks. The Phrygian power was broken in the 9th or 8th century
+B.C. by the Cimmerii, who entered Asia Minor through Armenia; and on its
+decline rose the kingdom of Lydia, with its centre at Sardis. A second
+Cimmerian invasion almost destroyed the rising kingdom, but the invaders
+were expelled at last by Alyattes, 617 B.C. (see SCYTHIA). The last
+king, Croesus (? 560-546 B.C.) carried the boundaries of Lydia to the
+Halys, and subdued the Greek colonies on the coast. The date of the
+foundation of these colonies cannot be fixed; but at an early period
+they formed a chain of settlements from Trebizond to Rhodes, and by the
+8th century B.C. some of them rivalled the splendour of Tyre and Sidon.
+Too jealous of each other to combine, and too demoralized by luxury to
+resist, they fell an easy prey to Lydia; and when the Lydian kingdom
+ended with the capture of Sardis by Cyrus, 546 B.C. they passed, almost
+without resistance, to Persia. Under Persian rule Asia Minor was divided
+into four satrapies, but the Greek cities were governed by Greeks, and
+several of the tribes in the interior retained their native princes and
+priest-dynasts. An attempt of the Greeks to regain their freedom was
+crushed, 500-494 B.C., but later the tide turned and the cities were
+combined with European Greeks into a league for defence against the
+Persians. The weakness of Persian rule was disclosed by the expedition
+of Cyrus and the Ten Thousand Greeks, 402 B.C.; and in the following
+century Asia Minor was invaded by Alexander the Great (q.v.), 334 B.C.
+(See GREECE; PERSIA; IONIA.)
+
+The wars which followed the death of Alexander eventually gave Asia
+Minor to Seleucus, but none of the Seleucid kings was able to establish
+his rule over the whole peninsula. Rhodes became a great maritime
+republic, and much of the south and west coast belonged at one time or
+another to the Ptolemies of Egypt. An independent kingdom was founded at
+Pergamum, 283 B.C., which lasted until Attalus III., 133 B.C., made the
+Romans his heirs. Bithynia became an independent monarchy, and
+Cappadocia and Paphlagonia tributary provinces under native princes. In
+southern Asia Minor the Seleucids founded Antioch, Apamea, Attalia, the
+Laodiceas and Seleuceias, and other cities as centres of commerce, some
+of which afterwards played an important part in the Hellenization (see
+HELLENISM) of the country, and in the spread of Christianity. During the
+3rd century, 278-277 B.C., certain Gallic tribes crossed the Bosporus
+and Hellespont, and established a Celtic power in central Asia Minor.
+They were confined by the victories of Attalus I. of Pergamum, c. 232
+B.C., to a district on the Sangarius and Halys to which the name Galatia
+was applied; and after their defeat by Manlius, 189 B.C., they were
+subjected to the suzerainty of Pergamum (see GALATIA).
+
+The defeat of Antiochus the Great at Magnesia, 190 B.C., placed Asia
+Minor at the mercy of Rome; but it was not until 133 that the first
+Roman province, Asia, was formed to include only western Anatolia,
+without Bithynia. Errors in policy and in government facilitated the
+rise of Pontus into a formidable power under Mithradates, who was
+finally driven out of the country by Pompey, and died 63 B.C. Under the
+settlement of Asia Minor by Pompey, Bithynia-Pontus and Cilicia became
+provinces, whilst Galatia and Cappadocia were allowed to retain nominal
+independence for over half a century more under native kings, and Lycia
+continued an autonomous League. A long period of tranquillity followed,
+during which the Roman dominion grew, and all Asia Minor was divided
+into two provinces. The boundaries were often changed; and about A.D.
+297, in Diocletian's reorganization of the empire, the power of the
+great military commands was broken, and the provinces were made smaller
+and united in groups called dioceses. A great change followed the
+introduction of Christianity, which spread first along the main roads
+that ran north and west from the Cilician Gates, and especially along
+the great trade route to Ephesus. In some districts it spread rapidly,
+in others slowly. With its advance the native languages and old
+religions gradually disappeared, and at last the whole country was
+thoroughly Hellenized, and the people united by identity of language and
+religion.
+
+At the close of the 6th century Asia Minor had become wealthy and
+prosperous; but centuries of peace and over-centralization had affected
+the _moral_ of the people and weakened the central government. During
+the 7th century the provincial system broke down, and the country was
+divided into _themes_ or military districts. From 616 to 626 Persian
+armies swept unimpeded over the land, and Chosroes (Khosrau) II. pitched
+his camp on the shore of the Bosporus. The victories of Heraclius forced
+Chosroes to retire; but the Persians were followed by the Arabs, who,
+advancing with equal ease, laid siege to Constantinople, A.D. 668. It
+almost appeared as if Asia Minor would be annexed to the dominion of the
+Caliph. But the tide of conquest was stemmed by the iconoclast emperors,
+and the Arab expeditions, excepting those of Harun al-Rashid, 781 and
+806, and of el-Motasim, 838, became simply predatory raids. In the 10th
+century the Arabs were expelled. They never held more than the districts
+along the main roads, and in the intervals of peace the country rapidly
+recovered itself. But a more dangerous enemy was soon to appear on the
+eastern border.
+
+In 1067 the Seljuk Turks ravaged Cappadocia and Cilicia; in 1071 they
+defeated and captured the emperor Romanus Diogenes, and in 1080 they
+took Nicaea. One branch of the Seljuks founded the empire of Rum, with
+its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium. The empire, which at
+one time included nearly the whole of Asia Minor, with portions of
+Armenia and Syria, passed to the Mongols when they defeated the sultan
+of Rum in 1243, and the sultans became vassals of the Great Khan. The
+Seljuk sultans were liberal patrons of art, literature and science, and
+the remains of their public buildings and tombs are amongst the most
+beautiful and most interesting in the country. The marches of the
+Crusaders across Asia Minor left no permanent impression. But the
+support given by the Latin princes to the Armenians in Cilicia
+facilitated the growth of the small warlike state of Lesser Armenia,
+which fell in 1375 with the defeat and capture of Leo VI. by the
+Mameluke sultan of Egypt. The Mongols were too weak to govern the
+country they had conquered, and the vassalage of the last sultan of Rum,
+who died in 1307, was only nominal. On his death the Turkoman governors
+of his western provinces drove out the Mongols and asserted their
+independence. A contest for supremacy followed, which eventually ended
+in favour of the Osmanli Turks of Brusa. In 1400 Sultan Bayezid I. held
+all Asia Minor west of the Euphrates; but in 1402 he was defeated and
+made prisoner by Timur, who swept through the country to the shores of
+the Aegean. On the death of Timur Osmanli supremacy was re-established
+after a prolonged straggle, which ended with the annexation by Mahommed
+II. (1451-1481) of Karamania and Trebizond, and the abandonment of the
+last of the Italian trading settlements which had studded the coast
+during the 13th and 14th centuries. The later history of Asia Minor is
+that of the Turkish empire. The most important event was the advance
+(1832-1833) of an Egyptian army, under Ibrahim Pasha, through the
+Cilician Gates to Konia and Kutaiah.
+
+The defeat of the emperor Romanus (1071) initiated a change in the
+condition of Asia Minor which was to be complete and lasting. A long
+succession of nomad Turkish tribes, pressing forward from central Asia,
+wandered over the rich country in search of fresh pastures for their
+flocks and herds. They did not plunder or ill-treat the people, but they
+cared nothing for town life or for agricultural pursuits, and as they
+passed onward they left the country bare. Large districts passed out of
+cultivation and were abandoned to the nomads, who replaced wheeled
+traffic by the pack horse and the camel. The peasants either became
+nomads themselves or took refuge in the towns or the mountains. The
+Mongols, as they advanced, sacked towns and laid waste the agricultural
+lands. Timur conducted his campaigns with a ruthless disregard of life
+and property. Entire Christian communities were massacred, flourishing
+towns were completely destroyed, and all Asia Minor was ravaged. From
+these disasters the country never recovered, and the last traces of
+Western civilization disappeared with the enforced use of the Turkish
+language and the wholesale conversions to Islam under the earliest
+Osmanli sultans. The recent large increase of the Greek population in
+the western districts, the construction of railways, and the growing
+interests of Germany and Russia on the plateau seem, however, to
+indicate that the tide is again turning in favour of the West.
+
+[Illustration: Asia Minor map.]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--1. GENERAL AUTHORITIES:--C. Texier, _Asie Mineure_
+  (1843); P. Tchihatcheff, _Asie Mineure_ (1853-1860); C. Ritter,
+  _Erdkunde_, vols. xviii. xix. (1858-1859); W.J. Hamilton, _Researches
+  in Asia Minor_ (1843); E. Reclus. _Nouv. Geog. Univ._ vol. ix. (1884);
+  V. Cuinet, _La Turquie d'Asie_ (1890); W.M. Ramsay, _Hist. Geog. of A.
+  M._ (1890); Murray's _Handbook for A. M. &c._, ed. by Sir C. Wilson
+  (1895). For GEOLOGY see Tchihatcheff, _Asie Mineure, Geologie_ (Paris,
+  1867-1869); Schaffer, _Cilicia, Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsheft_, 141
+  (1903); Philippson, _Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss._ (1903), pp.
+  112-124; English, _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (London, 1904), pp.
+  243-295; see also Suess, _Das Antlitz der Erde_, vol. iii. pp.
+  402-412, and the accompanying references.
+
+  2. A. _Western Asia Minor._--J. Spon and G. Wheler, _Voyage du Levant_
+  (1679); P. de Tournefort, _Voyage du Levant_ (1718); F. Beaufort,
+  _Ionian Antiquities_ (1811); R. Chandler, _Travels_ (1817); W.M.
+  Leake, _Journal of a Tour in A. M._ (1820); F.V.J. Arundell, _Visit to
+  the Seven Churches_ (1828), and _Discoveries, &c._ (1834); C. Fellows,
+  _Excursion in A. M._ (1839); C.T. Newton, _Travels_ (1867), and
+  _Discoveries at Halicarnassus, &c._ (1863); Dilettanti Society,
+  _Ionian Antiquities_ (1769-1840); J.R.S. Sterrett, _Epigr. Journey_
+  and _Wolfe Exped._ (Papers, Amer. Arch. Inst. ii. iii.) (1888); J.H.
+  Skene, _Anadol_ (1853); G. Radet, _Lydie_ (1893); O. Rayet and A.
+  Thomas, _Milet et le Golfe Latmique_ (1872); K. Buresch, _Aus Lydien_
+  (1898); W.M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_ (1895), and
+  _Impressions of Turkey_ (1898).
+
+  B. _Eastern Asia Minor._--W.F. Ainsworth, _Travels in A. M._ (1842);
+  G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, _Expl. arch, de la Galatie_ (1862-1872);
+  E.J. Davis, _Anatolica_ (1874); H.F. Tozer, _Turkish Armenia_ (1881);
+  H.J. v. Lennep, _Travels_ (1870); D.G. Hogarth, _Wandering Scholar_
+  (1896); Lord Warkworth, _Notes of a Diary, &c._ (1898); E. Sarre,
+  _Reise_ (1896); D.G. Hogarth and J.A.R. Munro, _Mod. and Anc. Roads_
+  (R.G.S. Supp. Papers iii.) (1893); H.C. Barkley, _A Ride through A. M.
+  and Armenia_ (1891); M. Sykes, _Dar ul-Islam_ (1904); E. Chantre,
+  _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898).
+
+  C. _Southern Asia Minor._--F. Beaufort, _Karamania_ (1817); C.
+  Fellows, _Discoveries in Lycia_ (1841); T.A.B. Spratt and E. Forbes,
+  _Travels in Lycia_ (1847); V. Langlois, _Voy. dans la Cilicie_ (1861);
+  E.J. Davis, _Life in Asiatic Turkey_ (1879); O. Benndorf and E.
+  Niemann, _Lykien_ (1884); C. Lanckoronski, _Villes de la Pamphylie et
+  de la Pisidie_ (1890); F. v. Luschan, _Reisen in S.W. Kleinasien_
+  (1888); E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, _Lykien_ (1889); K. Humann and
+  O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien_ (1890).
+
+  D. _Northern Asia Minor._--J.M. Kinneir, _Journey through A. M._
+  (1818); J.G.C. Anderson and F. Cumont, _Studia Pontica_ (1903); E.
+  Naumann, _Vom Goldenen Horn, &c._ (1893).
+
+  See also G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, _Hist. de l'art dans l'antiquite_,
+  vols. iv. v. (1886-1890); J. Strzygowski, _Kleinasien, &c._ (1903).
+  Also numerous articles in all leading archaeological periodicals, the
+  _Geographical Journal_, _Deutsche Rundschau_, _Petermann's Geog.
+  Mitteilungen_, &c. &c.
+
+  3. MAPS.--H. Kiepert, _Nouv. carte gen. des prov. asiat. de l'Emp.
+  ottoman_ (1894), and _Spezialkarte v. Westkleinasien_ (1890); W. von
+  Diest, _Karte des Nordwestkleinasien_ (1901); R. Kiepert, _Karte von
+  Kleinasien_ (1901); E. Friederich, _Handels- und Produktenkarte von
+  Kleinasien_ (1898); J.G.C. Anderson, _Asia Minor_ (Murray's Handy
+  Class. Maps) (1903).     (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The people, Moslem and Christian, are physically one and appear
+    to be closely related to the modern Armenians. This relationship is
+    noticeable in other districts, and the whole original population of
+    Asia Minor has been characterized as Proto-Armenian or Armenoid.
+
+
+
+
+ASIENTO, or ASSIENTO (from the verb _asentar_, to place, or establish),
+a Spanish word meaning a farm of the taxes, or contract. The farmer or
+contractor is called an _asentista_. The word acquired a considerable
+notoriety in English and American history, on account of the "Asiento
+Treaty" of 1713. Until 1702 the Spanish government had given the
+contract for the supply of negroes to its colonies in America to the
+Genoese. But after the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in 1700, a
+French company was formed which received the exclusive privilege of the
+Spanish-American slave trade for ten years--from September 1702 to 1712.
+When the peace of Utrecht was signed the British government insisted
+that the monopoly should be given to its own subjects. By the terms of
+the Asiento treaty signed on the 16th of March 1713, it was provided
+that British subjects should be authorized to introduce 144,000 slaves
+in the course of thirty years, at the rate of 4800 per annum. The
+privilege was to expire on the 1st of May 1743. British subjects were
+also authorized to send one ship of 500 tons per annum, laden with
+manufactured goods, to the fairs of Porto Bello and La Vera Cruz. Import
+duties were to be paid for the slaves and goods. This privilege was
+conveyed by the British government to the South Sea Company, formed to
+work it. The privilege, to which an exaggerated value was attached,
+formed the solid basis of the notorious fit of speculative fever called
+the South Sea Bubble. Until 1739 the trade in blacks went on without
+interruption, but amid increasingly angry disputes between the Spanish
+and the British governments. The right to send a single trading ship to
+the fairs of Porto Bello or La Vera Cruz was abused. Under pretence of
+renewing her provisions she was followed by tenders which in fact
+carried goods. Thus there arose what was in fact a vast contraband
+trade. The Spanish government established a service of revenue boats
+(_guarda costas_) which insisted on searching all English vessels
+approaching the shores of the Spanish colonies. There can be no doubt
+that the smugglers were guilty of many piratical excesses, and that the
+_guarda costas_ often acted with violence on mere suspicion. After many
+disputes, in which the claims of the British government were met by
+Spanish counterclaims, war ensued in 1739. When peace was made at
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 Spain undertook to allow the asiento to be
+renewed for the four years which were to run when war broke out in 1739.
+But the renewal for so short a period was not considered advantageous,
+and by the treaty of El Retiro of 1750, the British government agreed to
+the recession of the Asiento treaty altogether on the payment by Spain
+of L100,000.
+
+  A very convenient account of the Asiento Treaty, and of the trade
+  which arose under it, will be found in Malachy Postlethwayt's
+  _Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce_ (London, 1751), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+ASIR, a district in western Arabia, lying between 17 deg. 30' and 21
+deg. N., and 40 deg. 30' and 45 deg. E.; bounded N. by Hejaz, E. by
+Nejd, S. by Yemen and W. by the Red Sea. Like Yemen, it consists of a
+lowland zone some 20 or 30 m. in width along the coast, and of a
+mountainous tract, falling steeply on the west and merging into a
+highland plateau which slopes gradually to the N.E. towards the Nejd
+steppes. Its length along the coast is about 230 m., and its breadth
+from the coast to El Besha about 180. The lowland, or Tehama, is hot and
+barren; the principal places in it are Kanfuda, the chief port of the
+district, Marsa Hali and El Itwad, smaller ports farther south. The
+mountainous tract has probably an average altitude of between 6000 and
+7000 ft., with a temperate climate and regular rainfall, and is fertile
+and populous. The valleys are well watered and produce excellent crops
+of cereals and dates. The best-known are the Wadi Taraba and the W.
+Besha, both running north-east towards the W. Dawasir in Nejd. Taraba,
+according to John Lewis Burckhardt, is a considerable town, surrounded
+by palm groves and gardens, and watered by numerous rivulets, and tamous
+for its long resistance to Mehemet Ali's forces in 1815. Five or six
+days' journey to the south-east is the district of Besha, the most
+important position between Sana and Taif. Here Mehemet Ali's army,
+amounting to 12,000 men, found sufficient provisions to supply it during
+a fortnight's halt. The Wadi Besha is a broad valley abounding with
+streams containing numerous hamlets scattered over a tract some six or
+eight hours' journey in length. Its principal affluent, the W. Shahran,
+rises 120 m. to the south and runs through the fertile district of
+Khamis Mishet, the highest in Asir. The Zahran district lies four days
+west of Besha on the crest of the main range: the principal place is
+Makhwa, a large town and market, from which grain is exported in
+considerable quantities to Mecca. Farther south is the district of
+Shamran. Throughout the mountainous country the valleys are well watered
+and cultivated, with fortified villages perched on the surrounding
+heights. Juniper forests are said to exist on the higher mountains.
+Three or four days' journey east and south-east of Besha are the
+encampments of the Bani Kahtan, one of the most ancient tribes of
+Arabia; their pastures extend into the adjoining district of Nejd, where
+they breed camels in large numbers, as well as a few horses.
+
+The inhabitants are a brave and warlike race of mountaineers, and aided
+by the natural strength of their country they have hitherto preserved
+their independence. Since the beginning of the 19th century they have
+been bigoted Wahhabis, though previously regarded by their neighbours as
+very lax Mahommedans; during Mehemet Ali's occupation of Nejd their
+constant raids on the Egyptian communications compelled him to send
+several punitive expeditions into the district, which, however, met with
+little success. Since the reconquest of Yemen by the Turks, they have
+made repeated attempts to subjugate Asir, but beyond occupying Kanfuda,
+and holding one or two isolated points in the interior, of which Ibha
+and Manadir are the principal, they have effected nothing.
+
+The chief sources of information regarding Asir are the notes made by
+J.L. Burckhardt at Taif in 1814 and those of the French officers with
+the Egyptian expeditions into the country from 1814 to 1837. No part of
+Arabia would better repay exploration.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829); F.
+  Mengin, _Histoire de l'Egypte_, &c. (Paris, 1823); M.O. Tamisier,
+  _Voyage en Arabie_ (Paris, 1840).     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+
+
+ASISIUM (mod. _Assisi_), an ancient town of Umbria, in a lofty situation
+about 15 m. E.S.E. of Perusia. As an independent community it had
+already begun to use Latin as well as Umbrian in its inscriptions (for
+one of these recording the chief magistrates--_marones_--see _C.I.L._
+xi. 5390). It became a _municipium_ in 90 B.C., but, though numerous
+inscriptions (_C.I.L._ xi. 5371-5606) testify to its importance in the
+Imperial period, it is hardly mentioned by our classical authorities.
+Scanty traces of the ancient city walls may be seen; within the town the
+best-preserved building is the so-called temple of Minerva, with six
+Corinthian columns of travertine, now converted into a church, erected
+by Gaius and Titus Caesius in the Augustan era. It fronted on to the
+ancient forum, part of the pavement of which, with a base for the
+equestrian statues of Castor and Pollux (as the inscription upon it
+records) has been laid bare beneath the present Piazza Vittorio
+Emanuele. The remains of the amphitheatre, in _opus reticulatum_, may be
+seen in the north-east corner of the town; and other ancient buildings
+have been discovered. Asisium was probably the birthplace of Propertius.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+ASKABAD, or ASKHABAD, a town of Russian central Asia, capital of the
+Transcaspian province, 345 m. by rail S.E. of Krasnovodsk and 594 from
+Samarkand, situated in a small oasis at the N. foot of the Kopet-dagh
+range. It has a public library and a technical railway school; also
+cotton-cleaning works, tanneries, brick-works, and a mineral-water
+factory. The trade is valued at L250,000 a year. The population, 2500 in
+1881, when the Russians seized it, was 19,428 in 1897, one-third
+Persians, many of them belonging to the Babi sect.
+
+
+
+
+ASKAULES (Gr. [Greek: askaulaes] [?] from [Greek: askos], bag, [Greek:
+aulos], pipe), probably the Greek word for bag-piper, although there is
+no documentary authority for its use. Neither it nor [Greek: askaulos]
+(which would naturally mean the bag-pipe) has been found in Greek
+classical authors, though J.J. Reiske--in a note on Dio Chrysostom,
+_Orat._ lxxi. _ad fin._, where an unmistakable description of the
+bag-pipe occurs ("and they say that he is skilled to write, to work as
+an artist, and to play the pipe with his mouth, on the bag placed under
+his arm-pits")--says that [Greek: askaulaes] was the Greek word for
+bag-piper. The only actual corroboration of this is the use of
+_ascaules_ for the pure Latin _utricularius_ in Martial x. 3. 8. Dio
+Chrysostom flourished about A.D. 100; it is therefore only an assumption
+that the bag-pipe was known to the classical Greeks by the name of
+[Greek: askaulos]. It need not, however, be a matter of surprise that
+among the highly cultured Greeks such an instrument as the bag-pipe
+should exist without finding a place in literature. It is significant
+that it is not mentioned by Pollux (_Onomast._ iv. 74) and Athenaeus
+(_Deipnos._ iv. 76) in their lists of the various kinds of pipes.
+
+  See articles AULOS and BAG-PIPE; art. "Askaules" in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+ASKE, ROBERT (d. 1537), English rebel, was a country gentleman who
+belonged to an ancient family long settled in Yorkshire, his mother
+being a daughter of John, Lord Clifford. When in 1536 the insurrection
+called the "Pilgrimage of Grace" broke out in Yorkshire, Aske was made
+leader; and marching with the banner of St Cuthbert and with the badge
+of the "five wounds," he occupied York on the 16th of October and on the
+20th captured Pontefract Castle, with Lord Darcy and the archbishop of
+York, who took the oath of the rebels. He caused the monks and nuns to
+be reinstated, and refused to allow the king's herald to read the royal
+proclamation, announcing his intention of marching to London to declare
+the grievances of the commons to the sovereign himself, secure the
+expulsion of counsellors of low birth, and obtain restitution for the
+church. The whole country was soon in the hands of the rebels, a
+military organization with posts from Newcastle to Hull was established,
+and Hull was provided with cannon. Subsequently Aske, followed by 30,000
+or 40,000 men, proceeded towards Doncaster, where lay the duke of
+Norfolk with the royal forces, which, inferior in numbers, would
+probably have been overwhelmed had not Aske persuaded his followers to
+accept the king's pardon, and the promise of a parliament at York and to
+disband. Soon afterwards he received a letter from the king desiring him
+to come secretly to London to inform him of the causes of the rebellion.
+Aske went under the guarantee of a safe-conduct and was well received by
+Henry. He put in writing a full account of the rising and of his own
+share in it; and, fully persuaded of the king's good intentions,
+returned home on the 8th of January 1537, bringing with him promises of
+a visit from the king to Yorkshire, of the holding of a parliament at
+York, and of free elections. Shortly afterwards he wrote to the king
+warning him of the still unquiet state not only of the north but of the
+midlands, and stating his fear that more bloodshed was impending. The
+same month he received the king's thanks for his action in pacifying Sir
+Francis Bigod's rising. But his position was now a difficult and a
+perilous one, and a few weeks later the attitude of the government
+towards him was suddenly changed. The new rising had given the court an
+excuse for breaking off the treaty and sending another army under
+Norfolk into Yorkshire. Possibly in these fresh circumstances Aske may
+have given cause for further suspicions of his loyalty, and in his last
+confession he acknowledged that communications to obtain aid had been
+opened with the imperial ambassador and were contemplated with Flanders.
+But it is more probable that the government had from the first
+treacherously affected to treat him with confidence to secure the
+secrets of the rebels and to effect his destruction. In March Norfolk
+congratulated Cromwell on the successful accomplishment of his task,
+having persuaded Aske to go to London on false assurances of security.
+He was arrested in April, tried before a commission at Westminster, and
+sentenced to death for high treason on the 17th of May; and on the 28th
+of June he was taken back to Yorkshire, being paraded in the towns and
+country through which he passed. He was hanged at York in July,
+expressing repentance for breaking the king's laws, but declaring that
+he had promise of pardon both from Cromwell and from Henry. It is
+related that his servant, Robert Wall, died of grief at the thought of
+his master's approaching execution. Aske was a real leader, who gained
+the affection and confidence of his followers; and his sudden rise to
+greatness and his choice by the people point to abilities that have not
+been recorded.
+
+  See _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_, by F.A. Gasquet (1906);
+  _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, vols. xi. and xii.;
+  _English Histor. Review_, v. 330, 550 (account of the rebellion,
+  examination and answers to interrogations); _Chronicle of Henry
+  VIII._, tr. by M.A.S. Hume (1889); Whitaker's _Richmondshire_, i. 116
+  (pedigree of the Askes).
+
+
+
+
+ASKEW, or ASCUE, ANNE (1521?-1546), English Protestant martyr, born at
+Stallingborough about 1521, was the second daughter of Sir William Askew
+(d. 1540) of South Kelsey, Lincoln, by his first wife Elizabeth,
+daughter of Thomas Wrottesley. Her elder sister, Martha, was betrothed
+by her parents to Thomas Kyme, a Lincolnshire justice of the peace, but
+she died before marriage, and Anne was induced or compelled to take her
+place. She is said to have had two children by Kyme, but religious
+differences and incompatibility of temperament soon estranged the
+couple. Kyme was apparently an unimaginative man of the world, while
+Anne took to Bible-reading with zeal, became convinced of the falsity of
+the doctrine of transubstantiation, and created some stir in Lincoln by
+her disputations. According to Bale and Foxe her husband turned her out
+of doors, but in the privy council register she is said to have "refused
+Kyme to be her husband without any honest allegation." She had as good a
+reason for repudiating her husband as Henry VIII. for repudiating Anne
+of Cleves. In any case, she came to London and made friends with Joan
+Bocher, who was already known for heterodoxy, and other Protestants. She
+was examined for heresy in March 1545 by the lord mayor, and was
+committed to the Counter prison. Then she was examined by Bonner, the
+bishop of London, who drew up a form of recantation which he entered in
+his register. This fact led Parsons and other Catholic historians to
+state that she actually recanted but she refused to sign Bonner's form
+without qualification. Two months later, on the 24th of May, the privy
+council ordered her arrest. On the 13th of June 1545, she was arraigned
+as a sacramentarian under the Six Articles at the Guildhall; but no
+witness appeared against her; she was declared not guilty by the jury
+and discharged after paying her fees.
+
+The reactionary party, which, owing to the absence of Hertford and Lisle
+and to the presence of Gardiner, gained the upper hand in the council in
+the summer of 1546, were not satisfied with this repulse; they probably
+aimed at the leaders of the reforming party, such as Hertford and
+possibly Queen Catherine Parr, who were suspected of favouring Anne, and
+on the 18th of June 1546 Anne was again arraigned before a commission
+including the lord mayor, the duke of Norfolk, St John, Bonner and
+Heath. No jury was empanelled and no witnesses were called; she was
+condemned, simply on her confession, to be burnt. On the same day she
+was called before the privy council with her husband. Kyme was sent home
+into Lincolnshire, but Anne was committed to Newgate, "for that she was
+very obstinate and heady in reasoning of matters of religion." On the
+following day she was taken to the Tower and racked; according to Anne's
+own statement, as recorded by Bale, the lord chancellor, Wriothesley,
+and the solicitor-general, Rich, worked the rack themselves; but she
+"would not convert for all the pain" (Wriothesley, _Chronicle_ i. 168).
+Her torture, disputed by Jardine, Lingard and others, is substantiated
+not only by her own narrative, but by two contemporary chronicles, and
+by a contemporary letter (_ibid._; _Narratives of the Reformation_, p.
+305; Ellis, _Original Letters_, 2nd Ser. ii. 177). For four weeks she
+was left in prison, and at length on the 16th of July, she was burnt at
+Smithfield in the presence of the same persecuting dignitaries who had
+condemned her to death.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Bale's two tracts, printed at Marburg in November 1546
+  and January 1547, are the basis of Foxe's account. See also _Acts of
+  the Privy Council_ (1542-1547), pp. 424-462; Wriothesley's _Chron._
+  i. 155, 167-169; _Narratives of the Reformation_, passim; Gough's
+  _Index to Parker Soc. Publications_; Burnet's _Hist. of the
+  Reformation_; Dixon's _Hist. of the Church of England; Dict. Nat.
+  Biogr._     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+ASMA'I [Abu Sa'id 'Abd ul-Malik ibn Quraib] (c. 739-831), Arabian
+scholar, was born of pure Arab stock in Basra and was a pupil there of
+Abu 'Amr ibn ul-'Ala. He seems to have been a poor man until by the
+influence of the governor of Basra he was brought to the notice of Harun
+al-Rashid, who enjoyed his conversation at court and made him tutor of
+his son. He became wealthy and acquired property in Basra, where he
+again settled for a time; but returned later to Bagdad, where he died in
+831. Asma'i was one of the greatest scholars of his age. From his youth
+he stored up in his memory the sacred words of the Koran, the traditions
+of the Prophet, the verses of the old poets and the stories of the
+ancient wars of the Arabs. He was also a student of language and a
+critic. It was as a critic that he was the great rival of Abu 'Ubaida
+(q.v.). While the latter followed (or led) the Shu'ubite movement and
+declared for the excellence of all things not Arabian, Asma'i was the
+pious Moslem and avowed supporter of the superiority of the Arabs over
+all peoples, and of the freedom of their language and literature from
+all foreign influence. Some of his scholars attained high rank as
+literary men. Of Asma'i's many works mentioned in the catalogue known as
+the _Fihrist_, only about half a dozen are extant. Of these the _Book of
+Distinction_ has been edited by D.H. Muller (Vienna, 1876); the _Book of
+the Wild Animals_ by R. Geyer (Vienna, 1887); the _Book of the Horse_,
+by A. Haffner (Vienna, 1895); the _Book of the Sheep_, by A. Haffner
+(Vienna, 1896).
+
+  For life of Asma'i, see Ibn Khallikan, _Biographical Dictionary_,
+  translated from the Arabic by McG. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842),
+  vol. ii. pp. 123-127. For his work as a grammarian, G. Flugel, _Die
+  grammatischen Schulen der Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862), pp. 72-80.
+       (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASMARA, the capital of the Italian colony of Eritrea, N.E. Africa. It is
+built on the Hamasen plateau, near its eastern edge, at an elevation of
+7800 ft., and is some 40 m. W.S.W. in a direct line of the seaport of
+Massawa. Pop. (1904) about 9000, including the garrison of 300 Italian
+soldiers, and some 1000 native troops. The European civil population
+numbers over 500; the rest of the inhabitants are chiefly Abyssinians.
+There is a small Mahommedan colony. The town is strongly fortified. The
+European quarter contains several fine public buildings, including the
+residence of the governor, club house, barracks and hospital. Fort
+Baldissera is built on a hill to the south-west of the town and is
+considered impregnable.
+
+Asmara, an Amharic word signifying "good pasture place," is a town of
+considerable antiquity. It was included in the maritime province of
+northern Abyssinia, which was governed by a viceroy who bore the title
+of Bahar-nagash (ruler of the sea). By the Abyssinians the Hamasen
+plateau was known as the plain of the thousand villages. Asmara appears
+to have been one of the most prosperous of these villages, and to have
+attained commercial importance through being on the high road from Axum
+to Massawa. When Werner Munzinger (q.v.) became French consul at
+Massawa, he entered into a scheme for annexing the Hamasen (of which
+Asmara was then the capital) to France, but the outbreak of the war with
+Germany in 1870 brought the project to nought (cf. A.B. Wylde, _Modern
+Abyssinia_, 1901). In 1872 Munzinger, now in Egyptian service, annexed
+Asmara to the khedivial dominions, but in 1884, owing to the rise of the
+mahdi, Egypt evacuated her Abyssinian provinces and Asmara was chosen by
+Ras Alula, the representative of the negus Johannes (King John), as his
+headquarters. Shortly afterwards the Italians occupied Massawa, and in
+1889 Asmara (see ABYSSINIA: _History_). In 1900 the seat of government
+was transferred from Massawa to Asmara, which in its modern form is the
+creation of the Italians. It is surrounded by rich agricultural lands,
+cultivated in part by Italian immigrants, and is a busy trading centre.
+A railway from Massawa to Asmara was completed as far as Ghinda, at the
+foot of the plateau, in 1904. At Medrizien, 6 m. north of Asmara, are
+gold-mines which have been partially worked.
+
+  See G. Dainelli, _In Africa. Lettere dall' Eritrea_ (Bergamo, 1908);
+  R. Perini, _Di qua dal Mareb_ (Florence, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+ASMODEUS, or ASHMEDAI, an evil demon who appears in later Jewish
+tradition as "king of demons." He is sometimes identified with Beelzebub
+or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11). In the Talmud he plays a great part in the
+legends concerning Solomon. In the apocryphal book of Tobit (iii. 8)
+occurs the well-known story of his love for Sara, the beautiful daughter
+of Raguel, whose seven husbands were slain in succession by him on their
+respective bridal nights. At last Tobias, by burning the heart and liver
+of a fish, drove off the demon, who fled to Egypt. From the part played
+by Asmodeus in this story, he has been often familiarly called the
+genius of matrimonial unhappiness or jealousy, and as such may be
+compared with Lilith. Le Sage makes him the principal character in his
+novel _Le Diable boiteux_. Both the word and the conception seem to have
+been derived originally from the Persian. The name has been taken to
+mean "covetous." It is in any case no doubt identical with the demon
+Aeshma of the Zend-Avesta and the Pahlavi texts. But the meaning is not
+certain. It is generally agreed that the second part of the name
+Asmodeus is the same as the Zend _daewa, dew_, "demon." The first part
+may be equivalent to Aeshma, the impersonation of anger. But W.
+Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_) prefers to derive it from
+_ish_, to drive, set in motion; whence _ish-min_, driving, impetuous.
+
+  The legend of Asmodeus is given fully in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_,
+  s.v. See also the articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, Hastings'
+  _Dictionary of the Bible_, and Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+ASMONEUS, or ASAMONAEUS (so Josephus), great-grandfather of Mattathias,
+the father of Judas Maccabaeus. Nothing more is known of him, and the
+name is only given by Josephus (not in 1 Macc. ii. 1). But the dynasty
+was known to Josephus and the Mishna (once) as "the sons (race) of the
+Asamonaeans (of A.)"; and the Targum of 1 Sam. ii. 4 has "the house of
+the Hashmoneans who were weak, signs were wrought for them and
+strength." If not the founder, Asmoneus was probably the home of the
+family (cf. Heshmon, Jos. xv. 27).
+
+  See Schurer, _Geschichte des judischen Volkes_, i. 248 N; art.
+  "Maccabees," S 2, in _Ency. Biblica_.     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASNIERES, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, on the
+left bank of the Seine, about 1-1/2 m. N.N.W. of the fortifications of
+Paris. Pop. (1906) 35,883. The town, which has grown rapidly in recent
+years, is a favourite boating centre for the Parisians. The industries
+include boat-building and the manufacture of colours and perfumery.
+
+
+
+
+ASOKA, a famous Buddhist emperor of India who reigned from 264 to 228 or
+227 B.C. Thirty-five of his inscriptions on rocks or pillars or in caves
+still exist (see INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_), and they are among the most
+remarkable and interesting of Buddhist monuments (see BUDDHISM). Asoka
+was the grandson of Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya (Peacock)
+dynasty, who had wrested the Indian provinces of Alexander the Great
+from the hands of Seleucus, and he was the son of Bindusara, who
+succeeded his father Chandragupta, by a lady from Champa. The Greeks do
+not mention him and the Brahmin books ignore him, but the Buddhist
+chronicles and legends tell us much about him. The inscriptions, which
+contain altogether about five thousand words, are entirely of religious
+import, and their references to worldly affairs are incidental. They
+begin in the thirteenth year of his reign, and tell us that in the ninth
+year he had invaded Kalinga, and had been so deeply impressed by the
+horrors involved in warfare that he had then given up the desire for
+conquest, and devoted himself to conquest by "religion." What the
+religion was is explained in the edicts. It is purely ethical,
+independent alike of theology and ritual, and is the code of morals as
+laid down in the Buddhist sacred books for laymen. He further tells us
+that in the ninth year of his reign he formally joined the Buddhist
+community as a layman, in the eleventh year he became a member of the
+order, and in the thirteenth he "set out for the Great Wisdom" (the
+_Sambodhi_), which is the Buddhist technical term for entering upon the
+well-known, eightfold path to Nirvana. One of the edicts is addressed to
+the order, and urges upon its members and the laity alike the learning
+and rehearsal of passages from the Buddhist scriptures. Two others are
+proclamations commemorating visits paid by the king, one to the dome
+erected over the ashes of Konagamana, the Buddha, another to the
+birthplace of Gotama, the Buddha (q.v.). Three very short ones are
+dedications of caves to the use of an order of recluses. The rest either
+enunciate the religion as explained above, or describe the means adopted
+by the king for propagating it, or acting in accordance with it. These
+means are such as the digging of wells, planting medicinal herbs, and
+trees for shade, sending out of missionaries, appointment of special
+officers to supervise charities, and so on. The missionaries were sent
+to Kashmir, to the Himalayas, to the border lands on the Indus, to the
+coast of Burma, to south India and to Ceylon. And the king claims that
+missions sent by him to certain Greek kingdoms that he names had
+resulted in the folk there conforming themselves to his religion. The
+extent of Asoka's dominion included all India from the thirteenth degree
+of latitude up to the Himalayas, Nepal, Kashmir, the Swat valley,
+Afghanistan as far as the Hindu Kush, Sind and Baluchistan. It was thus
+as large as, or perhaps somewhat larger than, British India before the
+conquest of Burma. He was undoubtedly the most powerful sovereign of his
+time and the most remarkable and imposing of the native rulers of India.
+"If a man's fame," says Koppen, "can be measured by the number of hearts
+who revere his memory, by the number of lips who have mentioned, and
+still mention him with honour, Asoka is more famous than Charlemagne or
+Caesar." At the same time it is probable that, like Constantine's
+patronage of Christianity, his patronage of Buddhism, then the most
+rising and influential faith in India, was not unalloyed with political
+motives, and it is certain that his vast benefactions to the Buddhist
+cause were at least one of the causes that led to its decline.
+
+  See also _Asoka_, by Vincent Smith (Oxford, 1901); _Inscriptions de
+  Piyadasi_, by E. Senart (Paris, 1891); chapters on Asoka in T.W. Rhys
+  Davids's _Buddhism_ (20th ed., London, 1903), and _Buddhist India_
+  (London, 1903); V.A. Smith, _Edicts of Asoka_ (1909).     (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+
+
+ASOLO (anc. _Acelum_), a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
+Treviso, about 19 m. N.W. direct from the town of Treviso, and some 10
+m. E. of Bassanoby road. Pop. (1901) 5847. It is well situated on a
+hill, 690 ft. above sea-level. Remains of Roman baths and of a theatre
+have been discovered in the course of excavation (_Notizie degli scavi_,
+1877, 235; 1881, 205; 1882, 289), and the town was probably a
+_municipium_. It became an episcopal see in the 6th century. It was to
+Asolo that Catherine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, retired on her
+abdication. Here she was visited by Pietro Bembo, who conceived here his
+_Dialoghi degli Asolani_, and by Andrea Navagero (Naugerius). Paulus
+Manutius was born here. The village of Maser is 4-1/2 m. to the E., and
+near it is the Villa Giacomelli, erected by Palladio, containing
+frescoes by Paolo Veronese, executed in 1566-1568 for Marcantonio
+Barbaro of Venice, and ranking among his best works.
+
+
+
+
+ASOR (Hebr. for "ten"), an instrument "of ten strings" mentioned in the
+Bible, about which authors are not agreed. The word occurs only three
+times in the Bible, and has not been traced elsewhere. In Psalm xxxiii.
+2 the reference is to "kinnor, nebel and asor"; in Psalm xcii. 3, to
+"nebel and asor"; in Psalm cxliv. to "nebel-asor." In the English
+version _asor_ is translated "an instrument of ten strings," with a
+marginal note "omit" applied to "instrument." In the Septuagint, the
+word being derived from a root signifying "ten," the Greek is [Greek: en
+dekachordo] or [Greek: psaltaerion dekachordon], in the Vulgate _in
+decachordo psalterio_. Each time the word _asor_ is used it follows the
+word _nebel_ (see PSALTERY), and probably merely indicates a variant of
+the nebel, having ten strings instead of the customary twelve assigned
+to it by Josephus (_Antiquities_, vii. 12. 3).
+
+  See also Mendel and Reissmann, _Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon_,
+  vol. i. (Berlin, 1881); Sir John Stainer, _The Music of the Bible_,
+  pp. 35-37; Forkel, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik_, Bd. i. p. 133
+  (Leipzig, 1788).     (K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ASP (_Vipera aspis_), a species of venomous snake, closely allied to the
+common adder of Great Britain, which it represents throughout the
+southern parts of Europe, being specially abundant in the region of the
+Alps. It differs from the adder in having the head entirely covered with
+scales, shields being absent, and in having the snout somewhat turned
+up. The term "Asp" [Greek: aspis] seems to have been employed by Greek
+and Roman writers, and by writers generally down to comparatively recent
+times, to designate more than one species of serpent; thus the asp, by
+means of which Cleopatra is said to have ended her life, and so avoided
+the disgrace of entering Rome a captive, is now generally supposed to
+have been the cerastes, or horned viper (_Cerastes cornutus_), of
+northern Africa and Arabia, a snake about 15 in. long, exceedingly
+venomous, and provided with curious horn-like protuberances over each
+eye, which give it a decidedly sinister appearance. The snake, however,
+to which the word "asp" has been most commonly applied is undoubtedly
+the haje of Egypt, the _spy-slange_ or spitting snake of the Boers
+(_Naja haje_), one of the very poisonous _Elarinae_, from 3 to 4 ft.
+long, with the skin of its neck loose, so as to render it dilatable at
+the will of the animal, as in the cobra of India, a species from which
+it differs only in the absence of the spectacle-like mark on the back of
+the neck. Like the cobra, also, the haje has its fangs extracted by the
+jugglers of the country, who afterwards train it to perform various
+tricks. The asp (_Pethen_, [Hebrew: pethen]) is mentioned in various
+parts of the Old Testament. This name is twice translated "adder," but
+as nothing is told of it beyond its poisonous character and the
+intractability of its disposition, it is impossible accurately to
+determine the species.
+
+
+
+
+ASPARAGINE, C4H3N2O3, a naturally occurring base, found in plants
+belonging to the natural orders Leguminosae and Cruciferae. It occurs
+in two optically active forms, namely, as laevo-asparagine and
+dextro-asparagine. Laevo-asparagine was isolated in 1805 by L.N.
+Vauquelin. A. Piutti (_Gazz. chim. Ital._, 1887, 17, p. 126; 1888, 18,
+p. 457) synthesized the asparagines from the monomethyl ester of
+inactive aspartic acid by heating it with alcoholic ammonia. In this way
+a mixture of the two asparagines was obtained, which were separated by
+picking out the hemihedral crystals.
+
+  HOOC.CH.NH2CH2.COOC2H5 + NH3 = C2H5OH + HOOC.CH.NH2.CH2.CONH2.
+
+Laevo-asparagine is slightly soluble in cold water and readily soluble
+in hot water. It crystallizes in prisms, containing one molecule of
+water of crystallization, the anhydrous form melting at 234-235 deg. C.
+Nitrous acid converts it into malic acid, HOOC.CHOH.CH2.COOH. It is
+laevo-rotatory in aqueous or in alkaline solution, and dextro-rotatory
+in acid solution (L. Pasteur, _Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1851 [2], 31, p. 67).
+Dextro-asparagine was first found in 1886 in the shoots of the vetch
+(Piutti). It forms rhombic crystals possessing a sweet taste. It is
+dextro-rotatory in aqueous or alkaline solution, and laevo-rotatory in
+acid solution.
+
+Hydrolysis by means of acids or alkalis converts the asparagines into
+aspartic acid; whilst on heating with water in a sealed tube they are
+converted into ammonium aspartate. The constitution of the asparagines
+has been determined by A. Piutti (_Gazz. chim. Ital._, 1888, 18, p.
+457).
+
+
+
+
+ASPARAGUS, a genus of plants (nat. ord. Liliaceae) containing more than
+100 species, and widely distributed in the temperate and warmer parts of
+the Old World; it was introduced from Europe into America with the early
+settlers. The name is derived from the Greek [Greek: asparagos] or
+[Greek: aspharagos], the origin of which is obscure. _Sperage_ or
+_sparage_ was the form in use from the 16th to 18th centuries, cf. the
+modern Italian _sparagio_. The vulgar corruption _sparrow-grass_ or
+_sparagrass_ was in accepted popular use during the 18th century,
+"asparagus" being considered pedantic. The plants have a short,
+creeping, underground stem from which spring slender, branched, aerial
+shoots. The leaves are reduced to minute scales bearing in their axils
+tufts of green, needle-like branches (the so-called _cladodes_), which
+simulate, and perform the functions of, leaves. In one section of the
+genus, sometimes regarded as a distinct genus _Myrsiphyllum_, the
+cladodes are flattened. The plants often climb or scramble, in which
+they are helped by the development of the scale-leaves into persistent
+spines. The flowers are small, whitish and pendulous; the fruit is a
+berry.
+
+Several of the climbing species are grown in greenhouses for their
+delicate, often feathery branches, which are also valuable for cutting;
+the South African _Asparagus plumosus_ is an especially elegant species.
+The so-called smilax, much used for decoration, is a species of the
+_Myrsiphyllum_ section, _A. medeoloides_, also known as _Myrsiphyllum
+asparagoides_. The young shoots of _Asparagus officinalis_ have from
+very remote times been in high repute as a culinary vegetable, owing to
+their delicate flavour and diuretic virtues. The plant, which is a
+native of the north temperate zone of the Old World, grows wild on the
+south coast of England; and on the waste steppes of Russia it is so
+abundant that it is eaten by cattle like grass. In common with the
+marsh-mallow and some other plants, it contains asparagine or aspartic
+acidamide. The roots of asparagus were formerly used as an aperient
+medicine, and the fruits were likewise employed as a diuretic. Under the
+name of Prussian asparagus, the spikes of an allied plant, _Ornithogalum
+pyrenaicum_, are used in some places. The diuretic action is extremely
+feeble, and neither the plant nor asparagine is now used medicinally.
+
+Asparagus is grown extensively in private gardens as well as for market.
+The asparagus prefers a loose, light, deep, sandy soil; the depth should
+be 3 ft., the soil being well trenched, and all surplus water got away.
+A considerable quantity of well-rotted dung or of recent seaweed should
+be laid in the bottom of the trench, and another top-dressing of manure
+should be dug in preparatory to planting or sowing. The beds should be 3
+ft. or 5 ft. wide, with intervening alleys of 2 ft., the narrower beds
+taking two rows of plants, the wider ones three rows. The beds should
+run east and west, so that the sun's rays may strike against the side of
+the bed. In some cases the plants are grown in equidistant rows 3 to 4
+ft. apart. Where the beds are made with plants already prepared, either
+one-year-old or two-year-old plants may be used, for which a trench
+should be cut sufficient to afford room for spreading out the roots, the
+crowns being all kept at about 2 in. below the surface. Planting is best
+done in April, after the plants have started into growth. To prevent
+injury to the roots, it is, however, perhaps the better plan to sow the
+seeds in the beds where the plants are to remain. To experience the
+finest flavour of asparagus, it should be eaten immediately after having
+been gathered; if kept longer than one day, or set into water, its finer
+flavour is altogether lost. If properly treated, asparagus beds will
+continue to bear well for many years. The asparagus grown at Argenteuil,
+near Paris, has acquired much notoriety for its large size and excellent
+quality. The French growers plant in trenches instead of raised beds.
+The most common method of forcing asparagus is to prepare, early in the
+year, a moderate hot-bed of stable litter with a bottom heat of 70 deg.,
+and to cover it with a common frame. After the heat of fermentation has
+somewhat subsided, the surface of the bed is covered with a layer of
+light earth or exhausted tan-bark, and in this the roots of strong
+mature plants are closely placed. The crowns of the roots are then
+covered with 3 to 6 in. of soil. A common three-light frame may hold 500
+or 600 plants, and will afford a supply for several weeks. After
+planting, linings are applied when necessary to keep up the heat, but
+care must be taken not to scorch the roots; air must be occasionally
+admitted. Where there are pits heated by hot water or by the tank
+system, they may be advantageously applied to this purpose. A succession
+of crops must be maintained by annually sowing or planting new beds.
+
+The "asparagus-beetle" is the popular name for two beetles, the "common
+asparagus beetle" (_Crioceris asparagi_) and the "twelve-spotted" (_C.
+duodecimpunctata_), which feed on the asparagus plant. _C. asparagi_ has
+been known in Europe since early times, and was introduced into America
+about 1856; the rarer _C. duodecimpunctata_ (sometimes called the "red"
+to distinguish it from the "blue" species) was detected in America in
+1881. For an admirable account of these pests see F.H. Chittenden,
+_Circular 102 of the U.S. Dep. of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology_,
+May 1908.
+
+The "asparagus-stone" is a form of apatite, simulating asparagus in
+colour.
+
+
+
+
+ASPASIA, an Athenian courtesan of the 5th century B.C., was born either
+at Miletus or at Megara, and settled in Athens, where her beauty and her
+accomplishments gained for her a great reputation. Pericles, who had
+divorced his wife (445), made her his mistress, and, after the death of
+his two legitimate sons, procured the passing of a law under which his
+son by her was recognized as legitimate. It was the fashion, especially
+among the comic poets, to regard her as the adviser of Pericles in all
+his political actions, and she is even charged with having caused the
+Samian and Peloponnesian wars (Aristoph. _Acharn_. 497). Shortly before
+the latter war, she was accused of impiety, and nothing but the tears
+and entreaties of Pericles procured her acquittal. On the death of
+Pericles she is said to have become the mistress of one Lysicles, whom,
+though of ignoble birth, she raised to a high position in the state;
+but, as Lysicles died a year after Pericles (428), the story is
+unconvincing. She was the chief figure in the dialogue _Aspasia_ by
+Aeschines the Socratic, in which she was represented as criticizing the
+manners and training of the women of her time (for an attempted
+reconstruction of the dialogue see P. Natorp in _Philologus_, li. p.
+489, 1892); in the _Menexenus_ (generally ascribed to Plato) she is a
+teacher of rhetoric, the instructress of Socrates and Pericles, and a
+funeral oration in honour of those Athenians who had given their lives
+for their country (the authorship of which is attributed to Aspasia) is
+repeated by Socrates; Xenophon (_Oecon._ lii. 14) also speaks of her in
+favourable terms, but she is not mentioned by Thucydides. In opposition
+to this view, Wilamowitz-Mollendorff (_Hermes_, xxxv. 1900) regards her
+simply as a courtesan, whose personality would readily become the
+subject of rumour, favourable or unfavourable. There is a bust bearing
+her name in the Pio Clementino Museum in the Vatican.
+
+  See Le Conte de Bievre, _Les Deux Aspasies_ (1736); J.B. Capefigue,
+  _Aspasie et le siecle de Pericles_ (1862); L. Becq de Fouquieres.
+  _Aspasie de Milet_ (1872); H. Houssaye, _Aspasie, Cleopatre, Theodora_
+  (1899); R. Hamerling, _Aspasia_ (a romance; Eng. trans. by M.J.
+  Safford, New York, 1882); J. Donaldson, _Woman_ (1907). Also PERICLES.
+
+
+
+
+ASPASIUS, a Greek peripatetic philosopher, and a prolific commentator on
+Aristotle. He flourished probably towards the close of the 1st century
+A.D., or perhaps during the reign of Antoninus Pius. His commentaries on
+the _Categories, De Interpretatione, De Sensu_, and other works of
+Aristotle are frequently referred to by later writers, but have not come
+down to us. Commentaries on Plato, mentioned by Porphyry in his life of
+Plotinus, have also been lost. Commentaries on books 1-4, 7 (in part),
+and 8 of the _Nicomachean Ethics_ are preserved; that on book 8 was
+printed with those of Eustratius and others by Aldus Manutius at Venice
+in 1536. They were partly (2-4) translated into Latin by Felicianus in
+1541, and have frequently been republished, but their authenticity has
+been disputed. The most recent edition is by G. Heylbut in _Commentaria
+in Aristotelem Graeca_, xix. 1 (Berlin, 1889).
+
+Another ASPASIUS, in the 3rd century A.D., was a Roman sophist and
+rhetorician, son or pupil of the rhetorician Demetrianus. He taught
+rhetoric in Rome, and filled the chair of rhetoric founded by Vespasian.
+He was secretary to the emperor Maximin. His orations, which are praised
+for their style, are lost.
+
+
+
+
+ASPEN, an important section of the poplar genus (_Populus_) of which the
+common aspen of Europe, _P. tremula_, may be taken as the type,--a tall
+fast-growing tree with rather slender trunk, and grey bark becoming
+rugged when old. The roundish leaves, toothed on the margin, are
+slightly downy when young, but afterwards smooth, dark green on the
+upper and greyish green on the lower surface; the long slender petioles,
+much flattened towards the outer end, allow of free lateral motion by
+the lightest breeze, giving the foliage its well-known tremulous
+character. By their friction on each other the leaves give rise to a
+rustling sound. It is supposed that the mulberry trees (_Becaim_)
+mentioned in 1 Chronicles xiv. 14, 15 were really aspen trees. The
+flowers, which appear in March and April, are borne on pendulous hairy
+catkins, 2-3 in. long; male and female catkins are, as in the other
+species of the genus, on distinct trees.
+
+The aspen is found in moist places, sometimes at a considerable
+elevation, 1600 ft. or more, in Scotland. It is an abundant tree in the
+northern parts of Britain, even as far as Sutherland, and is
+occasionally found in the coppices of the southern counties, but in
+these latter habitats seldom reaches any large size; throughout northern
+Europe it abounds in the forests,--in Lapland flourishing even in 70
+deg. N. lat., while in Siberia its range extends to the Arctic Circle;
+in Norway its upper limit is said to coincide with that of the pine;
+trees exist near the western coast having stems 15 ft. in circumference.
+The wood of the aspen is very light and soft, though tough; it is
+employed by coopers, chiefly for pails and herring-casks; it is also
+made into butchers' trays, pack-saddles, and various articles for which
+its lightness recommends it; sabots are also made of it in France, and
+in medieval days it was valued for arrows, especially for those used in
+target practice; the bark is used for tanning in northern countries;
+cattle and deer browse greedily on the young shoots and abundant
+suckers. Aspen wood makes but indifferent fuel, but charcoal prepared
+from it is light and friable, and has been employed in gunpowder
+manufacture. The powdered bark is sometimes given to horses as a
+vermifuge; it possesses likewise tonic and febrifugal properties,
+containing a considerable amount of salicin. The aspen is readily
+propagated either by cuttings or suckers, but has been but little
+planted of late years in Britain. _P. trepida_, or _tremuloides_. is
+closely allied to the European aspen, being chiefly distinguished by its
+more pointed leaves; it is a native of most parts of Canada and the
+United States, extending northwards as far as Great Slave Lake. The wood
+is soft and neither strong nor durable; it burns better in the green
+state than that of most trees, and is often used by the hunters of the
+North-West as fuel; split into thin layers, it was formerly employed in
+the United States for bonnet and hat making. It is largely manufactured
+into wood-pulp for paper-making. The bark is of some value as a tonic
+and febrifuge. _P. grandidentata_, the large-leaved American aspen, has
+ovate or roundish leaves deeply and irregularly serrated on the margin.
+The wood is light, soft and close-grained, but not strong. In northern
+New England and Canada it is largely manufactured into wood-pulp; it is
+occasionally used in turnery and for wooden-ware.
+
+
+
+
+ASPENDUS (mod. _Balkis Kale_, or, more anciently in the native language,
+ESTVEDYS (whence the adjective _Estvedijys_ on coins), an ancient city
+of Pamphylia, very strongly situated on an isolated hill on the right
+bank of the Eurymedon at the point where the river issues from the
+Taurus. The sea is now about 7 m. distant, and the river is navigable
+only for about 2 m. from the mouth; but in the time of Thucydides ships
+could anchor off Aspendus. Really of pre-Hellenic date, the place
+claimed to be an Argive colony. It derived wealth from great _salines_
+and from a trade in oil and wool, to which the wide range of its
+admirable coinage bears witness from the 5th century B.C. onwards. There
+Alcibiades met the satrap Tissaphernes in 411 B.C., and thence succeeded
+in getting the Phoenician fleet, intended to co-operate with Sparta,
+sent back home. The Athenian, Thrasybulus, after obtaining contributions
+from Aspendus in 389, was murdered by the inhabitants. The city bought
+off Alexander in 333, but, not keeping faith, was forcibly occupied by
+the conqueror. In due course it passed from Pergamene to Roman dominion,
+and according to Cicero, was plundered of many artistic treasures by
+Verres. It was ranked by Philostratus the third city of Pamphylia, and
+in Byzantine times seems to have been known as Primopolis, under which
+name its bishop signed at Ephesus in A.D. 431. In medieval times it was
+evidently still a strong place, but it has now sunk, in the general
+decay of Pamphylia, to a wretched hamlet.
+
+The ruins still extant are very remarkable, and, with the noble Roman
+theatre, the finest in the world, have earned for the place (as is the
+case with certain other great monuments) a legendary connexion with
+Solomon's Sheban queen. On the summit of the hillock, surrounded by a
+wall with three gates, lie the remains of the city. The public buildings
+round the forum can all be traced, and parts of them are standing to a
+considerable height. They consist of a fine nympheum on the north with a
+covered theatre behind it, covered market halls on the west, and a
+peristyle hall and a basilica on the east. In the plain below are large
+thermae, and ruins of a splendid aqueduct. But all else seems
+insignificant beside the huge theatre, half hollowed out of the
+north-east flank of the hill. This was first published by C.F.M. Texier
+in 1849, and has now been completely planned, &c., by Count
+Lanckoronski's expedition in 1884. It is built of local conglomerate and
+is in marvellous preservation. Erected to the honour of the emperors
+Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus by the architect Zeno, for the heirs of a
+local Roman citizen (as an inscription repeated over both portals
+attests), its auditorium has a circuit of 313.17 feet. There are forty
+tiers of seating, divided by one _diazoma_, and crowned by an arched
+gallery of rather later date, repaired in places with brick. This
+auditorium held 7500 spectators. The seats are not perfect, but so
+nearly so as to appear practically intact. The wooden stage has, of
+course, perished, but all its supporting structures are in place, and
+the great scena wall stands to its full height, and produces a
+magnificent impression whether from within or from without. Inwardly it
+was decorated with two orders of columns one above the other, with rich
+entablatures, much of which survives. In the _tympanum_ is a relief of
+Bacchus (wrongly supposed to be of a female, and called the Bal-Kis,
+i.e. "Honey Girl"). The position of the sounding board above the stage
+is apparent. Under the forepart of the auditorium, built out from the
+hill, are immense vaults. The whole structure was enclosed within one
+great wall, pierced with numerous windows. This structure was probably
+put to some ecclesiastical Byzantine use, as certain mutilated heads of
+saints appear upon it; and later it became a fortress and received
+certain additions. It is now under the care of the local _agha_ and not
+allowed to be plundered for building stone.
+
+  See C. Lanckoronski, _Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie_, i.
+  (1890).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASPER, AEMILIUS, Latin grammarian, possibly lived in the 2nd century
+A.D. He wrote commentaries on Terence, Sallust and Virgil. Numerous
+fragments of the last show that as both critic and commentator he
+possessed good judgment and taste. They are printed in Keil, _Probi in
+Vergilii Bucolica Commentarius_ (1848); see also Suringar, _Historia
+Critica Scholiastarum Latinorum_ (1834); Grafenhan, _Geschichte der
+klassischen Philologie im Alterthum._ iv. (1843-1850). Two short
+grammatical treatises, extant under the name of Asper, and of very
+little value, have nothing to do with the commentator, but belong to a
+much later date--the time of Priscian (6th century). Both are printed in
+Keil, _Grammatici Latini_. See also Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen
+Litteratur_, S 598.
+
+
+
+
+ASPER, HANS (1499-1571), Swiss painter, was born and died at Zurich. He
+wrought in a great variety of styles, but excelled chiefly in flower and
+fruit pieces, and in portrait-painting. Many of his pictures have
+perished, but his style may be judged from the illustrations to
+Gessner's _Historia Animalium_, for which he is said to have furnished
+the designs, and from portraits of Zwingli and his daughter Regula
+Gwalter, which are preserved in the public library of Zurich. It has
+been usual to class Asper among the pupils and imitators of Holbein, but
+an inspection of his works is sufficient to show that this is a mistake.
+Though Asper was held in high reputation by his fellow-citizens, who
+elected him a member of the Great Council, and had a medal struck in his
+honour, he seems to have died in poverty.
+
+
+
+
+ASPERGES ("thou wilt sprinkle," from the Latin verb _aspergere_), the
+ceremony of sprinkling the people with holy water before High Mass in
+the Roman Catholic Church, so called from the first word of the verse
+(Ps. iv. 9) _Asperges me, Domini, hyssopo et mundabor_, with which the
+priest begins the ceremony. The brush used for sprinkling is an
+aspergill (_aspergillum_), or aspersoir, and the vessel for this water
+an _aspersorium_. The act of sprinkling the water is called _aspersion_.
+
+
+
+
+ASPERN-ESSLING, BATTLE OF (1809), a battle fought on the 21st and 22nd
+of May 1809 between the French and their allies under Napoleon and the
+Austrians commanded by the archduke Charles (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS).
+At the time of the battle Napoleon was in possession of Vienna, the
+bridges over the Danube had been broken, and the archduke's army was on
+and about the Bisamberg, a mountain near Korneuburg, on the left bank of
+the river. The first task of the French was the crossing of the Danube.
+Lobau, one of the numerous islands which divide the river into minor
+channels, was selected as the point of crossing, careful preparations
+were made, and on the night of the 19th-20th of May the French bridged
+all the channels from the right bank to Lobau and occupied the island.
+By the evening of the 20th great masses of men had been collected there
+and the last arm of the Danube, between Lobau and the left bank,
+bridged. Massena's corps at once crossed to the left bank and dislodged
+the Austrian outposts. Undeterred by the news of heavy attacks on his
+rear from Tirol and from Bohemia, Napoleon hurried all available troops
+to the bridges, and by daybreak on the 21st, 40,000 men were collected
+on the Marchfeld, the broad open plain of the left bank, which was also
+to be the scene of the battle of Wagram. The archduke did not resist the
+passage; it was his intention, as soon as a large enough force had
+crossed, to attack it before the rest of the French army could come to
+its assistance. Napoleon had, of course, accepted the risk of such an
+attack, but he sought at the same time to minimize it by summoning every
+available battalion to the scene. His forces on the Marchfeld were drawn
+up in front of the bridges facing north, with their left in the village
+of Aspern (Gross-Aspern) and their right in Essling (or Esslingen). Both
+places lay close to the Danube and could not therefore be turned;
+Aspern, indeed, is actually on the bank of one of the river channels.
+But the French had to fill the gap between the villages, and also to
+move forward to give room for the supports to form up. Whilst they were
+thus engaged the archduke moved to the attack with his whole army in
+five columns. Three under Hiller, Bellegarde and Hohenzollern were to
+converge upon Aspern, the other two, under Rosenberg, to attack Essling.
+The Austrian cavalry was in the centre, ready to move out against any
+French cavalry which should attack the heads of the columns. During the
+21st the bridges became more and more unsafe, owing to the violence of
+the current, but the French crossed without intermission all day and
+during the night.
+
+The battle began at Aspern; Hiller carried the village at the first
+rush, but Massena recaptured it, and held his ground with the same
+tenacity as he had shown at Genoa in 1800. The French infantry, indeed,
+fought on this day with the old stubborn bravery which it had failed to
+show in the earlier battles of the year. The three Austrian columns
+fighting their hardest through the day were unable to capture more than
+half the village; the rest was still held by Massena when night fell. In
+the meanwhile nearly all the French infantry posted between the two
+villages and in front of the bridges had been drawn into the fight on
+either flank. Napoleon therefore, to create a diversion, sent forward
+his centre, now consisting only of cavalry, to charge the enemy's
+artillery, which was deployed in a long line and firing into Aspern. The
+first charge of the French was repulsed, but the second attempt, made by
+heavy masses of cuirassiers, was more serious. The French horsemen,
+gallantly led, drove off the guns, rode round Hohenzollern's infantry
+squares, and routed the cavalry of Lichtenstein, but they were unable to
+do more, and in the end they retired to their old position. In the
+meanwhile Essling had been the scene of fighting almost as desperate as
+that of Aspern. The French cuirassiers made repeated charges on the
+flank of Rosenberg's force, and for long delayed the assault, and in the
+villages Lannes with a single division made a heroic and successful
+resistance, till night ended the battle. The two armies bivouacked on
+their ground, and in Aspern the French and Austrians lay within pistol
+shot of each other. The latter had fought fully as hard as their
+opponents, and Napoleon realized that they were no longer the
+professional soldiers of former campaigns. The spirit of the nation was
+in them and they fought to kill, not for the honour of their arms. The
+emperor was not discouraged, but on the contrary renewed his efforts to
+bring up every available man. All through the night more and more French
+troops were put across.
+
+At the earliest dawn of the 22nd the battle was resumed. Massena swiftly
+cleared Aspern of the enemy, but at the same time Rosenberg stormed
+Essling at last. Lannes, however, resisted desperately, and reinforced
+by St Hilaire's division, drove Rosenberg out. In Aspern Massena had
+been less fortunate, the counter-attack of Hiller and Bellegarde being
+as completely successful as that of Lannes and St Hilaire. Meantime
+Napoleon had launched a great attack on the Austrian centre. The whole
+of the French centre, with Lannes on the right and the cavalry in
+reserve, moved forward. The Austrian line was broken through, between
+Rosenberg's right and Hohenzollern's left, and the French squadrons
+poured into the gap. Victory was almost won when the archduke brought up
+his last reserve, himself leading on his soldiers with a colour in his
+hand. Lannes was checked, and with his repulse the impetus of the attack
+died out all along the line. Aspern had been lost, and graver news
+reached Napoleon at the critical moment. The Danube bridges, which had
+broken down once already, had at last been cut by heavy barges, which
+had been set adrift down stream for the purpose by the Austrians.
+Napoleon at once suspended the attack. Essling now fell to another
+assault of Rosenberg, and though again the French, this time part of the
+Guard, drove him out, the Austrian general then directed his efforts on
+the flank of the French centre, slowly retiring on the bridges. The
+retirement was terribly costly, and but for the steadiness of Lannes the
+French must have been driven into the Danube, for the archduke's last
+effort to break down their resistance was made with the utmost fury.
+Only the complete exhaustion of both sides put an end to the fighting.
+The French lost 44,000 out of 90,000 successively engaged, and amongst
+the killed were Lannes and St Hilaire. The Austrians, 75,000 strong,
+lost 23,360. Even this, the first great defeat of Napoleon, did not
+shake his resolution. The beaten forces were at last withdrawn safely
+into the island. On the night of the 22nd the great bridge was repaired,
+and the army awaited the arrival of reinforcements, not in Vienna, but
+in Lobau.
+
+  See sketch map in article WAGRAM.
+
+
+
+
+ASPHALT, or ASPHALTUM. The solid or semi-solid kinds of bitumen (q.v.)
+were termed [Greek: asphaltos] by the Greeks; and by some ancient
+classical writers the name of _pissasphaltum_ ([Greek: pissa], pitch)
+was also sometimes employed. The asphalt of the Dead Sea (known as
+_Lacus Asphaltites_) received considerable notice from early travellers,
+and Diodorus the historian states that the inhabitants of the
+surrounding parts were accustomed to collect it for use in Egypt for
+embalming. In common with other forms of bitumen, asphalt is very widely
+distributed geographically and occurs in greater or less quantity in
+rocks of all ages. There is some divergence in the views expressed as to
+the precise manner of its production, but it may certainly be said that
+the principal asphalt deposits are merely the result of the evaporation
+and oxidation of liquid petroleum which has escaped from outcropping
+strata. The celebrated Pitch Lake of Trinidad was long regarded as the
+largest deposit of asphalt in existence, but it is said to be exceeded
+in area, if not in depth also, by one in Venezuela. The Trinidad "Lake"
+has an area of 99.3 acres, and is sufficiently firm in places to support
+a team of horses. The deposit is worked with picks to a depth of a foot
+or two, and the excavations soon become filled up by the plastic
+material flowing in from below and hardening. The depth of the deposit
+is not accurately known. The surface is not level but is composed of
+irregularly tumescent masses of various sizes, each said to be subject
+to independent motion, whereby the interior of each rises and flows
+centrifugally towards the edges. As the spaces between them are always
+filled with water, these masses are prevented from coalescing. The
+softer parts of the lake constantly evolve gas, which is stated to
+consist largely of carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, and the
+pitch, which is honeycombed with gas-cavities, continues to exhibit this
+action for some time after its removal from the lake. The working of the
+deposit is in the hands of the New Trinidad Asphalt Company, who hold
+the concession up to the year 1930 on payment to the government of a
+minimum royalty of L10,000 a year. A circular line of tramway, supported
+on palm-leaves, has been laid on the lake to facilitate the removal of
+the asphalt. Very large quantities are exported for paving and other
+purposes, the annual shipments amounting to about 130,000 tons from the
+lake and about 30,000 tons from other properties. The amount of asphalt
+in the lake has been estimated at 158,400 tons for each foot of depth,
+and if the average depth be taken at 20 ft. this would give a total of
+3,168,000 tons; but in 1908, though 1,885,600 tons had been removed in
+the previous thirty-five years, there was but little evidence of
+reduction in the quantity. The Venezuelan deposit already referred to is
+in the state of Bermudez, and the area of it is reported to be more than
+1000 acres. The asphalt of Cuba is a well-known article of commerce, of
+which 7252 tons was exported to the United States in 1902. The principal
+deposits are near the harbour of Cardenas (70 ft. thick), in the Pinar
+del Rio, near Havana (18 ft. thick), at Canas Tomasita (105 ft. thick);
+and a specially pure variety near Vuelta.
+
+The comparative composition of Trinidad and Cuba asphalt is given in the
+following table:--
+
+  +---------------------+---------+------------+------------+
+  |                     | Refined |  Refined   |  Refined   |
+  |                     |Trinidad,|Cuba (soft),|Cuba (hard),|
+  |                     | Melting |  Melting   | Melting    |
+  |                     |point 185| point 115  | point 160  |
+  |                     | deg. F. |   deg. F.  |   deg. F.  |
+  +---------------------+---------+------------+------------+
+  | Water.              |   0.17  |    0.13    |    0.11    |
+  | Volatile bitumen.   |  51.81  |   64.03    |    8.34    |
+  | Sulphur.            |  10.00  |    8.35    |    8.92    |
+  | Ash (earthy matter).|  28.30  |   19.51    |   16.60    |
+  | Fixed carbon.       |   9.72  |    7.98    |   66.03    |
+  |                     +---------+------------+------------+
+  |                     | 100.00  |  100.00    |  100.00    |
+  +---------------------+---------+------------+------------+
+
+The chemical composition of Trinidad asphalt has been given as:--
+
+  +-------+------+------+------+-------+
+  |   C.  |  H.  |  N.  |  O.  |   S.  |
+  +-------+------+------+------+-------+
+  | 80.32 | 6.30 | 0.50 | 1.40 | 11.48 |
+  +-------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+The following is a comparison of Trinidad and Venezuela (Bermudez)
+asphalt:--
+
+                                                Refined    Refined
+                                               Trinidad.  Bermudez.
+  Specific gravity at 60 deg. F.                 1.373      1.071
+  Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide.         61.507 %    92.22  %
+  Mineral matter (ash).                         34.51  "     1.50  "
+  Non-bituminous organic matter.                 3.983 "     1.28  "
+  Portion of total bitumen soluble in alcohol.   8.24  "    11.66  "
+  Portion of total bitumen soluble in ether.    80.01  "    81.63  "
+  Loss at 212 deg. F.                            0.65  "     1.37  "
+  Loss at 400 deg. F. in ten hours.              7.98  "    17.80  "
+  Loss at 400 deg. on total bitumen.            12.811 "    18.308 "
+  Evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen at      410 deg. F.   none at 437 deg. F.
+  Softening-point.                           160 deg. F.      "    113 deg. F.
+  Flowing-point.                             192 deg. F.      "    150 deg. F.
+
+Asphalt in its purest forms is generally black or blackish brown in
+colour, and is frequently brittle at ordinary temperatures. Apart from
+its principal use in the manufacture of paving materials, it is largely
+employed in building as a "damp-course" and as a water-excluding coating
+for concrete floors, as well as in the manufacture of roofing-felt. It
+also enters largely into the composition of black varnish. The material
+chiefly used in the construction of asphalt roadways is an asphaltic or
+bituminous limestone found in the Val de Travers, canton of Neuchatel;
+in the neighbourhood of Seyssel, department of Ain; at Limmer, near the
+city of Hanover; and elsewhere. The proportion of bitumen present in
+asphalt rock usually ranges from 7 to 20%, but it is found that rock
+containing more than 11% cannot be satisfactorily used for street
+pavements, and it is accordingly customary to mix the richer and poorer
+varieties in fine powder in such respective quantities that the
+proportion of bitumen present is from 9 to 10%. The richer rock is
+utilized as a source of asphalt "mastic," which is employed for
+footpaths, floors, roofs, &c. Excellent foundations for steam-hammers,
+dynamos and high-speed engines are made of asphaltic concrete.
+     (B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+ASPHODEL (_Asphodelus_), a genus of the lily order (Liliaceae),
+containing seven species in the Mediterranean region. The plants are
+hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted radical leaves and an
+elongated stem bearing a handsome spike of white or yellow flowers.
+_Asphodelus albus_ and _A. fistulosus_ have white flowers and grow from
+1-1/2 to 2 ft. high; _A. ramosus_ is a larger plant, the large white
+flowers of which have a reddish-brown line in the middle of each
+segment. Bog-asphodel (_Narthecium ossifragum_), a member of the same
+family, is a small herb common in boggy places in Britain, with rigid
+narrow radical leaves and a stem bearing a raceme of small golden yellow
+flowers.
+
+In Greek legend the asphodel is the most famous of the plants connected
+with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes it as covering the
+great meadow ([Greek: asphodelos leimon]), the haunt of the dead (_Od._
+xi. 539, 573; xxiv. 13). It was planted on graves, and is often
+connected with Persephone, who appears crowned with a garland of
+asphodels. Its general connexion with death is due no doubt to the
+greyish colour of its leaves and its yellowish flowers, which suggest
+the gloom of the underworld and the pallor of death. The roots were
+eaten by the poorer Greeks; hence such food was thought good enough for
+the shades (cf. Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 41; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxi.
+17 [68]; Lucian, _De luctu_, 19). The asphodel was also supposed to be a
+remedy for poisonous snake-bites and a specific against sorcery; it was
+fatal to mice, but preserved pigs from disease. The Libyan nomads made
+their huts of asphodel stalks (cf. Herod. iv. 190).
+
+No satisfactory derivation of the word is suggested. The English word
+"daffodil" is a perversion of "asphodel," formerly written "affodil."
+The d may come from the French _fleur d'affodille_. It is no part of the
+word philologically.
+
+  See Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, s.v.; H.O. Lenz, _Botanik der
+  alten Griechen und Romer_ (1859); J. Murr, _Die Pflanzenwelt in der
+  griechischen Mythologie_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+ASPHYXIA (Gr. [Greek: a-] priv., [Greek: sphaexis], a pulse), a term in
+medicine, literally signifying loss of pulsation, which is applied to
+describe the arrestment of the function of respiration from some
+hindrance to the entrance of air into the lungs. (See RESPIRATORY
+SYSTEM: _Pathology_.)
+
+
+
+
+ASPIC (French, from Lat. _aspis_), an asp or viper found in Egypt whose
+bite is supposed to cause a swift and easy death, hence poetically a
+term for any venomous snake. From association, perhaps, with the
+coldness of the aspic (as in the French proverb, _froid comme un
+aspic_), the word is used for a savoury jelly containing meat, fish or
+eggs, &c. It is also the botanical name of the _Lavandula spica_, or
+spikenard, from which a white, aromatic and highly inflammable oil is
+distilled, called _huile d'aspic_.
+
+
+
+
+ASPIDISTRA, a small genus of the lily order (Liliaceae), native of the
+Himalayas, China and Japan. _Aspidistra lurida_ is a favourite
+pot-plant, bearing large green or white-striped leaves on an underground
+stem, and small dark purplish, cup-shaped flowers close to the ground.
+
+
+
+
+ASPIROTRICHACEAE (O. Butschli), an order of Ciliate Infusoria,
+characterized by an investment, general or partial, of nearly uniform
+cilia, without any distinct adoral wreath, and one or two adoral endoral
+undulating membranes. With the Gymnostomaceae it formed the Holotricha
+of Stein.
+
+
+
+
+ASPIROZ, MANUEL DE (1836-1905), Mexican statesman and diplomatist, was
+born at Puebla, and educated at the university of Mexico, where he took
+his degree in 1855. He took part in the war against the emperor
+Maximilian, and in 1867, on the establishment of the republic, was
+appointed assistant secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1873 he
+became Mexican consul at San Francisco, where he remained till his
+election to the Senate in 1875. He was professor of jurisprudence at the
+college of Puebla from 1883 to 1890, when he was again appointed
+assistant secretary of foreign affairs. From 1899 till he died in 1905
+he was Mexican ambassador to the United States. Among his writings may
+be mentioned; _Codigo de extranjeria de los Estados-Unidos Mexicanos_
+(1876), and _La liberdad civil como base del derecho internacional
+privado_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+ASPROMONTE, a mountain of Calabria, Italy, rising behind Reggio di
+Calabria, the west extremity of the Sila range. The highest point is
+6420 ft. and the slopes are clad with forest. Here Garibaldi was wounded
+and taken prisoner by the Italian troops under Pallavicini in 1862.
+
+
+
+
+ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY (1852-   ), English statesman, son of Joseph
+Dixon Asquith, was born at Morley, Yorkshire, on the 12th of September
+1852. He came of a middle-class Yorkshire family of pronounced Liberal
+and Nonconformist views, and was educated under Dr Edwin Abbott at the
+City of London school, from which he went as a scholar to Balliol,
+Oxford; there he had a distinguished career, taking a first-class in
+classics, winning the Craven scholarship and being elected a fellow of
+his college. He was president of the Union, and impressed all his
+contemporaries with his intellectual ability, Dr Jowett himself
+confidently predicting his signal success in any career he adopted. On
+leaving Oxford he went to the bar, and as early as 1890 became a K.C. In
+1887 he unsuccessfully defended Mr R.B. Cunninghame Graham and Mr John
+Burns for their share in the riot in Trafalgar Square; and in 1889 he
+was junior to Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Russell as counsel for the
+Irish Nationalists before the Parnell Commission--an association
+afterwards bitterly commented upon by Mr T. Healy in the House of
+Commons (March 30, 1908). But though he attained a fair practice at the
+bar, and was recognized as a lawyer of unusual mental distinction and
+clarity, his forensic success was not nearly so conspicuous as that of
+some of his contemporaries. His ambitions lay rather in the direction of
+the House of Commons. He had taken a prominent part in politics as a
+Liberal since his university days, especially in work for the Eighty
+Club, and in 1886 was elected member of parliament for East Fife, a seat
+which he retained in subsequent elections. Mr Gladstone was attracted by
+his vigorous ability as a speaker, and his evidence of sound political
+judgment; and in August 1892, though comparatively unknown to the
+general public, he was selected to move the vote of want of confidence
+which overthrew Lord Salisbury's government, and was made home secretary
+in the new Liberal ministry. At the Home Office he proved his capacity
+as an administrator; he was the first to appoint women as factory
+inspectors, and he was responsible for opening Trafalgar Square to
+Labour demonstrations; but he firmly refused to sanction the proposed
+amnesty for the dynamiters, and he was violently abused by extremists on
+account of the shooting of two men by the military at the strike riot at
+Featherstone in August 1893. It was he who coined the phrase
+(Birmingham, 1894) as to the government's "ploughing the sands" in their
+endeavour to pass Liberal legislation with a hostile House of Lords. His
+Employers' Liability Bill 1893 was lost because the government refused
+to accept the Lords' amendment as to "contracting-out." His suspensory
+bill, with a view to the disestablishment of the church in Wales, was
+abortive (1895), but it served to recommend him to the Welsh
+Nationalists as well as to the disestablishment party in England and
+Scotland. During his three years of office he more than confirmed the
+high opinion formed of his abilities.
+
+The Liberal defeat in 1895 left him out of office for eleven years. He
+had married Miss Helen Melland in 1877, and was left with a family when
+she died in 1891; in 1894, however, he had married again, his second
+wife being the accomplished Miss Margaret ("Margot") Tennant, daughter
+of the wealthy ironmaster, Sir Charles Tennant, Bart., a lady well known
+in London society as a member of the coterie known as "Souls," and
+commonly identified as the original of Mr E.F. Benson's _Dodo_ (1893).
+On leaving the Home Office in 1895, Mr Asquith decided to return to his
+work at the bar, a course which excited much comment, since it was
+unprecedented that a minister who had exercised judicial functions in
+that capacity should take up again the position of an advocate; but it
+was obvious that to maintain the tradition was difficult in the case of
+a man who had no sufficient independent means. During the years of
+Unionist ascendancy Mr Asquith divided his energies between his legal
+work and politics; but his adhesion to Lord Rosebery (q.v.) as a Liberal
+Imperialist at the time of the Boer War, while it strengthened his
+position in the eyes of the public, put him in some difficulty with his
+own party, led as it was by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.), who was
+identified with the "pro-Boer" policy. He was one of the founders of the
+Liberal League, and his courageous definiteness of view and intellectual
+vigour marked him out as Lord Rosebery's chief lieutenant if that
+statesman should ever return to power. He thus became identified with
+the Roseberyite attitude towards Irish Home Rule; and, while he
+continued to uphold the Gladstonian policy in theory, in practice the
+Irish Nationalists felt that very little could be expected from his
+advocacy. In spite of his Imperialist views, however, he did much to
+smooth over the party difficulties, and when the tariff-reform movement
+began in 1903, he seized the opportunity for rallying the Liberals to
+the banner of free-trade and championing the "orthodox" English
+political economy, on which indeed he had been a lecturer in his younger
+days. During the critical years of Mr Chamberlain's crusade (1903-1906)
+he made himself the chief spokesman of the Liberal party, delivering a
+series of speeches in answer to those of the tariff-reform leader; and
+his persistent following and answering of Mr Chamberlain had undoubted
+effect. He also made useful party capital out of the necessity for
+financial retrenchment, owing to the large increase in public
+expenditure, maintained by the Unionist government even after the Boer
+War was over; and his mastery of statistical detail and argument made
+his appointment as chancellor of the exchequer part of the natural order
+of things when in December 1905 Mr Balfour resigned and Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.) became prime minister.
+
+During Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership, Mr Asquith gradually
+rose in political importance, and in 1907 the prime minister's
+ill-health resulted in much of the leadership in the Commons devolving
+on the chancellor of the exchequer. At first the party as a whole had
+regarded him somewhat coldly. And his unbending common-sense, and
+sobriety of criticism in matters which deeply interested the less
+academic Radicals who were enthusiasts for extreme courses, would have
+made the parliamentary situation difficult but for the exceptional
+popularity of the prime minister. In the autumn of 1907, however, as the
+latter's retention of office became more and more improbable, it became
+evident that no other possible successor had equal qualifications. The
+session of 1908 opened with Mr Asquith acting avowedly as the prime
+minister's deputy, and the course of business was itself of a nature to
+emphasize his claims. After two rather humdrum budgets he was pledged to
+inaugurate a system of old-age pensions (forming the chief feature of
+the budget of 1908, personally introduced by him at the beginning of
+May), and his speech in April on the Licensing Bill was a triumph of
+clear exposition, though later in the year, after passing the Commons,
+it was thrown out by the Lords. On the 5th of April it was announced
+that Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman had resigned and Mr Asquith been sent
+for by the king. As the latter was staying at Biarritz, the
+unprecedented course was followed of Mr Asquith journeying there for the
+purpose, and on the 8th he resigned the chancellorship of the exchequer
+and kissed hands as prime minister. The names of the new cabinet were
+announced on the 13th. The new appointments were: Lord Tweedmouth as
+lord president of the council (instead of the admiralty); Lord Crewe as
+colonial secretary (instead of lord president of the council); Mr D.
+Lloyd George, chancellor of the exchequer (transferred from the Board of
+Trade); Mr R. McKenna, first lord of the admiralty (instead of minister
+of education); Mr Winston Churchill, president of the Board of Trade;
+and Mr Walter Runciman, minister of education. Lord Elgin ceased to be
+colonial secretary, but Lord Loreburn (lord chancellor), Lord Ripon
+(lord privy seal), Mr H. Gladstone (Home Office), Sir E. Grey (foreign
+affairs), Mr Haldane (War Office), Mr Sinclair (secretary for Scotland;
+created in 1909 Lord Pentland), Mr Burns (Local Government Board), Lord
+Carrington (Board of Agriculture), Mr Birrell (Irish secretary), Mr S.
+Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L. Harcourt (commissioner of works), Mr
+John Morley (India) and Sir Henry Fowler (duchy of Lancaster) retained
+their offices, the two latter being created peers. The Budget (see LLOYD
+GEORGE) was the sole feature of political interest in 1909, and its
+rejection in December by the Lords led to the general election of
+January 1910, which left the Liberals and Unionists practically equal,
+with the Labour and Irish parties dominating the situation (L. 275, U.
+273, Lab. 40, I. 82). Mr Asquith was in a difficult position, but the
+ministry remained in office; and he had developed a concentration of
+forces with a view to attacking the veto of the House of Lords (see
+PARLIAMENT), when the death of the king in May caused a suspension of
+hostilities. A conference between the leaders on both sides was
+arranged, to discuss whether any compromise was possible, and
+controversy was postponed to an autumn session.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+ASS (O.E. _assa_; Lat. _asinus_), a common name (the synonym "donkey" is
+supposed to be derived either by analogy from "monkey," or from the
+Christian name Duncan; cf. Neddy, Jack, Dicky, &c.) for different
+varieties of the sub-genus _Asinus_, belonging to the horse tribe, and
+especially for the domestic ass; it differs from the horse in its
+smaller size, long ears, the character of its tail, fur and markings,
+and its proverbial dulness and obstinacy. The ancient Egyptians
+symbolized an ignorant person by the head and ears of an ass, and the
+Romans thought it a bad omen to meet one. In the middle ages the Germans
+of Westphalia made the ass the symbol of St Thomas, the incredulous
+apostle; the boy who was last to enter school on St Thomas' day was
+called the "Ass Thomas" (Gubernatis's _Zoological Mythology_, i. 362).
+The foolishness and obstinacy of the ass has caused the name to be
+transferred metaphorically to human beings; and the fifth proposition of
+Book i. of Euclid is known as the _Pons Asinorum_, bridge of asses.
+
+
+
+
+ASS, FEAST OF THE, formerly a festival in northern France, primarily in
+commemoration of the biblical flight into Egypt, and usually held on the
+14th of January. A girl with a baby at her breast and seated on an ass
+splendidly caparisoned was led through the town to the church, and there
+placed at the gospel side of the altar while mass was said. The ceremony
+degenerated into a burlesque in which the ass of the flight became
+confused with Balaam's ass. So scandalous became the popular revels
+associated with it, that the celebration was prohibited by the church in
+the 15th century. (See FOOLS, FEAST OF.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSAB, a bay and port on the African shore of the Red Sea, 60 m. N. of
+the strait of Bab-el Mandeb. Assab Bay was the first territory acquired
+by Italy in Africa. Bought from the sultan of Raheita in 1870, it was
+not occupied until 1880. (See ERITREA, and ITALY: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSAM, a former province of British India, which was amalgamated in 1905
+with "Eastern Bengal and Assam" (q.v.). Area 56,243 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
+6,126,343. The province of Assam lies on the N.E. border of Bengal, on
+the extreme frontier of the Indian empire, with Bhutan and Tibet beyond
+it on the N., and Burma and Manipur on the E. It comprises the valleys
+of the Brahmaputra and Surma rivers, together with the mountainous
+watershed which intervenes between them. It is situated between 24 deg.
+0' and 28 deg. 17' N. lat., and between 89 deg. 46' and 97 deg. 5' E.
+long. It is bounded on the N. by the eastern section of the great
+Himalayan range, the frontier tribes from west to east being
+successively Bhutias, Akas, Daphlas, Miris, Abors and Mishmis; on the
+N.E. by the Mishmi hills, which sweep round the head of the Brahmaputra
+valley; on the E. by the unexplored mountains that mark the frontier of
+Burma, by the hills occupied by the independent Naga tribes and by the
+state of Manipur; on the S. by the Lushai hills, the state of Hill
+Tippera, and the Bengal district of Tippera; and on the W. by the Bengal
+districts of Mymensingh and Rangpur, the state of Kuch Behar and
+Jalpaiguri district.
+
+_Natural Divisions._--Assam is naturally divided into three distinct
+tracts, the Brahmaputra valley, the Surma valley and the hill ranges
+between the two. The Brahmaputra valley is an alluvial plain, about 450
+m. in length, with an average breadth of 50 m., lying almost east and
+west. To the north is the main chain of the Himalayas, the lower ranges
+of which rise abruptly from the plain; to the south is the great
+elevated plateau or succession of plateaus known as the Assam range. The
+various portions of this range are called by the names of the tribes who
+inhabit them--the Garo, the Khasi, the Jaintia, the North Cachar and the
+Naga hills. The range as a whole is joined at its eastern extremity by
+the Patkai to the Himalayan system, and by the mountains of Manipur to
+the Arakan Yoma. The highest points in the range are Nokrek peak (4600
+ft.) in the Garo hills, Shillong peak (6450 ft.) in the Khasi-Jaintia
+hills, and Japva peak (nearly 10,000 ft.) in the Naga hills. South of
+the range comes the third division of the province, the Surma valley,
+comprising the two districts of Cachar and Sylhet. The Surma valley is
+much smaller than the Brahmaputra valley, covering only 7506 against
+24,283 sq. m.; its mean elevation is much lower and its rivers are more
+sluggish.
+
+  _Physical Aspects._--Assam is a fertile series of valleys, with the
+  great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the _Son of Brahma_)
+  flowing down its middle, and an infinite number of tributaries and
+  watercourses pouring into it from the mountains on either side. The
+  Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad during
+  the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a number of
+  islands in its bed. Rising in the Tibetan plateau, far to the north of
+  the Himalayas, and skirting round their eastern passes not far from
+  the Yang-tsze-kiang and the great river of Cambodia, it enters Assam
+  by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders and
+  accumulations of rocks. The gorge, situated in Lakhimpur district,
+  through which the southernmost branch of the Brahmaputra enters, has
+  from time immemorial been held in reverence by the Hindus. It is
+  called the Brahmakunda or Parasuramkunda; and although the journey to
+  it is both difficult and dangerous, it is annually visited by
+  thousands of devotees. After a rapid course westwards down the whole
+  length of the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra turns sharply to the
+  south, spreading itself over the alluvial districts of the Bengal
+  delta, and, after several changes of name, ends its course of 1800 m.
+  in the Bay of Bengal. Its first tributaries in Assam, after crossing
+  the frontier, are the Kundil and the Digaru, flowing from the Mishmi
+  hills on the north, and the Tengapani and Dihing, which take their
+  rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east. Shortly afterwards it
+  receives the Dihang, flowing from the north-east; but its principal
+  confluent is the Dihong, which, deriving its origin, under the name of
+  the Tsangpo, from a spot in the vicinity of the source of the Sutlej,
+  flows in a direction precisely opposite to that river, and traversing
+  the table-land of Tibet, at the back of the great Himalaya range,
+  falls into the Brahmaputra in 27 deg. 48' N. lat., 95 deg. 26' E.
+  long., after a course of nearly 1000 m. Doubts were long entertained
+  whether the Dihong could be justly regarded as the continuation of the
+  Tsangpo, but these were practically set at rest by the voyage of F.J.
+  Needham in 1886. Below the confluence, the united stream flows in a
+  south-westerly direction, forming the boundary between the districts
+  of Lakhimpur and Darrang, situated on its northern bank, and those of
+  Sibsagar and Nowgong on the south; and finally bisecting Kamrup, it
+  crosses over the frontier of the province and passes into Bengal. In
+  its course it receives on the left side the Dihing, a river having its
+  rise at the south-eastern angle of the province; and lower down, on
+  the opposite side, it parts with a considerable offset termed the Buri
+  Lohir, which, however, reunites with the Brahmaputra 60 m. below the
+  point of divergence, bearing with it the additional waters of the
+  Subansiri, flowing from Tibet. A second offset, under the name of the
+  Kalang river, rejoins the parent stream a short distance above the
+  town of Gauhati. The remaining rivers are too numerous to be
+  particularized. The streams of the south are not rapid, and have no
+  considerable current until May or June. Among the islands formed by
+  the intersection and confluence of the rivers is Majuli, or the Great
+  Island, as it is called by way of pre-eminence. This island extends 55
+  m. in length by about 10 in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra
+  on the south-east and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west. In the
+  upper part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra
+  enters, the country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north
+  and east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the base to the
+  snow-line. On either bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow strip of
+  plain rises almost imperceptibly to the foot of the hills. Gigantic
+  reeds and grasses occupy the low lands near the banks of the great
+  river; expanses of fertile rice-land come next; a little higher up,
+  dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and fruit trees of
+  great size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the interior
+  table-land and mountains. The country in the vicinity of the large
+  rivers is flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled jungle, with the
+  exception of some very low-lying tracts which are either permanent
+  marshes or are covered with water during the rains. Jungle will not
+  grow on these depressions, and they are covered either with water,
+  reeds, high grasses or rice cultivation. On or near such open spaces
+  are collected all the villages. As the traveller proceeds farther down
+  the valley, the country gradually opens out into wide plains. In the
+  western district of Kamrup the country forms one great expanse, with a
+  few elevated tracts here and there, varying from 200 to 800 ft. in
+  height.
+
+  _Soils._--The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kinds
+  of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich
+  black loam reposing on a grey sandy clay, though occasionally it
+  exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into
+  three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the
+  largest group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains,
+  which stand out upon the plain. Another set of hills project into the
+  valley at Gauhati. But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs
+  from the Khasi chain than isolated groups belonging to the plains. The
+  other hills are all isolated and of small extent. The second division
+  of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies
+  above the ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra. The channels of
+  some of the hill streams, however, are of so little depth that the
+  highest lands in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods. On
+  the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the
+  whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the
+  beds of the hill streams. The breadth of these plains is in some
+  places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a tract of many
+  miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills
+  that protect them from the aberrations of the river. The alluvial
+  deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be
+  considered as the third general division of lands in Assam. These
+  lands are very extensive, and present every degree of fertility and
+  elevation, from the vast _chars_ of pure sand, subject to annual
+  inundations, to the firm islands, so raised by drift-sand and the
+  accumulated remains of rank vegetable matter, as no longer to be
+  liable to flood. The rapidity with which wastes, composed entirely of
+  sand newly washed forward by the current during floods, become
+  converted into rich pasture is astonishing. As the freshets begin to
+  lessen and retire into the deeper channels, the currents form natural
+  embankments on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion
+  of water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the
+  action of the sun's rays. It slowly evaporates, leaving a thin crust
+  of animal and vegetable matter. This is soon impregnated with the
+  seeds of the _Saccharum spontaneum_ and other grasses that have been
+  partly brought by the winds and partly deposited by the water. Such
+  places are frequented by numerous flocks of aquatic birds, which
+  resort thither in search of fish and mollusca. As vegetation begins to
+  appear, herds of wild elephants and buffaloes are attracted by the
+  supply of food and the solitude of the newly-formed land, and in their
+  turn contribute to manure the soil.
+
+  _Geology._--Geographically the Assam hills lie in the angle between
+  the Himalayas and the Burmese ranges, but geologically they belong to
+  neither. The older rocks are like those of Bengal, and the newer beds
+  show no sign of either the Himalayan or the Burmese folding--on the
+  top of the plateau they are nearly horizontal, but along the southern
+  margin they are bent sharply downwards in a simple monoclinal fold.
+  The greater part of the mass is composed of gneiss and schists. The
+  Sylhet traps near the southern margin are correlated with the Rajmahal
+  traps of Bengal. The older rocks are overlaid unconformably by
+  Cretaceous beds, consisting chiefly of sandstones with seams of coal,
+  the whole series thinning rapidly towards the north and thus
+  indicating the neighbourhood of the old shore-line. The fossils are
+  very similar to those of the South Indian Cretaceous, but very
+  different from those of the corresponding beds in the Nerbudda valley.
+  The overlying Tertiary series includes nummulitic beds and valuable
+  seams of coal.
+
+  The border ranges of the east and south of Assam belong to the Burmese
+  system of mountain chains (see BURMA), and consist largely of Tertiary
+  beds, including the great coal seams of Upper Assam. The Assam valley
+  is covered by the alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra.
+
+  Of the mineral productions by far the most valuable is coal. Compared
+  with the Gondwana coal of the peninsula of India the Tertiary coal
+  seams of Assam are remarkable for their purity and their extraordinary
+  thickness. The "Thick Seam" of Margherita, in Upper Assam, averages 50
+  ft., and in some places reaches as much as 80 ft. The average
+  percentage of ash in 27 assays of Assam coal was 3.8 as against 16.3
+  in 17 assays of Raniganj coal. The coal seams are commonly associated
+  with petroleum springs. Gold is found in the alluvial deposits, but
+  the results of exploration have not been very promising.
+
+  _Earthquakes_.--Assam is liable to earthquakes. There was a severe
+  earthquake in Cachar on the 10th of January 1869, a severe shock in
+  Shillong and Gauhati in September 1875, and one in Silchar in October
+  1882; but by far the severest shock known is that which occurred on
+  the evening of 12th June 1897. The area of this seismic disturbance
+  extended over north-eastern India, from Manipur to Sikkim; but the
+  focus was in the Khasi and Garo hills. In the station of Shillong
+  every masonry building was levelled to the ground. Throughout the
+  country bridges were shattered, roads were broken up like ploughed
+  fields, and the beds of rivers were dislocated. In the hills there
+  were terrible landslips, which wrecked the little Cherrapunji railway
+  and caused 600 deaths. The total mortality recorded was 1542,
+  including two Europeans at Shillong. The levels of the country were so
+  affected that the towns of Goalpara and Barpeta became almost
+  uninhabitable during the rains.
+
+  _Fauna._--The zoology of Assam presents some interesting features.
+  Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering villages
+  in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to their tastes.
+  Many are caught by means of female elephants previously tamed, and
+  trained to decoy males into the snares prepared for subjecting them to
+  captivity. A considerable number are tamed and exported from Assam
+  every year. Many are killed every year in the forests for the sake of
+  the ivory which they furnish. The government _keddah_ establishment
+  from Dacca captures large numbers of elephants in the province, and
+  the right of hunting is also sold by auction to private bidders. The
+  annual catch of the latter averages about two hundred. The rhinoceros
+  is found in the denser parts of the forests and generally in swampy
+  places. This animal is hunted and killed for its skin and its horn.
+  The skin affords the material for the best shields. The horn is sacred
+  in the eyes of the natives. Contrary to the usual belief, it is stated
+  that, if caught young, the rhinoceros is easily tamed and becomes
+  strongly attached to his keeper. Tigers abound, and though many are
+  annually destroyed for the sake of the government reward, their
+  numbers seem scarcely, if at all, to diminish. Leopards and bears are
+  numerous; and the sand-badger, the _Arctonyx collaris_ of Cuvier, a
+  small animal somewhat resembling a bear, but having the snout, eyes
+  and tail of a hog, is found. Among the most formidable animals known
+  is the wild buffalo or _gaur_ which is of great size, strength and
+  fierceness. The fox and the jackal exist, and the wild hog is very
+  abundant. Goats, deer of various kinds, hares, and two or three
+  species of antelope are found, as are monkeys in great variety. The
+  porcupine, the squirrel, the civet cat, the ichneumon and the otter
+  are common. The birds are too various to admit of enumeration. Wild
+  game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, snipe and water-fowl of many
+  descriptions make the country a tempting field for the sportsman.
+  Vultures and other birds of prey are met with. Crocodiles (commonly
+  called alligators) swarm in all parts of the Brahmaputra, and are very
+  destructive to the fish, of which hundreds of varieties are found, and
+  which supply a valuable article of food. The most destructive of the
+  _ferae naturae_, as regards human life, are, however, the snakes. Of
+  these, several poisonous species exist, including the cobra and karait
+  (_Naja tripudians_ and _Bungarus caeruleus_). The bite of a
+  fairly-grown healthy serpent of either of these species is deadly; and
+  it is ascertained that more deaths occur from snake-bite than from all
+  the other wild beasts put together. Among the non-poisonous serpents
+  the python ranks first. This is an enormous boa-constrictor of great
+  length and weight, which drops upon his prey from the branch of a
+  tree, or steals upon it in the thick grass. He kills his victim by
+  rolling himself round the body till he breaks its ribs, or suffocates
+  it by one irresistible convolution round its throat. He seldom or
+  never attacks human beings unless in self-defence, and loss of life
+  from this cause is scarcely ever reported.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The principal and almost the only food-grain of the
+  plains portion of the province is rice. The production of this staple
+  is carried on generally under the same conditions as in Bengal; but
+  the times of sowing and reaping and the names given to the several
+  crops vary much in different parts of the province. In 1901-1902 out
+  of a total cultivated area of 1,736,000 acres, there were 1,194,000
+  acres under rice. In addition jute is grown to a considerable extent
+  in Goalpara and Sylhet; cotton is grown in large quantities along the
+  slopes of the Assam range. Rubber is grown in government plantations
+  and is also brought in by the hill tribes; while lac, mustard and
+  potatoes are also produced.
+
+  _Tea Plantations._--The most important article of commerce produced in
+  Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great proportion of the
+  cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption, and the
+  Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own consumption,
+  large quantities being imported for the coolies. The tea plantations
+  are the one great source of wealth to the province, and the
+  necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the
+  development of Assam. The plant was discovered in 1823 by Mr Robert
+  Bruce, who had proceeded thither on a mercantile exploration. The
+  country, however, then formed part of the Burmese dominions. But war
+  with this monarchy shortly afterwards broke out, and a brother of the
+  first discoverer, happening to be appointed to the command of a
+  division of gunboats employed in some part of the operations, followed
+  up the pursuit of the subject, and obtained several hundred plants and
+  a considerable quantity of seed. Some specimens were ultimately
+  forwarded to the superintendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta. In
+  1832 Captain F. Jenkins was deputed by the governor-general of India,
+  Lord William Bentinck, to report upon the resources of the country,
+  and the tea plant was brought to his especial notice by Mr Bruce; in
+  1834 a minute was recorded by the governor-general on the subject, in
+  which it is stated that his attention had been called to it in 1827
+  before his departure from England. In accordance with the views of
+  that minute, a committee was appointed to prosecute inquiries, and to
+  promote the cultivation of the plant. Communications were opened with
+  China with a view to obtain fresh plants and seeds, and a deputation,
+  composed of gentlemen versed in botanical studies, was despatched to
+  Assam. Some seeds were obtained from China; but they proved to be of
+  small importance, as it was clearly ascertained by the members of the
+  Assam deputation that both the black and the green tea plants were
+  indigenous here, and might be multiplied to any extent; another result
+  of the Chinese mission, that of procuring persons skilled in the
+  cultivation and manufacture of black tea, was of more material
+  benefit. Subsequently, under Lord Auckland, a further supply of
+  Chinese cultivators and manufacturers was obtained--men well
+  acquainted with the processes necessary for the production of green
+  tea, as the former set were with those requisite for black. In 1838
+  the first twelve chests of tea from Assam were received in England.
+  They had been injured in some degree on the passage, but on samples
+  being submitted to brokers, and others of long experience and tried
+  judgment, the reports were highly favourable. It was never, however,
+  the intention of government to carry on the trade, but to resign it to
+  private adventure as soon as the experimental course could be fairly
+  completed. Mercantile associations for the culture and manufacture of
+  tea in Assam began to be formed as early as 1839; and in 1849 the
+  government disposed of their establishment, and relinquished the
+  manufacture to the ordinary operation of commercial enterprise. In
+  1851 the crop of the principal company was estimated to produce
+  280,000 lb. Since then the enterprise has rapidly developed. Tea is
+  now cultivated in all the plains district of the provinces. When the
+  industry was first established, the land which was supposed to be best
+  for the plant was hill or undulating ground; but now it has been found
+  in the Surma valley that with good drainage the heaviest crops of tea
+  can be raised from low-lying land, even such as formerly supported
+  rice cultivation. At the close of the year 1905 there were 942 gardens
+  in all, with 422,335 acres, and employing 464,912 coolies. The
+  majority of gardens are owned by Europeans, 405,486 acres belonging to
+  them as against 16,849 to Indians. The total out-turn for the province
+  in 1905 was 193,556,047 lb. Between 1893 and 1898 there was a great
+  extension of tea cultivation, with the result that the industry began
+  to suffer from the congestion that follows over-production. Also to
+  meet the requirements of the industry, an enormous number of coolies
+  had to be brought into the province from other parts of India, and in
+  recent years the supply of labour has begun to fall off, causing a
+  rise in the cost of production. For these reasons there was a crisis
+  in the tea industry of Assam, which was relieved to some extent by the
+  reduction of the English duty on tea in 1906.
+
+  _Tea-Garden Coolies._--The labour required on the tea gardens is
+  almost entirely imported, as the natives of the province are too
+  prosperous to do such work. During the decade 1891-1901, 596,856
+  coolies were imported, or about a tenth of the total population of the
+  province. The importation of coolies is controlled by an elaborate
+  system of legislation, which provides for the registration of
+  contracts, the medical inspection of coolies during the journey, and
+  supervision over rates of pay, &c., on the gardens. The first labour
+  act was passed in 1863, and since then the law on the subject has been
+  changed by successive enactments. The measure now in force is called
+  Act VI. of 1901. Under this act the maximum term of the labour
+  contract is fixed at four years, and a minimum monthly wage is laid
+  down, the payment of which, however, is contingent on the completion
+  of a daily task by the labourer. Labourers under contract deserting
+  are liable to fine and imprisonment, and, subject to certain
+  restrictions, may be arrested without warrant by their employers. In
+  addition to the labourers engaged under this act, a large number are
+  employed under contract enforceable by Act XIII, of 1859, which
+  provides penalties for breach of the contract, but does not allow of
+  the arrest of deserters without warrant. Neither does this act
+  regulate in any way the terms of the contract, nor contain any special
+  provisions for the protection of the labourer. Many labourers on the
+  conclusion of their first engagement under Act VI. of 1901 enter into
+  renewed contracts under Act XIII. of 1859. In 1905 there were in all
+  664,296 labourers, and 24,209 fresh importations, of whom 62% chose
+  the old act.
+
+  _Railways._--The Assam-Bengal railway runs from the seaport of
+  Chittagong to the Surma valley, and thence across the hills to
+  Dibrugarh, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to
+  Gauhati lower down the Brahmaputra. The hill section of this line was
+  found exceedingly difficult of construction, and extensive damage was
+  done by the earthquake of 1897; but it is now complete. This railway
+  is financed by the government, though worked by a company, and
+  therefore ranks as a state line. At the end of 1904 its open mileage
+  was 576 m. There are several short lines of light railway or tramway
+  in the province. The most important is the Dibru-Sadiya railway, at
+  the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to the coal-fields.
+
+  _Trade_.-The external trade of Assam is conducted partly by steamer,
+  partly by native boat, and to a small extent by rail. In the
+  Brahmaputra valley steamers carry as much as 86% of the exports, and
+  94% of the imports. In the Surma valley native boats carry about 43%
+  of both. In 1904-1905 the total exports were valued at 726 lakhs of
+  rupees. The chief items were tea, rice in the husk, oil-seeds,
+  tea-seed, timber, coal and jute. The imports were valued at 457 lakhs
+  of rupees. The chief items were cotton piece-goods, rice not in the
+  husk, sugar, grain and pulse, salt, iron and steel, tobacco, cotton
+  twist and yarn, and brass and copper. No less than two-thirds of the
+  total trade is conducted with Calcutta. The trans-frontier trade is
+  insignificant; and most of it is conducted with the Bengal state of
+  Hill Tippera. The trade through Chittagong is increasing owing to the
+  opening of the hill-section of the Assam-Bengal railway, which gives
+  direct communication between the districts of Upper Assam and the port
+  of Chittagong, and the incorporation of that port in the new province
+  of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The total population of Assam, according to the census
+of 1901, was 6,126,343, of whom 3,429,099 were Hindus, 1,581,317
+Mahommedans and 1,068,334 Animists. The number of foreigners in the
+population due to immigration by the tea-garden coolies was 775,844. But
+in spite of this immigration the rate of increase in the population was
+only 5.9% in the decade, and with the immigrants deducted 1.36%. Amongst
+native-born Assamese during the decade there was a serious decrease in
+Nowgong and some other districts, due to _kalaazar_ and other diseases.
+The Assamese are an interesting race, of distinct origin from the
+neighbouring Bengalis. A large proportion of them derive their origin
+from tribes who came from the Himalayan ranges, from Burma or from the
+Chinese frontier. The most important of these are the Ahoms or Ahams, an
+offshoot of the Shan race of northern Burma. They were the last
+conquerors of Assam before the Burmese, and they long preserved their
+ancient traditions, habits and institutions. Hinduism first made its
+encroachments among their kings and nobility. Several generations ago
+they gave up eating beef, and they are now completely Hinduized, except
+in a few remote recesses of Assam. Hinduism has also impressed its
+language upon the province, and the vernacular Assamese possesses a
+close affinity to Bengali, with the substitution of _s_ for the Bengali
+_ch_, of a guttural _h_ for the Bengali _h_ or _sh_, and a few other
+dialectic changes. Indeed, so close was the resemblance that for a time
+Bengali was used as the court and official language of the province
+under British rule. But with the development of the country the Assamese
+tongue asserted its claims to be treated as a distinct vernacular, and a
+resolution of government (1873) re-established it as the language of
+official life and public business.
+
+The Assam peasant, living in a half-populated province, and surrounded
+by surplus land, is indolent, good-natured and, on the whole,
+prosperous. He raises sufficient food for his wants with very little
+labour, and, with the exception of a few religious ceremonies, he has no
+demand made upon him for money, saving the light rental of his fields.
+Under the peaceful influences of British rule, he has completely lost
+his ancient warlike instincts, and forgotten his predatory habits. In
+complexion he is a shade or two fairer than the Bengali. His person is
+in general short and robust, but devoid of the grace and flexibility of
+the Hindu. A flat face, with high cheek-bones, presents a physiognomy
+resembling the Chinese, and suggests no idea of beauty. His hair is
+abundant, black, lank and coarse, but the beard is scanty, and usually
+plucked out, which gives him an effeminate appearance. The women form a
+striking contrast to the men; there is more of feminine beauty in them
+than is commonly seen in the women of Bengal, with a form and feature
+somewhat approaching the European. The habits of life of the Assamese
+peasantry are pre-eminently domestic. Great respect is paid to old age;
+when parents are no longer capable of labour they are supported by their
+children, and scarcely any one is allowed to become a burden to the
+public. They have also in general a very tender regard for their
+offspring, and are generous and kind to their relations. They are
+hospitable to people of their own caste, but to no others. The use of
+opium is very general.
+
+_Hill Tribes._--The hill and frontier tribes of Assam include the Nagas,
+Singphos, Daphlas, Miris, Khamtis, Mishmis, Abors, &c., nearly all of
+whom, excepting the Nagas, are found near the frontiers of Lakhimpur
+district. The principal of these, in point of numbers, are the Nagas,
+who inhabit the hills and forests along the eastern and south-eastern
+frontier of Assam. They reside partly in the British district of the
+Naga hills and partly in independent territory under the political
+control of the deputy-commissioner of the adjoining districts. They
+cultivate rice, cotton, yams and Indian corn, and prepare salt from the
+brine springs in their hills. The different tribes of Nagas are
+independent of and unconnected with one another, and are often at war
+with each other. The Singphos are another of the main population of the
+same race, who occupy in force the hilly country between the Patkai and
+Chindwin rivers, and are nominally subject to Burma. The Akas, Daphlas,
+Miris, Abors, Mishmis and Khamtis are described under separate headings.
+Under regulation V. of 1873, an inner line has been laid down in certain
+districts, up to which the protection of British authority is
+guaranteed, and beyond which, except by special permission, it is not
+lawful for British subjects to go. This inner line has been laid down in
+Darrang towards the Bhutias, Akas and Daphlas; in Lakhimper towards the
+Daphlas, Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Singphos and Nagas; and in
+Sibsagar towards the Nagas. The inner line formerly maintained along the
+Lushai border has since 1895 been allowed to fall into desuetude, but
+Lushais visiting Cachar are required to take out passes from the
+superintendent of the Lushai hills. The line is marked at intervals by
+frontier posts held by military police and commanding the roads of
+access to the tract beyond; and any person from the plains who has
+received permission to cross the line has to present his pass at these
+posts.
+
+_History._--Assam was the province of Bengal which remained most
+stubbornly outside the limits of the Mogul empire and of the Mahommedan
+polity in India. Indeed, although frequently overrun by Mussulman
+armies, and its western districts annexed to the Mahommedan vice-royalty
+of Bengal, the province maintained an uncertain independence till its
+invasion by the Burmese towards the end of the 18th century, and its
+final cession to the British in 1826. It seems to have been originally
+included, along with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the
+old Hindu territory of Kamrup. Its early legends point to great
+religious revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a
+source of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into
+prehistoric times, but the first rajah capable of indentification
+flourished about the year 76 A.D. Kamrup, the Pragjotishpur of the
+ancient Hindus, was the capital of a legendary king Narak, whose son
+Bhagadatta distinguished himself in the great war of the _Mahabharata_.
+
+When Hsuan Tsang visited the country in A.D. 640, a prince named Kumar
+Bhaskara Barman was on the throne. The people are described as being of
+small stature with dark yellow complexions; they were fierce in
+appearance, but upright and studious. Hinduism was the state religion,
+and the number of Buddhists was very small. The soil was deep and
+fertile, and the towns were surrounded by moats with water brought from
+rivers or banked-up lakes. Subsequently we read of Pal rulers in Assam.
+It is supposed that these kings were Buddhist and belonged to the Pal
+dynasty of Bengal. Although the whole of Kamrup appears from time to
+time to have been united into one kingdom under some unusually powerful
+monarch, it was more often split up into numerous petty states; and for
+several centuries the Koch, the Ahom and the Chutia powers contested for
+the Assam valley. In the early part of the 13th century the Ahoms or
+Ahams, from northern Burma and the Chinese frontiers, poured into the
+eastern districts of Assam, founded a kingdom, and held it firmly for
+several centuries. The Ahoms were Shans from the ancient Shan kingdom of
+Pong. Their manners, customs, religion and language were, and for a long
+time continued to be, different from those of the Hindus; but they found
+themselves compelled to respect the superior civilization of this race,
+and slowly adopted its customs and language. The conversion of their
+king Chuchengpha to Hinduism took place in the year A.D. 1655, and all
+the Ahoms of Assam gradually followed his example. In medieval history,
+the Assamese were known to the Mussulman population as a warlike,
+predatory race, who sailed down the Brahmaputra in fleets of innumerable
+canoes, plundered the rich districts of the delta, and retired in safety
+to their forests and swamps. As the Mahommedan power consolidated itself
+in Bengal, repeated expeditions were sent out against these river
+pirates of the north-east. The physical difficulties which an invading
+force had to contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a
+regular subjugation of the country; and after repeated efforts, the
+Mussulmans contented themselves with occupying the western districts at
+the mouth of the Assam valley. The following details will suffice for
+the history of a struggle in which no great political object was
+attained, and which left the Assamese still the same wild and piratical
+people as when their fleets of canoes first sallied forth against the
+Bengal delta. In 1638, during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan, the
+Assamese descended the Brahmaputra, and pillaged the country round the
+city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal, who
+retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam. During the civil wars
+between the sons of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam renewed his predatory
+incursions into Bengal; upon the termination of the contest, Aurangzeb
+determined to avenge these repeated insults, and despatched a
+considerable force for the regular invasion of the Assamese territory
+(1660-1662). His general, Mir Jumla, defeated the rajah, who fled to the
+mountains, and most of the chiefs made their submission to the
+conqueror. But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumla's
+army was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated the
+last expedition against Assam by the Mahommedans, whose fortunes in this
+country were never prosperous. A writer of the Mahommedan faith
+says:--"Whenever an invading army has entered their territories, the
+Assamese have sheltered themselves in strong posts, and have distressed
+the enemy by stratagems, surprises and alarms, and by cutting off their
+provisions. If these means failed, they have declined a battle in the
+field, but have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the
+grain and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set in
+upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity to make
+excursions and vent their rage; the famished invaders have either become
+their prisoners or been put to death. In this manner powerful and
+numerous armies have been sunk in that whirlpool of destruction, and not
+a soul has escaped." The same writer states that the country was
+spacious, populous and hard to be penetrated; that it abounded in
+dangers; that the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that
+the obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The
+inhabitants, he says, were enterprising, well-armed and always prepared
+for battle. Moreover, they had lofty forts, numerously garrisoned and
+plentifully provided with warlike stores; and the approach to them was
+opposed by thick and dangerous jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers.
+The difficulties in the way of successful invasion are of course not
+understated, as it was the object of the writer to exalt the prowess and
+perseverance of the faithful. He accounts for their temporary success by
+recording that "the Mussulman hordes experienced the comfort of fighting
+for their religion, and the blessings of it reverted to the sovereignty
+of his just and pious majesty." The short-lived triumph of the
+Mussulmans might, however, have warranted a less ambitious tone. About
+the middle of the 17th century the chief became a convert to Hinduism.
+By what mode the conversion was effected does not clearly appear, but
+whatever were the means employed, it seems that the decline of the
+country commenced about the same period. Internal dissensions, invasion
+and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province, and neither
+prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the 18th century some
+interference took place on the part of the British government, then
+conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but the successor of that nobleman, Sir
+John Shore, adopting the non-intervention policy, withdrew the British
+force, and abandoned the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged
+the Burmese to depose the rajah, and to make Assam a dependency of Ava.
+The extension of their encroachments on a portion of the territory of
+the East India Company compelled the British government to take decisive
+steps for its own protection. Hence arose the series of hostilities with
+Ava known in Indian history as the first Burmese War, on the termination
+of which by treaty in February 1826, Assam remained a British
+possession. In 1832 that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam
+was formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon
+Purandhar Singh, the ex-rajah of the country; but the administration of
+this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his principality was
+reunited with the British dominions. After a period of successful
+administration and internal development, under the lieutenant-governor
+of Bengal, it was erected into a separate chief-commissionership in
+1874.
+
+In 1886 the eastern Dwars were annexed from Bhutan; and in 1874 the
+district of Goalpara, the eastern Dwars and the Garo hills were
+incorporated in Assam. In 1898 the southern Lushai hills were
+transferred from Bengal to Assam, and the north and south Lushai hills
+were amalgamated as a district of Assam, and placed under the
+superintendent of the Lushai hills. Frontier troubles occasionally occur
+with the Akas, Daphlas, Abors and Mishmis along the northern border,
+arising out of raids from the independent territory into British
+districts. In October 1905 the whole province of Assam was incorporated
+in the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
+
+  See E.A. Gait, _The History of Assam_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+ASSAMESE, the Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Assam valley. In 1901
+the number of its speakers was 1,350,846. It is closely related to
+Bengali and Oriya, forming with them and with Bihari the Eastern Group
+of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars. For further particulars see BENGALI.
+
+
+
+
+ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1829), the founder of schools
+for the education of deaf-mutes in Italy, was born at Genoa in 1753.
+After qualifying himself for the church, he entered the society of the
+Pietists, "Scuole Pie," who devoted themselves to the training of the
+young. His superior learning caused him to be appointed to lecture on
+theology to the students of the order. In 1801 he heard of the Abbe
+Sicard's training of deaf-mutes in Paris, and resolved to try something
+similar in Italy. He began with one pupil, and had by degrees collected
+a small number round him, when, in 1805, Napoleon, hearing of his
+endeavours, ordered a convent to be given him for a school-house, and
+funds for supporting twelve scholars to be taken from the convent
+revenues. This order was scarcely attended to till 1811, when it was
+renewed, and in the following year Assarotti, with a considerable number
+of pupils, took possession of the new school. Here he continued, with
+the exception of a short interval in 1814, till his death in 1829. A
+pension, which had been awarded him by the king of Sardinia, he
+bequeathed to his scholars.
+
+
+
+
+ASSARY, or ASSARION, a Roman copper coin, the "farthing" of Matthew x.
+29.
+
+
+
+
+ASSASSIN (properly _Hashishin_, from _Hashish_, the opiate made from the
+juice of hemp leaves), a general term for a secret murderer, originally
+the name of a branch of the Shiite sect (see SHIITES), known as
+Isma'ilites, founded by Hassan (ibn) Sabbah at the end of the 11th
+century, and from that time active in Syria and Persia until crushed in
+the 13th century by the Mongols under Hulaku (Hulagu) in Persia, and by
+the Mameluke Bibars in Syria. The father of Hassan Sabbah, a native of
+Khorasan, and a Shiite, had been frequently compelled to profess Sunnite
+orthodoxy, and from prudential motives had sent his son to study under
+an orthodox doctor at Nishapur. Here Hassan made the acquaintance of
+Nizam-ul-Mulk, afterwards vizier of the sultan Malik-Shah (see SELJUKS).
+During the reign of Alp-Arslan he remained in obscurity, and then
+appeared at the court of Malik-Shah, where he was at first kindly
+received by his old friend the vizier. Hassan, who was a man of great
+ability, tried to supplant him in the favour of the sultan, but was
+outwitted and compelled to take his departure from Persia. He went to
+Egypt (1078-79), and, on account of his high reputation, was received
+with great honour by the lodge at Cairo. He soon stood so high in the
+caliph Mostansir's favour as to excite against him the jealousy of the
+chief general, and a cause of open enmity soon arose. The caliph had
+nominated first one and then another of his sons as his successor, and
+in consequence a party division took place among the leading men.
+Hassan, who adopted the cause of Nizar, the eldest son, found his
+enemies too strong for him, and was forced to leave Egypt. After many
+adventures he reached Aleppo and Damascus, and after a sojourn there,
+settled near Kuhistan (Kohistan). He gradually spread his peculiar
+modification of Isma'ilite doctrine, and, having collected a
+considerable number of followers, formed them into a secret society. In
+1090 he obtained, by stratagem, the strong mountain fortress of Alamut
+in Persia, and, removing there with his followers, settled as chief of
+the famous society afterwards called the Assassins.
+
+The speculative principles of this body were identical with those of the
+Isma'ilites, but their external policy was marked by one peculiar and
+distinctive feature--the employment of secret "assassination" against
+all enemies. This practice was introduced by Hassan, and formed the
+essential characteristic of the sect. In organization they closely
+resembled the western lodge at Cairo. At the head was the supreme ruler,
+the _Sheik-al-Jabal_ (_Jebel_), i.e. Chief, or, as it is commonly
+translated, Old Man of the Mountains. Under him were three
+_Da'i-al-Kirbal_, or, as they may be called, grand priors, who ruled the
+three provinces over which the sheik's power extended. Next came the
+body of _Da'is_, or priors, who were fully initiated into all the secret
+doctrines, and were the emissaries of the faith. Fourth were the
+_Refiqs_, associates or fellows, who were in process of initiation, and
+who ultimately advanced to the dignity of _da'is_. Fifth came the most
+distinctive class, the _Fedais_ (i.e. the devoted ones), who were the
+guards or assassins proper. These were all young men, and from their
+ranks were selected the agents for any deed of blood. They were kept
+uninitiated, and the blindest obedience was exacted from and yielded by
+them. When the sheik required the services of any of them, the selected
+_fedais_ were intoxicated with the _hashish_. When in this state they
+were introduced into the splendid gardens of the sheik, and surrounded
+with every sensual pleasure. Such a foretaste of paradise, only to be
+granted by their supreme ruler, made them eager to obey his slightest
+command; their lives they counted as nothing, and would resign them at a
+word from him. Finally, the sixth and seventh orders were the _Lasiqs_,
+or novices, and the common people. Hassan well knew the efficacy of
+established law and custom in securing the obedience of a mass of
+people; accordingly, upon all but the initiated, the observances of
+Islam were rigidly enforced. As for the initiated, they knew the
+worthlessness of positive religion and morality; they believed in
+nothing, and scoffed at the practices of the faithful.
+
+The Assassins soon began to make their power felt. One of their first
+victims was Hassan's former friend, Nizam-ul-Mulk, whose son also died
+under the dagger of a secret murderer. The death by poison of the sultan
+Malik-Shah was likewise ascribed to this dreaded society, and
+contributed to increase their evil fame. Sultan Sinjar, his successor,
+made war upon them, but he was soon glad to come to terms with enemies
+against whose operations no precaution seemed available. After a long
+and prosperous rule Hassan died at an advanced age in 1124. He had
+previously slain both his sons, one on suspicion of having been
+concerned in the murder of a _da'i_ at Kuhistan, the other for drinking
+wine, and he was therefore compelled to name as his successor his chief
+_da'i_, Kia-Busurg-Omid.
+
+During the fourteen years' reign of this second leader, the Assassins
+were frequently unfortunate in the open field, and their castles were
+taken and plundered; but they acquired a stronghold in Syria, while
+their numerous murders made them an object of dread to the neighbouring
+princes, and spread abroad their evil renown. A long series of
+distinguished men perished under the daggers of the _fedais_; even the
+most sacred dignity was not spared. The caliph Mostarshid was
+assassinated in his tent, and not long after, the caliph Rashid suffered
+a similar fate. Busurg-Omid was succeeded by his son Mahommed I., who,
+during the long period of twenty-five years, ruthlessly carried out his
+predecessor's principles. In his time Massiat became the chief seat of
+the Syrian branch of the society. Mahommed's abilities were not great,
+and the affections of the people were drawn towards his son Hassan, a
+youth of great learning, skilled in all the wisdom of the initiated, and
+popularly believed to be the promised Imam become visible on earth. The
+old sheik prevented any attempt at insurrection by slaying 250 of
+Hassan's adherents, and the son was glad to make submission. When,
+however, he attained the throne, he began to put his views into effect.
+On the 17th of the month Ramadan, 1164, he assembled the people and
+disclosed to them the secret doctrines of the initiated; he announced
+that the doctrines of Islam were now abolished, that the people might
+give themselves up to feasting and joy. Soon after, he announced that he
+was the promised Imam, the caliph of God upon earth. To substantiate
+these claims he gave out that he was not the son of Mahommed, but was
+descended from Nizar, son of the Egyptian caliph Mostansir, and a lineal
+descendant of Isma'il. After a short reign of four years Hassan was
+assassinated by his brother-in-law, and his son Mahommed II. succeeded.
+One of his first acts was to slay his father's murderer, with all his
+family and relatives; and his long rule, extending over a period of
+forty-six years, was marked by many similar deeds of cruelty. He had to
+contend with many powerful enemies, especially with the great Atabeg
+sultan Nureddin, and his more celebrated successor, Saladin, who had
+gained possession of Egypt after the death of the last Fatimite caliph,
+and against whom even secret assassination seemed powerless. During his
+reign, also, the Syrian branch of the society, under their _da'i_,
+Sinan, made themselves independent, and remained so ever afterwards. It
+was with this Syrian branch that the Crusaders made acquaintance; and it
+appears to have been their emissaries who slew Count Raymund of Tripoli
+and Conrad of Montferrat.
+
+Mahommed II. died from the effects of poison, administered, it is
+believed, by his son, Jelaleddin Hassan III., who succeeded. He restored
+the old form of doctrine--secret principles for the initiated, and Islam
+for the people--and his general piety and orthodoxy procured for him the
+name of the new Mussulman. During his reign of twelve years no
+assassinations occurred, and he obtained a high reputation among the
+neighbouring princes. Like his father, he was removed by poison, and his
+son, 'Ala-ed-din Mahommed III., a child of nine years of age, weak in
+mind and body, was placed on the throne. Under his rule the mild
+principles of his father were deserted, and a fresh course of
+assassination entered on. In 1255, after a reign of thirty years,
+'Ala-ed-din was slain, with the connivance of his son, Rukneddin, the
+last ruler of the Assassins. In the following year Hulaku (Hulagu),
+brother of the Tatar, Mangu Khan, invaded the hill country of Persia,
+took Alamut and many other castles, and captured Rukneddin (see
+MONGOLS). He treated him kindly, and, at his own request, sent him under
+escort to Mangu. On the way, Rukneddin treacherously incited the
+inhabitants of Kirdkuh to resist the Tatars. This breach of good faith
+was severely punished by the khan, who ordered Rukneddin to be put to
+death, and sent a messenger to Hulaku (Hulagu) commanding him to slay
+all his captives. About 12,000 of the Assassins were massacred, and
+their power in Persia was completely broken. The Syrian branch
+flourished for some years longer, till Bibars, the Mameluke sultan of
+Egypt, ravaged their country and nearly extirpated them. Small bodies of
+them lingered about the mountains of Syria, and are believed still to
+exist there. Doctrines somewhat similar to theirs are still to be met
+with in north Syria.
+
+  See J. von Hammer, _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818); S. de Sacy,
+  _Memoires de l'lnstitut_, iv. (1818), who discusses the etymology
+  fully; _Calcutta Review_, vols. lv., lvi.; A. Jourdain in Michaud's
+  _Histoire des Croisades_, ii. pp. 465-484, and trans. of the Persian
+  historian Mirkhond in _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_, xiii. pp.
+  143 sq.; cf. R. Dozy, _Essai sur l'histoire de l'Islamisme_ (Leiden
+  and Paris, 1879); ch. ix.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSAULT (from Lat. _ad_, to or on, and _saltare_, to leap), in English
+law, "an attempt or offer with force or violence to do corporal hurt to
+another, as by striking at another with a stick or other weapon, or
+without a weapon, though the party misses his aim." Notwithstanding
+ancient opinions to the contrary, it is now settled that mere words, be
+they ever so provoking, will not constitute an assault. Coupled with the
+attempt or threat to inflict corporal injury, there must in all cases be
+the means of carrying the threat into effect. A _battery_ is more than a
+threat or attempt to injure the person of another; the injury must have
+been inflicted, but it makes no difference however small it may be, as
+the law does not "draw the line between degrees of violence," but
+"totally prohibits the first and lowest stage of it." Every battery
+includes an assault. A common assault is a misdemeanour, and is
+punishable by imprisonment with or without hard labour to the extent of
+one year, and if it occasions bodily harm, with penal servitude for
+three years, or imprisonment to the extent of two years, with or without
+hard labour. There are various different kinds of assaults which are
+provided against by particular enactments of parliament, such as the
+Offences against the Person Act 1861, the Prevention of Crimes Act 1871,
+&c.; and there are also certain aggravated assaults for which the
+punishment is severer than for common assault, as an assault with intent
+to murder, with intent to commit a rape, &c. In certain cases an assault
+and battery is sometimes justifiable, as in the case where a person in
+authority, as a parent or schoolmaster, inflicts moderate punishment
+upon a child, or in certain cases of self-defence, or in defence of
+one's goods and chattels. An assault may be both a tort and a crime,
+giving a civil action for damages to the person injured, as well as
+being the subject of a criminal prosecution.
+
+_United States._--The general principles applicable throughout the
+United States are the same as in England. Riding a horse threateningly
+near a person; or riding a bicycle against another (_Mercer v. Corbin_,
+117 Indiana Rep. 450); waking one from sleep to present a milk bill
+(_Richmond v. Fiske_, 160 Mass. 34), are assaults. A minor is liable for
+damages for an assault (_Hildreth v. Hancock_, 156 Illinois Rep. 618).
+In Texas it has been held that an assault with a knife is not
+necessarily an aggravated assault (_Warren v. State_, 3 S.W. 240), and
+an axe is not necessarily a "deadly weapon" with which to assault
+(_Gladney v. State_, 12 S.W. 868), and the State must prove that it
+would be likely to produce death or serious bodily injury (_Melton v.
+State_, 17 S.W. 257). Neither a pistol nor brass knuckles are
+necessarily deadly weapons; the State must show their size or manner of
+use in making the assault (_Ballard v. State_, 13 S.W. 674; _Miles v.
+State_, 5 S.W. 250). But in 1903 a pistol was held by the Texas Supreme
+Court to be a deadly weapon if not used simply as a club (_Lockland v.
+State_, 73 S.W. 1054), and the same court held in 1904 that a pistol is
+a deadly weapon (_Pace v. State_, 79 S.W. 531), and so the assault was
+an aggravated assault. In North Carolina it has been held that an axe is
+_ex vi termini_ a "deadly weapon" (_State v. Shields_, 110 N.C. 49).
+
+
+
+
+ASSAYE, a village of Hyderabad or the Nizam's Dominions, in southern
+India, just beyond the Berar frontier. The place is celebrated as the
+site of a battle fought on the 23rd of September 1803 between the
+combined Mahratta forces Under Sindhia and the rajah of Berar and the
+British under Major-General Wellesley, afterwards the duke of
+Wellington. The Mahratta force consisted of 50,000 men, supported by 100
+pieces of cannon served by French artillerymen, and entrenched in a
+strong position. Against this the English had but a force of 4500 men,
+which, however, after a severe struggle, gained the most complete
+victory that ever crowned British valour in India. Of the enemy 12,000
+were killed and wounded; and General Wellesley lost 1657--one-third of
+his little force--killed and wounded. Assaye is 261 m. north-west of
+Hyderabad.
+
+
+
+
+ASSAYING. To "assay" (or "essay"; Fr. _essayer_) is in general to try,
+or attempt, so to make trial or test. In a restricted sense the term
+assaying is applied in metallurgy to the determination of the amount of
+gold or silver in ores or alloys; in this article, however, it will be
+used in a wider technical signification, and will include a description
+of the methods for the quantitative determination of those elements in
+ores which affect their value in metallurgical operations. It would be
+impossible to give in detail here all the precautions necessary for the
+successful use of the methods, and the descriptions will therefore be
+confined to the principles involved and the general manner in which they
+are applied to secure the desired results.
+
+_Gold and Silver._--Ores containing gold or silver are almost invariably
+assayed in the dry way; that is, by fusion with appropriate fluxes and
+ultimate separation of the elements in the metallic form. One of the
+customs which has grown out of our peculiar system of weights is the
+form of statement of the results of such an assay. Instead of expressing
+the amounts of gold and silver in percentages of the weight of ore, they
+are expressed in ounces to the ton, the ounce being the troy ounce and
+the ton that of 2000 avoirdupois pounds. To simplify calculation and to
+enable the assayer to use the metric system of weights employed in all
+chemical calculations, the "assay ton" ("A.T." = 29.166 grammes) has
+been devised, which bears the same relation to the ton of 2000 lb.
+avoirdupois that one milligram does to the troy ounce; when one assay
+ton of ore is used, each milligram of gold or silver found represents
+one ounce to the ton.
+
+The assay of an ore for gold or silver consists of two operations. In
+the first the gold or silver is made to combine or alloy with metallic
+lead, the other constituents of the ore being separated from the lead as
+slag. In the second, the lead button containing the gold or silver is
+cupelled and the resulting gold or silver button is weighed. The first
+is conducted in one of two ways, known respectively as the crucible
+method and the scorification method. The crucible method is generally
+used for ores containing gold in small amounts and for certain classes
+of silver ores. The amount of ore taken for assay is generally one-half
+"A.T.," but in very low-grade ores one, two, and sometimes even four
+"A.T.s" are used. In the scorification method one-tenth of an "A.T." is
+the amount commonly taken. While in both methods the same result is
+sought, the means employed are quite different. In the scorification
+method the ore is mixed in the scorifier (a shallow dish of burned clay)
+with from ten to twenty times its weight of granulated metallic lead
+(test lead) and a little borax glass, and heated in a muffle, the front
+of which is at first closed. When the lead melts and begins to oxidize,
+the lead oxide, or so-called litharge, combines with or dissolves the
+non-metallic and readily oxidizable constituents of the ore, while the
+gold and silver alloy with the lead. As the slag thus formed flows off
+to the sides of the scorifier, the assay clears and the melted metallic
+lead forms an "eye" in the middle. The door of the muffle is then opened
+and the current of air which is drawn over the scorifier rapidly
+oxidizes the lead, while the melted litharge gradually closes over the
+metal. When the "eye" has quite disappeared the door is closed and the
+temperature raised to make the slag very liquid. The scorifier is taken
+from the muffle in a pair of tongs and the contents poured into a mould,
+the lead forming a button in the bottom while the slag floats on top.
+When cold, the contents of the mould are taken out and the lead button
+hammered into the form of a cube, the slag, which is glassy and brittle,
+separating readily from the metal, which is then ready for cupellation.
+In the crucible method the ore is mixed with from once to twice its
+weight of flux, which varies in composition, but of which the following
+may be taken as a type:--
+
+  Sodium bicarbonate  . . . 8 parts.
+  Potassium carbonate . . . 3   "
+  Powdered borax  . . . . . 4   "
+  Flour . . . . . . . . . . 1   "
+  Litharge  . . . . . . . . 9   "
+
+The mixture is charged into a round clay crucible from 100 mm. to 125
+mm. high, and heated either in a muffle or in a crucible furnace at a
+gradually increasing heat for forty or fifty minutes. At the expiration
+of this time, when the charge should be perfectly liquid and in a
+tranquil state of fusion, the crucible is removed from the furnace and
+the contents are poured into a mould. The resulting lead button hammered
+into shape and carefully cleansed from slag is ready for the cupel. If
+the button is too large for cupellation, or if it is hard, it may be
+scorified either alone or mixed with test lead before cupellation. The
+character and amount of the flux necessarily depend upon the character
+of the ore, the object being to concentrate in the lead button all the
+gold and silver while dissolving and carrying off in the slag the other
+constituents of the ore. Under the most favourable conditions there is a
+slight loss of gold and silver in the fusion, the scorification and the
+cupellation, both by absorption in the slag and by actual volatilization
+and absorption in the cupel. In ores containing much copper, this metal
+is largely concentrated in the lead button, making it hard, and
+necessitating repeated scorifications and, in some cases, a preliminary
+removal of the copper by solution of the ore in nitric acid. This leaves
+the gold in the insoluble residue, which is filtered off, and the silver
+in the solution is thrown down by hydrochloric acid. The resulting
+precipitate of silver chloride is filtered, and the residue and the
+precipitate are scorified together. Ores containing much arsenic or
+sulphur are generally roasted at a low heat and the assay is made on the
+roasted material.
+
+The process of cupellation is briefly as follows:--The gold alloy is
+fused with a quantity of lead, and a little silver if silver is already
+present. The resulting alloy, which is called the _lead button_, is then
+submitted to fusion on a very porous support, made of bone-ash, and
+called a _cupel_. The fusion being effected in a current of air, the
+lead oxidizes. The heat is sufficient to keep the resulting lead oxide
+fused, and the porous cupel has the property of absorbing melted lead
+oxide without taking up any of the metallic globule, exactly in the same
+way that blotting-paper will absorb water whilst it will not touch a
+globule of mercury. The heat being continued, and the current of air
+always passing over the surface of the melted lead button, and the lead
+oxide being sucked up by the cupel as fast as it is formed, the metallic
+globule rapidly diminishes in size until at last all the lead has been
+got rid of. Now, if this were the only action, little good would have
+been gained, for we should simply have put lead into the gold alloy, and
+then taken it out again; but another action goes on whilst the lead is
+oxidizing in the current of air. Other metals, except the silver and
+gold, also oxidize, and are carried by the melted litharge into the
+cupel. If the lead is therefore rightly proportioned to the standard of
+alloy, the resulting button will consist of only gold and silver, and
+these are separated by the operation of _parting_, which consists in
+boiling the alloy (after rolling it to a thin plate) in strong nitric
+acid, which dissolves the silver and leaves the gold as a coherent
+sponge. To effect this parting properly, the proportion of silver to
+gold should be as 3 to 1. The operation by which the alloy is brought to
+this standard is termed _quartation_ or _inquartation_, and consists in
+fusing the alloy in a cupel with lead and the quantity of fine silver or
+fine gold necessary to bring it to the desired composition.
+
+_Lead._--The "dry" or fire assay for lead is largely used for the
+valuation of lead ores, although it is being gradually replaced by
+volumetric methods. One part of the ore is mixed with from three to five
+parts of a flux of the following composition:--
+
+  Potassium carbonate .  .  .  .  . 40.6 %
+  Sodium bicarbonate  .  .  .  .  . 31.3 "
+  Borax   .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 15.6 "
+  Flour   .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 12.5 "
+
+The mixture is charged into a clay crucible and heated for twenty
+minutes at a good red heat. When the mixture has been in a tranquil
+state of fusion for a few minutes it is poured into a mould. When cold,
+the button is hammered, cleaned carefully from slag, and weighed. The
+proportion is calculated from the amount of ore used, and the result is
+expressed in parts in a hundred or percentage of the ore. Various
+impurities, such as copper, antimony and sulphur, go into the lead
+button, so that the result is generally too high. The most accurate
+method for the determination of lead in ores is the gravimetric method,
+in which it is weighed as lead sulphate after the various impurities
+have been separated. Nearly all lead ores contain more or less sulphur;
+and as in the process of solution in nitric acid this is oxidized to
+sulphuric acid which unites with the lead to form the very insoluble
+lead sulphate, it is simpler to add sulphuric acid to convert all the
+lead into sulphate and then evaporate until the nitric acid is expelled.
+The salts of iron, copper, &c., are then dissolved in water and filtered
+from the insoluble silica, lead sulphate, and calcium sulphate, which
+are washed with dilute sulphuric acid. The insoluble matter is treated
+with a hot solution of alkaline ammonium acetate, which dissolves the
+lead sulphate, the other materials being separated by filtration. The
+lead sulphate, re-precipitated in the filtrate by an excess of sulphuric
+acid and alcohol, is then filtered on an asbestos felt in a Gooch
+crucible, washed with dilute sulphuric acid and alcohol, ignited, and
+weighed. Lead sulphate contains 68.30% of metallic lead.
+
+There are several volumetric methods for assaying lead ores, but the
+best known is that based on the precipitation of lead by ammonium
+molybdate in an acetic acid solution. The lead sulphate, obtained as
+described above and dissolved in ammonium acetate, is acidulated with
+acetic acid diluted with hot water and heated to boiling-point. A
+standardized solution of ammonium molybdate is then added from a
+burette. As long as the solution contains lead, the addition of the
+molybdate solution causes a precipitation of white lead molybdate. An
+excess of the precipitant is shown by a drop of the solution imparting a
+yellow colour to a solution of tannin, prepared by dissolving one part
+of tannin in 300 of water; drops of this solution are placed on a white
+porcelain plate, and as the precipitant is added to the lead solution a
+drop of the latter is removed from time to time on a glass stirring-rod
+and added to one of the drops on the porcelain plate. The appearance of
+a yellow colour shows that all the lead has been precipitated and that
+the solution contains an excess of molybdate. From the reading of the
+burette the lead is calculated. The molybdate solution should be of such
+a strength that 1 cc. will precipitate 0.01 gramme of lead. It is
+standardized by dissolving a weighed amount of lead sulphate in ammonium
+acetate and proceeding as described above.
+
+_Zinc._--Chemically the ores of zinc consist of the silicates,
+carbonates, oxides, and sulphides of zinc associated with other metals,
+some of which complicate the methods of assay. The most modern and the
+most generally accepted method is volumetric, and is based on the
+reaction between zinc chloride and potassium ferrocyanide, by which
+insoluble zinc ferrocyanide and soluble potassium chloride are formed;
+the presence of the slightest excess of potassium ferrocyanide is shown
+by a brownish tint being imparted by the solution to a drop of uranium
+nitrate. The ore (0.5 gramme) is digested with a mixture of potassium
+nitrate and nitric acid. A saturated solution of potassium chlorate in
+strong nitric acid is added, and the mass evaporated to dryness. It is
+then heated with a mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonia, filtered
+and washed with a hot dilute solution of the same mixture. The filtrate
+diluted to 200 cc. is carefully neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and
+excess of 6 cc. of the strong acid is added, and the solution saturated
+with hydrogen sulphide, which precipitates the copper and cadmium,
+metals which would otherwise interfere. Without filtering, the standard
+solution is added from a burette, and from time to time a drop of the
+solution is removed on the glass stirring-rod and added to a drop or two
+of a strong solution of uranium nitrate, previously placed on a white
+porcelain plate. The appearance of a brown tint in one of these tests
+shows the end of the reaction. When cadmium is not present the copper
+may be precipitated by boiling the acidulated ammoniacal solution with
+test lead and titrating, as before described, without removing the lead
+and copper from the solution. The ferrocyanide solution is standardized
+by dissolving 1 gramme of pure zinc in 6 cc. of hydrochloric acid,
+adding ammonium chloride, and titrating as before. This method is
+modified in practice by the character of the ores, carbonates and
+silicates free from sulphides being decomposed by hydrochloric acid,
+with the addition of a little nitric acid.
+
+_Copper._--The fire assay for copper ores was abandoned years ago and
+the electrolytic method took its place; this in turn is now largely
+replaced by volumetric methods. In the electrolytic method from 0.5 to 5
+grammes of ore are treated in a flask or beaker, with a mixture of 10
+cc. of nitric and 10 cc. of sulphuric acid, until thoroughly decomposed.
+When this liquid is cold it is diluted with cold water, heated until all
+the soluble salts are dissolved, transferred to a tall, narrow beaker,
+and diluted to about 150 cc. The electrodes are attached to a frame
+connected with the battery and the beaker is placed on a stool, which
+can be raised so that the electrodes are immersed in the liquid and
+reach the bottom of the beaker. The electrodes consist of two cylinders
+of platinum (placed one inside the other) about 75 mm. high, the smaller
+of the two 37 mm. and the larger 50 mm. in diameter, both pierced with
+10 to 12 holes 5 mm. in diameter, evenly distributed over the surfaces
+to facilitate diffusion of the liquids. The surfaces of the cylinders
+are roughened with a sand blast to increase the areas and make the
+deposited metals adhere more firmly. Each cylinder has a platinum wire
+fused to the upper circumference to connect with a clamp from which a
+wire leads to the proper pole of the battery. The smaller cylinder is
+generally the negative electrode on which the copper is deposited. The
+framework carrying the clamps is arranged so that a number of
+determinations may be made at one time, the wires from the clamps
+running from a rheostat, so arranged that currents of any strength may
+be used simultaneously. The cylinder, having been carefully weighed, is
+placed in position, the beaker containing the solution is adjusted, and
+the current passed until all the copper is precipitated. This generally
+requires from two to twelve hours. The cylinders are then removed from
+the solution and washed with distilled water, the one holding the
+deposited copper being washed with alcohol, dried and weighed; the
+increase in weight represents the copper contents of the ore. The
+deposited copper should be firmly adherent and bright rosy red in
+colour. Silver, arsenic and cadmium, if present, are precipitated with
+the copper and affect the accuracy of the results; they should be
+removed by special methods.
+
+Volumetric methods are more expeditious and require less apparatus. The
+potassium cyanide method is based on the fact that, when potassium
+cyanide is added to an ammoniacal solution of a salt of copper, the
+insoluble copper cyanide is formed, the end of the reaction being
+indicated by the disappearance of the blue colour of the solution. One
+gramme of the ore is treated in a flask with a mixture of nitric and
+sulphuric acids and evaporated until all the nitric acid is expelled.
+After cooling a little, water is added, and then a few grammes of
+aluminium foil free from copper. On this foil the copper in the solution
+is all precipitated by electrolytic action in a few minutes, and the
+aluminium is dissolved by the addition of an excess of sulphuric acid.
+Water is added, and as soon as the gangue and copper particles have
+settled the clear solution is decanted, and the residue washed several
+times in the same way. The copper is then dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric
+acid; if silver is present a drop or two of hydrochloric acid is added,
+the solution diluted to about 50 cc., and filtered. To the filtrate (or,
+if no silver is present, to the diluted nitric acid solution) 10 cc. of
+ammonia are added, and a standard solution of potassium cyanide is run
+in from a burette until the blue colour has nearly disappeared. The
+solution is filtered to get rid of the precipitate, and the titration is
+finished in the nearly clear nitrate, which should be always about 200
+cc. in volume. The titration is complete when the blue colour is so
+faint that it is almost imperceptible after the flask has been
+vigorously shaken. The potassium cyanide solution is standardized by
+dissolving 0.5 gramme of pure copper in 5 cc. of nitric acid, diluting,
+adding 10 cc. of ammonia, and titrating exactly as described above.
+
+When potassium iodide is added to a solution of cupric acetate, the
+reaction Cu(C2H3O2)2 + 2KI = CuI + 2K(C2H3O2) + I takes place; that is,
+for each atom of copper one atom of iodine is liberated. If a solution
+of sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite) is added to this solution,
+hydriodic acid, sodium iodide and tetrathionate are formed; and if a
+little starch solution has been added, the end of the reaction is
+indicated by the disappearance of the blue colour, due to the iodide of
+starch. The amount of iodine liberated is therefore a measure of the
+copper in the solution, and when the sodium thiosulphate has been
+carefully standardized the method is extremely accurate. The ore is
+treated as described in the cyanide method until the copper precipitated
+by the aluminium foil has been washed and dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric
+acid; then 0.25 gramme of potassium chlorate is added, and the solution
+boiled nearly dry to oxidize any arsenic present to arsenic acid. The
+solution is cooled, 50 cc. water added, then 5 cc. ammonia, and the
+solution is boiled for five minutes. Next 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid
+are added, the solution cooled, and 5 cc. of a solution of potassium
+iodide (300 grammes to the litre) and the standard solution of sodium
+thiosulphate run in from a burette until the brown colour has nearly
+disappeared. A few drops of starch solution are then added, and when the
+blue colour has nearly vanished a drop or two of methyl orange makes the
+end reaction very sharp. The thiosulphate solution is standardized by
+dissolving 0.3 to 0.5 gramme of pure copper in 3 cc. of nitric acid,
+adding 50 cc. of water and 5 cc. of ammonia, and titrating as above
+after the addition of 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid and 5 cc. of the
+potassium iodide solution.
+
+_Iron._--The methods used in the assay for iron are volumetric, and are
+all based on the property possessed by certain reagents of oxidizing
+iron from the ferrous to the ferric state. Two salts are in common use
+for this purpose, potassium permanganate and potassium bichromate. It is
+necessary in the first place, after the ore is in solution, to reduce
+all the iron to the ferrous condition; then the carefully standardized
+solution of the oxidizing reagent is added until all the iron is in the
+ferric state, the volume of the standard solution used being the measure
+of the iron contained in the ore. The end of the reaction when potassium
+permanganate is employed is known by the change in colour of the
+solution. As the solution of potassium permanganate, which is deep red
+in colour, is dropped into the colourless iron solution, it is quickly
+decolorized while the iron solution gradually assumes a yellowish tinge,
+the first drop of the permanganate solution in excess giving it a pink
+tint. With potassium bichromate solution, which is yellow, the iron
+solution becomes green from the chromium chloride or sulphate formed,
+and the end of the reaction is determined by removing a drop of the
+solution on the stirring-rod and adding it to a drop of a dilute
+solution of potassium ferricyanide on a white tile. So long as the
+solution contains a ferrous salt, the drop on the tile changes to blue;
+hence the absence of a blue coloration indicates the complete oxidation
+of all the ferrous salt and the end of the reaction. One gramme of ore
+is usually taken for assay and treated in a small flask or beaker with
+10 cc. of hydrochloric acid. All the iron in the ore generally dissolves
+upon heating, and a white residue is left. Occasionally this residue
+contains a small amount of iron in a difficultly soluble form; in that
+case the solution is slightly diluted with water and filtered into a
+larger flask. The residue in the filter is ignited and fused with a
+little sodium carbonate and nitrate, or with sodium peroxide. The
+product is treated with water, filtered, and the residue dissolved in
+hydrochloric acid and added to the main solution. This solution, which
+should not exceed 50 cc. or 75 cc. in volume, contains the iron in the
+ferric state and is ready for reduction.
+
+In the reduction by metallic zinc, about 3 grammes of granulated or
+foliated zinc are placed in the flask, which is closed with a small
+funnel; when the iron is reduced, add 10 cc. of sulphuric acid, and as
+soon as all the zinc is dissolved the solution is ready for titration.
+In the reduction by stannous chloride the solution of the ore in the
+flask is heated to boiling, and a strong solution of stannous chloride
+is added until the solution is completely decolorized; then 60 cc. of a
+solution of mercuric chloride (50 grammes to the litre) are run in and
+the contents of the flask poured into a dish containing 600 cc. of water
+and 60 cc. of a solution containing 200 grammes of manganous sulphate, 1
+litre of phosphoric acid (1.3 sp. gr.), 400 cc. of sulphuric acid, and
+1600 cc. of water. The solution is then ready for titration with the
+standard permanganate solution.
+
+The permanganate or bichromate solution is standardized by dissolving
+0.5 of a gramme of pure iron wire in a flask, in hydrochloric acid,
+oxidizing it with a little potassium chlorate, boiling off all traces of
+chlorine, deoxidizing by one of the methods described above, and
+titrating with the solution. As the wire always contains impurities, the
+absolute amount of iron in the wire must be determined and the
+correction made accordingly. Pure oxalic acid may also be used, which,
+in the presence of sulphuric acid, is oxidized by the standard solution
+according to the reaction:--
+
+  5(H2C2O42H2O) + 3H2SO4 + 2KMnO4 = 10CO2 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 18H2O.
+
+The reaction in case of ferrous sulphate is:--
+
+  10FeSO4 + 2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 = 5Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O;
+
+that is, the same amount of potassium permanganate is required to
+oxidize 5 molecules of oxalic acid that is necessary to oxidize 10
+molecules of iron in the form of ferrous sulphate to ferric sulphate, or
+63 parts by weight of oxalic acid equal 56 parts by weight of metallic
+iron. Ammonium ferrous sulphate may also be used; it contains
+one-seventh of its weight of iron.     (A. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSEGAI, or ASSAGAI (from Berber-Arab _as-zahayah_, through Portuguese
+_azagaia_), a weapon for throwing or hurling, a light spear or javelin
+made of wood and pointed with iron, particularly the spear used by the
+Zulu and other Kaffir tribes of South Africa. In addition to the
+long-handled assegai there is a shorter weapon for use at close
+quarters.
+
+
+
+
+ASSELIJN, HANS (1610-1660), Dutch painter, was born at Diepen, near
+Amsterdam. He received instruction from Esaias Vandevelde (1587-1630),
+and distinguished himself particularly in landscape and animal painting,
+though his historical works and battle pieces are also admired. He
+travelled much in France and Italy, and modelled his style greatly after
+Bamboccio (Peter Laer). He was one of the first Dutch painters who
+introduced a fresh and clear manner of painting landscapes in the style
+of Claude Lorraine, and his example was speedily followed by other
+artists. Asselijn's pictures were in high estimation at Amsterdam, and
+several of them are in the museums of that city. Twenty-four, painted in
+Italy, were engraved.
+
+
+
+
+ASSEMANI, the name of a Syrian Maronite family of famous Orientalists.
+
+1. JOSEPH SIMON, a Maronite of Mount Lebanon, was born in 1687. When
+very young he was sent to the Maronite college in Rome, and was
+transferred thence to the Vatican library. In 1717 he was sent to Egypt
+and Syria to search for valuable MSS., and returned with about 150 very
+choice ones. The success of this expedition induced the pope to send him
+again to the East in 1735, and he returned with a still more valuable
+collection. On his return he was made titular archbishop of Tyre and
+librarian of the Vatican library. He instantly began to carry into
+execution most extensive plans for editing and publishing the most
+valuable MS. treasures of the Vatican. His two great works are the
+_Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana rec. manuscr. codd. Syr.,
+Arab., Pers., Turc., Hebr., Samarit., Armen., Aethiop., Graec., Aegypt.,
+Iber., et Malab., jussu et munif. Clem. XI._ (Rome, 1719-1728), 9 vols.
+folio, and _Ephraemi Syri opera omnia quae extant, Gr., Syr., et Lat._,
+6 vols. folio (Rome, 1737-1746). Of the _Bibliotheca_ the first three
+vols. only were completed. The work was to have been in four parts--(1)
+Syrian and allied MSS., orthodox, Nestorian and Jacobite; (2) Arabian
+MSS., Christian and Mahommedan; (3) Coptic, Aethiopic, Persian and
+Turkish MSS.; and (4) Syrian and Arabian MSS. not distinctively
+theological; only the first part was completed, but extensive
+preparations were made for the others. There is a German abridgment by
+A.F. Pfeiffer.
+
+2. JOSEPH ALOYSIUS, brother of Joseph Simon, and professor of Oriental
+languages at Rome. He died in 1782. Besides aiding his brother in his
+literary labours, he published, in 1749-1760, _Codex Liturgicus
+Ecclesiae Universae in xv. libris_ (this is incomplete), and _Comment.
+de Catholicis sive Patriarchis Chaldaeorum et Nestorianorum_ (Rome,
+1775).
+
+3. STEPHEN EVODIUS, nephew of Joseph Simon and Joseph Aloysius, was the
+chief assistant of his uncle Joseph Simon in his work in the Vatican
+library. He was titular archbishop of Apamea in Syria, and held several
+rich prebends in Italy. His literary labours were very extensive. His
+two most important works were a description of certain valuable MSS. in
+his _Bibliotheae Mediceo-Laurentianae et Palatinae codd. manuscr.
+Orientalium Catalogus_ (Flor. 1742), fol., and his _Acta SS. Martyrum
+Orientalium._ He made several translations from the Syrian, and in
+conjunction with his uncle he began the _Bibliothecae Apostol. Vatic.
+codd. manusc. Catal., in tres partes distributus._ Only three vols. were
+published, and the fire in the Vatican library in 1768 consumed the
+manuscript collections which had been prepared for the continuation of
+the work.
+
+4. SIMON, grandnephew of Joseph Simon, was born at Tripoli in 1752, and
+was professor of Oriental languages in Padua. He died in 1820. He is
+best known by his masterly detection of the literary imposture of Vella,
+which claimed to be a history of the Saracens in Syria.
+
+
+
+
+ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL, the term used in English law for an assembly of
+three or more persons with intent to commit a crime by force, or to
+carry out a common purpose (whether lawful or unlawful), in such a
+manner or in such circumstances as would in the opinion of firm and
+rational men endanger the public peace or create fear of immediate
+danger to the tranquillity of the neighbourhood. In the Year Book of the
+third year of Henry VII.'s reign assemblies were referred to as not
+punishable unless _in terrorem populi domini regis_. It has been
+suggested (Criminal Code Commission, 1879) that legislation first became
+necessary at a time when it was usual for those landed proprietors who
+were on bad terms with one another to go to market at the head of bands
+of armed retainers (Statute of Northampton, 1328, 2 Edw. III. c. 3). An
+assembly, otherwise lawful, is not made unlawful if those who take part
+in it know beforehand that there will probably be organized opposition
+to it, and that it may cause a breach of the peace (_Beatty v.
+Gillbanks_, 1882, 9 Q.B.D. 308). All persons may, and must if called
+upon to do so, assist in dispersing an unlawful assembly (_Redford v.
+Birley_, 1822, 1 St. Tr. n.s. 1215; _R. v. Pinney_, 1831, 3 St. Tr. n.s.
+11). An assembly which is lawful cannot be rendered unlawful by
+proclamation unless the proclamation is one authorized by statute (_R.
+v. Fursey_, 1833, 3 St. Tr. n.s. 543, 567; _R. v. O'Connell_, 1831, 2
+St. Tr. n.s. 629, 656; see also the Prevention of Crimes [Ireland] Act
+1887). Meetings for training or drilling, or military movements, are
+unlawful assemblies unless held under lawful authority from the crown,
+the lord-lieutenant, or two justices of the peace (Unlawful Drilling Act
+1820, s. 11).
+
+An unlawful assembly which has made a motion towards its common purpose
+is termed a _rout_, and if the unlawful assembly should proceed to carry
+out its purpose, e.g. begin to demolish a particular enclosure, it
+becomes a riot (q.v.). All three offences are misdemeanours in English
+law, punishable by fine and imprisonment. The common law as to unlawful
+assembly extends to Ireland, subject to the special legislation referred
+to under the title RIOT. The law of Scotland includes unlawful assembly
+under the same head as rioting.
+
+_British Dominions Abroad._--The law of the British colonies as a
+general rule as to unlawful assemblies follows the common law of
+England. The definitions in the Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, s. 79)
+and Queensland (1899, s. 61) are substantially the same as the
+common-law definition above given. Under the Indian Penal Code (s. 141)
+an assembly of five or more persons is designated an unlawful assembly
+if the common object of the persons composing that assembly is--(1) to
+overawe by criminal force, or show of criminal force, the legislative or
+executive government of India, or the government of any presidency or
+any lieutenant-governor, or any public servant in the exercise of the
+lawful power of such public servant; (2) to resist the execution of any
+law or of any legal process; (3) to commit any mischief or "criminal
+trespass" or other offence; (4) by means of criminal force or show of
+criminal force to any person, to take or obtain possession of any
+property, or to deprive any person of the enjoyment of a right of way,
+or of the use of water, or other corporeal right of which he is in
+possession or enjoyment, or to enforce any right or supposed right; or
+(5) by means of criminal force or show of criminal force, to compel any
+person to do what he is not legally bound to do, or to omit to do what
+he is legally entitled to do (see Mayne, _Ind. Cr. Law_, ed. 1896, p.
+480). In South Africa and Mauritius the law on this subject is derived
+from the Roman Dutch and French law (see RIOT.)
+
+_United States._--The common-law definition of unlawful assembly is
+accepted in the United States subject to the special legislation of the
+constituent states. The New York Penal Code (s. 451) declares that
+whenever three or more persons being assembled attempt or threaten any
+act tending towards a breach of the peace or injury to person or
+property, or any unlawful act, such assembly is unlawful (see Bishop,
+_Amer. Crim. Law_, 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. s. 534, vol. ii. s. 1256).
+
+
+
+
+ASSEN, the capital of the province of Drente, Holland, 16 m. by rail S.
+of Groningen, at the junction of the two canals which run north and
+south to Groningen and Meppel respectively. Pop. (1900) 11,329. It is
+partly surrounded by a small forest belonging to the state. Assen
+possesses schools (a gymnasium and burgher school), a chamber of
+commerce, a museum of antiquities and a court-house. Peat-cutting forms
+a considerable industry. Many prehistoric remains found in the
+neighbourhood are in the museum at Leiden. Until the 19th century Assen
+was a small place built round the convent in which Otto II. (of Lippe),
+bishop of Utrecht, was murdered after being taken prisoner at Koevorden
+in 1237.
+
+
+
+
+ASSER, or ASSERIUS MENEVENSIS (d. c. 910), English bishop, and author
+of a life of Alfred the Great, was a native of the western part of
+Wales, and was related to Nobis, bishop of St David's. He became a monk
+at St David's, and having acquired some reputation for learning, he was
+invited by King Alfred to his court. The king met the monk at Denu
+(probably East or West Dean, near Seaford in Sussex), but Asser did not
+at once accept the invitation of Alfred, and returned to Wales to
+consult his colleagues. He then agreed to spend six months of each year
+with the king and six months in his own land; but his first stay at the
+royal court extended to eight months, and it is probable that the
+annual visit to Wales was curtailed if not altogether discontinued. It
+is difficult to fix the date of Asser's arrival in England, but it was
+probably about 885. He assisted the king in his studies, received from
+him the monasteries of Congresbury and Banwell, and sometime later
+"Exeter and its diocese in Saxonland and Cornwall." He became bishop of
+Sherborne before 900, and his death is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon
+Chronicle under the date 910, although it is possible that it occurred a
+year or two earlier. The scanty details of Asser's life are taken from
+his biography of Alfred, from which it is inferred that he was
+acquainted with one or two Frankish biographies, and possibly had
+visited the continent of Europe.
+
+Asser's work, _Annales rerum gestarum Alfredi magni_, was written about
+893, and consists of a chronicle of English history from 849 to 887, and
+an account of Alfred's life, largely drawn from personal knowledge, down
+to 887. The only manuscript of which there is any record dates from
+about 1000, and was destroyed by fire in 1731. From this manuscript an
+edition was printed in 1574 under the direction of Matthew Parker,
+archbishop of Canterbury; but this contained many interpolations and
+alterations which were copied by subsequent editors. The text has since
+been the subject of careful study, and the edition edited by W.H.
+Stevenson (Oxford, 1904) distinguishes between the original work of
+Asser and the later additions. Some doubt has been cast upon the
+authenticity of the work, especially by T. Wright in the _Biographia
+Britannica literaria_ (London, 1842), who ascribes the life to a monk of
+St Neots; but the latest scholarship regards it as the work of Asser,
+although all the difficulties which surround the authorship have not
+been removed. The life was largely used by subsequent chroniclers, among
+others by Florence of Worcester, Simeon of Durham, Roger of Hoveden, and
+William of Malmesbury.
+
+  See W.H. Stevenson, Introduction to Asser's _Life of King Alfred_
+  (Oxford, 1904); R. Pauli, Introduction to _Konig Aelfred_ (Berlin,
+  1851).
+
+
+
+
+ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. _assessare_, to sit beside, to judge), a term
+expressing either an official valuation of income or property for
+purposes of taxation, or the amount so determined (see TAXATION and
+VALUATION). It is also applied to the amount of damages fixed by a jury
+in a court of law (see DAMAGES).
+
+An _assessment committee_ is a statutory committee appointed under the
+Union Assessment Acts 1862, 1880, for the purpose of making out the
+valuation lists upon which the poor-law rate is based.
+
+An _assessment policy_, in life insurance, is a policy issued at a fixed
+premium, the excess of which over the portion necessary to meet current
+claims and expenses goes to form a reserve fund which is devoted to
+various forms of benefit for the policy-holders. See INSURANCE and
+FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.
+
+
+
+
+ASSESSOR (Lat. _assessare_, _assidere_, to sit by), a Roman term
+originally applied to a trained lawyer who sat beside a governor of a
+province or other magistrate, to instruct him in the administration of
+the laws (see Roll, _De assessoribus magistratuum Romanorum_, Leipzig,
+1872). The system is still exemplified in Scotland, where it is usual in
+the larger towns for municipal magistrates, in the administration of
+their civil jurisdiction, to have the aid of professional assessors. In
+England, by the Judicature Act 1873, the court of appeal and the High
+Court may in any cause or matter call in the aid of assessors. The
+Patents Act 1907 makes special provision for assessors in patent and
+trade-mark cases. By the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1891 the House
+of Lords may, in appeals in admiralty actions, call in the aid of
+assessors, while in the admiralty division of the High Court it is usual
+for the Elder Brethren of Trinity House to assist as nautical assessors.
+In admiralty cases in the county courts, too, the judge is frequently
+assisted by assessors of "nautical skill and experience" (County Court
+Admiralty Jurisdiction Act 1868). In the ecclesiastical courts assessors
+assist the bishop in proceedings under the Church Discipline Act 1840,
+s. 11, while under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, s. 2, they assist the
+chancellor in determining questions of fact. By the Appellate
+Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14, the king in council may make rules for the
+attendance of archbishops and bishops as assessors in the hearing of
+ecclesiastical cases by the judicial committee of the privy council.
+
+The term "assessor" is also very generally applied to persons appointed
+to ascertain and fix the value of rates, taxes, &c., and in this sense
+the word is used in the United States.
+
+In France and in all European countries where the civil law system
+prevails, the term _assesseur_ is applied to those assistant judges who,
+with a president, compose a judicial court.
+
+In Germany an _Assessor_, or _Beisitzer_, is a member of the legal
+profession who has passed four years in actual practice and become
+qualified for the position of a judge.
+
+
+
+
+ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. _assetz_, mod. Fr. _assez_, "enough"), in
+English law, strictly the property of a debtor in the hands of his
+representative sufficient for the satisfaction of his creditors or
+legatees. Thus the property of a bankrupt is termed his assets and is
+the fund out of which his liabilities must be paid. All property of the
+debtor is assets, and it is not necessary that it should have been
+reduced into possession by him.
+
+The creditors of a debtor are either secured or unsecured. A secured
+creditor, e.g. a mortgagee, has a prior claim to be paid his debt out of
+his security. If on realization of the security there is a balance after
+paying the debt, such balance becomes assets for the unsecured
+creditors; if there is a deficit, then the creditor becomes an unsecured
+creditor for such deficit. The unsecured creditors were formerly divided
+into creditors by specialty and by simple contract, the first being
+creditors secured by instrument under seal who ranked in priority to
+simple contract creditors. But by Hinde Palmer's Act [the Executors Act]
+1869 all unsecured creditors rank alike.
+
+Assets are divisible into legal assets and equitable assets, and the
+former class is again divisible into assets real and personal. These
+distinctions, though formerly of great importance, have now lost most of
+their meaning, but it is necessary briefly to describe the nature of
+these divisions and their consequences. The distinction between assets
+legal and equitable depends entirely upon the remedy open to the
+creditor to recover his debt and in no way upon the nature of the
+property from which the debt is sought to be recovered. If the creditor
+had to sue the executor of a debtor at law to obtain payment out of the
+property, that property was legal assets; but if the only remedy open to
+the creditor to get at the property was to bring an action in chancery
+for the administration of the estate, then the assets were equitable.
+
+Legal assets, as has been said, were divided into real and personal
+assets. The personal assets were those which devolved _virtute officii_
+on the executor or administrator; such assets are since Hinde Palmer's
+Act available equally for specialty and simple contract creditors. The
+real assets consisted of those descending to the heir or devised to a
+devisee, and were at law only liable for specialty debts. However, by
+the Land Transfer Act 1897 it is provided that the real estate of a
+deceased shall devolve upon the executor and "shall be administered in
+the same manner ... and with the same incidents as if it were personal
+estate." The distinction, therefore, between assets real and personal
+has practically ceased to exist, and only continues in regard to such
+property as is not included in the act, the most important of which is
+land held in copyhold.
+
+The equitable assets were treated otherwise. In the eyes of equity all
+unsecured creditors stand upon the same footing, and a creditor suing
+for administration of the estate sued on behalf of himself and all other
+creditors of the estate, and the distinction between specialty and
+simple contract creditors was ignored. Land was not at law liable to
+satisfy simple contract creditors; but if a testator expressly charged
+it with payment of his debts or devised it to his executors upon trust
+to pay his debts, equity treated it as equitable assets and so made it
+available to satisfy simple contract creditors; and finally by an act of
+1833 it was provided that real estate should in all cases be assets to
+be administered by equity for the benefit of simple contract creditors
+as well as creditors by specialty. It will be seen therefore that,
+generally speaking, all creditors have now the same remedies against the
+executors either at law or in equity. The only property as to which
+these distinctions at all survive is that not touched by the Land
+Transfer Act 1897.
+
+The act of 1833 just mentioned does not, however, deal with legacies,
+which continue to be payable only out of personalty unless they are
+expressly charged upon the realty by the testator; it has been contended
+that the effect of the Land Transfer Act 1897 has been to alter this and
+make the realty assets for the purpose of paying legacies, but this view
+is believed to be unsound.
+
+It is necessary for the representative so to distribute the assets that
+any fund primarily liable shall bear its proper burden, and that as far
+as possible all debts and legacies may be paid; this is said to be
+"marshalling the assets," and a few examples of the principal cases of
+marshalling will make this clear. If the personalty is exhausted in
+satisfying the creditors the legatees are left without a fund from which
+to be paid. But inasmuch as the creditor could have got paid out of the
+realty, as well as the personalty, it is not fair that the legatee
+should suffer by the creditor's choice, and he will therefore get
+payment from the real estate. So again if one legacy is charged upon the
+real estate and another is not, then if the former be paid out of the
+personalty the latter will stand in its place and be paid from the real
+estate.
+
+Finally it shall be noticed that an insolvent estate may be administered
+in bankruptcy. In such a case the law of bankruptcy regulates the order
+in which the assets are divided among the creditors (see BANKRUPTCY),
+but by the Judicature Act 1875, it is provided that an insolvent estate
+may be administered in the chancery division, and in such a case "the
+same rules shall prevail and be observed as to the respective rights of
+secured and unsecured creditors and as to the debts and liabilities
+provable and as to the valuation of annuities and future and contingent
+liabilities respectively as may be in force for the time being under the
+law of bankruptcy." This clause must be construed strictly, and it is
+only in the three cases specifically mentioned that the rules of
+bankruptcy will be imported into the administration of an insolvent
+estate by the chancery division.
+
+In a less strict sense, the term "assets," or "an asset," is used
+derivatively as a synonym for any property, or as opposed to
+"liabilities." Cecil Rhodes once spoke of the British flag as a "great
+commercial asset" in South Africa, meaning merely that the imperial
+connexion was a source of strength and credit.
+
+
+
+
+ASSIDEANS (the Anglicized form, derived through the Greek, of the Hebrew
+_Hasidim_, "the pious"), the name of a party or sect which stood out
+against the Hellenization of the Jews in the 2nd century B.C. After the
+massacre of those who fled from the forces of Antiochus Epiphanes and
+would not resist on the sabbath, Mattathias (or Judas) decided to set
+aside the law and was joined by a company of Assideans, brave men of
+Israel every one, who offered themselves willingly for the law (1 Macc.
+ii. 42, cf. 2 Macc. viii. 1). On the appointment of Alcimus (162 B.C.),
+"a descendant of Aaron" as high-priest, "the Assideans were the first
+who sought peace" (1 Macc. vii. 13 f.); but the treacherous murder of
+sixty of them (ib. 16) threw them back into the arms of Judas. According
+to 2 Macc. xiv., Alcimus identified them with the whole party of the
+rebels, of which they were only one, though the most important, section.
+
+  See Schurer, _Geschichte des judischen Volkes_, i. 203; art. in
+  _Jewish Encyclopaedia_, s.v. "Hasidim" (S.M. Dubnow).     (J. H. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIGNATS (from Lat. _assignatus_, assigned), a form of paper-money
+issued in France from 1789 to 1796. Assignats were so termed, as
+representing land _assigned_ to the holders.
+
+The financial strait of the French government in 1789 was extreme. Coin
+was scarce, loans were not taken up, taxes had ceased to be productive,
+and the country was threatened with imminent bankruptcy. In this
+emergency assignats were issued to provide a substitute for a metallic
+currency. They were originally of the nature of mortgage bonds on the
+national lands. These lands consisted of the church property
+confiscated, on the motion of Mirabeau, by the Constituent Assembly on
+the 2nd of November 1789, and the crown lands, which had been taken over
+by the nation on the 7th of October (see FRENCH REVOLUTION).
+
+The assignats were first to be paid to the creditors of the state. With
+these the creditors could purchase national land, the assignats having,
+for this purpose, the preference over other forms of money. If the
+creditor did not care to purchase land, it was supposed that he could
+obtain the face-value for them from those who desired land. Those
+assignats which were returned to the state as purchase-money were to be
+cancelled, and the whole issue, it was argued, would consequently
+disappear as the national lands were distributed.
+
+A first issue was made of 400,000,000 francs' worth of assignats, each
+note being of 100 francs' value and bearing interest daily at a rate of
+5%. They were to be redeemed by the product of the sales, and from
+certain other sources, at the rate of 120,000,000 francs in 1791,
+100,000,000 francs in 1792, 80,000,000 francs in 1793 and 1794, and the
+surplus in 1795. The success of the issue was undoubted, and, possibly,
+if the assignats had been restricted, as Mirabeau at first desired, to
+the extent of one-half the value of the lands sold, they would not have
+shared the usual fate of inconvertible paper money. Mirabeau was a
+strenuous advocate of the assignats. "They represent," he said, "real
+property, the most secure of all possessions, the soil on which we
+tread." "There cannot be a greater error than the fear so generally
+prevalent as to the over-issue of assignats ... reabsorbed progressively
+in the purchase of the national domains, this paper-money can never
+become redundant."
+
+In 1790 the interest was reduced to 3%, and as the treasury had again
+become exhausted, a further issue was decided upon; it was also decreed
+that the assignats were to be accepted as legal tender, all public
+departments being instructed to receive them as the equivalent of
+metallic money. This second issue amounted to 800,000,000 francs and
+carried no interest. It was solemnly declared in the decree authorizing
+the issue that the maximum issue was never to exceed twelve hundred
+millions. This pledge, however, was soon broken, and further issues
+brought the total up to 3,750,000,000 francs. The consequence of these
+further issues was instant depreciation, and the note of 100 francs
+nominal value sank to less than 20 francs coin. Recourse was then had to
+protective legislation. The first step was to decree the penalty of six
+years' imprisonment against any person who should sell specie for a more
+considerable quantity of assignats, or who should stipulate a different
+price for commodities according as the payment was to be made in specie
+or in assignats. For the second offence the penalty was to be twenty
+years' imprisonment (August 1, 1793), for which the death penalty was
+ultimately substituted (May 10, 1794). This severe provision was,
+however, repealed after the fall of Robespierre. Notwithstanding these
+precautions, the value of assignats still declined, till the proportion
+to specie had become that of six to one. Then came the passing by the
+Convention on the 3rd of May 1793 of the absurd "maximum." The decree
+required all farmers and corn-dealers to declare the quantity of corn in
+their possession and to sell it only in recognized markets. No person
+was to be allowed to lay in more than one month's supply. A maximum
+price was fixed, above which no one was to buy or sell under severe
+penalties. These measures were soon stultified by further issues, and by
+June 1794 the total number of assignats aggregated nearly 8,000,000,000,
+of which only 2,464,000,000 had returned to the treasury and been
+destroyed. The extension of the "maximum" to all commodities only
+increased the confusion. Trade was paralysed and all manufacturing
+establishments were closed down. Attempts by the Convention to increase
+the value of the assignats were of no avail. Too many causes operated in
+favour of their depreciation: the enormous issue, the uncertainty as to
+their value if the Revolution should fail, the relation they bore to
+both specie and commodities, which retained their value and refused to
+be exchanged for a money of constantly diminishing purchasing power.
+Even between the assignats themselves there were differences. The royal
+assignats, which had been issued under Louis XVI., had depreciated less
+than the republican ones. They were worth from 8 to 15% more, a fact due
+to the hope that in case of a counter-revolution they would be less
+likely to be discredited.
+
+The Directory was guilty of even greater abuses in dealing with the
+assignats. By 1796 the issues had reached the enormous figure of
+45,500,000,000 francs, and even this gigantic total was swollen still
+more by the numerous counterfeits introduced into France from the
+neighbouring countries. The assignats had now become totally
+valueless--the abolition of the "maximum" the previous year (1795) had
+produced no effect, and, though, by various payments into the treasury,
+the total number had been reduced to about 24,000,000,000 francs, their
+face-value was about 30 to 1 of coin. At this value they were converted
+into 800,000,000 francs of land-warrants, or _mandats territoriaux_,
+which were to constitute a mortgage on all the lands of the republic.
+These _mandats_ were no more successful than the assignats, and even on
+the day of their issue were at a discount of 82%. They had an existence
+of six months, and were finally received back by the state at about the
+seventieth part of their face-value in coin.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L.A. Thiers, _Histoire de la revolution francaise_,
+  gives a full and graphic account of the assignats, the causes of their
+  depreciation, &c.; J. Garnier, _Traite des Finances_ (1862); J.
+  Bresson, _Histoire financiere de la France_ (1829); R. Stourm, _Les
+  Finances de l'ancien regime et de la revolution_ (1885); F.A. Walker,
+  _Money_ (1891); Henry Higgs, in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol.
+  viii. (1904).     (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIGNMENT, ASSIGNATION, ASSIGNEE (from Lat. _assignare_, to mark out),
+terms which, as derivatives of the verb "to assign," are of frequent
+technical use in law. To assign is to make over, and the term is
+generally used to express a transference by writing, in
+contradistinction to a transference by actual delivery. In England the
+usual expression is assignment, in Scotland it is assignation. The
+person making over is called the _assignor_ or _cedent_; the recipient,
+the _assign_ or _assignee_. An assignee may be such either _by deed_, as
+when a lessee assigns his lease to another, or _in law_, as when
+property devolves upon an executor. The law as to assignment in
+connexion with each particular subject, as the assignment of a chose in
+action, assignment in contract, of dower, of errors, of a lease, &c.,
+will be found under the respective headings. In a colloquial sense,
+"assignation" means a secretly contrived meeting between lovers.
+
+
+
+
+ASSINIBOIA, a name formerly applied to two districts of Canada, but not
+now held by any. (1) A district formed in 1835 by the Hudson's Bay
+Company, having in it Fort Garry at the junction of the Red and
+Assiniboine rivers in Rupert's Land, North America. It extended over a
+circular area, with a radius of 50 m. from Fort Garry. It was governed
+by a local council nominated by the Hudson's Bay Company. It ceased to
+exist when Rupert's Land was transferred to Canada in 1870. (2) A
+district of the North-west Territories, which was given definite
+existence by an act of the Dominion parliament in 1875. Assiniboia
+extended from the western boundary of Manitoba (99 deg. W. in 1875, and
+101 deg. 25' W. in 1881) to 111 deg. W., and from 49 deg. N. to 52 deg.
+N. The name was a misnomer, as it barely touched the Assiniboine river.
+To the north of the district lay the district of Saskatchewan, so that
+when the two were united by the Dominion act of 1905, they were somewhat
+changed in boundaries and the name Saskatchewan was given to the new
+province. The derivation of Assiniboia is from two Ojibway words,
+_assini_ meaning a stone, and the termination "to cook by roasting";
+from these came a name first applied to a Dakota or Sioux tribe living
+on the Upper Red river; afterwards when this tribe separated from the
+Dakotas, its name was given to the branch of the Red river which the
+tribe visited, the river being known as the Assiniboine and the tribe as
+Assiniboin.
+
+
+
+
+ASSINIBOIN ("Stone-Cookers"), a tribe of North American Indians of
+Siouan stock. Their name (see above) is said to refer to their method of
+boiling water by dropping red-hot stones into it. Their former range was
+between the Missouri and the middle Saskatchewan on both sides of the
+Canadian frontier. In 1904 there were 1234 in the United States, all on
+reservations in Montana; and in 1902 there were 1371 in Canada.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+ASSISE (from the Fr., derived from Lat. _assidere_, to sit beside), a
+geological term for two or more beds of rock united by the occurrence of
+the same characteristic species or genera.
+
+
+
+
+ASSISI (anc. _Asisium_), a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in
+the province of Perugia, 15 m. E.S.E. by rail from the town of Perugia.
+Pop. (1901) town, 5338; commune, 17,240. The town occupies a fine
+position on a mountain (1345 ft. above sea-level) with a view over the
+valleys of the Tiber and Topino. It is mainly famous in connexion with
+St Francis, who was born here in 1182, and returned to die in 1226. The
+Franciscan monastery and the lower and upper church of St Francis were
+begun immediately after his canonization in 1228, and completed in 1253,
+being fine specimens of Gothic architecture. The crypt was added in
+1818, when the sarcophagus containing his remains was discovered. The
+lower church contains frescoes by Cimabue, Giotto and others, the most
+famous of which are those over the high altar by Giotto, illustrating
+the vows of the Franciscan order; while the upper church has frescoes
+representing scenes from the life of St Francis (probably by Giotto and
+his contemporaries) on the lower portion of the walls of the nave, and
+scenes from Old and New Testament history by pupils of Cimabue on the
+upper. The church of Santa Chiara (St Clare), the foundress of the Poor
+Clares, with its massive lateral buttresses, fine rose-window, and
+simple Gothic interior, was begun in 1257, four years after her death.
+It contains the tomb of the saint and 13th-century frescoes and
+pictures. Santa Maria Maggiore is also a good Gothic church. The
+cathedral (San Rufino) has a fine facade with three rose-windows of
+1140; the interior was modernized in 1572. The town is dominated by the
+medieval castle (1655 ft.), built by Cardinal Albornoz (1367) and added
+to by Popes Pius II. and Paul III. Two miles to the east in a ravine
+below Monte Subasio is the hermitage _delle Carceri_ (2300 ft.), partly
+built, partly cut out of the solid rock, given to St Francis by
+Benedictine monks as a place of retirement. Below the town to the
+south-west, close to the station, is the large pilgrimage church of
+Santa Maria degli Angeli, begun in 1569 by Pope Pius V., with Vignola as
+architect; but not completed until 1640. It contains the original
+oratory of St Francis and the cell in which he died. Adjacent is the
+garden in which the saint's thornless roses bloom in May. Half a mile
+outside the town to the south-east is the convent of San Damiano,
+erected by St Francis, of which St Clare was first abbess.
+
+In the early middle ages Assisi was subject to the dukes of Spoleto; but
+in the 11th century it seems to have been independent. It became
+involved, however, in the disputes of Guelphs and Ghibellines, and was
+frequently at war with Perugia. It was sacked by Perugia and the papal
+troops in 1442, and even after that continued to be the prey of
+factions. The place is now famous as a resort of pilgrims, and is also
+important for the history of Italian art. The poet Metastasio was born
+here in 1698.
+
+  See L. Duff-Gordon, _Assisi_ ("Mediaeval Towns" series, London, 1900).
+  For ancient history see ASISIUM.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIUT, or SIUT, capital of a province of Upper Egypt of the same name,
+and the largest and best-built town in the Nile Valley south of Cairo,
+from which it is distant 248 m. by rail. The population rose from 32,000
+in 1882 to 42,000 in 1900. Assiut stands near the west bank of the Nile
+across which, just below the town, is a barrage, completed in 1902,
+consisting of an open weir, 2733 ft. long, and over 100 bays or sluices,
+each 16-1/2 ft. wide, which can be opened or closed at will. At the
+western end of the barrage begins the Ibrahimia canal, the feeder of the
+Bahr Yusuf, the largest irrigation canal of Egypt. The Ibrahimia canal
+is skirted by a magnificent embankment planted with shady trees leading
+from the river to the town. There are several bazaars, baths and
+handsome mosques, one noted for its lofty minaret, and here the American
+Presbyterian mission has established a college for both sexes. Assiut is
+famous for its red and black pottery and for ornamental wood and ivory
+work, which find a ready market all over Egypt. It is one of the chief
+centres of the Copts. Here also is the northern terminus of the caravan
+route across the desert, which, passing through the Kharga oasis, goes
+south-west to Darfur. It is known as the Arbain, or forty days road,
+from the time occupied on the journey. Assiut (properly Asyut) is the
+successor of the ancient Lycopolis (Eg. Sioout), capital of the 13th
+nome of Upper Egypt. Here were worshipped two canine gods (see ANUBIS),
+Ophois (Wepwoi) being the principal god of the city, while Anubis
+apparently presided over the necropolis. No ruins are visible, the
+mounds of the old city being for the most part hidden under modern
+buildings; but the slopes of the limestone hills behind it are pierced
+with an infinity of rock-cut tombs, some of which were large and
+decorated with sculptures, paintings and long inscriptions. The
+archaeological commission of the _Description de l'Egypte_ visited them
+in 1799, when the walls of many of the large tombs were still almost
+intact; in the first half of the 19th century (and to some extent later)
+an immense amount of destruction was caused by blasting for stone. Three
+of the tombs illustrate one of the darkest periods in Egypt's history,
+when the princes of Siut played a leading part in the struggle between
+Heracleopolis and Thebes (Dyns. IX.-XI.); another, of the XIIth Dynasty,
+contains a remarkable inscription detailing the contracts made by the
+nomarch with the priests of the temples of Ophois and Anubis for
+perpetual services at his tomb (see Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt,
+Historical Documents_, vol. i. pp. 179, 258). Remains of the mummies of
+dogs and similar animals sacred to these deities are scattered among the
+debris on the hillside in abundance. Lycopolis was the birthplace of
+Plotinus, the founder of Neo-Platonism (A.D. 205-270). From the 4th
+century onwards its grottoes were the dwellings of Christian hermits,
+amongst whom John of Lycopolis was the most celebrated.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSIZE, or ASSISE (Lat. _assidere_, to sit beside; O. Fr. _assire_, to
+sit, _assis_, seated), a legal term, meaning literally a "session," but
+in fact, as Littleton has styled it, a _nomen aequivocum_, meaning
+sometimes a jury, sometimes the sittings of a court, and sometimes the
+ordinances of a court or assembly.
+
+It originally signified the form of trial by a jury of sixteen persons,
+which eventually superseded the barbarous judicial combat; this jury was
+named the grand assize and was sworn to determine the right of seisin of
+land (see EVIDENCE). The grand assize was abolished in 1833; but the
+term assize is still applicable to the jury in criminal causes in
+Scotland.
+
+In the only sense in which the word is not now almost obsolete, assize
+means the periodical session of the judges of the High Court of Justice,
+held in the various counties of England, chiefly for the purposes of
+gaol delivery and trying causes at _nisi prius_. Previous to Magna Carta
+(1215) writs of assize had all to be tried at Westminster, or to await
+trial in the locality in which they had originated at the septennial
+circuit of the justices in eyre; but, by way of remedy for the great
+consequent delay and inconvenience, it was provided by this celebrated
+act that the assizes of _mort d'ancestor_ and _novel disseisin_ should
+be tried annually by the judges in every county. By successive
+enactments, the civil jurisdiction of the justices of assize was
+extended, and the number of their sittings increased, till at last the
+necessity of repairing to Westminster for judgment in civil actions was
+almost obviated to country litigants by an act, passed in the reign of
+Edward I., which provided that the writ summoning the jury to
+Westminster should also appoint a time and place for hearing such causes
+within the county of their origin. The date of the alternative summons
+to Westminster was always subsequent to the former date, and so timed as
+to fall in the vacation preceding the Westminster term, and thus
+"_Unless before_," or _nisi prius_, issues came to be dealt with by the
+judges of assize before the summons to Westminster could take effect.
+The _nisi prius_ clause, however, was not then introduced for the first
+time. It occurs occasionally in writs of the reign of Henry III. The
+royal commissions to hold the assizes are--(1) general, (2) special. The
+general commission is issued twice a year to the judges of the High
+Court of Justice, and two judges are generally sent on each circuit. It
+covers commissions--(1) of oyer and terminer, by which they are
+empowered to deal with treasons, murders, felonies, &c. This is their
+largest commission; (2) of _nisi prius_ (q.v.) (3) of gaol delivery,
+which requires them to try every prisoner in gaol, for whatsoever
+offence committed; (4) of the peace, by which all justices must be
+present at their county assizes, or else suffer a fine. Special
+commissions are granted for inquest in certain causes and crimes. See
+also the articles CIRCUIT; JURY.
+
+Assizes, in the sense of ordinances or enactments of a court or council
+of state, as the "assize of bread and ale," the "assize of Clarendon,"
+the "assize of arms," are important in early economic history. As early
+as the reign of John the observance of the _assisae venalium_ was
+enforced, and for a period of 500 years thereafter it was considered no
+unimportant part of the duties of the legislature to regulate by fixed
+prices, for the protection of the lieges, the sale of bread, ale, fuel,
+&c. (see ADULTERATION). Sometimes in city charters the right to assize
+such articles is specially conceded. Regulations of this description
+were beneficial in the repression of fraud and adulteration. Assizes are
+sometimes used in a wider legislative connexion by early chroniclers and
+historians--the "assisae of the realme," e.g. occasionally meaning the
+organic laws of the country. For the "assizes of Jerusalem" see
+CRUSADES.
+
+The term assize, originally applying to an assembly or court, became
+transferred to actions before the court or the writs by which they were
+instituted. The following are the more important.
+
+_Assize of darrien presentment_, or last presentation, was a writ
+directed to the sheriff to summon an assize or jury to enquire who was
+the last patron that presented to a church then vacant, of which the
+plaintiff complained that he was deforced or unlawfully deprived by the
+defendant. It was abolished in 1833 and the action of _quare impedit_
+(q.v.) substituted. But by the Common Law Procedure Act 1860, no _quare
+impedit_ can be brought, so that an action in the king's bench of the
+High Court was substituted for it.
+
+Assize of _mort d'ancestor_ was a writ which lay where a plaintiff
+complained of an "abatement" or entry upon his freehold, effected by a
+stranger on the death of the plaintiff's father, mother, brother,
+sister, uncle, aunt, &c. It was abolished in 1833.
+
+Assize of _novel disseisin_ was an action to recover lands of which the
+plaintiff had been "disseised" or dispossessed. It was abolished in
+1833. See Pollock and Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law._
+
+_Assize, clerk of_, an officer "who writes all things judicially done by
+the justices of assizes in their circuits." He has charge of the
+commission, and takes recognizances, records, judgments and sentences,
+grants certificates of conviction, draws up orders, &c. By the Clerks of
+Assize Act 1869 he must either have been for three years a barrister or
+solicitor in actual practice, or have acted for three years in the
+capacity of subordinate officer of a clerk of assize on circuit.
+
+_United States._--There are no assize courts in the United States; it is
+not the custom for supreme court judges of the states to go on circuit,
+but the judges of the United States Supreme Court do sit as members of
+the United States circuit courts in the several states periodically
+throughout the year. These courts are not assize courts, but are federal
+as distinguished from state courts, and have a special and limited
+jurisdiction. In the several states the highest court is divided into
+departments, in each of which there are courts presided over by supreme
+court judges residing in that department, thus avoiding the assize court
+or circuit-going system.
+
+
+
+
+ASSMANNSHAUSEN, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine and the railway from
+Frankfort-on-Main to Niederlahnstein. Pop. 1100. It has a lithium
+spring, baths and a _Kurhaus_, and is famed for its red wine
+(Assmannshauser), which resembles light Burgundy. From here a railway
+ascends the Niederwald.
+
+
+
+
+ASSOCIATE (Lat. _associatus_, from _ad_, to, and _sociare_ to join). one
+who is united with another, and so generally a companion--in particular
+a subordinate member of an institution or society, as an associate of
+the Royal Academy, or one holding a degree in a learned society lower
+than that of fellow. In English law the associates are officers of the
+supreme court, whose duties are to draw up the list of causes, enter
+verdicts, hand the records to the parties, &c., and generally to conduct
+the business of trials. By the Judicature (Officers) Act 1879 they were
+styled masters of the supreme court, but the office is now amalgamated
+with the crown office department, of which they are clerks.
+
+
+
+
+ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, or MENTAL ASSOCIATION, a term used in psychology
+to express the conditions under which representations arise in
+consciousness, and also for a principle put forward by an important
+historical school of thinkers to account generally for the facts of
+mental life. Modern physiological psychology has so altered the approach
+to this subject that much of the older discussion has become antiquated,
+but it may be recapitulated here for historical purposes.
+
+  _Earlier Theory._--In the long and erudite Note D**, appended by Sir
+  W. Hamilton to his edition of Reid's Works, many anticipations of
+  modern statements on association are cited from the works of ancient
+  or medieval thinkers; and for Aristotle, in particular, the glory is
+  claimed of having at once originated the doctrine and practically
+  brought it to perfection.[1] As translated by Hamilton, but without
+  his interpolations, the classical passage from the _De Memoria et
+  Reminiscentia_ runs as follows:--
+
+  "When, therefore, we accomplish an act of reminiscence, we pass
+  through a certain series of precursive movements, until we arrive at a
+  movement on which the one we are in quest of is habitually consequent.
+  Hence, too, it is that we hunt through the mental train, excogitating
+  from the present or some other, and from similar or contrary or
+  coadjacent. Through this process reminiscence takes place. For the
+  movements are, in these cases, sometimes at the same time, sometimes
+  parts of the same whole, so that the subsequent movement is already
+  more than half accomplished."
+
+  The passage is obscure, but it does at all events indicate the various
+  principles commonly termed contiguity, similarity and contrast.
+  Similar principles are stated by Zeno the Stoic, by Epicurus (see
+  Diog. Laert. vii. S 52, x. S 32), and by St Augustine (_Confessions_,
+  x. e. 19). Aristotle's doctrine received a more or less intelligent
+  expansion and illustration from the ancient commentators and the
+  schoolmen, and in the still later period of transition from the age of
+  scholasticism to the time of modern philosophy, prolonged in the works
+  of some writers far into the 17th century, Hamilton adduced not a few
+  philosophical authorities who gave prominence to the general fact of
+  mental association--the Spaniard Ludovicus Vives (1492-1540)
+  especially being most exhaustive in his account of memory.
+
+  In Hobbes's psychology much importance is assigned to what he called,
+  variously, the succession, sequence, series, consequence, coherence,
+  train of imaginations or thoughts in mental discourse. But not before
+  Hume is there express question as to what are the distinct principles
+  of association. John Locke had, meanwhile, introduced the phrase
+  "Association of Ideas" as the title of a supplementary chapter
+  incorporated with the fourth edition of his _Essay_, meaning it,
+  however, only as the name of a principle accounting for the mental
+  peculiarities of individuals, with little or no suggestion of its
+  general psychological import. Of this last Hume had the strongest
+  impression; he reduced the principles of association to
+  three--Resemblance, Contiguity in time and place, Cause and (or)
+  Effect. Dugald Stewart put forward Resemblance, Contrariety, and
+  Vicinity in time and place, though he added, as another obvious
+  principle, accidental coincidence in the sounds of words, and further
+  noted three other cases of relation, namely, Cause and Effect, Means
+  and End, Premisses and Conclusion, as holding among the trains of
+  thought under circumstances of special attention. Reid, preceding
+  Stewart, was rather disposed to make light of the subject of
+  association, vaguely remarking that it seems to require no other
+  original quality of mind but the power of habit to explain the
+  spontaneous recurrence of trains of thinking, when become familiar by
+  frequent repetition (_Intellectual Powers_, p. 387).
+
+  Hamilton's own theory of mental reproduction, suggestion or
+  association is a development, greatly modified, of the doctrine
+  expounded in his _Lectures on Metaphysics_ (vol. ii. p. 223, seq.),
+  which reduced the principles of association first to two--Simultaneity
+  and Affinity, and these further to one supreme principle of
+  Redintegration or Totality. In the ultimate scheme he posits no less
+  than four general laws of mental succession concerned in reproduction:
+  (1) _Associability_ or possible co-suggestion (all thoughts of the
+  same mental subject are associable or capable of suggesting each
+  other); (2) _Repetition_ or direct remembrance (thoughts coidentical
+  in modification, but differing in time, tend to suggest each other);
+  (3) _Redintegration_, direct remembrance or reminiscence (thoughts
+  once coidentical in time, are, however, different as mental modes,
+  again suggestive of each other, and that in the mutual order which
+  they originally held); (4) _Preference_ (thoughts are suggested not
+  merely by force of the general subjective relation subsisting between
+  themselves, they are also suggested in proportion to the relation of
+  interest, from whatever source, in which they stand to the individual
+  mind). Upon these follow, as special laws:--A, Primary--modes of the
+  laws of Repetition and Redintegration--(1) law of Similars (Analogy,
+  Affinity); (2) law of Contrast; (3) law of Coadjacency (Cause and
+  Effect, &c.); B, Secondary--modes of the law of Preference, under the
+  law of Possibility--(1) laws of Immediacy and Homogeneity; (2) law of
+  Facility.
+
+  _The Associationist School._--This name is given to the English
+  psychologists who aimed at explaining all mental acquisitions, and the
+  more complex mental processes generally under laws not other than
+  those which have just been set out as determining simple reproduction.
+  Hamilton, though professing to deal with reproduction only, formulates
+  a number of still more general laws of mental succession--law of
+  Succession, law of Variation, law of Dependence, law of Relativity or
+  Integration (involving law of Conditioned), and, finally, law of
+  Intrinsic or Objective Relativity--as the highest to which human
+  consciousness is subject; but it is in a sense quite different that
+  the psychologists of the so-called Associationist School intend their
+  appropriation of the principle or principles commonly signalized. As
+  far as can be judged from imperfect records, they were anticipated to
+  some extent by the experientialists of ancient times, both Stoic and
+  Epicurean (cf. Diogenes Laertius, as above). In the modern period,
+  Hobbes is the first thinker of permanent note to whom this doctrine
+  may be traced. Though, in point of fact, he took anything but an
+  exhaustive view of the phenomena of mental succession, yet, after
+  dealing with trains of imagination, or what he called mental
+  discourse, he sought in the higher departments of intellect to explain
+  reasoning as a discourse in words, dependent upon an arbitrary system
+  of marks, each associated with, or standing for, a variety of
+  imaginations; and, save for a general assertion that reasoning is a
+  reckoning--otherwise, a compounding and resolving--he had no other
+  account of knowledge to give. The whole emotional side of mind, or, in
+  his language, the passions, he, in like manner, resolved into an
+  expectation of consequences, based on past experience of pleasures and
+  pains of sense. Thus, though he made no serious attempt to justify his
+  analysis in detail, he is undoubtedly to be classed with the
+  associationists of the next century. They, however, were wont to trace
+  their psychological theory no further back than to Locke's _Essay_.
+  Bishop Berkeley was driven to posit expressly a principle of
+  suggestion or association in these terms:--"That one idea may suggest
+  another to the mind, it will suffice that they have been observed to
+  go together, without any demonstration of the necessity of their
+  coexistence, or so much as knowing what it is that makes them so to
+  coexist" (_New Theory of Vision_, S 25); and to support the obvious
+  application of the principle to the case of the sensations of sight
+  and touch before him, he constantly urged that association of sound
+  and sense of language which the later school has always put in the
+  foreground, whether as illustrating the principle in general or in
+  explanation of the supreme importance of language for knowledge. It
+  was natural, then, that Hume, coming after Berkeley, and assuming
+  Berkeley's results, though he reverted to the larger inquiry of Locke,
+  should be more explicit in his reference to association; but he was
+  original also, when he spoke of it as a "kind of attraction which in
+  the mental world will be found to have as extraordinary effects as in
+  the natural, and to show itself in as many and as various forms"
+  (_Human Nature_, i. 1, S 4). Other inquirers about the same time
+  conceived of association with this breadth of view, and set themselves
+  to track, as psychologists, its effects in detail.
+
+  David Hartley in his _Observations on Man_, published in 1749 (eleven
+  years after the _Human Nature_, and one year after the better-known
+  _Inquiry_, of Hume), opened the path for all the investigations of
+  like nature that have been so characteristic of English psychology. A
+  physician by profession, he sought to combine with an elaborate theory
+  of mental association a minutely detailed hypothesis as to the
+  corresponding action of the nervous system, based upon the suggestion
+  of a vibratory motion within the nerves thrown out by Newton in the
+  last paragraph of the _Principia_. So far, however, from promoting the
+  acceptance of the psychological theory, this physical hypothesis
+  proved to have rather the opposite effect, and it began to be dropped
+  by Hartley's followers (as F. Priestley, in his abridged edition of
+  the _Observations_, 1775) before it was seriously impugned from
+  without. When it is studied in the original, and not taken upon the
+  report of hostile critics, who would not, or could not understand it,
+  no little importance must still be accorded to the first attempt, not
+  seldom a curiously felicitous one, to carry through that parallelism
+  of the physical and psychical, which since then has come to count for
+  more and more in the science of mind. Nor should it be forgotten that
+  Hartley himself, for all his paternal interest in the doctrine of
+  vibrations, was careful to keep separate from its fortunes the cause
+  of his other doctrine of mental association. Of this the point lay in
+  no mere restatement, with new precision, of a principle of coherence
+  among "ideas," but in its being taken as a clue by which to follow
+  the progressive development of the mind's powers. Holding that mental
+  states could be scientifically understood only as they were analysed,
+  Hartley sought for a principle of synthesis to explain the complexity
+  exhibited not only in trains of representative images, but alike in
+  the most involved combinations of reasonings and (as Berkeley had
+  seen) in the apparently simple phenomena of objective perception, as
+  well as in the varied play of the emotions, or, again, in the manifold
+  conscious adjustments of the motor system. One principle appeared to
+  him sufficient for all, running, as enunciated for the simplest case,
+  thus: "Any sensations A, B, C, &c., by being associated with one
+  another a sufficient number of times, get such a power over the
+  corresponding ideas (called by Hartley also vestiges, types, images)
+  _a, b, c_, &c., that any one of the sensations A, when impressed
+  alone, shall be able to excite in the mind _b, c_, &c., the ideas of
+  the rest." To render the principle applicable in the cases where the
+  associated elements are neither sensations nor simple ideas of
+  sensations, Hartley's first care was to determine the conditions under
+  which states other than these simplest ones have their rise in the
+  mind, becoming the matter of ever higher and higher combinations. The
+  principle itself supplied the key to the difficulty, when coupled with
+  the notion, already implied in Berkeley's investigations, of a
+  coalescence of simple ideas of sensation into one complex idea, which
+  may cease to bear any obvious relation to its constituents. So far
+  from being content, like Hobbes, to make a rough generalization to all
+  mind from the phenomena of developed memory, as if these might be
+  straightway assumed, Hartley made a point of referring them, in a
+  subordinate place of their own, to his universal principle of mental
+  synthesis. He expressly put forward the law of association, endued
+  with such scope, as supplying what was wanting to Locke's doctrine in
+  its more strictly psychological aspect, and thus marks by his work a
+  distinct advance on the line of development of the experiential
+  philosophy.
+
+  The new doctrine received warm support from some, as Law and
+  Priestley, who both, like Hume and Hartley himself, took the principle
+  of association as having the like import for the science of mind that
+  gravitation had acquired for the science of matter. The principle
+  began also, if not always with direct reference to Hartley, yet,
+  doubtless, owing to his impressive advocacy of it, to be applied
+  systematically in special directions, as by Abraham Tucker (1768) to
+  morals, and by Archibald Alison (1790) to aesthetics. Thomas Brown (d.
+  1820) subjected anew to discussion the question of theory. Hardly less
+  unjust to Hartley than Reid or Stewart had been, and forward to
+  proclaim all that was different in his own position, Brown must yet be
+  ranked with the associationists before and after him for the
+  prominence he assigned to the associative principle in
+  sense-perception (what he called external affections of mind), and for
+  his reference of all other mental states (internal affections) to the
+  two generic capacities or susceptibilities of Simple and Relative
+  Suggestion. He preferred the word Suggestion to Association, which
+  seemed to him to imply some prior connecting process, whereof there
+  was no evidence in many of the most important cases of suggestion, nor
+  even, strictly speaking, in the case of contiguity in time where the
+  term seemed least inapplicable. According to him, all that could be
+  assumed was a general constitutional tendency of the mind to exist
+  successively in states that have certain relations to each other, of
+  itself only, and without any external cause or any influence previous
+  to that operating at the moment of the suggestion. Brown's chief
+  contribution to the general doctrine of mental association, besides
+  what he did for the theory of perception, was, perhaps, his analysis
+  of voluntary reminiscence and constructive imagination--faculties that
+  appear at first sight to lie altogether beyond the explanatory range
+  of the principle. In James Mill's _Analysis of the Phenomena of the
+  Human Mind_ (1829), the principle, much as Hartley had conceived it,
+  was carried out, with characteristic consequence, over the
+  psychological field. With a much enlarged and more varied conception
+  of association, Alexander Bain re-executed the general psychological
+  task, while Herbert Spencer revised the doctrine from the new point of
+  view of the evolution-hypothesis. John Stuart Mill made only
+  occasional excursions into the region of psychology proper, but
+  sought, in his _System of Logic_ (1843), to determine the conditions
+  of objective truth from the point of view of the associationist
+  theory, and, thus or otherwise being drawn into general philosophical
+  discussion, spread wider than any one before him its repute.
+
+  The Associationist School has been composed chiefly of British
+  thinkers, but in France also it has had distinguished representatives.
+  Of these it will suffice to mention Condillac, who professed to
+  explain all knowledge from the single principle of association
+  (_liaison_) of ideas, operating through a previous association with
+  signs, verbal or other. In Germany, before the time of Kant, mental
+  association was generally treated in the traditional manner, as by
+  Wolff. Kant's inquiry into the foundations of knowledge, agreeing in
+  its general purport with Locke's, however it differed in its critical
+  procedure, brought him face to face with the newer doctrine that had
+  been grafted on Locke's philosophy; and to account for the fact of
+  synthesis in cognition, in express opposition to associationism, as
+  represented by Hume, was, in truth, his prime object, starting, as he
+  did, from the assumption that there was that in knowledge which no
+  mere association of experiences could explain. To the extent,
+  therefore, that his influence prevailed, all inquiries made by the
+  English associationists were discounted in Germany. Notwithstanding,
+  under the very shadow of his authority a corresponding, if not
+  related, movement was initiated by J.F. Herbart. Peculiar, and widely
+  different from anything conceived by the associationists, as Herbart's
+  metaphysical opinions were, he was at one with them, and at variance
+  with Kant, in assigning fundamental importance to the psychological
+  investigation of the development of consciousness, nor was his
+  conception of the laws determining the interaction and flow of mental
+  presentations and representations, when taken in its bare
+  psychological import, essentially different from theirs. In F.E.
+  Beneke's psychology also, and in more recent inquiries conducted
+  mainly by physiologists, mental association has been understood in its
+  wider scope, as a general principle of explanation.
+
+  The associationists differ not a little among themselves in the
+  statement of their principle, or, when they adduce several principles,
+  in their conception of the relative importance of these. Hartley took
+  account only of Contiguity, or the repetition of impressions
+  synchronous or immediately successive; the like is true of James Mill,
+  though, incidentally, he made an express attempt to resolve the
+  received principle of Similarity, and through this the other principle
+  of Contrast, into his fundamental law--law of Frequency, as he
+  sometimes called it, because upon frequency, in conjunction with
+  vividness of impressions, the strength of association, in his view,
+  depended. In a sense of his own, Brown also, while accepting the
+  common Aristotelian enumeration of principles, inclined to the opinion
+  that "all suggestion may be found to depend on prior coexistence, or
+  at least on such proximity as is itself very probably a modification
+  of coexistence," provided account be taken of "the influence of
+  emotions and other feelings that are very different from ideas, as
+  when an analogous object suggests an analogous object by the influence
+  of an emotion which each separately may have produced before, and
+  which is, therefore, common to both." To the contrary effect, Spencer
+  maintained that the fundamental law of all mental association is that
+  presentations aggregate or cohere with their like in past experience,
+  and that, besides this law, there is in strictness no other, all
+  further phenomena of association being incidental. Thus in particular,
+  he would have explained association by Contiguity as due to the
+  circumstance of imperfect assimilation of the present to the past in
+  consciousness. A. Bain regarded Contiguity and Similarity logically,
+  as perfectly distinct principles, though in actual psychological
+  occurrence blending intimately with each other, contiguous trains
+  being started by a first (it may be, implicit) representation through
+  Similarity, while the express assimilation of present to past in
+  consciousness is always, or tends to be, followed by the revival of
+  what was presented in contiguity with that past.
+
+  The highest, philosophical interest, as distinguished from that which
+  is more strictly psychological, attaches to the mode of mental
+  association called Inseparable. The coalescence of mental states noted
+  by Hartley, as it had been assumed by Berkeley, was farther formulated
+  by James Mill in these terms:--
+
+  "Some ideas are by frequency and strength of association so closely
+  combined that they cannot be separated; if one exists, the other
+  exists along with it in spite of whatever effort we make to disjoin
+  them."--(_Analysis of the Human Mind_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 93.)
+
+  J.S. Mill's statement is more guarded and particular:--
+
+  "When two phenomena have been very often experienced in conjunction,
+  and have not, in any single instance, occurred separately either in
+  experience or in thought, there is produced between them what has been
+  called inseparable, or, less correctly, indissoluble, association; by
+  which is not meant that the association must inevitably last to the
+  end of life--that no subsequent experience or process of thought can
+  possibly avail to dissolve it; but only that as long as no such
+  experience or process of thought has taken place, the association is
+  irresistible; it is impossible for us to think the one thing disjoined
+  from the other."--(_Examination of Hamilton's Philosophy_, 2nd ed. p.
+  191.)
+
+  It is chiefly by J.S. Mill that the philosophical application of the
+  principle has been made. The first and most obvious application is to
+  so-called necessary truths--such, namely, as are not merely analytic
+  judgments but involve a synthesis of distinct notions. Again, the same
+  thinker sought to prove Inseparable Association the ground of belief
+  in an external objective world. The former application, especially, is
+  facilitated, when the experience through which the association is
+  supposed to be constituted is understood as cumulative in the race,
+  and transmissible as original endowment to individuals--endowment that
+  may be expressed either, subjectively, as latent intelligence, or,
+  objectively, as fixed nervous connexions. Spencer, as before
+  suggested, is the author of this extended view of mental association.
+
+  _Modern Criticism._--Of recent years the associationist theory has
+  been subjected to searching criticism, and it has been maintained by
+  many writers that the laws are both unsatisfactorily expressed and
+  insufficient to explain the facts. Among the most vigorous and
+  comprehensive of these investigations is that of F.H. Bradley in his
+  _Principles of Logic_ (1883). Having admitted the psychological fact
+  of mental association, he attacks the theories of Mill and Bain
+  primarily on the ground that they purport to give an account of mental
+  life as a whole, a metaphysical doctrine of existence. According to
+  this doctrine, mental activity is ultimately reducible to particular
+  feelings, impressions, ideas, which are disparate and unconnected,
+  until chance Association brings them together. On this assumption the
+  laws of Association naturally emerge in the following form:--(1) The
+  _law of Contiguity._--"Actions, sensations and states of feeling,
+  occurring together or in close connexion, tend to grow together, or
+  cohere, in such a way that, when any one of them is afterwards
+  presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea"
+  (A. Bain, _Senses and Intellect_, p. 327). (2) The _law of
+  Similarity._--"Present actions, sensation, thoughts or emotions tend
+  to revive their like among previous impressions or states" (A. Bain,
+  _ibid._ 457. Compare J.S. Mill, _Logic_, ii. p. 440, 9th ed.). The
+  fundamental objection to (1) is that ideas and impressions once
+  experienced do not recur; they are particular existences, and, as
+  such, do not persevere to recur or be presented. So Mill is wrong in
+  speaking of two impressions being "frequently experienced." Bradley
+  claims thus to reduce the law to "When we have experienced (or even
+  thought of) several pairs of impressions (simultaneous or successive),
+  which pairs are like one another; then whenever an idea occurs which
+  is like all the impressions on one side of these pairs, it tends to
+  excite an idea which is like all the impressions on the other side."
+  This statement is destructive of the title of the law, because it
+  appears that what were contiguous (the impressions) are not
+  associated, and what are associated (the ideas) were not contiguous;
+  in other words, the association is not due to contiguity at all.
+
+  Proceeding to the law of Similarity (which in Mill's view is at the
+  back of association by contiguity), and having made a similar
+  criticism of its phrasing, Bradley maintains that it involves an even
+  greater absurdity; if two ideas are to be recognized as similar, they
+  must both be present in the mind; if one is to call up the other, one
+  must be absent. To the obvious reply that the similarity is recognized
+  _ex post facto_, and not while the former idea is being called up,
+  Bradley replies simply that such a view reduces the law to the mere
+  statement of a phenomenon and deprives it of any explanatory value,
+  though he hardly makes it clear in what sense this necessarily
+  invalidates the law from a psychological point of view. He further
+  points out with greater force that in point of fact mere similarity is
+  not the basis of ordinary cases of mental reproduction, inasmuch as in
+  any given instance there is more difference than similarity between
+  the ideas associated.
+
+  Bradley himself bases association on identity plus contiguity:--"Any
+  part of a single state of mind tends, if reproduced, to re-instate the
+  remainder," or "any element tends to reproduce those elements with
+  which it has formed one state of mind." This law he calls by the name
+  "redintegration," understood, of course, in a sense different from
+  that in which Hamilton used it. The radical difference between this
+  law and those of Mill and Bain is that it deals not with particular
+  units of thoughts but with universals or identity between individuals.
+  In any example of such reproduction the universal appears in a
+  particular form which is more or less different from that in which it
+  originally existed.
+
+  _Psychophysical Researches._--Bradley's discussion deals with the
+  subject purely from the metaphysical side, and the total result
+  practically is that association occurs only between universals. From
+  the point of view of empirical psychologists Bradley's results are
+  open to the charge which he made against those who impugned his view
+  of the law of similarity, namely that they are merely a statement--not
+  in any real sense an explanation. The relation between the mental and
+  the physical phenomena of association has occupied the attention of
+  all the leading psychologists (see PSYCHOLOGY). William James holds
+  that association is of "objects" not of "ideas," is between "things
+  thought of"--so far as the word stands for an effect. "So far as it
+  stands for a cause it is between processes in the brain." Dealing with
+  the law of Contiguity he says that the "most natural way of accounting
+  for it is to conceive it as a result of the laws of habit in the
+  nervous system; in other words to ascribe it to a physiological
+  cause." Association is thus due to the fact that when a nerve current
+  has once passed by a given way, it will pass more easily by that way
+  in future; and this fact is a physical fact. He further seeks to
+  maintain the important deduction that the only primary or ultimate law
+  of association is that of neural habit.
+
+  The objections to the associationist theory are summed up by G.F.
+  Stout (_Analytic Psychol._, vol. ii. pp. 47 seq.) under three heads.
+  Of these the first is that the theory as stated, e.g. by Bain, lays
+  far too much stress on the mere connexion of elements hitherto
+  entirely separate; whereas, in fact, every new mental state or
+  synthesis consists in the development or modification of a
+  pre-existing state or psychic whole. Secondly, it is quite false to
+  regard an association as merely an aggregate of disparate units; in
+  fact, the _form_ of the new idea is quite as important as the elements
+  which it comprises. Thirdly, the phraseology used by the
+  associationists seems to assume that the parts that go to form the
+  whole retain their identity unimpaired; in fact, each part or element
+  is _ipso facto_ modified by the very fact of its entering into such
+  combination.
+
+  The experimental methods now in vogue have to a large extent removed
+  the discussion of the whole subject of association of ideas, depending
+  in the case of the older writers on introspection, into a new sphere.
+  In such a work as E.B. Titchener's _Experimental Psychology_ (1905),
+  association is treated as a branch of the study of mental reactions,
+  of which association reactions are one division.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See PSYCHOLOGY; and the works of Bradley, Stout, and
+  James, above quoted, and general works on psychology: articles in
+  _Mind_ (passim); A. Bain, _Senses and Intellect_ (4th ed., 1894), and
+  in _Mind_, xii. (1887) pp. 237-249; John Watson, _An Outline of
+  Philosophy_ (1898); H. Hoffding, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng. trans.,
+  Lond., 1900), _Psychologie in Umrissen auf Grundlage der Erfahrung_
+  (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893); Jas. Sully, _The Human Mind_ (1892), and
+  _Outlines of Psych._ (Lond., 1892); E.B. Titchener, _Outline of
+  Psych._ (New York, 1896), and in his trans. of O. Kulpe's _Outlines of
+  Psych._ (New York, 1895,); Jas. Ward in _Mind_, viii. (1883), xii.
+  (1887), new series ii. (1893), iii. (1894); G.T. Ladd, _Psychology,
+  Descriptive and Explanatory_ (Lond., 1894); C.L.C. Morgan, _Introd. to
+  Comparative Psych._ (Lond., 1894); W. Wundt, _Princip. of Physiol.
+  Psych._ (Eng. trans., 1904), _Human and Animal Psych._ (Eng. trans.,
+  1894), pp. 282-307; _Outlines of Psych._ (Eng. trans., 1897); E.
+  Claparede, _L'Association des idees_ (1903). For associationism in
+  Greek philosophy see J.I. Beare, _Greek Theories of Elementary
+  Cognition_ (Oxford, 1906), part iii. SS 14, 43 seq.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There are, however, distinct anticipations of the theory in Plato
+    (_Phaedo_), as part of the doctrine of [Greek: anamnaesis]; thus we
+    find the idea of Simmias recalled by the picture of Simmias
+    (similarity), and that of a friend by the sight of the lyre on which
+    he played (contiguity).
+
+
+
+
+ASSONANCE (from Lat. _adsonare_ or _assonare_, to sound to or answer
+to), a term defined, in its prosodical sense, as "the corresponding or
+riming of one word with another in the accented vowel and those which
+follow it, but not in the consonants" (_New English Dictionary_,
+Oxford). In other words, assonance is an improper or imperfect form of
+rhyme, in which the ear is satisfied with the incomplete identity of
+sound which the vowel gives without the aid of consonants. Much rustic
+or popular verse in England is satisfied with assonance, as in such
+cases as
+
+  "And pray who gave thee that jolly red _nose_?
+   Cinnamon, Ginger, Nutmeg and _Cloves_,"
+
+where the agreement between the two _o's_ permits the ear to neglect the
+discord between _s_ and _v_. But in English these instances are the
+result of carelessness or blunted ear. It is not so in several
+literatures, such as in Spanish, where assonance is systematically
+cultivated as a literary ornament. It is an error to confound
+alliteration,--which results from the close juxtaposition of words
+beginning with the same sound or letter,--and assonance, which is the
+repetition of the same vowel-sound in a syllable at points where the ear
+expects a rhyme. The latter is a more complicated and less primitive
+employment of artifice than the former, although they have often been
+used to intensify the effect of each other in a single couplet.
+Assonance appears, nevertheless, to have preceded rhyme in several of
+the European languages, and to have led the way towards it. It is
+particularly observable in the French poetry which was composed before
+the 12th century, and it reached its highest point in the "Chanson de
+Roland," where the sections are distinguished by the fact that all the
+lines in a _laisse_ or stanza close with the same vowel-sound. When the
+ear of the French became more delicate, and pure rhyme was introduced,
+about the year 1120, assonance almost immediately retired before it and
+was employed no more, until recent years, when several French poets have
+re-introduced assonance in order to widen the scope of their effects of
+sound. It held its place longer in Provencal and some other Romance
+literatures, while in Spanish it has retained its absolute authority
+over rhyme to the present day. It has been observed that in the Romance
+languages the ear prefers the correspondence of vowels, while in the
+Teutonic languages the preference is given to consonants. This
+distinction is felt most strongly in Spanish, where the satisfaction in
+_rimas asonantes_ is expressed no less in the most elaborate works of
+the poets and dramatists than in the rough ballads of the people. The
+nature of the language here permits the full value of the corresponding
+vowel-sounds to be appreciated, whereas in English--and even in German,
+where, however, a great deal of assonant poetry exists--the divergence
+of the consonants easily veils or blunts the similarity of sound.
+Various German poets of high merit, and in particular Tieck and Heine,
+have endeavoured to obviate this difficulty, but without complete
+success. Occasionally they endeavour, as English rhymers have done, to
+mix pure rhyme with assonance, but the result of this in almost all
+cases is that the assonances, &c., which make a less strenuous appeal to
+the ear, are drowned and lost in the stress of the pure rhymes. Like
+alliteration, assonance is a very frequent and very effective ornament
+of prose style, but such correspondence in vowel-sound is usually
+accidental and involuntary, an instinctive employment of the skill of
+the writer. To introduce it with a purpose, as of course must be done in
+poetry, has always been held to be a most dangerous practice in prose.
+Assonance as a conscious art, in fact, is scarcely recognized as
+legitimate in English literature.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUAN, or ASWAN, a town of Upper Egypt on the east bank of the Nile,
+facing Elephantine Island below the First Cataract, and 590 m. S. of
+Cairo by rail. It is the capital of a province of the same name--the
+southernmost province of Egypt. Population (1907) 16,128. The principal
+buildings are along the river front, where a broad embankment has been
+built. Popular among Europeans as a winter health resort and tourist
+centre, Assuan is provided with large modern hotels (one situated on
+Elephantine Island), and there is an English church. South-east of the
+railway station are the ruins of a temple built by Ptolemy Euergetes,
+and still farther south are the famous granite quarries of Syene. On
+Elephantine Island are an ancient nilometer and other remains, including
+a granite gateway built under Alexander the Great at the temple of the
+local ram-headed god Chnubis or Chnumis (Eg. Khnum), perhaps on account
+of his connexion with Ammon (q.v.); two small but very beautiful temples
+of the XVIIIth Dynasty were destroyed there about 1820. In the hill on
+the opposite side of the river are tombs of the VIth to XIIth dynasties,
+opened by Lord Grenfell in 1885-1886. The inscriptions show that they
+belonged to frontier-prefects whose expeditions into Nubia, &c., are
+recorded in them. Three and a half miles above the town, at the
+beginning of the Cataract, the Assuan Dam stretches across the Nile.
+This great engineering work was finished in December 1902 (see
+IRRIGATION: _Egypt_; and NILE). Above the dam the Nile presents the
+appearance of a vast lake. Consequent on the rise of the water-level
+several islands have been wholly and others partly submerged, among the
+latter Philae (q.v.). On the east bank opposite Philae is the village of
+Shellal, southern terminus of the Egyptian railway system and the
+starting point of steamers for the Sudan.
+
+In ancient times the chief city, called Yeb, capital of the frontier
+nome, the first of the Upper Country, was on the island of Elephantine,
+guarding the entrance to Egypt. But, owing to the cataract, the main
+route for traffic with the south was by land along the eastern shore.
+Here, near the granite quarries--whence was obtained the material for
+many magnificent monuments--there grew up another city, at first
+dependent on and afterwards successor to the island town. This city was
+called _Swan_, the Mart, whence came the Greek _Syene_ and Arabic
+_Aswan_. Syene is twice mentioned (as Seveneh) in the prophecies of
+Ezekiel, and papyri, discovered on the island, and dated in the reigns
+of Artaxerxes and Darius II, (464-404 B.C.), reveal the existence of a
+colony of Jews, with a temple to Yahu (Yahweh, Jehovah), which had been
+founded at some time before the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses in 523
+B.C. They also mention the great frontier garrison against the
+Ethiopians, referred to by Herodotus. Syene was one of the bases used by
+Eratosthenes in his calculations for the measurement of the earth. In
+Roman times Syene was strongly garrisoned to resist the attacks of the
+desert tribes. Thither, in virtual banishment, Juvenal was sent as
+prefect by Domitian. In the early days of Christianity the town became
+the seat of a bishopric, and numerous ruins of Coptic convents are in
+the neighbourhood. Syene appears also to have flourished under its first
+Arab rulers, but in the 12th century was raided and ruined by Bedouin
+and Nubian tribes. On the conquest of Egypt by the Turks in the 16th
+century, Selim I. placed a garrison here, from whom, in part, the
+present townsmen descend. As the southern frontier town of Egypt proper,
+Assuan in times of peace was the entrepot of a considerable trade with
+the Sudan and Abyssinia, and in 1880 its trade was valued at L2,000,000
+annually. During the Mahdia (1884-1898) Assuan was strongly garrisoned
+by Egyptian and British troops. Since the defeat of the khalifa at
+Omdurman and the fixing (1899) of the Egyptian frontier farther south,
+the military value of Assuan has declined.
+
+  For the Jewish colony see A.H. Sayce and A.E. Cowley, _Aramaic Papyri
+  discovered at Assuan_ (Oxford, 1906); E. Sachau, _Drei Aramaische
+  papyrus-Urkunden aus Elephantine_ (Berlin, 1907). For the dam see W.
+  Willcocks, _The Nile Reservoir Dam at Assuan_ (London, 1901).
+       (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUMPSIT ("he has undertaken," from Lat. _assumere_), a word applied to
+an action for the recovery of damages by reason of the breach or
+non-performance of a simple contract, either express or implied, and
+whether made orally or in writing. _Assumpsit_ was the word always used
+in pleadings by the plaintiff to set forth the defendant's undertaking
+or promise, hence the name of the action. Claims in actions of
+_assumpsit_ were ordinarily divided into (a) common or _indebitatus
+assumpsit_, brought usually on an implied promise, and (b) special
+_assumpsit_, founded on an express promise. _Assumpsit_ as a form of
+action became obsolete after the passing of the Judicature Acts 1873 and
+1875. (See further CONTRACT; PLEADING and TORT.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF. The feast of the "Assumption of the blessed Virgin
+Mary" (Lat. _festum assumptionis, dormitionis, depositionis, pausationis
+B. V. M._; Gr. [Greek: koimaesis] or [Greek: analaephis taes theotokou])
+is a festival of the Christian Church celebrated on the 15th of August,
+in commemoration of the miraculous ascent into heaven of the mother of
+Christ. The belief on which this festival rests has its origin in
+apocryphal sources, such as the [Greek: eis taen koimaesin taes
+uperagias despoinaes] ascribed to the Apostle John, and the _de transitu
+Mariae_, assigned to Melito, bishop of Sardis, but actually written
+about A.D. 400. Pope Gelasius I. (492-496) included them in the list of
+apocryphal books condemned by the _Decretum de libris recipiendis et non
+recipiendis_; but they were accepted as authentic by the
+pseudo-Dionysius (_de nominbus divinis c. 3_), whose writings date
+probably from the 5th century, and by Gregory of Tours (d. 593 or 594).
+The latter in his _De gloria martyrum_ (i. 4) gives the following
+account of the miracle: As all the Apostles were watching round the
+dying Mary, Jesus appeared with His angels and committed the soul of His
+Mother to the Archangel Michael. Next day, as they were carrying the
+body to the grave, Christ again appeared and carried it with Him in a
+cloud to heaven, where it was reunited with the soul. This story is much
+amplified in the account given by St John of Damascus in the homilies
+_In dormitionem Mariae_, which are still read in the Roman Church as the
+lesson during the octave of the feast. According to this the patriarchs
+and Adam and Eve also appear at the death-bed, to praise their daughter,
+through whom they had been rescued from the curse of God; a Jew who
+touches the body loses both his hands, which are restored to him by the
+Apostles; and the body lies three days in the grave without corruption
+before it is taken up into heaven.
+
+The festival is first mentioned by St Andrew of Crete (c. 650), and,
+according to the Byzantine historian Nicephorus Callistus (_Hist.
+Eccles._ xvii. 28), was first instituted by the Emperor Maurice in A.D.
+582. From the East it was borrowed by Rome, where there is evidence of
+its existence so early as the 7th century. In the Gallican Church it was
+only adopted at the same time as the Roman liturgy. But though the
+festival thus became incorporated in the regular usage of the Western
+Church, the belief in the resurrection and bodily assumption of the
+Virgin has never been defined as a dogma and remains a "pious opinion,"
+which the faithful may reject without imperilling their immortal souls,
+though not apparently--to quote Melchior Cano (_De Locis Theolog._ xii.
+10)--without "insolent temerity," since such rejection would be contrary
+to the common agreement of the Church. By the reformed Churches,
+including the Church of England, the festival is not observed, having
+been rejected at the Reformation as being neither primitive nor founded
+upon any "certain warrant of Holy Scripture."
+
+  See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), s. "Maria"; Mgr. L.
+  Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., London, 1904); Wetzer and
+  Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, s. "Marienfeste"; The _Catholic
+  Encyclopaedia_ (London and New York, 1907, &c.), s. "Apocrypha,"
+  "Assumption."
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR (Auth. Vers. _Asshur_), a Hebrew name, occurring in many passages
+of the Old Testament, for the land and dominion of Assyria.[1] The
+_country_ of Assyria, which in the Assyro-Babylonian literature is known
+as _mat Assur_ (_ki_), "land of Assur," took its name from the ancient
+city of _Assur_, situated at the southern extremity of Assyria proper,
+whose territory, soon after the first Assyrian settlement, was bounded
+on the N. by the Zagros mountain range in what is now Kurdistan and on
+the S. by the lower Zab river. The kingdom of Assyria, which was the
+outgrowth of the primitive settlement on the site of the city of Assur,
+was developed by a probably gradual process of colonization in the rich
+vales of the middle Tigris region, a district watered by the Tigris
+itself and also by several tributary streams, the chief of which was the
+lower Zab.[2]
+
+It seems quite evident that the _city_ of Assur was originally founded
+by Semites from Babylonia at quite an early, but as yet undetermined
+date. In the prologue to the law-code of the great Babylonian monarch
+Khammurabi (c. 2250 B.C.), the cities of Nineveh and Assur are both
+mentioned as coming under that king's beneficent influence. Assur is
+there called _A-usar_ (_ki_),[3] in which combination the ending _-ki_
+("land territory") proves that even at that early period there was a
+province of Assur more extensive than the city proper. It is probable
+that this non-Semitic form _A-usar_ means "well watered region,"[4] a
+most appropriate designation for the river settlements of Assyria. The
+problem as to the meaning of the name Assur is rendered all the more
+confusing by the fact that the city and land are also called _Assur_ (as
+well as _A-usar_), both by the Khammurabi records[5] and generally in
+the later Assyrian literature. Furthermore, the god- and country-name
+_Assur_ also occurs at a late date in Assyrian literature in the forms
+_An-sar, An-sar_ (_ki_), which form[6] was presumably read _Assur_. In
+the Creation tablet, the heavens personified collectively were indicated
+by this term _An-sar_, "host of heaven," in contradistinction to the
+earth = _Ki-sar_, "host of earth." In view of this fact, it seems highly
+probable that the late writing _An-sar_ for _Assur_ was a more or less
+conscious attempt on the part of the Assyrian scribes to identify the
+peculiarly Assyrian deity _Asur_ (see ASSUR, the god, below) with the
+Creation deity An-sar. On the other hand, there is an epithet _Asir_ or
+Ashir ("overseer") applied to several gods and particularly to the deity
+_Asur_, a fact which introduced a third element of confusion into the
+discussion of the name _Assur_. It is probable then that there is a
+triple popular etymology in the various forms of writing the name
+_Assur_; viz. _A-usar_,[7] _An-sar_ and the stem _asaru_, all of which
+is quite in harmony with the methods followed by the ancient
+Assyro-Babylonian philologists.[8]
+
+  See also A.H. Layard, _Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and
+  Babylon_ (1853); G. Smith, _Assyrian Discoveries_ (1875); R.W. Rogers,
+  _History of Babylonia and Assyria_, i. 297; ii. 13; ii. 30, 76, 102;
+  J.F. M'Curdy, _History, Prophecy and the Monuments_, SS 74, 171 f.,
+  247, 258, 283; 57, 59 f. (on the god).     (J. D. Pr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name Assur is not connected with the Asshur of 1 Chron. ii.
+    24; ii. 45. Note that it is customary to spell the god-name _Asur_
+    and the country-name _Assur_.
+
+  [2] Cf. Rassam, _Asshur and the Land of Nimrod_, 250-251, and many
+    other works.
+
+  [3] Robert Harper, _Code of Hammurabi_, pp. 6-7, lines 55-58.
+
+  [4] Thus already Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 252. The
+    element _a_ means "water," and in _u-sar_ it is probable that _u_
+    also means "water," while _sar_ is "park, district." See Prince,
+    _Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon_, s.v. _usar_.
+
+  [5] The name appears as _As-sur_ (_ki_) and _As-su-ur_ (_ki_). See
+    King, _Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi_, iv. p. 23, obv. 27;
+    and Nagel, _Beitrage zur Assyriologie_, iv. p. 404; also _Cun. Texts
+    from Bab. Tablets_, vi. pl. 19, line 7.
+
+  [6] Meissner-Rost, _Bauinschrift Sanheribs_, K. 5413a; K. 1306, rev.
+    16.
+
+  [7] See on this entire subject, Morris Jastrow, Jr., _Journal Amer.
+    Orient. Soc._, xxiv. pp. 282-311; also _Die Religion Bab. u. Assyr._,
+    pp. 207 ff.
+
+  [8] On the philological methods of the ancient Babylonian priesthood,
+    see Prince, _Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon_, Introduction.
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR, the primitive capital of Assyria, now represented by the mounds
+of Kaleh Sherghat (Qal'at Shergat) on the west bank of the Tigris,
+nearly midway between the Upper and Lower Zab. It is still doubtful (see
+discussion on the name in the preceding article) whether the national
+god of Assyria took his name from that of the city or whether the
+converse was the case. It is most probable, however, that it was the
+city which was deified (see Sayce, _Religion of Ancient Egypt and
+Babylonia_, 1902, pp. 366, 367). Sir A.H. Layard, through his assistant
+Hormuzd Rassam, devoted two or three days to excavating on the site, but
+owing to the want of pasturage and the fear of Bedouin attacks he left
+the spot after finding a broken clay cylinder containing the annals of
+Tiglath-Pileser I., and for many years no subsequent efforts were made
+to explore it. In 1904, however, a German expedition under Dr W. Andrae
+began systematic excavations, which have led to important results. The
+city originally grew up round the great temple of the god Assur, the
+foundation of which was ascribed to the High-priest Uspia. For many
+centuries Assur and the surrounding district, which came accordingly to
+be called the land of Assur (_Assyria_), were governed by high-priests
+under the suzerainty of Babylonia. With the decay of the Babylonian
+power the high-priests succeeded in making themselves independent kings,
+and Assur became the capital of an important kingdom. It was already
+surrounded by a wall of crude brick, which rested on stone foundations
+and was strengthened at certain points by courses of burnt brick. A deep
+moat was dug outside it by Tukulti-Inaristi or Tukulti-Masu (about 1270
+B.C.), and it was further defended on the land side by a _salkhu_ or
+outwork. In the 15th century B.C. it was considerably extended to the
+south in order to include a "new town" which had grown up there. The
+wall was pierced by "the gate of Assur," "the gate of the Sun-god," "the
+gate of the Tigris," &c., and on the river side was a quay of burnt
+brick and limestone cemented with bitumen. The temples were in the
+northern part of the city, together with their lofty towers, one of
+which has been excavated. Besides the temple of Assur there was another
+great temple dedicated to Anu and Hadad, as well as the smaller
+sanctuaries of Bel, Ishtar, Merodach and other deities. After the rise
+of the kingdom, palaces were erected separate from the temples; the
+sites of those of Hadad-nirari I., Shalmaneser I., and Assur-nazir-pal
+have been discovered by the German excavators, and about a dozen more
+are referred to in the inscriptions. Even after the rise of Nineveh as
+the capital of the kingdom and the seat of the civil power, Assur
+continued to be the religious centre of the country, where the king was
+called on to reside when performing his priestly functions. The city
+survived the fall of Assyria, and extensive buildings as well as tombs
+of the Parthian age have been found upon the site.
+
+  See _Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft_ (1904-1906).
+       (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR, ASUR, or ASHUR, the chief god of Assyria, was originally the
+patron deity of the city of Assur on the Tigris, the ancient capital of
+Assyria from which as a centre the authority of the _patesis_ (as the
+rulers were at first called) spread in various directions. The history
+of Assyria (q.v.) can now be traced back approximately to 2500 B.C.,
+though it does not rise to political prominence until c. 2000 B.C. The
+name of the god is identical with that of the city, though an older form
+A-shir, signifying "leader," suggests that a differentiation between the
+god and the city was at one time attempted. Though the origin of the
+form Ashur (or Assur) is not certain, it is probable that the name of
+the god is older than that of the city (see discussion on the name
+above).
+
+The title _Ashir_ was given to various gods in the south, as Marduk and
+Nebo, and there is every reason to believe that it represents a direct
+transfer with the intent to emphasize that Assur is the "leader" or head
+of the pantheon of the north. He is in fact to all intents and purposes
+of the north. Originally like Marduk a solar deity with the winged
+disk--the disk always typifying the sun--as his symbol, he becomes as
+Assyria develops into a military power a god of war, indicated by the
+attachment of the figure of a man with a bow to the winged disk.[1]
+While the cult of the other great gods and goddesses of Babylonia was
+transferred to Assyria, the worship of Assur so overshadowed that of the
+rest as to give the impression of a decided tendency towards the
+absorption of all divine powers by the one god. Indeed, the other gods,
+Sin, Shamash (Samas), Adad, Ninib and Nergal, and even Ea, take on the
+warlike traits of Assur in the epithets and descriptions given of them
+in the annals and votive inscriptions of Assyrian rulers to such an
+extent as to make them appear like little Assurs by the side of the
+great one. Marduk alone retains a large measure of his independence as a
+concession on the part of the Assyrians to the traditions of the south,
+for which they always manifested a profound respect. Even during the
+period that the Assyrian monarchs exercised complete sway over the
+south, they rested their claims to the control of Babylonia on the
+approval of Marduk, and they or their representatives never failed to
+perform the ceremony of "taking the hand" of Marduk, which was the
+formal method of assuming the throne in Babylonia. Apart from this
+concession, it is Assur who pre-eminently presides over the fortunes of
+Assyria.[2] In his name, and with his approval as indicated by
+favourable omens, the Assyrian armies march to battle. His symbol is
+carried into the thick of the fray, so that the god is actually present
+to grant assistance in the crisis, and the victory is with becoming
+humility invariably ascribed by the kings "to the help of Assur." With
+the fall of Assyria the rule of Assur also comes to an end, whereas it
+is significant that the cult of the gods of Babylonia--more particularly
+of Marduk--survives for several centuries the loss of political
+independence through Cyrus' capture of Babylonia in 539 B.C. The name of
+Assur's temple at Assur, represented by the mounds of Kaleh Sherghat,
+was known as E-khar-sag-gal-kur-kurra, i.e. "House of the great mountain
+of the lands." Its exact site has been determined by excavations
+conducted at Kaleh Sherghat since 1903 by the German Oriental Society.
+The name indicates the existence of the same conception regarding sacred
+edifices in Assyria as in Babylonia, where we find such names as E-Kur
+("mountain house") for the temple of Bel (q.v.) at Nippur, and E-Saggila
+("lofty house") for Marduk's (q.v.) temple at Babylon and that of Ea
+(q.v.) at Eridu, and in view of the general dependence of Assyrian
+religious beliefs as of Assyrian culture in general, there is little
+reason to doubt that the name of Assur's temple represents a direct
+adaptation of such a name as E-Kur, further embellished by epithets
+intended to emphasize the supreme control of the god to whom the edifice
+was dedicated. The foundation of the edifice can be traced back to Uspia
+(Ushpia), c. 2000 B.C., and may turn out to be even older. Besides the
+chief temple, the capital contained temples and chapels to Anu, Adad,
+Ishtar, Marduk, Gula, Sin, Shamash, so that we are to assume the
+existence of a sacred precinct in Assur precisely as in the religious
+centres of the south. On the removal of the seat of residence of the
+Assyrian kings to Calah (c. 1300 B.C.), and then in the 8th century to
+Nineveh, the centre of the Assur cult was likewise transferred, though
+the sanctity of the old seat at Assur continued to be recognized. At
+Nineveh, which remained the capital till the fall of the Assyrian empire
+in 606 B.C., Assur had as his rival Ishtar, who was the real patron
+deity of the place, but a reconciliation was brought about by making
+Ishtar the consort of the chief god. The combination was, however, of an
+artificial character, and the consciousness that Ishtar was in reality
+an independent goddess never entirely died out. She too, like Assur, was
+viewed as a war deity, and to such an extent was this the case that at
+times it would appear that she, rather than Assur, presided over the
+fortunes of the Assyrian armies.     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Prince, _Journ. Bibl. Lit._, xxii. 35.
+
+  [2] As essentially a _national_ god, he is almost identical in
+    character with the early Yahweh of Israel. See Sayce, Hibbert
+    Lectures, _Religion of Ancient Babylonia_, p. 129.
+
+
+
+
+ASSUR-BANI-PAL ("Assur creates a son"), the _grand monarque_ of Assyria,
+was the prototype of the Greek Sardanapalus, and appears probably in the
+corrupted form of Asnapper in Ezra iv. 10. He had been publicly
+nominated king of Assyria (on the 12th of Iyyar) by his father
+Esar-haddon, some time before the latter's death, Babylonia being
+assigned to his twin-brother Samas-sum-yukin, in the hope of gratifying
+the national feeling of the Babylonians. After Esar-haddon's death in
+668 B.C. the first task of Assur-bani-pal was to finish the Egyptian
+campaign. Tirhakah, who had reoccupied Egypt, fled to Ethiopia, and the
+Assyrian army spent forty days in ascending the Nile from Memphis to
+Thebes. Shortly afterwards Necho, the satrap of Sais, and two others
+were detected intriguing with Tirhakah; Necho and one of his companions
+were sent in chains to Nineveh, but were there pardoned and restored to
+their principalities. Tirhakah died 667 B.C., and his successor Tandaman
+(Tanuat-Amon) entered Upper Egypt, where a general revolt against
+Assyria took place, headed by Thebes. Memphis was taken by assault and
+the Assyrian troops driven out of the country. Tyre seems to have
+revolted at the same time. Assur-bani-pal, however, lost no time in
+pouring fresh forces into the revolted province. Once more the Assyrian
+army made its way up the Nile, Thebes was plundered, and its temples
+destroyed, two obelisks being carried to Nineveh as trophies (see Nahum
+iii. 8). Meanwhile the siege of insular Tyre was closely pressed; its
+water-supply was cut off, and it was compelled to surrender.
+Assur-bani-pal was now at the height of his power. The land of the Manna
+(Minni), south-east of Ararat, had been wasted, its capital captured by
+the Assyrians, and its king reduced to vassalage. A war with Teumman of
+Elam had resulted in the overthrow of the Elamite army; the head of
+Teumman was sent to Nineveh, and another king, Umman-igas, appointed by
+the Assyrians. The kings of Cilicia and the Tabal offered their
+daughters to the harem of Assur-bani-pal; embassies came from Ararat,
+and even Gyges of Lydia despatched envoys to "the great king" in the
+hope of obtaining help against the Cimmerians. Suddenly the mighty
+empire began to totter. The Lydian king, finding that Nineveh was
+helpless to assist him, turned instead to Egypt and furnished the
+mercenaries with whose help Psammetichus drove the Assyrians out of the
+country and suppressed his brother satraps. Egypt was thus lost to
+Assyria for ever (660 B.C.). In Babylonia, moreover, discontent was
+arising, and finally Samas-sum-yukin put himself at the head of the
+national party and declared war upon his brother. Elamite aid was
+readily forthcoming, especially when stimulated by bribes, and the Arab
+tribes joined in the revolt. The resources of the Assyrian empire were
+strained to their utmost. But thanks in some measure to the intestine
+troubles in Elam, the Babylonian army and its allies were defeated and
+driven into Babylon, Sippara, Borsippa and Cutha. One by one the cities
+fell, Babylon being finally starved into surrender (648 B.C.) after
+Samas-sum-yukin had burnt himself in his palace to avoid falling into
+the conqueror's hands. It was now the turn of the Arabs, some of whom
+had been in Babylon during the siege, while others had occupied
+themselves in plundering Edom, Moab and the Hauran. Northern Arabia was
+traversed by the Assyrian forces, the Nabataeans were almost
+exterminated, and the desert tribes terrorized into order. Elam was
+alone left to be dealt with, and the last resources of the empire were
+therefore expended in preventing it from ever being again a thorn in the
+Assyrian side.
+
+But the effort had exhausted Assyria. Drained of men and resources it
+was no longer able to make head against the Cimmerian and Scythian
+hordes who now poured over western Asia. The Cimmerian Dugdamme
+(Lygdamis in Strabo i. 3, 16), whom Assur-bani-pal calls "a limb of
+Satan," after sacking Sardis, had been slain in Cilicia, but other
+Scythian invaders came to take his place. When Assur-bani-pal died in
+626 (?) B.C. his empire was already in decay, and within a few years the
+end came. He was luxurious and indolent, entrusting the command of his
+armies to others whose successes he appropriated, cruel and
+superstitious, but a magnificent patron of art and literature. The great
+library of Nineveh was to a considerable extent his creation, and
+scribes were kept constantly employed in it copying the older tablets of
+Babylonia, though unfortunately their patron's tastes inclined rather to
+omens and astrology than to subjects of more modern interest. The
+library was contained in the palace that he built on the northern side
+of the mound of Kuyunjik and lined with sculptured slabs which display
+Assyrian art at its best. Whether Kandalanu (Kinela-danos), who became
+viceroy of Babylonia after the suppression of the revolt, was
+Assur-bani-pal under another name, or a different personage, is still
+doubtful (see SARDANAPALUS).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--George Smith, _History of Assurbanipal_ (1871); S.A.
+  Smith, _Die Keilschrifttexte Asurbanipals_ (1887-1889); P. Jensen in
+  E. Schrader's _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, ii. (1889); J.A.
+  Knudtzon, _Assyrische Gebete an den Sonnengott_ (1893); C. Lehmann,
+  _Schamashschumukin_ (1892).     (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSUS [mod. _Behram_], an ancient Greek city of the Troad, on the
+Adramyttian Gulf. The situation is one of the most magnificent in all
+the Greek lands. The natural cleavage of the trachyte into joint planes
+had already scarped out shelves which it was comparatively easy for
+human labour to shape; and so, high up this cone of trachyte, the Greek
+town of Assus was built, tier above tier, the summit of the crag being
+crowned with a Doric temple of Athena. The view from the summit is very
+beautiful and of great historical interest. In front is Lesbos, one of
+whose towns, Methymna, is said to have sent forth the founders of Assus,
+as early, perhaps, as 1000 or 900 B.C. The whole south coast-line of the
+Troad is seen, and in the south-east the ancient territory of Pergamum,
+from whose masters the possession of Assus passed to Rome by the bequest
+of Attalus III. (133 B.C.). The great heights of Ida rise in the east.
+Northward the Tuzla is seen winding through a rich valley. This valley
+was traversed by the road which St Paul must have followed when he came
+overland from Alexandria Troas to Assus, leaving his fellow-travellers
+to proceed by sea. The north-west gateway, to which this road led, is
+still flanked by two massive towers, of Hellenic work. On the shore
+below, the ancient mole can still be traced by large blocks under the
+clear water. Assus affords the only harbour on the 50 m. of coast
+between Cape Lectum and the east end of the Adramyttian Gulf; hence it
+must always have been the chief shipping-place for the exports of the
+southern Troad. The great natural strength of the site protected it
+against petty assailants; but, like other towns in that region, it has
+known many masters--Lydians, Persians, the kings of Pergamum, Romans and
+Ottoman Turks. From the Persian wars to about 350 B.C. Assus enjoyed at
+least partial independence. It was about 348-345 B.C. that Aristotle
+spent three years at Assus with Hermeas, an ex-slave who had succeeded
+his former master Eubulus as despot of Assus and Atarneus. Aristotle has
+left some verses from an invocation to Arete (Virtue), commemorating the
+worth of Hermeas, who had been seized by Persian treachery and put to
+death.
+
+Under its Turkish name of Behram, Assus is still the commercial port of
+the southern Troad, being the place to which loads of valonia are
+conveyed by camels from all parts of the country. Explorations were
+conducted at Assus in 1881-1883 by Mr J.T. Clarke for the Archaeological
+Institute of America. The main object was to clear the Doric temple of
+Athena, built about 470 B.C. This temple is remarkable for a sculptured
+architrave which took the place of the ordinary frieze. The scenes are
+partly mythological (labours of Heracles), partly purely heraldic.
+Eighteen panels were transported to the Louvre in 1838; other fragments
+rewarded the Americans, and a scientific ground-plan was drawn. The
+well-preserved Hellenistic walls were also studied.
+
+  See J.T. Clarke, _Assos_, 2 vols., 1882 and 1898 (Papers of Arch.
+  Inst. of America, i. ii.); and authorities under TROAD.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASSYRIA. The two great empires, Assyria and Babylon, which grew up on
+the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, can be separated as little
+historically as geographically. From the beginning their history is
+closely intertwined; and the power of the one is a measure of the
+weakness of the other. This interdependence of Assyrian and Babylonian
+history was recognized by ancient writers, and has been confirmed by
+modern discovery. But whereas Assyria takes the first place in the
+classical accounts to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of
+the inscriptions has proved that the converse was really the case, and
+that, with the exception of some seven or eight centuries, Assyria might
+be described as a province or dependency of Babylon. Not only was
+Babylonia the mother country, as the tenth chapter of Genesis explicitly
+states, but the religion and culture, the literature and the characters
+in which it was contained, the arts and the sciences of the Assyrians
+were derived from their southern neighbours. They were similar in race
+and language. (See BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.)
+
+
+
+
+AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH (1778-1841), German philosopher and
+philologist, was born at Gotha. Educated there and at the university of
+Jena, he became privat-docent at Jena in 1802. In 1805 he became
+professor of classical literature in the university of Landshut, where
+he remained till 1826, when it was transferred to Munich. There he lived
+till his death on the 31st of October 1841. In recognition of his work
+he was made an aulic councillor and a member of the Bavarian Academy of
+Sciences. He is known principally for his work during the last
+twenty-five years of his life on the dialogues of Plato. His _Platon's
+Leben und Schriften_ (1816) was the first of those critical inquiries
+into the life and works of Plato which originated in the _Introductions_
+of Schleiermacher and the historical scepticism of Niebuhr and Wolf.
+Distrusting tradition, he took a few of the finest dialogues as his
+standard, and from internal evidence denounced as spurious not only
+those which are generally admitted to be so (_Epinomis, Minos, Theages,
+Arastae, Clitophon, Hipparchus, Eryxias, Letters and Definitions_), but
+also the _Meno, Euthydemus, Charmides, Lysis, Laches, First and Second
+Alcibiades, Hippias Major and Minor, Ion, Euthyphro, Apology, Crito_,
+and even (against Aristotle's explicit assertion) _The Laws_. The
+genuine dialogues he divides into three series:--(1) the earliest,
+marked chiefly by the poetical and dramatic element, i.e. _Protagoras,
+Phaedrus, Gorgias, Phaedo_; (2) the second, marked by dialectic
+subtlety, i.e. _Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, Parmenides, Cratylus_;
+(3) the third group, combining both qualities harmoniously, i.e. the
+_Philebus, Symposium, Republic, Timaeus, Critias_. The work was followed
+by a complete edition of Plato's works (11 vols., 1819-1832) with a
+Latin translation and commentary. His last work was the _Lexicon
+Platonicum_ (3 vols., 1834-1839), which is both valuable and
+comprehensive. In his works on aesthetics he combined the views of
+Schelling with those of Winckelmann, Lessing, Kant, Herder, Schiller and
+others. His histories of philosophy are marked more by critical
+scholarship than by originality of thought, though they are interesting
+as asserting the now familiar principle that the history of philosophy
+is not the history of opinions, but of reason as a whole; he was among
+the first to attempt to formulate a principle of the development of
+thought. Beside his works on Plato, he wrote, on aesthetics, _System der
+Kunstlehre_ (1805) and _Grundriss der Aesthetik_ (1807); on the history
+of philosophy, _Grundlinien der Philosophie_ (1807, republished 1809,
+but soon forgotten), _Grundriss einer Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1807
+and 1825), and _Hauptmomente der Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1829); in
+philology, _Grundlinien der Philologie_ (1808), and _Grundlinien der
+Grammatik, Hermeneutik und Kritik_ (1808).
+
+
+
+
+ASTARA, a port of Russian Transcaucasia, government of Baku, on the
+Caspian, in 38 deg. 27' N. lat. and 48 deg. 53' E. long., on the river
+of the same name, which forms the frontier between Persia and Russia.
+Russian merchandize is landed there and forwarded to Azerbaijan and
+Tabriz via Ardebil.
+
+
+
+
+ASTARABAD, a province of Persia bounded N. by the Caspian Sea and
+Russian Transcaspian, S. by the Elburz Mountains, W. by Mazandaran, and
+E. by Khorasan. The country, mountainous in its southern portion,
+possesses extensive forests, fertile valleys, producing rice, wheat and
+other grains in abundance, and rich pasturages. The soil, even with
+little culture, is exceedingly productive, owing to the abundance of
+water which irrigates and fertilizes it. But while the province in many
+parts presents a landscape of luxuriant beauty, it is a prey to the
+ravages of disease, principally malarial fevers due to the extensive
+swamps formed by waters stagnating in the forests, and to the frequent
+incursions of the Goklan and Yomut Turkomans, who have their
+camping-grounds in the northern part of the province, and until about
+1890 plundered caravans sometimes at the very gates of Astarabad city,
+and carried people off into slavery and bondage. The province has a
+population of about 100,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about L30,000.
+The inhabitants, notwithstanding the unhealthiness of their climate, are
+a strong and athletic race, belying their yellow and sickly appearance.
+The province has the following buluk (administrative divisions):--(1)
+Astarabad town; (2) Astarabad rustak (villages); (3) Sadan rustak; (4).
+Anazan; (5) Katul; (6) Findarisk, with Kuhsar and Nodeh; (7) Shahkuh
+Savar.
+
+ASTARABAD, the capital of the province, is situated on the Astar, a
+small tributary of the Kara Su (Black river), which flows into the
+Caspian Sea 20 m. W. of the city, and about 18 m. S. of the Gurgan
+river, in 36 deg. 51' N. lat. and 54 deg. 26' E. long. It is surrounded
+by a mud wall about 30 ft. in height and about 3-1/2 m. in circuit, but
+much of the enclosed space is occupied by gardens, mounds of refuse, and
+ruins. At one time of greater size, it was reduced by Nadir Shah within
+its present limits. Astarabad owes its origin to Yazid ibn Mohallab, who
+occupied the province early in the 8th century for Suleiman, the seventh
+of the Omayyad caliphs (715-717), and was destroyed by Timur (Tamerlane)
+in 1384. Jonas Hanway, the philanthropist (d. 1786), visited the place
+in 1744, and attempted to open a direct trade through it between Europe
+and central Asia. Owing to the noxious exhalations of the surrounding
+forests the town is so extremely unhealthy during the hot weather as to
+have acquired the title of the "Abode of the Plague." It has post and
+telegraph offices, and a population of about 10,000. Since 1890 the
+Turkomans who impeded trade by their perpetual raids have been kept more
+in check, and with the decrease of insecurity the commercial activity of
+Astarabad has increased considerably.
+
+
+
+
+ASTARTE, a Semitic goddess whose name appears in the Bible as
+Ashtoreth.[1] She is everywhere the great female principle, answering to
+the Baal of the Canaanites and Phoenicians[2] and to the Dagon of the
+Philistines. She had temples at Sidon and at Tyre (whence her worship
+was transplanted to Carthage), and the Philistines probably venerated
+her at Ascalon (1 Sam. xxxi. 10). Solomon built a high-place for her at
+Jerusalem which lasted until the days of King Josiah (1 Kings xi. 5; 2
+Kings xxiii. 13), and the extent of her cult among the Israelites is
+proved as much by the numerous biblical references as by the frequent
+representations of the deity turned up on Palestinian soil.[3] The
+Moabites formed a compound deity, Ashtar-Chemosh (see MOAB), and the
+absence of the feminine termination occurs similarly in the Babylonian
+and Assyrian prototype Ishtar. The old South Arabian phonetic equivalent
+'Athtar is, however, a male deity. Another compound, properly of mixed
+sex, appears in the Aramaean Atargatis ('At[t]ar-'athe), worn down to
+Derketo, who is specifically associated with sacred pools and fish
+(Ascalon, Hierapolis-Mabog). (See ATARGATIS.)
+
+The derivation of the name Ishtar is uncertain, and the original
+attributes of the goddess are consequently unknown. She assumes various
+local forms in the old Semitic world, and this has led to consequent
+fusion and identification with the deities of other nations. As the
+great nature-goddess, the attributes of fertility and reproduction are
+characteristically hers, as also the accompanying immorality which
+originally, perhaps, was often nothing more than primitive magic. As
+patroness of the hunt, later identification with Artemis was inevitable.
+Hence the consequent fusion with Aphrodite, Artemis, Diana, Juno and
+Venus, and the action and reaction of one upon the other in myth and
+legend. Her star was the planet Venus, and classical writers give her
+the epithet Caelestis and Urania. Whether Astarte was also a lunar
+goddess has been questioned. As the female counterpart of the Phoenician
+Baal (viewed as a sun-god), and on the testimony of late writers
+(Lucian, Herodian) that she was represented with horns, the place-name
+Ashteroth-Karnaim in Gilead ("Ashteroth of the horns") has been
+considered ample proof in favour of the theory. But it is probable that
+the horns were primarily ram's horns,[4] and that Astarte the
+moon-goddess is due to the influence of the Egyptian Isis and Hathor.
+Robertson Smith, too, argues that Astarte was originally a
+sheep-goddess, and points to the interesting use of "Astartes of the
+flocks" (Deut. vii. 13, see the comm.) to denote the offspring. To
+nomads, Astarte may well have been a sheep-goddess, but this, if her
+earliest, was not her only type, as is clear from the sacred fish of
+Atargatis, the doves of Ascalon (and of the Phoenician sanctuary of
+Eryx), and the gazelle or antelope of the goddess of love (associated
+also with the Arabian Athtar).
+
+  The literature is vast; see G.A. Barton, _Amer. Journ. of Sem. Lang._
+  vols. ix. x., and his _Semitic Origins_; Driver, Hastings' _Dict.
+  Bible_, i. pp. 167-171; Zimmern, _Keilinschr. und das alte Test.^3_
+  pp. 420 sqq.; Lagrange, _Etudes d. Relig. Sem._ pp. 123-140; and the
+  articles ADONIS, APHRODITE, ARTEMIS, BAAL.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The vocalization suggests the Heb. bosheth, "shame"; see BAAL.
+
+  [2] Add also the Hittites; for Sutekh, the Egyptian equivalent of the
+    male partner, see W.M. Muller, _Mitt. d. vorderasiat. Gesell._
+    (1902), v. pp. 11, 38. Astarte was introduced also into Egypt and had
+    her temple at Memphis. See also S.A. Cook, _Religion of Ancient
+    Palestine, Index_, s.v.
+
+  [3] Such figurines are in a sense the prototypes of the Venus of
+    Medici. On the influence of her cult upon that of the Virgin Mary,
+    see Rosch, _Studien u. Krit._ (1888), pp. 265 sqq.
+
+  [4] A model of an Astarte with ram's horns was unearthed by R.A.S.
+    Macalister at Gezer (_Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statement_, 1903, p.
+    227 with figure facing).
+
+
+
+
+ASTELL, MARY (1668-1731), English author, was born at
+Newcastle-upon-Tyne. She was instructed by her uncle, a clergyman, in
+Latin and French, logic, mathematics and natural philosophy. In her
+twentieth year she went to London, where she continued her studies. She
+published, in 1697, a work entitled _A Serious Proposal to the Ladies,
+wherein a Method is offered for the Improvement of their Minds_. With
+the same end in view she elaborated a scheme for a ladies' college,
+which was favourably entertained by Queen Anne, and would have been
+carried out had not Bishop Burnet interfered. The most important of her
+other works was _The Christian Religion, as professed by a Daughter of
+the Church of England_, published in 1705.
+
+
+
+
+ASTER (Gr. [Greek: astaer], a star), the name of a genus of plants,
+given from the fact of the flowers having a radiated or star-like
+appearance (see below). The Greek word also provides many derivatives:
+e.g. _asterism_ (Gr. [Greek: asterismos]), a constellation (q.v.);
+_asteroid_ (Gr. [Greek: astero-eidaes], star-like), an alternative name
+for planetoids or minor planets (see PLANET).
+
+The genus of composite plants named aster (natural order _Compositae_)
+is found largely in North America, and scattered sparingly over Asia,
+Europe and South America. They are usually herbaceous perennials; their
+flowers arranged in numerous heads (_capitula_) recall those of the
+daisy, whence they are popularly known in England as Michaelmas daisies,
+since many are in bloom about that time. They are valuable plants in a
+garden, the various species flowering from late summer right on to
+November or December. The only British species is _Aster Tripolium_,
+found abundantly in saline marshes near the sea. One of the species,
+_Aster alpinus_, grows at a considerable height on the mountains of
+Europe. Some of them, such as _Aster spectabilis_ of North America, are
+very showy. They are mostly easy to cultivate in ordinary garden soil,
+and are readily propagated by dividing the roots in early spring. The
+following are some of the better known forms:--_A. alpinus_, barely 1
+ft. high, and _A. Amellus_, 1-1/2 ft., with its var. _bessarabicus_,
+have broadish blunt leaves and large starry bluish flowers; _A.
+longifolius_ var. _formosus_, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; _A. acris_, 2 to
+3 ft., with blue flowers in August; _A. ericoides_, 3 ft., with
+heath-like leaves and masses of small white flowers; _A. puniceus_, 4 to
+6 ft., blue or rosy-lilac; _A. turbinellus_, 2 to 3 ft., mauve-coloured,
+are showy border plants; and _A. Novae-Angliae_, 5 to 6 ft.,
+rosy-violet; _A. Novi-Belgii_, 3 to 6 ft., pale blue; _A. laevis_, 2 to
+6 ft., blue-lilac; and _A. grandiflorus_, 3 ft., violet, are especially
+useful from their late-flowering habit.
+
+The China aster (_Callistephus chinensis_) is also a member of the order
+_Compositae_. It is a hardy annual, a native of China, which by
+cultivation has yielded a great variety of forms. Some of the best for
+ornamental gardening are the chrysanthemum-flowered, the
+paeony-flowered, the crown or cockade, the comet, and the globe-quilled.
+Crown asters have a white centre, and dark crimson or purple
+circumference, and are very beautiful. The colours range from white and
+blush through pink and rose to crimson, and from lilac through blue to
+purple, in various shades. They should be sown early in March in pans,
+in a gentle heat, the young plants being quickly transferred to a cool
+pit, and there pricked out in rich soil as soon as large enough, and
+eventually planted out in the garden in May or June, in soil which has
+been well worked and copiously manured, where they grow from 8 to 18
+in. high, and flower towards the end of summer. They also make handsome
+pot plants for the conservatory.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERIA, or STAR-STONE (from Gr. [Greek: astaer], star), a name applied
+to such ornamental stones as exhibit when cut _en cabochon_ a luminous
+star. The typical asteria is the star-sapphire, generally a bluish-grey
+corundum, milky or opalescent, with a star of six rays. (See SAPPHIRE.)
+In red corundum the stellate reflexion is less common, and hence the
+star-ruby occasionally found with the star-sapphire in Ceylon is among
+the most valued of "fancy stones." When the radiation is shown by yellow
+corundum, the stone is called star-topaz. Cymophane, or chatoyant
+chrysoberyl, may also be asteriated. In all these cases the asterism is
+due to the reflexion of light from twin-lamellae or from fine tubular
+cavities or thin enclosures definitely arranged in the stone. The
+_astrion_ of Pliny is believed to have been our moonstone, since it is
+described as a colourless stone from India having within it the
+appearance of a star shining with the light of the moon. All star-stones
+were formerly regarded with much superstition.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERID, a group of starfish. They are the starfish proper, and have the
+typical genus _Asterias_ (see STARFISH).
+
+
+
+
+ASTERISK (from Gr. [Greek: asteriskos], a little star), the sign * used
+in typography. The word is also used in its literal meaning in old
+writers, and as a description of an ornamental form (star-shaped) in one
+of the utensils in the Greek Church.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERIUS, of Cappadocia, sophist and teacher of rhetoric in Galatia, was
+converted to Christianity about the year 300, and became the disciple of
+Lucian, the founder of the school of Antioch. During the persecution
+under Maximian (304) he relapsed into paganism, and thus, though
+received again into the church by Lucian and supported by the Eusebian
+party, never attained to ecclesiastical office. He is best known as an
+able defender of the semi-Arian position, and was styled by Athanasius
+the "advocate" of the Arians. His chief work was the _Syntagmation_, but
+he wrote many others, including commentaries on the Gospels, the Psalms,
+and Romans. He attended many synods, and we last hear of him at the
+synod of Antioch in 341.
+
+
+
+
+ASTERIUS, bishop of Amasia, in Pontus, c. 400. He was partly
+contemporary with the emperor Julian (d. 363) and lived to a great age.
+His fame rests chiefly on his _Homilies_, which were much esteemed in
+the Eastern Church. Most of these have been lost, but twenty-one are
+given in full by Migne (_Patrol. Ser. Gr._ xl. 164-477), and there are
+fragments of others in Photius (_Cod._ 271). Asterius was a man of much
+culture, and his works are a valuable contribution to our knowledge of
+the history of preaching.
+
+
+
+
+ASTHMA (Gr. [Greek: asthma], gasping, whence [Greek: asthmaino], I gasp
+for breath), a disorder of respiration characterized by severe paroxysms
+of difficult breathing (_dyspnoea_) usually followed by a period of
+complete relief, with recurrence of the attacks at more or less frequent
+intervals. The term is often loosely employed in reference to states of
+embarrassed respiration, which are plainly due to permanent organic
+disease of the respiratory organs (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_).
+
+The attacks occur quite suddenly, and in some patients at regular, in
+others at irregular intervals. They are characterized by extreme
+difficulty both in inspiration and expiration, but especially in the
+latter, the chest becoming distended and the diaphragm immobile. In the
+case of "pure," "idiopathic" or "nervous" asthma, there is no fever or
+other sign of inflammation. But where the asthma is secondary to disease
+of some organ of the body, the symptoms will depend largely on that
+organ and the disease present. Such secondary forms may be bronchitic,
+cardiac, renal, peptic or thymic.
+
+The mode of onset differs very markedly in different cases. In some the
+attack begins quite suddenly and without warning, but in others various
+sensations well known to the patient announce that an attack is
+imminent. According to the late Dr Hyde Salter the commonest warning is
+that of an intense desire for sleep, so overpowering that though the
+patient knows his only chance of warding off the attack is to keep
+awake, he is yet utterly unable to fight against his drowsiness. Among
+other patients, however, a condition of unwonted mental excitement
+presages the attack. Again the secondary forms of the disease may be
+ushered in by flatulence, constipation and loss of appetite, and a
+symptom which often attends the onset, though it is not strictly
+premonitory, is a profuse diuresis, the urine being watery and nearly
+colourless, as in the condition of hysterical diuresis. In the majority
+of instances the attack begins during the night, sometimes abruptly but
+often by degrees. The patient may or may not be aware that his asthma is
+threatening. A few hours after midnight he is aroused from sleep by a
+sense of difficult breathing. In some cases this is a slowly increasing
+condition, not becoming acute for some hour or more. But in others the
+attack is so sudden, so severe, that the patient springs from his bed
+and makes his way at once to an open window, apparently struggling for
+breath. Most asthmatics have some favourite attitude which best enables
+them to use all the auxiliary muscles of respiration in their struggle
+for breath, and this attitude they immediately assume, and guard fixedly
+until the attack begins to subside. The picture is characteristic and a
+very painful one to watch. The face is pale, anxious, and it may be
+livid. The veins of the forehead stand out, the eyes bulge, and
+perspiration bedews the face. The head is fixed in position, and
+likewise the powerful muscles of the back to aid the attempt at
+respiration. The breath is whistling and wheezing, and if it becomes
+necessary for the patient to speak, the words are uttered with great
+difficulty. If the chest be watched it is seen to be almost motionless,
+and the respirations may become extraordinarily slowed. Inspiration is
+difficult as the chest is already over-distended, but expiration is an
+even far greater struggle. The attack may last any time from an hour to
+several days, and between the attacks the patient is usually quite at
+ease. But notwithstanding the intensely distressing character of the
+attacks, asthma is not one of the diseases that shorten life.
+
+In the child, asthma is usually periodic in its recurrence, but as he
+ages it tends to become more erratic in both its manifestations and time
+of appearance. Also, though at first it may be strictly "pure" asthma,
+later in life it becomes attended by chronic bronchitis, which in its
+turn gives rise to emphysema.
+
+As to the underlying cause of the disease, one has only to read the many
+utterly different theories put forward to account for it, to see how
+little is really known. But it has now been clearly shown that in the
+asthmatic state the respiratory centre is in an unstable and excitable
+condition, and that there is a morbid connexion between this and some
+part of the nasal apparatus. Dr Alexander Francis has shown, however,
+that the disease is not directly due to any mechanical obstruction of
+the nasal passages, and that the nose comparatively rarely supplies the
+immediate exciting cause of the asthmatic attack. Paroxysmal sneezing is
+another form in which asthma may show itself, and, curiously enough,
+this form occurs more frequently in women, asthma of the more recognized
+type in men. In infants and young children paroxysmal bronchitis is
+another form of the same disease. Dr James Goodhart notes the connexion
+between asthma and certain skin troubles, giving cases of the
+alternation of asthma and psoriasis, and also of asthma and eczema. The
+disease occurs in families with a well-marked neurotic inheritance, and
+twice as frequently in men as in women. The immediate cause of an attack
+may be anything or nothing. Dr Hyde Salter notes that 80% of cases in
+the young date from an attack of whooping cough, bronchitis or measles.
+
+In the general treatment of asthma there are two methods of dealing with
+the patient, either that of hardening the individual, widening his range
+of accommodation, and thus making him less susceptible, or that of
+modifying and adapting the environment to the patient. These two methods
+correspond to the two methods of drug treatment, tonic or sedative.
+During the last few years the method of treatment first used by Dr
+Alexander Francis has come into prominence. His plan is to restore the
+stability of the respiratory centre, by cauterizing the septal mucous
+membrane, and combining with this general hygienic measures. In his own
+words the operation, which is entirely painless and insignificant, is
+performed as follows:--"After painting one side of the septum nasi with
+a few drops of cocaine and resorcin, I draw a line with a
+galvano-cautery point from a spot opposite the middle turbinated body,
+forwards and slightly downwards for a distance of rather less than half
+an inch. In about one week's time I repeat the operation on the other
+side." In his monograph on the subject, he classifies a large number of
+cases treated in this manner, most of which resulted in complete relief,
+some in very great improvement, and a very few in slight or no relief.
+
+
+
+
+ASTI (anc. _Hasta_), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
+province of Alessandria, situated on the Tanaro; it is 22 m. W. by rail
+from Alessandria. Pop. (1901) town, 19,787; commune, 41,047. Asti has
+still numerous medieval towers, a fine Gothic cathedral of the 14th
+century, the remains of a Christian basilica of the 6th century, and the
+octagonal baptistery of S. Pietro (11th century). It was the birthplace
+of the poet Vittorio Alfieri. In ancient times it manufactured pottery.
+It is now famous for its sparkling wine (_Asti spumante_), and is a
+considerable centre of trade.
+
+
+
+
+ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY, BARON (1570-1652), royalist commander in the
+English Civil War, came of a Norfolk family. In 1598 he joined Counts
+Maurice and Henry of Orange in the Netherlands, where he served with
+distinction, and afterwards fought under the elector palatine Frederick
+V. and Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War. He was evidently
+thought highly of by the states-general, for when he was absent, serving
+under the king of Denmark, his company in the Dutch army was kept open
+for him. Returning to England with a well-deserved reputation, he was in
+the employment of Charles I. in various military capacities. As
+"sergeant-major," or general of the infantry, he went north in 1639 to
+organize the defence against the expected Scottish invasion. Here his
+duties were as much diplomatic as military, as the discontent which
+ended in the Civil War was now coming to a head. In the ill-starred
+"Bishops' War," Astley did good service to the cause of the king, and he
+was involved in the so-called "Army Plot." At the outbreak of the Great
+Rebellion (1642) he at once joined Charles, and was made major-general
+of the foot. His characteristic battle-prayer at Edgebill has become
+famous: "O Lord, Thou knowest how busy I must be this day. If I forget
+Thee, do not forget me. March on, boys!" At Gloucester he commanded a
+division, and at the first battle of Newbury he led the infantry of the
+royal army. With Hopton, in 1644, he served at Arundel and Cheriton. At
+the second battle of Newbury he made a gallant and memorable defence of
+Shaw House. He was made a baron by the king, and at Naseby he once more
+commanded the main body of the foot. He afterwards served in the west,
+and with 1500 men fought stubbornly but vainly the last battle for the
+king at Stow-on-the-Wold (March 1646). His remark to his captors has
+become as famous as his words at Edgehill, "You have now done your work
+and may go play, unless you will fall out amongst yourselves." His
+scrupulous honour forbade him to take any part in the Second Civil War,
+as he had given his parole at Stow-on-the-Wold; but he had to undergo
+his share of the discomforts that were the lot of the vanquished
+royalists. He died in February 1651/2. The barony became extinct in
+1668.
+
+
+
+
+ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE, Bart. (1828-1894), English soldier and
+sportsman, was a descendant of Lord Astley, and son of the 2nd baronet
+(cr. 1821). From 1848 to 1859 he was in the army, serving in the Crimean
+War and retiring as lieutenant-colonel. He married an heiress in 1858,
+and thenceforth devoted himself to horse-racing, pugilism and sport in
+general. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1873, and from 1874 to 1880
+was Conservative M.P. for North Lincolnshire. He was a popular figure on
+the turf, being familiarly known as "the Mate," and won and lost large
+sums of money. Just before his death, on the 10th of October 1894, he
+published some entertaining reminiscences, under the title of _Fifty
+Years of my Life_.
+
+
+
+
+ASTON, ANTHONY (fl. 1712-1731), English actor and dramatist, began to be
+known on the London stage in the early years of the 18th century. He had
+tried the law and other professions, which he finally abandoned for the
+theatre. He had some success as a dramatic author, writing _Love in a
+Hurry_, performed in Dublin about 1709, and _Pastora, or the Coy
+Shepherdess_, an opera (1712). For many years he toured the English
+provinces with his wife and son, producing pieces which he himself
+wrote, or medleys from various plays fitted together with songs and
+dialogues of his own.
+
+
+
+
+ASTON MANOR, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Warwickshire,
+England, adjoining Birmingham on the north-east. Pop. (1901) 77,326.
+There are extensive manufactures, including those of motors and cycles
+with their accessories, also paper-mills, breweries, &c., and the
+population is largely industrial. Aston Hall, erected by Sir Thomas
+Holte in 1618-1635, is an admirable architectural example of its period,
+built of red brick. It stands in a large park, the whole property being
+acquired by the corporation of Birmingham in 1864, when the mansion
+became a museum and art gallery. It contains the panelling of a room
+from the house of Edmund Hector, which formerly stood in Old Square,
+Birmingham, where Dr Samuel Johnson was a frequent visitor. Aston Lower
+Grounds, adjoining the park, contain an assembly hall, and the playing
+field of the Aston Villa Football Club, where the more important games
+are witnessed by many thousands of spectators. Aston Manor was
+incorporated in 1903. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
+corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
+960 acres.
+
+
+
+
+ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1763-1848), American merchant, was born at the
+village of Walldorf, near Heidelberg, Germany, on the 17th of July 1763.
+Until he was sixteen he worked in the shop of his father, a butcher; he
+then joined an elder brother in London, and there for four years was
+employed in the piano and flute factory of an uncle, of the firm of
+Astor & Broadwood. In 1783 he emigrated to America, and settled in New
+York, whither one of his brothers had previously gone. On the voyage he
+became acquainted with a fur-trader, by whose advice he devoted himself
+to the same business, buying furs directly from the Indians, preparing
+them at first with his own hands for the market, and selling them in
+London and elsewhere at a great profit. He was also the agent in New
+York of the firm of Astor & Broadwood. By his energy, industry and sound
+judgment he gradually enlarged his operations, did business in all the
+fur markets of the world, and amassed an enormous fortune,--the largest
+up to that time made by any American. He devoted many years to carrying
+out a project for organizing the fur trade from the Great Lakes to the
+Pacific Ocean, and thence by way of the Hawaiian Islands to China and
+India. In 1811 he founded at the mouth of the Columbia river a
+settlement named after him Astoria, which was intended to serve as the
+central depot; but two years later the settlement was seized and
+occupied by the English. The incidents of this undertaking are the theme
+of Washington Irving's _Astoria_. A series of disasters frustrated the
+gigantic scheme. Astor made vast additions to his wealth by investments
+in real estate in New York City, and erected many buildings there,
+including the hotel known as the Astor House. The last twenty-five years
+of his life were spent in retirement in New York City, where he died on
+the 29th of March 1848, his fortune then being estimated at about
+$30,000,000. He made various charitable bequests by his will, and among
+them a gift of $50,000 to found an institution, opened as the "Astor
+House" in 1854, for the education of poor children and the relief of the
+aged and the destitute in his native village in Germany. His chief
+benefaction, however, was a bequest of $400,000 for the foundation and
+endowment of a public library in New York City, since known as the Astor
+library, and since 1895 part of the New York public library.
+
+  See Parton's _Life of John Jacob Astor_ (New York, 1865).
+
+His eldest son, WILLIAM BACKHOUSE ASTOR (1792-1875), inherited the
+greater part of his father's fortune, and chiefly by judicious
+investments in real estate greatly increased it. He was sometimes known
+as the "Landlord of New York." Under his direction the building for the
+Astor library was erected, and to the library he gave about $550,000,
+including a bequest of $200,000. His son, JOHN JACOB ASTOR (1822-1890),
+was also well known as a capitalist and philanthropist, giving liberally
+to the Astor library.
+
+The son of the last named, WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR (1848-   ), served in
+the New York assembly in 1877, and in the state senate in 1880-81. He
+was United States minister to Italy from 1882 to 1885. He published two
+romances, _Valentine_ (1885) and _Sforza_ (1889). His wealth, arising
+from property in New York, where also he built the New Netherland hotel
+and the Waldorf hotel, was enormous. In 1890 he removed to England, and
+in 1899 was naturalized. In 1893 he became proprietor of the _Pall Mall
+Gazette_, and afterwards started the _Pall Mall Magazine_.
+
+
+
+
+ASTORGA, EMANUELE D' (1681-1736), Italian musical composer, was born at
+Naples on the 11th of December 1681. No authentic account of Astorga's
+life can be successfully constructed from the obscure and confusing
+evidence that has been until now handed down, although historians have
+not failed to indulge many pleasant conjectures. According to some of
+these, his father, a baron of Sicily, took an active part in the attempt
+to throw off the Spanish yoke, but was betrayed by his own soldiers and
+publicly executed. His wife and son were compelled to be spectators of
+his fate; and such was the effect upon them that his mother died on the
+spot, and Emanuele fell into a state of gloomy despondency, which
+threatened to deprive him of reason. By the kindness of the princess
+Ursini, the unfortunate young man was placed in a convent at Astorga, in
+Leon, where he completed a musical education which is said to have been
+begun in Palermo under Francesco Scarlatti. Here he recovered his
+health, and his admirable musical talents were cultivated under the best
+masters. On the details of this account no reliance can safely be
+placed, nor is there any certainty that in 1703 he entered the service
+of the duke of Parma. Equally untrustworthy is the story that the duke,
+suspecting an attachment between hi? niece Elizabeth Farnese and
+Astorga, dismissed the musician. The established facts concerning
+Astorga are indeed few enough. They are: that the opera _Dafne_ was
+written and conducted by the composer in Barcelona in 1709; that he
+visited London, where he wrote his _Stabat Mater_, possibly for the
+society of "Antient Musick"; that it was performed in Oxford in 1713;
+that in 1712 he was in Vienna, and that he retired at an uncertain date
+to Bohemia, where he died on the 21st of August 1736, in a castle which
+had been given to him in the domains of Prince Lobkowitz, in Raudnitz.
+Astorga deserves remembrance for his dignified and pathetic _Stabat
+Mater_, and for his numerous chamber-cantatas for one or two voices. He
+was probably the last composer to carry on the traditions of this form
+of chamber-music as perfected by Alessandro Scarlatti.
+
+
+
+
+ASTORGA, a city of N.W. Spain, in the province of Leon; situated near
+the right bank of the river Tuerto, and at the junction of the
+Salamanca-Corunna and Leon-Astorga railways. Pop. (1900) 5573. Astorga
+was the Roman Asturica Augusta, a provincial capital, and the
+meeting-place of four military roads. Though sacked by the Goths in the
+5th century, and later by the Moors, it is still surrounded by massive
+walls of Roman origin. A ruined castle, near the city, recalls its
+strategic importance in the 8th century, when Asturias, Galicia and Leon
+were the headquarters of resistance to the Moors. Astorga has been the
+see of a bishop since the 3rd century, and was formerly known as the
+City of Priests, from the number of ecclesiastics resident within its
+walls. Its Gothic cathedral dates from the 15th century. The city
+confers the title of marquis on the Osorio family, the ruins of whose
+palace, sacked in 1810 by the French, are still an object of interest.
+
+  For the history, especially the ecclesiastical history, of Astorga,
+  see the anonymous _Historia de la ciudad de Astorga_ (Valladolid,
+  1840); with _Fundacion de la ... iglesia ... de Astorga_, by P.A.
+  Ezpeleta (Madrid, 1634); and _Fundacion, nombre y armas de ...
+  Astorga_, by P. Junco (Pamplona, 1635).
+
+
+
+
+ASTORIA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Clatsop county,
+Oregon, U.S.A., on the Columbia river, 8 m. from its mouth. Pop. (1890)
+6184; (1900) 8381, of whom 3779 were foreign-born (many being Finns,--a
+Finnish weekly was established here in 1905), and 601 were Chinese;
+(1910, census) 9599. It is served by the Astoria & Columbia River
+railroad (Northern Pacific System), and by several coastwise and foreign
+steamship lines (including that of the Oregon Railway & Navigation Co.).
+The river here is about 6 m. wide, and the city has a water-front of
+about 5 m. and a deep, spacious and placid harbour. By dredging and the
+construction of jetties the Federal government has since 1885 greatly
+improved the channel at the mouth of the river. The business portion of
+the city occupies the low ground of the river bottom; the residence
+portion is on the hillsides overlooking the harbour. Astoria is the port
+of entry for the Oregon Customs District, Oregon; in 1907 its imports
+were valued at $21,262, and its exports at $329,103. The city is
+especially important as a salmon fishing and packing centre (cod,
+halibut and smaller fish also being abundant); it has also an extensive
+lumber trade, important lumber manufactories, pressed brick and
+terra-cotta factories, and dairy interests. In 1905 the value of the
+factory product was $3,092,628 (of which $1,759,871 was the value of
+preserved and canned fish), being an increase of 41.8% in five years.
+Astoria is the oldest American settlement in the Columbia Valley. It was
+founded in 1811, as a depot for the fur trade, by John Jacob Astor, in
+whose honour it was named. It was seized by the British in 1813, but was
+restored in 1818. In 1821, while occupied by the North-West Fur Company,
+it was burned and practically abandoned, only a few settlers remaining.
+It was chartered as a city in 1876.
+
+  See Washington Irving's _Astoria; or Anecdotes of an Enterprise beyond
+  the Rocky Mountains_ (Philadelphia, 1836).
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAEA, in Greek legend, the "star maiden," daughter of Zeus and
+Themis, or of Astraeus the Titan and Eos, in which case she is
+identified with Dike. During the golden age she remained among men
+distributing blessings, but when the iron (or bronze) age came on, she
+was forced to withdraw, being the last of the goddesses to quit the
+earth. In the heavens she is amongst the signs of the zodiac as the
+constellation Virgo. She is usually represented with a pair of scales
+and a crown of stars.
+
+  Ov. _Met._ i. 150; Juv. vi. 19; Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 96.
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAGAL (from the Gr. [Greek: astragalos], the ankle-joint), an
+architectural term for a convex moulding. This term is generally applied
+to small mouldings, "torus" (q.v.) to large ones of the same form. The
+Lesbian astragal referred to by Vitruvius, bk. iv. ch. vi., was in all
+probability an astragal carved with a bead and reel enrichment.
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAKHAN, a government of S.E. Russia, on the lower Volga, bounded N.
+by the governments of Samara and Saratov, W. by Saratov and the
+government of the Don Cossacks, S. by Stavropol and Terek, and E. by the
+Caspian Sea and the government of the Urals. Area, 91,327 sq. m., of
+which 6730 sq. m. belong to the delta of the Volga and its brackish
+lagoons, and 62,290 sq. m. are covered by the Kalmuck and Kirghiz
+Steppes. The surface is a low-lying plain, except that in the west the
+Ergeni Hills (500-575 ft.) form the water-parting between the Volga
+basin and that of the Don. The climate is very hot and dry, the average
+temperature for the year being 50 deg. Fahr., for January 21 deg., and
+for July 78 deg., rainfall 7.3 in., but often there is no rain at all in
+the summer. Pop. (1897) 1,005,460, of whom 132,383 were urban. The
+Kalmucks (138,580 in 1897) and Kirghiz (260,000) are semi-nomads. In
+addition to them the population includes nearly 44,000 Tatars, 4270
+Armenians, with Poles and Jews. Fishing off the mouth of the Volga gives
+occupation to 50,000 persons; the fish, chiefly herrings and sturgeon,
+together with the caviare prepared from the latter, are sold for the
+most part at Nizhniy-Novgorod. Over 300,000 tons of salt are extracted
+annually from the lakes, principally those of Baskunchak and Elton.
+Cattle-breeding is an important industry. Market-gardening (mustard,
+water-melons, fruit) is on the increase; but pure agriculture is
+relatively not much developed. The government is divided into five
+districts, the chief towns of which are Astrakhan, Enotayevsk (pop. 2810
+in 1897), Krasnyi-yar (4680), Chernyi-yar (5140), and Tsarev (8900).
+The Kalmucks and Kirghiz have their own local administrations, and so
+have the Astrakhan Cossacks (25,600).
+
+
+
+
+ASTRAKHAN, a town of E. Russia, capital of the government of Astrakhan,
+on the left bank of the main channel of the Volga, 50 m. from the
+Caspian Sea, in 46 deg. 21' N. lat. and 48 deg. 5' E. long. Since the
+growth of the petroleum industry of Baku and the construction of the
+Transcaspian railway, Astrakhan has become an important commercial
+centre, exporting fish, caviare, sugar, metals, naphtha, cottons and
+woollens, and importing grain, cotton, fruit and timber, to the
+aggregate value of L8,250,000 with foreign countries and of L14,500,000
+with the interior of Russia. The town gives its name to the "fur" called
+"astrakhan," the skin of the new-born Persian lamb, and so to an
+imitation in rough woollen cloth. There is some tanning, shipbuilding
+and brewing, and making of soap, tar and machinery. Astrakhan is the
+chief port on the Caspian Sea and the headquarters of the Russian
+Caspian fleet. The city consists of (1) the _kreml_ or citadel (1550),
+crowning a hill, on which stand also the spacious brick cathedral
+containing the tombs of two Georgian princes, the archbishop's palace
+and the monastery of the Trinity; (2) the Byelogorod or White Town,
+containing the administrative offices and the bazaars; and (3) the
+suburbs, where most of the population resides. The buildings in the
+first two quarters are of stone, in the third of wood, irregularly
+arranged along unpaved, dirty streets. The city is the see of a Greek
+Catholic archbishop and of an Armenian archbishop, and contains a
+Lamaist monastery, as well as technical schools, an ichthyological
+museum, the Peter museum, with ethnographical, archaeological and
+natural history collections, a botanical garden, an ecclesiastical
+seminary, and good squares and public gardens, one of which is adorned
+with a statue (1884) of Alexander II. Vineyards surround the city.
+Astrakhan was anciently the capital of a Tatar state, and stood some 7
+m. farther north. After this was destroyed by the Mongol prince Timur
+the Great in 1395, the existing city was built. The Tatars were expelled
+about 1554 by Ivan IV. of Russia. In 1569 the city was besieged by the
+Turks, but they were defeated with great slaughter by the Russians. In
+1670 it was seized by the rebel Stenka Razin; early in the following
+century Peter the Great constructed here a shipbuilding yard and made
+Astrakhan the base for his hostilities against Persia, and later in the
+same century Catherine II. accorded the city important industrial
+privileges. In 1702, 1718 and 1767, it suffered severely from fires; in
+1719 was plundered by the Persians; and in 1830 the cholera swept away a
+large number of its people. In the middle ages the city was known also
+as Jitarkhan and Ginterkhan. Pop. (1867) 47,839; (1900) 121,580. Eight
+miles above Astrakhan, on the right bank of the Volga, are the ruins of
+two ancient cities superimposed one upon the other. In the upper, which
+may represent the city of Balanjar (Balansar, Belenjer), have been found
+gold and silver coins struck by Mongol rulers, as well as ornaments in
+the same metals. The older and scantier underlying ruins are supposed to
+be those of the once large and prosperous city of Itil or Atel (Etel,
+Idl) of the Arab geographers, a residence of the khan of the Khazars,
+destroyed by the Russians in 969.     (P. A. K.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTROLABE (from Gr. [Greek: astron], star, and [Greek: labein], to
+take), an instrument used not only for stellar, but for solar and lunar
+altitude-taking. The principle of the astrolabe is explained in fig. 2.
+There were two kinds,--spherical and planispheric. The earliest forms
+were "armillae" and spherical. Gradually, from Eratosthenes to Tycho,
+Hipparchus playing the most important part among ancient astronomers,
+the complex astrolabe was evolved, large specimens being among the chief
+observatory instruments of the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries; while
+small ones were in use among travellers and learned men, not only for
+astronomical, but for astrological and topographical purposes. Nearly
+every one of the modern instruments used for the observations of
+physical astronomy is a part of the perfected astrolabe. A collection of
+circles such as is the armillary sphere, if each circle were fitted with
+a view-tube, might be considered a complete astrolabe. Tycho's armillae
+were astrolabes. In fact the modern equatorial, and the altitude and
+azimuth circle are astrolabes in the strictest and oldest meaning of the
+term; and Tycho in one of his astrolabes came so near the modern
+equatorial that it may be taken as the first of the kind.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE.
+
+FIG. 1.--PERSIAN ASTROLABE (c. 1712) INSCRIBED IN ARABIC.
+
+  FRONT, showing the _Rete_ or _Spider_, a network of star pointers.
+  Beneath the _Rete_, in a hollow, are four thin brass discs, called
+  Tables or Climates, engraved with projections of the sphere for
+  different latitudes.
+
+  BACK, showing graduations, parallelogram for measuring heights; and
+  other tables, together with the _Rule_ with sights (A) held by a
+  moveable pin (B), known as the _Horse_ or _Wedge_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Principle of the Astrolabe. If a solid circle be
+fixed in any one position and a tube be pivoted on its centre so as to
+move; and if the line C D be drawn upon the circle pointing towards any
+object Q in the heavens which lies in the plane of the circle, by
+turning the tube A B towards any other object P in the plane of the
+circle, the angle BOD will be the angle subtended by the two objects P
+and Q at the eye.]
+
+[Illustration: From _Exercises_, by T. Blundeville.
+
+FIG. 3.--Mariner's Astrolabe, A.D. 1594. Made of brass, or of heavy
+wood: it varied in size from a few inches to 1 ft. in diameter.]
+
+The two forms of the planispheric astrolabe most widely known and used
+in the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries were: (1) the _portable
+astrolabe_ shown in fig. 1 (Plate). This originated in the East, and was
+in early use in India, Persia and Arabia, and was introduced into Europe
+by the Arabs, who had perfected it--perhaps as early as A.D. 700. It
+combines the planisphere and armillae of Hipparchus and others, and the
+theodolite of Theon, and was usually of brass, varying in diameter from
+a couple of inches to a foot or more. It was used for taking the
+altitudes of sun, moon and stars; for calculating latitude; for
+determining the points of the compass, and time; for ascertaining
+heights of mountains, &c.; and for construction of horoscopes. The
+instrument was a marvel of convenience and ingenuity, and was called
+"the mathematical jewel." Nevertheless it passed out of use, because
+incapable of any great precision.
+
+(2) The _mariner's astrolabe_, fig. 3, was adapted from that of
+astronomers by Martin Behaim, c. 1480. This was the instrument used by
+Columbus. With the tables of the sun's declination then available, he
+could calculate his latitude by meridian altitudes of the sun taken with
+his astrolabe. The mariner's astrolabe was superseded by John Hadley's
+quadrant of 1731.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Chaucer, _Treatise on the Astrolabe_ (Skeat's edition of
+  Chaucer); J.J. Stoffler, _Elucidatio Fabrice ususque Astrolabii_, &c.;
+  Thomas Blundeville, _His Exercises_ (1594); F. Ritter, _Astrolabium_;
+  W.H. Morley, _Description of Astrolabe of Shah Husain_; M.L. Huggins,
+  "The Astrolabe" (_Astrophysical Journal_, 1894); _Penny Cyclopaedia_,
+  article "Astrolabe;" R. Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_.
+       (M. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTROLOGY, the ancient art or science of divining the fate and future of
+human beings from indications given by the positions of the stars (sun,
+moon and planets). The belief in a connexion between the heavenly bodies
+and the life of man has played an important part in human history. For
+long ages astronomy and astrology (which might be called astromancy, on
+the same principle as "chiromancy") were identified; and a distinction
+is made between "natural astrology," which predicts the motions of the
+heavenly bodies, eclipses, &c., and "judicial astrology," which studies
+the influence of the stars on human destiny. Isidore of Seville (d. 636)
+is one of the first to distinguish between astronomy and astrology; nor
+did astronomy begin to rid itself of astrology till the 16th century,
+when, with the system of Copernicus, the conviction that the earth
+itself is one of the heavenly bodies was finally established. The study
+of astromancy and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found in a
+developed form among the ancient Babylonians, and directly or indirectly
+through the Babylonians spread to other nations. It came to Greece about
+the middle of the 4th century B.C., and reached Rome before the opening
+of the Christian era. In India and China astronomy and astrology are
+largely reflections of Greek theories and speculations; and similarly
+with the introduction of Greek culture into Egypt, both astronomy and
+astrology were actively cultivated in the region of the Nile during the
+Hellenistic and Roman periods. Astrology was further developed by the
+Arabs from the 7th to the 13th century, and in the Europe of the 14th
+and 15th centuries astrologers were dominating influences at court.
+
+Even up to the present day men of intellectual eminence like Dr Richard
+Garnett have convinced themselves that astromancy has a foundation of
+truth, just as there are still believers in chiromancy or other forms of
+divination. Dr Garnett ("A.G. Trent") insisted indeed that it was a
+mistake to confuse astrology with fortune-telling, and maintained that
+it was a "physical science just as much as geology," depending like them
+on ascertained facts, and grossly misrepresented by being connected with
+magic. Dr Garnett himself looked upon the study of biography in relation
+to the casting of horoscopes as an empirical investigation, but it is
+difficult in practice to keep the distinction clear, to judge by
+present-day text-books such as those of Dr Wilde (_Primer of Astrology_,
+&c.). Dr Wilde insists on there being "nothing incongruous with the laws
+of nature in the theory that the sun, moon and stars influence men's
+physical bodies and conditions, seeing that man is made up of a physical
+part of the earth." There is an obvious tendency, however, for
+astromancy to be employed, like palmistry, as a means of imposing on the
+ignorant and credulous. How far the more serious claim is likely to be
+revived in connexion with the renewal of research into the "occult"
+sciences generally, it is still too early to speculate; and it has to be
+recognized that such a point of view is opposed to the generally
+established belief that astrology is either mere superstition or
+absolute imposture, and that its former vogue was due either to
+deception or to the tyranny of an unscientific environment. But if the
+progress of physical science has not prevented the rehabilitation of
+much of ancient alchemy by the later researches into chemical change,
+and if psychology now finds a place for explanations of spiritualism and
+witchcraft which involve the admission of the empirical facts under a
+new theory (as in the case of the divining-rod, &c.), it is at least
+conceivable that some new synthesis might once more justify part at all
+events of ancient and medieval astromancy, to the extent of admitting
+the empirical facts where provable, and substituting for the supposed
+influence of the stars as such, some deeper theory which would be
+consistent with an application to other forms of prophecy, and thus
+might reconcile the possibility of dipping into futurity with certain
+interrelations of the universe, different indeed from those assumed by
+astrological theory, but underlying and explaining it. If this is ever
+accomplished it will need the patient investigation of a number of
+empirical observations by competent students unbiassed by any _parti
+pris_--a difficult set of conditions to obtain; and even then no
+definite results may be achieved.
+
+The history of astrology can now be traced back to ancient Babylonia,
+and indeed to the earliest phases of Babylonian history, i.e. to about
+3000 B.C. In Babylonia as well as in Assyria as a direct offshoot of
+Babylonian culture (or as we might also term it "Euphratean" culture),
+astrology takes its place in the official cult as one of the two chief
+means at the disposal of the priests (who were called _bare_ or
+"inspectors") for ascertaining the will and intention of the gods, the
+other being through the inspection of the liver of the sacrificial
+animal (see OMEN). Just as this latter method of divination rested on a
+well-defined theory, to wit, that the liver was the seat of the soul of
+the animal and that the deity in accepting the sacrifice identified
+himself with the animal, whose "soul" was thus placed in complete accord
+with that of the god and therefore reflected the mind and will of the
+god, so astrology is based on a theory of divine government of the
+world, which in contrast to "liver" divination assumes at the start a
+more scientific or pseudo-scientific aspect. This theory must be taken
+into consideration as a factor in accounting for the persistent hold
+which even at the present day astrology still maintains on many minds.
+Starting with the indisputable fact that man's life and happiness are
+largely dependent upon phenomena in the heavens, that the fertility of
+the soil is dependent upon the sun shining in the heavens as well as
+upon the rains that come from heaven, that on the other hand the
+mischief and damage done by storms and inundations, to both of which the
+Euphratean Valley was almost regularly subject, were to be traced
+likewise to the heavens, the conclusion was drawn that all the great
+gods had their seats in the heavens. In that early age of culture known
+as the "nomadic" stage, which under normal conditions precedes the
+"agricultural" stage, the moon cult is even more prominent than sun
+worship, and with the moon and sun cults thus furnished by the "popular"
+faith it was a natural step for the priests, who correspond to the
+"scientists" of a later day, to perfect a theory of a complete accord
+between phenomena observed in the heavens and occurrences on earth.
+
+If moon and sun, whose regular movements conveyed to the more intelligent
+minds the conception of the reign of law and order in the universe as
+against the more popular notion of chance and caprice, were divine
+powers, the same held good of the planets, whose movements, though more
+difficult to follow, yet in the course of time came to be at least
+partially understood. Of the planets five were recognized--Jupiter,
+Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Mars--to name them in the order in which they
+appear in the older cuneiform literature; in later texts Mercury and
+Saturn change places. These five planets were identified with the great
+gods of the pantheon as follows:--Jupiter with Marduk (q.v.), Venus with
+the goddess Ishtar (q.v.), Saturn with Ninib (q.v.), Mercury with Nebo
+(q.v.), and Mars with Nergal (q.v.). The movements of the sun, moon and
+five planets were regarded as representing the activity of the five gods
+in question, together with the moon-god Sin (q.v.) and the sun-god
+Shamash (q.v.), in preparing the occurrences on earth. If, therefore, one
+could correctly read and interpret the activity of these powers, one knew
+what the gods were aiming to bring about. The Babylonian priests
+accordingly applied themselves to the task of perfecting a system of
+interpretation of the phenomena to be observed in the heavens, and it was
+natural that the system was extended from the moon, sun and five planets
+to the more prominent and recognizable fixed stars. That system involved
+not merely the movements of the moon, sun and planets, but the
+observation of their relative position to one another and to all kinds of
+peculiarities noted at any point in the course of their movements: in the
+case of the moon, for instance, the exact appearance of the new crescent,
+its position in the heavens, the conditions at conjunction and
+opposition, the appearance of the horns, the halo frequently seen with
+the new moon, which was compared to a "cap," the ring round the full
+moon, which was called a "stall" (i.e. "enclosure"), and more of the
+like. To all these phenomena some significance was attached, and this
+significance was naturally intensified in the case of such a striking
+phenomenon as an eclipse of the moon. Applying the same method of careful
+observation to the sun and planets, and later to some of the
+constellations and to many of the fixed stars, it will be apparent that
+the body of observations noted must have grown in the course of time to
+large and indeed to enormous proportions, and correspondingly the
+interpretations assigned to the nearly endless variations in the
+phenomena thus observed. The interpretations themselves were based (as in
+the case of divination through the liver) chiefly on two factors:--(1) on
+the recollection or on written records of what in the past had taken
+place when the phenomenon or phenomena in question had been observed, and
+(2) association of ideas--involving sometimes merely a play upon
+words--in connexion with the phenomenon or phenomena observed. Thus if on
+a certain occasion the rise of the new moon in a cloudy sky was followed
+by victory over an enemy or by abundant rain, the sign in question was
+thus proved to be a favourable one and its recurrence would be regarded
+as a good omen, though the prognostication would not necessarily be
+limited to the one or the other of those occurrences, but might be
+extended to apply to other circumstances. On the other hand, the
+appearance of the new moon earlier than was expected was regarded as an
+unfavourable omen--prognosticating in one case defeat, in another death
+among cattle, in a third bad crops--not necessarily because these events
+actually took place after such a phenomenon, but by an application of the
+general principle resting upon association of ideas whereby anything
+premature would suggest an unfavourable occurrence. A thin halo seen
+above the new moon was pictured as a cap, and the association between
+this and the symbol of royalty, which was a conical-shaped cap, led to
+interpreting the phenomenon as an indication that the ruler would have a
+successful reign. In this way a mass of traditional interpretation of all
+kinds of observed phenomena was gathered, and once gathered became a
+guide to the priests for all times.
+
+Astrology in this its earliest stage is, however, marked by two
+characteristic limitations. In the first place, the movements and
+position of the heavenly bodies point to such occurrences as are of
+public import and affect the general welfare. The individual's interests
+are not in any way involved, and we must descend many centuries and pass
+beyond the confines of Babylonia and Assyria before we reach that phase
+which in medieval and modern astrology is almost exclusively dwelt
+upon--genethliology or the individual horoscope. In Babylonia and
+Assyria the cult centred largely and indeed almost exclusively in the
+public welfare and the person of the king, because upon his well-being
+and favour with the gods the fortunes of the country were dependent in
+accordance with the ancient conception of kingship (see J.G. Frazer,
+_The Early History of Kingship_). To some extent, the individual came in
+for his share in the incantations and in the purification ritual through
+which one might hope to rid oneself of the power of the demons and of
+other evil spirits, but outside of this the important aim of the priests
+was to secure for the general benefit the favour of the gods, or, as a
+means of preparing oneself for what the future had in store, to
+ascertain in time whether that favour would be granted in any particular
+instance or would be continued in the future. Hence in "liver"
+divination, as in astrology, the interpretations of the signs noted all
+have reference to public affairs and events and not to the individual's
+needs or desires. In the second place, the astronomical knowledge
+presupposed and accompanying early Babylonian astrology is essentially
+of an empirical character. While in a general way the reign of law and
+order in the movements of the heavenly bodies was recognized, and indeed
+must have exercised an influence at an early period in leading to the
+rise of a methodical divination that was certainly of a much higher
+order than the examination of an animal's liver, yet the importance that
+was laid upon the endless variations in the form of the phenomena and
+the equally numerous apparent deviations from what were regarded as
+normal conditions, prevented for a long time the rise of any serious
+study of astronomy beyond what was needed for the purely practical
+purposes that the priests as "inspectors" of the heavens (as they were
+also the "inspectors" of the sacrificial livers) had in mind. True, we
+have, probably as early as the days of Khammurabi, i.e. c. 2000 B.C.,
+the combinations of prominent groups of stars with outlines of pictures
+fantastically put together, but there is no evidence that prior to 700
+B.C. more than a number of the constellations of our zodiac had become
+part of the current astronomy. The theory of the ecliptic as
+representing the course of the sun through the year, divided among
+twelve constellations with a measurement of 30 deg. to each division, is
+also of Babylonian origin, as has now been definitely proved; but it
+does not appear to have been perfected until after the fall of the
+Babylonian empire in 539 B.C. Similarly, the other accomplishments of
+Babylonian astronomers, such as their system or rather systems of moon
+calculations and the drawing up of planetary tablets, belong to this
+late period, so that the golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not
+to the remote past, as was until recently supposed, but to the Seleucid
+period, i.e. after the advent of the Greeks in the Euphrates Valley.
+From certain expressions used in astrological texts that are earlier
+than the 7th century B.C. it would appear, indeed, that the beginnings
+at least of the calculation of sun and moon eclipses belong to the
+earlier period, but here, too, the chief work accomplished was after 400
+B.C., and the defectiveness of early Babylonian astronomy may be
+gathered from the fact that as late as the 6th century B.C. an error of
+almost an entire month was made by the Babylonian astronomers in the
+attempt to determine through calculation the beginning of a certain
+year.
+
+The researches of Bouche-Leclercq, Cumont and Boll have enabled us to
+fix with a considerable degree of definiteness the middle of the 4th
+century B.C. as the period when Babylonian astrology began its triumphal
+march to the west, invading the domain of Greek and Roman culture and
+destined to exercise a strong hold on all nations and groups--more
+particularly in Egypt--that came within the sphere of Greek and Roman
+influence. It is rather significant that this spread of astrology should
+have been concomitant with the intellectual impulse that led to the rise
+of a genuine scientific phase of astronomy in Babylonia itself, which
+must have weakened to some extent the hold that astrology had on the
+priests and the people. The advent of the Persians, bringing with them a
+conception of religion of a far higher order than Babylonian-Assyrian
+polytheism (see ZOROASTER), must also have acted as a disintegrating
+factor in leading to the decline of the old faith in the Euphrates
+Valley, and we thus have the interesting though not entirely exceptional
+phenomenon of a great civilization bequeathing as a legacy to posterity
+a superstition instead of a real achievement. "Chaldaean wisdom" became
+among Greeks and Romans the synonym of divination through the planets
+and stars, and it is not surprising that in the course of time to be
+known as a "Chaldaean" carried with it frequently the suspicion of
+charlatanry and of more or less wilful deception. The spread of
+astrology beyond Babylonia is thus concomitant with the rise of a truly
+scientific astronomy in Babylonia itself, which in turn is due to the
+intellectual impulse afforded by the contact with new forms of culture
+from both the East and the West.
+
+In the hands of the Greeks and of the later Egyptians both astrology and
+astronomy were carried far beyond the limits attained by the
+Babylonians, and it is indeed a matter of surprise to observe the
+harmonious combination of the two fields--a harmony that seems to grow
+more complete with each age, and that is not broken until we reach the
+threshold of modern science in the 16th century. To the Greek astronomer
+Hipparchus belongs the credit of the discovery (c. 130 B.C.) of the
+theory of the precession of the equinoxes, for a knowledge of which
+among the Babylonians we find no definite proof; but such a signal
+advance in pure science did not prevent the Greeks from developing in a
+most elaborate manner the theory of the influence of the planets upon
+the fate of the individual. The endeavour to trace the horoscope of the
+individual from the position of the planets and stars at the time of
+birth (or, as was attempted by other astrologers, at the time of
+conception) represents the most significant contribution of the Greeks
+to astrology. The system was carried to such a degree of perfection that
+later ages made but few additions of an essential character to the
+genethliology or drawing up of the individual horoscope by the Greek
+astrologers. The system was taken up almost bodily by the Arab
+astronomers, it was embodied in the Kabbalistic lore of Jews and
+Christians, and through these and other channels came to be the
+substance of the astrology of the middle ages, forming, as already
+pointed out, under the designation of "judicial astrology," a
+pseudo-science which was placed on a perfect footing of equality with
+"natural astrology" or the more genuine science of the study of the
+motions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies.
+
+Partly in further development of views unfolded in Babylonia, but
+chiefly under Greek influences, the scope of astrology was enlarged
+until it was brought into connexion with practically all of the known
+sciences, botany, chemistry, zoology, mineralogy, anatomy and medicine.
+Colours, metals, stones, plants, drugs and animal life of all kinds were
+associated with the planets and placed under their tutelage. In the
+system that passes under the name of Ptolemy, Saturn is associated with
+grey, Jupiter with white, Mars with red, Venus with yellow, while
+Mercury, occupying a peculiar place in Greek as it did in Babylonian
+astrology (where it was at one time designated as _the_ planet _par
+excellence_), was supposed to vary its colour according to changing
+circumstances. The sun was associated with gold, the moon with silver,
+Jupiter with electrum, Saturn with lead, Venus with copper, and so on,
+while the continued influence of astrological motives is to be seen in
+the association of quicksilver, upon its discovery at a comparatively
+late period, with Mercury, because of its changeable character as a
+solid and a liquid. In the same way stones were connected with both the
+planets and the months; plants, by diverse association of ideas, were
+connected with the planets, and animals likewise were placed under the
+guidance and protection of one or other of the heavenly bodies. By this
+curious process of combination the entire realm of the natural sciences
+was translated into the language of astrology with the single avowed
+purpose of seeing in all phenomena signs indicative of what the future
+had in store. The fate of the individual, as that feature of the future
+which had a supreme interest, led to the association of the planets with
+parts of the body. Here, too, we find various systems devised, in part
+representing the views of different schools, in part reflecting
+advancing conceptions regarding the functions of the organs in man and
+animals. In one system the seat of Mercury, representing divine
+intelligence as the source of all knowledge--a view that reverts to
+Babylonia where Nebo (corresponding to Mercury) was regarded as the
+divine power to whom all wisdom is due--was placed in the liver as the
+primeval seat of the soul (see OMEN), whereas in other systems this
+distinction was assigned to Jupiter or to Venus. Saturn, taking in Greek
+astrology the place at the head of the planets which among the
+Babylonians was accorded to Jupiter-Marduk, was given a place in the
+brain, which in later times was looked upon as the centre of soul-life;
+Venus, as the planet of the passion of love, was supposed to reign
+supreme over the genital organs, the belly and the lower limbs; Mars, as
+the violent planet, is associated with the bile, as well as with the
+blood and kidneys. Again, the right ear is associated with Saturn, the
+left ear with Mars, the right eye in the case of the male with the sun
+and the left eye with the moon, while in the case of the female it was
+just the reverse. From the planets the same association of ideas was
+applied to the constellations of the zodiac, which in later phases of
+astrology are placed on a par with the planets themselves, so far as
+their importance for the individual horoscope is concerned. The fate of
+the individual in this combination of planets with the zodiac was made
+dependent not merely upon the planet which happened to be rising at the
+time of birth or of conception, but also upon its local relationship to
+a special sign or to certain signs of the zodiac. The zodiac was
+regarded as the prototype of the human body, the different parts of
+which all had their corresponding section in the zodiac itself. The head
+was placed in the first sign of the zodiac--the Ram; and the feet in the
+last sign--the Fishes. Between these two extremes the other parts and
+organs of the body were distributed among the remaining signs of the
+zodiac, the neck being assigned to the Bull, the shoulders and arms to
+the Gemini (or twins), the breast to Cancer, the flanks to Leo, the
+bladder to Virgo, the buttocks to the Balance, the pubis to the
+Scorpion, the thighs to Sagittarius, the knees to Capricorn, and the
+limbs to Aquarius. Not content with this, we find the late Egyptian
+astrologers setting up a correspondence between the thirty-six _decani_
+recognized by them and the human body, which is thus divided into
+thirty-six parts; to each part a god was assigned as a controlling
+force. With human anatomy thus connected with the planets, with
+constellations, and with single stars, medicine became an integral part
+of astrology, or, as we might also put it, astrology became the handmaid
+of medicine. Diseases and disturbances of the ordinary functions of the
+organs were attributed to the influence of planets or explained as due
+to conditions observed in a constellation or in the position of a star;
+and an interesting survival of this bond between astrology and medicine
+is to be seen in the use up to the present time of the sign of Jupiter,
+which still heads medicinal prescriptions, while, on the other hand, the
+influence of planetary lore appears in the assignment of the days of the
+week to the planets, beginning with Sunday, assigned to the sun, and
+ending with Saturday, the day of Saturn. Passing on into still later
+periods, Saturn's day was associated with the Jewish sabbath, Sunday
+with the Lord's Day, Tuesday with Tiw, the god of war, corresponding to
+Mars of the Romans and to the Nergal of the Babylonians. Wednesday was
+assigned to the planet Mercury, the equivalent of the Germanic god
+Woden; Thursday to Jupiter, the equivalent of Thor; and Friday to Friga,
+the goddess of love, who is represented by Venus among the Romans and
+among the Babylonians by Ishtar. Astrological considerations likewise
+already regulated in ancient Babylonia the distinction of lucky and
+unlucky days, which passing down to the Greeks and Romans (_dies fasti_
+and _nefasti_) found a striking expression in Hesiod's _Works and Days_.
+Among the Arabs similar associations of lucky and unlucky days directly
+connected with the influence of the planets prevailed through all times,
+Tuesday and Wednesday, for instance, being regarded as the days for
+blood-letting, because Tuesday was connected with Mars, the lord of war
+and blood, and Wednesday with Mercury, the planet of humours. Even in
+modern times travellers relate how, when an auspicious day has been
+proclaimed by the astrologers, the streets of Bagdad may be seen running
+with blood from the barbers' shops.
+
+It is unnecessary here to give a detailed analysis of the methods of
+judicial astrology as an art, or directions for the casting of a
+horoscope, or "nativity," i.e. a map of the heavens at the hour of
+birth, showing, according to the Ephemeris, the position of the heavenly
+bodies, from which their influence may be deduced. Each of the twelve
+signs of the zodiac (q.v.) is credited with its own characteristics and
+influence, and is the controlling sign of its "house of life." The sign
+exactly rising at the moment of birth is called the ascendant. The
+benevolent or malignant influence of each planet, together with the sun
+and moon, is modified by the sign it inhabits at the nativity; thus
+Jupiter in one house may indicate riches, fame in another, beauty in
+another, and Saturn similarly poverty, obscurity or deformity. The
+calculation is affected by the "aspects," i.e. according as the planets
+are near or far as regards one another (in conjunction, in semi-sextile,
+semi-square, sextile, quintile, square, trine, sesqui-quadrate,
+bi-quintile, opposition or parallel acclination). Disastrous signs
+predominate over auspicious, and the various effects are combined in a
+very elaborate and complicated manner.
+
+Judicial astrology, as a form of divination, is a concomitant of natural
+astrology, in its purer astronomical aspect, but mingled with what is
+now considered an unscientific and superstitious view of world-forces.
+In the _Janua aurea reserata quatuor linguarum_ (1643) of J.A. Comenius
+we find the following definition:--"_Astronomus siderum meatus seu motus
+considerat: Astrologus eorundem efficaciam, influxum, et effectum_."
+Kepler was more cautious in his opinion; he spoke of astronomy as the
+wise mother, and astrology as the foolish daughter, but he added that
+the existence of the daughter was necessary to the life of the mother.
+Tycho Brahe and Gassendi both began with astrology, and it was only
+after pursuing the false science, and finding it wanting, that Gassendi
+devoted himself to astronomy. In their numerous allusions to the subtle
+mercury, which the one makes when treating of a means of measuring time
+by the efflux of the metal, and the other in a treatise on the transit
+of the planet, we see traces of the school in which they served their
+first apprenticeship. Huygens, moreover, in his great posthumous work,
+_Cosmotheoros, seu de terris coelestibus_, shows himself a more exact
+observer of astrological symbols than Kircher himself in his _Iter
+exstaticum_. Huygens contends that between the inhabitants of different
+planets there need not be any greater difference than exists between men
+of different types on the earth. "There are on the earth," continues
+this rational interpreter of the astrologers and chiromancers, "men of
+cold temperament who would thrive in Saturn, which is the farthest
+planet from the sun, and there are other spirits warm and ardent enough
+to live in Venus."
+
+Those were indeed strange times, according to modern ideas, when
+astrologers were dominant by the terror they inspired, and sometimes by
+the martydom they endured when their predictions were either too true or
+too false. Faith, to borrow their own language, was banished to Virgo,
+and rarely shed her influence on men. Cardan (1501-1576), for instance,
+hated Luther, and so changed his birthday in order to give him an
+unfavourable horoscope. In Cardan's times, as in those of Augustus, it
+was a common practice for men to conceal the day and hour of their
+birth, till, like Augustus, they found a complaisant astrologer. But, as
+a general rule, medieval and Renaissance astrologers did not give
+themselves the trouble of reading the stars, but contented themselves
+with telling fortunes by faces. They practised chiromancy (see
+PALMISTRY), and relied on afterwards drawing a horoscope to suit. As
+physiognomists (see PHYSIOGNOMY) their talent was undoubted, and
+according to Vanini there was no need to mount to the house-top to cast
+a nativity. "Yes," he says, "I can read his face; by his hair and his
+forehead it is easy to guess that the sun at his birth was in the sign
+of Libra and near Venus. Nay, his complexion shows that Venus touches
+Libra. By the rules of astrology he could not lie."
+
+A few salient facts may be added concerning the astrologers and their
+predictions, remarkable either for their fulfilment or for the ruin and
+confusion they brought upon their authors. We may begin with one taken
+from Bacon's _Essay of Prophecies_:--"When I was in France, I heard from
+one Dr Pena, that the queen mother, who was given to curious arts,
+caused the king her husband's nativitie to be calculated, under a false
+name; and the astrologer gave a judgment, that he should be killed in a
+duell; at which the queene laughed, thinking her husband to be above
+challenges and duels; but he was slaine, upon a course at tilt, the
+splinters of the staffe of Mongomery going in at his bever." A favourite
+topic of the astrologers of all countries has been the immediate end of
+the world. As early as 1186 the earth had escaped one threatened
+cataclysm of the astrologers. This did not prevent Stoffler from
+predicting a universal deluge for the year 1524--a year, as it turned
+out, distinguished for drought. His aspect of the heavens told him that
+in that year three planets would meet in the aqueous sign of Pisces. The
+prediction was believed far and wide, and President Aurial, at Toulouse,
+built himself a Noah's ark--a curious realization, in fact, of Chaucer's
+merry invention in the _Miller's Tale_.
+
+Tycho Brahe was from his fifteenth year devoted to astrology, and
+adjoining his observatory at Uranienburg the astronomer-royal of Denmark
+had a laboratory built in order to study alchemy, and it was only a few
+years before his death that he finally abandoned astrology. We may here
+notice one very remarkable prediction of the master of Kepler. That he
+had carefully studied the comet of 1577 as an astronomer, we may gather
+from his adducing the very small parallax of this comet as disproving
+the assertion of the Aristotelians that a solid sphere enveloped the
+heavens. But besides this, we find him in his character of astrologer
+drawing a singular prediction from the appearance of this comet. It
+announced, he tells us, that in the north, in Finland, there should be
+born a prince who should lay waste Germany and vanish in 1632. Gustavus
+Adolphus, it is well known, was born in Finland, overran Germany, and
+died in 1632. The fulfilment of the details of this prophecy suggests
+that Tycho Brahe had some basis of reason for his prediction. Born in
+Denmark of a noble Swedish family, a politician, as were all his
+contemporaries of distinction, Tycho, though no conjuror, could foresee
+the advent of some great northern hero. Moreover, he was doubtless well
+acquainted with a very ancient tradition, that heroes generally came
+from the northern frontiers of their native land, where they are
+hardened and tempered by the threefold struggle they wage with soil,
+climate and barbarian neighbours.
+
+Kepler explained the double movement of the earth by the rotation of the
+sun. At one time the sun presented its friendly side, which attracted
+one planet, sometimes its adverse side, which repelled it. He also
+peopled the planets with souls and genii. He was led to his three great
+laws by musical analogies, just as William Herschel afterwards passed
+from music to astronomy. Kepler, who in his youth made almanacs, and
+once prophesied a hard winter, which came to pass, could not help
+putting an astrological interpretation on the disappearance of the
+brilliant star of 1572, which Tycho had observed. Theodore Beza thought
+that this star, which in December 1573 equalled Jupiter in brilliancy,
+predicted the second coming of Christ. Astronomers were only then
+beginning to study variable and periodic stars, and disturbances in that
+part of the heavens, which had till then, on the authority of Aristotle,
+been regarded as incorruptible, combined with the troubles of the times,
+must have given a new stimulus to belief in the signs in heaven.
+Montaigne (_Essais_, lib. i. chap, x.) relates a singular episode in the
+history of astrology. Charles V. and Francis I., who both bid for the
+friendship of the infamous Aretino, surnamed the divine, both likewise
+engaged astrologers to fight their battles. In Italy those who
+prophesied the ruin of France were sure to be listened to. These
+prophecies affected the public funds much as telegrams do nowadays. "At
+Rome," Montaigne tells us, "a large sum of money was lost on the Change
+by this prognostication of our ruin." The marquis of Saluces,
+notwithstanding his gratitude to Francis I. for the many favours he had
+received, including his marquisate, of which the brother was despoiled
+for his benefit, was led in 1536 to betray his country, being scared by
+the glorious prophecies of the ultimate success of Charles V. which were
+then rife. The influence of the Medici made astrologers popular in
+France. Richelieu, on whose council was Jacques Gaffarel (1601-1681),
+the last of the Kabbalists, did not despise astrology as an engine of
+government. At the birth of Louis XIV. a certain Morin de Villefranche
+was placed behind a curtain to cast the nativity of the future autocrat.
+A generation back the astrologer would not have been hidden behind a
+curtain, but have taken precedence of the doctor. La Bruyere dares not
+pronounce against such beliefs, "for there are perplexing facts affirmed
+by grave men who were eye-witnesses." In England William Lilly and
+Robert Fludd were both dressed in a little brief authority. The latter
+gives us elaborate rules for the detection of a thief, and tells us that
+he has had personal experience of their efficacy. "If the lord of the
+sixth house is found in the second house, or in company with the lord of
+the second house, the thief is one of the family. If Mercury is in the
+sign of the Scorpion he will be bald, &c." Francis Bacon abuses the
+astrologers of his day no less than the alchemists, but he does so
+because he has visions of a reformed astrology and a reformed alchemy.
+Sir Thomas Browne, too, while he denies the capacity of the astrologers
+of his day, does not venture to dispute the reality of the science. The
+idea of the souls of men passing at death to the stars, the blessedness
+of their particular sphere being assigned them according to their
+deserts (the metempsychosis of J. Reynaud), may be regarded as a
+survival of religious astrology, which, even as late as Descartes's day,
+assigned to the angels the task of moving the planets and the stars.
+Joseph de Maistre believed in comets as messengers of divine justice,
+and in animated planets, and declared that divination by astrology is
+not an absolutely chimerical science. Lastly, we may mention a few
+distinguished men who ran counter to their age in denying stellar
+influences. Aristarchus of Samos, Martianus Capella (the precursor of
+Copernicus), Cicero, Favorinus, Sextus Empiricus, Juvenal, and in a
+later age Savonarola and Pico della Mirandola, and La Fontaine, a
+contemporary of the neutral La Bruyere, were all pronounced opponents of
+astrology.
+
+In England Swift may fairly claim the credit of having given the
+death-blow to astrology by his famous squib, entitled _Prediction for
+the Year 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq._ He begins, by professing
+profound belief in the art, and next points out the vagueness and the
+absurdities of the philomaths. He then, in the happiest vein of parody,
+proceeds to show them a more excellent way:--"My first prediction is but
+a trifle, yet I mention it to show how ignorant these sottish pretenders
+to astrology are in their own concerns: it refers to Partridge the
+almanac-maker. I have consulted the star of his nativity by my own
+rules, and find he will infallibly die upon the 29th of March next about
+eleven at night of a raging fever. Therefore I advise him to consider of
+it and settle his affairs in time." Then followed a letter to a person
+of quality giving a full and particular account of the death of
+Partridge on the very day and nearly at the hour mentioned. In vain the
+wretched astrologer protested that he was alive, got a literary friend
+to write a pamphlet to prove it, and published his almanac for 1709.
+Swift, in his reply, abused him for his want of manners in giving a
+gentleman the lie, answered his arguments _seriatim_, and declared that
+the evidence of the publication of another almanac was wholly
+irrelevant, "for Gadbury, Poor Robin, Dove and Way do yearly publish
+their almanacs, though several of them have been dead since before the
+Revolution." Nevertheless a field is found even to this day for almanacs
+of a similar type, and for popular belief in them.
+
+To astrological politics we owe the theory of heaven-sent rulers,
+instruments in the hands of Providence, and saviours of society.
+Napoleon, as well as Wallenstein, believed in his star. Many passages in
+the older English poets are unintelligible without some knowledge of
+astrology. Chaucer wrote a treatise on the astrolabe; Milton constantly
+refers to planetary influences; in Shakespeare's _King Lear_, Gloucester
+and Edmund represent respectively the old and the new faith. We still
+_contemplate_ and consider; we still speak of men as _jovial_,
+_saturnine_ or _mercurial_; we still talk of the _ascendancy_ of genius,
+or a _disastrous_ defeat. In French _heur_, _malheur_, _heureux_,
+_malheureux_, are all derived from the Latin _augurium_; the expression
+_ne sous une mauvaise etoile_, born under an evil star, corresponds
+(with the change of _etoile_ into _astre_) to the word _malotru_, in
+Provencal _malastrue_; and _son etoile palit_, his star grows pale,
+belongs to the same class of illusions. The Latia _ex augurio_ appears
+in the Italian _sciagura_, _sciagurato_, softened into _sciaura_,
+_sciaurato_, wretchedness, wretched. The influence of a particular
+planet has also left traces in various languages; but the French and
+English _jovial_ and the English _saturnine_ correspond rather to the
+gods who served as types in chiromancy than to the planets which bear
+the same names. In the case of the expressions _bien_ or _mal lune_,
+well or ill mooned, _avoir un quartier de lune dans la tete_, to have
+the quarter of the moon in one's head, the German _mondsuchtig_ and the
+English _moonstruck_ or _lunatic_, the fundamental idea lies in the
+strange opinions formerly held about the moon.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the history of astrology with its affinities to
+  astronomy on the one hand, and to other forms of popular belief on the
+  other, the following works out of a large number that might be
+  mentioned are specially recommended:--A. Bouche-Leclercq,
+  _L'Astrologie grecque_ (Paris, 1899), with a full bibliography; Franz
+  Boll, _Sphaera_ (Leipzig, 1903); Franz Cumont, _Catalogus Codicum
+  Astrologorum Graecorum_ (Brussels, 1898; 7 parts published up to
+  1909); Franz Boll, "Die Erforschung der antiken Astrologie" (in _Neue
+  Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum_, Band xxi. Heft 2, pp.
+  103-126); Franz Cumont, _Les Religions orientates dans le paganisme
+  romain_ (Paris, 1907) (ch. vii. "L'Astrologie et la magie"); Alfred
+  Maury, _La Magie et l'astrologie a l'antiquite et au moyen age_ (4th
+  ed., Paris, 1877); R.C. Thompson, _Reports of the Magicians and
+  Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon_ (2 vols., London, 1900); F.X.
+  Kugler, _Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel_ (Freiburg, 1907;--to be
+  completed in 4 vols.); Ch. Virolleaud, _L'Astrologie chaldeenne_
+  (Paris, 1905--to be completed in 8 parts--transliteration and
+  translations of cuneiform texts); Jastrow, _Religion Babyloniens und
+  Assyriens_ (Parts 13 and 14); also certain sections in
+  Bouche-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquite_ (Paris,
+  1879), vol. i. pp. 205-257; in Marcellin Berthelot, _Les Origines de
+  l'alchimie_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-56; Ferd. Hofer, _Histoire de
+  l'astronomie_ (Paris, 1846), pp. 1-90; in Rudolf Wolf, _Geschichte der
+  Astronomie_ (Munich, 1877), ch. i. See also the article by Ernst Riess
+  on Astrology in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896). For modern and
+  practical astrology the following works may be found useful in
+  different ways: E.M. Bennett, _Astrology_ (New York, 1894); J.M.
+  Pfaff, _Astrologie_ (Bamberg, 1816); G. Wilde, _Chaldaean Astrology up
+  to date_ (1901); R. Garnett ("A.G. Trent"), "The Soul and the Stars,"
+  in the _University Magazine_, 1880 (reprinted in Dobson and Wilde,
+  _Natal Astrology_, 1893); Abel Haatan, _Traite d'astrologie
+  judiciaire_ (Paris, 1825); Fomalhaut, _Manuel d'astrologie spherique
+  el judiciaire_ (Paris, 1897).     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTRONOMY (from Gr. [Greek: astron], a star, and [Greek: nemein], to
+classify or arrange). The subject matter of astronomical science,
+considered in its widest range, comprehends all the matter of the
+universe which lies outside the limit of the earth's atmosphere. The
+seeming anomaly of classifying as a single branch of science all that we
+know in a field so wide, while subdividing our knowledge of things on
+our own planet into an indefinite number of separate sciences, finds its
+explanation in the impossibility of subjecting the matter of the heavens
+to that experimental scrutiny which yields such rich results when
+applied to matter which we can handle at will. Astronomy is of necessity
+a science of observation in the pursuit of which experiment can directly
+play no part. It is the most ancient of the sciences because, before the
+era of experiment, it was the branch of knowledge which could be most
+easily systematized, while the relations of its phenomena to day and
+night, times and seasons, made some knowledge of the subject a necessity
+of social life. In recent times it is among the more progressive of the
+sciences, because the new and improved methods of research now at
+command have found in its cultivation a field of practically unlimited
+extent, in which the lines of research may ultimately lead to a
+comprehension of the universe impossible of attainment before our time.
+
+The field we have defined is divisible into at least two parts, that of
+Astronomy proper, or "Astrometry," which treats of the motions, mutual
+relations and dimensions of the heavenly bodies; and that of
+Astrophysics (q.v.), which treats of their physical constitution. While
+it is true that the instruments and methods of research in these two
+branches are quite different in their details, there is so much in
+common in the fundamental principles which underlie their application,
+that it is unprofitable to consider them as completely distinct
+sciences.
+
+Speaking in the most comprehensive way, and making an exception of the
+ethereal medium (see AETHER), which, being capable of experimental
+study, is not included in the subject of astronomy, we may say that the
+great masses of matter which make up the universe are of two kinds:--(1)
+incandescent bodies, made visible to us by their own light; (2) dark
+bodies, revolving round them or round each other. These dark bodies are
+known to us in two ways: (a) by becoming visible through reflecting the
+light from incandescent bodies in their neighbourhood, (b) by their
+attraction upon such bodies.
+
+The incandescent bodies are of two classes: stars and nebulae. Among the
+stars our sun is to be included, as it has no properties which
+distinguish it from the great mass of stars except our proximity to it.
+The stars are supposed to be generally spherical, like the sun, in form,
+and to have fairly well-defined boundaries; while the nebulae are
+generally irregular in outline and have no well-defined limits. It is,
+however, probable that the one class runs into the other by
+imperceptible gradations. In the relation of the universe to us there is
+yet another separation of its bodies into two classes, one comprising
+the solar system, the other the remainder of the universe. The former
+consists of the sun and the bodies which move round it. Considered as a
+part of the universe, our solar system is insignificant in extent,
+though, for obvious reasons, great in practical importance to us, and in
+the facility with which we may gain knowledge relating to it.
+
+Referring to special articles, SOLAR SYSTEM, STAR, SUN, MOON, &c. for a
+description of the various parts of the universe, we confine ourselves,
+at present, to setting forth a few of the most general modern
+conceptions of the universe. As to extent, it may be said, in a general
+way, that while no definite limits can be set to the possible extent of
+the universe, or the distance of its farthest bodies, it seems probable,
+for reasons which will be given under STAR, that the system to which the
+stars that we see belong, is of finite extent.
+
+As the incandescent bodies of the universe are visible by their own
+light, the problem of ascertaining their existence and position is
+mainly one of seeing, and our facilities for attacking it have
+constantly increased with the improvement of our optical appliances. But
+such is not the case with the dark bodies. Such a body can be made known
+to us only when in the neighbourhood of an incandescent body; and even
+then, unless its mass or its dimensions are considerable, it will evade
+all the scrutiny of our science. The question of the possible number and
+magnitude of such bodies is therefore one that does not admit of
+accurate investigation. We can do no more than balance vague estimates
+of probability. What we do know is that these bodies vary widely in
+size. Those known to be revolving round certain of the stars are far
+larger in proportion to their central bodies than our planets are in
+respect to the sun; for were it otherwise we should never be able to
+detect their existence. At the other extreme we know that innumerable
+swarms of minute bodies, probably little more than particles, move round
+the sun in orbits of every degree of eccentricity, making themselves
+known to us only in the exceptional cases when they strike the earth's
+atmosphere. They then appear to us as "shooting stars" (see METEOR).
+
+A general idea of the relation of the solar system to the universe may
+be gained by reflecting that the average distance between any two
+neighbouring stars is several thousand times the extent of the solar
+system. Between the orbit of Neptune and the nearest star known to us is
+an immense void in which no bodies are yet known to exist, except
+comets. But although these sometimes wander to distances considerably
+beyond the orbit of Neptune, it is probable that the extent of the void
+which separates our system from the nearest star is hundreds of times
+the distance of the farthest point to which a comet ever recedes.
+
+We may conclude this brief characterization of astronomy with a
+statement and classification of the principal lines on which
+astronomical researches are now pursued. The most comprehensive problem
+before the investigator is that of the constitution of the universe. It
+is known that, while infinite diversity is found among the bodies of the
+universe, there are also common characteristics throughout its whole
+extent. In a certain sense we may say that the universe now presents
+itself to the thinking astronomer, not as a heterogeneous collection of
+bodies, but as a unified whole. The number of stars is so vast that
+statistical methods can be applied to many of the characters which they
+exhibit--their spectra, their apparent and absolute luminosity, and
+their arrangement in space. Thus has arisen in recent times what we may
+regard as a third branch of astronomical science, known as _Stellar
+Statistics_. The development of this branch has infused life and
+interest into what might a few years ago have been regarded as the most
+lifeless mass of figures possible, expressing merely the positions and
+motions of innumerable individual stars, as determined by generations of
+astronomical observers. The development of this new branch requires
+great additions to this mass, the product of perhaps centuries of work
+on the older lines of the science. To the statistician of the stars,
+catalogues of spectra, magnitude, position and proper motions are of the
+same importance that census tables are to the student of humanity. The
+measurement of the speed with which the individual stars are moving
+towards or from our system is a work of such magnitude that what has yet
+been done is scarcely more than a beginning. The discovery by improved
+optical means, and especially by photography, of new bodies of our
+system so small that they evaded all scrutiny in former times, is still
+going on, but does not at present promise any important generalization,
+unless we regard as such the conclusion that our solar system is a more
+complex organism than was formerly supposed.
+
+One characteristic of astronomy which tends to make its progress slow
+and continuous arises out of the general fact that, except in the case
+of motions to or from us, which can be determined by a single
+observation with the spectroscope, the motion of a heavenly body can be
+determined only by comparing its position at two different epochs. The
+interval required between these two epochs depends upon the speed of the
+motion. In the case of the greater number of the fixed stars this is so
+slow that centuries may have to elapse before motion can be deduced.
+Even in the case of the planets, the variations in the form and position
+of the orbits are so slow that long periods of observation are required
+for their correct determination.
+
+The process of development is also made slow and difficult by the great
+amount of labour involved in deriving the results of astronomical
+observations. When an astronomer has made an observation, it still has
+to be "reduced," and this commonly requires more labour than that
+involved in making it. But even this labour may be small compared with
+that of the theoretical astronomer, who, in the future, is to use the
+result as the raw material of his work. The computations required in
+such work are of extreme complexity, and the labour required is still
+further increased by the fact that cases are rather exceptional in which
+the results reached by one generation will not have to be revised and
+reconstructed by another; processes which may involve the repetition of
+the entire work. We may, in fact, regard the fabric of astronomical
+science as a building in the construction of which no stone can be added
+without a readjustment of some of the stones on which it has to rest.
+Thus it comes about that the observer, the computer, and the
+mathematician have in astronomical science a practically unlimited field
+for the exercise of their powers.
+
+In treating so comprehensive a subject we may naturally distinguish
+between what we know of the universe and the methods and processes by
+which that knowledge is acquired. The former may be termed general, and
+the latter practical, astronomy. When we descend more minutely into
+details we find these two branches of the subject to be connected by
+certain principles, the application of which relates to both subjects.
+Considering as general or descriptive astronomy a description of the
+universe as we now understand it, the other branches of the subject
+generally recognized are as follows:--
+
+_Geometrical_ or _Spherical Astronomy_, by the principles of which the
+positions and the motions of the heavenly bodies are defined.
+
+_Theoretical Astronomy_, which may be considered as an extension of
+geometrical astronomy and includes the determination of the positions
+and motions of the heavenly bodies by combining mathematical theory with
+observation. Modern theoretical astronomy, taken in the most limited
+sense, is based upon _Celestial Mechanics_, the science by which, using
+purely deductive mechanical methods, the laws of motion of the heavenly
+bodies are derived by deductive methods from their mutual gravitation
+towards each other.
+
+_Practical Astronomy_, which comprises a description of the instruments
+used in astronomical observation, and of the principles and methods
+underlying their application.
+
+
+_Spherical or Geometrical Astronomy._
+
+In astronomy, as in analytical geometry, the position of a point is
+defined by stating its distance and its direction from a point of
+reference taken as known. The numerical quantities by which the distance
+and direction, and therefore the position, are defined, are termed
+_co-ordinates_ of the point. The latter are measured or defined with
+regard to a fixed system of lines and planes, which form the basis of
+the system.
+
+  The following are the fundamental concepts of such a system.
+
+  (a) An origin or point of reference. The points most generally taken
+  for this purpose in astronomical practice are the following:--
+
+  (1) The position of a point of observation on the earth's surface. We
+  conceive its position to be that occupied by an observer. The position
+  of a heavenly body is then defined by its direction and distance from
+  the supposed observer.
+
+  (2) The centre of the earth. This point, though it can never be
+  occupied by an observer, is used because the positions of the heavenly
+  bodies in relation to it are more readily computed than they can be
+  from a point on the earth's surface.
+
+  (3) The centre of the sun.
+
+  (4) In addition to these three most usual points, we may, of course,
+  take the centre of a planet or that of a star in order to define the
+  position of bodies in their respective neighbourhoods.
+
+  Co-ordinates referred to a point of observation as the origin are
+  termed "apparent," those referred to the centre of the earth are
+  "geocentric," those referred to the centre of the sun, "heliocentric."
+
+  (b) The next concept of the system is a fundamental plane, regarded as
+  fixed, passing through the origin. In connexion with it is an axis
+  perpendicular to it, also passing through the origin. We may consider
+  the axis and the plane as a single concept, the axis determining the
+  plane, or the plane the axis. The fundamental concepts of this class
+  most in use are:--
+
+  (1) When a point on the earth's surface is taken as the origin, the
+  fundamental axis may be the direction of gravity at that point. This
+  direction defines the vertical line. The fundamental plane which it
+  determines is horizontal and is termed the plane of the horizon. Such
+  a plane is realized in the surface of a liquid, a basin of
+  quicksilver, for example.
+
+  (2) When the centre of the earth is taken as origin, the most natural
+  fundamental axis is that of the earth's rotation. This axis cuts the
+  earth's surface at the North and South Poles. The fundamental plane
+  perpendicular to it is the plane of the equator. This plane intersects
+  the earth's surface in the terrestrial equator. Co-ordinates referred
+  to this system are termed equatorial. A system of equatorial
+  co-ordinates may also be used when the origin is on the earth's
+  surface. The fundamental axis, instead of being the earth's axis
+  itself, is then a line parallel to it, and the fundamental plane is
+  the plane passing through the point, and parallel to the plane of the
+  equator.
+
+  (3) In the system of heliocentric co-ordinates, the plane in which the
+  earth moves round the sun, which is the plane of the ecliptic, is
+  taken as the fundamental one. The axis of the ecliptic is a line
+  perpendicular to this plane.
+
+  (c) The third concept necessary to complete the system is a fixed line
+  passing through the origin, and lying in the fundamental plane. This
+  line defines an initial direction from which other directions are
+  counted.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  The geometrical concepts just defined are shown in fig. 1. Here O is
+  the origin, whatever point it may be; OZ is the fundamental axis
+  passing through it. In order to represent in the figure the position
+  of the fundamental plane, we conceive a circle to be drawn round O,
+  lying in that plane. This circle, projected in perspective as an
+  ellipse, is shown in the figure. OX is the fixed initial line by which
+  directions are to be defined.
+
+  Now let P be any point in space, say the centre of a heavenly body.
+  Conceive a perpendicular PQ to be dropped from this point on the
+  fundamental plane, meeting the latter in the point Q; PQ will then be
+  parallel to OZ. The co-ordinates of P will then be the following three
+  quantities:--
+
+  (1) The length of the line OP, or the distance of the body from the
+  origin, which distance is called the radius vector of the body.
+
+  (2) The angle XOQ which the projection of the radius vector upon the
+  fundamental plane makes with the initial line OX. This angle is called
+  the Longitude, Right Ascension or Azimuth of the body, in the various
+  systems of co-ordinates. We may term it in a general way the
+  longitudinal co-ordinate.
+
+  (3) The angle QOP, which the radius vector makes with the fundamental
+  plane. This we may call the latitudinal co-ordinate. Instead of it is
+  frequently used the complementary angle ZOP, known as the polar
+  distance of the body. Since ZOQ is a right angle, it follows that the
+  sum of the polar distance and the latitudinal co-ordinates is always
+  90 deg. Either may be used for astronomical purposes.
+
+  It is readily seen that the position of a heavenly body is completely
+  defined when these co-ordinates are given.
+
+  One of the systems of co-ordinates is familiar to every one, and may
+  be used as a general illustration of the method. It is our system of
+  defining the position of a point on the earth's surface by its
+  latitude and longitude. Regarding O (fig. 1) as the centre of the
+  earth, and P as a point on the earth's surface, a city for example, it
+  will be seen that OZ being the earth's axis, the circle MN will be the
+  equator. The initial line OX then passes through the foot of the
+  perpendicular dropped from Greenwich upon the plane of the equator,
+  and meets the surface at N. The angle QOP is the latitude of the place
+  and the angle NOQ its longitude. The longitudes and latitudes thus
+  defined are geocentric, and the latitude is slightly different from
+  that in ordinary use for geographic purposes. The difference arises
+  from the oblateness of the earth, and need not be considered here.
+
+  The conception of the co-ordinates we have defined is facilitated by
+  introducing that of the celestial sphere. This conception is embodied
+  in our idea of the vault of heaven, or of the sky. Taking as origin
+  the position of an observer, the direction of a heavenly body is
+  defined by the point in which he sees it in the sky; that is to say,
+  on the celestial sphere. Imagining, as we may well do, that the radius
+  of this sphere is infinite--then every direction, whatever the origin,
+  may be represented by a point on its surface. Take for example the
+  vertical line which is embodied in the direction of the plumb line.
+  This line, extended upwards, meets the celestial sphere in the zenith.
+  The earth's axis, continued indefinitely upwards, meets the sphere in
+  a point called the Celestial Pole. This point in our middle latitudes
+  is between the zenith and the north horizon, near a certain star of
+  the second magnitude familiarly known as the Pole Star. As the earth
+  revolves from west to east the celestial sphere appears to us to
+  revolve in the opposite direction, turning on the line joining the
+  Celestial Poles as on a pivot.
+
+  As we conceive of the sky, it does not consist of an entire sphere but
+  only as a hemisphere bounded by the horizon. But we have no difficulty
+  in extending the conception below the horizon, so that the earth with
+  everything upon it is in the centre of a complete sphere. The two
+  parts of this sphere are the visible hemisphere, which is above the
+  horizon, and the invisible, which is below it. Then the plumb line not
+  only defines the zenith as already shown, but in a downward direction
+  it defines the nadir, which is the point of the sphere directly below
+  our feet. On the side of this sphere opposite to the North Celestial
+  is the South Pole, invisible in the Northern Terrestrial Hemisphere
+  but visible in the Southern one.
+
+  The relation of geocentric to apparent co-ordinates depends upon the
+  latitude of the observer. The changes which the aspect of the heaven
+  undergoes, as we travel North and South, are so well known that they
+  need not be described in detail here; but a general statement of them
+  will give a luminous idea of the geometrical co-ordinates we have
+  described. Imagine an observer starting from the North Pole to travel
+  towards the equator, carrying his zenith with him. When at the pole
+  his zenith coincides with the celestial pole, and as the earth
+  revolves on its axis, the heavenly bodies perform their apparent
+  diurnal revolutions in horizontal circles round the zenith. As he
+  travels South, his zenith moves along the celestial sphere, and the
+  circles of diurnal rotation become oblique to the horizon. The
+  obliquity continually increases until the observer reaches the
+  equator. His zenith is then in the equator and the celestial poles are
+  in the North and South horizon respectively. The circles in which the
+  heavenly bodies appear to revolve are then vertical. Continuing his
+  journey towards the south, the north celestial pole sinks below the
+  horizon; the south celestial pole rises above it; or to speak more
+  exactly, the zenith of the observer approaches that pole. The circles
+  of diurnal revolution again become oblique. Finally, at the south pole
+  the circles of diurnal revolution are again apparently horizontal, but
+  are described in a direction apparently (but not really) the reverse
+  of that near the north pole. The reader who will trace out these
+  successive concepts and study the results of his changing positions
+  will readily acquire the notions which it is our subject to define.
+
+  We have next to point out the relation of the co-ordinates we have
+  described to the annual motion of the earth around the sun. In
+  consequence of this motion the sun appears to us to describe annually
+  a great circle, called the ecliptic, round the celestial sphere, among
+  the stars, with a nearly uniform motion, of somewhat less than 1 deg.
+  in a day. Were the stars visible in the daytime in the immediate
+  neighbourhood of the sun, this motion could be traced from day to day.
+  The ecliptic intersects the celestial equator at two opposite points,
+  the equinoxes, at an angle of 23 deg. 27'. The vernal equinox is taken
+  as the initial point on the sphere from which co-ordinates are
+  measured in the equatorial and ecliptic systems. Referring to fig. 1,
+  the initial line OX is defined as directed toward the vernal equinox,
+  at which point it intersects the celestial sphere.
+
+  The following is an enumeration of the co-ordinates which we have
+  described in the three systems:--
+
+      APPARENT SYSTEM.
+
+    Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Altitude or Zenith Distance.
+    Longitudinal    "                    Azimuth.
+
+      EQUATORIAL SYSTEM.
+
+    Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Declination or Polar Distance.
+    Longitudinal    "                    Right Ascension.
+
+      ECLIPTIC SYSTEM.
+
+    Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Latitude or Ecliptic Polar Distance.
+    Longitudinal    "                    Longitude.
+
+
+  _Relation of the Diurnal Motion to Spherical Co-ordinates._--The
+  vertical line at any place being the fundamental axis of the apparent
+  system of co-ordinates, this system rotates with the earth, and so
+  seems to us as fixed. The other two systems, including the vernal
+  equinox, are fixed on the celestial sphere, and so seem to us to
+  perform a diurnal revolution from east towards west. Regarding the
+  period of the revolution as 24 hours, the apparent motion goes on at
+  the rate of 15 deg. per hour. Here we have to make a distinction of
+  fundamental importance between the diurnal motions of the sun and of
+  the stars. Owing to the unceasing apparent motion of the sun toward
+  the east, the interval between two passages of the same star over the
+  meridian is nearly four minutes less than the interval between
+  consecutive passages of the sun. The latter is the measure of the day
+  as used in civil life. In astronomical practice is introduced a day,
+  termed "sidereal," determined, not by the diurnal revolution of the
+  sun, but of the stars. The year, which comprises 365.25 solar days,
+  contains 366.25 sidereal days. The latter are divided into sidereal
+  hours, minutes and seconds as the solar day is. The conception of a
+  revolution through 360 deg. in 24 hours is applicable to each case.
+  The sun apparently moves at the rate of 15 deg. in a solar hour; the
+  stars at the rate of 15 deg. in a sidereal hour. The latter motion
+  leads to the use, in astronomical practice, of time instead of angle,
+  as the unit in which the right ascensions are to be expressed.
+  Considering the position of the vernal equinox, and also of a star on
+  the celestial sphere, it will be seen that the interval between the
+  transits of these two points across the meridian may be used to
+  measure the right ascension of a star, since the latter amounts to 15
+  deg. for every sidereal hour of this interval. For example, if the
+  right ascension of a star is exactly 15 deg., it will pass the
+  meridian one sidereal hour after the vernal equinox. For the relations
+  thus arising, and their practical applications, see TIME, MEASUREMENT
+  OF.
+
+
+_Theoretical Astronomy._
+
+Theoretical Astronomy is that branch of the science which, making use of
+the results of astronomical observations as they are supplied by the
+practical astronomer, investigates the motions of the heavenly bodies.
+In its most important features it is an offshoot of celestial mechanics,
+between which and theoretical astronomy no sharp dividing line can be
+drawn. While it is true that the one is concerned altogether with
+general theories, it is also true that these theories require
+developments and modifications to apply them to the numberless problems
+of astronomy, which we may place in either class.
+
+  Among the problems of theoretical astronomy we may assign the first
+  place to the determination of orbits (q.v.), which is auxiliary to the
+  prediction of the apparent motions of a planet, satellite or star. The
+  computations involved in the process, while simple in some cases, are
+  extremely complex in others. The orbit of a newly-discovered planet or
+  comet may be computed from three complete observations by well-known
+  methods in a single day. From the resulting elements of the orbit the
+  positions of the body from day to day may be computed and tabulated in
+  an ephemeris for the use of observers. But when definitive results as
+  to the orbits are required, it is necessary to compute the
+  perturbations produced by such of the major planets as have affected
+  the motions of the body. With this complicated process is associated
+  that of combining numerous observations with a view of obtaining the
+  best definitive result. Speaking in a general way, we may say that
+  computations pertaining to the orbital revolutions of double stars, as
+  well as the bodies of our solar system, are to a greater or less
+  extent of the classes we have described. The principal modification is
+  that, up to the present time, stellar astronomy has not advanced so
+  far that a computation of the perturbations in each case of a system
+  of stars is either necessary or possible, except in exceptional cases.
+
+
+_Celestial Mechanics_.
+
+Celestial Mechanics is, strictly speaking, that branch of applied
+mathematics which, by deductive processes, derives the laws of motion of
+the heavenly bodies from their gravitation towards each other, or from
+the mutual action of the parts which form them. The science had its
+origin in the demonstration by Sir Isaac Newton that Kepler's three laws
+of planetary motion, and the law of gravitation, in the case of two
+bodies, could be mutually derived from each other. A body can move round
+the sun in an elliptic orbit having the sun in its focus, and describing
+equal areas in equal times, only under the influence of a force directed
+towards the sun, and varying inversely as the square of the distance
+from it. Conversely, assuming this law of attraction, it can be shown
+that the planets will move according to Kepler's laws.
+
+Thus celestial mechanics may be said to have begun with Newton's
+_Principia_. The development of the science by the successors of Newton,
+especially Laplace and Lagrange, may be classed among the most striking
+achievements of the human intellect. The precision with which the path
+of an eclipse is laid down years in advance cannot but imbue the minds
+of men with a high sense of the perfection reached by astronomical
+theories; and the discovery, by purely mathematical processes, of the
+changes which the orbits and motions of the planets are to undergo
+through future ages is more impressive the more fully one apprehends the
+nature of the problem. The purpose of the present article is to convey a
+general idea of the methods by which the results of celestial mechanics
+are reached, without entering into those technical details which can be
+followed only by a trained mathematician. It must be admitted that any
+intelligent comprehension of the subject requires at least a grasp of
+the fundamental conceptions of analytical geometry and the infinitesimal
+calculus, such as only one with some training in these subjects can be
+expected to have. This being assumed, the hope of the writer is that the
+exposition will afford the student an insight into the theory which may
+facilitate his orientation, and convey to the general reader with a
+certain amount of mathematical training a clear idea of the methods by
+which conclusions relating to it are drawn. The non-mathematical reader
+may possibly be able to gain some general idea, though vague, of the
+significance of the subject.
+
+  The fundamental hypothesis of the science assumes a system of bodies
+  in motion, of which the sun and planets may be taken as examples, and
+  of which each separate body is attracted toward all the others
+  according to the law of Newton. The motion of each body is then
+  expressed in the first place by Newton's three laws of motion (see
+  MOTION, LAWS OF, and MECHANICS). The first step in the process shows
+  in a striking way the perfection of the analytic method. The
+  conception of force is, so to speak, eliminated from the conditions of
+  the problem, which is reduced to one of pure kinematics. At the
+  outset, the position of each body, considered as a material particle,
+  is defined by reference to a system of co-ordinate axes, and not by
+  any verbal description. Differential equations which express the
+  changes of the co-ordinates are then constructed. The process of
+  discovering the laws of motion of the particle then consists in the
+  integration of these equations. Such equations can be formed for a
+  system of any number of bodies, but the process of integration in a
+  rigorous form is possible only to a limited extent or in special
+  cases.
+
+  The problems to be treated are of two classes. In one, the bodies are
+  regarded as material particles, no account being taken of their
+  dimensions. The earth, for example, may be regarded as a particle
+  attracted by another more massive particle, the sun. In the other
+  class of problems, the relative motion of the different parts of the
+  separate bodies is considered; for example, the rotation of the earth
+  on its axis, and the consequences of the fact that those parts of a
+  body which are nearer to another body are more strongly attracted by
+  it. Beginning with the first branch of the subject, the fundamental
+  ideas which it is our purpose to convey are embodied in the simple
+  case of only two bodies, which we may call the sun and a planet. In
+  this case the two bodies really revolve round their common centre of
+  gravity; but a very slight modification of the equations of motion
+  reduces them to the relative motion of the planet round the sun,
+  regarding the moving centre of the latter as the origin of
+  co-ordinates. The motion of this centre, which arises from the
+  attraction of the planet on the sun, need not be considered.
+
+  In the actual problems of celestial mechanics three co-ordinates
+  necessarily enter, leading to three differential equations and six
+  equations of solution. But the general principles of the problem are
+  completely exemplified with only two bodies, in which case the motion
+  takes place in a fixed plane. By taking this plane, which is that of
+  the orbit in which the planet performs its revolution, as the plane of
+  xy, we have only two co-ordinates to consider. Let us use the
+  following notation:
+
+  x, y, the co-ordinates of the planet relative to the sun as the origin.
+
+  M, m, the masses of the attracting bodies, sun and planet.
+
+  r, the distance apart of the two bodies, or the radius vector of m
+  relative to M. This last quantity is analytically defined by the
+  equation--
+
+    r^2 = x^2 + y^2
+
+  t, the time, reckoned from any epoch we choose.
+
+  The differential equations which completely determine the changes in
+  the co-ordinates x and y, or the motion of m relative to M, are:--
+
+    d^2x     (M + m)x
+    ---- = - --------
+    dt^2       r^3
+
+    d^2y     (M + m)y
+    ---- = - --------
+    dt^2       r^3
+
+  These formulae are worthy of special attention. They are the
+  expression in the language of mathematics of Newton's first two laws
+  of motion. Their statement in this language may be regarded as
+  perfect, because it completely and unambiguously expresses the naked
+  phenomena of the motion. The equations do this without expressing any
+  conception, such as that of force, not associated with the actual
+  phenomena. Moreover, as a third advantage, these expressions are
+  entirely free from those difficulties and ambiguities which are met
+  with in every attempt to express the laws of motion in ordinary
+  language. They afford yet another great advantage in that the
+  derivation of the results requires only the analytic operations of the
+  infinitesimal calculus.
+
+  The power and spirit of the analytic method will be appreciated by
+  showing how it expresses the relations of motion as they were
+  conceived geometrically by Newton and Kepler. It is quite evident that
+  Kepler's laws do not in themselves enable us to determine the actual
+  motion of the planets. We must have, in addition, in the case of each
+  special planet, certain specific facts, viz. the axes and eccentricity
+  of the ellipse, and the position of the plane in which it lies.
+  Besides these, we must have given the position of the planet in the
+  orbit at some specified moment. Having these data, the position of the
+  planet at any other time may be geometrically constructed by Kepler's
+  laws. The third law enables us to compute the time taken by the radius
+  vector to sweep over the entire area of the orbit, which is identical
+  with the time of revolution. The problem of constructing successive
+  radii vectores, the angles of which are measured off from the radius
+  vector of the body at the original given position, is then a geometric
+  one, known as Kepler's problem.
+
+  In the analytic process these specific data, called elements of the
+  orbit, appear as arbitrary constants, introduced by the process of
+  integration. In a case like the present one, where there are two
+  differential equations of the second order, there will be four such
+  constants. The result of the integration is that the co-ordinates x
+  and y and their derivatives as to the time, which express the
+  position, direction of motion and speed of the planet at any moment,
+  are found as functions of the four constants and of the time. Putting
+
+    a, b, c, d,
+
+  for the constants, the general form of the solution will be
+
+    x = f1(a, b, c, d, t)
+    y = f2(a, b, c, d, t)                (2)
+
+  From these may be derived by differentiation as to t the velocities
+
+    dx/dt = f'1(a, b, c, d, t) = x'
+    dy/dt = f'2(a, b, c, d, t) = y'      (3)
+
+  The symbols x' and y' are used for brevity to mean the velocities
+  expressed by the differential coefficients. The arbitrary constants,
+  a, b, c and d, are the elements of the orbit, or any quantities from
+  which these elements can be obtained. We note that, in the actual
+  process of integration, no geometric construction need enter.
+
+  [Illustration: fig. 2.]
+
+  Let us next consider the problem in another form. Conceive that
+  instead of the orbit of the planet, there is given a position P (fig.
+  2), through which the planet passed at an assigned moment, with a
+  given velocity, and in a given direction, represented by the
+  arrowhead. Logically these data completely determine the orbit in
+  which the planet shall move, because there is only one such orbit
+  passing through P, a planet moving in which would have the given
+  speed. It follows that the elements of the orbit admit of
+  determination when the co-ordinates of the planet at an assigned
+  moment and their derivatives as to time are given. Analytically the
+  elements are determined from these data by solving the four equations
+  just given, regarding a, b, c and d as unknown quantities, and x, y,
+  x', y' and t as given quantities. The solution of these equations
+  would lead to expressions of the form
+
+    a = [phi]1(x, y, x', y', t)
+    b = [phi]2(x, y, x', y', t)          (4)
+      &c.  &c.
+
+  one for each of the elements.
+
+  The general equations expressing the motion of a planet considered as
+  a material particle round a centre of attraction lead to theorems the
+  more interesting of which will now be enunciated.
+
+  (1) The motion of such a planet may take place not only in an ellipse
+  but in any curve of the second order; an ellipse, hyperbola, or
+  parabola, the latter being the bounding curve between the other two. A
+  body moving in a parabola or hyperbola would recede indefinitely from
+  its centre of motion and never return to it. The ellipse is therefore
+  the only closed orbit.
+
+  (2) The motion takes place in accord with Kepler's laws, enunciated
+  elsewhere.
+
+  (3) _Whewell's theorem_: if a point R be taken at a distance from the
+  sun equal to the major axis of the orbit of a planet and, therefore,
+  at double the mean distance of the planet, the speed of the latter at
+  any point is equal to the speed which a body would acquire by falling
+  from the point R to the actual position of the planet. The speed of
+  the latter may, therefore, be expressed as a function of its radius
+  vector at the moment and of the major axis of its orbit without
+  introducing any other elements into the expression. Another corollary
+  is that in the case of a body moving in a parabolic orbit the velocity
+  at any moment is that which would be acquired by the body in falling
+  from an infinite distance to the place it occupies at the moment.
+
+  (4) If a number of bodies are projected from any point in space with
+  the same velocity, but in various directions, and subjected only to
+  the attraction of the sun, they will all return to the point of
+  projection at the same moment, although the orbits in which they move
+  may be ever so different.
+
+  (5) At each distance from the sun there is a certain velocity which a
+  body would have if it moved in a circular orbit at that distance. If
+  projected with this velocity in any direction the point of projection
+  will be at the end of the minor axis of the orbit, because this is the
+  only point of an ellipse of which the distance from the focus is equal
+  to the semi-major axis of the curve, and therefore the only point at
+  which the distance of the body from the sun is equal to its mean
+  distance.
+
+  (6) The relation between the periodic time of a planet and its mean
+  distance, approximately expressed by Kepler's third law, follows very
+  simply from the laws of centrifugal force. It is an elementary
+  principle of mechanics that this force varies directly as the product
+  of the distance of the moving body from the centre of motion into the
+  square of its angular velocity. When bodies revolve at different
+  distances around a centre, their velocities must be such that the
+  centrifugal force of each shall be balanced by the attraction of the
+  central mass, and therefore vary inversely as the square of the
+  distance. If M is the central mass, n the angular velocity, and a the
+  distance, the balance of the two forces is expressed by the equation
+
+    an^2 = M/a^2,
+
+  whence a^3n^2 = M, a constant.
+
+  The periodic time varying inversely as n, this equation expresses
+  Kepler's third law. This reasoning tacitly supposes the orbit to be a
+  circle of radius a, and the mass of the planet to be negligible. The
+  rigorous relation is expressed by a slight modification of the law.
+  Putting M and m for the respective masses of the sun and planet, a for
+  the semi-major axis of the orbit, and n for the mean angular motion in
+  unit of time, the relation then is
+
+    a^3n^2 = M + m.
+
+  What is noteworthy in this theorem is that this relation depends only
+  on the sum of the masses. It follows, therefore, that were any portion
+  of the mass of the sun taken from it, and added to the planet, the
+  relation would be unchanged. Kepler's third law therefore expresses
+  the fact that the mass of the sun is the same for all the planets, and
+  deviates from the truth only to the extent that the masses of the
+  latter differ from each other by quantities which are only a small
+  fraction of the mass of the sun.
+
+  _Problem of Three Bodies._--As soon as the general law of gravitation
+  was fully apprehended, it became evident that, owing to the attraction
+  of each planet upon all the others, the actual motion of the planets
+  must deviate from their motion in an ellipse according to Kepler's
+  laws. In the _Principia_ Newton made several investigations to
+  determine the effects of these actions; but the geometrical method
+  which he employed could lead only to rude approximations. When the
+  subject was taken up by the continental mathematicians, using the
+  analytical method, the question naturally arose whether the motions of
+  three bodies under their mutual attraction could not be determined
+  with a degree of rigour approximating to that with which Newton had
+  solved the problem of two bodies. Thus arose the celebrated "problem
+  of three bodies." Investigation soon showed that certain integrals
+  expressing relations between the motions not only of three but of any
+  number of bodies could be found. These were:--
+
+  First, the law of the conservation of the centre of gravity. This
+  expresses the general fact that whatever be the number of the bodies
+  which act upon each other, their motions are so related that the
+  centre of gravity of the entire system moves in a straight line with a
+  constant velocity. This is expressed in three equations, one for each
+  of the three rectangular co-ordinates.
+
+  Secondly, the law of conservation of areas. This is an extension of
+  Kepler's second law. Taking as the radius vector of each body the line
+  from the body to the common centre of gravity of all, the sum of the
+  products formed by multiplying each area described, by the mass of the
+  body, remains a constant. In the language of theoretical mechanics,
+  the moment of momentum of the entire system is a constant quantity.
+  This law is also expressed in three equations, one for each of the
+  three planes on which the areas are projected.
+
+  Thirdly, the entire _vis viva_ of the system or, as it is now called,
+  the energy, which is obtained by multiplying the mass of each body
+  into half the square of its velocity, is equal to the sum of the
+  quotients formed by dividing the product of every pair of the masses,
+  taken two and two, by their distance apart, with the addition of a
+  constant depending on the original conditions of the system. In the
+  language of algebra putting m1, m2, m3, &c. for the masses of the
+  bodies, r_1.2, r_1.3, r_2.3, &c. for their mutual distances apart;
+  v1, v2, v3, &c., for the velocities with which they are moving at any
+  moment; these quantities will continually satisfy the equation
+
+                                      m1m2    m1m3    m2m3
+    1/2(m1[v1]^2 + m2[v2]^2 + ...) = ----- + ----- + ----- + ... + a constant.
+                                     r_1.2   r_1.3   r_2.3
+
+  The theorems of motion just cited are expressed by seven integrals, or
+  equations expressing a law that certain functions of the variables and
+  of the time remain constant. It is remarkable that although the seven
+  integrals were found almost from the beginning of the investigation,
+  no others have since been added; and indeed it has recently been shown
+  that no others exist that can be expressed in an algebraic form. In
+  the case of three bodies these do not suffice completely to define the
+  motion. In this case, the problem can be attacked only by methods of
+  approximation, devised so as to meet the special conditions of each
+  case. The special conditions which obtain in the solar system are such
+  as to make the necessary approximation theoretically possible however
+  complex the process may be. These conditions are:--(1) The smallness
+  of the masses of the planets in comparison with that of the sun, in
+  consequence of which the orbit of each planet deviates but slightly
+  from an ellipse during any one revolution; (2) the fact that the
+  orbits of the planets are nearly circular, and the planes of their
+  orbits but slightly inclined to each other. The result of these
+  conditions is that all the quantities required admit of development in
+  series proceeding according to the powers of the eccentricities and
+  inclinations of the orbits, and the ratio of the masses of the several
+  planets to the mass of the sun.
+
+  _Perturbations of the Planets._--Kepler's laws do not completely
+  express the motion of a planet around a central body, except when no
+  force but the mutual attraction of the two bodies comes into play.
+  When one or more other bodies form a part of the system, their action
+  produces deviations from the elliptic motion, which are called
+  _perturbations_. The problem of determining the perturbations of the
+  heavenly bodies is perhaps the most complicated with which the
+  mathematical astronomer has to grapple; and the forms under which it
+  has to be studied are so numerous that they cannot be easily arranged
+  under any one head. But there is one conception of perturbations of
+  such generality and elegance that it forms the common base of all
+  those methods of determining these deviations which have high
+  scientific interest. This conception is embodied in the method of
+  "variation of elements," originally due to J.L. Lagrange. The simplest
+  method of presenting it starts with the second view of the elliptic
+  motion already set forth.
+
+  We have shown that, when the position of a planet and the direction
+  and speed of its motion at a certain instant are given, the elements
+  of the orbit can be determined. We have supposed this to be done at a
+  certain point P of the orbit, the direction and speed being expressed
+  by the variables x, y, x' and y'. Now, consider the values of these
+  same variables expressing the position of the planet at a second point
+  Q, and the speed with which it passes that point. With this position
+  and speed the elements of the orbit can again be determined. Since the
+  orbit is unchanged so long as no disturbing force acts, it follows
+  that the elements determined by means of the two sets of values of the
+  variables are in this case the same. In a word, although the position
+  and speed of the planet and the direction of its motion are constantly
+  changing, the values of the elements determined from these variables
+  remain constant. This fact is fully expressed by the equations (4)
+  where we have constants on one side of the equation equal to functions
+  of the variables on the other. Functions of the variables possessing
+  this property of remaining constant are termed _integrals_.
+
+  Now let the planet be subjected to any force additional to that of the
+  sun's attraction,--say to the attraction of another planet. To fix the
+  ideas let us suppose that the additional attraction is only an impulse
+  received at the moment of passing the point P. The first effect will
+  evidently be to change either the velocity or the direction in which
+  the planet is moving at the moment, or both. If, with the changed
+  velocity we again compute the elements they will be different from the
+  former elements. But, if the impulse is not repeated, these new
+  elements will again remain invariable. If repeated, the second impulse
+  will again change the elements, and so on indefinitely. It follows
+  that, if we go on computing the elements a, b, c, d from the actual
+  values of x, y, x' and y', at each moment when the planet is subject
+  to the attraction of another body, they will no longer be invariable,
+  but will slowly vary from day to day and year to year. These ever
+  varying elements represent an ever varying elliptic orbit,--not an
+  orbit which the planet actually describes through its whole course,
+  but an ideal one in which it is moving at each instant, and which
+  continually adjusts itself to the actual motion of the planet at the
+  instant. This is called the _osculating_ orbit.
+
+  The essential principle of Lagrange's elegant method consists in
+  determining the variations of this osculating ellipse, the
+  co-ordinates and velocities of the planet being ignored in the
+  determination. This may be done because, since the elements and
+  co-ordinates completely determine each other, we may concentrate our
+  attention on either, ignoring the other. The reason for taking the
+  elements as the variables is that they vary very slowly, a property
+  which facilitates their determination, since the variations may be
+  treated as small quantities, of which the squares and products may be
+  neglected in a first solution. In a second solution the squares and
+  products may be taken account of, and so on as far as necessary.
+
+  If the problem is viewed from a synthetic point of view, the stages of
+  its solution are as follows. We first conceive of the planets as
+  moving in invariable elliptic orbits, and thus obtain approximate
+  expressions for their positions at any moment. With these expressions
+  we express their mutual action, or their pull upon each other at any
+  and every moment. This pull determines the variations of the ideal
+  elements. Knowing these variations it becomes possible to represent by
+  integration the value of the elements as algebraic expressions
+  containing the time, and the elements with which we started. But the
+  variations thus determined will not be rigorously exact, because the
+  pull from which they arise has been determined on the supposition that
+  the planets are moving in unvarying orbits, whereas the actual pull
+  depends on the actual position of the planets. Another approximation
+  is, therefore, to be made, when necessary, by correcting the
+  expression of the pull through taking account of the variations of the
+  elements already determined, which will give a yet nearer
+  approximation to the truth. In theory these successive approximations
+  may be carried as far as we please, but in practice the labour of
+  executing each approximation is so great that we are obliged to stop
+  when the solution is so near the truth that the outstanding error is
+  less than that of the best observations. Even this degree of precision
+  may be impracticable in the more complex cases.
+
+  The results which are required to compare with observations are not
+  merely the elements, but the co-ordinates. When the varying elements
+  are known these are computed by the equations (2) because, from the
+  nature of the algebraic relations, the slowly varying elements are
+  continuously determined by the equations (4), which express the same
+  relations between the elements and the variables as do the equations
+  (2) and (3). This method is, therefore, in form at least, completely
+  rigorous. There are some cases in which it may be applied unchanged.
+  But commonly it proves to be extremely long and cumbrous, and
+  modifications have to be resorted to. Of these modifications the most
+  valuable is one conceived by P.A. Hansen. A certain mean elliptic
+  orbit, as near as possible to the actual varying orbit of the planet,
+  is taken. In this orbit a certain fictitious planet is supposed to
+  move according to the law of elliptic motion. Comparing the longitudes
+  of the actual and the fictitious planet the former will sometimes be
+  ahead of the latter and sometimes behind it. But in every case, if at
+  a certain time t, the actual planet has a certain longitude, it is
+  certain that at a very short interval dt before or after t, the
+  fictitious planet will have this same longitude. What Hansen's method
+  does is to determine a correction dt such that, being applied to the
+  actual time t, the longitude of the fictitious planet computed for the
+  time t + dt, will give the longitude of the true planet at the time t.
+  By a number of ingenious devices Hansen developed methods by which dt
+  could be determined. The computations are, as a general rule, simpler,
+  and the algebraic expressions less complex, than when the computations
+  of the longitude itself are calculated. Although the longitude of the
+  fictitious planet at the fictitious time is then equal to that of the
+  true planet at the true time, their radii vectores will not be
+  strictly equal. Hansen, therefore, shows how the radius vector is
+  corrected so as to give that of the true planet.
+
+  In all that precedes we have considered only two variables as
+  determining the position of the planet, the latter being supposed to
+  move in a plane. Although this is true when there are any number of
+  bodies moving in the same plane, the fact is that the planets move in
+  slightly different planes. Hence the position of the plane of the
+  orbit of each planet is continually changing in consequence of their
+  mutual action. The problem of determining the changes is, however,
+  simpler than others in perturbations. The method is again that of the
+  variation of elements. The position and velocity being given in all
+  three co-ordinates, a certain osculating plane is determined for each
+  instant in which the planet is moving at that instant. This plane
+  remains invariable so long as no third body acts; when it does act the
+  position of the plane changes very slowly, continually rotating round
+  the radius vector of the planet as an instantaneous axis of rotation.
+
+  _Secular and Periodic Variations._--When, following the preceding
+  method, the variations of the elements are expressed in terms of the
+  time, they are found to be of two classes, _periodic_ and _secular_.
+  The first depend on the mean longitudes of the planets, and always
+  tend back to their original values when the planets return to their
+  original positions in their orbits. The others are, at least through
+  long periods of time, continually progressive.
+
+  A luminous idea of the nature of these two classes of variation may be
+  gained by conceiving of the motion of a ship, floating on an ocean
+  affected by a long ground swell. In consequence of the swell, the ship
+  is continually pitching in a somewhat irregular way, the oscillations
+  up and down being sometimes great and sometimes small. An observer on
+  board of her would notice no motion except this. But, suppose the tide
+  to be rising. Then, by continued observation, extended over an hour or
+  more, it will be found that, in the general average, the ship is
+  gradually rising, so that two different kinds of motion are
+  superimposed on each other. The effect of the rising tide is in the
+  nature of a secular variation, while the pitching is periodic.
+
+  But the analogy does not end here. If the progressive rise of the ship
+  be watched for six hours or more, it will be found gradually to cease
+  and reverse its direction. That is to say, making abstraction of the
+  pitching, the ship is slowly rising and falling in a total period of
+  nearly twelve hours, while superimposed upon this slow motion is a
+  more rapid motion due to the waves. It is thus with the motions of the
+  planets going through their revolutions. Each orbit continually
+  changes its form and position, sometimes in one direction and
+  sometimes in another. But when these changes are averaged through
+  years and centuries it is found that the average orbit has a secular
+  variation which, for a number of centuries, may appear as a very slow
+  progressive change in one direction only. But when this change is more
+  fully investigated, it is found to be really periodic, so that after
+  thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of thousands of years, its
+  direction will be reversed and so on continually, like the rising and
+  falling tide. The orbits thus present themselves to us in the words of
+  a distinguished writer as "Great clocks of eternity which beat ages as
+  ours beat seconds."
+
+  The periodic variations can be represented algebraically as the
+  resultant of a series of harmonic motions in the following way: Let L
+  be an angle which is increasing uniformly with the time, and let n be
+  its rate of increase. We put L0 for its value at the moment from which
+  the time is reckoned. The general expression for the angle will then
+  be
+
+    L = nt + L0.
+
+  Such an angle continually goes through the round of 360 deg. in a
+  definite period. For example, if the daily motion is 5 deg., and we
+  take the day as the unit of time, the round will be completed in 72
+  days, and the angle will continually go through the value which it had
+  72 days before. Let us now consider an equation of the form
+
+    U = a sin (nt + L0).
+
+  The value of U will continually oscillate between the extreme values
+  +a and -a, going through a series of changes in the same period in
+  which the angle nt + L0 goes through a revolution. In this case the
+  variation will be simply periodic.
+
+  The value of any element of the planet's motion will generally be
+  represented by the sum of an infinite series of such periodic
+  quantities, having different periods. For example
+
+    U = a sin (nt + L0) + b sin (mt + L1) + c sin (kt + L2) &c.
+
+  In this case the motion of U, while still periodic, is seemingly
+  irregular, being much like that of a pitching ship, which has no one
+  unvarying period.
+
+  In the problems of celestial mechanics the angles within the
+  parentheses are represented by sums or differences of multiples of the
+  mean longitudes of the planets as they move round their orbits. If l
+  be the mean longitude of the planet whose motion we are considering,
+  and l' that of the attracting planet affecting it, the periodic
+  inequalities of the elements as well as of the co-ordinates of the
+  attracted planet, may be represented by an infinite series of terms
+  like the following:--
+
+    a sin (l' - l) + b sin (2l' - l) + c sin (l' - 2l) + &c.
+
+  Here the coefficients of l and l' may separately take all integral
+  values, though as a general rule the coefficients a, b, c, &c.
+  diminish rapidly when these coefficients become large, so that only
+  small values have to be considered.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+  The most interesting kind of periodic inequalities are those known as
+  "terms of long period." A general idea both of their nature and of
+  their cause will be gained by taking as a special case one celebrated
+  in the history of the subject--the great inequality between Jupiter
+  and Saturn. We begin by showing what the actual fact is in the case of
+  these two planets. Let fig. 3 represent the two orbits, the sun being
+  at C. We know that the period of Jupiter is nearly twelve years, and
+  that of Saturn a little less than thirty years. It will be seen that
+  these numbers are nearly in the ratio of 2 to 5. It follows that the
+  motions of the mean longitudes are nearly in the same proportion
+  reversed. The annual motion of Jupiter is nearly 30 deg., that of
+  Saturn a little more than 12 deg. Let us now consider the effect of
+  this relation upon the configurations and relations of the two
+  planets. Let the line CJ represent the common direction of the two
+  planets from the sun when they are in conjunction, and let us follow
+  the motions until they again come into conjunction. This will occur
+  along a line CR1, making an angle of nearly 240 deg. with CJ. At this
+  point Saturn will have moved 240 deg. and Jupiter an entire revolution
+  + 240 deg., making 600 deg. These two motions, it will be seen, are in
+  the proportion 5:2. The next conjunction will take place along CS1,
+  and the third after the initial one will again take place near the
+  original position JQ, Jupiter having made five revolutions and Saturn
+  two.
+
+  The result of these repetitions is that, during a number of
+  revolutions, the special mutual actions of the two planets at these
+  three points of their orbits repeat themselves, while the actions
+  corresponding to the three intermediate arcs are wanting. Thus it
+  happens that if the mutual actions are balanced through a period of a
+  few revolutions only there is a small residuum of forces corresponding
+  to the three regions in question, which repeats itself in the same
+  way, and which, if it continued indefinitely, would entirely change
+  the forms of the two orbits. But the actual mean motions deviate
+  slightly from the ratio 2:5, and we have next to show how this
+  deviation results in an ultimate balancing of the forces. The annual
+  mean motions, with the corresponding combinations, are as follows:--
+
+    Jupiter:--n  = 30 deg. .349043
+     Saturn:--n' = 12 deg. .221133
+             2n  = 60 deg. .69809
+             5n' = 61 deg. .10567
+       5n' - 2n  =  0 deg. .40758
+
+  If we make a more accurate computation of the conjunctions from these
+  data, we shall find that, in the general mean, the consecutive
+  conjunctions take place when each planet has moved through an entire
+  number of revolutions + 242.7 deg. It follows that the third
+  conjunction instead of occurring exactly along the line CQ1 occurs
+  along CQ2, making an angle of nearly 8 deg. with CQ1. The successive
+  conjunctions following will be along CR2, CS2, CQ3, &c., the law of
+  progression being obvious.
+
+  The balancing of the series of forces will not be complete until the
+  respective triplets of conjunctions have filled up the entire space
+  between them. This will occur when the angle whose annual motion is
+  5n' - 2n has gone through 360 deg. From the preceding value of 5n' -
+  2n we see that this will require a little more than 883 years. The
+  result of the continued action of the two planets upon each other is
+  that during half of this period the motion of one planet is constantly
+  retarded and of the other constantly accelerated, while during the
+  other half the effects are reversed. There is thus in the case of each
+  planet an oscillation of the mean longitude which increases it and
+  then diminishes it to its original value at the end of the period of
+  883 years.
+
+  The longitudes, latitudes and radii vectores of a planet, being
+  algebraically expressed as the sum of an infinite periodic series of
+  the kind we have been describing, it follows that the problem of
+  finding their co-ordinates at any moment is solved by computing these
+  expressions. This is facilitated by the construction of tables by
+  means of which the co-ordinates can be computed at any time. Such
+  tables are used in the offices of the national Ephemerides to
+  construct ephemerides of the several planets, showing their exact
+  positions in the sky from day to day.
+
+  We pass now to the second branch of celestial mechanics viz. that in
+  which the planets are no longer considered as particles, but as
+  rotating bodies of which the dimensions are to be taken into account.
+  Such a body, in free space, not acted on by any force except the
+  attraction of its several parts, will go on rotating for ever in an
+  invariable direction. But, in consequence of the centrifugal force
+  generated by the rotation, it assumes a spheroidal form, the
+  equatorial regions bulging out. Such a form we all know to be that of
+  the earth and of the planets rotating on their axes. Let us study the
+  effect of this deviation from the spherical form upon the attraction
+  exercised by a distant body.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+  We begin with the special case of the earth as acted upon by the sun
+  and moon. Let fig. 4 represent a section of the earth through its axis
+  AB, ECQ being a diameter of the equator. Let the dotted lines show the
+  direction of the distant attracting body. The point E, being more
+  distant than C, will be attracted with less force, while Q will be
+  attracted with a greater force than will the centre C. Were the force
+  equal on every point of the earth it would have no influence on its
+  rotation, but would simply draw its whole mass toward the attracting
+  body. It is therefore only the _difference_ of the forces on different
+  parts of the earth that affects the rotation.
+
+  Let us, therefore, divide the attracting forces at each point into two
+  parts, one the average force, which we may call F, and which for our
+  purpose may be regarded as equal to the force acting at C; the others
+  the residual forces which we must superimpose upon the average force F
+  in order that the combination may be equal to the actual force. It is
+  clear that at Q this residual force as represented by the arrow will
+  be in the same direction as the actual force. But at E, since the
+  actual force is less than F, the residual force must tend to diminish
+  F, and must, therefore, act toward the right, as shown by the arrow.
+  These residual forces tend to make the whole earth turn round the
+  centre C in a clockwise direction. If nothing modified this tendency
+  the result would be to bring the points E and Q into the dotted lines
+  of the attraction. In other words the equator would be drawn into
+  coincidence with the ecliptic. Here, however, the same action comes
+  into play, which keeps a rotating top from falling over. (See
+  GYROSCOPE and MECHANICS.) For the same reason as in the case of the
+  gyroscope the actual motion of the earth's axis is at right angles to
+  the line joining the earth and the attracting centre, and without
+  going into the details of the mathematical processes involved, we may
+  say that the ultimate mean effect will be to cause the pole P of the
+  earth to move at right angles to the circle joining it to the pole of
+  the ecliptic. Were the position of the latter invariable, the
+  celestial pole would move round it in a circle. Actually the curve in
+  which it moves is nearly a circle; but the distance varies slightly
+  owing to the minute secular variation in the position of the ecliptic,
+  caused by the action of the planets. This motion of the celestial pole
+  results in a corresponding revolution of the equinox around the
+  celestial sphere. The rate of motion is slightly variable from century
+  to century owing to the secular motion of the plane of the ecliptic.
+  Its period, with the present rate of motion, would be about 26,000
+  years, but the actual period is slightly indeterminate from the cause
+  just mentioned.
+
+  The residual force just described is not limited to the case of an
+  ellipsoidal body. It will be seen that the reasoning applies to the
+  case of any one body or system of bodies, the dimensions of which are
+  not regarded as infinitely small compared with the distance of the
+  attracting body. In all such cases the residual forces virtually tend
+  to draw those portions of the body nearest the attracting centre
+  toward the latter, and those opposite the attracting centre away from
+  it. Thus we have a tide-producing force tending to deform the body,
+  the action of which is of the same nature as the force producing
+  precession. It is of interest to note that, very approximately, this
+  deforming force varies inversely as the cube of the distance of the
+  attracting body.
+
+  The action of the sun upon the satellites of the several planets and
+  the effects of this action are of the same general nature. For the
+  same reason that the residual forces virtually act in opposite
+  directions upon the nearer and more distant portions of a planet they
+  will virtually act in the case of a satellite. When the latter is
+  between its primary and the sun, the attraction of the latter tends to
+  draw the satellite away from the primary. When the satellite is in the
+  opposite direction from the sun, the same action tends to draw the
+  primary away from the satellite. In both cases, relative to the
+  primary, the action is the same. When the satellite is in quadrature
+  the convergence of the lines of attraction toward the centre of the
+  sun tends to bring the two bodies together. When the orbit of the
+  satellite is inclined to that of the primary planet round the sun, the
+  action brings about a change in the plane of the orbit represented by
+  a rotation round an axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit of
+  the primary. If we conceive a pole to each of these orbits, determined
+  by the points in which lines perpendicular to their planes intersect
+  the celestial sphere, the pole of the satellite orbit will revolve
+  around the pole of the planetary orbit precisely as the pole of the
+  earth does around the pole of the ecliptic, the inclination of the two
+  orbits remaining unchanged.
+
+  If a planet rotates on its axis so rapidly as to have a considerable
+  ellipticity, and if it has satellites revolving very near the plane of
+  the equator, the combined actions of the sun and of the equatorial
+  protuberances may be such that the whole system will rotate almost as
+  if the planes of revolution of the satellites were solidly fixed to
+  the plane of the equator. This is the case with the seven inner
+  satellites of Saturn. The orbits of these bodies have a large
+  inclination, nearly 27 deg., to the plane of the planet's orbit. The
+  action of the sun alone would completely throw them out of these
+  planes as each satellite orbit would rotate independently; but the
+  effect of the mutual action is to keep all of the planes in close
+  coincidence with the plane of the planet's equator.
+
+  _Literature._--The modern methods of celestial mechanics may be
+  considered to begin with Joseph Louis Lagrange, whose theory of the
+  variation of elements is developed in his _Mecanique analytique_. The
+  practical methods of computing perturbations of the planets and
+  satellites were first exhaustively developed by Pierre Simon Laplace
+  in his _Mecanique celeste_. The only attempt since the publication of
+  this great work to develop the various theories involved on a uniform
+  plan and mould them into a consistent whole is that of de Pontecoulant
+  in _Theorie analytique du systeme du monde_ (1829-46, Paris). An
+  approximation to such an attempt is that of F.F. Tisserand in his
+  _Traite de mecanique celeste_ (4 vols., Paris). This work contains a
+  clear and excellent resume of the methods which have been devised by
+  the leading investigators from the time of Lagrange until the present,
+  and thus forms the most encyclopaedic treatise to which the student
+  can refer.
+
+  Works less comprehensive than this are necessarily confined to the
+  elements of the subject, to the development of fundamental principles
+  and general methods, or to details of special branches. An elementary
+  treatise on the subject is F.R. Moulton's _Introduction to Celestial
+  Mechanics_ (London, 1902). Other works with the same general object
+  are H.A. Resal, _Mecanique celeste_; and O.F. Dziobek, _Theorie der
+  Planetenbewegungen_. The most complete and systematic development of
+  the general principles of the subject, from the point of view of the
+  modern mathematician, is found in J.H. Poincare, _Les Methodes
+  nouvelles de la mecanique celeste_ (3 vols., Paris, 1899, 1892, 1893).
+  Of another work of Poincare, _Lecons de mecanique celeste_, the first
+  volume appeared in 1905.
+
+
+_Practical Astronomy._
+
+Practical Astronomy, taken in its widest sense, treats of the
+instruments by which our knowledge of the heavenly bodies is acquired,
+the principles underlying their use, and the methods by which these
+principles are practically applied. Our knowledge of these bodies is of
+necessity derived through the medium of the light which they emit; and
+it is the development and applications of the laws of light which have
+made possible the additions to our stock of such knowledge since the
+middle of the 19th century.
+
+  At the base of every system of astronomical observation is the law
+  that, in the voids of space, a ray of light moves in a right line. The
+  fundamental problem of practical astronomy is that of determining by
+  measurement the co-ordinates of the heavenly bodies as already
+  defined. Of the three co-ordinates, the radius vector does not admit
+  of direct measurement, and must be inferred by a combination of
+  indirect measurements and physical theories. The other two
+  co-ordinates, which define the direction of a body, admit of direct
+  measurement on principles applied in the construction and use of
+  astronomical instruments.
+
+  In the first system of co-ordinates already described the fundamental
+  axis is the vertical line or direction of gravity at the point of
+  observation. This is not the direction of gravity proper, or of the
+  earth's attraction, but the resultant of this attraction combined with
+  the centrifugal force due to the earth's rotation on its axis. The
+  most obvious method of realizing this direction is by the plumb-line.
+  In our time, however, this appliance is replaced by either of two
+  others, which admit of much more precise application. These are the
+  basin of mercury and the spirit-level. The surface of a liquid at rest
+  is necessarily perpendicular to the direction of gravity, and
+  therefore horizontal. Considered as a curved surface, concentric with
+  the earth, a tangent plane to such a surface is the plane of the
+  horizon. The problem of measuring from an axis perpendicular to this
+  plane is solved on the principle that the incident and reflected rays
+  of light make equal angles with the perpendicular to a reflecting
+  surface. It follows that if PO (fig. 5) is the direction of a ray,
+  either from a heavenly body or from a terrestrial point, impinging at
+  O upon the surface of quicksilver, and reflected in the direction OR,
+  the vertical line is the bisector OZ, of the angle POR. If the point P
+  is so adjusted over the quicksilver that the ray is reflected back on
+  its own path, P and R lying on the same line above O, then we know
+  that the line PO is truly vertical. The zenith-distance of an object
+  is the angle which the ray of light from it makes with the vertical
+  direction thus defined.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  To show the principle involved in the spirit-level let MN (fig. 6) be
+  the tube of such a level, fixed to an axis OZ on which it may revolve.
+  If this axis is so adjusted that in the course of a revolution around
+  it the bubble of the level undergoes no change of position, we know
+  that the axis is truly vertical. Any slight deviation from verticality
+  is shown by the motion of the bubble during the revolution, which can
+  be measured and allowed for. The level may not be actually attached to
+  an axis, a revolution of 180 deg. being effected round an imaginary
+  vertical axis by turning the level end for end. The motion of the
+  bubble then measures double the inclination of this imaginary axis, or
+  the deviation of a cylinder on which the level may rest from
+  horizontality.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The problem of determining the zenith distance of a celestial object
+  now reduces itself to that of measuring the angle between the
+  direction of the object and the direction of the vertical line
+  realized in one of these ways. This measurement is effected by a
+  combination of two instruments, the telescope and the graduated
+  circle. Let OF (fig. 7) be a section of the telescope, MN being its
+  object glass. Let the parallel dotted lines represent rays of light
+  emanating from the object to be observed, which, for our purpose, we
+  regard as infinitely distant, a star for example. These rays come to a
+  focus at a point F lying in the focal plane of the telescope. In this
+  plane are a pair of cross threads or spider lines which, as the
+  observer looks into the telescope, are seen as AB and CD (fig. 8). If
+  the telescope is so pointed that the image of the star is seen in
+  coincidence with the cross threads, as represented in fig. 8, then we
+  know that the star is exactly in the line of sight of the telescope,
+  defined as the line joining the centre of the object glass, and the
+  point of intersection of the cross threads. If the telescope is moved
+  around so that the images of two distant points are successively
+  brought into coincidence with the cross threads, we know that the
+  angle between the directions of these points is equal to that through
+  which the telescope has been turned. This angle is measured by means
+  of a graduated circle, rigidly attached to the tube of the telescope
+  in a plane parallel to the line of sight. When the telescope is turned
+  in this plane, the angular motion of the line of sight is equal to
+  that through which the circle has turned.
+
+  Stripped of all unnecessary adjuncts, and reduced to a geometric form,
+  the ideal method by which the zenith distance of a heavenly body is
+  determined by the combination which we have described is as
+  follows:--Let OP (fig. 9) be the direction of a celestial body at
+  which a telescope, supplied with a graduating circle, is pointed. Let
+  OZ be an axis, as nearly vertical as it can easily be set, round which
+  the entire instrument may revolve through 180 deg. After the image of
+  the body is brought into coincidence with the cross threads, the
+  instrument is turned through 180 deg. on the axis, which results in
+  the line of sight of the telescope pointing in a certain direction OQ,
+  determined by the condition QOZ = ZOP. The telescope is then a second
+  time pointed at the object by being moved through the angle QOP.
+  Either of the angles QOZ and ZOP is then one half that through which
+  the telescope has been turned, which may be measured by a graduated
+  circle, and which is the zenith distance of the object measured from
+  the direction of the axis OZ. This axis may not be exactly vertical.
+  Its deviation from the vertical line is determined by the motion of
+  the bubble of a spirit-level rigidly attached either to the axis, or
+  to the telescope. Applying this deviation to the measured arc, the
+  true zenith distance of the body is found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  When the basin of quicksilver is used, the telescope, either before or
+  after being directed toward P, is pointed directly downwards, so that
+  the observer mounting above it looks through it into the reflecting
+  surface. He then adjusts the instrument so that the cross threads
+  coincide with their images reflected from the surface of the
+  quicksilver. The angular motion of the telescope in passing from this
+  position to that when the celestial object is in the line of sight is
+  the distance (ND) of the body from the nadir. Subtracting 90 deg. from
+  (ND) gives the altitude; and subtracting (ND) from 180 deg. gives the
+  zenith distance.
+
+  In the measurement of equatorial co-ordinates, the polar distance is
+  determined in an analogous way. We determine the apparent position of
+  an object near the pole on the celestial sphere at any moment, and
+  again at another moment, twelve hours later, when, by the diurnal
+  motion, it has made half a revolution. The angle through the celestial
+  pole, between these two positions, is double the polar distance. The
+  pole is the point midway between them. This being ascertained by one
+  or more stars near it, may be used to determine by direct measurements
+  the polar distances of other bodies.
+
+  The preceding methods apply mainly to the latitudinal co-ordinate. To
+  measure the difference between the longitudinal co-ordinates of two
+  objects by means of a graduated circle the instruments must turn on an
+  axis parallel to the principal axis of the system of co-ordinates, and
+  the plane of the graduated circle must be at right angles to that
+  axis, and, therefore, parallel to the principal co-ordinate plane. The
+  telescope, in order that it may be pointed in any direction, must
+  admit of two motions, one round the principal axis, and the other
+  round an axis at right angles to it. By these two motions the
+  instrument may be pointed first at one of the objects and then at the
+  other. The motion of the graduated circle in passing from one pointing
+  to the other is the measure of the difference between the longitudinal
+  co-ordinates of the two objects.
+
+  In the equatorial system this co-ordinate (the right ascension) is
+  measured in a different way, by making the rotating earth perform the
+  function of a graduated circle. The unceasing diurnal motion of the
+  image of any heavenly body relative to the cross threads of a
+  telescope makes a direct accurate measure of any co-ordinate except
+  the declination almost impossible. Before the position of a star can
+  be noted, it has passed away from the cross threads. This troublesome
+  result is utilized and made a means of measurement. Right ascensions
+  are now determined, not by measuring the angle between one star and
+  another, but, by noting the time between the transits of successive
+  stars over the meridian. The difference between these times, when
+  reduced to an angle, is the difference of the right ascensions of the
+  stars. The principle is the same as that by which the distance between
+  two stations may be determined by the time required for a train moving
+  at a uniform known speed to pass from one station to the other. The
+  uniform speed of the diurnal motion is 15 deg. per hour. We have
+  already mentioned that in astronomical practice right ascensions are
+  expressed in time, so that no multiplication by 15 is necessary.
+
+  Measures made on the various systems which we have described give the
+  apparent direction of a celestial object as seen by the observer. But
+  this is not the true direction, because the ray of light from the
+  object undergoes refraction in passing through the atmosphere. It is
+  therefore necessary to correct the observation for this effect. This
+  is one of the most troublesome problems in astronomy because, owing to
+  the ever varying density of the atmosphere, arising from differences
+  of temperature, and owing to the impossibility of determining the
+  temperature with entire precision at any other point than that
+  occupied by the observer, the amount of refraction must always be more
+  or less uncertain. The complexity of the problem will be seen by
+  reflecting that the temperature of the air inside the telescope is not
+  without its effect. This temperature may be and commonly is somewhat
+  different from that of the observing room, which, again, is commonly
+  higher than the temperature of the air outside. The uncertainty thus
+  arising in the amount of the refraction is least near the zenith, but
+  increases more and more as the horizon is approached.
+
+  The result of astronomical observations which is ordinarily wanted is
+  not the direction of an object from the observer, but from the centre
+  of the earth. Thus a reduction for parallax is required. Having
+  effected this reduction, and computed the correction to be applied to
+  the observation in order to eliminate all known errors to which the
+  instrument is liable, the work of the practical astronomer is
+  completed.
+
+  The instruments used in astronomical research are described under
+  their several names. The following are those most used in
+  astrometry:--
+
+  The equatorial telescope (q.v.) is an instrument which can be directed
+  to any point in the sky, and which derives its appellation from its
+  being mounted on an axis parallel to that of the earth. By revolving
+  on this axis it follows a star in its diurnal motion, so that the star
+  is kept in the field of view notwithstanding that motion.
+
+  Next in extent of use are the transit instrument and the meridian
+  circle, which are commonly united in a single instrument, the transit
+  circle (q.v.), known also as the meridian circle. This instrument
+  moves only in the plane of the meridian on a horizontal east and west
+  axis, and is used to determine the right ascensions and declinations
+  of stars. These two instruments or combinations are a necessary part
+  of the outfit of every important observatory. An adjunct of prime
+  importance, which is necessary to their use, is an accurate clock,
+  beating seconds.
+
+  _Use of Photography._--Before the development of photography, there
+  was no possible way of making observations upon the heavenly bodies
+  except by the eye. Since the middle of the 19th century the system of
+  photographing the heavenly bodies has been introduced, step by step,
+  so that it bids fair to supersede eye observations in many of the
+  determinations of astronomy. (See PHOTOGRAPHY: _Celestial_.)
+
+  The field of practical astronomy includes an extension which may be
+  regarded as making astronomical science in a certain sense universal.
+  The science is concerned with the heavenly bodies. The earth on which
+  we live is, to all intents and purposes, one of these bodies, and, so
+  far as its relations to the heavens are concerned, must be included in
+  astronomy. The processes of measuring great portions of the earth, and
+  of determining geographical positions, require both astronomical
+  observations proper, and determinations made with instruments similar
+  to those of astronomy. Hence geodesy may be regarded as a branch of
+  practical astronomy.     (S. N.)
+
+
+_History of Astronomy._
+
+  Origin of the science.
+
+A practical acquaintance with the elements of astronomy is indispensable
+to the conduct of human life. Hence it is most widely diffused among
+uncivilized peoples, whose existence depends upon immediate and
+unvarying submission to the dictates of external nature. Having no
+clocks, they regard instead the face of the sky; the stars serve them
+for almanacs; they hunt and fish, they sow and reap in correspondence
+with the recurrent order of celestial appearances. But these, to the
+untutored imagination, present a mystical, as well as a mechanical
+aspect; and barbaric familiarity with the heavens developed at an early
+age, through the promptings of superstition, into a fixed system of
+observation. In China, Egypt and Babylonia, strength and continuity were
+lent to this native tendency by the influence of a centralized
+authority; considerable proficiency was attained in the arts of
+observation; and from millennial stores of accumulated data, empirical
+rules were deduced by which the scope of prediction was widened and its
+accuracy enhanced. But no genuine science of astronomy was founded until
+the Greeks sublimed experience into theory.
+
+
+  Chinese astronomy.
+
+Already, in the third millennium B.C., equinoxes and solstices were
+determined in China by means of culminating stars. This is known from
+the orders promulgated by the emperor Yao about 2300 B.C., as recorded
+in the _Shu Chung_, a collection of documents antique in the time of
+Confucius (550-478 B.C.). And Yao was merely the renovator of a system
+long previously established. The _Shu Chung_ further relates the tragic
+fate of the official astronomers, Hsi and Ho, put to death for
+neglecting to perform the rites customary during an eclipse of the sun,
+identified by Professor S.E. Russell[1] with a partial obscuration
+visible in northern China 2136 B.C. The date cannot be far wrong, and it
+is by far the earliest assignable to an event of the kind. There is,
+however, no certainty that the Chinese were then capable of predicting
+eclipses. They were, on the other hand, probably acquainted, a couple
+of millenniums before Meton gave it his name, with the nineteen-year
+cycle, by which solar and lunar years were harmonized;[2] they
+immemorially made observations in the meridian; regulated time by
+water-clocks, and used measuring instruments of the nature of armillary
+spheres and quadrants. In or near 1100 B.C., Chou Kung, an able
+mathematician, determined with surprising accuracy the obliquity of the
+ecliptic; but his attempts to estimate the sun's distance failed
+hopelessly as being grounded on belief in the flatness of the earth.
+From of old, in China, circles were divided into 365-1/4 parts, so that
+the sun described daily one Chinese degree; and the equator began to be
+employed as a line of reference, concurrently with the ecliptic,
+probably in the second century B.C. Both circles, too, were marked by
+star-groups more or less clearly designated and defined. Cometary
+records of a vague kind go back in China to 2296 B.C.; they are
+intelligible and trustworthy from 611 B.C. onward. Two instruments
+constructed at the time of Kublai Khan's accession in 1280 were still
+extant at Peking in 1881. They were provided with large graduated
+circles adapted for measurements of declination and right ascension, and
+prove the Chinese to have anticipated by at least three centuries some
+of Tycho Brahe's most important inventions.[3] The native astronomy was
+finally superseded in the 17th century by the scientific teachings of
+Jesuit missionaries from Europe.
+
+
+  Egyptian astronomy.
+
+Astrolatry was, in Egypt, the prelude to astronomy. The stars were
+observed that they might be duly worshipped. The importance of their
+heliacal risings, or first visible appearances at dawn, for the purposes
+both of practical life and of ritual observance, caused them to be
+systematically noted; the length of the year was accurately fixed in
+connexion with the annually recurring Nile-flood; while the curiously
+precise orientation of the Pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of
+the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in
+the third millennium B.C. The constellational system in vogue among the
+Egyptians appears to have been essentially of native origin; but they
+contributed little or nothing to the genuine progress of astronomy.
+
+
+  Babylonian astronomy.
+
+With the Babylonians the case was different, although their science
+lacked the vital principle of growth imparted to it by their successors.
+From them the Greeks derived their first notions of astronomy. They
+copied the Babylonian asterisms, appropriated Babylonian knowledge of
+the planets and their courses, and learned to predict eclipses by means
+of the "Saros." This is a cycle of 18 years 11 days, or 223 lunations,
+discovered at an unknown epoch in Chaldaea, at the end of which the moon
+very nearly returns to her original position with regard as well to the
+sun as to her own nodes and perigee. There is no getting back to the
+beginning of astronomy by the shores of the Euphrates. Records dating
+from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.) imply that even then the
+varying aspects of the sky had been long under expert observation. Thus
+early, there is reason to suppose, the star-groups with which we are now
+familiar began to be formed. They took shape most likely, not through
+one stroke of invention, but incidentally, as legends developed and
+astrological persuasions became defined.[4] The zodiacal series in
+particular seem to have been reformed and reconstructed at wide
+intervals of time (see ZODIAC). Virgo, for example, is referred by P.
+Jensen, on the ground of its harvesting associations, to the fourth
+millennium B.C., while Aries (according to F.K. Ginzel) was interpolated
+at a comparatively recent time. In the main, however, the constellations
+transmitted to the West from Babylonia by Aratus and Eudoxus must have
+been arranged very much in their present order about 2800 B.C. E.W.
+Maunder's argument to this effect is unanswerable.[5] For the space of
+the southern sky left blank of stellar emblazonments was necessarily
+centred on the pole; and since the pole shifts among the stars through
+the effects of precession by a known annual amount, the ascertainment of
+any former place for it virtually fixes the epoch. It may then be taken
+as certain that the heavens described by Aratus in 270 B.C. represented
+approximately observations made some 2500 years earlier in or near north
+latitude 40 deg.
+
+In the course of ages, Babylonian astronomy, purified from the
+astrological taint, adapted itself to meet the most refined needs of
+civil life. The decipherment and interpretation by the learned Jesuits,
+Fathers Epping and Strassmeier, of a number of clay tablets preserved in
+the British Museum, have supplied detailed knowledge of the methods
+practised in Mesopotamia in the 2nd century B.C.[6] They show no trace
+of Greek influence, and were doubtless the improved outcome of an
+unbroken tradition. How protracted it had been, can be in a measure
+estimated from the length of the revolutionary cycles found for the
+planets. The Babylonian computers were not only aware that Venus returns
+in almost exactly eight years to a given starting-point in the sky, but
+they had established similar periodic relations in 46, 59, 70 and 83
+years severally for Mercury, Saturn, Mars and Jupiter. They were
+accordingly able to fix in advance the approximate positions of these
+objects with reference to ecliptical stars which served as fiducial
+points for their determination. In the Ephemerides published year by
+year, the times of new moon were given, together with the calculated
+intervals to the first visibility of the crescent, from which the
+beginning of each month was reckoned; the dates and circumstances of
+solar and lunar eclipses were predicted; and due information was
+supplied as to the forthcoming heliacal risings and settings,
+conjunctions and oppositions of the planets. The Babylonians knew of the
+inequality in the daily motion of the sun, but misplaced by 10 deg. the
+perigee of his orbit. Their sidereal year was (4-1/2)^m too long,[7] and
+they kept the ecliptic stationary among the stars, making no allowance
+for the shifting of the equinoxes. The striking discovery, on the other
+hand, has been made by the Rev. F.X. Kugler[8] that the various periods
+underlying their lunar predictions were identical with those heretofore
+believed to have been independently arrived at by Hipparchus, who
+accordingly must be held to have borrowed from Chaldaea the lengths of
+the synodic, sidereal, anomalistic and draconitic months.
+
+
+  Greek astronomy. Thales.
+
+  Pythagoras.
+
+  Heraclides.
+
+A steady flow of knowledge from East to West began in the 7th century
+B.C. A Babylonian sage named Berossus founded a school about 640 B.C. in
+the island of Cos, and perhaps counted Thales of Miletus (c. 639-548)
+among his pupils. The famous "eclipse of Thales" in 585 B.C. has not, it
+is true, been authenticated by modern research;[9] yet the story told by
+Herodotus appears to intimate that a knowledge of the Saros, and of the
+forecasting facilities connected with it, was possessed by the Ionian
+sage. Pythagoras of Samos (fl. 540-510 B.C.) learned on his travels in
+Egypt and the East to identify the morning and evening stars, to
+recognize the obliquity of the ecliptic, and to regard the earth as a
+sphere freely poised in space. The tenet of its axial movement was held
+by many of his followers--in an obscure form by Philolaus of Crotona
+after the middle of the 5th century B.C., and more explicitly by
+Ecphantus and Hicetas of Syracuse (4th century B.C.), and by Heraclides
+of Pontus. Heraclides, who became a disciple of Plato in 360 B.C.,
+taught in addition that the sun, while circulating round the earth, was
+the centre of revolution to Venus and Mercury.[10] A genuine
+heliocentric system, developed by Aristarchus of Samos (fl. 280-264
+B.C.), was described by Archimedes in his _Arenarius_, only to be set
+aside with disapproval. The long-lived conception of a series of
+crystal spheres, acting as the vehicles of the heavenly bodies, and
+attuned to divine harmonies, seems to have originated with Pythagoras
+himself.
+
+
+  Eudoxus.
+
+The first mathematical theory of celestial appearances was devised by
+Eudoxus of Cnidus (408-355 B.C.).[11] The problem he attempted to solve
+was so to combine uniform circular movements as to produce the resultant
+effects actually observed. The sun and moon and the five planets were,
+with this end in view, accommodated each with a set of variously
+revolving spheres, to the total number of 27. The Eudoxian or
+"homocentric" system, after it had been further elaborated by Callippus
+and Aristotle, was modified by Apollonius of Perga (fl. 250-220 B.C.)
+into the hypothesis of deferents and epicycles, which held the field for
+1800 years as the characteristic embodiment of Greek ideas in astronomy.
+Eudoxus further wrote two works descriptive of the heavens, the
+_Enoptron_ and _Phaenomena_, which, substantially preserved in the
+_Phaenomena_ of Aratus (fl. 270 B.C.), provided all the leading features
+of modern stellar nomenclature.
+
+
+  School of Alexandria.
+
+  Aristarchus.
+
+Greek astronomy culminated in the school of Alexandria. It was, soon
+after its foundation, illustrated by the labours of Aristyllus and
+Timocharis (c. 320-260 B.C.), who constructed the first catalogue giving
+star-positions as measured from a reference-point in the sky. This
+fundamental advance rendered inevitable the detection of precessional
+effects. Aristarchus of Samos observed at Alexandria 280-264 B.C. His
+treatise on the magnitudes and distances of the sun and moon, edited by
+John Wallis in 1688, describes a theoretically valid method for
+determining the relative distances of the sun and moon by measuring the
+angle between their centres when half the lunar disk is illuminated; but
+the time of dichotomy being widely indeterminate, no useful result was
+thus obtainable. Aristarchus in fact concluded the sun to be not more
+than twenty times, while it is really four hundred times farther off
+than our satellite. His general conception of the universe was
+comprehensive beyond that of any of his predecessors.
+
+
+  Eratosthenes.
+
+Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.), a native of Cyrene, was summoned from
+Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euergetes to take charge of the royal
+library. He invented, or improved armillary spheres, the chief
+implements of ancient astrometry, determined the obliquity of the
+ecliptic at 23 deg. 51' (a value 5' too great), and introduced an
+effective mode of arc-measurement. Knowing Alexandria and Syene to be
+situated 5000 stadia apart on the same meridian, he found the sun to be
+7 deg. 12' south of the zenith at the northern extremity of this arc
+when it was vertically overhead at the southern extremity, and he hence
+inferred a value of 252,000 stadia for the entire circumference of the
+globe. This is a very close approximation to the truth, if the length of
+the unit employed has been correctly assigned.[12]
+
+
+  Hipparchus
+
+Among the astronomers of antiquity, two great men stand out with
+unchallenged pre-eminence. Hipparchus and Ptolemy entertained the same
+large organic designs; they worked on similar methods; and, as the
+outcome, their performances fitted so accurately together that between
+them they re-made celestial science. Hipparchus fixed the chief data of
+astronomy--the lengths of the tropical and sidereal years, of the
+various months, and of the synodic periods of the five planets;
+determined the obliquity of the ecliptic and of the moon's path, the
+place of the sun's apogee, the eccentricity of his orbit, and the moon's
+horizontal parallax; all with approximate accuracy. His loans from
+Chaldaean experts appear, indeed, to have been numerous; but were
+doubtless independently verified. His supreme merit, however, consisted
+in the establishment of astronomy on a sound geometrical basis. His
+acquaintance with trigonometry, a branch of science initiated by him,
+together with his invention of the planisphere, enabled him to solve a
+number of elementary problems; and he was thus led to bestow especial
+attention upon the position of the equinox, as being the common point of
+origin for measures both in right ascension and longitude. Its steady
+retrogression among the stars became manifest to him in 130 B.C., on
+comparing his own observations with those made by Timocharis a century
+and a half earlier; and he estimated at not less than 36" (the true
+value being 50") the annual amount of "precession."
+
+The choice made by Hipparchus of the geocentric theory of the universe
+decided the future of Greek astronomy. He further elaborated it by the
+introduction of "eccentrics," which accounted for the changes in orbital
+velocity of the sun and moon by a displacement of the earth, to a
+corresponding extent, from the centre of the circles they were assumed
+to describe. This gave the elliptic inequality known as the "equation of
+the centre," and no other was at that time obvious. He attempted no
+detailed discussion of planetary theory; but his catalogue of 1080
+stars, divided into six classes of brightness, or "magnitudes," is one
+of the finest monuments of antique astronomy. It is substantially
+embodied in Ptolemy's _Almagest_ (see PTOLEMY).
+
+
+  Ptolemy.
+
+An interval of 250 years elapsed before the constructive labours of
+Hipparchus obtained completion at Alexandria. His observations were
+largely, and somewhat arbitrarily, employed by Ptolemy. Professor
+Newcomb, who has compiled an instructive table of the equinoxes
+severally observed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy, with their errors deduced
+from Leverrier's solar tables, finds palpable evidence that the
+discrepancies between the two series were artificially reconciled on the
+basis of a year 6^m too long, adopted by Ptolemy on trust from his
+predecessor. He nevertheless holds the process to have been one that
+implied no fraudulent intention.
+
+
+  Arab astronomers.
+
+The Ptolemaic system was, in a geometrical sense, defensible; it
+harmonized fairly well with appearances, and physical reasonings had not
+then been extended to the heavens. To the ignorant it was recommended by
+its conformity to crude common sense; to the learned, by the wealth of
+ingenuity expended in bringing it to perfection. The _Almagest_ was the
+consummation of Greek astronomy. Ptolemy had no successor; he found only
+commentators, among the more noteworthy of whom were Theon of Alexandria
+(fl. A.D. 400) and his daughter Hypatia (370-415). With the capture of
+Alexandria by Omar in 641, the last glimmer of its scientific light
+became extinct, to be rekindled, a century and a half later, on the
+banks of the Tigris. The first Arabic translation of the _Almagest_ was
+made by order of Harun al-Rashid about the year 800; others followed,
+and the Caliph al-Mamun built in 829 a grand observatory at Bagdad. Here
+Albumazar (805-885) watched the skies and cast horoscopes; here Tobit
+ben Korra (836-901) developed his long unquestioned, yet misleading
+theory of the "trepidation" of the equinoxes; Abd-ar-rahman al-Suf
+(903-986) revised at first hand the catalogue of Ptolemy;[13] and
+Abulwefa (939-998), like al-Sufi, a native of Persia, made continuous
+planetary observations, but did not (as alleged by L. Sedillot)
+anticipate Tycho Brahe's discovery of the moon's variation. Ibn Junis
+(c. 950-1008), although the scene of his activity was in Egypt, falls
+into line with the astronomers of Bagdad. He compiled the Hakimite
+Tables of the planets, and observed at Cairo, in 977 and 978, two solar
+eclipses which, as being the first recorded with scientific
+accuracy,[14] were made available in fixing the amount of lunar
+acceleration. Nasir ud-din (1201-1274) drew up the Ilkhanic Tables, and
+determined the constant of precession at 51". He directed an observatory
+established by Hulagu Khan (d. 1265) at Maraga in Persia, and equipped
+with a mural quadrant of 12 ft. radius, besides altitude and azimuth
+instruments. Ulugh Beg (1394-1449), a grandson of Tamerlane, was the
+illustrious personification of Tatar astronomy. He founded about 1420 a
+splendid observatory at Samarkand, in which he re-determined nearly all
+Ptolemy's stars, while the Tables published by him held the primacy for
+two centuries.[15]
+
+
+  Moorish Astronomy.
+
+  European Astronomy.
+
+  Purbach.
+
+  Walther.
+
+Arab astronomy, transported by the Moors to Spain, flourished
+temporarily at Cordova and Toledo. From the latter city the Toletan
+Tables, drawn up by Arzachel in 1080, took their name; and there also
+the Alfonsine Tables, published in 1252, were prepared under the
+authority of Alphonso X. of Castile. Their appearance signalized the
+dawn of European science, and was nearly coincident with that of the
+_Sphaera Mundi_, a text-book of spherical astronomy, written by a
+Yorkshireman, John Holywood, known as Sacro Bosco (d. 1256). It had an
+immense vogue, perpetuated by the printing-press in fifty-nine editions.
+In Germany, during the 15th century, a brilliant attempt was made to
+patch up the flaws in Ptolemaic doctrine. George Purbach (1423-1461)
+introduced into Europe the method of determining time by altitudes
+employed by Ibn Junis. He lectured with applause at Vienna from 1450;
+was joined there in 1452 by Regiomontanus (q.v.); and was on the point
+of starting for Rome to inspect a manuscript of the _Almagest_ when he
+died suddenly at the age of thirty-eight. His teachings bore fruit in
+the work of Regiomontanus, and of Bernhard Walther of Nuremberg
+(1430-1504), who fitted up an observatory with clocks driven by weights,
+and developed many improvements in practical astronomy.
+
+
+  Copernicus.
+
+Meantime, a radical reform was being prepared in Italy. Under the
+searchlights of the new learning, the dictatorship of Ptolemy appeared
+no more inevitable than that of Aristotle; advanced thinkers like
+Domenico Maria Novara (1454-1504) promulgated _sub rosa_ what were
+called Pythagorean opinions; and they were eagerly and fully
+appropriated by Nicolaus Copernicus during his student-years (1496-1505)
+at Bologna and Padua. He laid the groundwork of his heliocentric theory
+between 1506 and 1512, and brought it to completion in _De
+Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium_ (1543). The colossal task of remaking
+astronomy on an inverted design was, in this treatise, virtually
+accomplished. Its reasonings were solidly founded on the principle of
+the relativity of motion. A continuous shifting of the standpoint was in
+large measure substituted for the displacements of the objects viewed,
+which thus acquired a regularity and consistency heretofore lacking to
+them. In the new system, the sphere of the fixed stars no longer
+revolved diurnally, the earth rotating instead on an axis directed
+towards the celestial pole. The sun too remained stationary, while the
+planets, including our own globe, circulated round him. By this means,
+the planetary "retrogradations" were explained as simple perspective
+effects due to the combination of the earth's revolutions with those of
+her sister orbs. The retention, however, by Copernicus of the antique
+postulate of uniform circular motion impaired the perfection of his
+plan, since it involved a partial survival of the epicyclical machinery.
+Nor was it feasible, on this showing, to place the sun at the true
+centre of any of the planetary orbits; so that his ruling position in
+the midst of them was illusory. The reformed scheme was then by no means
+perfect. Its simplicity was only comparative; many outstanding anomalies
+compromised its harmonious working. Moreover, the absence of sensible
+parallaxes in the stellar heavens seemed inconsistent with its validity;
+and a mobile earth outraged deep-rooted prepossessions. Under these
+disadvantageous circumstances, it is scarcely surprising that the
+heliocentric theory, while admired as a daring speculation, won its way
+slowly to acceptance as a truth.
+
+
+  Observatory of Cassel.
+
+The _Tabulae Prutenicae_, calculated on Copernican principles by Erasmus
+Reinhold (1511-1553), appeared in 1551. Although they represented
+celestial movements far better than the Alfonsine Tables, large
+discrepancies were still apparent, and the desirability of testing the
+novel hypothesis upon which they were based by more refined observations
+prompted a reform of methods, undertaken almost simultaneously by the
+landgrave William IV. of Hesse-Cassel (1532-1592), and by Tycho Brahe.
+The landgrave built at Cassel in 1561 the first observatory with a
+revolving dome, and worked for some years at a star-catalogue finally
+left incomplete. Christoph Rothmann and Joost Burgi (1552-1632) became
+his assistants in 1577 and 1579 respectively; and through the skill of
+Burgi, time-determinations were made available for measuring right
+ascensions. At Cassel, too, the altitude and azimuth instrument is
+believed to have made its first appearance in Europe.[16]
+
+
+  Tycho Brahe.
+
+Tycho's labours were both more strenuous and more effective. He
+perfected the art of pre-telescopic observation. His instruments were on
+a scale and of a type unknown since the days of Nasir ud-din. At
+Augsburg, in 1569, he ordered the construction of a 19-ft. quadrant, and
+of a celestial globe 5 ft. in diameter; he substituted equatorial for
+zodiacal armillae, thus definitively establishing the system of
+measurements in right ascension and declination; and improved the
+graduation of circular arcs by adopting the method of "transversals." By
+these means, employed with consummate skill, he attained an
+unprecedented degree of accuracy, and as an incidental though valuable
+result, demonstrated the unreality of the supposed trepidation of the
+equinoxes.
+
+
+  Kepler.
+
+No more congruous arrangement could have been devised than the
+inheritance by Johann Kepler of the wealth of materials amassed by Tycho
+Brahe. The younger man's genius supplied what was wanting to his
+predecessor. Tycho's endowments were of the practical order; yet he had
+never designed his observations to be an end in themselves. He thought
+of them as means towards the end of ascertaining the true form of the
+universe. His range of ideas was, however, restricted; and the attempt
+embodied in his ground-plan of the solar system to revive the ephemeral
+theory of Heraclides failed to influence the development of thought.
+Kepler, on the contrary, was endowed with unlimited powers of
+speculation, but had no mechanical faculty. He found in Tycho's ample
+legacy of first-class data precisely what enabled him to try, by the
+touchstone of fact, the successive hypotheses that he imagined; and his
+untiring patience in comparing and calculating the observations at his
+disposal was rewarded by a series of unique discoveries. He long adhered
+to the traditional belief that all celestial revolutions must be
+performed equably in circles; but a laborious computation of seven
+recorded oppositions of Mars at last persuaded him that the planet
+travelled in an ellipse, one focus of which was occupied by the sun.
+Pursuing the inquiry, he found that its velocity was uniform with
+respect to no single point within the orbit, but that the areas
+described, in equal times, by a line drawn from the sun to the planet
+were strictly equal. These two principles he extended, by direct proof,
+to the motion of the earth; and, by analogy, to that of the other
+planets. They were published in 1609 in _De Motibus Stellae Martis_. The
+announcement of the third of "Kepler's Laws" was made ten years later,
+in _De Harmonice Mundi_. It states that the squares of the periods of
+circulation round the sun of the several planets are in the same ratio
+as the cubes of their mean distances. This numerical proportion, as
+being a necessary consequence of the law of gravitation, must prevail in
+every system under its sway. It does in fact prevail among the
+satellite-families of our acquaintance, and presumably in stellar
+combinations as well. Kepler's ineradicable belief in the existence of
+some such congruity was derived from the Pythagorean idea of an
+underlying harmony in nature; but his arduous efforts for its
+realization took a devious and fantastic course which seemed to give
+little promise of their surprising ultimate success. The outcome of his
+discoveries was, not only to perfect the geometrical plan of the solar
+system, but to enhance very materially the predicting power of
+astronomy. The Rudolphine Tables (Ulm, 1627), computed by him from
+elliptic elements, retained authority for a century, and have in
+principle never been superseded. He was deterred from research into the
+orbital relations of comets, by his conviction of their perishable
+nature. He supposed their tails to result from the action of solar rays,
+which, in traversing their mass, bore off with them some of their
+subtler particles to form trains directed away from the sun. And through
+the process of waste thus set on foot, they finally dissolved into the
+aether, and expired "like spinning insects." (_De Cometis; Opera_, ed.
+Frisch, t. vii. p. 110.) This remarkable anticipation of the modern
+theory of light-pressure was suggested to him by his observations of the
+great comets of 1618.
+
+The formal astronomy of the ancients left Kepler unsatisfied. He aimed
+at finding out the cause as well as the mode of the planetary
+revolutions; and his demonstration that the planes in which they are
+described all pass through the sun was an important preliminary to a
+physical explanation of them. But his efforts to supply such an
+explanation were rendered futile by his imperfect apprehension of what
+motion is in itself. He had, it is true, a distinct conception of a
+force analogous to that of gravity, by which cognate bodies tended
+towards union. Misled, however, into identifying it with magnetism, he
+imagined circulation in the solar system to be maintained through the
+material compulsion of fibrous emanations from the sun, carried round by
+his axial rotation. Ignorance regarding the inertia of matter drove him
+to this expedient. The persistence of movement seemed to him to imply
+the persistence of a moving power. He did not recognize that motion and
+rest are equally natural, in the sense of requiring force for their
+alteration. Yet his rationale of the tides in _De Motibus Stellae_ is
+not only memorable as an astonishing forecast of the principle of
+reciprocal attraction in the proportion of mass, but for its bold
+extension to the earth of the lunar sphere of influence.
+
+Galileo Galilei, Kepler's most eminent contemporary, took a foremost
+part in dissipating the obscurity that still hung over the very
+foundations of mechanical science. He had, indeed, precursors and
+co-operators. Michel Varo of Geneva wrote correctly in 1584 on the
+composition of forces; Simon Stevin of Bruges (1548-1620) independently
+demonstrated the principle; and G.B. Benedetti expounded in his
+_Speculationum Liber_ (Turin, 1585) perfectly clear ideas as to the
+nature of accelerated motion, some years in advance of Galileo's
+dramatic experiments at Pisa. Yet they were never assimilated by Kepler;
+while, on the other hand, the laws of planetary circulation he had
+enounced were strangely ignored by Galileo. The two lines of inquiry
+remained for some time apart. Had they at once been made to coalesce,
+the true nature of the force controlling celestial movements should have
+been quickly recognized. As it was, the importance of Kepler's
+generalizations was not fully appreciated until Sir Isaac Newton made
+them the corner-stone of his new cosmic edifice.
+
+
+  Galileo.
+
+Galileo's contributions to astronomy were of a different quality from
+Kepler's. They were easily intelligible to the general public: in a
+sense, they were obvious, since they could be verified by every
+possessor of one of the Dutch perspective-instruments, just then in
+course of wide and rapid distribution. And similar results to his were
+in fact independently obtained in various parts of Europe by Christopher
+Scheiner at Ingolstadt, by Johann Fabricius at Osteel in Friesland, and
+by Thomas Harriot at Syon House, Isleworth. Galileo was nevertheless by
+far the ablest and most versatile of these early telescopic observers.
+His gifts of exposition were on a par with his gifts of discernment.
+What he saw, he rendered conspicuous to the world. His sagacity was
+indeed sometimes at fault. He maintained with full conviction to the end
+of his life a grossly erroneous hypothesis of the tides, early adopted
+from Andrea Caesalpino; the "triplicate" appearance of Saturn always
+remained an enigma to him; and in regarding comets as atmospheric
+emanations he lagged far behind Tycho Brahe. Yet he unquestionably ranks
+as the true founder of descriptive astronomy; while his splendid
+presentment of the laws of projectiles in his dialogue of the "New
+Sciences" (Leiden, 1638) lent potent aid to the solid establishment of
+celestial mechanics.
+
+
+  Gravitational Astronomy.
+
+  Bacon.
+
+  Descartes.
+
+  Newton.
+
+  Euler, Clairault, D'Alembert.
+
+The accumulation of facts does not in itself constitute science.
+Empirical knowledge scarcely deserves the name. _Vere scire est per
+causas scire._ Francis Bacon's prescient dream, however, of a living
+astronomy by which the physical laws governing terrestrial relations
+should be extended the highest heavens, had long to wait for
+realization. Kepler divined its possibility; but his thoughts, derailed
+(so to speak) by the false analogy of magnetism, brought him no farther
+than to the rough draft of the scheme of vortices expounded in detail by
+Rene Descartes in his _Principia Philosophiae_ (1644). And this was a
+Descartes _cul-de-sac._ The only practicable road struck aside from it.
+The true foundations of a mechanical theory of the heavens were laid by
+Kepler's discoveries, and by Galileo's dynamical demonstrations; its
+construction was facilitated by the development of mathematical methods.
+The invention of logarithms, the rise of analytical geometry, and the
+evolution of B. Cavalieri's "indivisibles" into the infinitesimal
+calculus, all accomplished during the 17th century, immeasurably widened
+the scope of exact astronomy. Gradually, too, the nature of the problem
+awaiting solution came to be apprehended. Jeremiah Horrocks had some
+intuition, previously to 1639, that the motion of the moon was
+controlled by the earth's gravity, and disturbed by the action of the
+sun. Ismael Bouillaud (1605-1694) stated in 1645 the fact of planetary
+circulation under the sway of a sun-force decreasing as the inverse
+square of the distance; and the inevitableness of this same "duplicate
+ratio" was separately perceived by Robert Hooke, Edmund Halley and Sir
+Christopher Wren before Newton's discovery had yet been made public. He
+was the only man of his generation who both recognized the law, and had
+power to demonstrate its validity. And this was only a beginning. His
+complete achievement had a twofold aspect. It consisted, first, in the
+identification, by strict numerical comparisons, of terrestrial gravity
+with the mutual attraction of the heavenly bodies; secondly, in the
+following out of its mechanical consequences throughout the solar
+system. Gravitation was thus shown to be the sole influence governing
+the movements of planets and satellites; the figure of the rotating
+earth was successfully explained by its action on the minuter particles
+of matter; tides and the procession of the equinoxes proved amenable to
+reasonings based on the same principle; and it satisfactorily accounted
+as well for some of the chief lunar and planetary inequalities. Newton's
+investigations, however, were very far from being exhaustive. Colossal
+though his powers were, they had limits; and his work could not but
+remain unterminated, since it was by its nature interminable. Nor was it
+possible to provide it with what could properly be called a sequel. The
+synthetic method employed by him was too unwieldy for common use. Yet no
+other was just then at hand. Mathematical analysis needed half a century
+of cultivation before it was fully available for the arduous tasks
+reserved for it. They were accordingly taken up anew by a band of
+continental inquirers, primarily by three men of untiring energy and
+vivid genius, Leonhard Euler, Alexis Clairault, and Jean le Rond
+d'Alembert. The first of the outstanding gravitational problems with
+which they grappled was the unaccountably rapid advance of the lunar
+perigee. But the apparent anomaly disappeared under Euler's powerful
+treatment in 1749, and his result was shortly afterwards still further
+assured by Clairault. The subject of planetary perturbations was next
+attacked. Euler devised in 1753 a new method, that of the "variation of
+parameters," for their investigation, and applied it to unravel some of
+the earth's irregularities in a memoir crowned by the French Academy in
+1756; while in 1757, Clairault estimated the masses of the moon and
+Venus by their respective disturbing effects upon terrestrial movements.
+But the most striking incident in the history of the verification of
+Newton's law was the return of Halley's comet to perihelion, on the 12th
+of March 1759, in approximate accordance with Clairault's calculation of
+the delays due to the action of Jupiter and Saturn. Visual proof was
+thus, it might be said, afforded of the harmonious working of a single
+principle to the uttermost boundaries of the sun's dominion.
+
+
+  Lagrange.
+
+These successes paved the way for the higher triumphs of Joseph Louis
+Lagrange and of Pierre Simon Laplace. The subject of the lunar
+librations was treated by Lagrange with great originality in an essay
+crowned by the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1764; and he filled up the
+lacunae in his theory of them in a memoir communicated to the Berlin
+Academy in 1780. He again won the prize of the Paris Academy in 1766
+with an analytical discussion of the movements of Jupiter's satellites
+(_Miscellanea_, Turin Acad. t. iv.); and in the same year expanded
+Euler's adumbrated method of the variation of parameters into a highly
+effective engine of perturbational research. It was especially adapted
+to the tracing out of "secular inequalities," or those depending upon
+changes in the orbital elements of the bodies affected by them, and
+hence progressing indefinitely with time; and by its means, accordingly,
+the mechanical stability of the solar system was splendidly demonstrated
+through the successive efforts of Lagrange and Laplace. The proper share
+of each in bringing about this memorable result is not easy to
+apportion, since they freely imparted and profited by one another's
+advances and improvements; it need only be said that the fundamental
+proposition of the invariability of the planetary major axes laid down
+with restrictions by Laplace in 1773, was finally established by
+Lagrange in 1776; while Laplace in 1784 proved the subsistence of such a
+relation between the eccentricities of the planetary orbits on the one
+hand, and their inclinations on the other, that an increase of either
+element could, in any single case, proceed only to a very small extent.
+The system was thus shown, apart from unknown agencies of subversion, to
+be constructed for indefinite permanence. The prize of the Berlin
+Academy was, in 1780, adjudged to Lagrange for a treatise on the
+perturbations of comets, and he contributed to the Berlin Memoirs,
+1781-1784, a set of five elaborate papers, embodying and unifying his
+perfected methods and their results.
+
+
+  Laplace.
+
+The crowning trophies of gravitational astronomy in the 18th century
+were Laplace's explanations of the "great inequality" of Jupiter and
+Saturn in 1784, and of the "secular acceleration" of the moon in 1787.
+Both irregularities had been noted, a century earlier, by Edmund Halley;
+both had, since that time, vainly exercised the ingenuity of the ablest
+mathematicians; both now almost simultaneously yielded their secret to
+the same fortunate inquirer. Johann Heinrich Lambert pointed out in 1773
+that the motion of Saturn, from being retarded, had become accelerated.
+A periodic character was thus indicated for the disturbance; and Laplace
+assigned its true cause in the near approach to commensurability in the
+periods of the two planets, the cycle of disturbance completing itself
+in about 900 (more accurately 929-1/2) years. The lunar acceleration,
+too, obtains ultimate compensation, though only after a vastly
+protracted term of years. The discovery, just one hundred years after
+the publication of Newton's _Principia_, of its dependence upon the
+slowly varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit signalized the removal
+of the last conspicuous obstacle to admitting the unqualified validity
+of the law of gravitation. Laplace's calculations, it is true, were
+inexact. An error, corrected by J.C. Adams in 1853, nearly doubled the
+value of the acceleration deducible from them; and served to conceal a
+discrepancy with observation which has since given occasion to much
+profound research (see MOON).
+
+The _Mecanique celeste_, in which Laplace welded into a whole the items
+of knowledge accumulated by the labours of a century, has been termed
+the "Almagest of the 18th century" (Fourier). But imposing and complete
+though the monument appeared, it did not long hold possession of the
+field. Further developments ensued. The "method of least squares," by
+which the most probable result can be educed from a body of
+observational data, was published by Adrien Marie Legendre in 1806, by
+Carl Friedrich Gauss in his _Theoria Motus_ (1809), which described also
+a mode of calculating the orbit of a planet from three complete
+observations, afterwards turned to important account for the recapture
+of Ceres, the first discovered asteroid (see PLANETS, MINOR). Researches
+into rotational movement were facilitated by S.D. Poisson's application
+to them in 1809 of Lagrange's theory of the variation of constants;
+Philippe de Pontecoulant successfully used in 1829, for the prediction
+of the impending return of Halley's comet, a system of "mechanical
+quadratures" published by Lagrange in the Berlin Memoirs for 1778; and
+in his _Theorie analytique du systeme du monde_ (1846) he modified and
+refined general theories of the lunar and planetary revolutions. P.A.
+Hansen in 1829 (_Astr. Nach._ Nos. 166-168, 179) left the beaten track
+by choosing time as the sole variable, the orbital elements remaining
+constant. A.L. Cauchy published in 1842-1845 a method similarly
+conceived, though otherwise developed; and the scope of analysis in
+determining the movements of the heavenly bodies has since been
+perseveringly widened by the labours of Urbain J.J. Leverrier, J.C.
+Adams, S. Newcomb, G.W. Hill, E.W. Brown, H. Gylden, Charles Delaunay,
+F. Tisserand, H. Poincare and others too numerous to mention. Nor were
+these abstract investigations unaccompanied by concrete results. Sir
+George Airy detected in 1831 an inequality, periodic in 240 years,
+between Venus and the earth. Leverrier undertook in 1839, and concluded
+in 1876, the formidable task of revising all the planetary theories and
+constructing from them improved tables. Not less comprehensive has been
+the work carried out by Professor Newcomb of raising to a higher grade
+of perfection, and reducing to a uniform standard, all the theories and
+constants of the solar system. His inquiries afford the assurance of a
+nearly exact conformity among its members to strict gravitational law,
+only the moon and Mercury showing some slight, but so far unexplained,
+anomalies of movement. The discovery of Neptune in 1846 by Adams and
+Leverrier marked the first solution of the "inverse problem" of
+perturbations. That is to say, ascertained or ascertainable effects were
+made the starting-point instead of the goal of research.
+
+
+  Descriptive and practical astronomy.
+
+  Bayer.
+
+  Gassendi.
+
+  Horrocks.
+
+  Huygens.
+
+  Gascoigne.
+
+  Hevelius.
+
+Observational astronomy, meanwhile, was advancing to some extent
+independently. The descriptive branch found its principle of development
+in the growing powers of the telescope, and had little to do with
+mathematical theory; which, on the contrary, was closely allied, by
+relations of mutual helpfulness, with practical astronomy, or
+"astrometry." Meanwhile, the elementary requirement of making visual
+acquaintance with the stellar heavens was met, as regards the unknown
+southern skies, when Johann Bayer published at Nuremberg in 1603 a
+celestial atlas depicting twelve new constellations formed from the rude
+observations of navigators across the line. In the same work, the
+current mode of star-nomenclature by the letters of the Greek alphabet
+made its appearance. On the 7th of November 1631 Pierre Gassendi watched
+at Paris the passage of Mercury across the sun. This was the first
+planetary transit observed. The next was that of Venus on the 24th of
+November (O.S.) 1639, of which Jeremiah Horrocks and William Crabtree
+were the sole spectators. The improvement of telescopes was prosecuted
+by Christiaan Huygens from 1655, and promptly led to his discoveries of
+the sixth Saturnian moon, of the true shape of the Saturnian appendages,
+and of the multiple character of the "trapezium" of stars in the Orion
+nebula. William Gascoigne's invention of the filar micrometer and of the
+adaptation of telescopes to graduated instruments remained submerged for
+a quarter of a century in consequence of his untimely death at Marston
+Moor (1644). The latter combination had also been ineffectually proposed
+in 1634 by Jean Baptiste Morin (1583-1656); and both devices were
+recontrived at Paris about 1667, the micrometer by Adrien Auzout (d.
+1691), telescopic sights (so-called) by Jean Picard (1620-1682), who
+simultaneously introduced the astronomical use of pendulum-clocks,
+constructed by Huygens eleven years previously. These improvements were
+ignored or rejected by Johann Hevelius of Danzig, the author of the last
+important star-catalogue based solely upon naked-eye determinations.
+He, nevertheless, used telescopes to good purpose in his studies of
+lunar topography, and his designations for the chief mountain-chains and
+"seas" of the moon have never been superseded. He, moreover, threw out
+the suggestion (in his _Cometographia_, 1668) that comets move round the
+sun in orbits of a parabolic form.
+
+
+  The Paris observatory.
+
+  G.D. Cassini
+
+  Romer.
+
+The establishment, in 1671 and 1676 respectively, of the French and
+English national observatories at once typified and stimulated progress.
+The Paris institution, it is true, lacked unity of direction. No
+authoritative chief was assigned to it until 1771. G.D. Cassini, his son
+and his grandson were only _primi inter pares_. Claude Perrault's
+stately edifice was equally accessible to all the more eminent members
+of the Academy of Sciences; and researches were, more or less
+independently, carried on there by (among others) Philippe de la Hire
+(1640-1718), G.F. Maraldi (1665-1729), and his nephew, J.D. Maraldi,
+Jean Picard, Huygens, Olaus Romer and Nicolas de Lacaille. Some of the
+best instruments then extant were mounted at the Paris observatory. G.D.
+Cassini brought from Rome a 17-ft. telescope by G. Campani, with which
+he discovered in 1671 Iapetus, the ninth in distance of Saturn's family
+of satellites; Rhea was detected in 1672 with a glass by the same maker
+of 34-ft. focus; the duplicity of the ring showed in 1675; and, in 1684,
+two additional satellites were disclosed by a Campani telescope of 100
+ft. Cassini, moreover, set up an altazimuth in 1678, and employed from
+about 1682 a "parallactic machine," provided with clockwork to enable it
+to follow the diurnal motion. Both inventions have been ascribed to
+Olaus Romer, who used but did not claim them, and must have become
+familiar with their principles during the nine years (1672-1681) spent
+by him at the Paris observatory. Romer, on the other hand, deserves full
+credit for originating the transit-circle and the prime vertical
+instrument; and he earned undying fame by his discovery of the finite
+velocity of light, made at Paris in 1675 by comparing his observations
+of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites at the conjunctions and
+oppositions of the planet.
+
+
+  Flamsteed.
+
+The organization of the Greenwich observatory differed widely from that
+adopted at Paris. There a fundamental scheme of practical amelioration
+was initiated by John Flamsteed, the first astronomer royal, and has
+never since been lost sight of. Its purpose is the attainment of so
+complete a power of prediction that the places of the sun, moon and
+planets may be assigned without noticeable error for an indefinite
+future time. Sidereal inquiries, as such, made no part of the original
+programme in which the stars figured merely as points of reference. But
+these points are not stationary. They have an apparent precessional
+movement, the exact amount of which can be arrived at only by prolonged
+and toilsome enquiries. They have besides "proper motions," detected in
+1718 by E. Halley in a few cases, and since found to prevail
+universally. Further, James Bradley discovered in 1728 the annual
+shifting of the stars due to the aberration of light (see ABERRATION),
+and in 1748, the complicating effects upon precession of the "nutation"
+of the earth's axis. Hence, the preparation of a catalogue recording the
+"mean" positions of a number of stars for a given epoch involves
+considerable preliminary labour; nor do those positions long continue to
+satisfy observation. They need, after a time, to be corrected, not only
+systematically for precession, but also empirically for proper motion.
+Before the stars can safely be employed as route-marks in the sky, their
+movements must accordingly be tabulated, and research into the method of
+such movements inevitably follows. We perceive then that the fundamental
+problems of sidereal science are closely linked up with the elementary
+and indispensable procedures of celestial measurement.
+
+The history of the Greenwich observatory is one of strenuous efforts for
+refinement, stimulated by the growing stringency of theoretical
+necessities. Improved practice, again, reacted upon theory by bringing
+to notice residual errors, demanding the correction of formulae, or
+intimating neglected disturbances. Each increase of mechanical skill
+claims a corresponding gain in the subtlety of analysis; and vice versa.
+And this kind of interaction has gone on ever since Flamsteed
+reluctantly furnished the "places of the moon," which enabled Newton to
+lay the foundations of lunar theory.
+
+
+  Halley.
+
+  Bradley.
+
+  Bliss.
+
+  Maskelyne.
+
+  Pond.
+
+  Airy.
+
+Edmund Halley, the second astronomer royal, devoted most of his official
+attention to the moon. But his plan of attack was not happily chosen; he
+carried it out with deficient instrumental means; and his administration
+(1720-1742) remained comparatively barren. That of his successor, though
+shorter, was vastly more productive. James Bradley chose the most
+appropriate tasks, and executed them supremely well, with the
+indispensable aid of John Bird (1700-1776), who constructed for him an
+8-ft. quadrant of unsurpassed quality. Bradley's store of observations
+has accordingly proved invaluable. Those of 3222 stars, reduced by F.W.
+Bessel in 1818, and again with masterly insight by Dr A. Auwers in 1882,
+form the true basis of exact astronomy, and of our knowledge of proper
+motions. Those relating to the moon and planets, corrected by Sir George
+Airy, 1840-1846, form part of the standard materials for discussing
+theories of movement in the solar system. The fourth astronomer royal,
+Nathaniel Bliss, provided in two years a sequel of some value to
+Bradley's performance. Nevil Maskelyne, who succeeded him in 1764, set
+on foot, in 1767, the publication of the _Nautical Almanac_, and about
+the same time had an achromatic telescope fitted to the Greenwich mural
+quadrant. The invention, perfected by John Dollond in 1757, was long
+debarred from becoming effective by difficulties in the manufacture of
+glass, aggravated in England by a heavy excise duty levied until 1845.
+More immediately efficacious was the innovation made by John Pond
+(astronomer royal, 1811-1836) of substituting entire circles for
+quadrants. He further introduced, in 1821, the method of duplicate
+observations by direct vision and by reflection, and by these means
+obtained results of very high precision. During Sir George Airy's long
+term of office (1836-1881) exact astronomy and the traditional purposes
+of the royal observatory were promoted with increased vigour, while the
+scope of research was at the same time memorably widened. Magnetic,
+meteorological, and spectroscopic departments were added to the
+establishment; electricity was employed, through the medium of the
+chronograph, for the registration of transits; and photography was
+resorted to for the daily automatic record of the sun's condition.
+
+
+  Wargentin.
+
+  Lacaille.
+
+  Tobias Mayer.
+
+  Lalande.
+
+Meanwhile, advances were being made in various parts of the continent of
+Europe. Peter Wargentin (1717-1783), secretary to the Swedish Academy of
+Sciences, made a special study of the Jovian system. James Bradley had
+described to the Royal Society on the 2nd of July 1719 the curious
+cyclical relations of the three inner satellites; and their period of
+437 days was independently discovered by Wargentin, who based upon it in
+1746 a set of tables, superseded only by those of J.B.J. Delambre in
+1792. Among the fruits of the strenuous career of Nicolas Louis de
+Lacaille were tables of the sun, in which terms depending upon planetary
+perturbations were, for the first time, introduced (1758); an extended
+acquaintance with the southern heavens; and a determination of the
+moon's parallax from observations made at opposite extremities of an arc
+of the meridian 85 deg. in length. Tobias Mayer of Gottingen (1723-1762)
+originated the mode of adjusting transit-instruments still in vogue;
+drew up a catalogue of nearly a thousand zodiacal stars (published
+posthumously in 1775); and deduced the proper motions of eighty stars
+from a comparison of their places as given by Olaus Romer in 1706 with
+those obtained by himself in 1756. He executed besides a chart and forty
+drawings of the moon (published at Gottingen in 1881), and calculated
+lunar tables from a skilful development of Euler's theory, for which a
+reward of L3000 was in 1765 paid to his widow by the British government.
+They were published by the Board of Longitude, together with his solar
+tables, in 1770. The material interests of navigation were in these
+works primarily regarded; but the imaginative side of knowledge had
+also potent representatives during the latter half of the 18th century.
+In France, especially, the versatile activity of J.J. Lalande
+popularized the acquisitions of astronomy, and enforced its demands; and
+he had a German counterpart in J.E. Bode.
+
+
+  Distance of the sun.
+
+Between the time of Aristarchus and the opposition of Mars in 1672, no
+serious attempt was made to solve the problem of the sun's distance. In
+that year, however, Jean Richer at Cayenne and G.D. Cassini at Paris
+made combined observations of the planet, which yielded a parallax for
+the sun of 9.5", corresponding to a mean radius for the terrestrial
+orbit of 87,000,000 m. This result, though widely inaccurate, came much
+nearer to the truth than any previously obtained; and it instructively
+illustrated the feasibility of concerted astronomical operations at
+distant parts of the earth. The way was thus prepared for availing to
+the full of the opportunities for a celestial survey offered by the
+transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769. They had been signalized by E.
+Halley in 1716; they were later insisted upon by Lalande; an enthusiasm
+for co-operation was evoked, and the globe, from Siberia to Otaheite,
+was studded with observing parties. The outcome, nevertheless,
+disappointed expectation. The instants of contact between the limbs of
+the sun and planet defied precise determination. Optical complications
+fatally impeded sharpness of vision, and the phenomena took place in a
+debateable borderland of uncertainty. J.F. Encke, it is true, derived
+from them in 1822-1824 what seemed an authentic parallax of 8.57",
+implying a distance of 95,370,000 m.; but the confidence it inspired was
+finally overthrown in 1854 by P.A. Hansen's announcement of its
+incompatibility with lunar theory. An appeal then lay to the 19th
+century pair of transits in 1874 and 1882; but no peremptory decision
+ensued; observations were marred by the same optical evils as before.
+Their upshot, however, had lost its essential importance; for a fresh
+series of investigations based on a variety of principles had already
+been started. Leverrier, in 1858, calculated a value of 8.95" for the
+solar parallax (equivalent to a distance of 91,000,000 m.) from the
+"parallactic inequality" of the moon; Professor Newcomb, using other
+forms of the gravitational method, derived in 1895 a parallax of 8.76".
+Again, since the constant of aberration defines the ratio between the
+velocity of light and the earth's orbital speed, the span of the
+terrestrial circuit, in other words, the distance of the sun, is
+immediately deducible from known values of the first two quantities. The
+rate of light-transmission was accordingly made the subject of an
+elaborate set of experiments by Professor Newcomb in 1880-1882; and the
+result, taken in connexion with the aberration-constant as determined at
+Pulkowa, yielded a solar parallax of 8.79", or a distance (in round
+numbers) of 93,000,000 m. But the direct or geometrical mode of attack
+has still the preference over any of the indirect plans. Sir David Gill
+derived a highly satisfactory value of 8.78" for the long-sought
+constant from the opposition of Mars in 1877, and from combined
+heliometer observations at five observatories in 1888-1889 of the minor
+planets Iris, Victoria and Sappho, the apparently definitive value of
+8.80" (equivalent distance, 92,874,000 m.). But an unlooked-for fresh
+opportunity was afforded by the discovery in 1898 of the singularly
+circumstanced minor planet Eros, which occasionally approaches the earth
+more nearly than any other heavenly body except the moon. The opposition
+of November 1900, though only moderately favourable, could not be
+neglected; an international photographic campaign was organized at Paris
+with the aid of 58 observatories; and the voluminous collected data
+imply, so far as they have been discussed, a parallax for the sun a
+little greater than 8.8". (See also PARALLAX.)
+
+
+  Reflecting telescopes.
+
+  William Herschel.
+
+  Sir John Herschel.
+
+  Lord Rosse.
+
+The first specimen of a reflecting telescope was constructed by Isaac
+Newton in 1668. It was of what is still called "Newtonian" design, and
+had a speculum 2 in. in diameter. Through the skill of John Hadley
+(1682-1743) and James Short of Edinburgh (1710-1768) the instrument
+unfolded, in the ensuing century, some of its capabilities, which the
+labours of William Herschel enormously enhanced. Between 1774 and 1789
+he built scores of specula of continually augmented size, up to a
+diameter of 4 ft., the optical excellence of which approved itself by a
+crowd of discoveries. Uranus (q.v.) was recognized by its disk on the
+13th of March 1781; two of its satellites, Oberon and Titania, disclosed
+themselves on the 11th of January 1787; while with the giant 48-in.
+mirror, used on the "front-view" plan, Mimas and Enceladus, the
+innermost Saturnian moons, were brought to view on the 28th of August
+and the 17th of September 1789. These were incidental trophies;
+Herschel's main object was the exploration of the sidereal heavens. The
+task, though novel and formidable, was executed with almost incredible
+success. Charles Messier (1730-1817) had catalogued in 1781 103 nebulae;
+Herschel discovered 2500, laid down the lines of their classification,
+divined the laws of their distribution, and assigned their place in a
+scheme of development. The proof supplied by him in 1802 that coupled
+stars mutually circulate threw open a boundless field of research; and
+he originated experimental inquiries into the construction of the
+heavens by systematically collecting and sifting stellar statistics. He,
+moreover, definitively established, in 1783, the fact and general
+direction of the sun's movement in space, and thus introduced an element
+of order into the maze of stellar proper motions. Sir John Herschel
+continued in the northern, and extended to the southern hemisphere, his
+father's work. The third earl of Rosse mounted, at Parsonstown in 1845,
+a speculum 6 ft. in diameter, which afforded the first indications of
+the spiral structure shown in recent photographs to be the most
+prevalent characteristic of nebulae. Down to near the close of the 19th
+century, both the use and the improvement of reflectors were left mainly
+in British hands; but the gift of the "Crossley" instrument in 1895, to
+the Lick observatory, and its splendid subsequent performances in
+nebular photography, brought similar tools of research into extensive
+use among American astronomers; and they are now, for many of the
+various purposes of astrophysics, strongly preferred to refractors.
+
+
+  Giuseppe Piazzi.
+
+  Max Wolf.
+
+Acquaintance with the asteroidal family began as the 19th century
+opened. On the 1st of January 1801 Giuseppe Piazzi (1746-1826)
+discovered Ceres, at Palermo, while engaged in collecting materials for
+his star-catalogues. A prolonged succession of similar events followed.
+But in the mode of detecting these swarming bodies, a typical change was
+made on the 22nd of December 1891, when Dr Max Wolf of Heidelberg
+photographically captured No. 323. Repetitions of the feat are now
+counted by the score.
+
+
+  Lassell.
+
+  Bond.
+
+  Hall.
+
+  Barnard.
+
+  Perrine.
+
+  W.H. Pickering.
+
+Practical astronomy was only secondarily concerned with the addition of
+Neptune, on the 23rd of September 1846, to the company of known planets;
+but William Lassell's discovery of its satellite, on the 10th of October
+following, was a consequence of the perfect figure and high polish of
+his 2-ft. speculum. With the same instrument, he further detected, on
+the 19th of September 1848, Hyperion, the seventh of Saturn's
+attendants, and, on the 24th of October 1851, Ariel and Umbriel, the
+interior moons of Uranus. Simultaneously with Lassell, on the opposite
+shore of the Atlantic, W.C. Bond identified Hyperion; and he perceived,
+on the 15th of November 1850, Saturn's dusky ring, independently
+observed, a fortnight later, by W.R. Dawes, at Wateringbury in Kent.
+With the Washington 26-in. refractor, on the 11th of August 1877,
+Professor Asaph Hall descried the moons of Mars, Deimos and Phobos; and
+a minute light-speck, noticed by Professor E.E. Barnard in the close
+neighbourhood of Jupiter on the 9th of September 1892, proved
+representative of a small inner satellite, invisible with less perfect
+and powerful instruments than the Lick 36-in. achromatic. The Jovian
+system has been reinforced by three remote and extremely faint members,
+two photographed by Professor C.D. Perrine with the Crossley reflector
+in 1904-1905, and the third at Greenwich in 1908; and a pair of
+Saturnian moons, designated Phoebe and Themis, were tracked out by
+Professor W.H. Pickering, in 1898 and 1905 respectively, amid the
+thicket of stars imprinted on negatives taken at Arequipa with the Bruce
+24-in. doublet lens. This raises to 26 the number of discovered
+satellites in the solar system.
+
+
+  Comets.
+
+  Meteors.
+
+Cometary science has ramified in unexpected ways during the last hundred
+years. The establishment of a class of "short-period" comets by the
+computations of J.F. Encke in 1819, and of Wilhelm von Biela in 1826,
+led to the theory of their "capture" by the great planets, for which a
+solid mathematical basis was provided by H. Newton, F. Tisserand and O.
+Callandreau. An argument for the aboriginal connexion of comets with the
+solar system, founded by R.C. Carrington in 1860 upon their
+participation in its translatory movement, was more fully developed by
+L. Fabry in 1893; and the close orbital relationships of cometary
+groups, accentuated by the pursuit of each other along nearly the same
+track by the comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882, singularly illustrated the
+probable vicissitudes of their careers. The most remarkable event,
+however, in the recent history of cometary astronomy was its
+assimilation to that of meteors, which took unquestionable cosmical rank
+as a consequence of the Leonid tempest of November 1833. The affinity of
+the two classes of objects became known in 1866 through G.V.
+Schiaparelli's announcement that the orbit of the bright comet of 1862
+agreed strictly with the elliptic ring formed by the circulating Perseid
+meteors; and three other cases of close coincidence were soon afterwards
+brought to light. Tebbutt's comet in 1881 was the first to be
+satisfactorily photographed. The study of such objects is now carried on
+mainly through the agency of the sensitive plate. The photographic
+registration of meteor-trails, too, has been lately attempted with
+partial success. The full realization of the method will doubtless
+provide adequate data for the detailed investigation of meteoric paths.
+
+
+  Sidereal astronomy.
+
+  Star catalogues.
+
+The progress of science during the 19th century had no more distinctive
+feature than the rapid growth of sidereal astronomy (see STAR). Its
+scope, wide as the universe, can be compassed no otherwise than by
+statistical means, and the collection of materials for this purpose
+involves most arduous preliminary labour. The multitudinous enrolment of
+stars was the first requisite. Only one "catalogue of precision"--Nevil
+Maskelyne's of 36 fundamental stars--was available in 1800. J.J.
+Lalande, however, published in 1801, in his _Histoire celeste_, the
+approximate places of 47,390 from a re-observation of which the great
+Paris catalogue (1887-1892) has been compiled. A valuable catalogue of
+about 7600 stars was issued by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1814; Stephen
+Groombridge determined 4239 at Blackheath in 1806-1816; while through
+the joint and successive work of F.W. Bessel and W.A. Argelander, exact
+acquaintance was made with 90,000, a more general acquaintance with the
+324,000 stars recorded in the _Bonn Durchmusterung_ (1859-1862). The
+southern hemisphere was subsequently reviewed on a similar duplicate
+plan by E. Schonfeld (1828-1891) at Bonn, by B.A. Gould and J.M. Thome
+at Cordoba. Moreover, the imposing catalogue set on foot in 1865 at
+thirteen observatories by the German astronomical society has recently
+been completed; and adjuncts to it have, from time to time, been
+provided in the publications of the royal observatories at Greenwich and
+the Cape of Good Hope, and of national, imperial and private
+establishments in the United States and on the continent of Europe. But
+in the execution of these protracted undertakings, the human eye has
+been, to a large and increasing extent, superseded by the camera.
+Photographic star-charting was begun by Sir David Gill in 1885, and the
+third and concluding volume of the _Cape Photographic Durchmusterung_
+appeared in 1900. It gives the co-ordinates of above 450,000 stars,
+measured by Professor J.C. Kapteyn at Groningen on plates taken by C.
+Ray Woods at the Cape observatory. And this comprehensive work was
+merely preparatory to the International Catalogue and Chart, the
+production of which was initiated by the resolutions of the Paris
+Photographic Congress of 1887. Eighteen observatories scattered north
+and south of the equator divided the sky among them; and the outcome of
+their combined operations aimed at the production of a catalogue of at
+least 2,000,000 strictly determined stars, together with a colossal map
+in 22,000 sheets, showing stars to the fourteenth magnitude, in numbers
+difficult to estimate. (Sea PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL.)
+
+
+  Photometric catalogues.
+
+The arrangement of the stars in space can be usefully discussed only in
+connexion with their apparent light-power, or "magnitude." Photometric
+catalogues, accordingly, form an indispensable part of stellar
+statistics; and their construction has been zealously prosecuted. The
+_Harvard Photometry_ of 4260 lucid stars was issued by Professor E.C.
+Pickering in 1884, the _Uranometria Nova Oxoniensis_, giving the
+relative lustre of 2784 stars, by C. Pritchard in 1885. The instrument
+used at Harvard was a "meridian photometer," constructed on the
+principle of polarization; while the "method of extinctions," by means
+of a wedge of neutral-tinted glass, served for the Oxford
+determinations. At Potsdam, some 17,000 stars have been measured by
+C.H.G. Muller and P.F.F. Kempf with a polarizing photometer; but by far
+the most comprehensive work of the kind is the Harvard _Photometric
+Durchmusterung_ (1901-1903), embracing all stars to 7.5 magnitude, and
+extended to the southern pole by measurements executed at Arequipa. The
+embarrassing subject of photographic photometry has also been attacked
+by Professor Pickering. The need is urgent of fixing a scale, and
+defining standards of actinic brightness; but it has not yet been
+successfully met.
+
+
+  Double stars.
+
+The investigation of double stars was carried on from 1819 to 1850 with
+singular persistence and ability at Dorpat and Pulkowa by F.G.W. Struve,
+and by his son and successor, O.W. Struve. The high excellence of the
+data collected by them was a combined result of their skill, and of the
+vast improvement in refracting telescopes due to the genius of Joseph
+Fraunhofer (1787-1826). Among the inheritors of his renown were Alvan
+Clark and Alvan G. Clark of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts; and the superb
+definition of their great achromatics rendered practicable the division
+of what might have been deemed impossibly close star-pairs. These
+facilities were remarkably illustrated by Professor S.W. Burnham's
+record of discovery, which roused fresh enthusiasm for this line of
+inquiry by compelling recognition of the extraordinary profusion
+throughout the heavens of compound objects. Discoveries with the
+spectroscope have ratified and extended this conclusion.
+
+
+  Stellar parallax.
+
+Only spurious star-parallaxes had claimed the attention of astronomers
+until F.W. Bessel announced, in December 1838, the perspective yearly
+shifting of 61 Cygni in an ellipse with a mean radius of about one-third
+of a second. Thomas Henderson (1798-1844) had indeed measured the larger
+displacements of [alpha] Centauri at the Cape in 1832-1833, but delayed
+until 1839 to publish his result. Out of several hundred stars since
+then examined, seventy or eighty have yielded fairly accurate, though
+very small parallaxes. But this amount of knowledge, however valuable in
+itself, is utterly inadequate to the needs of sidereal research; and
+various attempts have accordingly been made, chiefly by Professors J.C.
+Kapteyn and Simon Newcomb, to estimate, through the analysis of their
+proper motions, the "mean parallax" of stars assorted by magnitude. And
+the data thus arrived at are reassuringly self-consistent. A wide
+photographic survey, by which parallaxes might be secured wholesale, has
+further been recommended by Kapteyn; but is unlikely to be undertaken in
+the immediate future.
+
+
+  Proper motions.
+
+The exhaustive ascertainment of stellar parallaxes, combined with the
+visible facts of stellar distribution, would enable us to build a
+perfect plan of the universe in three dimensions. Its perfection would,
+nevertheless, be undermined by the mobility of all its constituent
+parts. Their configuration at a given instant supplies no information as
+to their configuration hereafter unless the mode and laws of their
+movements have been determined. Hence, one of the leading inducements
+to the construction of exact and comprehensive catalogues has been to
+elicit, by comparisons of those for widely separated epochs, the proper
+motions of the stars enumerated in them. Little was known on the subject
+at the beginning of the 19th century. William Herschel founded his
+determination in 1783 of the sun's route in space upon the movements of
+thirteen stars; and he took into account those of only six in his second
+solution of the problem in 1805. But in 1837 Argelander employed 390
+proper motions as materials for the treatment of the same subject; and
+L. Struve had at his disposal, in 1887, no less than 2800. From the
+re-observation of Lalande's stars, after the lapse of not far from a
+century, J. Bossert was enabled to deduce 2675 proper motions, published
+at Paris in four successive memoirs, 1887-1902; and the sum-total of
+those ascertained probably now exceeds 6000. Yet this number, although
+it represents a portentous expenditure of labour, is insignificant
+compared with the multitude of the stellar throng; nor had any general
+tendency been discerned to regulate what seemed casual flittings until
+Professor Kapteyn, in 1904, adverted to the prevalence among all the
+brighter stars of opposite stream-flows towards two "vertices" situated
+in the Milky Way (see STAR). The assured general fact as regards the
+direction of stellar movements was that they included a common
+parallactic element due to the sun's translation. And it is by the
+consideration of this partial accordance in motion that the advance
+through space of the solar system has been ascertained.
+
+
+  Astrophysics.
+
+  Spectrum analysis.
+
+The apex of the sun's way was fixed by Professor Newcomb in 1898 at a
+point about 4 deg. S. of the brilliant star Vega; but was shifted nearly
+7 deg. to the S.W. by J.C. Kapteyn's inquiry in 1901; so that the range
+of uncertainty as to its position continues unsatisfactorily wide. The
+speed with which our system progresses is, on the other hand, fairly
+well known. It cannot differ much from 12-1/2 m. a second, the rate
+assigned to it by Professor W.W. Campbell in 1902. He employed in his
+discussion the radial velocities of 280 stars, spectroscopically
+determined; and the upshot signally exemplified the community of
+interests between the rising science of astrophysics and the ancient
+science of astrometry. Their characteristic purposes are, nevertheless,
+entirely different. The positions of the heavenly bodies in space, and
+the changes of those positions with time, constitute the primary subject
+of investigation by the elder school; while the new astronomy concerns
+itself chiefly with the individual peculiarities of suns and planets,
+with their chemistry, physical habitudes and modes of luminosity. Its
+distinctive method is spectrum analysis, the invention and development
+of which in the 19th century have fundamentally altered the purpose and
+prospects of celestial inquiries.
+
+
+  Wollaston.
+
+  Fraunhofer.
+
+  Kirchhoff.
+
+  Chemistry of the sun.
+
+A beam of sunlight admitted into a darkened room through a narrow
+aperture, and there dispersed into a vario-tinted band by the
+interposition of a prism, is not absolutely continuous. Dr W.H.
+Wollaston made the experiment in 1802, and perceived the spaces of
+colour to be interrupted by seven obscure gaps, which took the shape of
+lines owing to his use of rectangular slit. He thus caught a preliminary
+glimpse of the "Fraunhofer lines," so called because Joseph Fraunhofer
+brought them into prominent notice by the diligence and insight of his
+labours upon them in 1814-1815. He mapped 324, chose out nine, which he
+designated by the letters of the alphabet, to be standards of
+measurement for the rest, and ascertained the coincidence in position
+between the double yellow ray derived from the flame of burning sodium
+and the pair of dark lines named by him "D" in the solar spectrum. There
+ensued forty-five years of groping for a law which should clear up the
+enigma of the solar reversals. Partial anticipations abounded. The vital
+heart of the matter was barely missed by W.A. Miller in 1845, by L.
+Foucault in 1849, by A.J. Angstrom in 1853, by Balfour Stewart in 1858;
+while Sir George Stokes held the solution of the problem in the hollow
+of his hand from 1852 onward. But it was the synthetic genius of Gustav
+Kirchhoff which first gave unity to the scattered phenomena, and finally
+reconciled what was elicited in the laboratory with what was observed in
+the sun. On the 15th of December 1859 he communicated to the Berlin
+Academy of Sciences the principle which bears his name. Its purport is
+that glowing vapours similarly circumstanced absorb the identical
+radiations which they emit. That is to say, they stop out just those
+sections of white light transmitted through them which form their own
+special luminous badges. Moreover, if the white light come from a source
+at a higher temperature than theirs, the sections, or lines, absorbed by
+them show dark against a continuous background. And this is precisely
+the case with the sun. Kirchhoff's principle, accordingly, not only
+afforded a simple explanation of the Fraunhofer lines, but availed to
+found a far-reaching science of celestial chemistry. Thousands of the
+dark lines in the solar spectrum agree absolutely in wave-length with
+the bright rays artificially obtained from known substances, and
+appertaining to them individually. These substances must then exist near
+the sun. They are in fact suspended in a state of vapour between our
+eyes and the photosphere, the dazzling prismatic radiance of which they,
+to a minute extent, intercept, thus writing their signatures on the
+coloured scroll of dispersed sunshine. By persistent research,
+powerfully aided by the photographic camera and by the concave gratings
+invented by H.A. Rowland (1848-1901) in 1882, about forty terrestrial
+elements have been identified in the sun. Among them, iron, sodium,
+magnesium, calcium and hydrogen are conspicuous; but it would be rash to
+assert that any of the seventy forms of matter provisionally enumerated
+in text-books are wholly absent from his composition.
+
+
+  Solar eclipses.
+
+Solar physics has profited enormously by the abolition of glare during
+total eclipses. That of the 8th of July 1842 was the first to be
+efficiently observed; and the luminous appendages to the sun disclosed
+by it were such as to excite startled attention. Their investigation has
+since been diligently prosecuted. The corona was photographed at
+Konigsberg during the totality of the 28th of July 1851; similar records
+of the red prominences, successively obtained by Father Angelo Secchi
+and Warren de la Rue, as the shadow-track crossed Spain on the 18th of
+July 1860, finally demonstrated their solar status. The Indian eclipse
+of the 18th of August 1868 supplied knowledge of their spectrum, found
+to include the yellow ray of an exotic gas named by Sir Norman Lockyer
+"helium." It further suggested, to Lockyer and P. Janssen separately,
+the spectroscopic method of observing these objects in daylight. Under
+cover of an eclipse visible in North America on the 7th of August 1869,
+the bright green line of the corona was discerned; and Professor C.A.
+Young caught the "flash spectrum" of the reversing layer, at the moment
+of second contact, at Xerez de la Frontera in Spain, on the 22nd of
+December 1870. This significant but evanescent phenomenon, which
+represents the direct emissions of a low-lying solar envelope, was
+photographed by William Shackleton on the occasion of an eclipse in
+Novaya Zemlya on the 9th of August 1896; and it has since been
+abundantly registered by exposures made during the obscurations of 1898,
+1900, 1901 and 1905. A singular and unlooked-for result of eclipse-work
+has been to include the corona within the scope of solar periodicity.
+Heinrich Schwabe established, in 1851, the cyclical variation, in eleven
+years, of spot-frequency; terrestrial magnetic disturbances manifestly
+obeyed the same law; and the peculiar winged aspect of the corona
+disclosed by the eclipse of the 29th of July 1878, at an epoch of
+minimum sun-spots, intimated to A.C. Ranyard a theory of coronal types,
+changing concurrently with the fluctuations of spot-activity. This was
+amply verified at subsequent eclipses.
+
+
+  Prominence photography.
+
+The photography of prominences was, after some preliminary trials by
+C.A. Young and others, fully realized in 1891 by Professor George E.
+Hale at Chicago, and independently by Henri Deslandres at Paris. The
+pictures were taken, in both cases, with only one quality of light; the
+violet ray of calcium, the remaining superfluous beams being eliminated
+by the agency of a double slit. The last-named expedient had been
+described by Janssen in 1867. Hale devised on the same principle the
+"spectroheliograph," an instrument by which the sun's disk can be
+photographed in calcium-light by imparting a rapid movement to its image
+relatively to the sensitive plate; and the method has proved in many
+ways fruitful.
+
+
+  Stellar spectroscopy.
+
+The likeness of the sun to the stars has been shown by the spectroscope
+to be profound and inherent. Yet the general agreement of solar and
+stellar chemistry does not exclude important diversities of detail.
+Fraunhofer was the pioneer in this branch. He observed, in 1823, dark
+lines in stellar spectra which Kirchhoff's discovery supplied the means
+of interpreting. The task, attempted by G.B. Donati in 1860, was
+effectively taken in hand, two years later, by Angelo Secchi, William
+Huggins and Lewis M. Rutherfurd. There ensued a general classification
+of the stars by Secchi into four leading types, distinguished by
+diversities of spectral pattern; and the recognition by Huggins of a
+considerable number of terrestrial elements as present in stellar
+atmospheres. Nebular chemistry was initiated by the same investigator
+when, on the 29th of August 1864, he observed the bright-line spectrum
+of a planetary nebula in Draco. About seventy analogous objects,
+including that in the Sword of Orion, were found by him to give light of
+the same quality; and thus after seventy-three years, verification was
+brought to William Herschel's hypothesis of a "shining fluid" diffused
+through space, the possible raw material of stars. In 1874, Dr H.C.
+Vogel published a modification of Secchi's scheme of stellar
+diversities, and gave it organic meaning by connecting spectral
+differences with advance in "age." And in 1895, he set apart, as in the
+earliest stage of growth, a new class of "helium stars," supposed to
+develop successively into Sirian, solar, Antarian, or alternatively into
+carbon stars.
+
+
+  Spectra of comets.
+
+On the 5th of August 1864, G.B. Donati analysed the light of a small
+comet into three bright bands. Sir William Huggins repeated the
+experiment on Winnecke's comet in 1868, obtained the same bands, and
+traced them to their origin from glowing carbon-vapour. A photograph of
+the spectrum of Tebbutt's comet, taken by him on the 24th of June 1881,
+showed radiations of shorter wave-lengths but identical source, and in
+addition, a percentage of reflected solar light marked as such by the
+presence of some well-known Fraunhofer lines. Further experience has
+generalized these earlier results. The rule that comets yield
+carbon-spectra has scarcely any exceptions. The usual bands were,
+however, temporarily effaced in the two brilliant apparitions of 1882 by
+vivid rays of sodium and iron, emitted during the excitement of
+perihelion-passage.
+
+
+  Progress in spectrography.
+
+The adoption, by Sir William Huggins in 1876, of gelatine or dry plates
+in celestial photography was a change of decisive import. For it made
+long exposures possible; and only with long exposures could autographic
+impressions be secured of such faint objects as nebulae, telescopic
+comets, and the immense majority of stars, or of the dim ranges of
+stellar and nebular spectra. The first conspicuous triumph of the new
+"spectrographic" art thus established was the record by Huggins in 1879
+of the dispersed light of several "white" or Sirian stars, in which the
+chief traits of absorption were the rhythmical series of hydrogen-lines,
+then memorably discovered. Again by Sir William Huggins, the spectrum of
+the Orion nebula was photographed on the 7th of March 1882; and the
+method has gradually become nearly exclusive in the study of nebular
+emanations. The "Draper Catalogue" of 10,351 stellar spectra was
+published by Professor E.C. Pickering in 1890. The materials for it were
+rapidly accumulated by the use of an objective prism, that is, of a
+prism placed in front of, instead of behind the object-lens, by which
+means the spectra of all the stars in the field, to the number often of
+many score, imprinted themselves simultaneously on the sensitive plate.
+The progress of this survey was marked by a number of important
+discoveries of "new" and variable stars and of spectroscopic binaries,
+mainly through the acumen of Mrs Williamina Paton Fleming of Harvard
+College in scrutinizing the negatives forming the data for the great
+catalogue.
+
+
+  Doppler's principle.
+
+The principle that the refrangibility of light is altered by end-on
+motion was enunciated by Christian Doppler of Prague in 1842. The pitch
+of a steam-whistle quite obviously rises and falls as the engine to
+which it is attached approaches and recedes from a stationary auditor;
+and light-pulses are modified like sound-waves by velocity in the line
+of sight. They are crowded together and therefore rendered shorter and
+more frequent by the advance of their source, but drawn apart and
+lengthened by its recession. These effects vary with the rate of motion,
+which they consequently serve to measure; and they are produced
+indifferently by movements of the spectator or of the light-source. But
+Doppler's idea that they might be detected by colour-change was entirely
+illusory. It would apply only if the spectrum had no infra-red and
+ultraviolet extensions. These, however, since they share the general
+lengthening or shortening of wave-length through motion, are thereby
+shifted, to a certain definite extent, into visibility, and so produce
+accurate chromatic compensation. Integrated light, accordingly, tells
+nothing about velocity; but analysed light does, when it includes bright
+or dark rays the normal positions of which are known. The distinction
+was pointed out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848. By comparison with their
+analogues in the laboratory it can be determined whether, in which
+direction, and how much, lines of recognized origin are displaced in the
+spectra of the heavenly bodies. This subtle mode of research was made
+available by Sir William Huggins in 1868. He employed it, with an
+outcome of striking promise, to measure the radial speed of some of the
+brighter stars. In the following year, Sir Norman Lockyer was enabled to
+prove, by its means, the extraordinary vehemence of chromospheric
+disturbances, the bright prominence-rays in his spectroscope betraying,
+through their opposite shiftings, movements and counter-movements up to
+120 m. a second; while its validity and refinement were, in 1871,
+vouched for by H.C. Vogel's observations on the 9th of June 1871, of
+differences due to the sun's rotation in the refrangibility of
+Fraunhofer lines derived respectively from the east and west limbs.
+Stellar line-of-sight work, however, made no satisfactory progress
+until, in 1888, Vogel changed the _venue_ from the eye to the camera. A
+high degree of precision in measurement thus became attainable, and has
+since been fully attained. Not only the grosser facts concerning radial
+velocity, but variations in it so small as a mile, or less, per second,
+have been recorded and interpreted in terms of deep meaning. For the
+investigation of the general scheme of sidereal structure, the
+multiplication of results of the kind is indispensable. But as yet, the
+recessional or approaching movements of only a few hundred stars have
+been registered; and this store of information is scanty indeed compared
+with the needs of research. How the stars really move in space, and how
+the sun travels among them, can be ascertained only with the aid of
+materials collected by the spectrograph, which has now fortunately been
+brought to comply with the arduous conditions of exactitude requisite
+for collaboration with the transit instrument and its allies, the clock
+and chronograph. And here, to their great mutual advantage, the old and
+the new astronomies meet and join forces.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R. Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_ (1852); Sir G.
+  Cornewall Lewis, _An Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the
+  Ancients_ (1862); J.B.J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. ancienne; Hist.
+  de l'astr. au moyen age; Hist. de l'astr. moderne; Hist, de l'astr. au
+  XVIII^e siecle_; J.S. Bailly, _Histoire de l'astronomie_ (5 vols.,
+  1775-1787); J.F. Weidler, _Historia Astronomiae_ (1741); J.H. Madler,
+  _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_ (1873); R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
+  Astronomie_ (1876); _Handbuch der Astronomie_ (1890-1892); W. Whewell,
+  _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_; A.M. Clerke, _Hist. of Astronomy
+  during the 19th Century_ (4th ed., 1903); A. Berry, _Hist. of
+  Astronomy_ (1898); J.K. Schaubach, _Geschichte der griechischen
+  Astronomie bis auf Eratosthenes_ (1802); Th. H. Martin, "Memoire sur
+  l'histoire des hypotheses astronomiques," _Memoires de l'lnstitut_, t.
+  xxx. (Paris, 1881); P. Tannery, _Recherches sur l'histoire de
+  l'astronomie ancienne_ (1893); O. Gruppe, _Die kosmischen Systeme der
+  Griechen_ (1851); G.V. Schiaparelli, _I Precursori del Copernico_
+  (1873); _Le Sfere Omocentriche di Eudosso_ (1875); P. Jensen,
+  _Kosmologie der Babylonier_ (1890); F.X. Kugler, _Die babylonische
+  Mondrechnung_ (1900); J. Epping and J.N. Strassmeier, _Astronomisches
+  aus Babylon_ (1889); F.K. Ginzel, _Die astronomischen Kenntnisse der
+  Babylonier_ (1901); C.L. Ideler, _Historische Untersuchungen uber die
+  astronomischen Beobachtungen der Alten_ (1806); _Handbuch der math.
+  Chronologie_ (2 vols., 1825-1826); _Untersuchungen uber den Ursprung
+  der Sternnamen_ (1809); G. Costard, _History of Astronomy_ (1767); J.
+  Narrien, _An Historical Account of the Origin and Progress of
+  Astronomy_ (1833); J.L.E. Dreyer, _Hist. of the Planetary Systems_
+  (1906); G.W. Hill, "Progress of Celestial Mechanics," _The
+  Observatory_, vol. xix. (1896).     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _The Observatory_, Nos. 231-234, 1895.
+
+  [2] _Observations of Comets_, translated from the Chinese _Annals_ by
+   John Williams, F.S.A. (1871).
+
+  [3] J.L.E. Dreyer, _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._ vol. iii. No. 7 (December
+   1881).
+
+  [4] F.K. Ginzel, "Die astronomischen Kenntnisse der Babylonier," C.F.
+    Lehmann, _Beitrage zur alten Geschichte_, Heft i. p. 6 (1901).
+
+  [5] _Knowledge and Scientific News_, vol. i. pp. 2, 228.
+
+  [6] _Astronomisches aus Babylon_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1889).
+
+  [7] Ginzel, loc. cit. Heft ii. p. 204.
+
+  [8] _Die babylonische Mondrechnung_, p. 50 (1900).
+
+  [9] S. Newcomb, _Astr. Nach._ No. 3682; P.H. Cowell, _Month. Notices
+    Roy. Astr. Soc._ lxv. 867.
+
+  [10] G.V. Schiaparelli, _I Precursori del Copernico_, pp. 23-28,
+    Pubbl. del R. Osservatorio di Brera, No. iii. (1873).
+
+  [11] G.V. Schiaparelli, _I Precursori del Copernico_, pp. 23-28,
+    Pubbl. del R. Osservatorio di Brera, No. ix.
+
+  [12] Marie. _Hist. des sciences_, t. i. p. 79; P. Tannery, _Hist. de
+    l'astronomie ancienne_, ch. v. p. 115.
+
+  [13] Published by H.C. Schjellerup in a French translation (St
+    Petersburg, 1874).
+
+  [14] Newcomb, _Researches on the Motion of the Moon_, Washington
+    Observations for 1875, Appendix ii. p. 20.
+
+  [15] F. Baily, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, vol. xiii. p. 19.
+
+  [16] J.L.E. Dreyer, _Life of Tycho Brahe_, p. 321.
+
+
+
+
+ASTROPALIA (classical _Astypalaea_), an island, with good harbours, in
+the south part of the Aegean, situated in 36.5 deg. N. and immediately
+west of 26.5 deg. E. It was colonized by Megara, and its constitution
+and buildings are known from numerous inscriptions. The Roman emperors
+recognized it as a free state, and in the middle ages it was called
+_Stampalia_, and belonged to the noble Venetian family of Quirini. It
+was taken by the Turks in the 16th century, and is now noted for its
+sponges. The customs and dress of the people, who speak a patois of
+romaic origin, are interesting.
+
+
+
+
+ASTROPHYSICS, the branch of astronomical science which treats of the
+physical constitution of the heavenly bodies. So long as these bodies
+could be known to men only as points or disks of light in the sky, no
+such science was possible. Even later, when the telescope was the only
+instrument of research, knowledge on this subject was confined to the
+appearances presented by the planets, supplemented by more or less
+probable inferences as to the nature of their surfaces. When, in the
+third quarter of the 19th century, spectrum analysis was applied to the
+light coming to us from the heavenly bodies, a new era in astronomical
+science was opened up of such importance that the body of knowledge
+revealed by this method has sometimes been termed the "new astronomy."
+The development of the method has been greatly assisted by photography,
+while the application of photometric measurements has been a powerful
+auxiliary in the work. It has thus come about that astrophysics owes its
+recent development, and its recognition as a distinct branch of
+astronomical science, to the combination of the processes involved in
+the three arts of spectroscopy, photography and photometry. The most
+general conclusions reached by this combination may be summed up as
+follows:--
+
+1. The heavenly bodies are composed of like matter with that which we
+find to make up our globe. The sun and stars are found to contain the
+more important elements with which chemistry has made us acquainted.
+Iron, calcium and hydrogen may be especially mentioned as three familiar
+chemical elements which enter largely into the constitution of all the
+matter of the heavens. It would be going too far to say that all the
+elements known to us exist in the sun or the stars; nor is the question
+whether the rarer ones can or cannot be found there of prime importance.
+The general fact of identity in the main constituents is the one of most
+fundamental importance. It would be going too far in the other direction
+to claim that all the elements which compose the heavenly bodies are
+found on the earth. There are many lines in the spectra of the stars, as
+well as of the nebulae, which are not certainly identified with those
+belonging to any elements known to our chemistry. The recent discoveries
+growing out of the investigation of newly discovered forms of radiation
+lead to the conclusion that the question of the forms of matter in the
+stars has far wider range than the simple question whether any given
+element is or is not found outside our earth. The question is rather
+that of the infinity of forms that matter may assume, including that
+most attenuated form found in the nebulae, which seem to be composed of
+matter more refined than even the atoms supposed to make up the matter
+around us.
+
+2. The second conclusion is that, as a general rule, the incandescent
+heavenly bodies are not masses of solid or liquid matter as formerly
+assumed, but mainly masses either of gas, or of substances gaseous in
+their nature, so compressed by the gravitation of their superincumbent
+parts toward a common centre that their properties combine those of the
+three forms of matter known to us. We have strong reason to believe that
+even the sun, though much denser than the general average of the stars,
+may possibly be characterized as gaseous rather than solid.
+Probabilities also seem to favour the view that this may, to a certain
+extent, be true of the four great planets of our system. The case of
+bodies like our earth and Mars, which are solid either superficially or
+throughout, is probably confined to the smaller bodies of the universe.
+
+3. A third characteristic which seems to belong to the great bodies of
+the universe is the very high temperature of their interior. With a
+modification to be mentioned presently, we may regard them as intensely
+hot bodies, probably at a temperature higher than any we can produce by
+artificial means, of which the superficial portions have cooled off by
+radiation into space. A modification in this proposition which may
+hereafter be accepted involves an extension of our ideas of temperature,
+and leads us to regard the interior heat of the heavenly bodies as due
+to a form of molecular activity similar to that of which radium affords
+so remarkable an instance. This modification certainly avoids many
+difficulties connected with the question of the interior heat of the
+earth, sun, Jupiter and probably all the larger heavenly bodies.
+
+A limit is placed on our knowledge of astrophysics which, up to the
+present time, we have found no means of overstepping. This is imposed
+upon us by the fact that it is only when matter is in a gaseous form
+that the spectroscope can give us certain knowledge as to its physical
+condition. So long as bodies are in the solid state the light which they
+emit, though different in different substances, has no characteristic so
+precisely marked that detailed conclusions can be drawn as to the nature
+of the substance emitting it. Even in a liquid form, the spectrum of any
+kind of matter is less characteristic than that of gas. Moreover, a
+gaseous body of uniform temperature, and so dense as to be
+non-transparent, does not radiate the characteristic spectrum of the gas
+of which it is composed. Precise conclusions are possible only when a
+gaseous body is transparent through and through, so that the gas emits
+its characteristic rays--or when the rays from an incandescent body of
+any kind pass through a gaseous envelope at a temperature lower than
+that of the body itself. In this case the revelations of the
+spectroscope relate only to the constitution of the gaseous envelope,
+and not to the body below the envelope, from which the light emanates.
+The outcome of this drawback is that our knowledge of the chemical
+constitution of the stars and planets is still confined to their
+atmospheres, and that conclusions as to the constitution of the interior
+masses which form them must be drawn by other methods than the
+spectroscopic one.
+
+When the spectroscope was first applied in astronomy, it was hoped that
+the light reflected from living matter might be found to possess some
+property different from that found in light reflected from non-living
+matter, and that we might thus detect the presence of life on the
+surface of a planet by a study of its spectrum; but no hope of this kind
+has so far been realized.
+
+We have, in this brief view of the subject, referred mainly to the
+results of spectrum analysis. Growing out of, but beyond this method is
+the beginning of a great branch of research which may ultimately explain
+many heretofore enigmatical phenomena of nature. The discovery of
+radio-activity may, by explaining the interior heat of the great bodies
+of the universe, solve a difficulty which since the middle of the 19th
+century has been discussed by physicists and geologists--that of
+reconciling the long duration which geologists claim for the crust of
+the earth with the period during which physicists have deemed it
+possible that the sun should have radiated heat. Evidence is also
+accumulating to show that the sun and stars are radio-active bodies, and
+that emanations proceeding from the sun, and reaching the earth, have
+important relations to the phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism and the
+Aurora.
+
+The subject of Astrophysics does not admit of so definite a subdivision
+as that of Astrometry. The conclusions which researches relating to it
+have so far reached are treated in the articles STAR; SUN; COMET;
+NEBULA; AURORA POLARIS, &c.     (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTRUC, JEAN (1684-1766), French physician and Biblical critic, was born
+on the 19th of March 1684 at Sauve, in Languedoc. He graduated in
+medicine at Montpellier in 1703, and in 1710 he was appointed to the
+chair of anatomy at Toulouse, which he retained till 1717, when he
+became professor of medicine at Montpellier. Subsequently he was
+appointed successively superintendent of the mineral waters of Languedoc
+(1721), first physician to the king of Poland (1729), and regius
+professor of medicine at Paris (1731). He died on the 5th of May 1766 at
+Paris. Of his numerous works, that on which his fame principally rests
+is the treatise entitled _De Morbis Venereis libri sex_, 1736. In
+addition to other medical works he published anonymously _Conjectures
+sur les memoires originaux dont il parait que Moyse s'est servi pour
+composer le livre de la Genese_, (1753), in which he pointed out that
+two main sources can be traced in the book of Genesis; and two
+dissertations on the immateriality and immortality of the soul, 1755.
+
+  See Hauck, _Realencyk. f. prot. Theol._, 1897, vol. ii. pp. 162-170.
+
+
+
+
+ASTURA, formerly an island, now a peninsula, on the coast of Latium,
+Italy, 7 m. S.E. of Antium, at the S.E. extremity of the Bay of Antium.
+The name also belongs to the river which flowed into the sea immediately
+to the S.E., at the mouth of which there was, according to Strabo, an
+anchorage. The medieval castle of the Frangipani, in which Conradin of
+Swabia vainly sought refuge after the battle of Tagliacozza in 1268, is
+built upon the foundations of a very large villa, of _opus reticulatum_
+with later additions in brickwork, and with a small harbour attached to
+it on the south-east. Remains of buildings also exist behind the sand
+dunes, which possibly mark the line of the channel which separated the
+island from the mainland, and these may have belonged to the
+post-station on the Via Severiana. As far as can be seen at present,
+there are remains of only one villa on the island itself;[1] but along
+the coast a mile to the north-west a line of villas begins, which
+continues as far as Antium. To the south-east, on the other hand,
+remains are almost entirely absent, and this portion of the coast seems
+to have been as sparsely populated in Roman times as it is now. The
+island seems to have existed as such in the time of Pope Honorius III.
+Astura was the site of a favourite villa of Cicero, whither he retired
+on the death of his daughter Tullia in 453 B.C. It appears to have been
+unhealthy even in Roman times; according to Suetonius, both Augustus and
+Tiberius contracted here the illnesses which proved fatal to them.
+
+  See T. Ashby, in _Melanges de l'Ecole Francaise de Rome_ (1905), p.
+  207.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Servius, in speaking of it as _oppidum_, must be referring to the
+    post-station.
+
+
+
+
+ASTURIAS, an ancient province and principality of northern Spain,
+bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Old Castile, S. by Leon
+and W. by Galicia. Pop. (1900) 627,069; area, 4205 sq. m. By the
+division of Spain in 1833, the province took the name of Oviedo, though
+not to the exclusion, in ordinary usage, of the older designation. A
+full description of its modern condition is therefore given under the
+heading OVIEDO; the present article being confined to an account of its
+physical features, its history, and the resultant character of its
+inhabitants. Asturias consists of a portion of the northern slope of the
+Cantabrian Mountains, and is covered in all directions with offshoots
+from the main chain, by which it is almost completely shut in on the
+south. The higher summits, which often reach a height of 7000-8000 ft.,
+are usually covered with snow until July or August, and the whole region
+is one of the wildest and most picturesque parts of Spain. Until the
+first railway was opened, in the middle of the 19th century, few of the
+passes across the mountains were practicable for carriages, and most of
+them are difficult even for horses. A narrow strip of level moorland,
+covered with furze and rich in deposits of peat, coal and amber,
+stretches inland, from the edge of the sheer cliffs which line the
+coast, to the foot of the mountains. The province is watered by numerous
+streams and rivers, which have hollowed out deep valleys; but owing to
+the narrowness of the level tract, their courses are short, rapid and
+subject to floods. The most important is the Nalon or Pravia, which
+receives the waters of the Caudal, the Trubia and the Narcea, and has a
+course of 62 m.; after it rank the Navia and the Sella. The estuaries of
+these rivers are rarely navigable, and along the entire littoral, a
+distance of 130 m., the only important harbours are at Gijon and Aviles.
+
+A country so rugged, and so isolated by land and sea, naturally served
+as the last refuge of the older races of Spain when hard pressed by
+successive invaders. Before the Roman conquest, the Iberian tribe of
+Astures had been able to maintain itself independent of the
+Carthaginians, and to extend its territory as far south as the Douro. It
+was famous for its wealth in horses and gold. About 25 B.C., the Romans
+subjugated the district south of the Cantabrians, to which they gave the
+name of Augustana. Their capital was Asturica Augusta, the modern
+Astorga, in Leon. The warlike mountaineers of the northern districts,
+known as Transmontana, never altogether abandoned their hostility to the
+Romans, whose rule was ended by the Visigothic conquest, late in the 5th
+century. In 713, two years after the defeat and death of Roderick, the
+last Visigothic king, all Spain, except Galicia and Asturias, fell into
+the hands of the Moors. One of the surviving Christian leaders, Pelayo
+the Goth, took refuge with three hundred followers in the celebrated
+cave of Covadonga, or Cobadonga, near Cangas de Onis, and from this
+hiding-place undertook the Christian reconquest of Spain. The Asturians
+chose him as their king in 718, and although Galicia was lost in 734,
+the Moors proved unable to penetrate into the remoter fastnesses held by
+the levies of Pelayo. After his death in 737, the Asturians continued to
+offer the same heroic resistance, and ultimately enabled the people of
+Galicia, Leon and Castile to recover their liberty. The title of prince
+of Asturias, conferred on the heir-apparent to the crown of Spain, dates
+from 1388, when it was first bestowed on a Castilian prince. The title
+of count of Covadonga is assumed by the kings of Spain. In modern times
+Asturias formed a captaincy-general, divided into Asturias d'Oviedo,
+which corresponds with the limits of the ancient principality, and
+Asturias de Santillana, which now constitutes the western half of
+Santander.
+
+Owing to their almost entire immunity from any alien domination except
+that of the Romans and Goths, the Asturians may perhaps be regarded as
+the purest representatives of the Iberian race; while their dialect
+(_linguaje bable_) is sometimes held to be closely akin to the parent
+speech from which modern Castilian is derived. It is free from Moorish
+idioms, and, like Galician and Portuguese it often retains the original
+Latin _f_ which Castilian changes into _h_. In physique, the Asturians
+are like the Galicians, a people of hardy mountaineers and fishermen,
+finely built, but rarely handsome, and with none of the grace of the
+Castilian or Andalusian. Unlike the Galicians, however, they are
+remarkable for their keen spirit of independence, which has been
+fostered by centuries of isolation. Despite the harsh land-laws and
+grinding taxation which prevent them, with all their industry and
+thrift, from securing the freehold of the patch of ground cultivated by
+each peasant family, the Asturians regard themselves as the aristocracy
+of Spain. This pride in their land, race and history they preserve even
+when, as often happens, they emigrate to other parts of the country or
+to South America, and earn their living as servants, water-carriers, or,
+in the case of the women, as nurses. They make admirable soldiers and
+sailors, but lack the enterprise and commercial aptitude of the Basques
+and Catalans; while they are differentiated from the inhabitants of
+central and southern Spain by their superior industry, and perhaps their
+lower standard of culture. It is, on the whole, true that by the
+exclusion of the Moors they lost their opportunity of playing any
+conspicuous part in the literary and artistic development of Spain. One
+class of the Asturians deserving special mention is that of the nomad
+cattle-drovers known as Baqueros or Vaqueros, who tend their herds on
+the mountains of Leitariegos in summer, and along the coast in winter;
+forming a separate caste, with distinctive customs, and rarely or never
+intermarrying with their neighbours.
+
+  For the modern condition of the principality (including climate, fauna
+  and flora), see S. Canals, _Asturias: informancion sobre su presente
+  estado_ (Madrid, 1900); and G. Casal, _Memorias de historia natural y
+  medica, de Asturias_ (Oviedo, 1900). For the history and antiquities,
+  there is much that is valuable in _Asturias monumental, epigrafica y
+  diplomatica_, &c., by C.M. Vigil (Madrid, 1887)--folio, with maps and
+  illustrations. See also F. de Aramburu y Zuloaga, _Monografia de
+  Asturias_ (Oviedo, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+ASTYAGES, the last king of the Median empire. In the inscriptions of
+Nabonidus the name is written Ishtuvegu (cylinder from Abu Habba V R 64,
+col. 1, 32; Annals, published by Pinches, _Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch_. vii.
+col. 2, 2). According to Herodotus, he was the son of Cyaxares and
+reigned thirty-five years (584-550 B.C.); his wife was Aryenis, the
+daughter of Alyattes of Lydia (Herod, i. 74). About his reign we know
+little, as the narrative of Herodotus, which makes Cyrus the grandson of
+Astyages by his daughter Mandane, is merely a legend; the figure of
+Harpagus, who as general of the Median army betrays the king to Cyrus,
+alone seems to contain an historical element, as Harpagus and his family
+afterwards obtained a high position in the Persian empire. From the
+inscriptions of Nabonidus we learn that Cyrus, king of Anshan (Susiana),
+began war against him in 553 B.C.; in 550, when Astyages marched against
+Cyrus, his troops rebelled, and he was taken prisoner. Then Cyrus
+occupied and plundered Ecbatana. The captive king was treated fairly by
+Cyrus (Herod, i. 130), and according to Ctesias (_Pers_. 5, cf. Justin
+i. 6) made satrap of Hyrcania, where he was afterwards slain by Oebares
+against the will of Cyrus, who gave him a splendid funeral. Alexander
+Polyhistor and Abydenus in their excerpts from Berossus, which Eusebius
+(_Chron_. i. pp. 29 and 37) and Syncellus (p. 396) have preserved, give
+the name Astyages to the Median king who reigned in the time of the fall
+of Nineveh (606 B.C.), and became father-in-law of Nebuchadrezzar. This
+is evidently a mistake; the name ought to be Cyaxares (in the fragments
+of the Jewish history of Alexander Polyhistor, in Euseb. _Praep. Ev_.
+ix. 39, the name is converted into Astibaras, who, according to the
+unhistorical list of Ctesias, was the father of Astyages), and there is
+no reason to invent an earlier king Astyages I., as some modern authors
+have done. The Armenian historians render the name Astyages by Ashdahak,
+i.e. Azhi Dahaka (Zohak), the mythical king of the Iranian epics, who
+has nothing whatever to do with the historical king of the Medes.
+     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+
+
+ASTYLAR (from Gr. a-, privative, and [Greek: stylos], a column), an
+architectural term given to a class of design in which neither columns
+nor pilasters are used for decorative purposes; thus the Ricardi and
+Strozzi palaces in Florence are astylar in their design, in
+contradistinction to Palladio's palaces at Vicenza, which are columnar.
+
+
+
+
+ASUNCION (NUESTRA SENORA DE LA ASUNCION), a city and port of Paraguay,
+and capital of the republic, on the left bank of the Paraguay river in
+25 deg. 16' 04" S., 57 deg. 42' 40" W., and 970 m. above Buenos Aires.
+Pop. (est. in 1900) 52,000. The port is connected with Buenos Aires and
+Montevideo by regular lines of river steamers, which are its only means
+of trade communication with the outer world, and with the inland town of
+Villa Rica (95 m.) by a railway worked by an English company. The city
+faces upon a curve in the river bank forming what is called the Bay of
+Asuncion, and is built on a low sandy plain, rising to pretty hillsides
+overlooking the bay and the low, wooded country of the Chaco on the
+opposite shore. The general elevation is only 253 ft. above sea-level.
+Asuncion is laid out on a regular plan, the credit for which is largely
+due to Dictator Francia; the principal streets are paved and lighted by
+gas and electricity; and telephone and street-car services are
+maintained. The climate is hot but healthful, the mean annual
+temperature being about 72 deg. F. The city is the seat of a bishopric
+dating from 1547, and contains a large number of religious edifices. It
+has a national college and public library, but no great progress in
+education has been made. The most prominent edifice in the city is the
+palace begun by the younger Lopez, which is now occupied by a bank.
+There are some business edifices and residences of considerable
+architectural merit, but the greater part are small and inconspicuous, a
+majority of the residences being thatched, mud-walled cabins.
+Considerable progress was made during the last two decades of the 19th
+century, however, notwithstanding misgovernment and the extreme poverty
+of the people. Asuncion was founded by Ayolas in 1335, and is the oldest
+permanent Spanish settlement on the La Plata. It was for a long time the
+seat of Spanish rule in this region, and later the scene of a bitter
+struggle between the church authorities and Jesuits. Soon after the
+declaration of independence in 1811, the city fell under the despotic
+rule of Dr Francia, and then under that of the elder and younger Lopez,
+through which its development was greatly impeded. It was captured and
+plundered by the Brazilians in 1869, and has been the theatre of several
+revolutionary outbreaks since then, one of which (1905) resulted in a
+blockade of several months' duration.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+
+
+ASVINS, in Hindu mythology, twin deities of light. After Indra, Agni and
+Soma, they are the most prominent divinities in the Rig-Veda, and have
+more than fifty entire hymns addressed to them. Their exact attributes
+are obscure. They appear to be the spirits of dawn, the earliest
+bringers of light in the morning sky; they hasten on in the clouds
+before Dawn and prepare the way for her. In some hymns they are called
+sons of the sun; in others, children of the sky; in others, offspring of
+the ocean. They are youngest of the gods, bright lords of lustre,
+honey-hued. They are inseparable. The sole purpose of one hymn is to
+compare them with different twin objects, such as eyes, hands, feet and
+wings. They have a common wife, Surya. They are physicians, protectors
+of the weak and old, especially of elderly unmarried women. They are the
+friends of lovers, and bless marriages and make them fruitful.
+
+  See A.A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+ASYLUM (from Gr. [Greek: a-], privative, and [Greek: sulae], right of
+seizure), a place of refuge. In ancient Greece, an asylum was an
+"inviolable" refuge for persons fleeing from pursuit and in search of
+protection. In a general sense, all Greek temples and altars were
+inviolable, that is, it was a religious crime to remove by force any
+person or thing once under the protection of a deity. But it was only in
+the case of a small number of temples that this protecting right of a
+deity was recognized with common consent. Such were the sanctuaries of
+Zeus Lycaeus in Arcadia, of Poseidon in the island of Calauria, and of
+Apollo at Delos, they were, however, numerous in Asia Minor. They
+guaranteed absolute security to the suppliant within their limits. The
+right of sanctuary, originally possessed by all temples, appears to have
+become limited to a few in consequence of abuses of it. Asylums in this
+sense were peculiar to the Greeks. The asylum of Romulus (Livy i. 8),
+which was probably the altar of Veiovis, cannot be considered as such.
+Under Roman dominion, the rights of existing Greek sanctuaries were at
+first confirmed, but their number was considerably reduced by Tiberius.
+Under the Empire, the statues of the emperors and the eagles of the
+legions were made refuges against acts of violence. Generally speaking,
+the classes of persons who claimed the rights of asylum were slaves who
+had been maltreated by their masters, soldiers defeated and pursued by
+the enemy, and criminals who feared a trial or who had escaped before
+sentence was passed. (See treatises _De Asylis Graecis_, by Forster,
+1847; Jaenisch, 1868; Barth, 1888.)
+
+With the establishment of Christianity, the custom of asylum or
+sanctuary (q.v.) became attached to the church or churchyard. In modern
+times the word asylum has come to mean an institution providing shelter
+or refuge for any class of afflicted or destitute persons, such as the
+blind, deaf and dumb, &c., but more particularly the insane. (See
+INSANITY.)
+
+
+
+
+ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. _droit d'asile_; Ger. _Asylrecht_), in
+international law, the right which a state possesses, by virtue of the
+principle that every independent state is sole master within its
+boundaries, of allowing fugitives from another country to enter or
+sojourn upon its territory. Extradition (q.v.) treaties are undertakings
+between states curtailing the exercise of the right of asylum in respect
+of refugees from justice, but the conditions therein laid down
+invariably show that nations regard the maintenance of this right of
+asylum as intimately connected with their right of independent action,
+however weak as states they may be, on their own soil. The neutral right
+to grant asylum to belligerent forces is now governed by articles 57, 58
+and 59 of the regulations annexed to the Hague Convention of the 29th
+of July 1899, relating to the Laws and Customs of War on Land. (See
+WAR.)     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+ATACAMA, a province of northern Chile, bounded N. and S. respectively by
+the provinces of Antofagasta and Coquimbo, and extending from the
+Pacific coast E. to the Argentine boundary line. It has an area of
+30,729 sq. m., lying in great part within the Atacama desert region (see
+below), and a population (1902) of 71,446. The silver and copper mines
+of the province are numerous, some of them ranking among the most
+productive known, but the majority are worked with limited capital and
+on a small scale. The silver ore was first discovered in 1832 by a
+shepherd at a place which bears his name, Juan Godoi. The nitrate and
+borax deposits are extensive and productive, and common salt is a
+natural product of large areas in the elevated desert regions of the
+Andes. The exports include copper and silver and their ores, nitrate of
+soda, borax, guano and other minerals in small quantities. The capital,
+Copiapo (est. pop. 8991 in 1902), is situated on a small river of the
+same name 37 m. from the coast and 51 m. south-east by rail from
+Caldera, the principal port of this great mining district. Before 1842,
+when guano began to attract notice as an exportable product, Atacama was
+considered as Bolivian territory, and Coquimbo the extreme northern
+province of Chile. In that year Chile decided to explore the desert
+coast, and in 1843 that part of the desert extending north to the 26th
+parallel was organized into the province of Atacama.
+
+
+
+
+ATACAMA, DESERT OF, an arid, barren and saline region of western South
+America, covering the greater part of the Chilean provinces of Atacama
+and Antofagasta, the Argentine territory of Los Andes, and the
+south-western corner of the Bolivian department of Potosi. The higher
+elevations are known as the Puna de Atacama, which is practically a
+continuation southward of the great _puna_ region of Peru and Bolivia.
+It is a broken, mountainous region, volcanic in places, saline in
+others, and ranges from 7000 to 13,500 ft. in general elevation. Its
+culminating ridges are marked by an irregular line of peaks and extinct
+volcanoes extending north by east from about 28 deg. S. into southern
+Bolivia. On the eastern side, occasional rainfalls occur and streams
+from the snow-clads peaks produce some slight displays of fertility, but
+the general aspect of the plateaus, which are dry and cold in winter and
+in summer are swept by rainstorms and covered by occasional tufts of
+coarse grass, is barren and forbidding. They are also broken by great
+saline lagoons and dry salt basins. This region forms the Argentine
+territory of Los Andes and is habitable in places. On the western slope
+the land descends gradually to the Pacific, being broken into great
+basins, or terraces, by mountainous ridges in its higher elevations,
+widening out into gently-sloping sandy plains below, famous for their
+nitrate deposits, and terminating on the coast with sharply-sloping
+bluffs, having an elevation of 800 to 1500 ft., and looking from the sea
+like a range of flat-topped hills. This desolate region, which is
+rainless and absolutely barren, and was considered worthless for three
+and a half centuries, is now a treasure-house of mineral wealth,
+abounding in copper, silver, lead, nickel, cobalt, iron, nitrates and
+borax. It is occupied by many mining settlements, and includes some of
+the most productive copper and silver mines of the world.
+
+  See L. Darapsky, "Zur Geographic der Puna de Atacama," _Zeits. Ges.
+  Erdk. zu Berlin_, 1899; G.E. Church, "South America: an Outline of its
+  Physical Geography," _Geographical Journal_, 1901; John Ball, _Notes
+  of a Naturalist in South America_ (London, 1887); F. O'Driscoll, "A
+  Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic," _Geographical
+  Journal_, 1904.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+
+
+ATACAMITE, a mineral found originally in the desert of Atacama, and
+named by D. de Gallizen in 1801. It is a cupric oxychloride, having the
+formula CuCl2.3Cu(OH)2, and crystallizing in the orthorhombic system.
+Its hardness is about 3 and its specific gravity 3.7, while its colour
+presents various shades of green, usually dark. Atacamite is a
+comparatively rare mineral, formed in some cases by the action of
+sea-water on various copper-ores, and occurring also as a volcanic
+product on Vesuvian lavas. Some of the finest crystals have been yielded
+by the copper-mines of South Australia, especially at Wallaroo. It
+occurs also, with malachite, at Bembe, near Ambriz, in West Africa. From
+one of its localities in Chile, Los Remolinos, it was termed Remolinite
+by Brooke and Miller. Atacamite, in a pulverulent state, was formerly
+used as a pounce under the name of "Peruvian green sand," and was known
+in Chile as arsenillo.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+ATAHUALLPA (_atahu_, Lat. _virtus_, and _allpa_, sweet), "the last of
+the Incas" (or Yncas) of Peru, was the son of the ruler Huayna Capac, by
+Pacha, the daughter of the conquered sovereign of Quito. His brother
+Huascar succeeded Huayna Capac in 1527; for, as Atahuallpa was not
+descended on both sides from the line of Incas, Peruvian law considered
+him illegitimate. He obtained, however, the kingdom of Quito. A jealous
+feeling soon sprang up between him and Huascar, who insisted that Quito
+should be held as a dependent province of his empire. A civil war broke
+out between the brothers, and, about the time when the Spanish conqueror
+Pizarro was beginning to move inland from the town of San Miguel,
+Huascar had been defeated and thrown into prison, and Atahuallpa had
+become Inca. Pizarro set out in September 1532, and made for Caxamarca,
+where the Inca was. Messengers passed frequently between them, and the
+Spaniards on their march were hospitably received by the inhabitants. On
+the 15th of November, Pizarro entered Caxamarca, and sent his brother
+and Ferdinando de Soto to request an interview with the Inca. On the
+evening of the next day, Atahuallpa entered the great square of
+Caxamarca, accompanied by some five or six thousand men, who were either
+unarmed or armed only with short clubs and slings concealed under their
+dresses. Pizarro's artillery and soldiers were planted in readiness in
+the streets opening off the square. The interview was carried on by the
+priest Vicente de Valverde, who addressed the Inca through an
+interpreter. He stated briefly and dogmatically the principal points of
+the Christian faith and the Roman Catholic policy, and concluded by
+calling upon Atahuallpa to become a Christian, obey the commands of the
+pope, give up the administration of his kingdom, and pay tribute to
+Charles V., to whom had been granted the conquest of these lands. To
+this extraordinary harangue, which from its own nature and the faults of
+the interpreter must have been completely unintelligible, the Inca at
+first returned a very temperate answer. He pointed out what seemed to
+him certain difficulties in the Christian religion, and declined to
+accept as monarch of his dominions this Charles, of whom he knew
+nothing. He then took a bible from the priest's hands, and, after
+looking at it, threw it violently from him, and began a more impassioned
+speech, in which he exposed the designs of the Spaniards, and upbraided
+them with the cruelties they had perpetrated. The priest retired, and
+Pizarro at once gave the signal for attack. The Spaniards rushed out
+suddenly, and the Peruvians, astonished and defenceless, were cut down
+in hundreds. Pizarro himself seized the Inca, and in endeavouring to
+preserve him alive, received, accidentally, on his hand the only wound
+inflicted that day on a Spaniard. Atahuallpa, thus treacherously
+captured, offered an enormous sum of money as a ransom, and fulfilled
+his engagement; but Pizarro still detained him, until the Spaniards
+should have arrived in sufficient numbers to secure the country. While
+in captivity, Atahuallpa gave secret orders for the assassination of his
+brother Huascar, and also endeavoured to raise an army to expel the
+invaders. His plans were betrayed, and Pizarro at once brought him to
+trial. He was condemned to death, and, as being an idolater, to death by
+fire. Atahuallpa, however, professed himself a Christian, received
+baptism, and his sentence was then altered into death by strangulation
+(August 29, 1533). His body was afterwards burned, and the ashes
+conveyed to Quito. (See also PERU: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+ATALANTA, in Greek legend, the name of two Greek heroines, (1) The
+Arcadian Atalanta was the daughter of Iasius or Iasion and Clymene. At
+her birth, she had been exposed on a hill, her father having expected a
+son. At first she was suckled by a she-bear, and then saved by huntsmen,
+among whom she grew up to be skilled with the bow, swift, and fond of
+the chase, like the virgin goddess Artemis. At the Calydonian boar-hunt
+her arrows were the first to hit the monster, for which its head and
+hide were given her by Meleager. At the funeral games of Pelias, she
+wrestled with Peleus, and won. For a long time she remained true to
+Artemis and rejected all suitors, but Meilanion at last gained her love
+by his persistent devotion. She was the mother of Parthenopaeus, one of
+the Seven against Thebes (Apollodorus iii. 9; Hyginus, _Fab._ 99). (2)
+The Boeotian Atalanta was the daughter of Schoeneus. She was famed for
+her running, and would only consent to marry a suitor who could outstrip
+her in a race, the consequence of failure being death. Hippomenes,
+before starting, had obtained from Aphrodite three golden apples, which
+he dropped at intervals, and Atalanta, stopping to pick them up, fell
+behind. Both were happy at the result; but forgetting to thank the
+goddess for the apples, they were led by her to a religious crime, and
+were transformed into lions by the goddess Cybele (Ovid, _Metam._ x.
+560; Hyginus, _Fab._ 185). The characteristics of these two heroines
+(frequently confounded) point to their being secondary forms of the
+Arcadian Artemis.
+
+
+
+
+ATARGATIS, a Syrian deity, known to the Greeks by a shortened form of
+the name, Derketo (Strabo xvi. c. 785; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 23. 81),
+and as Dea Syria, or in one word Deasura (Lucian, _de Dea Syria_). She
+is generally described as the "fish-goddess." The name is a compound of
+two divine names; the first part is a form of the Himyaritic _'Athlar_,
+the equivalent of the Old Testament _Ashtoreth_, the Phoenician
+_Astarte_ (q.v.), with the feminine ending omitted (Assyr. _Ishtar_);
+the second is a Palmyrene name _'Athe_ (_i.e. tempus opportunum_), which
+occurs as part of many compounds. As a consequence of the first half of
+the name, Atargatis has frequently, though wrongly, been identified with
+Astarte. The two deities were, no doubt, of common origin, but their
+cults are historically distinct. In 2 Macc. xii. 26 we find reference to
+an Atargateion or Atergateion (temple of Atargatis) at Carnion in Gilead
+(cf. 1 Macc. v. 43), but the home of the goddess was unquestionably not
+Palestine, but Syria proper, especially at Hierapolis (q.v.), where she
+had a great temple. From Syria her worship extended to Greece, Italy and
+the furthest west. Lucian and Apuleius give descriptions of the
+beggar-priests who went round the great cities with an image of the
+goddess on an ass and collected money. The wide extension of the cult is
+attributable largely to Syrian merchants; thus we find traces of it in
+the great seaport towns; at Delos especially numerous inscriptions have
+been found bearing witness to its importance. Again we find the cult in
+Sicily, introduced, no doubt, by slaves and mercenary troops, who
+carried it even to the farthest northern limits of the Roman empire. In
+many cases, however, Atargatis and Astarte are fused to such an extent
+as to be indistinguishable. This fusion is exemplified by the Carnion
+temple, which is probably identical with the famous temple of Astarte at
+Ashtaroth-Karnaim.
+
+Atargatis appears generally as the wife of Hadad (Baal). They are the
+protecting deities of the community. Atargatis, in the capacity of
+[Greek: polionchos], wears a mural crown, is the ancestor of the royal
+house, the founder of social and religious life, the goddess of
+generation and fertility (hence the prevalence of phallic emblems), and
+the inventor of useful appliances. Not unnaturally she is identified
+with the Greek Aphrodite. By the conjunction of these many functions,
+she becomes ultimately a great Nature-Goddess, analogous to Cybele and
+Rhea (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS); in one aspect she typifies the
+function of water in producing life; in another, the universal
+mother-earth (Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 23); in a third (influenced, no
+doubt, by Chaldaean astrology), the power of destiny. The legends are
+numerous and of an astrological character, intended to account for the
+Syrian dove-worship and abstinence from fish (see the story in Athenaeus
+viii. 37, where Atargatis is derived from [Greek: ates Gatidos] "without
+Gatis,"--a queen who is said to have forbidden the eating of fish). Thus
+Diodorus Siculus, using Ctesias, tells how she fell in love with a youth
+who was worshipping at the shrine of Aphrodite, and by him became the
+mother of Semiramis, the Assyrian queen, and how in shame she flung
+herself into a pool at Ascalon or Hierapolis and was changed into a fish
+(W. Robertson Smith in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ ii., 1887). In another story
+she was hatched from an egg found by some fish in the Euphrates and by
+them thrust on the bank where it was hatched by a dove; out of gratitude
+she persuaded Jupiter to transfer the fish to the Zodiac (cf. Ovid,
+_Fast._ ii. 459-474, _Metam._ v. 331).
+
+  See articles _s.v._ in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._ (1897), by W.
+  Baudissin; and Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc._; Fr. Baethgen, _Beitrage
+  zur Semit. Religiongesch._ (1888); R. Pietschmann, _Gesch. der
+  Phonizier_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+ATAULPHUS (the Latinized form of the Gothic Ataulf, "Father-wolf," from
+_atta_, father, and _vulfs_, wolf; mod. Germ. Adolf, Latinized as
+Adolphus, the form used by Gibbon for the subject of this article), king
+of the Goths (d. 415). On the death of Alaric (q.v.) his followers
+acclaimed his brother-in-law Ataulphus as king. In 412 he quitted Italy
+and led his army across the Alps into Gaul. Here he fought against some
+of the usurpers who threatened the throne of Honorius; he made some sort
+of compact with that emperor and, in 414, he married his sister
+Placidia, who had been since the siege of Rome a captive in the camp of
+the Goths. The ex-emperor Attalus danced at the marriage festival, which
+was celebrated with great pomp at Narbonne. In 415 Ataulphus crossed the
+Pyrenees into Spain and died at Barcelona, being assassinated by a
+groom. The most important fact in his history is his confession,
+recorded by Orosius, that he saw the inability of his countrymen to rear
+a civilized or abiding kingdom, and that consequently his aim should be
+to build on Roman foundations and blend the two nations into one.
+
+
+
+
+ATAVISM (from Lat. _atavus_, a great-great-great-grandfather or
+ancestor), the term given in biology to the reproduction in a living
+person or animal of the characteristics of an ancestor more remote than
+its parents (see HEREDITY). Loosely used, it connotes a reversion to an
+earlier type. Individuals reproduce unexpectedly the traits of earlier
+ancestors, and ethnologists and criminologists frequently explain by
+"atavism" the occurrence of degenerate species of man; but the whole
+subject is complicated by other possible explanations of such phenomena,
+included in the scientific study of normal "variation."
+
+
+
+
+ATBARA (_Bahr-el-Aswad_, or Black River), the most northern affluent of
+the river Nile, N.E. Africa. It rises in Abyssinia to the N.W. of Lake
+Tsana, unites its waters with a number of other rivers which also rise
+in the Abyssinian highlands, and flows north-west 800 m. till its
+junction at Ed Damer with the Nile (q.v.). The battle of the Atbara,
+fought near Nakheila, a place on the north bank of the river about 30 m.
+above Ed Damer, on the 8th of April 1898, between the khalifa's forces
+under Mahmud and Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener's
+Anglo-Egyptian army, resulted in the complete defeat of the Mahdists and
+the capture of their leader, and paved the way for the decisive battle
+of Omdurman on the 2nd of September following (see EGYPT: _Military
+Operations_).
+
+
+
+
+ATCHISON, a city and the county-seat of Atchison county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
+on the west bank of the Missouri river, which is navigable at this point
+but is utilized comparatively little for commerce. Pop. (1890) 13,963;
+(1900) 15,722, of whom 2508 were of negro descent and 1308 were
+foreign-born; (1910) 16,429. Atchison is served by the Atchison, Topeka
+& Santa Fe, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is the seat of
+Midland College (Lutheran, 1887), St Benedict's College (Roman Catholic,
+1858) for boys, Mt. Scholastics Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls, and
+Western Theological Seminary (Evangelical-Lutheran, 1893); a state
+soldiers' orphans' home is also located here. Atchison's situation and
+transportation facilities make it an important supply-centre, its trade
+in grains and live-stock being particularly large; it has large railway
+machine shops, and its principal manufactures are flour, furniture,
+lumber, hardware and drugs. The value of the city's factory products
+increased from $2,093,469 in 1900 to $4,052,274 in 1905, or 93.6%.
+Atchison was founded in 1854 by pro-slavery partisans, and was named in
+honour of their leader, David Rice Atchison, a United States senator.
+The city was quickly surpassed by Leavenworth in commercial importance,
+and during the Kansas struggle was never of great political importance.
+Its first city charter was granted in 1858. The Atchison _Globe_
+(established 1878) is one of the best-known of western papers.
+
+
+
+
+ATE, in Greek mythology, the personification of criminal folly, the
+daughter of Zeus and Eris (Strife). She misled even Zeus to take a hasty
+oath, whereby Heracles became subject to Eurystheus. Zeus thereupon cast
+her by the hair out of Olympus, whither she did not return, but remained
+on earth, working evil and mischief (_Iliad_, xix. 91). She is followed
+by the Litae (Prayers), the old and crippled daughters of Zeus, who are
+able to repair the evil done by her (_Iliad_, ix. 502). In later times
+Ate is regarded as the avenger of sin (Sophocles, _Antigone_, 614, 625).
+
+  See J. Girard, _Le Sentiment religieux en Grece_ (1869); J.F. Scherer,
+  _De Graecorum Ates Notione atque Indole_ (1858); E. Berch, _Bedeutung
+  der Ate bei Aeschylos_ (1876); C. Lehrs, _Populare Aufsatze aus dem
+  Alterthum_ (1875); L. Schmidt, _Die Ethik der alten Griechen_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+ATELLA, an ancient Oscan town of Campania, 9 m. N. of Naples and 9 m. S.
+of Capua, on the road between the two. It was a member of the Campanian
+confederation, and shared the fortunes of Capua, but remained faithful
+to Hannibal for a longer time; the great part of the inhabitants, when
+they could no longer resist the Romans, were transferred by him to
+Thurii, and the town was reoccupied in 211 by the Romans, who settled
+the exiled inhabitants of Nuceria there. The fate of Atella at the end
+of the war, when the latter were able to return to their own city, is
+unknown. Cicero was in friendly relations with it, and exerted influence
+that it might retain its property in Gaul, so that it is obvious that it
+had then recovered municipal rights. The town is mainly famous as the
+cradle of early Roman comedy, the _Fabulae Atellanae_ (see below). Some
+remains of the town still exist, including a tower of the city wall in
+brick.
+
+  See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), p. 379.
+
+
+
+
+ATELLANAE FABULAE ("Atellan fables"), the name of a sort of popular
+comedy amongst the ancient Romans. The name is derived from Atella, an
+Oscan town in Campania; for this reason, and from their being also
+called _Osci Ludi_, it has been supposed that they were of Oscan origin
+and introduced at Rome after Campania had been deprived of its
+independence. It seems highly improbable that they were performed in the
+Oscan language. Mommsen, however, rejects their Oscan origin altogether;
+he regards them as purely Latin, the scene merely being laid at Atella
+to avoid causing offence by placing it at Rome or one of the Latin
+cities. These plays, or rather sketches, contained humorous descriptions
+of country as contrasted with town life, and found their subjects
+amongst the lower classes of the people. The subjects alone were decided
+upon before the performance began; the dialogue was improvised as it
+proceeded. The Atellanae contained certain stock characters, like the
+Italian harlequinades: Maccus (the fool), Bucco (fat-chaps), Pappus
+(daddy), Dossennus (sharper); monsters and bogeys like Manducus, Pytho,
+Lamia also made their appearance. The performers were the sons of Roman
+citizens, who did not lose their rights as citizens, and were allowed to
+serve in the army: professional actors were excluded. The simple prose
+dialogues were probably varied by songs in the rude Saturnian metre: the
+language was that of the common people, accompanied by lively
+gesticulation and movements. They were characterized by coarseness and
+obscenity. In the time of Sulla a literary form was given to the
+Atellanae by Pomponius of Bononia and Novius, who made them regular
+written comedies. Living persons seem to have been attacked, and even
+the doings of the gods and heroes of mythology burlesqued. From this
+time the Atellanae were used as after-pieces and performed by
+professional actors. In 46 B.C. they were ousted by the mimes, but
+regained popularity during the reign of Tiberius (chiefly owing to a
+certain Mummius), until they were definitely superseded by and merged in
+the mimes. They held their ground in the small towns and villages of
+Italy during the last days of the empire; they probably lingered on into
+the middle ages, and were the origin of the Italian _Commedie dell'
+arte._
+
+  The scanty fragments of Pomponius and Novius are collected in
+  Ribbeck's _Comicorum Romanorum Reliquiae_; see also Munk, _De Fabulis
+  Atellanis_ (1840); and art. LATIN LITERATURE.
+
+
+
+
+ATESTE (mod. _Este, q.v._), an ancient town of Venetia, at the southern
+foot of the Euganean hills, 43 ft. above sea-level; 22 m. S.W. of
+Patavium (Padua). The site was occupied in very early times, as the
+discoveries since 1882 show. Large cemeteries have been excavated, which
+show three different periods from the 8th century B.C. down to the Roman
+domination. In the first period (Italic) cremation burials closely
+approximating to the Villanova type are found; in the second[1]
+(Venetian) the tombs are constructed of blocks of stone, and _situlae_
+(bronze buckets), sometimes decorated with elaborate designs, are
+frequently used to contain the cinerary urns; in the third (Gallic),
+which begins during the 4th century B.C., though cremation continues,
+the tombs are much poorer, the ossuaries being of badly baked rough
+clay, and show traces of Gallic influence, and characteristics of the
+La-Tene civilization. The many important objects found in these
+excavations are preserved in the local museum. See G. Ghirardini in
+_Notizie degli Scavi; Monumenti dei Lincei_, ii. (1893) 161 seq., vii.
+(1897) 5 seq., x. (1901) 5 seq.; _Atti del Congresso Internazionale di
+Scienze Storiche_ (Rome, 1904), v. 279 seq. Inscriptions show that the
+national language asserted its existence even after Ateste came into the
+hands of the Romans. When this occurred is not known; boundary stones of
+135 B.C. exist, which divide the territory of Ateste from that of
+Patavium and of Vicetia, showing that the former extended from the
+middle of the Euganean hills to the Atesis (mod. _Adige_, from which
+Ateste no doubt took its name, and on which it once stood). After the
+battle of Actium, Augustus settled veterans from various of his legions
+in this territory, Ateste being thenceforth spoken of as a colony. It
+appears to have furnished many recruits, especially for the _cohortes
+urbanae_. It appears but little in history, though its importance is
+vouched for by numerous inscriptions, the majority of which belong to
+the early Empire.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This is by some authorities divided into two.
+
+
+
+
+ATH, or AATH, an ancient town of the province of Hainaut, Belgium,
+situated on the left bank of the Dender. Pop. (1890) 9868; (1904)
+11,201. Formerly it was fortified, but after the change in the defensive
+system of Belgium in 1858 the fortress was dismantled and its ramparts
+superseded by boulevards. Owing to a fire caused by lightning its fine
+church of St Julien, dating from the 14th century, which had escaped
+serious injury during many wars, was destroyed in 1817 (since rebuilt).
+This left the Tour Burbant as its sole relic of the middle ages. This
+tower formed part of the _donjon_ of the fortress erected by Baldwin
+IV., count of Hainaut, about the year 1150. Near Ath is the fine castle
+of Beloeil, the ancient seat of the princely family of Ligne. Ath is
+famous for its gild of archers, whose butts are erected on the plain of
+the Esplanade in the centre of the town. The town militia has the
+privilege of being armed with bows and crossbows. Ath is also well known
+in Hainaut for its annual fete called _le jour de ducasse--ducasse_
+being the Walloon word for kermesse (fete). On this occasion a
+procession escorting figures of two giants, Goliath, called locally
+Goyasse, and Samson, forms the chief feature of the celebration. The
+emperor Joseph II. stopped it for its "idolatrous" character, but this
+act was one of the causes of the Brabant revolution of 1789. The
+procession, revived in 1790, was again stopped by the French republicans
+five years later, but was revived under the Empire, and has flourished
+ever since.
+
+
+
+
+ATHABASCA (_Athiapescow_), or ELK, a river and lake Of the province of
+Alberta, Canada. The river rises in the Rocky Mountains near the
+Yellowhead Pass in 52 deg. 10' N. and 117 deg. 10' W., and flows
+north-east as far as Athabasca Landing, and thence north into Lake
+Athabasca. It is 740 m. long and has a number of important tributaries,
+including the McLeod, Pembina, Lesser Slave, which drains the lake of
+that name, and Clearwater. Athabasca lake is 195 m. long, west to east,
+from 20 to 32 m. wide has an area of 3085 sq. m., and is 690 ft. above
+the sea. It discharges its waters northward by Slave river and the
+Mackenzie system to the Arctic Ocean. On its north shore the country is
+high and rocky; on the south, sandy and barren. Shallow draught steamers
+navigate the lake and river, and Lesser Slave lake and river, with one
+interruption--at Grand Rapids near the mouth of the Clearwater river.
+
+
+
+
+ATHALARIC (516-534), king of the Ostrogoths, grandson of Theodoric,
+became king of the Ostrogoths in Italy on his grandfather's death (526).
+As he was only ten years old, the regency was assumed by his mother
+Amalasuntha (q.v.). The murmurs of the Gothic nobles procured for their
+young sovereign too early emancipation from the schoolroom. He drank
+heavily, and indulged in vicious excesses which ruined his constitution.
+He died on the 2nd of October 534.
+
+
+
+
+ATHALIAH, in the Bible, the daughter of Ahab, and wife of Jehoram, king
+of Judah. After the death of Ahaziah, her son she usurped the throne and
+reigned for six years. She is said to have massacred all the members of
+the royal house of Judah (2 Kings xi. 1-3), but a similar atrocity is
+also ascribed to Jehu (2 Kings x. 12-14); with both notices contrast 2
+Chron. xxi. 17. The sole survivor Joash was concealed in the temple by
+his aunt, Jehosheba, wife of the priest Jehoida (2 Chron. xxii. 11)
+These organized a revolution in favour of Joash, and caused Athaliah and
+her adherents to be put to death (2 Kings xi.; 2 Chron. xxii. 10-12,
+xxiii., xxiv. 7).
+
+The story of Athaliah forms the subject of one of Racine's best
+tragedies. It has been musically treated by Handel and Mendelssohn.
+
+
+
+
+ATHAMAS, in Greek mythology, king of the Minyae in Boeotian Orchomenus,
+son of Aeolus, king of Thessaly, or of Minyas. His first wife was
+Nephele, the cloud-goddess, by whom he had two children, Phrixus and
+Helle (see ARGONAUTS). Athamas and his second wife Ino were said to have
+incurred the wrath of Hera, because Ino had brought up Dionysus, the son
+of her sister Semele, as a girl, to save his life. Athamas went mad, and
+slew one of his sons, Learchus; Ino, to escape the pursuit of her
+frenzied husband, threw herself into the sea with her other son
+Melicertes. Both were afterwards worshipped as marine divinities, Ino as
+Leucothea, Melicertes as Palaemon (_Odyssey_ v. 333). Athamas, with the
+guilt of his son's murder upon him, was obliged to flee from Boeotia. He
+was ordered by the oracle to settle in a place where he should receive
+hospitality from wild beasts. This he found at Phthiotis in Thessaly,
+where he surprised some wolves eating sheep; on his approach they fled,
+leaving him the bones. Athamas, regarding this as the fulfilment of the
+oracle, settled there and married a third wife, Themisto. The spot was
+afterwards called the Athamanian plain (Apollodorus i. 9; Hyginus,
+_Fab_. 1-5; Ovid, _Metam._ iv. 416, _Fasti_, vi. 485; Valerius Flaccus
+i. 277).
+
+According to a local legend, Athamas was king of Halos in Phthiotis from
+the first (Schol. on Apoll. Rhodius ii. 513). After his attempt on the
+life of Phrixus, which was supposed to have succeeded, the Phthiots were
+ordered to sacrifice him to Zeus Laphystius, in order to appease the
+anger of the gods. As he was on the point of being put to death,
+Cytissorus, a son of Phrixus, suddenly arrived from Aea with the news
+that Phrixus was still alive. Athamas's life was thus saved, but the
+wrath of the gods was unappeased, and pursued the family. It was
+ordained that the eldest born of the race should not enter the
+council-chamber; if he did so, he was liable to be seized and sacrificed
+if detected (Herodotus vii. 197). The legend of Athamas is probably
+founded on a very old custom amongst the Minyae--the sacrifice of the
+first-born of the race of Athamas to Zeus Laphystius. The story formed
+the subject of lost tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and
+other Greek and Latin dramatists.
+
+
+
+
+ATHANAGILD (d. 547) became king of the Visigoths (in Spain) in 534,
+having invoked the aid of the emperor Justinian for his revolt against
+his predecessor Agila. Athanagild, when himself king, vainly tried to
+oust his late allies from the footing which they had gained in Spain,
+nor were the Greeks finally expelled from Spain till seventy years
+later. Athanagild himself is chiefly remembered for the tragic fortunes
+of his daughters Brunechildis and Gavleswintha, who married two Frankish
+brother kings, Sigebert and Chilperic. Athanagild died ("peacefully," as
+the annalist remarks) in 547.
+
+
+
+
+ATHANARIC (d. 381), a ruler of the Visigoths from about 366 to 380. He
+bore the title not of king but of judge, a title which may be compared
+with that of ealdorman among the Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain.
+Athanaric waged, from 367 to 369, an unsuccessful war with the emperor
+Valens, and the peace by which the war was ended was ratified by the
+Roman and Gothic rulers meeting on a barge in mid-stream of the Danube.
+Athanaric was a harsh and obstinate heathen, and his short reign was
+chiefly famous for his brutal persecution of his Christian
+fellow-countrymen. In 376 he was utterly defeated by the Huns, who a few
+years before had burst into Europe. The bulk of the Visigothic people
+sought refuge within the Empire in the region now known as Bulgaria, but
+Athanaric seems to have fled into Transylvania. Being attacked there by
+two Ostrogothic chiefs he also, in 381, sought the protection of the
+Roman emperor. Theodosius I. received him courteously, and he was
+profoundly impressed by the glories of Constantinople, but on the
+fifteenth day after his arrival he died, and was honoured by the emperor
+with a magnificent funeral.
+
+
+
+
+ATHANASIUS (293-373), bishop of Alexandria and saint, one of the most
+illustrious defenders of the Christian faith, was born probably at
+Alexandria. Of his family and of his early education nothing can be said
+to be known. According to the legend, the boy is said to have once
+baptized some of his playmates and thereupon to have been taken into his
+house by Bishop Alexander, who recognized the validity of this
+proceeding. It is certain that Athanasius was young when he took orders,
+and that he must soon have entered into close relations with his bishop,
+whom, after the outbreak of the Arian controversy, he accompanied as
+archdeacon to the council of Nicaea. In the sessions and discussions of
+the council he could take no part; but in unofficial conferences he took
+sides vigorously, according to his own evidence, against the Arians, and
+was certainly not without influence. He had already, before the opening
+of the Council, defined his personal attitude towards the dogmatic
+problem in two essays, _Against the Gentiles_ and _On the Incarnation_,
+without, however, any special relation to the Arian controversy.
+
+The essay _On the Incarnation_ is the _locus classicus_ for the
+presentation of the teaching of the ancient church on the subject of
+salvation. In this the great idea that God himself had entered into
+humanity becomes dominant. The doom of death under which mankind had
+sighed since Adam's fall could only then be averted, when the immortal
+Word of God ([Greek: Logos]) assumed a mortal body, and, by yielding
+this to death for the sake of all, abrogated once for all the law of
+death, of which the power had been spent on the body of the Lord. Thus
+was rendered possible the leading back of mankind to God, of which the
+sure pledge lies in the grace of the resurrection of Christ. Athanasius
+would hear of no questioning of this religious mystery. In the catchword
+_Homousios_, which had been added to the creed at Nicaea, he too
+recognized the best formula for the expression of the mystery, although
+in his own writings he made but sparing use of it. He was in fact less
+concerned with the formula than with the content. Arians and Semi-Arians
+seemed to him to be pagans, who worship the creature, instead of the God
+who created all things, since they teach two gods, one having no
+beginning, the other having a beginning in Time and therefore of the
+same nature as the heathen gods, since, like them, he is a creature.
+Athanasius has no terms for the definition of the Persons in the one
+"Divine" ([Greek: to theion]), which are in their substance one; and yet
+he is certain that this "Divine" is not mere abstraction, but something
+truly personal: "They are One," so he wrote later in his _Discourses
+against the Arians_. "not as though the unity were torn into two parts,
+which outside the unity would be nothing, nor as though the unity bore
+two names, so that one and the same is at one time Father and then his
+own Son, as the heretic Sabellius imagined. But they are two, for the
+Father is Father, and the Son is not the same, but, again, the Son is
+Son, and not the Father himself. But their Nature ([Greek: physis]) is
+one, for the Begotten is not dissimilar ([Greek: anomoios]) to the
+Begetter, but his image, and everything that is the Father's is also the
+Son's."
+
+Five months after the return from the council of Nicaea Bishop Alexander
+died; and on the 8th of February 326 Athanasius, at the age of
+thirty-three, became his successor. The first years of his episcopate
+were tranquil; then the storms in which the remainder of his life was
+passed began to gather round him. The council had by no means composed
+the divisions in the Church which the Arian controversy had provoked.
+Arius himself still lived, and his friend Eusebius of Nicomedia rapidly
+regained influence over the emperor Constantine. The result was a demand
+made by the emperor that Arius should be readmitted to communion.
+Athanasius stood firm, but many accusers soon rose up against one who
+was known to be under the frown of the imperial displeasure. He was
+charged with cruelty, even with sorcery and murder. It was reported that
+a bishop of the Meletian party (see MELETIUS) in the Thebaid, of the
+name of Arsenius, had been unlawfully put to death by him. He was easily
+able to clear himself of these charges; but the hatred of his enemies
+was not relaxed, and in the summer of 335 he was peremptorily ordered to
+appear at Tyre, where a council had been summoned to sit in judgment
+upon his conduct. There appeared plainly a predetermination to condemn
+him, and he fled from Tyre to Constantinople to appeal to the emperor
+himself. Refused at first a hearing, his perseverance was at length
+rewarded by the emperor's assent to his reasonable request that his
+accusers should be brought face to face with him in the imperial
+presence. Accordingly the leaders of the council, the most conspicuous
+of whom were Eusebius of Nicomedia and his namesake of Caesarea, were
+summoned to Constantinople. Here they did not attempt to repeat their
+old charges, but found a more effective weapon to their hands in a new
+charge of a political kind--that Athanasius had threatened to stop the
+Alexandrian corn-ships bound for Constantinople. It is very difficult to
+understand how far there was truth in the persistent accusations made
+against the prince-bishop of Alexandria. Probably there was in the very
+greatness of his character and the extent of his popular influence a
+certain species of dominance which lent a colour of truth to some of the
+things said against him. On the present occasion his accusers succeeded
+at once in arousing the imperial jealousy. Without obtaining a hearing,
+he was banished at the end of 335 to Treves in Gaul. This was the first
+banishment of Athanasius, which lasted about one year and a half. It was
+brought to a close by the death of Constantine, and the accession as
+emperor of the West of Constantine II., who, in June 337, allowed
+Athanasius to return to Alexandria.
+
+He reached his see on the 23rd of November 337, and, as he himself has
+told us, "the people ran in crowds to see his face; the churches were
+full of rejoicing; thanksgivings were everywhere offered up; the
+ministers and clergy thought the day the happiest in their lives." But
+this period of happiness was destined to be short-lived. His position as
+bishop of Alexandria placed him, not under his patron Constantine, but
+under Constantius, another son of the elder Constantine, who had
+succeeded to the throne of the East. He in his turn fell, as his father
+had done in later years, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia,
+who in the latter half of 339 was transferred to the see of
+Constantinople, the new seat of the imperial court. A second expulsion
+of Athanasius was accordingly resolved upon. The old accusations against
+him were revived, and he was further charged with having set at naught
+the decision of a council. On the 18th of March 339 the exarch of Egypt
+suddenly confronted Athanasius with an imperial edict, by which he was
+deposed and a Cappadocian named Gregory was nominated bishop in his
+place. On the following day, after tumultuous scenes, Athanasius fled,
+and four days later Gregory was installed by the aid of the soldiery. On
+the first opportunity, Athanasius went to Rome, to "lay his case before
+the church." A synod assembled at Rome in the autumn of 340, and the
+great council--probably that which met at Sardica in 342 or 343, where
+the Orientals refused to meet the representatives of the Western
+church--declared him guiltless. This decision, however, had no immediate
+effect in favour of Athanasius. Constantius continued for some time
+implacable, and the bold action of the Western bishops only incited the
+Arian party in Alexandria to fresh severities. But the death of the
+intruder Gregory, on the 26th of June 345, opened up a way of
+reconciliation. Constantius decided to yield to the importunity of his
+brother Constans, who had succeeded Constantine II. in the West; and the
+result was the restoration of Athanasius for the second time, on the
+21st of October 346. Again he returned to Alexandria amid the
+enthusiastic demonstrations of the populace, which is described by
+Gregory of Nazianzus, in his panegyric on Athanasius, as streaming forth
+like "another Nile" to meet him afar off as he approached the city.
+
+The six years of his residence in the West had given Athanasius the
+opportunity of displaying a momentous activity. He made long journeys in
+Italy, in Gaul, and as far as Belgium. Everywhere he laboured for the
+Nicene faith, and the impression made by his personality was so great
+that to hold fast the orthodox faith and to defend Athanasius were for
+many people one and the same thing. This was shown when, after the death
+of the emperor Constans, Constantius became sole ruler of East and West.
+With the help of counsellors more subtle than discerning, the emperor,
+with the object of uniting the various parties in the Church at any
+cost, sought for the most colourless possible formula of belief, which
+he hoped to persuade all the bishops to accept. As his efforts remained
+for years fruitless, he used force. "My will is your guiding-line," he
+exclaimed in the summer of 355 to the bishops who had assembled at Milan
+in response to his orders. A series of his most defiant opponents had to
+go into banishment, Liberius of Rome, Hilarius of Poitiers and Hosius of
+Corduba, the last-named once the confidant of Constantine and the actual
+originator of the _Homousios_, and now nearly a hundred years old. At
+length came the turn of Athanasius, now almost the sole upholder of the
+banner of the Nicene creed in the East. Several attempts to expel him
+failed owing to the attitude of the populace. On the night of the
+8th-9th of February 356, however, when the bishop was holding the
+Vigils, soldiers and police broke into the church of Theonas. Athanasius
+himself has described the scene for us: "I was seated upon my chair, the
+deacon was about to read the psalm, the people to answer, 'For his mercy
+endureth for ever.' The solemn act was interrupted; a panic arose." The
+bishop, who was at first unwilling to save himself, until he knew that
+his faithful followers were in safety, succeeded in escaping, leaving
+the town and finding a hiding-place in the country. The solitudes of
+Upper Egypt, where numerous monasteries and hermitages had been planted,
+seem at this time to have been his chief shelter. In this case, benefit
+was repayed by benefit, for Athanasius during his episcopate had been a
+zealous promoter of asceticism and monachism. With Anthony the hermit
+and Pachomius the founder of monasteries, he had maintained personal
+relations, and the former he had commemorated in his _Life of Anthony_.
+During his exile his time was occupied in writing on behalf of his
+cause, and to this period belong some of his most important works, above
+all the great _Orations or Discourses against the Arians_, which furnish
+the best exposition of his theological principles.
+
+During his absence the see of Alexandria was left without a pastor. It
+is true that George of Cappadocia had taken his place; but he could only
+maintain himself for a short while (February 357-October 358). The great
+majority of the population remained faithful to the exile. At length, in
+November 361, the way was opened to him for his return to his see by the
+death of Constantius. Julian, who succeeded to the imperial throne,
+professed himself indifferent to the contentions of the Church, and gave
+permission to the bishops exiled in the late reign to return home. Among
+others, Athanasius availed himself of this permission, and in February
+362 once more seated himself upon his throne, amid the rejoicings of
+the people. He had begun his episcopal labours with renewed ardour, and
+assembled his bishops in Alexandria to decide various important
+questions, when an imperial mandate again--for the fourth time--drove
+him from his place of power. The faithful gathered around him weeping.
+"Be of good heart," he said, "it is but a cloud: it will pass." His
+forecast proved true; for within a few months Julian had closed his
+brief career of pagan revival. As early as September 363, Athanasius was
+able to travel to Jovian, the new emperor, who had sent him a letter
+praising his Christian fidelity and encouraging him to resume his work.
+He returned to Alexandria on the 20th of February 364. With the emperor
+he continued to maintain friendly relations; but the period of repose
+was short. In the spring of 365, after the accession of Valens to the
+throne, troubles again arose. Athanasius was once more compelled to seek
+safety from his persecutors in concealment (October 365), which lasted,
+however, only for four months. In February 366 he resumed his episcopal
+labours, in which he henceforth remained undisturbed. On the 2nd of May
+373, having consecrated one of his presbyters as his successor, he died
+quietly in his own house.
+
+Athanasius was a man of action, but he also knew how to use his pen for
+the furtherance of his cause. He left a large number of writings, which
+cannot of course be compared with those of an Origen, a Basil, or a
+Gregory of Nyssa. Athanasius was no systematic theologian. All his
+treatises are occasional pieces, born of controversy and intended for
+controversial ends. The interest in abstract exposition of clearly
+formulated theological ideas is everywhere subordinate to the polemical
+purpose. But all these writings are instinct with a living personal
+faith, and serve for the defence of the cause; for it was not about
+words that he was contending. Even those who do not sympathize with the
+cause which Athanasius steadfastly defended cannot but admire his
+magnanimous and heroic character. If he was imperious in temper and
+inflexible in his conception of the Christian faith, he possessed a
+great heart and a great intellect, inspired with an enthusiastic
+devotion to Christ. As a theologian, his main distinction was his
+zealous advocacy of the essential divinity of Christ. Christianity in
+its Arian conception would have evaporated in a new polytheism. To have
+set a dam against this process with the whole force of a mighty
+personality constitutes the importance of Athanasius in the world's
+history. It is with good reason that the Church honours him as the
+"Great," and as the "Father of Orthodoxy."
+
+  The best edition of the works of Athanasius is the so-called Maurine
+  edition of Bernard de Montfaucon in 3 vols. (Paris, 1698); this was
+  enlarged in the 3rd edition by Giustiniani (4 vols., Padua, 1777), and
+  is printed in this form in Migne's _Patrologia_, vols. xxv.-xxviii. An
+  English translation of selections, with excellent introductions to the
+  several writings, was published by Archibald Robertson in the _Library
+  of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, second series, vol. 4 (Oxford
+  and New York, 1892). There is no biography satisfactory from the
+  modern point of view. Studies preliminary to such a biography began to
+  be published by E. Schwartz in his essays, "Zur Geschichte des
+  Athanasius" (in the _Nachrichten der koniglichen Gesellschaft der
+  Wissenschaften zu Gottingen_, 1904, &c.). The life of Athanasius,
+  however, is so completely intertwined with the history of his time
+  that it is permissible to refer, for a knowledge of him, to the
+  general descriptions which will be found at the close of the article
+  ARIUS. Of the older literature, Tillemont's _Memoires pour servir a
+  l'histoire ecclesiastique des six premiers siecles_, vols. vi. and
+  viii., are still a mine of material for the historian. Of the newer
+  literature the following deserve to be read:--Johann Adam Mohler,
+  _Athanasius der Grosse und die Kirche seiner Zeit_, 2 vols. (2nd ed.,
+  Mainz, 1844); and Fr. Boehringer, "Arius und Athanasius," _Die Kirche
+  Christi und ihre Zeugen_, vol. i. part 2 (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1874).
+       (G. K.)
+
+
+
+
+ATHAPASCAN, a widely distributed linguistic stock of North American
+Indians, the chief tribes included being the Chippewyan, Navajo, Apache,
+Jicarilla, Lipan, Hupa and Wailaki. The Athapascan family is
+geographically divided into Northern, Pacific and Southern. The Northern
+division (Tinneh or Dene) is about Alaska, and the Yukon and Mackenzie
+rivers,--the eponymous "Athabasca" tribe living round Lake Athabasca, in
+the province of Alberta in Canada. The Pacific division covers a strip
+of territory, some 400 m. in length, from Oregon southwards into
+California. The Southern division includes Arizona and New Mexico, parts
+of Utah, Colorado, Kansas and Texas, and the northern part of Mexico.
+The typical tribes are those of the Northern division.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+ATHARVA VEDA, the fourth book of the Vedas, the ancient scriptures of
+the Brahman religion. Like the other Vedas it is divided into Samhita,
+Brahmanas and Upanishads, representing the spiritual element and its
+magical and nationalistic development. The mantras or sayings composing
+the Samhita of the Atharva Veda differ from those of the other Vedas by
+being in the form of spells rather than prayers or hymns, and seem to
+indicate a stage of religion lower than that of the Rig Veda.
+
+
+
+
+ATHEISM (from Gr. [Greek: a-], privative, and [Greek: theos], God),
+literally a system of belief which denies the existence of God. The term
+as generally used, however, is highly ambiguous. Its meaning varies (a)
+according to the various definitions of deity, and especially (b)
+according as it is (i.) deliberately adopted by a thinker as a
+description of his own theological standpoint, or (ii.) applied by one
+set of thinkers to their opponents. As to (a), it is obvious that
+atheism from the standpoint of the Christian is a very different
+conception as compared with atheism as understood by a Deist, a
+Positivist, a follower of Euhemerus or Herbert Spencer, or a Buddhist.
+But the ambiguities arising from the points of view described in (b) are
+much more difficult both intellectually and in their practical social
+issues. Thus history shows how readily the term has been used in the
+most haphazard manner to describe even the most trivial divergence of
+opinion concerning points of dogma. In other words, "atheism" has been
+used generally by the orthodox adherents of one religion, or even of a
+single sect, for all beliefs which are different or even differently
+expressed. It is in fact in these cases, like "heterodoxy," a term of
+purely negative significance, and its intellectual value is of the
+slightest. The distinction between the terms "religion" and "magic" is,
+in a similar way, often due merely to rivalry between the adherents of
+two or more mutually exclusive religions brought together in the same
+community. When the psalmist declares that "the fool hath said in his
+heart, there is no God," he probably does not refer to theoretical
+denial, but to a practical disbelief in God's government of human
+affairs, shown in disobedience to moral laws. Socrates was charged with
+"not believing in the gods the city believes in." The cry of the heathen
+populace in the Roman empire against the Christians was "Away with the
+atheists! To the lions with the Christians!" The ground for the charge
+was probably the lack of idolatry in all Christian worship. Spinoza, for
+whom God alone existed, was persecuted as an atheist. A common
+designation of Knox was "the atheist," although it was to him "matter of
+satisfaction that our most holy religion is founded on faith, not on
+reason."
+
+In its most scientific and serious usage the term is applied to that
+state of mind which does not find deity (i.e. either one or many gods)
+in or above the physical universe. Thus it has been applied to certain
+primitive savages, who have been thought (e.g. by Lord Avebury in his
+_Prehistoric Times_) to have no religious belief; it is, however, the
+better opinion that there are no peoples who are entirely destitute of
+some rudimentary religious belief. In the second place, and most
+usually, it is applied to a purely intellectual, metaphysical disbelief
+in the existence of any god, or of anything supernatural. In this
+connexion it is usual to distinguish three types of atheism:--the
+_dogmatic_, which denies the existence of God positively; the
+_sceptical_, which distrusts the capacity of the human mind to discover
+the existence of God; and the _critical_, which doubts the validity of
+the theistic argument, the proofs for the existence of God. That the
+first type of atheism exists, in spite of the denials of those who
+favour the second or the third, may be proved by the utterances of men
+like Feuerbach, Flourens or Bradlaugh. "There is no God," says
+Feuerbach, "it is clear as the sun and as evident as the day that there
+is no God, and still more that there can be none." With greater passion
+Flourens declares "Our enemy is God. Hatred of God is the beginning of
+wisdom. If mankind would make true progress, it must be on the basis of
+atheism." Bradlaugh maintained against Holyoake that he would fight
+until men respected the name "atheist." The answer to dogmatic atheism,
+that it implies infinite knowledge, has been well stated in John
+Foster's _Essays_, and restated by Chalmers in his _Natural Theology_,
+and its force is recognized in Holyoake's careful qualification of the
+sense in which secularism accepts atheism, "always explaining the term
+atheist to mean 'not seeing God' visually or inferentially, never
+suffering it to be taken for anti-theism, that is, hating God, denying
+God--as _hating_ implies personal knowledge as the ground of dislike,
+and _denying_ implies infinite knowledge as the ground of disproof." But
+dogmatic atheism is rare compared with the sceptical type, which is
+identical with agnosticism (q.v.) in so far as it denies the capacity of
+the mind of man to form any conception of God, but is different from it
+in so far as the agnostic merely holds his judgment in suspense, though,
+in practice, agnosticism is apt to result in an attitude towards
+religion which is hardly distinguishable from a passive and unaggressive
+atheism. The third or critical type may be illustrated by _A Candid
+Examination of Theism_ by "Physicus" (G.J. Romanes), in which the writer
+endeavours to establish the weakness of the proofs for the existence of
+God, and to substitute for theism Spencer's physical explanation of the
+universe, and yet admits how unsatisfying to himself the new position
+is. "When at times I think, as think at times I must, of the appalling
+contrast between the hallowed glory of that creed which once was mine,
+and the lonely mystery of existence as now I find it--at such times I
+shall ever feel it impossible to avoid the sharpest pang of which my
+nature is susceptible."
+
+Atheism has to meet the protest of the heart as well as the argument of
+the mind of mankind. It must be judged not only by theoretical but by
+practical arguments, in its relations either to the individual or to a
+society. Voltaire himself, speaking as a practical man rather than as a
+metaphysician, declared that if there were no God it would be necessary
+to invent one; and if the analysis is only carried far enough it will be
+found that those who deny the existence of God (in a conventional sense)
+are all the time setting up something in the nature of deity by way of
+an ideal of their own, while fighting over the meaning of a word or its
+conventional misapplication.
+
+
+
+
+ATHELM (d. 923), English churchman, is said to have been a monk of
+Glastonbury before his elevation in 909 to the see of Wells, of which he
+was the first occupant. In 914 he became archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+
+
+
+ATHELNEY, a slight eminence of small extent in the low level tract about
+the junction of the rivers Tone and Parrett in Somersetshire, England.
+It was formerly isolated by marshes and accessible only by boat or
+artificial causeway, and under these conditions it gained its historical
+fame as the retreat of King Alfred in 878-879 when he was unable to
+withstand the incursions of the Danes. After regaining his throne he
+founded a monastery here in gratitude for the retreat afforded him by
+the island; no traces of it exist above ground, but remains have been
+excavated. There was also found here, in 1693, the celebrated Alfred
+jewel, bearing his name, and preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at
+Oxford. An inscribed pillar commemorating the king was set up in 1801.
+The name of Athelney signifies the Isle of Princes (A.S.
+_AEthelingaea_). Athelney is a railway station on a branch of the Great
+Western line.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia,
+Pallas Athene, Pallas), one of the most important goddesses in Greek
+mythology. With Zeus and Apollo, she forms a triad which represents the
+embodiment of all divine power. No satisfactory derivation of the name
+Athena has been given[1]; Pallas, at first an epithet, but after Pindar
+used by itself, may possibly be connected with [Greek: pallakhe]
+("maiden"). Athena has been variously described as the pure aether, the
+storm-cloud, the dawn, the twilight; but there is little evidence that
+she was regarded as representing any of the physical powers of nature,
+and it is better to endeavour to form an idea of her character and
+attributes from a consideration of her cult-epithets and ritual.
+According to the legend, her father Zeus swallowed his wife Metis
+("counsel"), when pregnant with Athena, since he had been warned that
+his children by her might prove stronger than himself and dethrone him.
+Hephaestus (or Prometheus) subsequently split open his head with a
+hatchet, and Athena sprang forth fully armed, uttering a loud shout of
+victory (Hesiod, _Theogony_, 886; Pindar, _Olympia_, vii. 35). In Crete
+she was said to have issued from a cloud burst asunder by Zeus.
+According to Roscher, the manner of her birth represents the storm-cloud
+split by lightning; Farnell (_Cults of the Greek States_, i. p. 285)
+sees in it an indication that, as the daughter of Metis, Athena was
+already invested with a mental and moral character, and explains the
+swallowing of Metis (for which compare the story of Cronus and his
+children) by the desire to attribute an extraordinary birth to one in
+whom masculine traits predominated. In another account (as [Greek:
+Tritogeneia]) she is the daughter of the river Triton, to which various
+localities were assigned, and wherever there was a river (or lake) of
+that name, the inhabitants claimed that she was born there. It is
+probable that the name originated in Boeotia (C.O. Muller, _Geschichten
+hellenischer Stamme_, i. pp. 351-357; but see Macan on Herodotus, iv.
+180), whence it was conveyed by colonists to Cyrene and thence to Libya,
+where there was a river Triton. Here some local divinity, a daughter of
+Poseidon, connected with the water and also of a warlike character, was
+identified by the colonists with their own Athena. In any case, it is
+fairly certain that Tritogeneia means "water-born," although an old
+interpretation derived it from [Greek: trito], a supposed Boeotian word
+meaning "head," which further points to the name having originated in
+Boeotia. Roscher suggests that the localization of her birthplace in the
+extreme west points to the western sea, the home of cloud and storm.
+
+In Homer Athena already appears as the goddess of counsel, of war, of
+female arts and industries, and the protectress of Greek cities, this
+last aspect of her character being the most important and pronounced.
+Hence she is called [Greek: polias], [Greek: poliouchos], in many Greek
+states, and is frequently associated with [Greek: Zeus polieus]. The
+most celebrated festival of the city-goddess was the Panathenaea at
+Athens and other places. Other titles of kindred meaning are [Greek:
+archegeris] ("founder") and [Greek: tanachais], the protectress of the
+Achaean league. At Athens she presided over the phratries or clans, and
+was known as [Greek: apatouria] and [Greek: fratria], and sacrifice was
+offered to her at the festival Apaturia. The title [Greek: meter], given
+her by the inhabitants of Elis, whose women, according to the legend,
+she had blessed with abundance of children, seems at variance with the
+generally-recognized conception of her as [Greek: parthenos]; but
+[Greek: meter] may bear the same meaning as [Greek: kourotrophos], the
+fosterer of the young, in harmony with her aspect as protectress of
+civic and family life. At Alalcomenae, near the Tritonian lake in
+Boeotia, she was [Greek: alalkomeneis] ("defender"). Her temple, which
+was pillaged by Sulla, contained an ivory image, which was said to have
+fallen from heaven. The inhabitants claimed that the goddess was born
+there and brought up by a local hero Alalcomeneus. Her images, called
+Palladia, which guarded the heights (cf. her epithets [Greek: acria,
+kranaia]), represented her with shield uplifted, brandishing her spear
+to keep off the foe. The cult of Athena Itonia, whose earliest seat
+appears to have, been amongst the Thessalians, who used her name as a
+battle-cry, made its way to Coronea in Boeotia, where her sanctuary was
+the seat of the Pamboeotian confederacy. The meaning of Itonia is
+obscure: Dummler connects it with [Greek: iteones], the "willow-beds" on
+the banks of the river Coralios (the river of the maiden, i.e. Athena);
+Jebb (on Bacchylides, _fr._ xi. 2) suggests a derivation from [Greek:
+ienai], the goddess of the "onset." At Thebes she was worshipped as
+Athena Onka or Onga, of equally uncertain derivation (possibly from
+[Greek: ogkos], "a height"). Peculiar to Arcadia is the title Athena
+Alea, probably = "warder off of evil," although others explain it as =
+"warmth," and see in it an allusion to her physical nature as one of the
+powers of light. Farnell (_Cults_, p. 275) points out that at the same
+time she is certainly looked upon as in some way connected with the
+health-divinities, since in her temple she is grouped with Asclepius and
+Hygieia (see HYGIEIA).
+
+She already appears as the goddess of counsel ([Greek: poluboulos]) in
+the _Iliad_ and in Hesiod. The Attic bouleutae took the oath by Athena
+Boulaia; at Sparta she was [Greek: agoraia], presiding over the popular
+assemblies in the market-place; in Arcadia [Greek: mechanitis] the
+discoverer of devices. The epithet [Greek: pronoia] ("forethought") is
+due, according to Farnell, to a confusion with [Greek: pronaia],
+referring to a statue of the goddess standing "before a shrine," and
+arose later (probably spreading from Delphi), some time after the
+Persian wars, in which she repelled a Persian attack on the temples "by
+divine forethought"; another legend attributes the name to her skill in
+assisting Leto at the birth of Apollo and Artemis. With this aspect of
+her character may be compared the Hesiodic legend, according to which
+she was the daughter of Metis. Her connexion with the trial of Orestes,
+the introduction of a milder form of punishment for justifiable
+homicide, and the institution of the court [Greek: to epi Palladio],
+show the important part played by her in the development of legal ideas.
+
+The protectress of cities was naturally also a goddess of war. As such
+she appears in Homer and Hesiod and in post-Homeric legend as the slayer
+of the Gorgon and taking part in the battle of the giants. On numerous
+monuments she is represented as [Greek: areia], "the warlike," [Greek:
+nikephoros], "bringer of victory," holding an image of Nike (q.v.) in
+her outstretched hand (for other similar epithets see Roscher's
+_Lexikon_). She was also the goddess of the arts of war in general;
+[Greek: stoicheia], she who draws up the ranks for battle, [Greek:
+zosteria], she who girds herself for the fray. Martial music (cp.
+[Greek: Athene salpinx], "trumpet") and the Pyrrhic dance, in which she
+herself is said to have taken part to commemorate the victory over the
+giants, and the building of war-ships were attributed to her. She
+instructed certain of her favourites in gymnastics and athletics, as a
+useful training for war. The epithets [Greek: ippia], [Greek:
+chalinitis], [Greek: damasippos], usually referred to her as goddess of
+war-horses, may perhaps be reminiscences of an older religion in which
+the horse was sacred to her. As a war-goddess, she is the embodiment of
+prudent and intelligent tactics, entirely different from Ares, the
+personification of brute force and rashness, who is fitly represented as
+suffering defeat at her hands. She is the patroness and protectress of
+those heroes who are distinguished for their prudence and caution, and
+in the Trojan War she sides with the more civilized Greeks.
+
+The goddess of war develops into the goddess of peace and the pursuits
+connected with it. She is prominent as the promoter of agriculture in
+Attic legend. The Athenian hero Erechtheus (Erichthonius), originally an
+earth-god, is her foster-son, with whom she was honoured in the
+Erechtheum on the Acropolis. Her oldest priestesses, the
+dew-sisters--Aglauros, Herse, Pandrosos--signify the fertilization of
+the earth by the dew, and were probably at one time identified with
+Athena, as surnames of whom both Aglauros and Pandrosos are found. The
+story of the voluntary sacrifice of the Attic maiden Aglauros on behalf
+of her country in time of war (commemorated by the ephebi taking the
+oath of loyalty to their country in her temple), and of the leap of the
+three sisters over the Acropolis rock (see ERECHTHEUS), probably points
+to an old human sacrifice. Athena also gave the Athenians the
+olive-tree, which was supposed to have sprung from the bare soil of the
+Acropolis, when smitten by her spear, close to the horse (or spring of
+water) produced by the trident of Poseidon, to which he appealed in
+support of his claim to the lordship of Athens. She is also connected
+with Poseidon in the legend of Erechtheus, not as being in any way akin
+to the former in nature or character, but as indicating the contest
+between an old and a new religion. This god, whose worship was
+introduced into Athens at a later date by the Ionian immigrants, was
+identified with Erechtheus-Erichthonius (for whose birth Athena was in a
+certain sense responsible), and thus was brought into connexion with the
+goddess, in order to effect a reconciliation of the two cults. Athena
+was said to have invented the plough, and to have taught men to tame
+horses and yoke oxen. Various arts were attributed to her--shipbuilding,
+the goldsmith's craft, fulling, shoemaking and other branches of
+industry. As early as Homer she takes especial interest in the
+occupations of women; she makes Hera's robe and her own peplus, and
+spinning and weaving are often called "the works of Athena." The custom
+of offering a beautifully woven peplus at the Panathenaic festival is
+connected with her character as Ergane the goddess of industry.[2] As
+patroness of the arts, she is associated with Hephaestus (one of her
+titles is [Greek: Ephaistia]) and Prometheus, and in Boeotia she was
+regarded as the inventress of the flute. According to Pindar, she
+imitated on the flute the dismal wail of the two surviving Gorgons after
+the death of Medusa. The legend that Athena, observing in the water the
+distortion of her features caused by playing that instrument, flung it
+away, probably indicates that the Boeotians whom the Athenians regarded
+with contempt, used the flute in their worship of the Boeotian Athena.
+The story of the slaying of Medusa by Athena, in which there is no
+certain evidence that she played a direct part, explained by Roscher as
+the scattering of the storm-cloud, probably arose from the fact that she
+is represented as wearing the Gorgon's head as a badge.
+
+As in the case of Aphrodite and Apollo, Roscher in his _Lexikon_ deduces
+all the characteristics of Athena from a single conception--that of the
+goddess of the storm or the thunder-cloud (for a discussion of such
+attempts see Farnell, _Cults_, i. pp. 3, 263). There seems little reason
+for regarding her as a nature-goddess at all, but rather as the
+presiding divinity of states and cities, of the arts and industries--in
+short, as the goddess of the whole intellectual side of human life.
+
+Except at Athens, little is known of the ceremonies or festivals which
+attended her worship. There we have the following. (1) The ceremony of
+the _Three Sacred Ploughs_, by which the signal for seed-time was given,
+apparently dating from a period when agriculture was one of the chief
+occupations of her worshippers. (2) The _Procharisteria_ at the end of
+winter, at which thanks were offered for the germination of the seed.
+(3) The _Scirophoria_, with a procession from the Acropolis to the
+village of Skiron, in the height of summer, the priests who were to
+entreat her to keep off the summer heat walking under the shade of
+parasols ([Greek: skyron]) held over them; others, however, connect the
+name with [Greek: skiros] ("gypsum"), perhaps used for smearing the
+image of the goddess. (4) The _Oschophoria_, at the vintage season, with
+races among boys, and a procession, with songs in praise of Dionysus and
+Ariadne. (5) The _Chalkeia_ (feast of smiths), at which the birth of
+Erechtheus and the invention of the plough were celebrated. (6) The
+_Plynteria_ and _Callynteria_, at which her ancient image and peplus in
+the Erechtheum and the temple itself were cleaned, with a procession in
+which bunches of figs (frequently used in lustrations) were carried. (7)
+The _Arrhephoria_ or _Errephoria_ (perhaps = _Ersephoria_,
+"dew-bearing"), at which four girls, between seven and eleven years of
+age, selected from noble families, carried certain unknown sacred
+objects to and from the temple of Aphrodite "in the gardens" (see J.E.
+Harrison, _Classical Review_, April 1889). (8) The _Panathenaea_, at
+which the new robes for the image of he goddess were carried through the
+city, spread like a sail on a mast. The reliefs of the frieze of the
+cella of the Parthenon enable us to form an idea of the procession.
+Athletic games, open to all who traced their nationality to Athens, were
+part of this festival. Mention should also be made of the Argive
+ceremony, at which the _xoanon_ (ancient wooden statue) of Athena was
+washed in the river Inachus, a symbol of her purification after the
+Gigantomachia.
+
+The usual attributes of Athena were the helmet, the aegis, the round
+shield with the head of Medusa in the centre, the lance, an olive
+branch, the owl, the cock and the snake. Of these the aegis, usually
+explained as a storm-cloud, is probably intended as a battle-charm, like
+the Gorgon's head on the shield and the faces on the shields of Chinese
+soldiers; the owl probably represents the form under which she was
+worshipped in primitive times, and subsequently became her favourite
+bird (the epithet [Greek: glaukopis], meaning "keen-eyed" in Homer, may
+have originally signified "owl-faced"); the snake, a common companion of
+the earth deities, probably refers to her connexion with
+Erechtheus-Erichthonius.
+
+As to artistic representations of the goddess, we have first the rude
+figure which seems to be a copy of the Palladium; secondly, the still
+rude, but otherwise more interesting, figures of her, as e.g. when
+accompanying heroes, on the early painted vases; and thirdly, the type
+of her as produced by Pheidias, from which little variation appears to
+have been made. Of his numerous statues of her, the three most
+celebrated were set up on the Acropolis. (1) Athena _Parthenos_, in the
+Parthenon. It was in ivory and gold, and 30 ft. high. She was
+represented standing, in a long tunic; on her head was a helmet,
+ornamented with sphinxes and griffins; on her breast was the aegis,
+fringed with serpents and the Gorgon's head in centre. In her right hand
+was a Nike or winged victory, while her left held a spear, which rested
+on a shield on which were represented the battles of the Amazons with
+the giants. (2) A colossal statue said to have been formed from the
+spoils taken at Marathon, the so-called Athena _Promachos_. (3) Athena
+_Lemnia_, so called because it had been dedicated by the Athenian
+cleruchies in Lemnos. In this she was represented without arms, as a
+brilliant type of virgin beauty. The two last statues were of bronze.
+From the time of Pheidias calm earnestness, self-conscious might, and
+clearness of intellect were the main characteristics of the goddess. The
+eyes, slightly cast down, betoken an attitude of thoughtfulness; the
+forehead is clear and open; the mouth indicates firmness and resolution.
+The whole suggests a masculine rather than a feminine form.
+
+From Greece the worship of Athena extended to Magna Graecia, where a
+number of temples were erected to her in various places. In Italy proper
+she was identified with Minerva (q.v.).
+
+  See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_; W.H. Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquites_ (s.v. "Minerva"); L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_;
+  W.H. Roscher, "Die Grundbedeutung der Athene," in _Nektar und
+  Ambrosia_ (1883); F.A. Voigt, "Beitrage zur Mythologie des Ares und
+  Athena," in _Leipziger Studien_, iv. (1881); L.R. Farnell, _The Cults
+  of the Greek States_, i. (1896); J.E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the
+  Study of Greek Religion_ (1903), for the festivals especially; O.
+  Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. (1907). In the article GREEK
+  ART, fig. 21 represents Athena in the act of striking a prostrate
+  giant; fig. 38 a statuette of Athena Parthenos, a replica of the work
+  of Pheidias.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] O. Gruppe (_Griechische Mythologie_, ii. p. 1194) thinks that it
+    probably means "without mother's milk," either in an active or in a
+    passive sense "not giving suck," or "unsuckled," in her character as
+    the virgin goddess, or as springing from the head of Zeus. In support
+    of this view he refers to Hesychius [Greek: thaenion gala] and a
+    passage in Athenagoras (_Legatio pro Christianis_, 17), where it is
+    stated that Athena was sometimes called [Greek: Athela] or [Greek:
+    Athele]. For Pallas, he prefers the old etymology from [Greek: palla]
+    (to "shake"), rather in the sense of "earth-shaker" than
+    "lance-brandisher."
+
+  [2] According to J.E. Harrison in Classical Review (June 1894),
+    Athena Ergane is the goddess of the fruits of the field and the
+    procreation of children.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENAEUM, a name originally applied in ancient Greece ([Greek:
+Athaenaion]) to buildings dedicated to Athena, and specially used as the
+designation of a temple in Athens, where poets and men of learning were
+accustomed to meet and read their productions. The academy for the
+promotion of learning which the emperor Hadrian built (about A.D. 135)
+at Rome, near the Forum, was also called the Athenaeum. Poets and
+orators still met and discussed there, but regular courses of
+instruction were given by a staff of professors in rhetoric,
+jurisprudence, grammar and philosophy. The institution, later called
+Schola Romana, continued in high repute till the 5th century. Similar
+academies were also founded in the provinces and at Constantinople by
+the emperor Theodosius II. In modern times the name has been applied to
+various academies, as those of Lyons and Marseilles, and the Dutch high
+schools; and it has become a very general designation for literary
+clubs. It is also familiar as the title of several literary periodicals,
+notably of the London literary weekly founded in 1828.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENAEUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and grammarian,
+flourished about the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 3rd century
+A.D. Suidas only tells us that he lived "in the times of Marcus"; but
+the contempt with which he speaks of Commodus (died 192) shows that he
+survived that emperor. Athenaeus himself states that he was the author
+of a treatise on the _thratta_--a kind of fish mentioned by Archippus
+and other comic poets--and of a history of the Syrian kings, both of
+which works are lost. We still possess the _Deipnosophistae_, which may
+mean dinner-table philosophers or authorities on banquets, in fifteen
+books. The first two books, and parts of the third, eleventh and
+fifteenth, are only extant in epitome, but otherwise we seem to possess
+the work entire. It is an immense storehouse of miscellaneous
+information, chiefly on matters connected with the table, but also
+containing remarks on music, songs, dances, games, courtesans. It is
+full of quotations from writers whose works have not come down to us;
+nearly 800 writers and 2500 separate writings are referred to by
+Athenaeus; and he boasts of having read 800 plays of the Middle Comedy
+alone. The plan of the _Deipnosophistae_ is exceedingly cumbrous, and is
+badly carried out. It professes to be an account given by the author to
+his friend Timocrates of a banquet held at the house of Laurentius (or
+Larentius), a scholar and wealthy patron of art. It is thus a dialogue
+within a dialogue, after the manner of Plato, but a conversation of
+sufficient length to occupy several days (though represented as taking
+place in one) could not be conveyed in a style similar to the short
+conversations of Socrates. Among the twenty-nine guests are Galen and
+Ulpian, but they are all probably fictitious personages, and the
+majority take no part in the conversation. If Ulpian is identical with
+the famous jurist, the _Deipnosophistae_ must have been written after
+his death (228); but the jurist was murdered by the praetorian guards,
+whereas Ulpian in Athenaeus dies a natural death. The conversation
+ranges from the dishes before the guests to literary matters of every
+description, including points of grammar and criticism; and they are
+expected to bring with them extracts from the poets, which are read
+aloud and discussed at table. The whole is but a clumsy apparatus for
+displaying the varied and extensive reading of the author. As a work of
+art it can take but a low rank, but as a repertory of fragments and
+morsels of information it is invaluable.
+
+  Editio princeps, Aldine, 1524; Casaubon, 1597-1600; Schweighauser,
+  1801-1807; Dindorf, 1827; Meineke, 1859-1867; Kaibel, 1887-1890;
+  English translation by Yonge in Bohn's _Classical Library_.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENAGORAS, a Christian apologist of the 2nd century A.D., was,
+according to an emendator of the Paris Codex 451 of the 11th century, a
+native of Athens. The only sources of information regarding him are a
+short notice by Philip of Side, in Pamphylia (c. A.D. 420), and the
+inscription on his principal work. Philip--or rather the compiler who
+made excerpts from him--says that he was at the head of an Alexandrian
+school (the catechetical), that he lived in the time of Hadrian and
+Antoninus, to whom he addressed his _Apology_, and that Clement of
+Alexandria was his pupil; but these statements are more than doubtful.
+The inscription on the work describes it as the "Embassy of Athenagoras,
+the Athenian, a philosopher and a Christian concerning the Christians,
+to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus,
+&c." This statement has given rise to considerable discussion, but from
+it and internal evidence the date of the _Apology_ ([Greek: Presbeia
+peri Christianon]) may be fixed at about A.D. 177. Athenagoras is also
+the author of a discourse on the resurrection of the body, which is not
+authenticated otherwise than by the titles on the various manuscripts.
+In the _Apology_, after contrasting the judicial treatment of Christians
+with that of other accused persons, he refutes the accusations brought
+against the Christians of atheism, eating human flesh and
+licentiousness, and in doing so takes occasion to make a vigorous and
+skilful attack on pagan polytheism and mythology. The discourse on the
+resurrection answers objections to the doctrine, and attempts to prove
+its truth from considerations of God's purpose in the creation of man,
+His justice and the nature of man himself. Athenagoras is a powerful and
+clear writer, who strives to comprehend his opponents' views and is
+acquainted with the classical writers. He used the _Apology_ of Justin,
+but hardly the works of Aristides or Tatian. His theology is strongly
+tinged with Platonism, and this may account for his falling into
+desuetude. His discussion of the Trinity has some points of speculative
+interest, but it is not sufficiently worked out; he regards the Son as
+the Reason or Wisdom of the Father, and the Spirit as a divine
+effluence. On some other points, as the nature of matter, the
+immortality of the soul and the principle of sin, his views are
+interesting.
+
+  EDITIONS.--J.C. Th. Eg. de Otto, _Corpus Apol. Christ. Saec._ II. vol.
+  vii. (Jena, 1857); E. Schwartz in _Texte und Untersuchungen_, iv. 2
+  (Leipzig, 1891).
+
+  TRANSLATIONS.--Humphreys (London, 1714); B.P. Pratten (_Ante-Nic.
+  Fathers_, Edinburgh, 1867).
+
+  LITERATURE.--A. Harnack, _Gesch. der altchr. Litt._ pp. 526-558, and
+  similar works by O. Bardenhewer and A. Ehrhard; Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyk._; G. Kruger, _Early Chr. Lit._ p. 130 (where additional
+  literature is cited). In 1559 and 1612 appeared in French a work on
+  _True and Perfect Love_, purporting to be a translation from the Greek
+  of Athenagoras; it is a palpable forgery.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENODORUS, the name of two Stoic philosophers of the 1st century B.C.,
+who have frequently been confounded.
+
+1. ATHENODORUS CANANITES (c. 74 B.C.-A.D. 7), so called from his
+birthplace Canana near Tarsus (not Cana in Cilicia nor Canna in
+Lycaonia), was the son of one Sandon, whose name indicates Tarsian
+descent, not Jewish as many have held. He was a personal friend of
+Strabo, from whom we derive our knowledge of his life. He taught the
+young Octavian (afterwards Augustus) at Apollonia, and was a pupil of
+Posidonius at Rhodes. Subsequently he appears to have travelled in the
+East (Petra and Egypt) and to have made himself famous by lecturing in
+the great cities of the Mediterranean. Writing in 50 B.C., Cicero speaks
+of him with the highest respect (cf. _Ep. ad. Att._, xvi. 11. 4, 14. 4),
+a fact which enables us to fix the date of his birth as not later than
+about 74. His influence over Augustus was strong and lasting. He
+followed him to Rome in 44, and is said to have criticized him with the
+utmost candour, bidding him repeat the letters of the alphabet before
+acting on an angry impulse. In later years he was allowed by Augustus to
+return to Tarsus in order to remodel the constitution of the city after
+the degenerate democracy which had misgoverned it under Boethus. He
+succeeded (c. 15-10 B.C.) in setting up a timocratic oligarchy in the
+imperial interest (see TARSUS). Sir W.M. Ramsay is inclined to attribute
+to the influence of Athenodorus the striking resemblances which can be
+established between Seneca and Paul, the latter of whom must certainly
+have been acquainted with his teachings. According to Eusebius and
+Strabo he was a learned scientist for his day, and some attribute to him
+a history of Tarsus. He helped Cicero in the composition of the _De
+Officiis_. His works are not certainly known, and none are extant. (See
+Sir W.M. Ramsay in the _Expositor_, September 1906, pp. 268 ff.)
+
+2. ATHENODORUS CORDYLION, also of Tarsus, was keeper of the library at
+Pergamum, and was an old man in 47 B.C. In his enthusiasm for Stoicism
+he used to cut out from Stoic writings passages which seemed to him
+unsatisfactory. He also settled in Rome, where he died in the house of
+the younger Cato.
+
+  Among others of the name may be mentioned (3) ATHENODORUS OF TEOS, who
+  played the cithara at the wedding of Alexander the Great and Statira
+  at Susa (324 B.C.); (4) a Greek physician of the 1st century A.D., who
+  wrote on epidemic diseases; and two sculptors, of whom (5) one
+  executed the statues of Apollo and Zeus which the Spartans dedicated
+  at Delphi after Aegospotami; and (6) the other was a son of Alexander
+  of Rhodes, whom he helped in the Laocoon group.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENRY, a market town of county Galway, Ireland, 14 m. inland (E.) from
+Galway on the Midland Great Western main line. Pop. (1901) 853. Its name
+is derived from _Ath-na-riogh_, the ford of kings; and it grew to
+importance after the Anglo-Norman invasion as the first town of the
+Burgs and Berminghams. The walls were erected in 1211 and the castle in
+1238, and the remains of both are noteworthy. A Dominican monastery was
+founded with great magnificence by Myler de Bermingham in 1241, and was
+repaired by the Board of Works in 1893. Of the Franciscan monastery of
+1464 little is left. The town returned two members to the Irish
+parliament from the time of Richard II. to the Union; but it never
+recovered from the wars of the Tudor period, culminating in a successful
+siege by Red Hugh O'Donnell in 1596.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENS [[Greek: Athaenai], _Athenae_, modern colloquial Greek [Greek:
+Athaena]], the capital of the kingdom of Greece, situated in 23 deg. 44'
+E. and 37 deg. 58' N., towards the southern end of the central and
+principal plain of Attica. The various theories with regard to the
+origin of the name are all somewhat unconvincing; it is conceivable
+that, with the other homonymous Greek towns, such as Athenae Diades in
+Euboea, [Greek: Athaenai] may be connected etymologically with [Greek:
+anthos], a flower (cf. _Firenze_, Florence); the patron goddess, Athena,
+was probably called after the place of her cult.
+
+
+I. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES
+
+The Attic plain, [Greek: to pedion], slopes gently towards the coast of
+the Saronic Gulf on the south-west; on the east it is overlooked by
+Mount Hymettus (3369 ft.); on the north-east by Pentelicus or Brilessus
+(3635 ft.) from which, in ancient and modern times, an immense quantity
+of the finest marble has been quarried; on the north-west by Parnes
+(4636 ft.), a continuation of the Boeotian Cithaeron, and on the west by
+Aegaleus (1532 ft.), which descends abruptly to the bay of Salamis. In
+the centre of the plain extends from north-east to south-west a series
+of low heights, now known as Turcovuni, culminating towards the south in
+the sharply pointed Lycabettus (1112 ft.), now called Hagios Georgios
+from the monastery which crowns its summit. Lycabettus, the most
+prominent feature in the Athenian landscape, directly overhung the
+ancient city, but was not included in its walls; its peculiar shape
+rendered it unsuitable for fortification. The Turcovuni ridge, probably
+the ancient Anchesmus, separates the valley of the Cephisus on the
+north-west from that of its confluent, the Ilissus, which skirted the
+ancient city on the south-west. The Cephisus, rising in Pentelicus,
+enters the sea at New Phalerum; in summer it dwindles to an
+insignificant stream, while the Ilissus, descending from Hymettus, is
+totally dry, probably owing to the destruction of the ancient forests on
+both mountains, and the consequent denudation of the soil. Separated
+from Lycabettus by a depression to the south-west, through which flows a
+brook, now a covered drain (probably to be identified with the
+Eridanus), stands the remarkable oblong rocky mass of the Acropolis (512
+ft.), rising precipitously on all sides except the western; its summit
+was partially levelled in prehistoric times, and the flat area was
+subsequently enlarged by further cutting and by means of retaining
+walls. Close to the Acropolis on the west is the lower rocky eminence of
+the Areopagus, [Greek: Areios pagos] (377 ft.), the seat of the famous
+council; the name (see also AREOPAGUS) has been connected with Ares,
+whose temple stood on the northern side of the hill, but is more
+probably derived from the [Greek: Apai] or Eumenides, whose sanctuary
+was formed by a cleft in its north-eastern declivity. Farther west of
+the Acropolis are three elevations; to the north-west the so-called
+"Hill of the Nymphs" (341 ft.), on which the modern Observatory stands;
+to the west the Pnyx, the meeting-place of the Athenian democracy (351
+ft.), and to the south-west the loftier Museum Hill (482 ft.), still
+crowned with the remains of the monument of Philopappus. A cavity, a
+little to the west of the Observatory Hill, is generally supposed to be
+the ancient Barathron or place of execution. To the south-east of the
+Acropolis, beyond the narrow valley of the Ilissus, is the hill Ardettus
+(436 ft.). The distance from the Acropolis to the nearest point of the
+sea coast at Phalerum is a little over 3 m.
+
+
+  Influence of the geographical position.
+
+The natural situation of Athens was such as to favour the growth of a
+powerful community. For the first requisites of a primitive
+settlement--food supply and defence--it afforded every advantage. The
+Attic plain, notwithstanding the lightness of the soil, furnished an
+adequate supply of cereals; olive and fig groves and vineyards were
+cultivated from the earliest times in the valley of the Cephisus, and
+pasturage for sheep and goats was abundant. The surrounding rampart of
+mountains was broken towards the north-east by an open tract stretching
+between Hymettus and Pentelicus towards Marathon, and was traversed by
+the passes of Decelea, Phyle and Daphne on the north and north-west, but
+the distance between these natural passages and the city was sufficient
+to obviate the danger of surprise by an invading land force. On the
+other hand Athens, like Corinth, Megara and Argos, was sufficiently far
+from the sea to enjoy security against the sudden descent of a hostile
+fleet. At the same time the relative proximity of three natural
+harbours, Peiraeus, Zea and Munychia, favoured the development of
+maritime commerce and of the sea power which formed the basis of
+Athenian hegemony. The climate is temperate, but liable to sudden
+changes; the mean temperature is 63 deg. .1 F., the maximum (in July) 99
+deg. .01, the minimum (in January) 31 deg. .55. The summer heat is
+moderated by the sea-breeze or by cool northerly winds from the
+mountains (especially in July and August). The clear, bracing air,
+according to ancient writers, fostered the intellectual and aesthetic
+character of the people and endowed them with mental and physical
+energy. For the architectural embellishment of the city the finest
+building material was procurable without difficulty and in abundance;
+Pentelicus forms a mass of white, transparent, blue-veined marble;
+another variety, somewhat similar in appearance, but generally of a
+bluer hue, was obtained from Hymettus. For ordinary purposes grey
+limestone was furnished by Lycabettus and the adjoining hills; limestone
+from the promontory of Acte (the so-called "poros" stone), and
+conglomerate, were also largely employed. For the ceramic art admirable
+material was at hand in the district north-west of the Acropolis. For
+sculpture and various architectural purposes white, fine-grained marble
+was brought from Paros and Naxos. The main drawback to the situation of
+the city lay in the insufficiency of its water-supply, which was
+supplemented by an aqueduct constructed in the time of the Peisistratids
+and by later water-courses dating from the Roman period. A great number
+of wells were also sunk and rain-water was stored in cisterns.
+
+
+    Sources for Athenian topography.
+
+  For the purposes of scientific topography observation of the natural
+  features and outlines is followed by exact investigation of the
+  architectural structures or remnants, a process demanding high
+  technical competence, acute judgment and practical experience, as well
+  as wide and accurate scholarship. The building material and the manner
+  of its employment furnish evidence no less important than the
+  character of the masonry, the design and the modes of ornamentation.
+  The testimony afforded by inscriptions is often of decisive
+  importance, especially that of commemorative or votive tablets or of
+  boundary-stones found _in situ_; the value of this evidence is, on the
+  other hand, sometimes neutralized owing to the former removal of
+  building material already used and its incorporation in later
+  structures. Thus sepulchral inscriptions have been found on the
+  Acropolis, though no burials took place there in ancient times. In the
+  next place comes the evidence derived from the whole range of ancient
+  literature and specially from descriptions of the city or its
+  different localities. The earliest known description of Athens was
+  that of Diodorus, [Greek: ho periaegtes], who lived in the second half
+  of the 4th century B.C. Among his successors were Polemon of Ilium
+  (beginning of 2nd century B.C.), whose great [Greek: kosmikae
+  periaegaesis] gave a minute account of the votive offerings on the
+  Acropolis and the tombs on the Sacred Way; and Heliodorus (second half
+  of the 2nd century) who wrote fifteen volumes on the monuments of
+  Athens. Of these and other works of the earliest topographers only
+  some fragments remain. In the period between A.D. 143 and 159
+  Pausanias visited Athens at a time when the monuments of the great age
+  were still in their perfection and the principal embellishments of the
+  Roman period had already been completed. The first thirty chapters of
+  his invaluable _Description of Greece_ ([Greek: periaegaesis taes
+  Hellados]) are devoted to Athens, its ports and environs. Pausanias
+  makes no claim to exhaustiveness; he selected what was best worth
+  noticing ([Greek: ta axiologotata]). His account, drawn up from notes
+  taken in the main from personal observation, possesses an especial
+  importance for topographical research, owing to his method of
+  describing each object in the order in which he saw it during the
+  course of his walks. His accuracy, which has been called in question
+  by some scholars, has been remarkably vindicated by recent excavations
+  at Athens and elsewhere. The list of ancient topographers closes with
+  Pausanias. The literature of succeeding centuries furnishes only
+  isolated references; the more important are found in the scholia on
+  Aristophanes, the lexicons of Hesychius, Photius and others, and the
+  _Etymologicum Magnum_. The notices of Athens during the earlier middle
+  ages are scanty in the extreme. In 1395 Niccola da Martoni, a pilgrim
+  from the Holy Land, visited Athens and wrote a description of a
+  portion of the city. Of the work of Cyriac of Ancona, written about
+  1450, only some fragments remain, which are well supplemented by the
+  contemporaneous description of the capable observer known as the
+  "Anonymous of Milan." Two treatises in Greek by unknown writers belong
+  to the same period. The Dutchman Joannes Meursius (1579-1639) wrote
+  three disquisitions on Athenian topography. The conquest by Venice in
+  1687 led to the publication of several works in that city, including
+  the descriptions of De la Rue and Fanelli and the maps of Coronelli
+  and others. The systematic study of Athenian topography was begun in
+  the 17th century by French residents at Athens, the consuls Giraud and
+  Chataignier and the Capuchin monks. The visit of the French physician
+  Jacques Spon and the Englishman, Sir George Wheler or Wheeler
+  (1650-1723), fortunately took place before the catastrophe of the
+  Parthenon in 1687; Spon's _Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grece et
+  du Levant_, which contained the first scientific description of the
+  ruins of Athens, appeared in 1678; Wheler's _Journey into Greece_, in
+  1682. A period of British activity in research followed in the 18th
+  century. The monumental work of James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who
+  spent three years at Athens (1751-1754), marked an epoch in the
+  progress of Athenian topography and is still indispensable to its
+  study, owing to the demolition of ancient buildings which began about
+  the middle of the 18th century. To this period also belong the labours
+  of Richard Pococke and Richard Dalton, Richard Chandler, E.D. Clarke
+  and Edward Dodwell. The great work of W.M. Leake (_Topography of
+  Athens and the Demi_, 2nd ed., 1841) brought the descriptive
+  literature to an end and inaugurated the period of modern scientific
+  research, in which German archaeologists have played a distinguished
+  part.
+
+
+    Recent research.
+
+  Recent investigation has thrown a new and unexpected light on the art,
+  the monuments and the topography of the ancient city. Numerous and
+  costly excavations have been carried out by the Greek government and
+  by native and foreign scientific societies, while accidental
+  discoveries have been frequently made during the building of the
+  modern town. The museums, enriched by a constant inflow of works of
+  art and inscriptions, have been carefully and scientifically arranged,
+  and afford opportunities for systematic study denied to scholars of
+  the past generation. Improved means of communication have enabled many
+  acute observers to apply the test of scrutiny on the spot to theories
+  and conclusions mainly based on literary evidence; five foreign
+  schools of archaeology, directed by eminent scholars, lend valuable
+  aid to students of all nationalities, and lectures are frequently
+  delivered in the museums and on the more interesting and important
+  sites. The native archaeologists of the present day hold a recognized
+  position in the scientific work; the patriotic sentiment of former
+  times, which prompted their zeal but occasionally warped their
+  judgment, has been merged in devotion to science for its own sake, and
+  the supervision of excavations, as well as the control of the
+  art-collections, is now in highly competent hands. Athens has thus
+  become a centre of learning, a meeting-place for scholars and a basis
+  for research in every part of the Greek world. The attention of many
+  students has naturally been concentrated on the ancient city, the
+  birthplace of European art and literature, and a great development of
+  investigation and discussion in the special domain of Athenian
+  archaeology has given birth to a voluminous literature. Many theories
+  hitherto universally accepted have been called in question or proved
+  to be unsound: the views of Leake, for instance, have been challenged
+  on various points, though many of his conclusions have been justified
+  and confirmed. The supreme importance of a study of Greek antiquities
+  on the spot, long understood by scholars in Europe and in America, has
+  gradually come to be recognized in England, where a close attention to
+  ancient texts, not always adequately supplemented by a course of local
+  study and observation, formerly fostered a peculiarly conservative
+  attitude in regard to the problems of Greek archaeology. Since the
+  foundation of the German Institute in 1874, Athenian topography has to
+  a large extent become a speciality of German scholars, among whom
+  Wilhelm Dorpfeld occupies a pre-eminent position owing to his great
+  architectural attainments and unrivalled local knowledge. Many of his
+  bold and novel theories have provoked strenuous opposition, while
+  others have met with general acceptance, except among scholars of the
+  more conservative type.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Athens.]
+
+
+  The early citadel.
+
+_Prehistoric Athens._--Numerous traces of the "Mycenaean" epoch have
+recently been brought to light in Athens and its neighbourhood. Among
+the monuments of this age discovered in the surrounding districts are
+the rock-hewn tombs of Spata, accidentally revealed by a landslip in
+1877, and domed sepulchre at Menidi, near the ancient Acharnae,
+excavated by Lolling in 1879. Other "Mycenaean" landmarks have been laid
+bare at Eleusis, Thoricus, Halae and Aphidna. These structures, however,
+are of comparatively minor importance in point of dimensions and
+decoration; they were apparently designed as places of sepulture for
+local chieftains, whose domains were afterwards incorporated in the
+Athenian realm by the [Greek: synoikismos] (synoecism) attributed to
+Theseus. The situation of the Acropolis, dominating the surrounding
+plain and possessing easy communication with the sea, favoured the
+formation of a relatively powerful state--inferior, however, to Tiryns
+and Mycenae; the myths of Cecrops, Erechtheus and Theseus bear witness
+to the might of the princes who ruled in the Athenian citadel, and here
+we may naturally expect to find traces of massive fortifications
+resembling in some degree those of the great Argolid cities. Such in
+fact have been brought to light by the modern excavations on the
+Acropolis (1885-1889). Remains of primitive polygonal walls which
+undoubtedly surrounded the entire area have been found at various points
+a little within the circuit of the existing parapet. The best-preserved
+portions are at the eastern extremity, at the northern side near the
+ancient "royal" exit, and at the south-western angle. The course of the
+walls can be traced with a few interruptions along the southern side. On
+the northern side are the foundations of a primitive tower and other
+remains, apparently of dwelling-houses, one of which may have been the
+[Greek: pukinos domos Erthaeos] mentioned by Homer (_Od_. vii. 81).
+Among the foundations were discovered fragments of "Mycenaean" pottery.
+The various approaches to the citadel on the northern side--the rock-cut
+flight of steps north-east of the Erechtheum (q.v.), the stairs leading
+to the well Clepsydra, and the intermediate passage supposed to have
+furnished access to the Persians--are all to be attributed to the
+primitive epoch. Two pieces of polygonal wall, one beneath the bastion
+of Nike Apteros, the other in a direct line between the Roman gateway
+and the door of the Propylaea, are all that remain of the primitive
+defences of the main entrance.
+
+
+  The Pelasgicum.
+
+These early fortifications of the Acropolis, ascribed to the primitive
+non-hellenic Pelasgi, must be distinguished from the Pelasgicum Or
+Pelargicum, which was in all probability an encircling wall, built round
+the base of the citadel and furnished with nine gates from which it
+derived the name of Enneapylon. Such a wall would be required to protect
+the clusters of dwellings around the Acropolis as well as the springs
+issuing from the rock, while the gates opening in various directions
+would give access to the surrounding pastures and gardens. This view,
+which is that of E. Curtius, alone harmonizes with the statement of
+Herodotus (vi. 137) that the wall was "around" ([Greek: peri]) the
+Acropolis, and that of Thucydides (ii. 17) that it was "beneath"
+([Greek: hypo]) the fortress. Thus it would appear that the citadel had
+an outer and an inner line of defence in prehistoric times. The space
+enclosed by the outer wall was left unoccupied after the Persian wars in
+deference to an oracular response apparently dictated by military
+considerations, the maintenance of an open zone being desirable for the
+defence of the citadel. A portion of the outer wall has been recognized
+in a piece of primitive masonry discovered near the Odeum of Herodes
+Atticus; other traces will probably come to light when the northern and
+eastern slopes of the Acropolis have been completely explored. Leake,
+whom Frazer follows, assumed the Pelasgicum to be a fortified space at
+the western end of the Acropolis; this view necessitates the assumption
+that the nine gates were built one within the other, but early antiquity
+furnishes no instance of such a construction; Dorpfeld believes it to
+have extended from the grotto of Pan to the sacred precinct of
+Asclepius. The well-known passage of Lucian (_Piscator_, 47) cannot be
+regarded as decisive for any of the theories advanced, as any portion of
+the old _enceinte_ dismantled by the Persians may have retained the name
+in later times. The Pelasgic wall enclosed the spring Clepsydra, beneath
+the north-western corner of the Acropolis, which furnished a
+water-supply to the defenders of the fortress. The spring, to which a
+staircase leads down, was once more included in a bastion during the War
+of Independence by the Greek chief Odysseus.
+
+
+  The Pnyx.
+
+To the "Pelasgic" era may perhaps be referred (with Curtius and
+Milchhofer) the immense double terrace on the north-eastern slope of the
+Pnyx (395 ft. by 212), the upper portion of which is cut out of the
+rock, while the lower is enclosed by a semicircular wall of massive
+masonry; the theory of these scholars, however, that the whole precinct
+was a sanctuary of the Pelasgian Zeus cannot be regarded as proved, nor
+is it easy to abandon the generally received view that this was the
+scene of the popular assemblies of later times, notwithstanding the
+apparent unsuitability of the ground and the insufficiency of room for a
+large multitude. These difficulties are met by the assumption that the
+semicircular masonry formed the base of a retaining-wall which rose to a
+considerable height, supporting a theatre-like structure capable of
+seating many thousand persons. The masonry may be attributed to the 5th
+century; the chiselling of the immense blocks is not "Cyclopean."
+Projecting from the upper platform at the centre of the chord of the
+semicircular area is a cube of rock, 11 ft. square and 5 ft. high,
+approached on either side by a flight of steps leading to the top; this
+block, which Curtius supposes to have been the primitive altar of Zeus
+[Greek: Hupsistos], may be safely identified with the orators' bema,
+[Greek: ho lithos en tae Pykni] (Aristoph. _Pax_, 680). Plutarch's
+statement that the Thirty Tyrants removed the bema so as to face the
+land instead of the sea is probably due to a misunderstanding. Other
+cubes of rock, apparently altars, exist in the neighbourhood. There can
+be little doubt that the Pnyx was the seat of an ancient cult; the
+meetings of the Ecclesia were of a religious character and were preceded
+by a sacrifice to Zeus [Greek: Agoraios]; nor is it conceivable that,
+but for its sacred associations, a site would have been chosen so
+unsuitable for the purposes of a popular assembly as to need the
+addition of a costly artificial auditorium.
+
+
+  Rock-dwellings and tombs.
+
+The Pnyx, the Hill of the Nymphs and the Museum Hill are covered with
+vestiges of early settlements which extend to a considerable distance
+towards the south-east in the direction of Phalerum. They consist of
+chambers of various sizes, some of which were evidently human
+habitations, together with cisterns, channels, seats, steps, terraces
+and quadrangular tombs, all cut in the rock. This neighbourhood was held
+by Curtius to have been the site of the primeval rock city, [Greek:
+kranaa polis] (Aristoph. _Ach_. 75), anterior to the occupation of the
+Acropolis and afterwards abandoned for the later settlement. It seems
+inconceivable, however, that any other site should have been preferred
+by the primitive settlers to the Acropolis, which offered the greatest
+advantages for defence; the Pnyx, owing to its proximity to the centres
+of civic life, can never have been deserted, and that portion which lay
+within the city walls must have been fully occupied when Athens was
+crowded during the Peloponnesian War. Some of the rock chambers
+originally intended for tombs were afterwards converted, perhaps under
+pressure of necessity, into habitations, as in the case of the so-called
+"Prison of Socrates," which consists of three chambers horizontally
+excavated and a small round apartment of the "beehive" type. The remains
+on the Pnyx and its neighbourhood cannot all be assigned to one epoch,
+the prehistoric age. The dwellings do not correspond in size or details
+with the undoubtedly prehistoric abodes on the Acropolis. In view of the
+ancient law which forbade burial within the city, the tombs within the
+circuit of the city walls must either be earlier than the time of
+Themistocles or several centuries later; in the similar rock-tombs on
+the neighbouring slopes of the Acropolis and Areopagus both Mycenaean
+and Dipylon pottery have been found. But the numerous vertically
+excavated tombs outside the walls are of late date and belong for the
+most part to the Roman period.
+
+
+  The Areopagus.
+
+The Areopagus is now a bare rock possessing few architectural traces.
+The legend of its occupation by the Amazons (Aeschylus, _Eum_. 681 seq.)
+may be taken as indicating its military importance for an attack on the
+Acropolis; the Persians used it as a _point d'appui_ for their assault.
+The seat of the old oligarchical council and court for homicide was
+probably on its eastern height. Here were the altar of Athena Areia and
+two stones, the [Greek: lithos Ybreos], on which the accuser, and the
+[Greek: lithos Anaideias], on which the accused, took their stand.
+Beneath, at the north-eastern corner, is the cleft which formed the
+sanctuary of the [Greek: Semnai], or Erinyes. There is no reason for
+disturbing the associations connected with this spot as the scene of St
+Paul's address to the Athenians (E. Gardner, _Anc. Athens_, p. 505).
+
+_Hellenic Period._--While modern research has added considerably to our
+knowledge of prehistoric Athens, a still greater light has been thrown
+on the architecture and topography of the city in the earlier historic
+or "archaic" era, the subsequent age of Athenian greatness, and the
+period of decadence which set in with the Macedonian conquest; the first
+extends from the dawn of history to 480-479 B.C., when the city was
+destroyed by the Persians; the second, or classical, age closes in 322
+B.C., when Athens lost its political independence after the Lamian War;
+the third, or Hellenistic, in 146 B.C., when the state fell under Roman
+protection. We must here group these important epochs together, as
+distinguished from the later period of Roman rule, and confine ourselves
+to a brief notice of their principal monuments and a record of the
+discoveries by which they have been illustrated in recent years.
+
+
+  The city in the "archaic" era.
+
+The earliest settlement on the Acropolis was doubtless soon increased by
+groups of dwellings at its base, inhabited by the dependents of the
+princes who ruled in the stronghold. These habitations would naturally
+in the first instance lie in close proximity to the western approach;
+after the building of the Pelasgicum they seem to have extended beyond
+its walls towards the south and south-west--towards the sea and the
+waters of the Ilissus. The district thus occupied sloped towards the sun
+and was sheltered by the Acropolis from the prevailing northerly winds.
+The Thesean synoecism led to the introduction of new cults and the
+foundation of new shrines partly on the Acropolis, partly in the
+inhabited district at its base both within and without the wall of the
+Pelasgicum. Some of the shrines in this region are mentioned by
+Thucydides in a passage which is of capital importance for the
+topography of the city at this period (ii. 15). By degrees the inhabited
+area began to comprise the open ground to the north-west, the nearer
+portion of the later Ceramicus, or "potters' field" (afterwards divided
+by the walls of Themistocles into the Inner and Outer Ceramicus), and
+eventually extended to the north and east of the citadel, which, by the
+beginning of the 5th century B.C., had become the centre of a circular
+or wheel-shaped city, [Greek: polios trochoeideos akra karaena] (Oracle
+_apud_ Herod, vii. 140). To this enlarged city was applied, probably
+about the second half of the 6th century, the special designation
+[Greek: to aste], which afterwards distinguished Athens from its port,
+the Peiracus; the Acropolis was already [Greek: e polis] (Thucyd. ii.
+15). The city is supposed to have been surrounded by a wall before the
+time of Solon, the existence of which may be deduced from Thucydides'
+account of the assassination of Hipparchus (vi. 57), but no certain
+traces of such a wall have been discovered; the materials may have been
+removed to build the walls of Themistocles.
+
+
+  The Agora.
+
+The centre of commercial and civic life of the older group of
+communities, as of the greater city of the classical age, was the Agora
+or market. Here were the various public buildings, which, when the power
+of the princes on the citadel was transferred to the archons, formed the
+offices of the administrative magistracy. The site of the primitive
+Agora ([Greek: archaia agora]) was probably in the hollow between the
+Acropolis and the Pnyx, which formed a convenient meeting-place for the
+dwellers on the north and south sides of the fortress as well as for its
+inhabitants. In the time of the Peisistratids the Agora was enlarged so
+as to extend over the Inner Ceramicus on the north-west, apparently
+reaching the northern declivities of the Areopagus and the Acropolis on
+the south. After the Persian Wars the northern portion was used for
+commercial, the southern for political and ceremonial purposes. In the
+southern were the Orchestra, where the Dionysiac dances took place, and
+the famous statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton by Antenor which were
+carried away by Xerxes; also the Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the
+Gods, the Bouleuterium, or council-chamber of the Five Hundred, the
+Prytaneum, the hearth of the combined communities, where the guests of
+the state dined, the temple of the Dioscuri, and the Tholus, or Skias, a
+circular stone-domed building in which the Prytaneis were maintained at
+the public expense; in the northern were the Leocorium, where Hipparchus
+was slain, the [Greek: stoa basilikae], the famous [Greek: stoa
+poikilae], where Zeno taught, and other structures. The Agora was
+commonly described as the "Ceramicus," and Pausanias gives it this name;
+of the numerous buildings which he saw here scarcely a trace remains;
+their position, for the most part, is largely conjectural, and the exact
+boundaries of the Agora itself are uncertain. What are perhaps the
+remains of the [Greek: stoa basilikae], in which the Archon Basileus
+held his court and the Areopagus Council sat in later times, were
+brought to light in the winter of 1897-1898, when excavations were
+carried out on the eastern slope of the "Theseum" hill. Here was found a
+rectangular structure resembling a temple, but with a side door to the
+north; it possessed a portico of six columns. The north slope of the
+Areopagus, where a number of early tombs were found, was also explored,
+and the limits of the Agora on the south and north-west were
+approximately ascertained. A portion of the main road leading from the
+Dipylon to the Agora was discovered.
+
+
+  The Enneacrunus.
+
+In 1892 Dorpfeld began a series of excavations in the district between
+the Acropolis and the Pnyx with the object of determining the situation
+of the buildings described by Pausanias as existing in the neighbourhood
+of the Agora, and more especially the position of the Enneacrunus
+fountain. The Enneacrunus has hitherto been generally identified with
+the spring Callirrhoe in the bed of the Ilissus, a little to the
+south-east of the Olympieum; it is apparently, though not explicitly,
+placed by Thucydides (ii. 15) in proximity to that building, as well as
+the temple of Dionysus [Greek: en limnais] and other shrines, the
+temples of Zeus Olympius and of Ge and the Pythium, which he mentions as
+situated mainly to the south of the Acropolis. On the other hand,
+Pausanias (i. 14. 1), who never deviates without reason from the
+topographical order of his narrative, mentions the Enneacrunus in the
+midst of his description of certain buildings which were undoubtedly in
+the region of the Agora, and unless he is guilty of an unaccountable
+digression the Enneacrunus which he saw must have lain west of the
+Acropolis. It is now generally agreed that the Agora of classical times
+covered the low ground between the hill of the "Theseum," the Areopagus
+and the Pnyx; and Pausanias, in the course of his description, appears
+to have reached its southern end. The excavations revealed a main road
+of surprisingly narrow dimensions winding up from the Agora to the
+Acropolis. A little to the south-west of the point where the road turns
+towards the Propylaca was found a large rock-cut cistern or reservoir
+which Dorpfeld identifies with the Enneacrunus. The reservoir is
+supplied by a conduit of 6th-century tiles connected with an early stone
+aqueduct, the course of which is traceable beneath the Dionysiac theatre
+and the royal garden in the direction of the Upper Ilissus. These
+elaborate waterworks were, according to Dorpfeld, constructed by the
+Peisistratids in order to increase the supply from the ancient spring
+Callirrhoe; the fountain was furnished with nine jets and henceforth
+known as Enneacrunus. This identification has been hotly contested by
+many scholars, and the question must still be regarded as undecided. An
+interesting confirmation of Dorpfeld's view is furnished by the map of
+Guillet and Coronelli, published in 1672, in which the Enneacrunus is
+depicted as a well with a stream of running water in the neighbourhood
+of the Pnyx. The fact that spring water is not now found in this
+locality is by no means fatal to the theory; recent engineering
+investigations have shown that much of the surface water of the Attic
+plain has sunk to a lower level. In front of the reservoir is a small
+open space towards which several roads converge; close by is a
+triangular enclosure of polygonal masonry, in which were found various
+relics relating to the worship of Dionysus, a very ancient wine-press
+([Greek: laenos]) and the remains of a small temple. Built over this
+early precinct, which Dorpfeld identifies with the Dionysium [Greek: en
+limnais], or Lenaeum, is a basilica-shaped building of the Roman period,
+apparently sacred to Bacchus; in this was found an inscription
+containing the rules of the society of the Iobacchi. There is an
+obvious difficulty in assuming that [Greek: limnai], in the sense of
+"marshes," existed in this confined area, but stagnant pools may still
+be seen here in winter. Dorpfeld's identification of the Dionysium,
+[Greek: en limnais] cannot be regarded as proved; his view that another
+Pythium and another Olympieum existed in this neighbourhood is still
+less probable; but the inconclusiveness of these theories does not
+necessarily invalidate his identification of the Enneacrunus, with
+regard to the position of which the language of Thucydides is far from
+clear. Another enclosure, a little to the south, is proved by an
+inscription to have been a sanctuary of the hitherto unknown hero
+Amynos, with whose cult those of Asclepius and the hero Dexion were here
+associated; under the name Dexion, the poet Sophocles is said to have
+been worshipped after his death. The whole district adjoining the
+Areopagus was found to have been thickly built over; the small, mean
+dwelling-houses intersected by narrow, crooked lanes convey a vivid idea
+of the contrast between the modest private residences and the great
+public structures of the ancient city.
+
+
+  The Academy and Lyceum.
+
+The age of the Peisistratids (560-511 B.C.) marked an era in the history
+of Athenian topography. The greatest of their foundations, the temple of
+Olympian Zeus, will be referred to later. Among the monuments of their
+rule, in addition to the enlarged Agora and the Enneacrunus, were the
+Academy and perhaps the Lyceum. The original name of the Academy may
+have been Hecademia, from Hecademus, an early proprietor (but see
+ACADEMY, GREEK). The famous seat of the Platonic philosophy was a
+gymnasium enlarged as a public park by Cimon; it lay about a mile to the
+north-west of the Dipylon Gate, with which it was connected by a street
+bordered with tombs. The Lyceum, where Aristotle taught, was originally
+a sanctuary of Apollo Lyceius. Like the Academy, it was an enclosure
+with a gymnasium and garden; it lay to the east of the city beyond the
+Diocharean Gate.
+
+
+  The Acropolis before the Persian wars.
+
+Little was known of the buildings on the Acropolis in the pre-Persian
+period before the great excavations of 1885-1888, which rank among the
+most surprising achievements of modern research. The results of these
+operations, which were conducted by the Archaeological Society under the
+direction of Kavvadias and Kawerau, must be summarized with the utmost
+brevity. The great deposits of sculpture and pottery now unearthed,
+representing all that escaped from the the ravages of the Persians and
+the burning of the ancient shrines, afford a startling revelation of the
+development of Greek art in the 7th and 6th centuries. Numbers of
+statues--among them a series of draped and richly-coloured female
+figures--masterpieces of painted pottery, only equalled by the Attic
+vases found in Magna Grecia and Etruria, and numerous bronzes, were
+among the treasures of art now brought to light. All belong to the
+"archaic" epoch; only a few remains of the greater age were found,
+including some fragments of sculptures from the Parthenon and
+Erechtheum. We are principally concerned, however, with the results
+which add to our knowledge of the topography and architecture of the
+Acropolis. The entire area of the summit was now thoroughly explored,
+the excavations being carried down to the surface of the rock, which on
+the southern side was found to slope outwards to a depth of about 45 ft.
+In the lower strata were discovered the remnants of Cyclopean or
+prehistoric architecture already mentioned. Of later date, perhaps, are
+the limestone polygonal retaining walls on the west front, which
+extended on either side of the early entrance. Of these a portion may
+probably be attributed to the Peisistratids, in whose time the Acropolis
+once more became the stronghold of a despotism. Its fortifications,
+though not increased, were apparently strengthened by the Tyrants. To
+its embellishment they probably contributed the older ornamental
+entrance, facing south-west, the precursor of the greater structure of
+Mnesicles (see PROPYLAEA) and the colonnade of the "Hecatompedon," or
+earlier temple of Athena, at this time the only large sacred edifice on
+the citadel. The name was subsequently applied to the cella, or eastern
+chamber, of the Parthenon, which is exactly 100 ft. long, and also
+became a popular designation of the temple itself.
+
+
+  The old temple of Athena.
+
+The ancient Hecatompedon may in all probability be identified with an
+early temple, also 100 ft. long, the foundations of which were pointed
+out in 1885 by Dorpfeld on the ground immediately adjoining the south
+side of the Erechtheum. On this spot was apparently the primitive
+sanctuary of Athena, the rich temple [Greek: pion naeos] of Homer (_Il._
+ii. 549), in which the cult of the goddess was associated with that of
+Erechtheus; the Homeric temple is identified by Furtwangler with the
+"compact house of Erechtheus" (_Od_. vii. 81), which, he holds, was not
+a royal palace, but a place of worship, and traces of it may perhaps be
+recognized in the fragments of prehistoric masonry enclosed by the
+existing foundations. The foundations seem to belong to the 7th century,
+except those of the colonnade, which was possibly added by Peisistratus.
+According to Dorpfeld, this was the "old temple" of Athena Polias,
+frequently mentioned in literature and inscriptions, in which was housed
+the most holy image [Greek: xoanon] of the goddess which fell from
+heaven; it was burnt, but not completely destroyed, during the Persian
+War, and some of its external decorations were afterwards built into the
+north wall of the Acropolis; it was subsequently restored, he thinks,
+with or without its colonnade--in the former case a portion of the
+peristyle must have been removed when the Erechtheum was built so as to
+make room for the porch of the maidens; the building was set on fire in
+406 B.C. (Xen. _Hell._ i. 6. 1), and the conflagration is identical with
+that mentioned by Demosthenes (_In Timocr._ xxiv. 155); its
+"opisthodomos" served as the Athenian treasury in the 5th and 4th
+centuries; the temple is the [Greek: archaios neos taes Poliados]
+mentioned by Strabo (ix. 16), and it was still standing in the time of
+Pausanias, who applies to it the same name (i. 27. 3). The conclusion
+that the foundations are those of an old temple burnt by the Persians
+has been generally accepted, but other portions of Dorpfeld's
+theory--more especially his assumption that the temple was restored
+after the Persian War--have provoked much controversy. Thus J.G. Frazer
+maintains the hitherto current theory that the earlier temple of Athena
+and Erechtheus was on the site of the Erechtheum; that the Erechtheum
+inherited the name [Greek: archaios neos] from its predecessor, and that
+the "opisthodomos" in which the treasures were kept was the west chamber
+of the Parthenon; Furtwangler and Milchhofer hold the strange view that
+the "opisthodomos" was a separate building at the east end of the
+Acropolis, while Penrose thinks the building discovered by Dorpfeld was
+possibly the Cecropeum. E. Curtius and J.W. White, on the other hand,
+accept Dorpfeld's identification, but believe that only the western
+portion of the temple or opisthodomos was rebuilt after the Persian War.
+Admitting the identification, we may perhaps conclude that the temple
+was repaired in order to provide a temporary home for the venerated
+image and other sacred objects; no traces of a restoration exist, but
+the walls probably remained standing after the Persian conflagration.
+The removal of the ancient temple was undoubtedly intended when the
+Erechtheum was built, but superstition and popular feeling may have
+prevented its demolition and the removal of the [Greek: xoanon] to the
+new edifice. The temple consisted of an eastern cella with pronaos;
+behind this was the opisthodomos, divided into three chambers--possibly
+treasuries--with a portico at the western end. The peristyle, if we
+compare the measurements of the stylobate with those of the drums built
+into the wall of the Acropolis, may be concluded to have consisted of
+six Doric columns at the ends and twelve at the sides. In one of the
+pediments was a gigantomachy, of which some fragments have been
+recovered.
+
+
+  The grottoes of Pan and Apollo.
+
+In 1896 excavations with the object of exploring the whole northern and
+eastern slopes of the Acropolis were begun by Kavvadias. The pathway
+between the citadel and the Areopagus was found to be so narrow that it
+is certain the Panathenaic procession cannot have taken this route to
+the Acropolis. On the north-west rock the caves known as the grottoes of
+Pan and Apollo were cleared out; these consist of a slight high-arched
+indentation immediately to the east of the Clepsydra and a double and
+somewhat deeper cavern a little farther to the east. In the first
+mentioned are a number of niches in which [Greek: pinakes] (votive
+tablets) were placed: some of these, inscribed with dedications to
+Apollo, have been discovered. The whole locality was the seat of the
+ancient cult of this deity, afterwards styled "Hypacraeus," with which
+was associated the legend of Creusa and the birth of Ion. The worship of
+Pan was introduced after the Persian wars, in consequence of an
+apparition seen by Pheidippides, the Athenian courier, in the mountains
+of Arcadia. Another cave more to the west was revealed by the demolition
+of the bastion of Odysseus. To the east a much deeper and hitherto
+unknown cavern has been revealed, which Kavvadias identifies with the
+grotto of Pan. Close to it are a series of steps hewn in the rock which
+connect with those discovered in 1886 within the Acropolis wall. Farther
+east is an underground passage leading eastward to a cave supposed to be
+the sanctuary of Aglaurus where the ephebi took the oath; with this
+passage is connected a secret staircase leading up through a cleft in
+the rock to the precinct of the Errephori on the Acropolis. It is
+conceivable that the priestesses employed this exit when descending on
+their mysterious errand.
+
+
+  The classical period: the walls of Themistocles.
+
+In the fifty years between the Persian and the Peloponnesian wars
+architecture and plastic art attained their highest perfection in
+Athens. The almost complete destruction of the buildings on the
+Acropolis and in the lower city, among them many temples and shrines
+which religious sentiment might otherwise have preserved, facilitated
+the realization of the magnificent architectural designs of
+Themistocles, Cimon and Pericles, while the rapid growth of the Athenian
+empire provided the state with the necessary means for the execution of
+these sumptuous projects. Of the great monuments of this epoch few
+traces remain except on the Acropolis. After the departure of the
+Persians the first necessity was the reconstruction of the defences of
+the city and the citadel. The walls of the city, now built under the
+direction of Themistocles, embraced a larger area than the previous
+circuit, with which they seem to have coincided at the Dipylon Gate on
+the north-west where the Sacred Way to Eleusis was joined by the
+principal carriage route to the Peiraeus and the roads to the Academy
+and Colonus. The other more important gates were the Peiraic and Melitan
+on the west; the Itonian on the south leading to Phalerum, the Diomean
+and Diocharean on the east, and the Acharnian on the north. The wall,
+which was strengthened with numerous towers, enclosed the quarters of
+Collytus on the north, Melite on the west, Limnae on the south-west and
+south, and Diomea on the east. The scanty traces which remain have not
+been systematically excavated except in the neighbourhood of the
+Dipylon; the discovery of sepulchral tablets built into the masonry
+illustrates the statement of Thucydides with regard to the employment of
+such material in the hasty construction of the walls. The circuit has
+been practically ascertained in its general lines, though not in
+details; it is given by Thucydides (ii. 13. 7) as 43 stades (about 5-1/2
+m.) exclusive of the portion between the points of junction with the
+long walls extending to the Peiraeus, but the whole circumference cannot
+have exceeded 37 stades. Possibly Thucydides, who in the passage
+referred to is dealing with the question of defence, included a portion
+of the contiguous long walls in his measurement; this explanation
+derives probability from his underestimate of the length of the long
+walls.
+
+
+  The "Long Walls".
+
+The design of connecting Athens with the Peiraeus by long parallel walls
+is ascribed by Plutarch to Themistocles. The "Long Walls" ([Greek: ta
+makra teichae, ta skelae]) consisted of (1) the "North Wall" ([Greek: to
+boreion teichos]), (2) the "Middle" or "South Wall" ([Greek: to dia
+mesou teichos], Plato, _Gorg._ 555 [Epsilon]; [Greek: to notion
+teichos]); and (3) the "Phaleric Wall" ([Greek: to Phalaerikon teichos];
+The north and Phaleric walls were perhaps founded by Cimon, and were
+completed about 457 B.C. in the early administration of Pericles; the
+middle wall was built about 445 B.C. The lines of the north and middle
+walls have been ascertained from the remnants still existing in the 18th
+century and the scantier traces now visible. The north wall, leaving the
+city circuit at a point near the modern Observatory, ran from north-east
+to south-west near the present road to the Peiraeus, until it reached
+the Peiraeus walls a little to the east of their northernmost bend. The
+middle wall, beginning south of the Pnyx near the Melitan Gate,
+gradually approached the northern wall and, following a parallel course
+at an interval of 550 ft., diverged to the east near the modern New
+Phalerum and joined the Peiraeus walls on the height of Munychia where
+they turn inland from the sea. The course of the Phaleric wall has been
+much disputed. The widely-received view of Curtius that it ran to Cape
+Kolias (now Old Phalerum) on the east of the Phaleric bay is not
+accepted by recent topographers. The exigencies of the defensive system
+planned by Themistocles could only have been satisfied by a juncture of
+the Phaleric wall with that of the Peiraeus. The existence of any third
+wall was denied by Leake, according to whose theory the southern
+parallel wall would be identical with the Phaleric. The language of
+Thucydides, however, seems decisive with regard to the existence of
+three walls. The Phaleric wall, branching from the city circuit at some
+point farther east than the middle or south wall, may have followed the
+ridge of the Sikelia heights, where some traces of fortifications
+remain, and then traversed the Phalerum plain till it reached the
+Peiraeus defences at a point a little to the north-west of their
+junction with the middle wall. The Phaleric wall, proving indefensible,
+was abandoned towards the close of the Peloponnesian war; with the other
+two walls it was completely destroyed after the surrender of the city,
+and was not rebuilt when they were restored by Conon in 393 B.C. The
+parallel walls fell into decay, during the Hellenistic period, and
+according to Strabo (ix. 396) were once more demolished by Sulla.
+
+
+  The Peiraeus.
+
+The great advantages which the Peiraic promontory with its three natural
+harbours offered for purposes of defence and commerce were first
+recognized by Themistocles, in whose archonship (493 B.C.) the
+fortifications of the Peiraeus were begun. Before his time the Athenians
+used as a port the roadstead of Phalerum at the north-eastern corner of
+Phalerum bay partly sheltered by Cape Kolias. As soon as the building of
+the city walls had been completed, Themistocles resumed the construction
+of the Peiraeus defences, which protected the larger harbour of
+Cantharus on the west and the smaller ports of Zea and Munychia
+(respectively south-west and south-east of the Munychia heights),
+terminating in moles at their entrances and enclosing the entire
+promontory on the land and sea sides except a portion of the south-west
+shore of the peninsula of Acte. The walls, built of finely compacted
+blocks, were about 10 ft. in thickness and upwards of 60 ft. in height,
+and were strengthened by towers. The town was laid out at great expense
+in straight, broad streets, intersecting each other at right angles, by
+the architect Hippodamus of Miletus in the time of Pericles. In the
+centre was the Agora of Hippodamus; on the western margin of the
+Cantharus harbour extended the emporium, or Digma, the centre of
+commercial activity, flanked by a series of porticoes; at its northern
+end, near the entrance to the inner harbour, was another Agora, on the
+site of the modern market-place, and near it the [Greek: makra stoa],
+the corn depot of the state. This inner and shallower harbour, perhaps
+the [Greek: kophos limaen], was afterwards excluded from the town
+precinct by the walls of Conon, which traversing its opening on an
+embankment ([Greek: to dia meson choma]) ran round the outer shore of
+the western promontory of Eetionea, previously enclosed, with some space
+to the north-west, by the wider circuit of Themistocles. In the harbours
+of Zea and Munychia traces may be seen of the remarkable series of
+galley-slips in which the Athenian fleet was built and repaired. The
+galley-slips around Zea were roofed by a row of gables supported by
+stone columns, each gable sheltering two triremes. Among the other
+noteworthy buildings of the Peiraeus were the arsenal ([Greek:
+skeuothaekae]) of Philo and the temples of Zeus Soter, the patron god of
+the sailors, of the Cnidian Artemis, built by Cimon, and of Artemis
+Munychia, situated near the fort on the Munychia height; traces of a
+temple of Asclepius, of two theatres and of a hippodrome remain. The
+fine marble lion of the classical period which stood at the mouth of the
+Cantharus harbour gave the Peiraeus its medieval and modern names of
+Porto Leone and Porto Draco; it was carried away to Venice by Morosini.
+
+
+  The Dipylon and Ceramicus.
+
+In 1870 the Greek Archaeological Society undertook a series of
+excavations in the Outer Ceramicus, which had already been partially
+explored by various scholars. The operations, which were carried on at
+intervals till 1890, resulted in the discovery of the Dipylon Gate, the
+principal entrance of ancient Athens. The Dipylon consists of an outer
+and an inner gate separated by an oblong courtyard and flanked on either
+side by towers; the gates were themselves double, being each composed of
+two apertures intended for the incoming and outgoing traffic. An opening
+in the city wall a little to the south-west, supposed to have been the
+Sacred Gate ([Greek: iera pylae]), was in all probability an outlet for
+the waters of the Eridanus. This stream, which has hitherto been
+regarded as the eastern branch of the Ilissus rising at Kaesariane, has
+been identified by Dorpfeld with a brook descending from the south slope
+of Lycabettus and conducted in an artificial channel to the
+north-western end of the city, where it made its exit through the walls,
+eventually joining the Ilissus. The channel was open in Greek times, but
+was afterwards covered by Roman arches; it appears to have served as the
+main drain of the city. Between this outlet and the Dipylon were found a
+boundary-stone, inscribed [Greek: oros Kerameikou], which remains in its
+place, and the foundations of a large rectangular building, possibly the
+Pompeium, which may have been a robing-room for the processions which
+passed this way. On either side of the Dipylon the walls of
+Themistocles, faced on the outside by a later wall, have been traced for
+a considerable distance. The excavation of the outlying cemetery
+revealed the unique "Street of the Tombs" and brought to light a great
+number of sepulchral monuments, many of which remain _in situ_.
+Especially noteworthy are the _stelae_ (reliefs) representing scenes of
+leave-taking, which, though often of simple workmanship, are
+characterized by a touching dignity and restraint of feeling. In this
+neighbourhood were found a great number of tombs containing vases of all
+periods, which furnish a marvellous record of the development of Attic
+ceramic art. A considerable portion of the district remains unexplored.
+
+
+  The Acropolis of the classical period: its fortifications and area.
+
+The Acropolis had been dismantled as a fortress after the expulsion of
+Hippias; its defenders against the Persians found it necessary to erect
+a wooden barricade at its entrance. The fortifications were again
+demolished by the Persians, after whose departure the existing north
+wall was erected in the time of Themistocles; many columns, metopes and
+other fragments from the buildings destroyed by the Persians were built
+into it, possibly owing to haste, as in the case of the city walls, but
+more probably with the design of commemorating the great historic
+catastrophe, as the wall was visible from the Agora. The fine walls of
+the south and east sides were built by Cimon after the victory of the
+Eurymedon, 468 B.C.; they extend considerably beyond the old Pelasgic
+circuit, the intervening space being filled up with earth and the debris
+of the ruined buildings so as to increase the level space of the summit.
+On the northern side Cimon completed the wall of Themistocles at both
+ends and added to its height; the ground behind was levelled up on this
+side also, the platform of the Acropolis thus receiving its present
+shape and dimensions. The staircase leading down to the sanctuary of
+Aglaurus was enclosed in masonry. At the south-western corner, on the
+right of the approach to the old entrance, a bastion of early masonry
+was encased in a rectangular projection which formed a base for the
+temple of Nike. The great engineering works of Cimon provided a suitable
+area for the magnificent structures of the age of Pericles.
+
+
+  The monuments on the Acropolis.
+
+The greater monuments of the classical epoch on the Acropolis are
+described in separate articles (see PARTHENON, ERECHTHEUM, PROPYLAEA).
+Next in interest to these noble structures is the beautiful little
+temple of Athena Nike, wrongly designated Nike Apteros (Wingless
+Victory), standing on the bastion already mentioned; it was begun after
+450 B.C. and was probably finished after the outbreak of the
+Peloponnesian War. The temple, which is entirely of Pentelic marble, is
+amphiprostyle tetrastyle, with fluted Ionic columns, on a stylobate of
+three steps; its length is 27 ft., its breadth 18-1/2 ft., and its total
+height, from the apex of the pediment to the bottom of the steps, 23 ft.
+The frieze, running round the entire building, represents on its eastern
+side a number of deities, on its northern and southern sides Greeks
+fighting with Persians, and on its western side Greeks fighting with
+Greeks. Before the east front was the altar of Athena Nike. The
+irregularly shaped precinct around the temple was enclosed by a
+balustrade about 3 ft. 2 in. in height, decorated on the outside with
+beautiful reliefs representing a number of winged Victories engaged in
+the worship of Athena. The elaborate treatment of the drapery enveloping
+these female figures suggests an approach to the mannerism of later
+times; this and other indications point to the probability that the
+balustrade was added in the latter years of the Peloponnesian War. The
+temple was still standing in 1676; some eight years later it was
+demolished by the Turks, and its stones built into a bastion; on the
+removal of the bastion in 1835 the temple was successfully reconstructed
+by Ross with the employment of little new material. At either corner of
+the Propylaea entrance were equestrian statues dedicated by the Athenian
+knights; the bases with inscriptions have lately been recovered. From
+the inner exit of the Propylaea a passage led towards the east along the
+north side of the Parthenon; almost directly facing the entrance was the
+colossal bronze statue of Athena (afterwards called Athena Promachos) by
+Pheidias, probably set up by Cimon in commemoration of the Persian
+defeat. The statue, which was 30 ft. high, represented the goddess as
+fully armed; the gleam of her helmet and spear could be seen by the
+mariners approaching from Cape Sunium (Pausanias i. 28). On both sides
+of the passage were numerous statues, among them that of Athena Hygeia,
+set up by Pericles to commemorate the recovery of a favourite slave who
+was injured during the building of the Parthenon, a colossal bronze
+image of the wooden horse of Troy, and Myron's group of Marsyas with
+Athena throwing away her flute. Another statue by Myron, the famous
+Perseus, stood near the precinct of Artemis Brauronia. In this sacred
+enclosure, which lay between the south-eastern corner of the Propylaea
+and the wall of Cimon, no traces of a temple have been found. Adjoining
+it to the east are the remains of a large rectangular building, which
+was apparently fronted by a colonnade; this has been identified with the
+[Greek: Chalkothaekae], a storehouse of bronze implements and arms,
+which was formerly supposed to lie against the north wall near the
+Propylaea. Beyond the Parthenon, a little to the north-east, was the
+great altar of Athena, and near it the statue and altar of Zeus Polieus.
+With regard to the buildings on the east end of the Acropolis, where the
+present museums stand, no certainty exists; among the many statues here
+were those of Xanthippus, the father of Pericles, and of Anacreon.
+Immediately west of the Erechtheum is the Pandroseum or temenos of
+Pandrosos, the daughter of Cecrops, the excavation of which has revealed
+no traces of the temple ([Greek: naos]) seen here by Pausanias (i. 27).
+The site of this precinct, in which the sacred olive tree of Athena
+grew, has been almost certainly fixed by an inscription found in the
+bastion of Odysseus. At its north-western extremity is a platform of
+levelled rock which may have supported the altar of Zeus Hypsistus.
+Farther west, along the north wall of the Acropolis, is the space
+probably occupied by the abode and playground of the Errephori. Between
+this precinct and the Propylaea were a number of statues, among them the
+celebrated heifer of Myron, and perhaps his Erechtheus; the Lemnian
+Athena of Pheidias, and his effigy of his friend Pericles.
+
+
+  The city in the classical period.
+
+The reconstruction of the city after its demolition by the Persians was
+not carried out on the lines of a definite plan like that of the
+Peiraeus. The houses were hastily repaired, and the narrow, crooked
+streets remained; the influence of Themistocles, who aimed at
+transferring the capital to the Peiraeus, was probably directed against
+any costly scheme of restoration, except on the Acropolis. The period of
+Cimon's administration, however, especially the interval between his
+victory on the Eurymedon and his ostracism (468-461 B.C.), was marked by
+great architectural activity in the lower city as well as on the
+citadel. To his time may be referred many of the buildings around the
+Agora (probably rebuilt on the former sites) and elsewhere, and the
+passage, or [Greek: dromos], from the Agora to the Dipylon flanked by
+long porticos. The Theseum or temple of Theseus, which lay to the east
+of the Agora near the Acropolis, was built by Cimon: here he deposited
+the bones of the national hero which he brought from Scyros about 470
+B.C. The only building in the city which can with certainty be assigned
+to the administration of Pericles is the Odeum, beneath the southern
+declivity of the Acropolis, a structure mainly of wood, said to have
+been built in imitation of the tent of Xerxes: it was used for musical
+contests and the rehearsal of plays. Of the various temples in which
+statues by Pheidias, Alcamenes and other great sculptors are known to
+have been placed, no traces have yet been discovered; excavation has not
+been possible in a large portion of the lower city, which has always
+been inhabited. The only extant structures of the classical period are
+the Hephaesteum, the Dionysiac theatre, and the choragic monument of
+Lysicrates. The remains of a small Ionic temple which were standing by
+the Ilissus in the time of Stuart have disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: The Acropolis.]
+
+
+  The Hephaesteum or Theseum.
+
+The Hephaesteum, the so-called Theseum, is situated on a slight
+eminence, probably the Colonus Agoraeus, to the west of the Agora. The
+best preserved Greek temple in the world, it possesses no record of its
+origin; the style of its sculptures and architecture leads to the
+conclusion that it was built about the same time as the Parthenon; it
+seems to have been finished by 421 B.C. It has been known as the Theseum
+since the middle ages, apparently because some of its sculptures
+represent the exploits of Theseus, but the Theseum was an earlier
+sanctuary on the east of the Agora (see above). The building has been
+supposed by Curtius, Wachsmuth and others to be the Heracleum in Melite,
+but its identification with the temple of Hephaestus and Athena seen in
+this neighbourhood by Pausanias (i. 14. 6), though not established, may
+be regarded as practically certain, notwithstanding the difficulty
+presented by the subjects of the sculptures, which bear no relation to
+Hephaestus. The temple is a Doric peripteral hexastyle _in antis_, with
+13 columns at the sides; its length is 104 ft., its breadth 45-1/2 ft.,
+its height, to the top of the pediment, 33 ft. The sculptures of the
+pediments have been completely lost, but their design has been
+ingeniously reconstructed by Sauer. The frieze of the entablature
+contains sculptures only in the metopes of the east front and in those
+of the sides immediately adjoining it; the frontal metopes represent the
+labours of Heracles, the lateral the exploits of Theseus. As in the
+Parthenon, there is a sculptured zophoros above the exterior of the
+cella walls; this, however, extends over the east and west fronts only
+and the east ends of the sides; the eastern zophoros represents a
+battle-scene with seated deities on either hand, the western a
+centauromachia. The temple is entirely of Pentelic marble, except the
+foundations and lowest step of the stylobate, which are of Peiraic
+stone, and the zophoros of the cella, which is in Parian marble. The
+preservation of the temple is due to its conversion into a church in the
+middle ages.
+
+
+  The Dionysiac theatre and Asclepieum.
+
+The Dionysiac theatre, situated beneath the south side of the Acropolis,
+was partly hollowed out from its declivity. The representation of plays
+was perhaps transferred to this spot from the early Orchestra in the
+Agora at the beginning of the 5th century B.C.; it afterwards superseded
+the Pnyx as the meeting-place of the Ecclesia. The site, which had been
+accurately determined by Leake, was explored by Strack in 1862, and the
+researches subsequently undertaken by the Greek Archaeological Society
+were concluded in 1879. It was not, however, till 1886 that traces of
+the original circular Greek orchestra were pointed out by Dorpfeld. The
+arrangements of the stage and orchestra as we now see them belong to
+Roman times; the _cavea_ or auditorium dates from the administration of
+the orator Lycurgus (337-323 B.C.), and nothing is left of the theatre
+in which the plays of Sophocles were acted save a few small remnants of
+polygonal masonry. These, however, are sufficient to mark out the
+circuit of the ancient orchestra, on which the subsequently built
+proscenia encroached. The oldest stage-building was erected in the time
+of Lycurgus; it consisted of a rectangular hall with square projections
+([Greek: paraskenia]) on either side; in front of this was built in
+late Greek or early Roman times a stage with a row of columns which
+intruded upon the orchestra space; a later and larger stage, dating from
+the time of Nero, advanced still farther into the orchestra, and this
+was finally faced (probably in the 3rd century A.D.) by the "bema" of
+Phaedrus, a platform-wall decorated with earlier reliefs, the slabs of
+which were cut down to suit their new position. The remains of two
+temples of Dionysus have been found adjoining the stoa of the theatre,
+and an altar of the same god adorned with masks and festoons; the
+smaller and earlier temple probably dates from the 6th century B.C., the
+larger from the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 4th century.
+
+Immediately west of the theatre of Dionysus is the sacred precinct of
+Asclepius, which was excavated by the Archaeological Society in
+1876-1878. Here were discovered the foundations of the celebrated
+Asclepieum, together with several inscriptions and a great number of
+votive reliefs offered by grateful invalids and valetudinarians to the
+god of healing. Many of the reliefs belong to the best period of Greek
+art. A Doric colonnade with a double row of columns was found to have
+extended along the base of the Acropolis for a distance of 54 yds.;
+behind it in a chamber hewn in the rock is the sacred well mentioned by
+Pausanias. The colonnade was a place of resort for the patients; a large
+building close beneath the rock was probably the abode of the priests.
+
+
+  The choragic monument of Lysicrates.
+
+The beautiful choragic monument of Lysicrates, dedicated in the
+archonship of Euaenetus (335-334 B.C.), is the only survivor of a number
+of such structures which stood in the "Street of the Tripods" to the
+east of the Dionysiac theatre, bearing the tripods given to the
+successful choragi at the Dionysiac festival. It owes its preservation
+to its former inclusion in a Capuchin convent. The monument consists of
+a small circular temple of Pentelic marble, 21-1/2 ft. in height and 9
+ft. in diameter, with six engaged Corinthian columns and a sculptured
+frieze, standing on a rectangular base of Peiraic stone. The delicately
+carved convex roof, composed of a single block, was surmounted by the
+tripod. The spirited reliefs of the frieze represent the punishment of
+the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dionysus and their transformation into
+dolphins. Another choragic monument was that of Thrasyllus, which faced
+a cave in the Acropolis rock above the Dionysiac theatre. A portion of
+another, that of Nicias, was used to make the late Roman gate of the
+Acropolis. In one of these monuments was the famous Satyr of Praxiteles.
+
+
+  The Cynosarges.
+
+The Cynosarges, from earliest times a sanctuary of Heracles, later a
+celebrated gymnasium and the school of Antisthenes the Cynic, has
+hitherto been generally supposed to have occupied the site of the
+Monastery of the Asomati on the eastern slope of Lycabettus; its
+situation, however, has been fixed by Dorpfeld at a point a little to
+the south of the Olympieum, on the left bank of the Ilissus. Here a
+series of excavations, carried out by the British School in 1896-1897
+under the direction of Cecil Smith, revealed the foundations of an
+extensive Greek building, the outlines of which correspond with those of
+a gymnasium; it possessed a large bath or cistern, and was flanked on
+two sides by water-courses. An Ionic capital found here possibly
+belonged to the palaestra. The identification, however, cannot be
+regarded as certain in the absence of inscriptions.
+
+
+  The Hellenistic period: the Stoa of Attalus.
+
+With the loss of political liberty the age of creative genius in
+Athenian architecture came to a close. The era of decadence, of honorary
+statues and fulsome inscriptions, began. The embellishments which the
+city received during the Hellenistic and Roman periods were no longer
+the artistic expression of the religious and political life of a great
+commonwealth; they were the tribute paid to the intellectual renown of
+Athens by foreign potentates or dilettanti, who desired to add their
+names to the list of its illustrious citizens and patrons. Among the
+first of these benefactions was the great gymnasium of Ptolemy, built in
+the neighbourhood of the Agora about 250 B.C. Successive princes of the
+dynasty of Pergamum interested themselves in the adornment of the city:
+Attalus I. set up a number of bronze statues on the Acropolis; Eumenes
+II. built the long portico west of the Dionysiac theatre, which was
+excavated and identified in 1877; Attalus II. erected the magnificent
+Stoa near the Agora, the remains of which were completely laid bare in
+1898-1902 and have been identified by an inscription. The Stoa consisted
+of a series of 21 chambers, probably shops, faced by a double colonnade,
+the outer columns being of the Doric order, the inner unfluted, with
+lotus-leaf capitals; it possessed an upper storey fronted with Ionic
+columns.
+
+
+  The Olympieum.
+
+The greatest monument, however, of the Hellenistic period is the
+colossal Olympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, "unum in terris inchoatum
+pro magnitudine dei" (Livy xli. 20), the remains of which stand by the
+Ilissus to the south-east of the Acropolis. The foundations of a temple
+were laid on the site--probably that of an ancient sanctuary-by
+Peisistratus, but the building in its ultimate form was for the greater
+part constructed under the auspices of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, king of
+Syria, by the Roman architect Cossutius in the interval between 174 B.C.
+and 164 B.C., the date of the death of Antiochus. The work was then
+suspended and its proposed resumption in the time of Augustus seems not
+to have been realized; finally, in A.D. 129, the temple was completed
+and dedicated by Hadrian, who set up a chryselephantine statue of Zeus
+in the cella. The substructure was excavated in 1883 by F.C. Penrose,
+who proved the correctness of Dorpfeld's theory that the building was
+octostyle; its length was 318 ft., its breadth 132 ft. With the
+exception of the foundations and two lower steps of the stylobate, it
+was entirely of Pentelic marble, and possessed 104 Corinthian columns,
+56 ft. 7 in. in height, of which 48 stood in triple rows under the
+pediments and 56 in double rows at the sides; of these, 16 remained
+standing in 1852, when one was blown down by a storm. Fragments of Doric
+columns and foundations were discovered, probably intended for the
+temple begun by Peisistratus, the orientation of which differed slightly
+from that of the later structure. The peribolos, a large artificial
+platform supported by a retaining wall of squared Peiraic blocks with
+buttresses, was excavated in 1898 without important results; it is to be
+hoped that the stability of the columns has not been affected by the
+operations.
+
+
+  The Horologium of Andronicus.
+
+_The Roman Period._--After 146 B.C. Athens and its territory were
+included in the Roman province of Achaea. Among the earlier buildings of
+this period is the Horologium of Andronicus of Cyrrhus (the "Tower of
+the Winds"), still standing near the eastern end of the Roman Agora. The
+building may belong to the 2nd or 1st century B.C.; it is mentioned by
+Varro (_De re rust_. iii. 5. 17), and therefore cannot be of later date
+than 35 B.C. It is an octagonal marble structure, 42 ft. in height and
+26 ft. in diameter; the eight sides, which face the points of the
+compass, are furnished with a frieze containing inartistic figures in
+relief representing the winds; below it, on the sides facing the sun,
+are the lines of a sun-dial. The building was surmounted by a
+weathercock in the form of a bronze Triton; it contained a water-clock
+to record the time when the sun was not shining.
+
+
+  Monuments of the Roman period.
+
+The capture and sack of Athens by Sulla (March 1, 86 B.C.) seems to have
+involved no great injury to its architectural monuments beyond the
+burning of the Odeum of Pericles; a portion of the city wall was razed,
+the groves of the Academy and Lyceum were cut down, and the Peiraeus,
+with its magnificent arsenal and other great buildings, burnt to the
+ground. After this catastrophe the benefactors of Athens were for the
+most part Romans; the influence of Greek literature and art had begun to
+affect the conquering race. The New, or Roman, Agora to the north of the
+Acropolis, perhaps mainly an oil market, was constructed after the year
+27 B.C. Its dimensions were practically determined by excavation in
+1890-1891. It consisted of a large open rectangular space surrounded by
+an Ionic colonnade into which opened a number of shops or storehouses.
+The eastern gate was adorned with four Ionic columns on the outside and
+two on the inside, the western entrance being the well-known Doric
+portico of Athena Archegetis with an inscription recording its erection
+from donations of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The whole conclave may be
+compared with the enclosed bazaars or khans of Oriental cities which are
+usually locked at night. The Agrippeum, a covered theatre, derived its
+name from Vipsanius Agrippa, whose statue was set up, about 27 B.C.,
+beneath the north wing of the Acropolis propylaea, on the high
+rectangular base still remaining. At the eastern end of the Acropolis a
+little circular temple of white marble with a peristyle of 9 Ionic
+columns was dedicated to Rome and Augustus; its foundations were
+discovered during the excavations of 1885-1888. The conspicuous monument
+which crowns the Museum Hill was erected as the mausoleum of Antiochus
+Philopappus of Commagene, grandson of Antiochus Epiphanes, in A.D.
+114-116. Excavations carried out in 1898-1899 showed that the structure
+was nearly square; the only portion remaining is the slightly curved
+front, with three niches between Corinthian pilasters; in the central
+niche is the statue of Philopappus.
+
+
+  Novae Athenae: the buildings of Hadrian.
+
+The emperor Hadrian was the most lavish of all the benefactors of
+Athens. Besides completing the gigantic Olympieum he enlarged the
+circuit of the city walls to the east, enclosing the area now covered by
+the royal public gardens and the Constitution Square. This was the City
+of Hadrian (Hadrianapolis) or New Athens (Novae Athenae); a handsome
+suburb with numerous villas, baths and gardens; some traces remain of
+its walls, which, like those of Themistocles, were fortified with
+rectangular towers. An ornamental entrance near the Olympieum, the
+existing Arch of Hadrian, marked the boundary between the new and the
+old cities. The arch is surmounted by a triple attic with Corinthian
+columns; the frieze above the keystone bears, on the north-western side,
+the inscription [Greek: aid eis Athaenai Thaeseos hae prin polis] and on
+the south-eastern, [Greek: aid eis Hadrianou kai onchi Thaeseos polis].
+One of the principal monuments of Hadrian's munificence was the
+sumptuous library, in all probability a vast rectangular enclosure,
+immediately north of the New Agora, the eastern side of which was
+explored in 1885-1886. A portion of its western front, adorned with
+monolith unfluted Corinthian columns, is still standing--the familiar
+"Stoa of Hadrian"; another well-preserved portion, with six pilasters,
+runs parallel to the west side of Aeolus Street. The interior consisted
+of a spacious court surrounded by a colonnade of 100 columns, into which
+five chambers opened at the eastern end. A portico of four fluted
+Corinthian columns on the western side formed the entrance to the
+quadrangle. This cloistered edifice may be identified with the library
+of Hadrian mentioned by Pausanias; the books were, perhaps, stored in a
+square building which occupied a portion of the central area. Strikingly
+similar in design and construction is a large quadrangular building, the
+foundations of which were discovered by the British School near the
+presumed Cynosarges; this may perhaps be the Gymnasium of Hadrian, which
+Pausanias tells us also possessed 100 columns. A Pantheon and temples of
+Hera and Zeus Panhellenius were likewise built by Hadrian; the aqueduct,
+which he began, was completed by Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161); it was
+repaired in 1861-1869 and is still in use.
+
+
+  The Stadium and Odeum of Herodes Atticus.
+
+The Stadium, in which the Panathenaic Games were held, was first laid
+out by the orator Lycurgus about 330 B.C. It was an oblong structure
+filling a natural depression near the left bank of the Ilissus beneath
+the eastern declivity of the Ardettus hill, the parallel sides and
+semicircular end, or [Greek: sphendonae] around the arena being
+partially excavated from the adjoining slopes. The immense building,
+however, which was restored in 1896 and the following years, was that
+constructed in Pentelic marble about A.D. 143 by Tiberius Claudius
+Herodes Atticus, a wealthy Roman resident, whose benefactions to the
+city rivalled those of Hadrian. The seats, rising in tiers, as in a
+theatre, accommodated about 44,000 spectators; the arena was 670 ft. in
+length and 109 ft. in breadth. The Odeum, built beneath the south-west
+slope of the Acropolis after A.D. 161 by Herodes Atticus in memory of
+his wife Regilla, is comparatively well preserved; it was excavated in
+1848 and in 1857-1858. The plan is that of the conventional Roman
+theatre; the semicircular auditorium, which seated some 5000 persons,
+is, like that of the Dionysiac theatre, partly hollowed from the rock.
+The orchestra is paved with marble squares. The facade, in Peiraic
+stone, displays three storeys of arched windows. The whole building was
+covered with a cedar roof. The Stadium had been already completed and
+the Odeum had not yet been built when Pausanias visited Athens; these
+buildings were the last important additions to the architectural
+monuments of the ancient city.     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+II. THE MODERN CITY
+
+At the conclusion of the Greek War of Independence, Athens was little
+more than a village of the Turkish type, the poorly built houses
+clustering on the northern and eastern slopes of the Acropolis. The
+narrow crooked lanes of this quarter still contrast with the straight,
+regularly laid-out streets of the modern city, which extends to the
+north-west, north and east of the ancient citadel. The greater
+commercial advantages offered by Nauplia, Corinth and Patras were
+outweighed by the historic claims of Athens in the choice of a capital
+for the newly founded kingdom, and the seat of government was
+transferred hither from Nauplia in 1833. The new town was, for the most
+part, laid out by the German architect Schaubert. It contains several
+squares and boulevards, a large public garden, and many handsome public
+and private edifices. A great number of the public institutions owe
+their origin to the munificence of patriotic Greeks, among whom Andreas
+Syngros and George Averoff may be especially mentioned. The royal
+palace, designed by Friedrich von Gartner (1792-1847), is a tasteless
+structure; attached to it is a beautiful garden laid out by Queen
+Amalia, which contains a well-preserved mosaic floor of the Roman
+period. On the south-east is the newly built palace of the crown prince.
+The Academy, from designs by Theophil Hansen (1813-1891), is constructed
+of Pentelic marble in the Ionic style: the colonnades and pediments are
+richly coloured and gilded, and may perhaps convey some idea of the
+ancient style of decoration. Close by is the university, with a
+colonnade adorned with paintings, and the Vallianean library with a
+handsome Doric portico of Pentelic marble. The observatory, which is
+connected with the university, stands on the summit of the Hill of the
+Nymphs; like the Academy, it was erected at the expense of a wealthy
+Greek, Baron Sina of Vienna. In the public garden is the Zappeion, a
+large building with a Corinthian portico, intended for the display of
+Greek industries; here also is a monument to Byron, erected in 1896. The
+Boule, or parliament-house, possesses a considerable library. Other
+public buildings are the Polytechnic Institute, built by contributions
+from Greeks of Epirus, the theatre, the Arsakeion (a school for girls),
+the Varvakeion (a gymnasium), the military school ([Greek: scholae
+enelpidon]), and several hospitals and orphanages. The cathedral, a
+large, modern structure is devoid of architectural merit, but some of
+the smaller, ancient, Byzantine churches are singularly interesting and
+beautiful. Among private residences, the mansion built by Dr Schliemann,
+the discoverer of Troy, is the most noteworthy; its decorations are in
+the Pompeian style.
+
+
+  Museums.
+
+The museums of Athens have steadily grown in importance with the
+progress of excavation. They are admirably arranged, and the remnants of
+ancient art which they contain have fortunately escaped injudicious
+restoration. The National Museum, founded in 1866, is especially rich in
+archaic sculptures and in sepulchral and votive reliefs. A copy of the
+Diadumenos of Polyclitus from Delos, and temple sculptures from
+Epidaurus and the Argive Heraeum, are among the more notable of its
+recent acquisitions. It also possesses the famous collection of
+prehistoric antiquities found by Schliemann at Tiryns and Mycenae, other
+"Mycenaean" objects discovered at Nauplia and in Attica, as well as the
+still earlier remains excavated by Tsountas in the Cyclades and by the
+British School at Phylakopi in Melos; terra-cottas from Tanagra and Asia
+Minor; bronzes from Olympia, Delphi and elsewhere, and numerous painted
+vases, among them the unequalled white _lekythi_ from Athens and
+Eretria. The Epigraphical Museum contains an immense number of
+inscriptions arranged by H.G. Lolling and A. Wilhelm of the Austrian
+Institute. The Acropolis Museum (opened 1878) possesses a singularly
+interesting collection of sculptures belonging to the "archaic" period
+of Greek art, all found on the Acropolis; here, too, are some fragments
+of the pedimental statues of the Parthenon and several reliefs from its
+frieze, as well as the slabs from the balustrade of the temple of Nike.
+The Polytechnic Institute contains a museum of interesting objects
+connected with modern Greek life and history. In the Academy is a
+valuable collection of coins superintended by Svoronos. Of the private
+collections those of Schliemann and Karapanos are the most interesting:
+the latter contains works of art and other objects from Dodona. There is
+a small museum of antiquities at the Peiraeus.
+
+
+  Scientific institutions.
+
+Owing to the numbers and activity of its institutions, both native and
+foreign, for the prosecution of research and the encouragement of
+classical studies, Athens has become once more an international seat of
+learning. The Greek Archaeological Society, founded in 1837, numbers
+some distinguished scholars among its members, and displays great
+activity in the conduct of excavations. Important researches at
+Epidaurus, Eleusis, Mycenae, Amyclae and Rhamnus may be numbered among
+its principal undertakings, in addition to the complete exploration of
+the Acropolis and a series of investigations in Athens and Attica. The
+French Ecole d'Athenes, founded in 1846, is under the scientific
+direction of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres. Among its
+numerous enterprises have been the extensive and costly excavations at
+Delos and Delphi, which have yielded such remarkable results. The
+monuments of the Byzantine epoch have latterly occupied a prominent
+place in its investigations. The German Archaeological Institute,
+founded in 1874, has carried out excavations at Thebes, Lesbos, Pares,
+Athens and elsewhere; it has also been associated in the great
+researches at Olympia, Pergamum and Troy, and in many other important
+undertakings. The British School, founded in 1886, has been unable,
+owing to insufficient endowment, to work on similar lines with the
+French and German institutions; it has, however, carried out extensive
+excavations at Megalopolis and in Melos, as well as researches at Abae,
+in Athens (presumed site of the Cynosarges), in Cyprus, at Naucratis and
+at Sparta. It has also participated in the exploration of Cnossus and
+other important sites in Crete. The American School, founded in 1882, is
+supported by the principal universities of the United States. In
+addition to researches at Sicyon, Plataea, Eretria and elsewhere, it has
+undertaken two works of capital importance--the excavation of the Argive
+Heraeum and of ancient Corinth. An Austrian Archaeological Institute was
+founded in 1898.
+
+
+  Industry and commerce.
+
+Notwithstanding certain disadvantages inherent in its situation, the
+trade and manufactures of Athens have considerably increased in recent
+years. Industrial and commercial activity is mainly centred at the
+Peiraeus, where cloth and cotton mills, 45 cognac distilleries, 14 steam
+flour mills, 8 soap manufactories, 13 shipbuilding and engineering
+works, chair manufactories, dye works, chemical works, tanneries and a
+dynamite factory have been established. The shipbuilding and engineering
+trades are active and advancing. The export trade is, however,
+inconsiderable, as the produce of the local industries is mainly
+absorbed by home consumption. The principal exports are wine, cognac and
+marble from Pentelicus. As a place of import, the Peiraeus surpasses
+Patras, Syra and all the other Greek maritime towns, receiving about 53%
+of all the merchandise brought into Greece. The principal imports are
+coal, grain, manufactured articles and articles of luxury. The total
+value of exports in 1904 was L459,565; of imports, L2,459,278. The
+number of ships entered and cleared in 1905 was 5020 with a tonnage of
+5,796,590 tons, of which 416, with a tonnage of 609,822 tons, were
+British.
+
+
+  The Peiraeus.
+
+The Peiraeus, which had never revived since its destruction by the
+Romans in 86 B.C., was at the beginning of the 19th century a small
+fishing village known as Porto Leone. When Athens became the capital in
+1833 the ancient name of its port was revived, and since that time piers
+and quays have been constructed, and spacious squares and broad regular
+streets have been laid out. The town now possesses an exchange, a large
+theatre, a gymnasium, a naval school, municipal buildings and several
+hospitals and charitable institutions erected by private munificence.
+The harbour, in which ships of all nations may be seen, as well as great
+numbers of the picturesque sailing craft engaged in the coasting trade,
+is somewhat difficult of access to larger vessels, but has been improved
+by the construction of new breakwaters and dry docks. The port and the
+capital are now connected by railway with Corinth and the principal
+towns of the Morea; the line opening up communication with northern
+Greece and Thessaly, when its proposed connexion with the Continental
+railway system has been effected, will greatly enhance the importance of
+the Peiraeus, already one of the most flourishing commercial towns in
+the Levant.
+
+
+  Population.
+
+The population of Athens has rapidly increased. In 1834 it was below
+5000; in 1870 it was 44,510; in 1879, 63,374; in 1889, 107,251; in 1896,
+111,486. The Peiraeus, which in 1834 possessed only a few hundred
+inhabitants, in 1879 possessed 21,618; in 1889, 34,327; in 1896, 43,848.
+The total population of Athens in 1907 was 167,479 and of Peiraeus
+67,982.     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+III. HISTORY
+
+1. _The Prehistoric Period._--The history of primitive Athens is
+involved in the same obscurity which enshrouds the early development of
+most of the Greek city-states. The Homeric poems scarcely mention
+Attica, and the legends, though numerous, are rarely of direct
+historical value. In the Minoan epoch Athens is proved by the
+archaeological remains to have been a petty kingdom scarcely more
+important than many other Attic communities, yet enjoying a more
+unbroken course of development than the leading states of that period.
+This accords with the cherished tradition which made the Athenians
+children of the soil, and free from admixture with conquering tribes.
+Many legends, however, and the later state organization, point to an
+immigration of an "Ionian" aristocracy in late Mycenaean days. These
+Ionian newcomers are almost certainly responsible for the absorption of
+the numerous independent communities of Attica into a central state of
+Athens under a powerful monarchy (see THESEUS), for the introduction of
+new cults, and for the division of the people into four tribes whose
+names--Geleontes, Hopletes, Argadeis and Aegicoreis--recur in several
+true Ionian towns. This centralization of power (_Synoecism_), to which
+many Greek peoples never attained, laid the first foundations of
+Athenian greatness. But in other respects the new constitution tended to
+arrest development. When the monarchy was supplanted in the usual Greek
+fashion by a hereditary nobility--a process accomplished, according to
+tradition, between about 1000 and 683 B.C.--all power was appropriated
+by a privileged class of Eupatridae (q.v.); the Geomori and Demiurgi,
+who formed the bulk of the community, enjoyed no political rights. It
+was to their control over the machinery of law that the Eupatridae owed
+their predominance. The aristocratic council of the Areopagus (q.v.)
+constituted the chief criminal court, and nominated the magistrates,
+among whom the chief archon (q.v.) passed judgment in family suits,
+controlled admission to the genos or clan, and consequently the
+acquisition of the franchise. This system was further supported by
+religious prescriptions which the nobles retained as a corporate secret.
+Assisted no doubt by their judicial control, the Eupatridae also tended
+to become sole owners of the land, reducing the original freeholders or
+tenants to the position of serfs. During this period Athens seems to
+have made little use of her militia, commanded by the polemarch, or of
+her navy, which was raised in special local divisions known as
+Naucraries (see NAUCRARY); hence no military _esprit de corps_ could
+arise to check the Eupatrid ascendancy. Nor did the commons obtain
+relief through any commercial or colonial enterprises such as those
+which alleviated social distress in many other Greek states. The first
+attack upon the aristocracy proceeded from a young noble named Cylon,
+who endeavoured to become tyrant about 630 B.C. The people helped to
+crush this movement; yet discontent must have been rife among them, for
+in 611 the Eupatrids commissioned Draco (q.v.), a junior magistrate, to
+draft and publish a code of criminal law. This was a notable concession,
+by which the nobles lost that exclusive legal knowledge which had formed
+one of their main instruments of oppression.
+
+2. _The Rise of Athens._--A still greater danger grew out of the
+widespread financial distress, which was steadily driving many of the
+agricultural population into slavery and threatened the entire state
+with ruin. After a protracted war with the neighbouring Megarians had
+accentuated the crisis the Eupatridae gave to one of their number, the
+celebrated Solon (q.v.), free power to remodel the whole state (594). By
+his economic legislation Solon placed Athenian agriculture once more
+upon a sound footing, and supplemented this source of wealth by
+encouraging commercial enterprise, thus laying the foundation of his
+country's material prosperity. His constitutional reforms proved less
+successful, for, although he put into the hands of the people various
+safeguards against oppression, he could not ensure their use in
+practice. After a period of disorder and party-feud among the nobles the
+new constitution was superseded in fact, if not in form, by the
+autocratic rule of Peisistratus (q.v.), and his sons Hippias and
+Hipparchus. The age of despotism, which lasted, with interruptions, from
+560 to 510, was a period of great prosperity for Athens. The rulers
+fostered agriculture, stimulated commerce and industry (notably the
+famous Attic ceramics), adorned the city with public works and temples,
+and rendered it a centre of culture. Their vigorous foreign policy first
+made Athens an Aegean power and secured connexions with numerous
+mainland powers. Another result of the tyranny was the weakening of the
+undue influence of the nobles and the creation of a national Athenian
+spirit in place of the ancient clan-feeling.
+
+The equalization of classes was already far advanced when towards the
+end of the century a nobleman of the Alcmaeonid family, named
+Cleisthenes (q.v.), who had taken the chief part in the final expulsion
+of the tyrants, acquired ascendancy as leader of the commons. The
+constitution which he promulgated (508/7) gave expression to the change
+of political feeling by providing a national basis of franchise and
+providing a new state organization. By making effective the powers of
+the Ecclesia (Popular Assembly) the Boule (Council) and Heliaea,
+Cleisthenes became the true founder of Athenian democracy.
+
+This revolution was accompanied by a conflict with Sparta and other
+powers. But a spirit of harmony and energy now breathed within the
+nation, and in the ensuing wars Athens worsted powerful enemies like
+Thebes and Chalcis (506). A bolder stroke followed in 500, when a force
+was sent to support the Ionians in revolt against Persia and took part
+in the sack of Sardis. After the failure of this expedition the
+Athenians apparently became absorbed in a prolonged struggle with Aegina
+(q.v.). In 493 the imminent prospect of a Persian invasion brought into
+power men like Themistocles and Miltiades (qq.v.), to whose firmness
+and insight the Athenians largely owed their triumph in the great
+campaign of 490 against Persia. After a second political reaction, the
+prospect of a second Persian war, and the naval superiority of Aegina
+led to the assumption of a bolder policy. In 483 Themistocles overcame
+the opposition of Aristides (q.v.), and passed his famous measure
+providing for a large increase of the Athenian fleet. In the great
+invasion of 480-479 the Athenians displayed an unflinching resolution
+which could not be shaken even by the evacuation and destruction of
+their native city. Though the traditional account of this war
+exaggerates the services of Athens as compared with the other champions
+of Greek independence, there can be no doubt that the ultimate victory
+was chiefly due to the numbers and efficiency of the Athenian fleet, and
+to the wise policy of her great statesman Themistocles (see SALAMIS,
+PLATAEA).
+
+3. _Imperial Athens._--After the Persian retreat and the reoccupation of
+their city the Athenians continued the war with unabated vigour. Led by
+Aristides and Cimon they rendered such prominent service as to receive
+in return the formal leadership of the Greek allies and the presidency
+of the newly formed Delian League (q.v.). The ascendancy acquired in
+these years eventually raised Athens to the rank of an imperial state.
+For the moment it tended to impair the good relations which had
+subsisted between Athens and Sparta since the first days of the Persian
+peril. But so long as Cimon's influence prevailed the ideal of "peace at
+home and the complete humiliation of Persia" was steadily unheld.
+Similarly the internal policy of Athens continued to be shaped by the
+conservatives. The only notable innovations since the days of
+Cleisthenes had been the reduction of the archonship to a routine
+magistracy appointed partly by lot (487), and the rise of the ten
+elective strategi (generals) as chief executive officers (see
+STRATEGUS). But the triumph of the navy in 480 and the great expansion
+of commerce and industry had definitely shifted the political centre of
+gravity from the yeoman class of moderate democrats to the more radical
+party usually stigmatized as the "sailor rabble." Though Themistocles
+soon lost his influence, his party eventually found a new leader in
+Ephialtes and after the failure of Cimon's foreign policy (see CIMON)
+triumphed over the conservatives. The year 461 marks the reversal of
+Athenian policy at home and abroad. By cancelling the political power of
+the Areopagus and multiplying the functions of the popular law-courts,
+Ephialtes abolished the last checks upon the sovereignty of the commons.
+His successor, Pericles, who commonly ranked as the "completer of the
+democracy," merely developed the full democracy so as to secure its
+effectual as well as its theoretical supremacy. The foreign policy of
+Athens was now directed towards an almost reckless expansion (see
+PERICLES). The unparalleled success of the Athenian arms at this period
+extended the bounds of empire to their farthest limits. Besides securing
+her Aegean possessions and her commerce by the defeat of Corinth and
+Aegina, her last rivals on sea, Athens acquired an extensive dominion in
+central Greece and for a time quite overshadowed the Spartan land-power.
+The rapid loss of the new conquests after 447 proved that Athens lacked
+a sufficient land-army to defend permanently so extensive a frontier.
+Under the guidance of Pericles the Athenians renounced the unprofitable
+rivalry with Sparta and Persia, and devoted themselves to the
+consolidation and judicious extension of their maritime influence.
+
+The years of the supremacy of Pericles (443-429) are on the whole the
+most glorious in Athenian history. In actual extent of territory the
+empire had receded somewhat, but in point of security and organization
+it now stood at its height. The Delian confederacy lay completely under
+Athenian control, and the points of strategic importance were largely
+held by cleruchies (q.v.; see also PERICLES) and garrisons. Out of a
+citizen body of over 50,000 freemen, reinforced by mercenaries and
+slaves, a superb fleet exceeding 300 sail and an army of 30,000 drilled
+soldiers could be mustered. The city itself, with its fortifications
+extending to the port of Peiraeus, was impregnable to a land attack. The
+commerce of Athens extended from Egypt and Colchis to Etruria and
+Carthage, and her manufactures, which attracted skilled operatives from
+many lands, found a ready sale all over the Mediterranean. With tolls,
+and the tribute of the Delian League, a fund of 9700 talents
+(L2,300,000) was amassed in the treasury.
+
+Yet the material prosperity of Athens under Pericles was less notable
+than her brilliant attainments in every field of culture. Her
+development since the Persian wars had been extremely rapid, but did not
+reach its climax till the latter part of the century. No city ever
+adorned herself with such an array of temples, public buildings and
+works of art as the Athens of Pericles and Pheidias. Her achievements in
+literature are hardly less great. The Attic drama of the period produced
+many great masterpieces, and the scientific thought of Europe in the
+departments of logic, ethics, rhetoric and history mainly owes its
+origin to a new movement of Greek thought which was largely fostered by
+the patronage of Pericles himself. Besides producing numerous men of
+genius herself Athens attracted all the great intellects of Greece. The
+brilliant summary of the historian Thucydides in the famous Funeral
+Speech of Pericles (delivered in 430), in which the social life, the
+institutions and the culture of his country are set forth as a model,
+gives a substantially true picture of Athens in its greatest days.
+
+This brilliant epoch, however, was not without its darker side. The
+payment for public service which Pericles had introduced may have
+contributed to raise the general level of culture of the citizens, but
+it created a dangerous precedent and incurred the censure of notable
+Greek thinkers. Moreover, all this prosperity was obtained at the
+expense of the confederates, whom Athens exploited in a somewhat selfish
+and illiberal manner. In fact it was the cry of "tyrant city" which went
+furthest to rouse public opinion in Greece against Athens and to bring
+on the Peloponnesian War (q.v.) which ruined the Athenian empire
+(431-404). The issue of this conflict was determined less by any
+intrinsic superiority on the part of her enemies than by the blunders
+committed by a people unable to carry out a consistent foreign policy on
+its own initiative, and served since Pericles by none but selfish or
+short-sighted advisers. It speaks well for the patriotic devotion and
+discipline of her commons that Athens, weakened by plague and military
+disasters, should have withstood for so long the blows of her numerous
+enemies from without, and the damage inflicted by traitors within her
+walls (see ANTIPHON, THERAMENES).
+
+4. _The Fourth Century_--After the complete defeat of Athens by land and
+sea, it was felt that her former services on behalf of Greece and her
+high culture should exempt her from total ruin. Though stripped of her
+empire, Athens obtained very tolerable terms from her enemies. The
+democratic constitution, which had been supplanted for a while by a
+government of oligarchs, but was restored in 403 after the latter's
+misrule had brought about their own downfall (see CRITIAS, THERAMENES,
+THRASYBULUS), henceforth stood unchallenged by the Greeks. Indeed the
+spread of democracy elsewhere increased the prestige of the Athenian
+administration, which had now reached a high pitch of efficiency.
+Athenian art and literature in the 4th century declined but slightly
+from their former standard; philosophy and oratory reached a standard
+which was never again equalled in antiquity and may still serve as a
+model. In the wars of the period Athens took a prominent part with a
+view to upholding the balance of power, joining the Corinthian League in
+395, and assisting Thebes against Sparta after 378, Sparta against
+Thebes after 369. Her generals and admirals, Conon, Iphicrates,
+Chabrias, Timotheus, distinguished themselves by their military skill,
+and partially recovered their country's predominance in the Aegean,
+which found expression in the temporary renewal of the Delian League
+(q.v.). By the middle of the century Athens was again the leading power
+in Greece. When Philip of Macedon began to grow formidable she seemed
+called upon once more to champion the liberties of Greece. This ideal,
+when put forward by the consummate eloquence of Demosthenes and other
+orators, created great enthusiasm among the Athenians, who at times
+displayed all their old vigour in opposing Philip, notably in the
+decisive campaign of 338. But these outbursts of energy were too
+spasmodic, and popular opinion repeatedly veered back in favour of the
+peace-party. With her diminished resources Athens could not indeed hope
+to cope with the great Macedonian king; however much we may sympathize
+with the generous ambition of the patriots, we must admit that in the
+light of hard facts their conduct appears quixotic.
+
+5. _The Hellenistic Period._--Philip and Alexander, who sincerely
+admired Athenian culture and courted a zealous co-operation against
+Persia, treated the conquered city with marked favour. But the people
+would not resign themselves to playing a secondary part, and watched for
+every opportunity to revolt. The outbreak headed by Athens after
+Alexander's death (323) led to a stubborn conflict with Macedonia. After
+his victory the regent Antipater punished Athens by the loss of her
+remaining dependencies, the proscription of her chief patriots, and the
+disfranchisement of 12,000 citizens. The Macedonian garrison which was
+henceforth stationed in Attic territory prevented the city from taking a
+prominent part in the wars of the Diadochi. Cassander placed Athens
+under the virtual autocracy of Demetrius of Phalerum (317-307), and
+after the temporary liberation by Demetrius Poliorcetes (306-300),
+secured his interests through a dictator named Lachares, who lost the
+place again to Poliorcetes after a siege (295). After a vain attempt to
+expel the garrison in 287, the Athenians regained their liberty while
+Macedonia was thrown into confusion by the Celts, and in 279 rendered
+good service against the invaders of the latter nation with a fleet off
+Thermopylae. When Antigonus Gonatas threatened to restore Macedonian
+power in Greece, the Athenians, supported perhaps by the king of Egypt,
+formed a large defensive coalition; but in the ensuing "Chremonidean
+War" (266-263) a naval defeat off Andros led to their surrender and the
+imposition of a Macedonian garrison. The latter was finally withdrawn in
+229 by the good offices of Aratus (q.v.). At this period Athens was
+altogether overshadowed in material strength by the great Hellenistic
+monarchies and even by the new republican leagues of Greece; but she
+could still on occasion display great energy and patriotism. The
+prestige of her past history had now perhaps attained its zenith. Her
+democracy was respected by the Macedonian kings; the rulers of Egypt,
+Syria, and especially of Pergamum, courted her favour by handsome
+donations of edifices and works of art, to which the citizens replied by
+unbecoming flattery, even to the extent of creating new tribes named
+after their benefactors. If Athens lost her supremacy in the fields of
+science and scholarship to Alexandria, she became more than ever the
+home of philosophy, while Menander and the other poets of the New Comedy
+made Athenian life and manners known throughout the civilized world.
+
+6. _Relations with the Roman Republic._--In 228 Athens entered into
+friendly intercourse with Rome, in whose interest she endured the
+desperate attacks of Philip V. of Macedonia (200-199). In return for
+help against King Perseus she acquired some new possessions, notably the
+great mart of Delos, which became an Athenian cleruchy (166). By her
+treacherous attack upon the frontier-town of Oropus (156) Athens
+indirectly brought about the conflict between Rome and the Achaean
+League which resulted in the eventual loss of Greek independence, but
+remained herself a free town with rights secured by treaty. In spite of
+the favours displayed by Rome, the more radical section of the people
+began to chafe at the loss of their international importance. This
+discontent was skilfully fanned by Mithradates the Great at the outset
+of his Roman campaigns. His emissary, the philosopher Aristion, induced
+the people to declare war against Rome and to place him in chief
+command. The town with its port stood a long siege against Sulla, but
+was stormed in 86. The conqueror allowed his soldiers to loot, but
+inflicted no permanent punishment upon the people. This war left Athens
+poverty-stricken and stripped of her commerce: her only importance now
+lay in the philosophical schools, which were frequented by many young
+Romans of note (Cicero, Atticus, Horace, &c.). Greek became fashionable
+at Rome, and a visit to Athens a sort of pilgrimage for educated Romans
+(cf. Propertius iv. 21: "Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor
+Athenas"). In the great civil wars Athens sided with Pompey and held out
+against Caesar's lieutenants, but received a free pardon "in
+consideration of her great dead." Similarly the triumvirs after Philippi
+condoned her enthusiasm for the cause of Brutus. Antony repeatedly made
+Athens his headquarters and granted her several new possessions,
+including Eretria and Aegina--grants which Octavian subsequently
+revoked.
+
+7. _The Roman Empire._--Under the new settlement Athens remained a free
+and sovereign city--a boon which she repaid by zealous Caesar-worship,
+for the favours bestowed upon her tended to pauperize her citizens and
+to foster their besetting sin of calculating flattery. Hadrian displayed
+his special fondness for the city by raising new buildings and relieving
+financial distress. He amended the constitution in some respects, and
+instituted a new national festival, the Panhellenica. In the period of
+the Antonines the endowment of professors out of the imperial treasury
+gave Athens a special status as a university town. Her whole energies
+seem henceforth devoted to academic pursuits; the military training of
+her youth was superseded by courses in philosophy and rhetoric; the
+chief organs of administration, the revived Areopagus and the senior
+Strategus, became as it were an education office. Save for an incursion
+by Goths in A.D. 267 and a temporary occupation by Alaric in 395, Athens
+spent the remaining centuries of the ancient world in quiet prosperity.
+The rhetorical schools experienced a brilliant revival under Constantine
+and his successors, when Athens became the _alma mater_ of many notable
+men, including Julian, Libanius, Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus, and in
+her professors owned the last representatives of a humane and moralized
+paganism. The freedom of teaching was first curtailed by Theodosius I.;
+the edict of Justinian (529), forbidding the study of philosophy, dealt
+the death-blow to ancient Athens.
+
+  The authorities for the history of ancient Athens will mostly be found
+  under GREECE: _History_, and the various biographies. The following
+  books deal with special periods or subjects only:--(1) _Early Athens_:
+  W. Warde Fowler, _The City-State_, ch. vi. (London, 1893). (2) _The
+  fifth and fourth centuries_: the "Constitution of Athens," ascribed to
+  Xenophon; W. Oncken, _Athen und Hellas_ (Leipzig, 1865); U. v.
+  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Aus Kydathen_ (Berlin, 1880); L. Whibley,
+  _Political Parties at Athens_ (Cambridge, 1889); G. Gilbert, _Beitrage
+  zur inneren Geschichte Athens_ (Leipzig, 1877); J. Beloch, _Die
+  attische Politik seit Perikles_ (Leipzig, 1884). (3) _The Hellenistic
+  and Roman periods_: J.P. Mahaffy, _Greek Life and Thought_, from 323
+  to 146 (London, 1887), chs. v., vi., xvii.; A. Holm, _Greek History_
+  (Eng. trans., London, 1898), iv. chs. vi. and xxiii.;
+  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Antigonos von Karystos_ (Berlin, 1881), pp.
+  178-291; W. Capes, _University Life in Ancient Athens_ (London, 1877);
+  A. Dumont, _Essai sur l'Ephebie attique_ (Paris, 1875). (4) _The Latin
+  rule_: G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford ed., 1877), vol. iv. ch.
+  vi. (5) _Constitutional History_: The Aristotelian "Constitution of
+  Athens"; U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Aristoteles und Athen_
+  (Berlin and Leipzig, 1893), vol. ii.; G. Gilbert, _Greek
+  Constitutional Antiquities_ (Eng. trans., London, 1895), pp. 95-453;
+  A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional History_ (Oxford,
+  1896), ch. vi.; J.W. Headlam, _Election by Lot at Athens_ (Cambridge,
+  1891). (6) _Finance and statistics_: A. Boeckh, _The Public Economy of
+  the Athenians_ (Eng. trans., London, 1828); Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen
+  zur alten Geschichte_ (Halle, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 149-195. (7)
+  _Inscriptions: Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum_, with supplements
+  (Berlin, 1873-1895). (8) _Coins_: B.V. Head, _Historia Numorum_
+  (Oxford, 1887), pp. 309-328.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+8. _Byzantine Period._--The city now sank into the position of a
+provincial Byzantine town. Already it had been robbed of many of its
+works of art, among them the Athena Promachos and the Parthenos of
+Pheidias, for the adornment of Constantinople, and further spoliation
+took place when the church of St Sophia was built in A.D. 532. The
+Parthenon, the Erechtheum, the "Theseum" and other temples were
+converted into Christian churches and were thus preserved throughout the
+middle ages. The history of Athens for the next four centuries is almost
+a blank; the city is rarely mentioned by the Byzantine chronicles of
+this period. The emperor Constantine II. spent some months here in A.D.
+662-663. In 869 the see of Athens became an archbishopric. In 995 Attica
+was ravaged by the Bulgarians under their tsar Samuel, but Athens
+escaped; after the defeat of Samuel at Belasitza (1014) the emperor
+Basil II., who blinded 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, came to Athens and
+celebrated his triumph by a thanksgiving service in the Parthenon
+(1018). From the Runic description on the marble lion of the Peiraeus it
+has been inferred that Harold Hardrasda and the Norsemen in the service
+of the Byzantine emperors captured the Peiraeus in 1040, but this
+conclusion is not accepted by Gregorovius (bk. i. pp. 170-172). Like the
+rest of Greece, Athens suffered greatly from the rapacity of its
+Byzantine administrators. The letters of Acominatus, archbishop of
+Athens, towards the close of the 12th century, bewail the desolate
+condition of the city in language resembling that of Jeremiah in regard
+to Jerusalem.
+
+9. _Period of Latin Rule: 1204-1458._--After the Latin conquest of
+Constantinople in 1204, Otho de la Roche was granted the lordship of
+Athens by Boniface of Montferrat, king of Thessalonica, with the title
+of Megaskyr ([Greek: megas kyrios]= great lord). His nephew and
+successor, Guy I., obtained the title duke of Athens from Louis IX. of
+France in 1258. On the death of Guy II., last duke of the house of la
+Roche, in 1308, the duchy passed to his cousin, Walter of Brienne. He
+was expelled in 1311 by his Catalonian mercenaries; the mutineers
+bestowed the duchy "of Athens and Neopatras" on their leader, Roger
+Deslaur, and, in the following year, on Frederick of Aragon, king of
+Sicily. The Sicilian kings ruled Athens by viceroys till 1385, when the
+Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli, lord of Corinth, defeated the Catalonians
+and seized the city. Nerio, who received the title of duke from the king
+of Naples, founded a new dynasty. His palace was in the Propylaea; the
+lofty "Tower of the Franks," which adjoined the south wing of that
+building, was possibly built in his time. This interesting historical
+monument was demolished by the Greek authorities in 1874,
+notwithstanding the protests of Penrose, Freeman and other scholars. The
+Acciajuoli dynasty lasted till June 1458, when the Acropolis after a
+stubborn resistance was taken by the Turks under Omar, the general of
+the sultan Mahommed II., who had occupied the lower city in 1456. The
+sultan entered Athens in the following month; he was greatly struck by
+its ancient monuments and treated its inhabitants with comparative
+leniency.
+
+10. _Period of Turkish Rule: 1458-1833._--After the Turkish conquest
+Athens disappeared from the eyes of Western civilization. The principal
+interest of the following centuries lies in the researches of successive
+travellers, who may be said to have rediscovered the city, and in the
+fate of its ancient monuments, several of which were still in fair
+preservation at the beginning of this period. The Parthenon was
+transformed into a mosque; the existing minaret at its south-western
+corner was built after 1466. The Propylaea served as the residence of
+the Turkish commandant and the Erechtheum as his harem. In 1466 the
+Venetians succeeded in occupying the city, but failed to take the
+Acropolis. About 1645 a powder magazine in the Propylaea was ignited by
+lightning and the upper portion of the structure was destroyed. Under
+Francesco Morosini the Venetians again attacked Athens in September
+1687; a shot fired during the bombardment of the Acropolis caused a
+powder magazine in the Parthenon to explode, and the building was rent
+asunder. After capturing the Acropolis the Venetians employed material
+from its ancient edifices in repairing its walls. They withdrew in the
+following year, when the Turks set fire to the city. The central
+sculptures of the western pediment of the Parthenon, which Morosini
+intended to take to Venice, were unskilfully detached by his workmen,
+and falling to the ground were broken to pieces. Several ancient
+monuments were sacrificed to provide material for a new wall with which
+the Turks surrounded the city in 1778.
+
+During the 18th century many works of art, which still remained _in
+situ_, fell a prey to foreign collectors. The removal to London in 1812
+of most of the remaining sculptures of the Parthenon by Lord Elgin
+possibly rescued many of them from injury in the period of warfare which
+followed. In 1821 the Greek insurgents surprised the city, and in 1822
+captured the Acropolis. Athens again fell into the hands of the Turks in
+1826, who bombarded and took the Acropolis in the following year; the
+Erechtheum suffered greatly, and the monument of Thrasyllus was
+destroyed. The Turks remained in possession of the Acropolis till 1833,
+when Athens was chosen as the capital of the newly established kingdom
+of Greece; since that date the history of the city forms part of that of
+modern Greece. (See GREECE: _History, modern_.)
+
+  GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.-W.M. Leake, _Topography of Athens and the Demi_
+  (2nd ed., London, 1841); C. Wachsmuth, _Die Stadt Athen im Alterthum_
+  (vol. i., Leipzig, 1874; vol. ii. part i., Leipzig, 1890); E. Burnouf,
+  _La Ville et l'acropole d'Athenes aux diverses epoques_ (Paris, 1877);
+  F.C. Penrose, _Principles of Athenian Architecture_ (London, 1888);
+  J.E. Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_ (London,
+  1890); E. Curtius and A. Milchhofer, _Stadtgeschichte von Athen_
+  (Berlin, 1891); H. Hitzig and H. Blumner, _Pausanias_ (text and
+  commentary; vol. i., Berlin, 1896); J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias_
+  (translation and commentary; 6 vols., London, 1898. The commentary on
+  Pausanias' description of Athens, contained in vol. ii. with
+  supplementary notes in vol. v., is an invaluable digest of recent
+  researches); H. Omont, _Athenes au XVII^e siecle_ (Paris, 1898, with
+  plans and views of the town and acropolis and drawings of the
+  sculptures of the Parthenon); J.H. Middleton and E.A. Gardner, _Plans
+  and Drawings of Athenian Buildings_ (London, 1900); E.A. Gardner,
+  _Ancient Athens_ (London, 1902); W. Judeich, _Topographie von Athen_
+  (Munich, 1905; forming vol. iii. part ii. second half, in 3rd edition
+  of I. von Muller's _Handbuch der klass. Altertumswissenschaft_). The
+  history of excavations on the Acropolis is summarized in M.L. d'Ooge,
+  _Acropolis of Athens_ (1909); see also A. Botticher, _Die Akropolis
+  von Athen_ (Berlin, 1888); O. Jahn, _Pausaniae descriptio arcis
+  Athenarum_ (Bonn, 1900); A. Furtwangler, _Masterpieces of Greek
+  Sculpture_ (appendix; London, 1895); A. Milchhofer, _Uber die alten
+  Burgheiligtumer in Athen_ (Kiel, 1899). For the Parthenon, A.
+  Michaelis, _Der Parthenon_ (texts and plates, Leipzig, 1871); L.
+  Magne, _Le Parthenon_ (Paris, 1895); J. Durm, _Der Zustand der antiken
+  athenischen Bauwerken_ (Berlin, 1895); F.C. Penrose in _Journal of
+  Royal Institute of British Architects_ for 1897; N.M. Balanos in
+  [Greek: Ephemeris tes kyberneseos] (Athens, August 25, 1898). For the
+  Dionysiac theatre, A.E. Haigh, _The Attic Theatre_ (Oxford, 1889); W.
+  Dorpfeld and E. Reisch, _Das griechische Theater_ (Athens, 1896);
+  Puchstein, _Die griechische Buhne_ (Berlin, 1901). For the "Theseum,"
+  B. Sauer, _Das sogenannte Theseion_ (Leipzig, 1899). For the Peiraeus,
+  E.I. Angelopoulos, [Greek: Peri Peiraios kai tun limenou] (Athens,
+  1898). For the Attic Demes, A. Milchhofer, _Untersuchungen uber die
+  Demenordnung des Kleisthenes_ (in transactions of Berlin Academy,
+  Berlin, 1892); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie der class.
+  Altertumswissenschaft_ (supplement, part i., article "Athenai";
+  Stuttgart, 1903). For the controversies respecting the Agora, the
+  Enneacrunus and the topography of the town in general, see W.
+  Dorpfeld, _passim_ in _Athenische Mittheilungen_; C. Wachsmuth, "Neue
+  Beitrage zur Topographie von Athen," in _Abhandlungen der sachsischen
+  Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig, 1897). A. Milchhofer, "Zur
+  Topographie von Athen," in _Berlin. philol. Wochenschrift_ (1900),
+  Nos. 9, 11, 12. For the Byzantine and medieval periods, William
+  Miller, _Latins in the Levant_ (London, 1908); F. Gregorovius,
+  _Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1889). Periodical Literature. _Mittheilungen des kais. deutsch. arch.
+  Instituts_ (Athens, from 1876); _Bulletin de correspondance
+  hellenique_ (Athens, from 1877); _Papers of the American School_ (New
+  York, 1882-1897); _Annual of the British School_ (London, from 1894);
+  _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (London, from 1880); _American Journal
+  of Archaeology_ (New York, from 1885); _Jahrbuch des kais. deutsch.
+  arch. Instituts_ (Berlin, from 1886). The best maps are those in _Die
+  Karten van Attika_, published with explanatory text by the German
+  Archaeological Institute (Berlin, 1881). See also Baedeker's _Greece_
+  (London, 1895); Murray's _Greece and the Ionian Islands_ (London,
+  1900); Guide Joanne, vol. i. _Athenes et ses environs_ (Paris, 1896);
+  Meyer's _Turkei und Griechenlander_ (5th ed., 1901).     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ATHENS, a city and the county-seat of Clarke county, Georgia, U.S.A., in
+the N.E. part of the state, about 73 m. E. by N. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890)
+8639; (1900) 10,245, of whom 5190 were negroes and only 114 were
+foreign-born; (1910, census) 14,913. It is served by the Georgia, the
+Central of Georgia, the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line and the
+Gainesville Midland railways. Athens is an important educational centre.
+It was founded in 1801 as the seat of the university of Georgia, which
+had been chartered in 1785. Franklin College, the academic department of
+the university, was opened in 1801, and afterwards the State College of
+Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (the School of Science, 1872), the State
+Normal School (co-educational, 1891), the School of Pharmacy (1903), the
+University Summer School (1903), the School of Forestry (1906), and the
+Georgia State College of Agriculture (1906), also branches of the
+university, were established at Athens, and what had been the Lumpkin
+Law School (incorporated in 1859) became the law department of the
+university in 1867. Branches of the university not in Athens are: the
+North Georgia Agricultural College (established in 1871; became a part
+of the university in 1872), at Dahlonega; the medical department, at
+Augusta (1873; founded as the Georgia Medical College in 1829); the
+Georgia School of Technology (1885), at Atlanta; the Georgia Normal and
+Industrial College for Girls (1889), at Milledgeville; and the Georgia
+Industrial College for Colored Youth (1890), near Savannah. At Athens
+also are several secondary schools, and the Lucy Cobb Institute (for
+girls), opened in 1858 and named in honour of a daughter of its founder,
+Gen. T.R.R. Cobb (1823-1862). The city has various manufactures, the
+most important being fertilizers, cotton goods, and cotton-seed oil and
+cake; the value of the total factory product in 1905 was $1,158,205, an
+increase of 70.9% in five years. Athens was chartered as a city in 1872.
+
+
+
+
+ATHENS, a village and the county-seat of Athens county, Ohio, U.S.A., in
+the township of Athens, on the Hocking river, about 76 m. E.S.E. of
+Columbus. Pop. (1890) 2620; (1900) 3066; (1910) 5463; of the township
+(1910) 10,156. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, the
+Toledo & Ohio Central (Ohio Central Lines), and the Hocking Valley
+railways. The village is built on rolling ground rising about 70 ft.
+above the river (which nearly encircles it), and commands views of some
+of the most beautiful scenery in the state. There are several ancient
+mounds in the vicinity. Athens is the seat of Ohio University
+(co-educational), a state institution established in 1804, and having in
+1908 a college of liberal arts, a state normal college (1902), a
+commercial college, a college of music and a state preparatory school.
+In 1908 the University had 53 instructors and 1386 students. South of
+the village, and occupying a fine situation, is a state hospital for the
+insane. In the vicinity there are many coal mines, and among the
+manufactures are bricks, furniture, veneered doors, and shirts. The
+municipality operates the water-works. When the Ohio Company, through
+Manasseh Cutler, obtained from congress their land in what is now Ohio,
+it was arranged that the income from two townships was to be set aside
+"for the support of a literary institution." In 1795 the townships
+(Athens and Alexander) were located and surveyed, and in 1800 Rufus
+Putnam and two other commissioners, appointed by the Territorial
+legislature, laid out a town, which was also called Athens. Settlers
+slowly came; the town became the county-seat in 1805, was incorporated
+as a village in 1811, and was re-incorporated in 1828.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Slice 7, by Various
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