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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of The Reign of Philip The Second
+King of Spain, by William H. Prescott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of The Reign of Philip The Second King of Spain
+ Volume The Third and Biographical & Critical Miscellanies
+
+Author: William H. Prescott
+
+Release Date: November 3, 2010 [EBook #34203]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE REIGN OF PHILIP II ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Paul Murray, Chuck Greif and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: image of book's spine]
+
+[Illustration: image of book's cover]
+
+[Illustration: DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA.
+
+FROM THE ORIGINAL IN THE ROYAL MUSEUM AT MADRID.
+
+London: George Routledge & Sons, Broadway, Ludgate Hill.]
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE REIGN
+
+OF
+
+PHILIP THE SECOND
+
+_KING OF SPAIN_
+
+VOLUME THE THIRD
+
+AND
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL & CRITICAL MISCELLANIES
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT
+
+
+LONDON
+
+GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS
+
+BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL
+
+NEW YORK: 416, BROOME STREET
+
+ PRESCOTT'S WORKS.
+
+ _One-Volume Edition._
+
+ FERDINAND AND ISABELLA, 5s.
+ CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 5s.
+ CONQUEST OF PERU. 5s.
+ PHILIP THE SECOND. Vols. I. and II. in One Vol., 5s.
+ PHILIP THE SECOND. Vol. III., and ESSAYS, in One Vol., 5s.
+ CHARLES THE FIFTH. 5s.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+OF
+
+THE THIRD VOLUME.
+
+
+BOOK V.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ PAGE
+
+THE MOORS OF SPAIN 1
+
+Conquest of Spain by the Arabs 1
+
+Hostility between the Two Races 2
+
+The Country recovered by the Spaniards 2
+
+Effect of the Struggle on the National Character 2
+
+Religious Intolerance of the Spaniards 3
+
+Attempts to convert the Moslems 3
+
+Policy of Ximenes 3
+
+Suppression of the Mahometan Worship 4
+
+Outward Conformity to Christianity 4
+
+Moors abandon their National Habits 4
+
+Their Condition under Philip the Second 5
+
+Their Industry and Commerce 5
+
+Treatment by the Government 6
+
+Ordinance of 1563 8
+
+Stringent Measures called for by the Clergy 9
+
+Prepared by the Government 9
+
+Severity of the Enactments 10
+
+Approval of them by Philip 11
+
+Proclamation at Granada 12
+
+Indignation of the Moriscoes 12
+
+Representations to Deza 12
+
+Appeal to the Throne 13
+
+Rejection of their Prayers 14
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES 14
+
+The Edict enforced 14
+
+Plans for Resistance by the Moriscoes 15
+
+Their Descent on Granada 16
+
+Failure of the Attempt 16
+
+General Insurrection 17
+
+Election of a King 17
+
+Character of Aben-Humeya 18
+
+His Coronation 18
+
+His Preparations for Defence 19
+
+The Christian Population 19
+
+Unsuspicious of their Danger 19
+
+Attacked by the Moors--Panic 20
+
+General Massacre 21
+
+Horrible Cruelties 21
+
+Fate of the Women and Children 22
+
+Fierceness of Aben-Farax 23
+
+Deposed from his Command 23
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES 24
+
+Consternation in the Capital 24
+
+Mutual Fears of the Two Races 24
+
+Garrison of the Alhambra strengthened 25
+
+Troops mustered by Mondejar 25
+
+Civic Militia--Feudal Levies 25
+
+Warlike Ecclesiastics 26
+
+March of the Army 26
+
+Pass of Tablate 27
+
+Bridge crossed by a Friar 27
+
+The Army follows 28
+
+The Moriscoes withdraw 28
+
+Entrance into the Alpujarras 28
+
+Night Encampment at Lanjaron 29
+
+Relief of Orgiba 29
+
+Mondejar pursues his March 30
+
+Gloom of the Mountain Scenery 30
+
+Defile of Alfajarali 30
+
+Sudden Attack 30
+
+Bravery of the Andalusian Knights 31
+
+Precipitate Retreat of the Moriscoes 31
+
+Capture of Bubion 31
+
+Humanity of Mondejar 31
+
+Sufferings of the Army 32
+
+Capture of Jubiles 33
+
+Prisoners protected by Mondejar 33
+
+Massacred by the Soldiers 33
+
+Christian Women sent to Granada 34
+
+Welcomed by the Inhabitants 34
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES 35
+
+Mondejar's Policy 35
+
+Aben-Humeya at Paterna 35
+
+Offers to Surrender 36
+
+Flight to the Sierra Nevada 36
+
+Disposition of the Moorish Prisoners 37
+
+Attack on Las Guajaras 38
+
+Evacuated by the Garrison 38
+
+Massacre ordered by Mondejar 38
+
+Cruelty of the Count of Tendilla 39
+
+Attempt to capture Aben-Humeya 39
+
+His Escape 40
+
+Heroism of Aben-Aboo 40
+
+The Marquis of Los Velez 40
+
+His Campaign in the Alpujarras 41
+
+Cruelties committed by the Troops 41
+
+Celebration of a religious _Fete_ 42
+
+Licentiousness of the Soldiery 42
+
+Contrast between Mondejar and Los Velez 43
+
+Accusations against the former 44
+
+Decision arrived at in Madrid 44
+
+Effect on the Army 45
+
+Moorish Prisoners in Granada 45
+
+Rumours circulated in the Capital 45
+
+Night Attack on the Prisoners 46
+
+Fearful Struggle and Massacre 46
+
+Apathy of the Government 47
+
+Renewal of the Insurrection 47
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES 48
+
+Don John of Austria 48
+
+Birth and Early History 49
+
+Placed under the Care of Quixada 49
+
+Secresy in regard to his Origin 50
+
+The young Geronimo at Yuste 50
+
+Testamentary Depositions of the Emperor 51
+
+The Boy presented to the Regent 51
+
+Curious Scene 52
+
+Meeting appointed with the King 53
+
+Philip acknowledges his Brother 53
+
+Assigns him an Establishment 54
+
+Royal Triumvirate at Alcala 54
+
+Chivalrous Character of Don John 55
+
+His adventurous Disposition 55
+
+He is entrusted with the Command of a Fleet 56
+
+His Cruise in the Mediterranean 56
+
+He is selected for the Command in Granada 57
+
+Restrictions on his Authority 57
+
+His Reception at Granada 57
+
+Answers to Petitioners 58
+
+Discussions in the Council of War 59
+
+New Levies summoned 59
+
+Increased Power of Aben-Humeya 60
+
+Forays into the Christian Territory 60
+
+Movements of Los Velez 61
+
+Extension of the Rebellion 61
+
+Successful Expedition of Requesens 61
+
+Moriscoes lay Siege to Seron 62
+
+Surrender and Massacre of the Garrison 62
+
+Decree for removing the Moriscoes from Granada 63
+
+Their Consternation and Grief 63
+
+Expulsion from the City 64
+
+Farewell to their ancient Home 64
+
+Distribution through the Country 64
+
+Ruinous Effects on Granada 65
+
+Character of the Transaction 66
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES 66
+
+State of the Troops under Los Velez 66
+
+Encounter with Aben-Humeya 67
+
+Flight of the Morisco Prince 67
+
+Desertions from the Spanish Camp 68
+
+Mondejar recalled to Court 68
+
+His Character 68
+
+Exterminating Policy of the Government 69
+
+Sensual Tyranny of Aben-Humeya 69
+
+Treachery towards Diego Alguazil 70
+
+Plan of Revenge formed by Alguazil 71
+
+Conspiracy against Aben-Humeya 71
+
+His Assassination 72
+
+He is succeeded by Aben-Aboo 72
+
+Energy of the new Chief 73
+
+Repulse at Orgiba 73
+
+The Place evacuated by the Garrison 74
+
+Continual Forays 74
+
+Conflicts in the _Vega_ 75
+
+Don John's desire for Action 75
+
+Philip yields to his Entreaties 76
+
+Preparations for the Campaign 76
+
+Surprise of Guejar 76
+
+Mortification of Don John 77
+
+Mendoza the Historian 77
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES 79
+
+Philip's Instructions to his Brother 80
+
+Don John takes the Field 80
+
+Discontent of Los Velez 80
+
+His Meeting with Don John 81
+
+He retires from the War 81
+
+Investment of Galera 82
+
+Description of the Place 82
+
+Munitions and Garrison 83
+
+Establishment of Batteries 84
+
+The Siege opened 84
+
+First Assault 84
+
+Spaniards repulsed 85
+
+Mines opened in the Rock 86
+
+Second Assault 86
+
+Explosion of the Mine 87
+
+Troops rash to the Attack 87
+
+Struggle at the Ravelin 87
+
+Bravery of the Morisco Women 87
+
+Ill Success of Padilla 87
+
+Failure of the Attack 88
+
+Insubordination of the Troops 88
+
+Severe Loss of the Spaniards 88
+
+Bloody Determination of Don John 89
+
+Prudent Advice of Philip 89
+
+Condition of the Besieged 89
+
+Preparations for a last Attack 90
+
+Cannonade and Explosions 91
+
+Third Assault 91
+
+Irresistible Fury of the Spaniards 91
+
+Struggle in the Streets and Houses 92
+
+Desperation of the Inhabitants 92
+
+Inhumanity of the Conqueror 92
+
+Wholesale Massacre 92
+
+The Town demolished 94
+
+Tidings communicated to Philip 94
+
+Reputation gained by Don John 94
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES 95
+
+Seron reconnoitred 95
+
+Sudden Attack by the Moriscoes 95
+
+Army thrown into Confusion 96
+
+Indignation of Don John 96
+
+Death of Quixada 97
+
+His Character 98
+
+Dona Magdalena de Ulloa 98
+
+Rapid Successes of Don John 98
+
+Negotiations opened with El Habaqui 99
+
+Merciless Pursuit of the Rebels 99
+
+Guerilla Warfare 99
+
+Conferences at Fondon 100
+
+Aben-Aboo consents to treat 100
+
+Arrangement concluded 100
+
+Submission tendered by El Habaqui 101
+
+Dissatisfaction with the Treaty 102
+
+Vacillation of Aben-Aboo 102
+
+El Habaqui engages to arrest him 103
+
+Fate of El Habaqui 103
+
+Mission of Palacios 104
+
+His Interview with Aben-Aboo 104
+
+Spirited Declaration of that Chief 104
+
+Stern Resolve of the Government 104
+
+War of Extermination 105
+
+Expedition of the Duke of Arcos 105
+
+March across the Plain of Calaluz 106
+
+Engagement with the Moriscoes 106
+
+The Rebellion crushed 106
+
+Edict of Expulsion 106
+
+Removal of the Moriscoes 107
+
+Don John's Impatience to Resign 108
+
+His Final Dispositions 108
+
+Hiding-place of Aben-Aboo 109
+
+Plot formed for his Capture 109
+
+His Interview with El Senix 109
+
+His Murder 110
+
+His Body brought to Granada 110
+
+His Head placed in a Cage 110
+
+Remarks on his Career 111
+
+Wasted Condition of the Country 112
+
+The scattered Moriscoes 112
+
+Cruelly treated by the Government 112
+
+Their Industry and Cheerfulness 113
+
+Increase of their Numbers 113
+
+They preserve their National Feeling 114
+
+Mutual Hatred of the Two Races 114
+
+Expulsion of the Moriscoes from Spain 114
+
+Works of Marmol and Circourt 114
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+WAR WITH THE TURKS 116
+
+Sultan Selim the Second 116
+
+Determines on the Conquest of Cyprus 116
+
+Spirit of Pius the Fifth 117
+
+His Appeal to Philip 117
+
+King's Entrance into Seville 117
+
+Determines to join the League 118
+
+Capture of Nicosia 118
+
+Vacillating Conduct of Venice 118
+
+Meeting of Deputies at Rome 119
+
+Treaty of Confederation 119
+
+Ratified and proclaimed 120
+
+Turkish Fleet in the Adriatic 120
+
+Papal Legate at Madrid 120
+
+Concessions to the Crown 121
+
+Fleets of Venice and Rome 121
+
+Preparations in Spain 121
+
+Enthusiasm of the Nation 122
+
+Don John's Departure 122
+
+His Reception at Naples 128
+
+His noble Appearance 123
+
+Accomplishments and Popularity 123
+
+Presentation of the Consecrated Standard 124
+
+Arrival at Messina 124
+
+Grand Naval Spectacle 124
+
+Strength and Condition of the Fleets 125
+
+Discretion of the Generalissimo 125
+
+Communications from the Pope 126
+
+Departure from Messina 126
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+WAR WITH THE TURKS 126
+
+Arrival at Corfu 127
+
+Council of War 127
+
+Resolution to give Battle 127
+
+Arbitrary Conduct of Veniero 128
+
+Passage across the Sea of Iona 128
+
+Fall of Famagosta 128
+
+The Enemy in Sight 129
+
+Preparations for Combat 129
+
+Final Instructions of Don John 129
+
+Approach of the Turkish Fleet 130
+
+Its Form and Disposition 130
+
+Change in the order of Battle 131
+
+Last Preparation of the Christians 131
+
+Battle of Lepanto 132
+
+Left Wing of the Allies turned 132
+
+Right Wing, under Doria, broken 132
+
+Don John and Ali Pasha engaged 133
+
+Superior Fire of the Spaniards 133
+
+Bird's-eye View of the Scene 134
+
+Venetians victorious on the Left 134
+
+Continued Struggle in the Centre 135
+
+Turkish Admiral boarded 135
+
+Death of Ali Pasha 135
+
+Victory of the Christians 136
+
+Flight of Uluch Ali 137
+
+Chase and Escape 137
+
+Allies take Shelter in Petala 137
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+WAR WITH THE TURKS 137
+
+Losses of the Combatants 137
+
+Turkish Armada annihilated 138
+
+Roll of Slaughter and Fame 138
+
+Exploits of Farnese 138
+
+Noble Spirit of Cervantes 139
+
+Sons of Ali Pasha Prisoners 139
+
+Generously treated by Don John 139
+
+His Conduct towards Veniero 140
+
+Operations suspended 141
+
+Triumphant Return to Messina 141
+
+Celebrations in Honour of the Victory 141
+
+Tidings despatched to Spain 142
+
+Philip's reception of them 142
+
+Acknowledgments to his Brother 143
+
+Don John's Conduct criticised 144
+
+Real Fruits of the Victory 145
+
+Delay in resuming Operations 145
+
+Death of Pius the Fifth 145
+
+Philip's Distrust 146
+
+Permits his Brother to Sail 146
+
+Turks decline to accept Battle 147
+
+Anniversary of Lepanto 147
+
+Allies disband their Forces 147
+
+Perfidy of Venice 147
+
+The League dissolved 148
+
+Tunis taken by Don John 148
+
+He provides for its Security 149
+
+Returns to Naples 149
+
+His Mode of Life there 150
+
+His Schemes of Dominion 150
+
+Tunis retaken by the Moslems 150
+
+Don John's Mission to Genoa 151
+
+He prepares a fresh Armament 151
+
+His Disappointment and Return to Madrid 151
+
+
+BOOK VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF SPAIN 153
+
+Internal Administration 153
+
+Revolutions under Isabella and Charles V. 153
+
+Absolute Power of the Crown 154
+
+Contrast between Charles and Philip 154
+
+The latter wholly a Spaniard 154
+
+The Royal Councils 155
+
+Principal Advisers of the Crown 155
+
+Character of Ruy Gomez de Silva 155
+
+Figueroa, Count of Feria 157
+
+Cardinal Espinosa 157
+
+Two Parties in the Council 159
+
+Balance held by Philip 159
+
+His Manner of transacting Business 159
+
+His Assiduity 160
+
+His Mode of dividing the Day 161
+
+His Love of Solitude 161
+
+Extent of his Information 161
+
+Partial Confidence in his Ministers 162
+
+His Frugality 162
+
+His magnificent Establishment 162
+
+His fatal Habit of Procrastination 163
+
+Remonstrances of his Almoner 164
+
+Habits of the great Nobles 164
+
+Manners of the Court 165
+
+Degeneracy of the Nobles 165
+
+Splendour of their Households 165
+
+Loss of Political Power 166
+
+Depressed Condition of the Commons 166
+
+Petitions of the Cortes 166
+
+Their Remonstrance against Arbitrary Government 167
+
+Their Regard for the National Interests 167
+
+Erroneous Notions respecting Commerce 168
+
+Sumptuary Laws 168
+
+Encouragement of Bull-Fights 169
+
+Various Subjects of Legislation 169
+
+Schools and Universities 170
+
+Royal Pragmatics 170
+
+Philip's Replies to the Cortes 170
+
+Freedom of Discussion 171
+
+Standing Army 171
+
+Guards of Castile 171
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF SPAIN 172
+
+Philip the Champion of the Faith 172
+
+Endowments of the Church 172
+
+Alienations in Mortmain 172
+
+Disputed Prerogatives 173
+
+Appointments to Benefices 173
+
+The Clergy dependent on the Crown 174
+
+The Escorial 174
+
+Motives for its Erection 174
+
+Site selected 175
+
+Convent founded 175
+
+Royal Humility 176
+
+Building commenced 176
+
+Philip's Interest in it 177
+
+His Architectural Taste 177
+
+His Oversight of the Work 177
+
+He governs the World from the Escorial 178
+
+The Edifice endangered by Fire 178
+
+Materials used in its Construction 179
+
+Artists employed 179
+
+Philip's Fondness for Art 180
+
+Completion of the Escorial 180
+
+The Architects 180
+
+Character of the Structure 181
+
+Its Whimsical Design 181
+
+Its Magnitude 181
+
+Interior Decorations 182
+
+Ravages it has undergone 182
+
+Its present Condition 182
+
+Anne of Austria 183
+
+Her Reception in Spain 183
+
+Her Marriage with Philip 184
+
+Her Residence at the Escorial 185
+
+Her Character and Habits 185
+
+Her Death 185
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+PHILIP THE SECOND.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK V
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
+
+Conquest of Spain by the Arabs.--Slow Recovery by the
+Spaniards.--Efforts to convert the Moslems.--Their Homes in the
+Alpujarras.--Their Treatment by the Government.--The Minister
+Espinosa.--Edict against the Moriscoes.--Their ineffectual Remonstrance.
+
+1566, 1567.
+
+
+It was in the beginning of the eighth century, in the year 711, that the
+Arabs, filled with the spirit of conquest which had been breathed into
+them by their warlike apostle, after traversing the southern shores of
+the Mediterranean, reached the borders of those straits that separate
+Africa from Europe. Here they paused for a moment, before carrying their
+banners into a strange and unknown quarter of the globe. It was but for
+a moment, however, when, with accumulated strength, they descended on
+the sunny fields of Andalusia, met the whole Gothic array on the banks
+of the Guadalete, and, after that fatal battle, in which King Roderick
+fell with the flower of his nobility, spread themselves, like an army of
+locusts, over every part of the Peninsula. Three years sufficed for the
+conquest of the country,--except that small corner in the north, where a
+remnant of the Goths contrived to maintain a savage independence, and
+where the rudeness of the soil held out to the Saracens no temptation to
+follow them.
+
+It was much the same story that was repeated, more than three centuries
+later, by the Norman conquerors in England. The battle of Hastings was
+to that kingdom what the battle of the Guadalete was to Spain; though
+the Norman barons, as they rode over the prostrate land, dictated terms
+to the vanquished of a sterner character than those granted by the
+Saracens.
+
+But whatever resemblance there may be in the general outlines of the two
+conquests, there is none in the results that followed. In England the
+Norman and the Saxon, sprung from a common stock, could not permanently
+be kept asunder by the barrier which at first was naturally interposed
+between the conqueror and the conquered; and in less, probably, than
+three centuries after the invasion, the two nations had imperceptibly
+melted into one; so that the Englishman of that day might trace the
+current that flowed through his veins to both a Norman and a Saxon
+origin.
+
+It was far otherwise in Spain, where difference of race, of religion, of
+national tradition, of moral and physical organization, placed a gulf
+between the victors and the vanquished too wide to be overleaped. It is
+true, indeed, that very many of the natives, accepting the liberal terms
+offered by the Saracens, preferred remaining in the genial clime of the
+south to sharing the rude independence of their brethren in the
+Asturias, and that, in the course of time, intermarriages, to some
+extent, took place between them and their Moslem conquerors. To what
+extent cannot now be known. The intercourse was certainly far greater
+than that between our New-England ancestors and the Indian race which
+they found in possession of the soil,--that ill-fated race, which seems
+to have shrunk from the touch of civilization, and to have passed away
+before it like the leaves of the forest before the breath of winter. The
+union was probably not so intimate as that which existed between the old
+Spaniards and the semi-civilized tribes that occupied the plateau of
+Mexico, whose descendants, at this day, are to be there seen filling the
+highest places, both social and political, and whose especial boast it
+is to have sprung from the countrymen of Montezuma.
+
+The very anxiety shown by the modern Spaniard to prove that only the
+_sangre azul_--"blue blood"--flows through his veins, uncontaminated by
+any Moorish or Jewish taint, may be thought to afford some evidence of
+the intimacy which once existed between his forefathers and the tribes
+of Eastern origin. However this may be, it is certain that no length of
+time ever served, in the eye of the Spaniard, to give the Moslem invader
+a title to the soil; and after the lapse of nearly eight centuries,--as
+long a period as that which has passed since the Norman conquest,--the
+Arabs were still looked upon as intruders, whom it was the sacred duty
+of the Spaniards to exterminate or to expel from the land.
+
+This, then, was their mission. And it is interesting to see how
+faithfully they fulfilled it; and during the long period of the Middle
+Ages, when other nations were occupied with base feudal quarrels or
+border warfare, it is curious to observe the Spaniard intent on the one
+great object of reclaiming his country from the possession of the
+infidel. It was a work of time; and his progress, at first almost
+imperceptible, was to be measured by centuries. By the end of the ninth
+century it had reached as far as the Ebro and the Douro. By the middle
+of the eleventh, the victorious banner of the Cid had penetrated to the
+Tagus. The fortunes of Christian Spain trembled in the balance on the
+great day of Navas de Tolosa, which gave a permanent ascendancy to the
+Castilian arms; and by the middle of the thirteenth century the
+campaigns of James the First of Aragon, and of St. Ferdinand of Castile,
+stripping the Moslems of the other southern provinces, had reduced them
+to the petty kingdom of Granada. Yet on this narrow spot they still
+continued to maintain a national existence, and to bid defiance for more
+than two centuries longer to all the efforts of the Christians. The
+final triumph of the latter was reserved for the glorious reign of
+Ferdinand and Isabella. It was on the second of January, 1492, that,
+after a war which rivalled that of Troy in its duration, and surpassed
+it in the romantic character of its incidents, the august pair made
+their solemn entry into Granada; while the large silver cross which had
+served as their banner through the war, sparkling in the sunbeams on the
+red towers of the Alhambra, announced to the Christian world that the
+last rood of territory in the Peninsula had passed away for ever from
+the Moslem.
+
+[Sidenote: EFFORTS TO CONVERT THEM.]
+
+The peculiar nature of the war in which the Spaniard for eight centuries
+had thus been engaged, exercised an important influence on the national
+character. Generation after generation had passed their lives in one
+long uninterrupted crusade. It had something of the same effect on the
+character of the nation that the wars for the recovery of Palestine had
+on the Crusaders of the Middle Ages. Every man learned to regard himself
+as in an especial manner the soldier of Heaven,--for ever fighting the
+great battle of the Faith. With a mind exalted by this sublime
+conviction, what wonder that he should have been ever ready to discern
+the immediate interposition of Heaven in his behalf--that he should have
+seen again and again the patron saint of his country, charging on his
+milk-white steed at the head of his celestial chivalry, and restoring
+the wavering fortunes of the fight? In this exalted state of feeling,
+institutions that assumed elsewhere only a political or military aspect
+wore here the garb of religion. Thus the orders of chivalry, of which
+there were several in the Peninsula, were founded on the same principles
+as those of Palestine, where the members were pledged to perpetual war
+against the infidel.
+
+As a consequence of these wars with the Moslems, the patriotic principle
+became identified with the religious. In the enemies of his country the
+Spaniard beheld also the enemies of God; and feelings of national
+hostility were still further embittered by those of religious hatred. In
+the palmy days of the Arabian empire, these feelings, it is true, were
+tempered by those of respect for an enemy who, in the various forms of
+civilization, surpassed not merely the Spaniards, but every nation in
+Christendom. Nor was this respect wholly abated under the princes who
+afterwards ruled with imperial sway over Granada, and who displayed, in
+their little courts, such a union of the courtesies of Christian
+chivalry with the magnificence of the East, as shed a ray of glory on
+the declining days of the Moslem empire in the Peninsula.
+
+But as the Arabs, shorn of their ancient opulence and power, descended
+in the scale, the Spaniards became more arrogant. The feelings of
+aversion with which they had hitherto regarded their enemies, were now
+mingled with those of contempt. The latent fire of intolerance was
+fanned into a blaze by the breath of the fanatical clergy, who naturally
+possessed unbounded influence in a country where religious
+considerations entered so largely into the motives of action as they did
+in Spain. To crown the whole, the date of the fall of Granada coincided
+with that of the establishment of the Inquisition,--as if the hideous
+monster had waited the time when an inexhaustible supply of victims
+might be afforded for its insatiable maw.
+
+By the terms of the treaty of capitulation, the people of Granada were
+allowed to remain in possession of their religion and to exercise its
+rights; and it was especially stipulated that no inducements or menaces
+should be held out to effect their conversion to Christianity.[1] For a
+few years the conquerors respected these provisions. Under the good
+Talavera, the first archbishop of Granada, no attempt was made to
+convert the Moslems, except by the legitimate means of preaching to the
+people and of expounding to them the truths of revelation. Under such a
+course of instruction the work of proselytism, though steadily, went on
+too slowly to satisfy the impatience of some of the clergy. Among
+others, that extraordinary man, Cardinal Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo,
+was eager to try his own hand in the labour of conversion. Having
+received the royal assent, he set about the affair with characteristic
+ardour, and with as little scruple as to the means to be employed as the
+most zealous propagandist could have desired. When reasoning and
+expostulation failed, he did not hesitate to resort to bribes, and, if
+need were, to force. Under these combined influences the work of
+proselytism went on apace. Thousands were added daily to the Christian
+fold; and the more orthodox Mussulmans trembled, at the prospect of a
+general defection of their countrymen. Exasperated by the unscrupulous
+measures of the prelate, and the gross violation they involved of the
+treaty, they broke out into an insurrection, which soon extended along
+the mountain ranges in the neighbourhood of Granada.
+
+Ferdinand and Isabella, alarmed at the consequences, were filled with
+indignation at the high-handed conduct of Ximenes. But he replied, that
+the state of things was precisely that which was most to be desired. By
+placing themselves in an attitude of rebellion, the Moors had renounced
+all the advantages secured by the treaty, and had, moreover, incurred
+the penalties of death and confiscation of property! It would be an act
+of grace in the sovereigns to overlook their offence, and grant an
+amnesty for the past, on condition that every Moor should at once
+receive baptism or leave the country.[2] This precious piece of
+casuistry, hardly surpassed by anything in ecclesiastical annals, found
+favour in the eyes of the sovereigns, who, after the insurrection had
+been quelled, lost no time in proposing the terms suggested by their
+minister as the only terms of reconciliation open to the Moors. And, as
+but few of that unhappy people were prepared to renounce their country
+and their worldly prospects for the sake of their faith, the result was,
+that in a very short space of time, with but comparatively few
+exceptions, every Moslem in the dominions of Castile consented to abjure
+his own faith and receive that of his enemies.[3]
+
+A similar course of proceeding was attended with similar results in
+Valencia and other dominions of the crown of Aragon, in the earlier part
+of Charles the Fifth's reign; and before that young monarch had been ten
+years upon the throne, the whole Moorish population--_Moriscoes_, as
+they were henceforth to be called--were brought within the pale of
+Christianity,--or, to speak more correctly, within that of the
+Inquisition.[4]
+
+Such conversions, it may well be believed, had taken too little root in
+the heart to bear fruit. It was not long before the agents of the Holy
+Office detected, under the parade of outward conformity, as rank a
+growth of infidelity as had existed before the conquest. The blame might
+in part, indeed, be fairly imputed to the lukewarmness of the Christian
+labourers employed in the work of conversion. To render this more
+effectual, the government had caused churches to be built in the
+principal towns and villages occupied by the Moriscoes, and sent
+missionaries among them to wean them from their errors and unfold the
+great truths of revelation. But an act of divine grace could alone work
+an instantaneous change in the convictions of a nation. The difficulties
+of the preachers were increased by their imperfect acquaintance with the
+language of their hearers; and they had still further to overcome the
+feelings of jealousy and aversion with which the Spaniard was naturally
+regarded by the Mussulman. Discouraged by these obstacles, the
+missionary became indifferent to the results. Instead of appealing to
+the understanding, or touching the heart, of his hearer, he was willing
+to accept his conformity to outward ceremony as the evidence of his
+conversion. Even in his own performance of the sacred rites, the
+ecclesiastic showed a careless indifference, that proved his heart was
+little in the work; and he scattered the purifying waters of baptism in
+so heedless a way over the multitude, that it was not uncommon for a
+Morisco to assert that none of the consecrated drops had fallen upon
+him.[5]
+
+[Sidenote: THEIR HOMES IN THE ALPUJARRAS.]
+
+The representations of the clergy at length drew the attention of the
+government. It was decided that the best mode of effecting the
+conversion of the Moslems was by breaking up those associations which
+connected them with the past,--by compelling them, in short, to renounce
+their ancient usages, their national dress, and even their language. An
+extraordinary edict to that effect, designed for Granada, was
+accordingly published by Charles in the summer of 1526; and all who did
+not conform to it were to be arraigned before the Inquisition. The law
+was at once met, as might have been expected, by remonstrances from the
+men of most consideration among the Moriscoes, who, to give efficacy to
+their petition, promised the round sum of eighty thousand gold ducats to
+the emperor in case their prayers should be granted. Charles, who in his
+early days did not always allow considerations of religion to supersede
+those of a worldly policy, lent a favourable ear to the petitioners; and
+the monstrous edict, notwithstanding some efforts to the contrary, was
+never suffered to go into operation during his reign.[6]
+
+Such was the state of things on the accession of Philip the Second.
+Granada, Malaga, and the other principal cities of the south, were
+filled with a mingled population of Spaniards and Moriscoes, the latter
+of whom,--including many persons of wealth and consideration,--under the
+influence of a more intimate contact with the Christians, gave evidence,
+from time to time, of conversion to the faith of their conquerors. But
+by far the larger part of the Moorish population was scattered over the
+mountain-range of the Alpujarras, south-east of Granada, and among the
+bold sierras that stretch along the southern shores of Spain. Here,
+amidst those frosty peaks, rising to the height of near twelve thousand
+feet above the level of the sea, and readily descried, from their great
+elevation, by the distant voyager on the Mediterranean, was many a
+green, sequestered valley, on which the Moorish peasant had exhausted
+that elaborate culture which, in the palmy days of his nation, was
+unrivalled in any part of Europe.[7] His patient toil had constructed
+terraces from the rocky soil, and, planting them with vines, had clothed
+the bald sides of the sierra with a delicious verdure. With the like
+industry he had contrived a network of canals along the valleys and
+lower levels, which, fed by the streams from the mountains, nourished
+the land with perpetual moisture. The different elevations afforded so
+many different latitudes for agricultural production; and the fig, the
+pomegranate, and the orange grew almost side by side with the hemp of
+the north and the grain of more temperate climates. The lower slopes of
+the sierra afforded extensive pastures for flocks of merino sheep;[8]
+and the mulberry-tree was raised in great abundance for the manufacture
+of silk, which formed an important article of export from the kingdom of
+Granada.
+
+Thus, gathered in their little hamlets among the mountains, the people
+of the Alpujarras maintained the same sort of rugged independence which
+belonged to the ancient Goth when he had taken shelter from the Saracen
+invader in the fastnesses of the Asturias. Here the Moriscoes, formed
+into communities which preserved their national associations, still
+cherished the traditions of their fathers, and perpetuated those usages
+and domestic institutions that kept alive the memory of ancient days. It
+was from the Alpujarras that, in former times, the kings of Granada had
+drawn the brave soldiery who enabled them for so many years to bid
+defiance to their enemies. The trade of war was now at an end. But the
+hardy life of the mountaineer gave robustness to his frame, and saved
+him from the effeminacy and sloth which corrupted the inhabitants of the
+capital. Secluded among his native hills, he cherished those sentiments
+of independence which ill suited a conquered race; and, in default of a
+country which he could call his own, he had that strong attachment to
+the soil which is akin to patriotism, and which is most powerful among
+the inhabitants of a mountain region.
+
+The products of the husbandman furnished the staples of a gainful
+commerce with the nations on the Mediterranean, and especially with the
+kindred people on the Barbary shores. The treaty of Granada secured
+certain commercial advantages to the Moors, beyond what were enjoyed by
+the Spaniards.[9] This, it may be well believed, was looked upon with no
+friendly eye by the latter, who had some ground, moreover, for
+distrusting the policy of an intercourse between the Moslems of Spain
+and those of Africa, bound together as they were by so many ties--above
+all, by a common hatred of the Christians. With the feelings of
+political distrust were mingled those of cupidity and envy, as the
+Spaniard saw the fairest provinces of the south still in the hands of
+the accursed race of Ishmael, while he was condemned to earn a scanty
+subsistence from the comparatively ungenial soil of the north.
+
+In this state of things, with the two races not merely dissimilar, but
+essentially hostile to one another, it will readily be understood how
+difficult it must have been to devise any system of legislation by which
+they could be brought to act in harmony as members of the same political
+body. That the endeavours of the Spanish government were not crowned
+with success would hardly surprise us, even had its measures been more
+uniformly wise and considerate.
+
+[Sidenote: THEIR TREATMENT BY THE GOVERNMENT.]
+
+The government caused the Alpujarras to be divided into districts, and
+placed under the control of magistrates, who, with their families,
+resided in the places assigned as the seats of their jurisdiction. There
+seem to have been few other Christians who dwelt among the Moorish
+settlements in the sierra, except, indeed, the priests who had charge of
+the spiritual concerns of the natives. As the conversion of these
+latter was the leading object of the government, they caused churches to
+be erected in all the towns and hamlets; and the curates were instructed
+to use every effort to enlighten the minds of their flocks, and to see
+that they were punctual in attendance on the rites and ceremonies of the
+Church. But it was soon too evident that attention to forms and
+ceremonies was the only approach made to the conversion of the heathen;
+and that below this icy crust of conformity the waters of infidelity lay
+as dark and deep as ever. The result, no doubt, was to be partly charged
+on the clergy themselves, many of whom grew languid in the execution of
+a task which seemed to them to be hopeless.[10] And what task, in truth,
+could be more hopeless than that of persuading a whole nation at once to
+renounce their long-established convictions, to abjure the faith of
+their fathers, associated in their minds with many a glorious
+recollection, and to embrace the faith of the very men whom they
+regarded with unmeasured hatred? It would be an act of humiliation not
+to be expected even in a conquered race.
+
+In accomplishing a work so much to be desired, the Spaniards, if they
+cannot be acquitted of the charge of persecution, must be allowed not to
+have urged persecution to anything like the extent which they had done
+in the case of the Protestant Reformers. Whether from policy or from
+some natural regard to the helplessness of these benighted heathen, the
+bloodhounds of the Inquisition were not as yet allowed to run down their
+game at will; and, if they did terrify the natives by displaying their
+formidable fangs, the time had not yet come when they were to slip the
+leash and spring upon their miserable victims. It is true there were
+some exceptions to this more discreet policy. The Holy Office had its
+agents abroad, who kept watch upon the Moriscoes; and occasionally the
+more flagrant offenders were delivered up to its tender mercies.[11] But
+a more frequent source of annoyance arose from the teasing ordinances
+from time to time issued by the government, which could have answered no
+other purpose than to irritate the temper and sharpen the animosity of
+the Moriscoes. If the government had failed in the important work of
+conversion, it was the more incumbent on it, by every show of confidence
+and kindness, to conciliate the good-will of the conquered people, and
+enable them to live in harmony with their conquerors, as members of the
+same community. Such was not the policy of Philip, any more than it had
+been that of his predecessors.
+
+During the earlier years of his reign, the king's attention was too
+closely occupied with foreign affairs to leave him much leisure for
+those of the Moriscoes. It was certain, however, that they would not
+long escape the notice of a prince who regarded uniformity of faith as
+the corner-stone of his government. The first important act of
+legislation bearing on these people was in 1560, when the Cortes of
+Castile presented a remonstrance to the throne against the use of negro
+slaves by the Moriscoes, who were sure to instruct them in their
+Mahometan tenets, and thus to multiply the number of infidels in the
+land.[12] A royal _pragmatic_ was accordingly passed, interdicting the
+use of African slaves by the Moslems of Granada. The prohibition caused
+the greatest annoyance; for the wealthier classes were in the habit of
+employing these slaves for domestic purposes, while in the country they
+were extensively used for agricultural labour.
+
+In 1563 another ordinance was published, reviving a law which had fallen
+into disuse, and which prohibited the Moriscoes from having any arms in
+their possession, but such as were duly licensed by the captain-general
+and were stamped with his escutcheon.[13] The office of captain-general
+of Granada was filled at this time by Don Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, count
+of Tendilla, who soon after, on his father's death, succeeded to the
+title of marquis of Mondejar. The important post which he held had been
+hereditary in his family ever since the conquest of Granada. The present
+nobleman was a worthy scion of the illustrious house from which he
+sprung.[14] His manners were blunt, and not such as win popularity; but
+he was a man of integrity, with a nice sense of humour and a humane
+heart,--the last of not too common occurrence in the iron days of
+chivalry. Though bred a soldier, he was inclined to peace. His life had
+been passed much among the Moriscoes, so that he perfectly understood
+their humours; and, as he was a person of prudence and moderation, it is
+not improbable, had affairs been left to his direction, that the country
+would have escaped many of those troubles which afterwards befell it.
+
+It was singular, considering the character of Mendoza, that he should
+have recommended so ill-advised a measure as that relating to the arms
+of the Moriscoes. The ordinance excited a general indignation in
+Granada. The people were offended by the distrust which such a law
+implied of their loyalty. They felt it an indignity to be obliged to sue
+for permission to do what they considered it was theirs of right to do.
+Those of higher condition disdained to wear weapons displaying the
+heraldic bearings of the Mendozas instead of their own. But the great
+number, without regard to the edict provided themselves secretly with
+arms, which, as it reached the ears of the authorities, led to frequent
+prosecutions. Thus a fruitful source of irritation was opened; and many,
+to escape punishment, fled to the mountains, and there too often joined
+the brigands who haunted the passes of Alpujarras, and bade defiance to
+the feeble police of the Spaniards.[15]
+
+[Sidenote: THE MINISTER ESPINOSA.]
+
+These impolitic edicts, as they were irritating to the Moriscoes, were
+but preludes to an ordinance of so astounding a character as to throw
+the whole country into a state of revolution. The apostasy of the
+Moriscoes,--or, so to speak more correctly, the constancy with which
+they adhered to the faith of their fathers,--gave great scandal to the
+old Christians, especially to the clergy, and above all to its head, Don
+Pedro Guerrero, archbishop of Granada. This prelate seems to have been a
+man of an uneasy, meddlesome spirit, and possessed of a full share of
+the bigotry of his time. While in Rome, shortly before this period, he
+had made such a representation to Pope Pius the Fourth as drew from
+that pontiff a remonstrance, addressed to the Spanish government, on the
+spiritual condition of the Moriscoes. Soon after, in the year 1567, a
+memorial was presented to the government, by Guerrero and the clergy of
+his diocese, in which, after insisting on the manifold back-slidings of
+the "New Christians," as the Moriscoes were termed, they loudly called
+for some efficacious measures to arrest the evil. These people, they
+said, whatever show of conformity they might make to the requisitions of
+the Church, were infidels at heart. When their children were baptized,
+they were careful, on returning home, to wash away the traces of
+baptism, and, after circumcising them, to give them Moorish names. In
+like manner, when their marriages had been solemnized with Christian
+rites, they were sure to confirm them afterwards by their own
+ceremonies, accompanied with the national songs and dances. They
+continued to observe Friday as a holy day; and what was of graver
+moment, they were known to kidnap the children of the Christians, and
+sell them to their brethren on the coast of Barbary, where they were
+circumcised, and nurtured in the Mahometan religion. This last
+accusation, however improbable, found credit with the Spaniards, and
+sharpened the feelings of jealousy and hatred with which they regarded
+the unhappy race of Ishmael.[16]
+
+The memorial of the clergy received prompt attention from the
+government, at whose suggestion, very possibly, it had been prepared. A
+commission was at once appointed to examine into the matter; and their
+report was laid before a junta, consisting of both ecclesiastics and
+laymen, and embracing names of the highest consideration for talent and
+learning in the kingdom. Among its members we find the Duke of Alva, who
+had not yet set out on his ominous mission to the Netherlands. At its
+head was Diego de Espinosa, at that time the favourite minister of
+Philip, or at least the one who had the largest share in the direction
+of affairs. He was a man after the king's own heart, and, from the
+humble station of _colegial mayor_ of the college of Cuenca in
+Salamanca, had been advanced by successive steps to the high post of
+president of the Council of Castile and of the Council of the Indies. He
+was now also bishop of Siguenza, one of the richest sees in the kingdom.
+He held an important office in the Inquisition, and was soon to succeed
+Valdes in the unenviable post of grand inquisitor. To conclude the
+catalogue of his honours, no long time was to elapse before, at his
+master's suggestion, he was to receive from Rome a cardinal's hat. The
+deference shown by Philip to his minister, increased as it was by this
+new accession of spiritual dignity, far exceeded what he had ever shown
+to any other of his subjects.
+
+Espinosa was at this time in the morning, or rather, the meridian of his
+power. His qualifications for business would have been extraordinary,
+even in a layman. He was patient of toil, cheerfully doing the work of
+others as well as his own. This was so far fortunate that it helped to
+give him that control in the direction of affairs which was coveted by
+his aspiring nature. He had a dignified and commanding presence, with
+but few traces of that humility which would have been graceful in one
+who had risen so high by his master's favour as much as by his own
+deserts. His haughty bearing gave offence to the old nobility of
+Castile, who scornfully looked from the minister's present elevation to
+the humble level from which he had risen. It was regarded with less
+displeasure, it is said, by the king, who was not unwilling to see the
+pride of the ancient aristocracy rebuked by one whom he had himself
+raised from the dust.[17] Their mortification, however, was to be
+appeased ere long by the fall of the favourite--an event as signal and
+unexpected by the world, and as tragical to the subject of it, as the
+fall of Wolsey.
+
+The man who was qualified for the place of grand inquisitor was not
+likely to feel much sympathy for the race of unbelievers. It was
+unfortunate for the Moriscoes that their destinies should be placed in
+the hands of such a minister as Espinosa. After due deliberation, the
+junta came to the decision that the only remedy for the present evil was
+to lay the axe to the root of it; to cut off all those associations
+which connected the Moriscoes with their earlier history, and which were
+so many obstacles in the way of their present conversion. It was
+recommended that they should be interdicted from employing the Arabic
+either in speaking or writing, for which they were to use only the
+Castilian. They were not even to be allowed to retain their family
+names; but were to exchange them for Spanish ones. All written
+instruments and legal documents, of whatever kind, were declared to be
+void and of no effect unless in the Castilian. As time must be allowed
+for a whole people to change its language, three years were assigned as
+the period at the end of which this provision should take effect.
+
+They were to be required to exchange their national dress for that of
+the Spaniards; and, as the Oriental costume was highly ornamented, and
+often very expensive, they were to be allowed to wear their present
+clothes one year longer if of silk, and two years if of cotton, the
+latter being the usual apparel of the poorer classes. The women,
+moreover, both old and young, were to be required, from the passage of
+the law, to go abroad with their faces uncovered,--a scandalous thing
+among Mahometans.
+
+Their weddings were to be conducted in public, after the Christian
+forms; and the doors of their houses were to be left open during the day
+of the ceremony, that any one might enter and see that they did not have
+recourse to unhallowed rites. They were further to be interdicted from
+the national songs and dances with which they were wont to celebrate
+their domestic festivities. Finally, as rumours--most absurd ones--had
+got abroad that the warm baths which the natives were in the habit of
+using in their houses were perverted to licentious indulgences, they
+were to be required to destroy the vessels in which they bathed, and to
+use nothing of the kind thereafter.
+
+These several provisions were to be enforced by penalties of the
+sternest kind. For the first offence the convicted party was to be
+punished with imprisonment for a month, with banishment from the country
+for two years, and with a fine varying from six hundred to ten thousand
+maravedis. For a second offence the penalties were to be doubled; and
+for a third, the culprit, in addition to former penalties, was to be
+banished for life. The ordinance was closely modelled on that of Charles
+the Fifth, which, as we have seen, he was too politic to carry into
+execution.[18]
+
+[Sidenote: EDICT AGAINST THE MORISCOES.]
+
+Such were the principal provisions of a law which, for cruelty and
+absurdity, has scarcely a parallel in history. For what could be more
+absurd than the attempt by an act of legislation to work such a change
+in the long-established habits of a nation--to efface those
+recollections of the past, to which men ever cling most closely under
+the pressure of misfortune--to blot out by a single stroke of the pen,
+as it were, not only the creed, but the nationality of a people--to
+convert the Moslem, at once, both into a Christian and into a Castilian?
+It would be difficult to imagine any greater outrage offered to a people
+than the provision compelling women to lay aside their veils--associated
+as these were in every Eastern mind with the obligations of modesty; or
+that in regard to opening the doors of the houses, and exposing those
+within to the insolent gaze of every passer; or that in relation to the
+baths--so indispensable to cleanliness and comfort, especially in the
+warm climate of the South.
+
+But the masterpiece of absurdity, undoubtedly, is the stipulation in
+regard to the Arabic language; as if by any human art a whole
+population, in the space of three years, could be made to substitute a
+foreign tongue for its own; and that, too, under circumstances of
+peculiar difficulty, partly arising from the total want of affinity
+between the Semitic and the European languages, and partly from the
+insulated position of the Moriscoes, who, in the cities, had separate
+quarters assigned to them, in the same manner as the Jews, which cut
+them off from intimate intercourse with the Christians. We may well
+doubt, from the character of this provision, whether the Government had
+so much at heart the conversion of the Moslems as the desire to entangle
+them in such violations of the law as should afford a plausible pretext
+for driving them from the country altogether. One is strengthened in
+this view of the subject by the significant reply of Otadin, professor
+of theology at Alcala, who, when consulted by Philip on the expediency
+of the ordinance, gave his hearty approbation of it, by quoting the
+appalling Spanish proverb, "The fewer enemies, the better."[19] It was
+reserved for the imbecile Philip the Third to crown the disasters of his
+reign by the expulsion of the Moriscoes. Yet no one can doubt that it
+was a consummation earnestly desired by the great body of the Spaniards,
+who looked, as we have seen, with longing eyes to the fair territory
+which they possessed, and who regarded them with the feelings of
+distrust and aversion with which men regard those on whom they have
+inflicted injuries too great to be forgiven.
+
+Yet there were some in the junta with whom the proposed ordinance found
+no favour. Among these, one who calls to mind his conduct in the
+Netherlands may be surprised to find the duke of Alva. Here, as in that
+country, his course was doubtless dictated less by considerations of
+humanity than of policy. Whatever may have been his reasons, they had
+little weight with Espinosa, who probably felt a secret satisfaction in
+thwarting the man whom he regarded with all the jealousy of a rival.[20]
+
+What was Philip's own opinion on the matter, we can but conjecture from
+our general knowledge of his character. He professed to be guided by the
+decision of the "wise and learned men" to whom he had committed the
+subject. That this decision did no great violence to his own feelings,
+we may infer from the promptness with which he signed the ordinance.
+This he did on the 17th of November, 1566, when the pragmatic became a
+law.
+
+It was resolved, however, not to give publicity to it at once. It was
+committed to the particular charge of one of the members of the junta,
+Diego Deza, auditor of the Holy Office, and lately raised by Espinosa to
+the important post of president of the chancery of Granada. This put him
+at once at the head of the civil administration of the province, as the
+Marquis of Mondejar was at the head of the military. The different views
+of policy entertained by the two men led to a conflict of authority
+which proved highly prejudicial to affairs. Deza, who afterwards rose to
+the dignity of cardinal, was a man whose plausible manners covered an
+inflexible will. He showed, notwithstanding, an entire subserviency to
+the wishes of his patron, Espinosa, who committed to him the execution
+of his plans.
+
+The president resolved, with more policy than humanity, to defer the
+publication of the edict till the ensuing first of January, 1667, the
+day preceding that which the Spaniards commemorated as the anniversary
+of the surrender of the capital. This humiliating event, brought home at
+such a crisis to the Moriscoes, might help to break their spirits, and
+dispose them to receive the obnoxious edict with less resistance.
+
+On the appointed day the magistrates of the principal tribunals, with
+the corregidor of Granada at their head, went in solemn procession to
+the Albaicin, the quarter occupied by the Moriscoes. They marched to the
+sound of kettle-drums, trumpets, and other instruments; and the
+inhabitants, attracted by the noise, and fond of novelty, came running
+from their houses to swell the ranks of the procession on its way to the
+great square of _Bab el Bonat_. This was an open space, of large extent,
+where the people of Granada, in ancient times, used to assemble to
+celebrate the coronation of a new sovereign; and the towers were still
+standing from which the Moslem banners waved, on those days, over the
+heads of the shouting multitude. As the people now gathered tumultuously
+around these ancient buildings, the public crier, from an elevated
+place, read, in audible tones and in the Arabic language, the royal
+ordinance. One may imagine the emotions of shame, sorrow, and
+indignation with which the vast assembly, consisting of both sexes,
+listened to the words of an instrument, every sentence of which seemed
+to convey a personal indignity to the hearers--an outrage on all those
+ideas of decorum and decency in which they had been nurtured from
+infancy; which rudely rent asunder all the fond ties of country and
+kindred; which violated the privacy of domestic life, deprived them of
+the use of their own speech, and reduced them to a state of utter
+humiliation unknown to the meanest of their slaves. Some of the weaker
+sort gave way to piteous and passionate exclamations, wringing their
+hands in an agony of grief. Others, of sterner temper, broke forth into
+menaces and fierce invective, accompanied with the most furious
+gesticulations. Others, again, listened with that dogged, determined air
+which showed that the mood was not the less dangerous that it was a
+silent one. The whole multitude was in a state of such agitation that an
+accident might have readily produced an explosion which would have
+shaken Granada to its foundations. Fortunately there were a few discreet
+persons in the assembly, older and more temperate than the rest, who had
+sufficient authority over their countrymen to prevent a tumult. They
+reminded them that in their fathers' time the emperor Charles the Fifth
+had consented to suspend the execution of a similar ordinance. At all
+events, it was better to try first what could be done by argument and
+persuasion. When these failed, it would be time enough to think of
+vengeance.[21]
+
+[Sidenote: THEIR INEFFECTUAL REMONSTRANCE.]
+
+One of the older Moriscoes, a man of much consideration among his
+countrymen, was accordingly chosen to wait on the president and explain
+their views in regard to the edict. This he did at great length, and in
+a manner which must have satisfied any fair mind of the groundlessness
+of the charges brought against the Moslems, and the cruelty and
+impracticability of the measures proposed by the government. The
+president, having granted to the envoy a patient and courteous hearing,
+made a short and not very successful attempt to vindicate the course of
+the administration. He finally disposed of the whole question by
+declaring that "the law was too just and holy, and had been made with
+too much consideration, ever to be repealed; and that, in fine, regarded
+as a question of interest, his majesty estimated the salvation of a
+single soul as of greater price than all the revenues he drew from the
+Moriscoes."[22] An answer like this must have effectually dispelled all
+thoughts of a composition, such as had formerly been made with the
+emperor.
+
+Defeated in this quarter, the Moriscoes determined to lay their
+remonstrance before the throne. They were fortunate in obtaining, for
+this purpose, the services of Don Juan Henriquez, a nobleman of the
+highest rank and consideration, who had large estates at Beza, in the
+heart of Granada, and who felt a strong sympathy for the unfortunate
+natives. Having consented, though with much reluctance, to undertake the
+mission, he repaired to Madrid, obtained an audience of the king, and
+presented to him a memorial on behalf of his unfortunate subjects.
+Philip received him graciously, and promised to give all attention to
+the paper. "What I have done in this matter," said the king, "has been
+done by the advice of wise and conscientious men, who have given me to
+understand that it was my duty."[23]
+
+Shortly afterwards, Henriquez received an intimation that he was to look
+for his answer to the president of Castille. Espinosa, after listening
+to the memorial, expressed his surprise that a person of the high
+condition of Don Juan Henriquez should have consented to take charge of
+such a mission. "It was for that very reason I undertook it," replied
+the nobleman, "as affording me a better opportunity to be of service to
+the king." "It can be of no use," said the minister; "religious men have
+represented to his majesty that at his door lies the salvation of these
+Moors; and the ordinance which has been decreed, he has determined shall
+be carried into effect."[24]
+
+Baffled in this direction, the persevering envoy laid his memorial
+before the councillors of state, and endeavoured to interest them in
+behalf of his clients. In this he met with more success; and several of
+that body, among whom may be mentioned the duke of Alva and Luis de
+Avila, the grand commander of Alcantara, whom Charles the Fifth had
+honoured with his friendship, entered heartily into his views. But it
+availed little with the minister, who would not even consent to delay
+the execution of the ordinance until time should have been given for
+further inquiry, or to confine the operation of it, at the outset, to
+one or two of the provisions, in order to ascertain what would probably
+be the temper of the Moriscoes.[25] Nothing would suit the peremptory
+humour of Espinosa but the instant execution of the law in all its
+details.
+
+Nor would he abate anything of this haughty tone in favour of the
+captain-general, the marquis of Mondejar. That nobleman, with good
+reason, had felt himself aggrieved that, in discussions so materially
+affecting his own government, he should not have been invited to take a
+part. From motives of expediency, as much as of humanity, he was
+decidedly opposed to the passage of the ordinance. It was perhaps a
+knowledge of this that had excluded him from a seat in the junta. His
+representations made no impression on Espinosa; and when he urged that,
+if the law were to be carried into effect, he ought to be provided with
+such a force as would enable him to quell any attempt at resistance, the
+minister made light of the danger, assuring him that three hundred
+additional troops were as many as the occasion demanded. Espinosa then
+peremptorily adjourned all further discussion, by telling the
+captain-general that it would be well for him to return at once to
+Granada, where his presence would be needed to enforce the execution of
+the law.[26]
+
+It was clear that no door was left open to further discussion, and that,
+under the present government, no chance remained to the unfortunate
+Moriscoes of buying off the law by the payment of a round sum, as in the
+time of Charles the Fifth. All negotiations were at an end. They had
+only to choose between implicit obedience and open rebellion. It was not
+strange that they chose the latter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES.
+
+Resistance of the Moriscoes--Night Assault on Granada--Rising in the
+Alpujarras--Election of a King--Massacre of the Christians.
+
+1568.
+
+
+The same day on which the ordinance was published in the capital, it was
+proclaimed in every part of the kingdom of Granada. Everywhere it was
+received with the same feelings of shame, sorrow, and indignation.
+Before giving way to these feelings by any precipitate action, the
+Moriscoes of the Alpujarras were discreet enough to confer with their
+countrymen in the Albaicin, who advised them to remain quiet until they
+should learn the result of the conferences going on at Madrid.
+
+Before these were concluded, the year expired after which it would be
+penal for a Morisco to wear garments of silk. By the president's orders
+it was proclaimed by the clergy, in the pulpits throughout the city,
+that the law would be enforced to the letter. This was followed by more
+than one edict relating to other matters, but yet tending to irritate
+still further the minds of the Moriscoes.[27]
+
+[Sidenote: RESISTANCE TO THE EDICT.]
+
+All hope of relieving themselves of the detested ordinance having thus
+vanished, the leaders of the Albaicin took counsel as to the best mode
+of resisting the government. The first step seemed to be to get
+possession of the capital. There was at this time in Granada a Morisco
+named Farax Aben-Farax, who followed the trade of a dyer. But though he
+was engaged in this humble calling, the best blood of the Abencerrages
+flowed in his veins. He was a man of a fierce, indeed ferocious nature,
+hating the Christians with his whole heart, and longing for the hour
+when he could avenge on their heads the calamities of his countrymen. As
+his occupation earned him frequently into the Alpujarras, he was
+extensively acquainted with the inhabitants. He undertook to raise a
+force there of eight thousand men, and bring them down secretly by night
+into the _vega_, where, with the aid of his countrymen in the Albaicin,
+he might effect an entrance into the city, overpower the garrison in the
+Alhambra, put all who resisted to the sword, and make himself master of
+the capital. The time fixed upon for the execution of the plan was Holy
+Thursday, in the ensuing month of April, when the attention of the
+Spaniards would be occupied with their religious solemnities.
+
+A secret known to so many could not be so well kept, and for so long a
+time, but that some information of it reached the ears of the
+Christians. It seems to have given little uneasiness to Deza, who had
+anticipated some such attempt from the turbulent spirit of the
+Moriscoes. The captain-general, however, thought it prudent to take
+additional precautions against it; and he accordingly distributed arms
+among the citizens, strengthened the garrison of the Alhambra, and
+visited several of the great towns on the frontiers, which he placed in
+a better posture of defence. The Moriscoes, finding their purpose
+exposed to the authorities, resolved to defer the execution of it for
+the present. They even postponed it to as late a date as the beginning
+of the following year, 1569. To this they were led, we are told, by a
+prediction found in their religious books, that the year of their
+liberation would be one that began on a Saturday. It is probable that
+the wiser men of the Albaicin were less influenced by their own belief
+in the truth of the prophecy, than by the influence it would exert over
+the superstitious minds of the mountaineers, among whom it was
+diligently circulated.[28]
+
+Having settled on the first of January for the rising, the Moslems of
+Granada strove, by every outward show of loyalty, to quiet the
+suspicions of the government. But in this they were thwarted by the
+information which the latter obtained through more trustworthy channels.
+Still surer evidence of their intentions was found in a letter which
+fell by accident into the hands of the marquis of Mondejar. It was
+addressed by one of the leaders of the Albaicin to the Moslems of the
+Barbary coast, invoking their aid by the ties of consanguinity and of a
+common faith. "We are sorely beset," says the writer, "and our enemies
+encompass us all around like a consuming fire. Our troubles are too
+grievous to be endured. Written," concludes the passionate author of the
+epistle, "in nights of tears and anguish, with hope yet lingering,--such
+hope as still survives amidst all the bitterness of the soul."[29]
+
+But the Barbary powers were too much occupied by their petty feuds to
+give much more than fair words to their unfortunate brethren of Granada.
+Perhaps they distrusted the efficacy of any aid they could render in so
+unequal a contest as that against the Spanish monarchy. Yet they allowed
+their subjects to embark as volunteers in the war; and some good service
+was rendered by the Barbary corsairs, who infested the coasts of the
+Mediterranean, as well as by the _monfis_,--as the African adventurers
+were called,--who took part with their brethren in the Alpujarras,
+where they made themselves conspicuous by their implacable ferocity
+against the Christians.
+
+Meanwhile the hot blood of the mountaineers was too much inflamed by the
+prospect of regaining their independence to allow them to wait patiently
+for the day fixed upon for the outbreak. Before that time arrived,
+several acts of violence were perpetrated,--forerunners of the bloody
+work that was at hand. In the month of December, 1568, a body of Spanish
+alguazils, with some other officers of justice, were cut off in the
+neighbourhood of Granada, on their way to that city. A party of fifty
+soldiers, as they were bearing to the capital a considerable quantity of
+muskets,--a tempting prize to the unarmed Moriscoes,--were all murdered,
+most of them in their beds, in a little village among the mountains
+where they had halted for the night.[30] After this outrage Aben-Farax,
+the bold dyer of Granada, aware of the excitement it must create in the
+capital, became convinced it would not be safe for him to postpone his
+intended assault a day longer.
+
+At the head of only a hundred and eighty followers, without waiting to
+collect a larger force, he made his descent, on the night of the
+twenty-sixth of December, a week before the appointed time, into the
+_vega_ of Granada. It was a dreadful night. A snow-storm was raging
+wildly among the mountains, and sweeping down in pitiless fury on the
+plains below.[31] Favoured by the commotion of the elements, Aben-Farax
+succeeded, without attracting observation, in forcing an entrance
+through the dilapidated walls of the city, penetrated at once into the
+Albaicin, and endeavoured to rouse the inhabitants from their slumbers.
+Some few came to their windows, it is said, but, on learning the nature
+of the summons, hastily closed the casements and withdrew, telling
+Aben-Farax that "it was madness to undertake the enterprise with so
+small a force, and that he had come before his time."[32] It was in vain
+that the enraged chief poured forth imprecations on their perfidy and
+cowardice, in vain that he marched through the deserted streets,
+demolishing crucifixes and other symbols of Christian worship which he
+found in his way, or that he shouted out the watchword of the faithful,
+"There is but one God, and Mahomet is the prophet of God!" The uproar of
+the tempest, fortunately for him, drowned every other noise; and no
+alarm was given till he stumbled on a guard of some five or six
+soldiers, who were huddled round a fire in one of the public squares.
+One of these Farax despatched; the others made their escape, raising the
+cry that the enemy was upon them. The great bell of St. Salvador rang
+violently, calling the inhabitants to arms. Dawn was fast approaching;
+and the Moorish chief, who felt himself unequal to an encounter in which
+he was not to be supported by his brethren in the Albaicin, thought it
+prudent to make his retreat. This he did with colours flying and music
+playing, all in as cool and orderly a manner as if it had been only a
+holiday parade.
+
+[Sidenote: RISING IN THE ALPUJARRAS.]
+
+Meantime the citizens, thus suddenly startled from their beds, gathered
+together, with eager looks, and faces white with fear, to learn the
+cause of the tumult; and their alarm was not diminished by finding that
+the enemy had been prowling round their dwellings, like a troop of
+mountain wolves, while they had been buried in slumber. The marquis of
+Mondejar called his men to horse, and would have instantly given chase
+to the invaders, but waited until he had learned the actual condition of
+the Albaicin, where a population of ten thousand Moriscoes, had they
+been mischievously inclined, might, notwithstanding the timely efforts
+of the government to disarm them, have proved too strong for the slender
+Spanish garrison in the Alhambra. All, however, was quiet in the Moorish
+quarter; and, assured of this, the captain-general sallied out, at the
+head of his cavalry and a small corps of foot, in quest of the enemy.
+But he had struck into the mountain-passes south of Granada; and
+Mendoza, after keeping on his track, as well as the blinding tempest
+would permit, through the greater part of the day, at nightfall gave up
+the pursuit as hopeless, and brought back his wayworn cavalcade to the
+city.[33]
+
+Aben-Farax and his troop, meanwhile, traversing the snowy skirts of the
+Sierra Nevada, came out on the broad and populous valley of Lecrin,
+spreading the tidings everywhere, as they went, that the insurrection
+was begun, that the Albaicin was in movement, and calling on all true
+believers to take up arms in defence of their faith. The summons did not
+fall on deaf ears. A train had been fired which ran along the mountain
+regions to the south of Granada, stretching from Almeria and the Murcian
+borders on the east to the neighbourhood of Velez Malaga on the west. In
+three days the whole country was in arms. Then burst forth the fierce
+passions of the Arab,--all that unquenchable hate which seventy years of
+oppression had nourished in his bosom, and which now showed itself in
+one universal cry for vengeance. The bloody drama opened with the
+massacre of nearly every Christian man within the Moorish borders,--and
+that too with circumstances of a refined and deliberate cruelty, of
+which, happily, few examples are to be found in history.
+
+The first step, however, in the revolutionary movement had been a false
+one, inasmuch as the insurgents had failed to secure possession of the
+capital, which would have furnished so important a _point d'appui_ for
+future operations. Yet, if contemporary chroniclers are correct, this
+failure should rather be imputed to miscalculation than to cowardice.
+According to them, the persons of most consideration in the Albaicin
+were many of them wealthy citizens, accustomed to the easy, luxurious
+way of life so well suited to the Moorish taste. They had never intended
+to peril their fortunes by engaging personally in so formidable a
+contest as that with the Castilian crown. They had only proposed to urge
+their simple countrymen in the Alpujarras to such a show of resistance
+as should intimidate the Spaniards, and lead them to mitigate, if not
+indeed to rescind, the hated ordinance.[34] If such was their
+calculation, as the result showed, it miserably failed.
+
+As the Moriscoes had now proclaimed their independence, it became
+necessary to choose a sovereign in place of the one whose authority they
+had cast aside. The leaders in the Albaicin selected for this dangerous
+pre-eminence a young man who was known to the Spaniards by his Castilian
+name of Don Fernando de Valor. He was descended in a direct line from
+the ancient house of the Omeyas,[35] who for nearly four centuries had
+sat with glory on the throne of Cordova. He was but twenty-two years of
+age at the time of his election, and, according to a contemporary who
+had seen him, possessed a comely person and engaging manners. His
+complexion was of a deep olive; his beard was thin; his eyes were large
+and dark, with eyebrows well defined, and nearly approaching each other.
+His deportment was truly royal; and his lofty sentiments were worthy of
+the princely line from which he was descended.[36] Notwithstanding this
+flattering portrait from the pen of a Castilian, his best
+recommendation, to judge from his subsequent career, seems to have been
+his descent from a line of kings. He had been so prodigal in his way of
+life that, though so young, he had squandered his patrimony, and was at
+this very time under arrest for debt. He had the fiery temperament of
+his nation, and had given evidence of it by murdering, with his own
+hand, a man who had borne testimony against his father in a criminal
+prosecution. Amidst his luxurious self-indulgence he must be allowed to
+have shown some energy of character and an unquestionable courage. He
+was attached to the institutions of his country; and his ferocious
+nature was veiled under a bland and plausible exterior, that won him
+golden opinions from the multitude.[37]
+
+Soon after his election, and just before the irruption of Aben-Farax,
+the Morisco prince succeeded in making his escape from Granada, and,
+flying to the mountains, took refuge among his own kindred, the powerful
+family of the Valoris, in the village of Beznar. Here his countrymen
+gathered round him, and confirmed by acclamation the choice of the
+people of Granada. For this the young chieftain was greatly indebted to
+the efforts of his uncle, Aben-Jahuar, commonly called El Zaguer, a man
+of much authority among his tribe, who, waiving his own claims to the
+sceptre, employed his influence in favour of his nephew.
+
+The ceremony of the coronation was of a martial kind, well suited to the
+rough fortunes of the adventurer. Four standards, emblazoned with the
+Moslem crescent, were spread upon the ground, with their spear-heads
+severally turned towards the four points of the compass. The Moorish
+prince, who had been previously arrayed in a purple robe, with a crimson
+scarf or shawl, the insignia of royalty, enveloping his shoulders, knelt
+down on the banners, with his face turned towards Mecca, and, after a
+brief prayer, solemnly swore to live and die in defence of his crown,
+his faith, and his subjects. One of the principal attendants,
+prostrating himself on the ground, kissed the footprints of the
+newly-elected monarch, in token of the allegiance of the people. He was
+then raised on the shoulders of four of the assistants, and borne aloft
+amidst the waving of banners and the loud shouts of the multitude,
+"Allah exalt Muley-Mohammed-Aben-Humeya, lord of Andalucia and
+Granada!"[38]
+
+[Sidenote: MASSACRE OF THE CHRISTIANS.]
+
+Such were the simple forms practised in ancient times by the
+Spanish-Arabian princes, when their empire, instead of being contracted
+within the rocky girdle of the mountains, stretched over the fairest
+portions of the Peninsula.[39]
+
+The first act of Aben-Humeya was to make his appointments to the chief
+military offices. El Zaguer, his uncle, he made captain-general of his
+forces. Aben-Farax, who had himself aspired to the diadem, he removed to
+a distance, by sending him on an expedition to collect such treasures as
+could be gathered from the Christian churches in the Alpujarras. He
+appointed officers to take charge of the different _tahas_, or
+districts, into which the country was divided. Having completed these
+arrangements, the new monarch--the _reyezuelo_, or "little king," of the
+Alpujarras, as he was contemptuously styled by the
+Spaniards--transferred his residence to the central part of his
+dominions, where he repeated the ceremony of his coronation. He made a
+rapid visit to the most important places in the sierra, everywhere
+calling on the inhabitants to return to their ancient faith, and to
+throw off the hated yoke of the Spaniards. He then established himself
+in the wildest parts of the Alpujarras, where he endeavoured to draw his
+forces to a head, and formed the plan of his campaign. It was such as
+was naturally suggested by the character of the country, which, broken
+and precipitous, intersected by many a deep ravine and dangerous pass,
+afforded excellent opportunities for harassing an invading foe, and for
+entangling him in those inextricable defiles, where a few mountaineers
+acquainted with the ground would he more than a match for an enemy far
+superior in discipline and numbers.
+
+While Aben-Humeya was thus occupied in preparing for the struggle, the
+work of death had already begun among the Spanish population of the
+Alpujarras; and Spaniards were to be found, in greater or less numbers,
+in all the Moorish towns and hamlets that dotted the dark sides of the
+sierras, or nestled in the green valleys at their base. Here they dwelt
+side by side with the Moriscoes, employed probably less in the labours
+of the loom, for which the natives of this region had long been famous,
+than in that careful husbandry which they might readily have learned
+from their Moorish neighbours, and which, under their hands, had clothed
+every spot with verdure, making the wilderness to blossom like the
+rose.[40] Thus living in the midst of those who professed the same
+religion with themselves, and in the occasional interchange, at least,
+of the kind offices of social intercourse, which sometimes led to nearer
+domestic ties, the Christians of the Alpujarras dwelt in blind security,
+little dreaming of the mine beneath their feet.
+
+But no sooner was the first note of insurrection sounded, than the scene
+changed as if by magic. Every Morisco threw away his mask, and, turning
+on the Christians, showed himself in his true aspect, as their avowed
+and mortal enemy.
+
+A simultaneous movement of this kind, through so wide an extent of
+country, intimates a well-concerted plan of operations; and we may share
+in the astonishment of the Castillan writers, that a secret of such a
+nature, and known to so many individuals, should have been so long and
+faithfully kept,--in the midst, too, of those who had the greatest
+interest in detecting it,[41]--some of them, it may be added, spies of
+the Inquisition, endowed, as they seem to have been, with almost
+supernatural powers for scenting out the taint of heresy.[42] It argues
+an intense feeling of hatred in the Morisco, that he could have been so
+long proof against the garrulity that loosens the tongue, and against
+the sympathy that so often, in similar situations, unlocks the heart, to
+save some friend from the doom of his companions. But no such instance,
+either of levity or lenity, occurred among this extraordinary people.
+And when the hour arrived, and the Christians discerned their danger in
+the menacing looks and gestures of their Moslem neighbours, they were as
+much astounded by it as the unsuspecting traveller on whom, as he
+heedlessly journeys through some pleasant country, the highwayman has
+darted from his covert by the roadside.
+
+The first impulse of the Christians seems to have been very generally to
+take refuge in the churches; and every village, however small, had at
+least one church, where the two races met together to join in the forms
+of Christian worship. The fugitives thought to find protection in their
+holy places and in the presence of their venerated pastors, whose
+spiritual authority had extended over all the inhabitants. But the wild
+animal of the forest, now that he had regained his freedom, gave little
+heed to the call of his former keeper,--unless it were to turn and rend
+him.
+
+Here crowded together, like a herd of panic-stricken deer with the
+hounds upon their track, the terrified people soon found the church was
+no place of security, and they took refuge in the adjoining tower, as a
+place of greater strength, and affording a better means of defence
+against an enemy. The mob of their pursuers then broke into the church,
+which they speedily despoiled of its ornaments, trampling the crucifixes
+and other religious symbols under their feet, rolling the sacred images
+in the dust, and desecrating the altars by the sacrifice of swine, or by
+some other act denoting their scorn and hatred of the Christian
+worship.[43]
+
+They next assailed the towers, the entrances to which the Spaniards had
+barricaded as strongly as they could; though, unprovided as they were
+with means of defence, except such arms as they had snatched in the
+hurry of their flight, they could have little hope of standing a siege.
+Unfortunately, these towers were built more or less of wood, which the
+assailants readily set on fire, and thus compelled the miserable inmates
+either to surrender or to perish in the flames. In some instances they
+chose the latter; and the little garrison--men, women, and
+children--were consumed together on one common funeral pile. More
+frequently they shrank from this fearful death, and surrendered at the
+mercy of their conquerors,--such mercy as made them soon regret that
+they had not stayed by the blazing rafters.
+
+[Sidenote: MASSACRE OF THE CHRISTIANS]
+
+The men were speedily separated from the women, and driven with blows
+and imprecations, like so many cattle, to a place of confinement. From
+this loathsome prison they were dragged out, three or four at a time,
+day after day, the longer to protract their sufferings; then, with their
+arms pinioned behind them, and stripped of their clothing, they were
+thrown into the midst of an infuriated mob, consisting of both sexes,
+who, armed with swords, hatchets, and bludgeons, soon felled their
+victims to the ground, and completed the bloody work.
+
+The mode of death was often varied to suit the capricious cruelty of the
+executioners. At Guecija, where the olive grew abundantly, there was a
+convent of Augustine monks, who were all murdered by being thrown into
+caldrons of boiling oil.[44] Sometimes the death of the victim was
+attended with circumstances of diabolical cruelty, not surpassed by
+anything recorded of our North-American savages. At a place called
+Pitres de Ferreyra, the priest of the village was raised by means of a
+pulley to a beam that projected from the tower, and was then allowed to
+drop from a great height upon the ground. The act was repeated more than
+once in the presence of his aged mother, who, in an agony of grief,
+embracing her dying son, besought him "to trust in God and the blessed
+Virgin, who through these torments would bring him into eternal life."
+The mangled carcase of the poor victim, broken and dislocated in every
+limb, was then turned over to the Moorish women, who, with their
+scissors, bodkins, and other feminine implements, speedily despatched
+him.[45]
+
+The women, indeed, throughout this persecution, seem to have had as
+rabid a thirst for vengeance as the men. Even the children were
+encouraged to play their part in the bloody drama; and many a miserable
+captive was set up as a target to be shot at with the arrows of the
+Moorish boys.
+
+The rage of the barbarians was especially directed against the priests,
+who had so often poured forth anathemas against the religion which the
+Moslems loved, and who, as their spiritual directors, had so often
+called them to account for offences against the religion which they
+abhorred. At Coadba the priest was stretched out before a brazier of
+live coals until his feet, which had been smeared with pitch and oil,
+were burned to a cinder. His two sisters were compelled to witness the
+agonies of their brother, which were still further heightened by the
+brutal treatment which he saw them endure from their tormentors.[46]
+
+Fire was employed as a common mode of torture, by way of retaliation, it
+may be, for similar sufferings inflicted on the Infidel by the
+Inquisition. Sometimes the punishments seemed to be contrived so as to
+form a fiendish parody on the exercises of the Roman Catholic religion.
+In the town of Filix the pastor was made to take his seat before the
+altar, with his two sacristans, one on either side of him. The bell was
+rung, as if to call the people together to worship. The sacristans were
+each provided with a roll containing the names of the congregation,
+which they were required to call over, as usual, before the services, in
+order to see that no one was absent. As each Morisco answered to his
+name, he passed before the priest, and dealt him a blow with his fist,
+or the women plucked his beard and hair, accompanying the act with some
+bitter taunt expressive of their mortal hate. When every one had thus
+had the opportunity of gratifying his personal grudge against his
+ancient pastor, the executioner stepped forward, armed with a razor,
+with which he scored the face of the ecclesiastic in the detested form
+of the cross, and then, beginning with the fingers, deliberately
+proceeded to sever each of the joints of his wretched victim![47]
+
+But it is unnecessary to shock the reader with more of these loathsome
+details, enough of which have already been given, not merely to prove
+the vindictive temper of the Morisco, but to suggest the inference that
+it could only have been a long course of cruelty and oppression that
+stimulated him to such an awful exhibition of it.[48] The whole number
+of Christians who, in the course of a week, thus perished in these
+massacres--if we are to receive the accounts of Castilian writers--was
+not less than three thousand![49] Considering the social relations which
+must to some extent have been established between those who had lived so
+long in the neighbourhood of one another, it might be thought that, on
+some occasions, sympathy would have been shown for the sufferers, or
+that some protecting arm would have been stretched out to save a friend
+or a companion from the general doom. But the nearest approach to such
+an act of humanity was given by a Morisco, who plunged his sword in the
+body of a Spaniard in order to save him from the lingering death that
+otherwise would await him.[50]
+
+Of the whole Christian population very few of the men who fell into the
+hands of the Moslems escaped with life. The women were not always
+spared. The Morisco women, especially, who had married Christian
+husbands and embraced Christianity, which they refused to abjure, became
+the objects of vengeance to their own sex. Sad to say, even the
+innocence and helplessness of childhood proved no protection against the
+fury of persecution. The historians record the names of several boys,
+from ten to twelve or thirteen years of age, who were barbarously
+murdered because they would not renounce the religion in which they had
+been nurtured for that of Mahomet. If they were too young to give a
+reason for their faith, they had at least learned the lesson that to
+renounce it was a great sin; and, when led out like lambs to the
+slaughter, their mothers, we are told, stifling the suggestions of
+natural affection in obedience to a higher law, urged their children not
+to shrink from the trial, nor to purchase a few years of life at the
+price of their own souls.[51] It is a matter of no little gratulation to
+a Catholic historian, that, amongst all those who perished in these
+frightful massacres, there was not one of any age or either sex who
+could be tempted to secure personal safety by the sacrifice of religious
+convictions.[52] On the contrary, they employed the brief respite that
+was left them in fortifying one another's courage, and in bearing
+testimony to the truth in so earnest a manner that they might almost
+seem to have courted the crown of martyrdom. Yet among these martyrs
+there were more than one, it is admitted, whose previous way of life
+showed but a dim perception of the value of that religion for which,
+they were thus prepared to lay down their lives.[53]
+
+[Sidenote: MASSACRE OF THE CHRISTIANS.]
+
+The chief blame of these indiscriminate proscriptions has been laid on
+Aben-Farax, the famous dyer of Granada, whose appetite for blood seems
+to have been as insatiable as that of any wild beast in the Alpujarras.
+In executing the commission assigned to him by Aben-Humeya, he was
+obliged to visit all parts of the country. Wherever he came, impatient
+of the slower movements of his countrymen in the work of destruction, he
+caused the prisons to be emptied, and the wretched inmates to be
+butchered before his eyes. At Ugijar he thus directed the execution of
+no less than two hundred and forty Christians, laymen and
+ecclesiastics.[54] His progress through the land was literally over the
+dead bodies of his victims.
+
+Fierce as he was, Aben-Humeya had some touches of humanity in his
+nature, which made him revolt at the wholesale murders perpetrated by
+his lieutenant. He was the more indignant when, on hastening to Ugijar
+to save the lives of some of the captives, his friends, he found that he
+had come too late, for the man of blood had been there before him. He
+soon after summoned his officer into his presence, not with the
+impolitic design of taxing him with his cruelties, but to call him to a
+reckoning for the treasure he had pillaged from the churches; and
+dissatisfied, or affecting to be so, with his report, he at once deposed
+Aben-Farax from his command. The ferocious chief submitted without a
+murmur. He descended into the common file, and no more appears on the
+scene. He was one of those miscreants who are thrown on the surface by
+the turmoil of a revolution, and, after floating there for a while,
+disappear from sight, and the wave of history closes over them for
+ever.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES.
+
+Panic in Granada--Muster of Troops--Mondejar takes the Field--Bold
+Passage at Tablate--Retreat of the Moriscoes--Combat at
+Alfajarali--Perilous March--Massacre at Jubiles--The Liberated
+Christians.
+
+1568, 1569.
+
+
+As day after day brought tidings to the people of Granada of the
+barbarities perpetrated in the Alpujarras, the whole city was filled
+with grief and consternation. The men might be seen gathered together in
+knots in the public squares; the women ran about from house to house,
+telling the tale of horrors which could hardly be exaggerated in the
+recital. They thronged to the churches, where the archbishop and the
+clergy were all day long offering up prayers to avert the wrath of
+heaven from Granada. The places of business were abandoned. The shops
+and booths were closed.[55] As men called to mind the late irruption of
+Aben-Farax, they were filled with apprehensions that the same thing
+would be attempted again; and rumours went abroad that the mountaineers
+were plotting another descent on the city, and, with the aid of their
+countrymen in the Albaicin, would soon deluge the streets with the blood
+of the Christians. Under the influence of these fears, some took refuge
+in the fortress of the Alhambra; others fled into the country. Many kept
+watch during the long night, while those who withdrew to rest started
+from their slumbers at the least noise, supposing it to be the war-cry
+of the Moslem, and that the enemy was at the gates.
+
+Nor was the alarm less that was felt by the Moriscoes in the city, as it
+was certainly better founded,--for the Moriscoes were the weaker party
+of the two. They knew the apprehensions entertained of them by the
+Christians, and that, when men have the power to relieve themselves of
+their fears, they are not apt to be very scrupulous as to the means of
+doing so. They were afraid to venture into the streets by day, and at
+night they barricaded their houses as in a time of siege.[56] They well
+knew that a single act of imprudence on their part, or even the merest
+accident, might bring the Spaniards upon them, and lead to a general
+massacre. They were like the traveller who sees the avalanche trembling
+above him, which the least jar of elements, or his own unwary movements,
+may dislodge from its slippery basis, and bring down in ruin on his
+head. Thus the two races, inhabitants of the same city, were like two
+hostile camps, looking on each other with watchful and malignant eyes,
+and ready at any moment to come into deadly conflict.
+
+In this stage of things the Moriscoes, anxious to allay the
+apprehensions of the Spaniards, were profuse in their professions of
+loyalty, and in their assurances that there was neither concert nor
+sympathy between them and their countrymen in the Alpujarras. The
+government, to give still greater confidence to the Christians, freely
+distributed arms among them, thus enabling them, as far as possible, to
+provide for their own security. The inhabitants enrolled themselves in
+companies. The citizen was speedily converted into the soldier, and
+every man, of whatever trade or profession,--the mechanic, the
+merchant, the lawyer,--took his turn of military service. Even the
+advocates, when attending the courts of justice, appeared with their
+weapons by their side.[57]
+
+[Sidenote: MUSTER OF TROOPS.]
+
+But what contributed above all to revive the public confidence was the
+care of the government to strengthen the garrison in the Alhambra by the
+addition of five hundred regular troops. When, by these various means,
+the marquis of Mondejar saw that tranquillity was restored to the
+capital, he bestowed all his thoughts on an expedition into the
+Alpujarras, desirous to crush the insurrection in its bud, and to rescue
+the unfortunate captives, whose fate there excited the most dismal
+apprehensions amongst their friends and relatives in Granada. He sent
+forth his summons accordingly to the great lords and the cities of
+Andalusia, to furnish him at once with their contingents for carrying on
+the war. The feudal principle still obtained in this quarter, requiring
+the several towns to do military service for their possessions, by
+maintaining, when called upon, a certain number of troops in the field,
+at their own expense for three months, and at the joint expense of
+themselves and the government for six months longer.[58] The system
+worked well enough in those ancient times, when a season rarely passed
+without a foray against the Moslems. But since the fall of Granada, a
+long period of inactivity had followed, and the citizen, rarely summoned
+to the field, had lost all the essential attributes of the soldier. The
+usual term of service was too short to supply the experience and the
+discipline which he needed; and far from entering on a campaign with the
+patriotic or the chivalrous feeling that gives dignity to the profession
+of arms, he brought with him the mercenary spirit of a trader, intent
+only on his personal gains, and eager, as soon as he had enriched
+himself by a lucky foray, or the sack of some ill-fated city, to return
+home, and give place to others, as inexperienced and possessed of as
+little subordination as himself.[59]
+
+But, however deficient this civic militia might be in tactics, the men
+were well provided with arms and military accoutrements; and, as the
+motley array of troops passed over the _vega_, they made a gallant show,
+with their gay uniforms and bright weapons glancing in the sun, while
+they proudly displayed the ancient banners of their cities, which had
+waved over many a field of battle against the infidel.[60]
+
+But no part of the warlike spectacle was so brilliant as that afforded
+by the chivalry of the country; the nobles and cavaliers who, with their
+retainers and household troops, had taken the field with as much
+alacrity on the present occasion as their fathers had ever shown when
+roused by the cry that the enemy was over the borders.[61] They were
+much inferior in numbers to the militia of the towns. But inferiority
+of numbers was more than compensated by excellence of discipline, by
+their perfect appointments, and by that chivalrous feeling which made
+them discard every mercenary consideration in the pursuit of glory. Such
+was the feeling of Luis Paer de Castillego, the ancient regidor of
+Cordova. When offered an independent command, with the emoluments
+annexed to it, he proudly replied: "I want neither rank nor pay. I, my
+sons, my kindred, my whole house, will always be found ready to serve
+our God and our king. It is the title by which we hold our inheritance
+and our patent of nobility."[62]
+
+With such loyal and high-mettled cavaliers to support him, Mondejar
+could not feel doubtful of the success of his arms. They had, however,
+already met with one reverse; and he received tidings that his
+advance-guard, sent to occupy a strong pass that led into the mountains,
+had been driven from its position, and had sustained something like a
+defeat. This would have been still more decisive, had it not been for
+the courage of certain ecclesiastics, eight in number--four of them
+Franciscans, and four of the Society of Jesus--who, as the troops gave
+way, threw themselves into the thick of the fight, and by their example
+shamed the soldiers into making a more determined resistance. The
+present war took the form of a religious war; and many a valiant
+churchman, armed with sword and crucifix, bore his part in it as in a
+crusade.
+
+Hastening his preparations, the captain-general, without waiting for
+further reinforcements, marched out of Granada on the second of January,
+1569, at the head of a small body, which did not exceed in all two
+thousand foot and four hundred horse. He was speedily joined by levies
+from the neighbouring towns--from Jaen, Loja, Alhama, Antequera, and
+other places--which in a few days swelled his little army to double its
+original size. The capital he left in the hands of his son, the count of
+Tendilla; a man of less discretion than his father, of a sterner and
+more impatient temper, and one who had little sympathy for the Morisco.
+By his directions, the peasantry of the _vega_ were required to supply
+the army with twenty thousand pounds of bread daily.[63] The additional
+troops stationed in the city, as well as those who met there, as in a
+place of rendezvous, on their way to the sierra, were all quartered on
+the inhabitants of the Albaicin, where they freely indulged in the usual
+habits of military licence. The Moriscoes still retained much of that
+jealous sensibility which leads the natives of the East to seclude their
+wives and daughters from the eye of the stranger. It was in vain,
+however, that they urged their complaints in the most respectful and
+deprecatory terms before the governor. The haughty Spaniard only
+answered them with a stern rebuke, which made the Moriscoes too late
+repent that they had not profited by the opportunity offered them by
+Aben-Farax of regaining their independence.[64]
+
+Leaving Granada, the captain-general took the most direct route, leading
+along the western slant of the Sierra Nevada, that mountain-range which,
+with its frosty peaks glistening in the sun like palisades of silver,
+fences round the city on the south, and screens it in the summer from
+the scorching winds of Africa. Thence he rapidly descended into the
+beautiful vale of Lecrin, which spreads out, like a gay carpet
+embroidered with many a wild flower, to the verge of the Alpujarras. It
+was now, however, the dead of winter, when the bright colouring of the
+landscape, even in this favoured region, watered as it was by numerous
+fountains and running streams, had faded into the sombre tints more in
+harmony with the rude scenes on which the Spaniards were about to enter.
+
+[Sidenote: BOLD PASSAGE AT TABLATE.]
+
+Halting a night at Padul to refresh his troops, Mondejar pressed forward
+to Durcal, which he reached barely in time to save his advance-guard
+from a more shameful discomfiture than it had before experienced; for
+the enemy, pressing it on all sides, was in possession of the principal
+avenues to the town. On the approach of the main body of the Spaniards,
+however, he made a hasty retreat, and established himself in a strong
+position at the pass of Tablate. The place was defended by a _barranca_,
+or ravine, not formidable from its width, but its rocky side swept sheer
+down to a depth that made the brain of the traveller giddy as he looked
+into the frightful abyss. The chasm extended at least eight leagues in
+length, thus serving, like a gigantic ditch scooped out by the hand of
+Nature, to afford protection to the beautiful valley against the inroads
+of the fierce tribes of the mountains.
+
+Across this gulf a frail wooden bridge had been constructed, forming the
+only means of access from this quarter to the country of the Alpujarras.
+But this structure was now nearly demolished by the Moriscoes, who had
+taken up the floor, and removed most of the supports, till the passage
+of the tottering fabric could not safely be attempted by a single
+individual, much less by an army.[65] That they did not destroy the
+bridge altogether, probably arose from their desire to re-establish as
+soon as possible their communications with their countrymen in the
+valley.
+
+Meanwhile the Moslems had taken up a position which commanded the
+farther end of the bridge, where they calmly awaited the approach of the
+Spaniards. Their army, which greatly fluctuated in its numbers at
+different periods of the campaign, was a miscellaneous body, ill
+disciplined and worse armed. Some of the men carried fire-arms, some
+crossbows; others had only slings or javelins, or even sharp-pointed
+stakes; any weapon, in short, however rude, which they had contrived to
+secrete from the Spanish officials charged with enforcing the laws for
+disarming the Moriscoes. But they were a bold and independent race,
+inured to a life of peril and privation; and, however inferior to the
+Christians in other respects, they had one obvious advantage, in their
+familiarity with the mountain wilds in which they had been nurtured from
+infancy.
+
+As the Spaniards approached the ravine, they were saluted by the enemy,
+from the other side, with a shower of balls, stones, and arrows, which,
+falling at random, did little mischief. But as soon as the columns of
+the Christians reached the brow of the _barranca_, and formed into line,
+they opened a much more effective fire on their adversaries; and when
+the heavy guns with which Mendoza was provided were got into position,
+they did such execution on the enemy that he thought it prudent to
+abandon the bridge, and take post behind a rising ground, which screened
+him from the fire.
+
+All thoughts were now turned on the mode of crossing the ravine; and
+many a look of blank dismay was turned on the dilapidated bridge, which,
+like a spider's web, trembling in every breeze, was stretched across the
+formidable chasm. No one was bold enough to venture on this pass of
+peril. At length a Franciscan monk, named Christoval de Molina, offered
+himself for the emprise. It was again an ecclesiastic who was to lead
+the way in the path of danger. Slinging his shield across his back, with
+his robe tucked closely around him, grasping a crucifix in his left
+hand, and with his right brandishing his sword, the valiant friar set
+his foot upon the bridge.[66] All eyes were fastened upon him, as,
+invoking the name of Jesus, he went courageously but cautiously forward,
+picking his way along the skeleton fabric, which trembled under his
+weight, as if about to fall in pieces and precipitate him into the gulf
+below. But he was not so to perish; and his safe arrival on the farther
+side was greeted with the shouts of the soldiery, who, ashamed of their
+hesitation, now pressed forward to follow in his footsteps.
+
+The first who ventured had the same good fortune as his predecessor. The
+second, missing his step or becoming dizzy, lost his foothold, and,
+tumbling headlong, was dashed to pieces on the bottom of the ravine. One
+after another, the soldiers followed, and with fewer casualties than
+might have been expected from the perilous nature of the passage. During
+all this time they experienced no molestation from the enemy,
+intimidated, perhaps, by the unexpected audacity of the Spaniards, and
+not caring to come within the range of the deadly fire of their
+artillery. No sooner had the arquebusiers crossed in sufficient
+strength, than Mondejar, putting himself at their head, led them against
+the Moslems. He was received with a spirited volley, which had well-nigh
+proved fatal to him; and had it not been for his good cuirass, that
+turned the ball of an arquebuse, his campaign would have been brought to
+a close at its commencement. The skirmish lasted but a short time, as
+the Moriscoes, already disheartened by the success of the assailants, or
+in obedience to the plan of operations marked out by their leader,
+abandoned their position, and drew off rapidly towards the mountains. It
+was the intention of Aben-Humeya, as already noticed, to entangle his
+enemies in the defiles of the sierra, where, independently of the
+advantage he possessed from a knowledge of the country, the rugged
+character of the ground, he conceived, would make it impracticable for
+both cavalry and artillery, with neither of which he was provided.[67]
+
+The Spanish commander, resuming his former station, employed the night
+in restoring the bridge, on which his men laboured to such purpose, that
+by morning it was in a condition for both his horse and his heavy guns
+to cross in safety. Meanwhile he received tidings that a body of a
+hundred and eighty Spaniards, in the neighbouring town of Orgiba, who
+had thrown themselves into the tower of the church on the breaking out
+of the insurrection, were still holding their position, and anxiously
+looking for succour from their countrymen. Pushing forward, therefore,
+without loss of time, he resumed his march across the valley, which was
+here defended on either side by rugged hills, that, growing bolder as he
+advanced, announced his entrance into the gorges of the Alpujarras. The
+weather was tempestuous. The roads were rendered worse than usual by the
+heavy rains, and by the torrents that descended from the hills. The
+Spaniards, moreover, suffered much from straggling parties of the enemy,
+who had possession of the heights, whence they rolled down huge rocks,
+and hurled missiles of every kind on the heads of the invaders. To rid
+himself of this annoyance, Mondejar ordered detachments of horse--one of
+them under the command of his son, Don Antonio de Mendoza--to scour the
+crests of the hills and dislodge the skirmishers. Pioneers were sent in
+advance, to level the ground and render it practicable for cavalry. The
+service was admirably performed; and the mountaineers, little acquainted
+with the horse, which they seemed to have held in as much terror as did
+the ancient Mexicans, were so astounded by seeing the light-footed
+Andalusian steed scaling the rough sides of the sierra, along paths
+where the sportsman would hardly venture, that, without waiting for the
+charge, they speedily quitted the ground and fell back on the main body
+of their army.
+
+[Sidenote: RETREAT OF THE MORISCOES.]
+
+This was posted at Lanjaron, a place but a few miles off, where the
+Moriscoes had profited by a gentle eminence that commanded a narrow
+defile, to throw up a breastwork of stone and earth, behind which they
+were entrenched, prepared, as it would seem, to give battle to the
+Spaniards.
+
+The daylight had begun to fade, as the latter drew near the enemy's
+encampment; and, as he was unacquainted with the ground, Mondejar
+resolved to postpone his attack till the following morning. The night
+set in dark and threatening. But a hundred watchfires blazing on the
+hill-tops illumined the sky, and sent a feeble radiance into the gloom
+of the valley. All night long the wild notes of the musical instruments
+peculiar to the Moors, mingling with their shrill war-cries, sounded in
+the ears of the Christians, keeping them under arms, and apprehensive
+every moment of an attack.[68] But a night attack was contrary to the
+usual tactics of the Moors. Nor, as it appeared, did they intend to join
+battle with the Spaniards at all in this place. At least, if such had
+been their design, they changed it. For at break of day, to the surprise
+of the Spaniards, no vestige was to be seen of the Moriscoes, who,
+abandoning their position, had taken flight, like their own birds of
+prey, into the depths of the mountains.
+
+Mondejar, not sorry to be spared the delay which an encounter must have
+caused him at a time when every moment was so precious, now rapidly
+pushed forward to Orgiba, where he happily arrived in season to relieve
+the garrison, reduced almost to the last extremity, and to put to flight
+the rabble who besieged it.
+
+In the fulness of their hearts, and with the tears streaming from their
+eyes, the poor prisoners came forth from their fortress to embrace the
+deliverers who had rescued them from the most terrible of deaths. Their
+apprehensions of such a fate had alone nerved their souls to so long and
+heroic a resistance. Yet they must have sunk ere this from famine, had
+it not been for their politic precaution of taking with them into the
+tower several of the Morisco children whose parents secretly supplied
+them with food, which served as the means of subsistence--scanty though
+it was--for the garrison. But as the latter came forth into view, their
+wasted forms and famine-stricken visages told a tale of woe that would
+have softened a heart of flint.[69]
+
+The situation of Orgiba pointed it out as suitable for a fortified post,
+to cover the retreat of the army, if necessary, and to protect the
+convoys of supplies to be regularly forwarded from Granada. Leaving a
+small garrison there, the captain-general, without longer delay, resumed
+his pursuit of the enemy.
+
+Aben-Humeya had retreated into Poqueira, a rugged district of the
+Alpujarras. Here he had posted himself, with an army amounting to more
+than double its former numbers, at the extremity of a dangerous defile,
+called the Pass of Alfajarali. Behind lay the town of Bubion, the
+capital of the district, in which, considering it as a place of safety,
+many of the wealthier Moriscoes had deposited their women and their
+treasures.
+
+Mondejar's line of march now took him into the heart of the wildest
+regions of the Alpujarras, where the scenery assumed a character of
+sublimity very different from what he had met with in the lower levels
+of the country. Here mountain rose beyond mountain, till their hoary
+heads, soaring above the clouds, entered far into the region of eternal
+snow. The scene was as gloomy as it was grand. Instead of the
+wide-spreading woods that usually hang round the skirts of lofty
+mountains, covering up their nakedness from the eye, nothing here was to
+be seen but masses of shattered rock, black as if scathed by volcanic
+fires, and heaped one upon another in a sort of wild confusion, as if
+some tremendous convulsion of nature had torn the hills from their
+foundations, and thrown them into primitive chaos. Yet the industry of
+the Moriscoes had contrived to relieve the savage features of the
+landscape, by scooping out terraces wherever the rocky soil allowed it,
+and raising there the vine and other plants, in bright patches of
+variegated culture, that hung like a garland round the gaunt and swarthy
+sierra.
+
+The temperature was now greatly changed from what the army had
+experienced in the valley. The wind, sweeping down the icy sides of the
+mountains, found its way through the harness of the cavaliers and the
+light covering of the soldiers, benumbing their limbs, and piercing them
+to the very bone. Great difficulty was experienced in dragging the
+cannon up the steep heights, and along roads and passes, which, however
+easily traversed by the light-footed mountaineer, were but ill suited to
+the movements of an army clad in the heavy panoply of war.
+
+The march was conducted in perfect order, the arquebusiers occupying the
+van, and the cavalry riding on either flank, while detachments of
+infantry, the main body of which occupied the centre, were thrown out to
+the right and left, on the higher grounds along the route of the army,
+to save it from annoyance from the mountaineers.
+
+On the thirteenth of January, Mondejar entered the narrow defile of
+Alfajarali, at the farther end of which the motley multitude that had
+gathered round the standard of Aben-Humeya were already drawn up in
+battle-array. His right wing rested on the bold side of the sierra; the
+left was defended by a deep ravine, and his position was strengthened by
+more than one ambuscade, for which the nature of the ground was
+eminently favourable.[70] Indeed, ambushes and surprises formed part of
+the regular strategy of the Moorish warrior, who lost heart if he failed
+in these,--like the lion, who, if balked in the first spring upon his
+prey, is said rarely to attempt another.
+
+[Sidenote: COMBAT AT ALFAJARALI.]
+
+Putting these wily tactics into practice, the Morisco chief, as soon as
+the Spaniards were fairly entangled in the defile, without waiting for
+them to come into order of battle, gave the signal; and his men,
+starting up from glen, thicket, and ravine, or bursting down the
+hill-sides like their own winter-torrents, fell at once on the
+Christians,--front, flank, and rear,--assailing them on every
+quarter.[71] Astounded by the fiery suddenness of the assault, the
+rear-guard retreated on the centre, while the arquebusiers in the van
+were thrown into still greater disorder. For a few moments it seemed as
+if the panic would become general. But the voice of the leader was heard
+above the tumult, and by his prompt and sagacious measures he
+fortunately succeeded in restoring order, and reviving the confidence of
+his men. He detached one body of cavalry, under his son-in-law, to the
+support of the rear, and another to the front under the command of his
+son, Antonio de Mendoza. Both executed their commissions with spirit;
+and Mendoza, outstripping his companions in the haste with which he
+galloped to the front, threw himself into the thickest of the fight,
+where he was struck from his horse by a heavy stone, and was speedily
+surrounded by the enemy, from whose grasp he was with difficulty, and
+not till after much hard fighting, rescued by his companions. His
+friend, Don Alonso Portocarrero, the scion of a noble house in
+Andalusia, whose sons had always claimed the front of battle against the
+infidel, was twice wounded by poisoned arrows; for the Moors of the
+Alpujarras tipped their weapons with a deadly poison distilled from a
+weed that grew wild among the mountains.[72]
+
+A fierce struggle now ensued; for the Morisco was spurred on by hate and
+the recollection of a thousand wrongs. Ill provided with weapons for
+attack, and destitute of defensive armour, he exposed himself to the
+hottest of his enemy's fire, and endeavoured to drag the horsemen from
+their saddles, while stones and arrows, with which some musket-balls
+were intermingled, fell like rain on the well-tempered harness of the
+Andalusian knights. The latter, now fully roused, plunged boldly into
+the thickest of the Moorish multitude, trampling them under foot, and
+hewing them down, right and left, with their sharp blades. The
+arquebusiers, at the same time, delivered a well-directed fire on the
+flank of the Moriscoes, who, after a brave struggle of an hour's
+duration, in which they were baffled on every quarter, quitted the
+field, covered with their slain, as precipitately as they had entered
+it, and, vanishing among the mountains, were soon far beyond
+pursuit.[73]
+
+From the field of battle Mondejar marched at once upon Bubion, the
+capital of the district, and now left wholly unprotected by the Moslems.
+Yet many of their wives and daughters remained in it; and what rejoiced
+the heart of Mondejar more than all, was the liberation of a hundred and
+eighty Christian women, who came forth, frantic with joy and gratitude,
+to embrace the knees of their deliverers. They had many a tale of horror
+to tell their countrymen, who had now rescued them from a fate worse
+than that of death itself; for arrangements had been made, it was said,
+to send away those whose persons offered the greatest attractions, to
+swell the harems of the fierce Barbary princes in alliance with the
+Moriscoes. The town afforded a rich booty to the victorious troops, in
+gold, silver, and jewels, together with the finest stuffs, especially of
+silk, for the manufacture of which the people of the country were
+celebrated. As the Spanish commander, unwilling to be encumbered with
+unnecessary baggage, had made no provision for transporting the more
+bulky articles, the greater part of them, in the usual exterminating
+spirit of war, was consigned to the flames.[74] The soldiers would
+willingly have appropriated to themselves the Moorish women whom they
+found in the place, regarding them us the spoils of victory; but the
+marquis, greatly to the disgust of his followers, humanely interfered
+for their protection.
+
+Mondejar now learned that Aben-Humeya, gathering the wreck of his forces
+about him, had taken the route to Jubiles,--a place situated in the
+wildest part of the country, where there was a fortress of much
+strength, in which he proposed to make a final stand against his
+enemies. Desirous to follow up the blow before the enemy had time to
+recover from its effects, Mondejar resumed his march. He had not
+advanced many leagues before he reached Pitres, the principal town in
+the district of Ferreiras. It was a place of some importance, and was
+rich in the commodities usually found in the great Moorish towns, where
+the more wealthy of the inhabitants rivalled their brethren of Granada
+in their taste for sumptuous dress and in the costly decorations of
+their houses.
+
+The conquerors had here the satisfaction of releasing a hundred and
+fifty of their poor countrywomen from the captivity in which they had
+been held, after witnessing the massacre of their friends and relatives.
+The place was given up to pillage; but the marquis, true to his
+principles, notwithstanding the murmurs, and even menaces, of his
+soldiers, would allow no injury to be done to the Moorish women who
+remained in it. In this he acted in obedience to the dictates of sound
+policy, no less than of humanity, which indeed, happily for mankind, can
+never be dissevered from each other. He had no desire to push the war to
+extremities, or to exterminate a race whose ingenuity and industry were
+a fruitful source of revenue to the country. He wished, therefore, to
+leave the door of reconciliation still open; and while he carried fire
+and sword into the enemy's territory, he held out the prospect of grace
+to those who were willing to submit and return to their allegiance.
+
+The route of the army lay through a wild and desolate region, which,
+from its great elevation, was cool even in midsummer, and which now, in
+the month of January, wore the dreary aspect of a polar winter. The
+snow, which never melted on the highest peaks of the mountains, lay
+heavily on their broad shoulders, and, sweeping far down their sides,
+covered up the path of the Spaniards. It was with no little difficulty
+that they could find a practicable passage, especially for the train of
+heavy guns, which were dragged along with incredible toil by the united
+efforts of men and horses. The soldiers, born and bred in the sunny
+plains of Andalusia, were but ill provided against an intensity of cold
+of which they had never formed a conception. The hands and feet of many
+were frozen. Others, benumbed, and exhausted by excessive toil,
+straggled in the rear, and sunk down in the snow-drifts, or disappeared
+in the treacherous ravines and crevices, which, under their glittering
+mantle, lay concealed from the eye. It fared still worse with the
+Moriscoes, especially with the women and children, who, after hanging on
+the skirts of the retreating army, had, the better to elude pursuit,
+scaled the more inaccessible parts of the mountains, where, taking
+refuge in caverns, they perished, in great numbers, of cold and
+hunger.[75]
+
+Meanwhile Aben-Humeya, disheartened by his late reverses, felt too
+little confidence in the strength of his present position to abide there
+the assault of the Spaniards. Quitting the place, therefore, and taking
+with him his women and effects, he directed his course by rapid marches
+towards Paterna, his principal residence, which had the advantage, by
+its neighbourhood to the Sierra Nevada, of affording him, if necessary,
+the means of escaping into its wild and mysterious recesses, where none
+but a native would care to follow him. He left in the castle of Jubiles
+a great number of Morisco women, who had accompanied the army in its
+retreat, and three hundred men, who, from age or infirmity, would be
+likely to embarrass his movements.
+
+[Sidenote: MASSACRE AT JUBILES.]
+
+On reaching Jubiles, therefore, the Spanish general met with no
+resistance from the helpless garrison who occupied the fortress, which,
+moreover, contained a rich booty in gold, pearls, and precious stones,
+to gratify the cupidity of the soldiers.[76] Yet their discontent was
+expressed in more audacious terms than usual at the protection afforded
+by their commander to the Morisco women, of whom there were more than
+two thousand in the place. Among the women found there was also a good
+number of Christian captives, who roused the fierce passions of their
+countrymen by their piteous recital of the horrors they had witnessed,
+of the butchery of fathers, husbands, and brothers, and of the
+persecutions to which they had themselves been subjected in order to
+convert them to Islamism. They besought the captain-general to take pity
+on their sufferings, and to avenge their wrongs by putting every man and
+woman found in the place to the sword.[77] It is evident that, however
+prepared they may have been to accept the crown of martyrdom rather than
+abjure their faith, they gave little heed to the noblest of its
+precepts, which enjoined the forgiveness of their enemies. In this
+respect Mondejar proved himself decidedly the better Christian; for
+while he listened with commiseration to their tale of woe, and did all
+he could to comfort them in their affliction,[78] he would not abandon
+the protection of his captives, male or female, nor resign them to the
+brutality of his soldiers.
+
+He provided for their safety during the night by allowing them to occupy
+the church. But as this would not accommodate more than a thousand
+persons, the remainder, including all the men, were quartered in an open
+square in the neighbourhood of the building. The Spanish troops encamped
+at no great distance from the spot.
+
+In the course of the night one of the soldiers found his way into the
+quarters of the captives, and attempted to take some freedoms with a
+Morisco maiden. It so happened that her lover, disguised in woman's
+attire, was at her side, having remained with her for her protection.
+His Moorish blood fired at the insult, and he resented it by striking
+his poniard into the body of the Spaniard. The cry of the latter soon
+roused his comrades. Rushing to the place, they fell on the young
+Morisco, who, now brandishing a sword which he had snatched from the
+disabled man, laid about him so valiantly that several others were
+wounded. The cry rose that there were armed men, disguised as women,
+among the prisoners. More soldiers poured in to the support of their
+comrades, and fell with fury on their helpless victims. The uproar was
+universal. On the one side might be heard moans and petitions for mercy;
+on the other, brutal imprecations, followed by deadly blows, that showed
+how little prayers for mercy had availed. The hearts of the soldiers
+were harder than the steel with which they struck; for they called to
+mind the cruelties inflicted on their own countrymen by the Moriscoes.
+Striking to the right and left, they hewed down men and women
+indiscriminately,--both equally defenceless. In their blind fury they
+even wounded one another; for it was not easy to discern friend from foe
+in the obscurity, in which little light was to be had, says the
+chronicler, except such as came from the sparks of clashing steel or the
+flash of fire-arms.[79] It was in vain that the officers endeavoured to
+call off the men from their work of butchery. The hot temper of the
+Andalusian was fully roused; and it would have been as easy to stop the
+explosion of the mine when the train has been fired, as to stay his
+fury. It was not till the morning light showed the pavement swimming in
+gore, and the corpses of the helpless victims lying in heaps on one
+another, that his appetite for blood was satisfied. Great numbers of the
+women, and nearly all the men, perished in this massacre.[80] Those in
+the church succeeded in making fast the doors, and thus excluding their
+enemies, who made repeated efforts to enter the building. The marquis of
+Mondejar, indignant at this inhuman outrage perpetrated by his
+followers, and at their flagrant disobedience of orders, caused an
+inquiry into the affair to be instantly made; and the execution of three
+of the most guilty proved a salutary warning to the Andalusian soldier
+that there were limits beyond which it was not safe to try the patience
+of his commander.[81]
+
+Before leaving Jubiles, Mondejar sent off to Granada, under a strong
+escort, the Christian captives who, since their liberation, had remained
+with the army. There were eight hundred of them, women and children,--a
+helpless multitude, whose wants were to be provided for, and whose
+presence could not fail greatly to embarrass his movements. They were
+obliged to perform that long and wearisome journey across the mountains
+on foot, as there were no means of transportation. And piteous was the
+spectacle which they presented when they reached the capital. As the
+wayworn wanderers entered by the gate of Bib-arranbla, the citizens came
+forth in crowds to welcome them. A body of cavalry was in the van,--each
+of the troopers holding one or two children on the saddle before him,
+with sometimes a third on the crupper clinging to his back. The infantry
+brought up the rear; while the centre of the procession was occupied by
+the women,--a forlorn and melancholy band, with their heads undefended
+by any covering from the weather; their hair, bleached by the winter's
+tempests, streaming wildly over their shoulders; their clothes scanty,
+tattered, and soiled with travel; without stockings, without shoes, to
+protect their feet against the cold and flinty roads; while in the lines
+traced upon their countenances the dullest eye might read the story of
+their unparalleled sufferings. Many of the company were persons who,
+unaccustomed to toil, and delicately nurtured, were but poorly prepared
+for the trials and privations of every kind to which they had been
+subjected.[82]
+
+[Sidenote: SITUATION OF ABEN-HUMEYA.]
+
+As their friends and countrymen gathered round them, to testify their
+sympathy and listen to the story of their misfortunes, the voices of the
+poor wanderers were choked with sobs and lamentations. The grief was
+contagious; and the sorrowing and sympathetic multitude accompanied the
+procession like a train of mourners to the monastery of Our Lady of
+Victory, in the opposite quarter of the city, where services were
+performed with much solemnity, and thanks were offered up for their
+deliverance from captivity. From the church they proceeded to the
+Alhambra, where they were graciously received by the marchioness of
+Mondejar, the wife of the captain-general, who did what she could to
+alleviate the miseries of their condition. Those who had friends and
+relations in the city, found shelter in their houses; while the rest
+were kindly welcomed by the archbishop of Granada, and by the
+charitable people of the town, who provided them with raiment and
+whatever was necessary for their comfort.[83] The stories which the
+fugitives had to tell of the horrid scenes they had witnessed in the
+Alpujarras, roused a deeper feeling of hatred in the Spaniards towards
+the Moriscoes, that boded ill for the security of the inhabitants of the
+Albaicin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES.
+
+Situation of Haben-Humeya--Fate of the Moorish Prisoners--Storming of
+Guajaras--Escape of Haben-Humeya--Operations of Los Velez--Cabal against
+Mondejar--Licence of the Soldiers--Massacre in Granada--The Insurrection
+rekindled.
+
+1569.
+
+
+Before the marquis of Mondejar quitted Jubiles, he received a visit from
+seventeen of the principal Moriscoes in that part of the country, who
+came to tender their submission, exculpating themselves, at the same
+time, from any share in the insurrection, and humbly suing for the
+captain-general's protection. This, agreeably to his policy, he promptly
+accorded, granting them a safe-conduct, with instructions to tell their
+countrymen what he had done, and persuade them, if possible, to return
+to their allegiance, as the only way of averting the ruin that else
+would speedily overtake them. This act of clemency, so repugnant to the
+feelings of the Spaniards, was a new cause of disgust to his soldiers,
+who felt that the fair terms thus secured by the rebels were little less
+than a victory over themselves.[84] Yet the good effects of this policy
+were soon made visible, when the marquis resumed his march; for, as his
+favourable dispositions became more generally known, numbers of the
+Moriscoes, and several places on the route, eagerly tendered their
+submission, imploring his mercy, and protection against his followers.
+
+Aben-Humeya, meanwhile, who lay at Paterna, with his wives and his
+warriors gathered around, saw with dismay that his mountain throne was
+fast sliding away from beneath him. The spirit of distrust and
+disaffection had crept into his camp. It was divided into two parties;
+one of these, despairing of further resistance, would have come
+instantly to terms with the enemy; the other still adhered to a bolder
+policy; but its leaders, if we may trust the Castilian writers, were
+less influenced by patriotic than by personal motives, being for the
+most part men who had borne so conspicuous a part in the insurrection,
+that they could scarcely hope to be included in any amnesty granted by
+the Spaniards. Such, in particular, were the African adventurers, who
+had distinguished themselves above all others by their ferocious
+persecution of the Christians. They directed, at this time, the counsels
+of the Moorish prince, filling his mind with suspicions of the loyalty
+of some of his followers, especially of the father of one of his
+wives,--a person of much authority among the Moriscoes. To suspect and
+to slay were words of much the same import with Aben-Humeya. He sent for
+his relative, and, on his entering the apartment, caused him to be
+despatched before his eyes.[85] He would have followed this up by the
+murder of some others of the family, if they had not eluded his grasp;
+thus establishing his title to a descent from those despots of the East
+with whom the lives of their kindred were of as little account as the
+vermin in their path.[86]
+
+He was still at the head of a numerous army; its number, indeed,
+amounting to six thousand men, constituted its greatest strength; for,
+without discipline, almost without arms, it was made up of such rude,
+incongruous materials, that, as he already had experience, it could
+never abide the shock of battle from the militia of Castile. The Moorish
+prince had other causes for discouragement in the tidings he was hourly
+receiving of the defection of his subjects. The clemency shown by the
+conqueror was doing more for him than his arms,--as the snow which the
+blasts of winter have only bound more closely to the hill-side loosens
+its hold and falls away under the soft touch of spring. Notwithstanding
+his late display of audacity, the unhappy young man now lost all
+confidence in his own fortunes and in his followers. Sorely perplexed,
+he knew not where to turn. He had little of the constancy or courage of
+the patriot who has perilled his life in a great cause; and he now had
+recourse to the same expedient which he had so lately punished with
+death in his father-in-law.
+
+He sent a message to the marquis of Mondejar, offering to surrender,
+and, if time were given, to persuade his people to follow his example.
+Meanwhile he requested the Spanish commander to stay his march, and thus
+prevent a collision with his troops. Mondejar, though he would not
+consent to this, advanced more leisurely, while he opened a negotiation
+with his enemy. He had already come in sight of the rebel forces, when
+he consented, at the request of Aben-Humeya, to halt for a night in the
+neighbouring village of Iniza, in order to give time for a personal
+interview. This required the troops, some of whom had now advanced
+within musket-range of the enemy, to fall back, and take up ground in
+the rear of their present position. In executing this manoeuvre, they
+came almost in contact with a detachment of the Moorish army, who, in
+their ignorance of its real object, regarding the movement as a hostile
+demonstration, sent a shower of arrows and other missiles among the
+Spaniards, which they returned, with hearty goodwill, by a volley of
+musketry. The engagement soon became general. Aben-Humeya at the time
+was reading a letter, which he had just received from one of Mondejar's
+staff, arranging the place for the interview, when he was startled by
+the firing, and saw with consternation his own men warmly engaged with
+the enemy. Supposing he had been deceived by the Spaniards, he flung the
+letter on the ground, and throwing himself into the saddle, without so
+much as attempting to rally his forces, which were now flying over the
+field in all directions, he took the road to the Sierra Nevada, followed
+by only five or six of his attendants.[87] His horse was fleet, and he
+soon gained the defiles of the mountains. But he was hotly pursued; and,
+thinking it safer to trust to himself than to his horse, he dismounted,
+cut the hamstrings of the animal, to prevent his being of service to his
+pursuers, and disappeared in the obscure depths of the sierra, where it
+would have been fruitless to follow him.
+
+[Sidenote: THE FALL OF JUBILES.]
+
+The rout of his army was complete; and the victors might have inflicted
+an incalculable loss on the fugitives, had not the marquis of Mondejar
+called off his troops, and put a stop to the work of death. He wished to
+keep open as widely as possible the door of reconciliation. His conduct,
+which was not understood, and could not have been appreciated by his
+men, was stigmatized by them as treachery. They found some amends for
+their disappointment in the pillage of Paterna, the residence of
+Aben-Humeya, which well provided with the costly finery so much loved by
+the Moriscoes, furnished a welcome booty to the conquerors.[88]
+
+Among the Moorish captives were Aben-Humeya's mother, two of his
+sisters, and one of his wives, to whom, as usual, Mondejar extended his
+protection.
+
+Yet the disposal of his prisoners was a subject of perplexity to the
+Spanish commander. His soldiers, as we have seen, would have settled it
+at once, had their captain consented, by appropriating them all as the
+spoils of victory. There were many persons, higher in authority than
+these soldiers, who were of the same way of thinking on the subject with
+them. The question was one of sufficient importance to come before the
+government. Philip referred it to the council of state; and, regarding
+it as a case of conscience, in which the interests of religion were
+concerned, he asked the opinion of the Royal Audience of Granada, over
+which Deza presided. The final decision was what might have been
+expected from tribunals with inquisitors at their head. The Moriscoes,
+men and women, were declared to have incurred by their rebellion the
+doom of slavery. What is more remarkable is the precedent cited for this
+judgment, it being no other than a decision of the Council of Toledo, as
+far back as the time of the Visigoths, when certain rebellious Jews were
+held to have forfeited their liberty by an act of rebellion.[89] The
+Morisco, it was said, should fare no better than the Jew, since he was
+not only, like him, a rebel and an infidel, but an apostate to boot. The
+decision, it was understood, was very satisfactory to Philip, who,
+however, "with the pious moderation that distinguished so just and
+considerate a prince,"[90] so far mitigated the severity of the
+sentence, in the pragmatic which he published, as to exempt from its
+operation boys under ten years of age and girls under eleven. These were
+to be placed in the care of responsible persons, who would give them the
+benefits of a Christian education. Unhappily, there is reason to think
+that the good intentions of the government were not very conscientiously
+carried out in respect to this provision by those intrusted with the
+execution of it.[91]
+
+While the question was pending, Jubiles fell into the hands of the
+victors; and Mondejar, not feeling himself at liberty to release his
+female captives, of whom more than a thousand, by this event, had come
+into his possession, delivered them in charge to three of the principal
+Moriscoes, to whom, it may be remembered, he had given letters of
+safe-conduct. They were allowed to restore the women to their families,
+on condition that they should all be surrendered on the demand of the
+government. Such an act, it must be admitted, implies great confidence
+in the good faith of the Moslems,--a confidence fully justified by the
+result. When, in obedience to the pragmatic, they were claimed by the
+government, they were delivered up by their families,--with the
+exception of some who had died in the meantime,--and the greater part of
+them were sold by public auction in Granada.[92]
+
+The only place of any importance which now held out against Mondejar was
+Las Guajaras, situated in the plains of Salobrena, in the direction of
+Velez Malaga. This was a rocky, precipitous hill, on the summit of
+which, nature, with little assistance from art, had constructed a sort
+of rude fortress. It was held by a fierce band of Moriscoes, who,
+descending from the heights, swept over the plains, carrying on
+devastating forays, that made them the terror of the surrounding
+country. Mondejar, moved by the complaints of the inhabitants, left
+Ugijar on the fifth of February, at the head of his whole array, now
+much augmented by the arrival of recent levies, and marched rapidly on
+Guajaras. He met with a more formidable resistance than he had expected.
+His first attempt to carry the place was repulsed with a heavy loss on
+the part of the assailants. The Moorish garrison, from its elevated
+position, poured a storm of missiles on their heads, and, what was
+worse, rolled down huge masses of rock, which, ploughing through the
+Castilian ranks, overthrew men and horses, and did as great execution as
+would have been done by artillery. Eight hundred Spaniards were left
+dead on the field: and many a noble house in Andalusia had to go into
+mourning for that day's disaster.
+
+Mondejar, stung by this repulse,--the first reverse his arms had
+experienced,--determined to lead the attack in person on the following
+day. His approaches were made with greater caution than before; and,
+without much injury, he succeeded in bringing his arquebusiers on a
+higher level, where their fire swept the enemy's intrenchments and
+inflicted on him a terrible loss. Still the sun went down, and the place
+had not surrendered. But El Zamar, its brave defender, without
+ammunition, almost without arms, felt that there was no longer hope for
+his little garrison. Silently evacuating the place, therefore, at dead
+of night, the Moriscoes, among whom were both women and children,
+scrambled down the precipice with the fearlessness of the mountain goat,
+and made their escape without attracting the notice of the Spaniards.
+They left behind only such as, from age or infirmity, were unable to
+follow them in their perilous descent.
+
+On the next day, when the Spanish general prepared to renew the assault,
+great was his astonishment to find that the enemy had vanished, except
+only a few wretched beings incapable of making any resistance. All the
+evil passions of Mondejar's nature had been roused by the obstinate
+defence of the place, and the lives it had cost him. In the heat of his
+wrath, he ordered the helpless garrison to be put to the sword. No
+prayer for mercy was heeded. No regard was had to age or to sex. All
+were cut down in the presence of the general, who is even said to have
+stimulated the faltering soldiers to go through with their bloody
+work.[93] An act so hard to be reconciled with his previous conduct has
+been referred by some to the annoyance which he felt at being so
+frequently taxed with excessive lenity to the Moriscoes, an accusation
+which was carried, indeed, before the crown, and which the present
+occasion afforded him the means of effectually disproving. However this
+may be, the historian must lament the tarnished honour of a brave and
+generous chief, whose character up to this time had been sullied by
+none of those acts of cruelty which distinguished this sanguinary
+war.[94]
+
+[Sidenote: CAPTURE AND DEATH OF EL ZAMAR.]
+
+But even this cruelty was surpassed by that of his son, the count of
+Tendilla. El Zamar, the gallant defender of the fortress, wandered about
+among the crags with his little daughter, whom he carried in his arms.
+Famished and fainting from fatigue, he was at length overtaken by his
+enemies, and sent off as a prisoner to Granada, where the fierce
+Tendilla caused the flesh to be torn from his bones with red-hot
+pincers, and his mangled carcase, yet palpitating with life, to be
+afterwards quartered. The crime of El Zamar was that he had fought too
+bravely for the independence of his nation.
+
+Having razed the walls of Guajaras to the ground, Mondejar returned with
+his blood-stained laurels to his head-quarters at Orgiba. Tower and town
+had gone down before him. On every side his arms had proved victorious.
+But one thing was wanting--the capture of Aben-Humeya, the "little king"
+of the Alpujarras. So long as he lived, the insurrection, now smothered,
+might be rekindled at any time. He had taken refuge, it was known, in
+the wilds of the Sierra Nevada, where, as the captain-general wrote, he
+was wandering from rock to rock with only a handful of followers.[95]
+Mondejar sent two detachments of soldiers into the sierra, to discover
+his haunts, if possible, and seize upon his person.
+
+The commander of one of these parties, named Maldonado, ascertained that
+Aben-Humeya, secreting himself among the fastnesses of the mountains by
+day, would steal forth at night, and repair, with a few of his
+followers, to a place called Mecina, on the skirts of the sierra. Here
+he found shelter in the house of his kinsman, Aben-Aboo, one of those
+Moriscoes who, after the affair of Jubiles, had obtained a safe-conduct
+from Mondejar. Having gained this intelligence, and learned the
+situation of the house, the Spanish captain marched, with his little
+band of two hundred soldiers, in that direction. He made his approach
+with the greatest secrecy. Travelling by night, he reached undiscovered
+the neighbourhood of Aben-Aboo's residence. Advancing under cover of the
+darkness, he had arrived within gunshot of the dwelling, when, at this
+critical moment, all his precautions were defeated by the carelessness
+of one of his company, whose arquebuse was accidentally discharged. The
+report, reverberating from the hills in the silence of night, roused the
+inmates of the house, who slept as the wearied mariner sleeps when his
+ship is in danger of foundering. One of them, El Zaguer, the uncle of
+Aben-Humeya, and the person who had been mainly instrumental in securing
+him his crown--a crown of thorns--was the first roused, and, springing
+to the window, he threw himself down, though the height was
+considerable, and made his way to the mountains.
+
+His nephew, who lay in another part of the building, was not so
+fortunate. When he reached the window, he saw with dismay the ground in
+front occupied by a body of Castilian troops. Hastening to another
+window, he found it still the same; his enemies were everywhere around
+the house. Bewildered and sorely distressed, he knew not where to turn.
+Thus entrapped, and without the means of making any terms with his
+enemies, he knew he had as little to hope from their mercy as the wolf
+has from the hunters who have caught him in his lair. The Spaniards,
+meanwhile, were thundering at the door of the building for admittance.
+Fortunately it was well secured. A sudden thought occurred to
+Aben-Humeya, which he instantly put in execution. Hastening down stairs,
+he took his station behind the door, and gently drew the bolts. The
+noise was not heard amidst the din made by the assailants, who, finding
+the door give way, supposed they had forced the fastenings, and pouring
+in, soon spread themselves in every direction over the house in search
+of the fugitive. Aben-Humeya, ensconced behind the door, escaped
+observation; and, when his enemies had disappeared, stole out into the
+darkness, and, under its friendly mantle, succeeded in finding his way
+to the mountains.
+
+It was in vain that the Spaniards, enraged at the loss of the quarry,
+questioned Aben-Aboo as to the haunts of his kinsman, and of El Zaguer,
+his uncle, in the sierra. Nor could the most excruciating tortures shake
+his constancy. "I may die," said the brave Morisco, "but my friends will
+live." Leaving him for dead, the soldiers returned to the camp, taking
+with them a number of prisoners, his companions. There was no one of
+them, however, that was not provided with a safe-conduct from the
+marquis, who accordingly set them at liberty; showing a respect for his
+engagements, in which unhappily, as we shall see hereafter, he was not
+too well imitated by his soldiers. The heroic Aben-Aboo, though left for
+dead, did not die, but lived to head another insurrection, and to take
+ample vengeance on his enemies.[96]
+
+While the arms of the marquis of Mondejar were thus crowned with
+success, the war raged yet more fiercely on the eastern slopes of the
+Alpujarras, where a martial race of mountaineers threatened a descent on
+Almeria and the neighbouring places, keeping the inhabitants in
+perpetual alarm. They accordingly implored the government at Granada to
+take some effectual measures for their relief. The president, Deza, in
+consequence, desired the marquis of Los Velez, who held the office of
+_adelantado_ of the adjoining province of Murcia, to muster a force and
+provide for the defence of the frontier. This proceeding was regarded by
+Mondejar's friends as an insult to that nobleman, whose military
+authority extended over the country menaced by the Moriscoes. The act
+was the more annoying, that the person invited to assume the command was
+a rival, between whose house and that of the Mendozas there existed an
+ancient feud. Yet the king sanctioned the proceeding, thinking perhaps
+that Mondejar was not in sufficient force to protect the whole region of
+the Alpujarras. However this may be, Philip, by this act, brought two
+commanders of equal authority on the theatre of action; men who, in
+their characters and habitual policy, were so opposed to each other,
+that little concert could 'be expected between them.
+
+Don Luis Fajardo, marquis of Los Velez, was a nobleman somewhat advanced
+in years, most of which had been passed in the active duties of military
+life. He had studied the art of war under the great emperor, and had
+acquired the reputation of a prompt and resolute soldier, bold in
+action, haughty, indeed overbearing, in his deportment, and with an
+inflexible will, not to be shaken by friend or foe. The severity of his
+nature had not been softened under the stern training of the camp; and,
+as his conduct in the present expedition showed, he was troubled with
+none of those scruples on the score of humanity which so often turned
+the edge of Mondejar's sword from the defenceless and the weak. The
+Moriscoes, who understood his character well, held him in terror, as
+they proved by the familiar _sobriquet_ which they gave him of the
+"iron-headed devil."[97]
+
+[Sidenote: OPERATIONS OF LOS VELEZ.]
+
+The marquis, on receiving the invitation of Deza, lost no time in
+gathering his kindred and numerous vassals around him; and they came
+with an alacrity which showed how willingly they obeyed the summons to a
+foray over the border. His own family was a warlike race, reared from
+the cradle amidst the din of arms. In the present expedition he was
+attended by three of his sons, the youngest of whom a boy of thirteen,
+had the proud distinction of carrying his father's banner.[98] With the
+levies promptly furnished from the neighbouring places, Los Velez soon
+found himself supported by a force of greater strength than that which
+followed the standard of Mondejar. At the head of this valiant but
+ill-disciplined array, he struck into the gloomy gorges of the
+mountains, resolved on bringing the enemy at once to battle.
+
+Our limits will not allow room for the details of a campaign which in
+its general features bears so close a resemblance to that already
+described. Indeed the contest was too unequal to afford a subject of
+much interest to the general reader, while the details are of still less
+importance in a military view, from the total ignorance shown by the
+Moriscoes of the art of war.
+
+The fate of the campaign was decided by three battles, fought
+successively at Huecija, Filix, and Ohanez, places all lying in the
+eastern ranges of the Alpujarras. That of Filix was the most sanguinary.
+A great number of stragglers hung on the skirts of the Morisco army; and
+besides six thousand--many of them women[99]--left dead upon the field,
+there were two thousand children, we are told, butchered by the
+Spaniards.[100] Some fled for refuge to the caves and thickets; but they
+were speedily dragged from their hiding-places, and massacred by the
+soldiers in cold blood. Others, to escape death from the hands of their
+enemies, threw themselves headlong down the precipices,--some of them
+with their infants in their arms,--and thus miserably perished. "The
+cruelties committed by the troops," says one of the army, who chronicled
+its achievements, "were such as the pen refuses to record.[101] I
+myself," he adds, "saw the corpse of a Morisco woman, covered with
+wounds, stretched upon the ground, with six of her children lying dead
+around her. She had succeeded in protecting a seventh, still an infant,
+with her body, and though the lances which pierced her had passed
+through its clothes, it had marvellously escaped any injury. It was
+clinging," he continues, "to its dead mother's bosom, from which it drew
+milk that was mingled with blood. I carried it away and saved it."[102]
+For the credit of human nature he records some other instances of the
+like kind, showing that a spark of humanity might occasionally be struck
+out from the flinty breasts of these marauders.
+
+The field of battle afforded a rich harvest for the victors, who
+stripped the dead, and rifled the bodies of the women of collars,
+bracelets, ornaments of gold and silver, and costly jewels, with which
+the Moorish female loved to decorate her person. Sated with plunder, the
+soldiers took the first occasion to leave their colours and return to
+their homes. Their places were soon supplied, as the display of their
+riches sharpened the appetites of their countrymen, who eagerly floaked
+to the banner of a chief that was sure to lead them on to victory and
+plunder. But that chief, with all his stern authority, was no match for
+the spirit of insubordination that reigned among his troops; and, when
+he attempted to punish one of their number for a gross act of
+disobedience, he was made to understand that there were three thousand
+in the camp ready to stand by their comrade and protect him from
+injury.[103]
+
+The wild excesses of the soldiery were strangely mingled with a respect
+for the forms of religion, that intimated the nature of the war in which
+they were engaged. Before entering into action the whole army knelt down
+in prayer, solemnly invoking the protection of Heaven on its champions.
+After the battle of Ohanez, where the mountain streams were so polluted
+with the gore that the Spaniards found it difficult to slake their
+thirst, they proceeded to celebrate the _fete_ of the Purification of
+the Virgin.[104] A procession was formed to the church, which was headed
+by the marquis of Los Velez and his chivalry, clad in complete mail, and
+bearing white tapers in their hands. Then came the Christian women, who
+had been rescued from captivity, dressed, by the general's command, in
+robes of blue and white, as the appropriate colours of the Virgin.[105]
+The rear was brought up by a body of friars and other ecclesiastics, who
+had taken part in the crusade. The procession passed slowly between the
+files of the soldiery, who saluted it with volleys of musketry as it
+entered the church, where _Te Deum_ was chanted, and the whole company
+prostrated themselves in adoration of the Lord of Hosts, who had given
+his enemies into their hands.
+
+[Sidenote: CABAL AGAINST MONDEJAR.]
+
+From this solemn act of devotion the troops proceeded to the work of
+pillage, in which the commander, unlike his rival, the marquis of
+Mondejar, joined as heartily as the meanest of his followers. The
+Moorish captives, to the number of sixteen hundred, among whom, we are
+told, were many young and beautiful maidens, instead of meeting with the
+protection they had received from the more generous Mondejar, were
+delivered up to the licentious soldiery; and for a fortnight there
+reigned throughout the camp a carnival of the wildest riot and
+debauchery.[106] In this strange confusion of the religious sentiment
+and of crimes most revolting to humanity, we see the characteristic
+features of the crusade. Nowhere do we find such a free range given to
+the worst passions of our nature as in the wars of religion,--where each
+party considers itself as arrayed against the enemies of God, and where
+the sanctity of the cause throws a veil over the foulest transgressions
+that hides their enormity from the eye of the transgressor.
+
+While the Moriscoes were stunned by the fierce blows thus dealt in rapid
+succession by the iron-hearted marquis, the mild and liberal policy of
+his rival was still more effectually reducing his enemies to obedience.
+Disheartened by their reverses, exhausted by fatigue and hunger, as they
+roved among the mountains, without raiment to clothe or a home to
+shelter them, the wretched wanderers came in one after another to sue
+for pardon. Nearly all the towns and villages in the district assigned
+to Mondejar, oppressed with like feelings of despondency, sent
+deputations to the Spanish quarters, to tender their submission and to
+sue for his protection. While these were graciously received, the
+general provided for the future security of his conquests, by
+establishing garrisons in the principal places, and by sending small
+detachments to different parts, to act as a sort of armed police for the
+maintenance of order. In this way, says a contemporary, the tranquillity
+of the country was so well established, that small parties of ten or a
+dozen soldiers wandered unmolested from one end of it to the other.[107]
+
+Mondejar, at the same time, wrote to the king, to acquaint him with the
+actual state of things. He besought his master to deal mercifully with
+the conquered people, and thus afford him the means of redeeming the
+pledges he had given for the favourable dispositions of the
+government.[108] He made another communication to the marquis of Los
+Velez, urging that nobleman to co-operate with him in the same humane
+policy, as the one best suited to the interests of the country. But his
+rival took a very different view of the matter; and he plainly told the
+marquis of Mondejar, that it would require more than one pitched battle
+yet to break the spirit of the Moriscoes; and that, since they thought
+so differently on the subject, the only way left was for each commander
+to take the course he judged best.[109]
+
+Unfortunately, there were others--men, too, of influence at the
+court--who were of the same stern way of thinking as the marquis of Los
+Velez; men acting under the impulse of religious bigotry, of implacable
+hatred of the Moslems, and of a keen remembrance of the outrages they
+had committed. There were others who, more basely, thought only of
+themselves and of the profit they should derive from the continuance of
+the war.
+
+Among those of the former class was the president Deza, with the members
+of the Audience and the civil authorities in Granada. Always viewing
+the proceedings of the captain-general with an unfriendly eye, they
+loudly denounced his policy to the king, condemning his ill-timed lenity
+to a crafty race, who would profit by it to rally from their late
+disasters and to form new plans of rebellion. It was not right, they
+said, that outrages like those perpetrated against both _divine and
+human majesty_ should go unpunished.[110] Mondejar's enemies did not
+stop here, but accused him of defrauding the exchequer of its dues, the
+fifth of the spoils of war gained in battle from the infidel. Finally,
+they charged him with having shown want of respect for the civil
+authorities of Granada, in omitting to communicate to them his plan of
+operations.
+
+The marquis, advised by his friends at court of these malicious attempts
+to ruin his credit with the government, despatched a confidential envoy
+to Madrid, to present his case before his sovereign and to refute the
+accusations of his enemies. The charge of peculation seems to have made
+no impression on the mind of a prince who would not have been slow to
+suspect, had there been any ground for suspicion. There may have been
+stronger grounds for the complaint of want of deference to the civil
+authorities of Granada. The best vindication of his conduct in this
+particular must be found in the character and conduct of his
+adversaries. From the first, Deza and the municipality had regarded him
+with jealousy, and done all in their power to thwart his plans and
+circumscribe his authority. It is only confidence that begets
+confidence. Mondejar, early accustomed to command, was probably too
+impatient of opposition.[111] He chafed under the obstacles and
+annoyances thrown in his way by his narrow-minded rivals. We have not
+the means before us of coming to a conclusive judgment on the merits of
+the controversy, but from what we know of the marquis's accusers, with
+the wily inquisitor at their head, we shall hardly err by casting our
+sympathies into the scale of the frank and generous-hearted soldier,
+who, while those that thus censured him were living at ease in the
+capital, had been fighting and following up the enemy, amidst the
+winter's tempests and across mountains covered with snow; and who, in
+little more than a month, without other aid than the disorderly levies
+of the cities, had quelled a dangerous revolt, and restored tranquillity
+to the land.
+
+Philip was greatly perplexed by the different accounts sent to him of
+the posture of affairs in Granada. Mondejar's agent suggested to the
+council of state that it would be well if his majesty would do as his
+father, Charles the Fifth, would have done in the like case--repair
+himself to the scene of action, and observe the actual state of things
+with his own eyes. But the suggestion found no favour with the minister,
+Espinosa, who affected to hold the Moriscoes in such contempt, that a
+measure of this kind, he declared, would be derogatory to the royal
+dignity. A better course would be for his majesty to send some one as
+his representative, clothed with full powers to take charge of the war,
+and of a rank so manifestly pre-eminent, that neither of the two
+commanders now in the field could take umbrage at his appointment over
+their heads.
+
+This suggestion, as the politic minister doubtless had foreseen, was
+much more to Philip's taste than that of his going in person to the
+scene of strife; for, however little he might shrink from any amount of
+labour in the closet, he had, as we have seen, a sluggish temperament,
+that indisposed him to much bodily exertion. The plan of sending some
+one to represent the monarch at the seat of war was accordingly
+approved; and the person selected for this responsible office was
+Philip's bastard brother, Don John of Austria.[112]
+
+[Sidenote: LICENCE OF THE SOLDIERS.]
+
+Rumours of what was going on in the cabinet at Madrid, reaching Granada
+from time to time, were followed by the most mischievous consequences.
+The troops, in particular, had no sooner learned that the marquis of
+Mondejar was about to be superseded in the command, than they threw off
+the little restraint he had been hitherto able to impose on them, and
+abandoned themselves to the violence and rapine to which they were so
+well disposed, and which seemed now to be countenanced by the president
+and the authorities in Granada. The very patrols whom Mondejar had
+commissioned to keep the peace were the first to set the example of
+violating it. They invaded the hamlets and houses they were sent to
+protect, plundered them of their contents, and committed the foulest
+outrages on their inmates. The garrisons in the principal towns imitated
+their example, carrying on their depredations, indeed, on a still larger
+scale. Even the capital, under the very eyes of the count of Tendilla,
+sent out detachments of soldiers, who with ruthless violence trampled
+down the green plantations in the valleys, sacked the villages, and
+dragged away the inhabitants from the midst of their blazing dwellings
+into captivity.[113]
+
+It was with the deepest indignation that the marquis of Mondejar saw the
+fine web of policy he had been so busily contriving thus wantonly rent
+asunder by the very hands that should have protected it. He now longed
+as ardently as any in the province for the coming of some one entrusted
+with authority to enforce obedience from the turbulent soldiery; a task
+of still greater difficulty than the conquest of the enemy. While such
+was the state of things, an event occurred in Granada which, in its
+general character, may remind one of some of the most atrocious scenes
+of the French Revolution.
+
+In the beginning of the troubles, the president had caused a number of
+Moriscoes, amounting to not less than a hundred and fifty, it is said,
+to be arrested and thrown into the prison of the Chancery. Certain
+treasonable designs, of which they had been suspected for a long time,
+furnished the feeble pretext for this violent proceeding. Some few,
+indeed, were imprisoned for debt. But the greater number were wealthy
+men, who enjoyed the highest consideration among their countrymen. They
+had been suffered to remain in confinement during the whole of the
+campaign; thus serving, in some sort, as hostages for the good behaviour
+of the people of the Albaicin.
+
+Early in March, a rumour was circulated that the mountaineers, headed by
+Aben-Humeya, whose father and brother were among the prisoners, were
+prepared to make a descent on the city by night, and, with the
+assistance of the inhabitants of the Albaicin, to begin the work of
+destruction by assaulting the prison of the Chancery and liberating
+their countrymen. This report, readily believed, caused the greatest
+alarm among the citizens, boding no good to the unhappy prisoners. On
+the evening of the seventeenth, Deza received intelligence that lights
+had been seen on some of the neighbouring mountains, which seemed to be
+of the nature of signals, as they were answered by corresponding lights
+in some of the houses in the Albaicin. The assault, it was said, would
+doubtless be made that very night. The president appears to have taken
+no measures for the protection of the city, but, on receiving the
+information, he at once communicated it to the alcayde of the prison,
+and directed him to provide for the security of his prisoners. The
+alcayde lost no time in gathering his friends about him, and caused arms
+to be distributed among a body of Spaniards, of whom there appears to
+have been a considerable number confined in the place at this time. Thus
+prepared, they all remained, as in silent expectation of some great
+event.
+
+At length, some time before midnight, the guard posted in the Campana,
+one of the towers of the Alhambra, struck the bell with a succession of
+rapid strokes, such as were used to give an alarm. In a moment every
+Spaniard in the prison was on his feet; and, the alcayde throwing open
+the doors and leading the way, they fell at once on their defenceless
+victims, confined in another quarter of the building. As many of these
+were old and infirm, and most of them inoffensive citizens, whose quiet
+way of life had little fitted them for brawl or battle, and who were now
+destitute of arms of any kind, they seemed to be as easy victims as the
+sheep into whose fold the famishing wolves have broken in the absence of
+the shepherd. Yet they did not give up their lives without an effort to
+save them. Despair lent them strength, and snatching up chairs, benches,
+or any other article of furniture in their cells, they endeavoured to
+make good their defence against the assailants. Some, exerting a vigour
+which despair only could have given, succeeded in wrenching stones from
+the walls or iron bars from the windows, and thus supplied themselves
+with the means, not merely of defence, but of doing some mischief to the
+assailants in their turn. They fought, in short, like men who are
+fighting for their lives. Some, however, losing all hope of escape,
+piled together a heap of mats, bedding, and other combustibles, and,
+kindling them with their torches, threw themselves into the flames,
+intending in this way to set fire to the building, and to perish in one
+general conflagration with their murderers.[114] But the flames they had
+kindled were soon extinguished in their own blood, and their mangled
+remains were left to blacken among the cinders of their funeral pile.
+
+For two hours the deadly conflict between parties so unequally matched
+had continued; the one shouting its old war-cry of "Saint Iago," as if
+fighting on an open field; the other, if we may take the Castilian
+account, calling on their prophet to come to their assistance. But no
+power, divine or human, interposed in their behalf; and, notwithstanding
+the wild uproar caused by men engaged in a mortal struggle, by the sound
+of heavy blows and falling missiles, by the yells of the victors and the
+dying moans and agonies of the vanquished, no noise to give token of
+what was going on--if we are to credit the chroniclers--found its way
+beyond the walls of the prison. Even the guard stationed in the
+court-yard, we are assured, were not roused from their slumbers.[115]
+
+At length some rumour of what was passing reached the city, where the
+story ran that the Moriscoes were in arms against their keepers, and
+would soon probably get possession of the gaol. This report was enough
+for the people, who, roused by the alarm-bell, were now in a state of
+excitement that disposed them to any deed of violence. Snatching up
+their weapons, they rushed, or rather flew, like vultures snuffing the
+carrion from afar, to the scene of slaughter. Strengthened by this
+reinforcement, the assailants in the prison soon completed the work of
+death; and, when the morning light broke through the grated windows, it
+disclosed the full extent of the tragedy. Of all the Moriscoes only two
+had escaped,--the father and brother of Aben-Humeya, over whom a guard
+had been especially set. Five Spaniards were slain, and seventeen
+wounded; showing the fierce resistance made by the Moslems, though
+destitute of arms.[116]
+
+[Sidenote: THE INSURRECTION REKINDLED.]
+
+Such was the massacre in the prison of the Chancery of Granada, which,
+as already intimated, nowhere finds a more fitting parallel than in the
+murders perpetrated on a still larger scale during the French
+Revolution, in the famous massacres of September. But the miscreants who
+perpetrated these enormities were the tools of a sanguinary faction,
+that was regarded with horror by every friend of humanity in the
+country. In Granada, on the other hand, it was the government itself, or
+at least those of highest authority in it, who were responsible for the
+deed. For who can doubt that a proceeding, the success of which depended
+on the concurrence of so many circumstances as to preclude the idea of
+accident, must have been countenanced, if not contrived, by those who
+had the direction of affairs?
+
+Another feature, not the least striking in the case, is the apathy shown
+by contemporary writers,--men who on more than one occasion have been
+willing to testify their sympathy for the sufferings of the Moriscoes.
+One of these chroniclers, after telling the piteous tale, coolly remarks
+that it was a good thing for the alcayde of the prison, who pocketed a
+large sum of money which had been found on the persons of the wealthy
+Moors. Another, after noticing the imputation of an intended rising on
+the part of the prisoners as in the highest degree absurd, dismisses the
+subject by telling us that "the Moriscoes were a weak, scatter-brained
+race, with just wit enough to bring on themselves such a _mishap_,"--as
+he pleasantly terms the massacre.[117] The government of Madrid received
+the largest share of the price of blood. For when the wives and families
+of the deceased claimed the inheritance of their estates, in some cases
+very large, their claims were rejected--on what grounds we are not
+told--by the alcaldes of the Court of Audience in Granada, and the
+estates were confiscated to the use of the crown. Such a decision,
+remarks a chronicler, may lead one to infer that the prisoners had been
+guilty of even more heinous offences than those commonly imputed to
+them.[118] The impartial reader will probably come to a very different
+conclusion; and since it was the opulent burghers who were thus marked
+out for destruction, he may naturally infer that the baser passion of
+avarice mingled with the feelings of fear and hatred in bringing about
+the massacre.
+
+However this may be, so foul a deed placed an impassable gulf between
+the Spaniards and the Moriscoes. It taught the latter that they could no
+longer rely on their perfidious enemy, who, while he was holding out to
+them one hand in token of reconciliation, was raising the other to smite
+them to the ground. A cry of vengeance ran through all the borders of
+the Alpujarras. Again the mountaineers rose in arms. They cut off
+stragglers, waylaid the patrols whom Mondejar had distributed throughout
+the country, and even menaced the military posts of the Spaniards. On
+some occasions, they encountered the latter with success in the open
+field, and in one instance defeated and slew a large body of Christians,
+as they were returning from a foray laden with plunder. Finally they
+invited Aben-Humeya to return and resume the command, promising to stand
+by him to the last. The chief obeyed the call and, leaving his retreat
+in the Sierra Nevada, again took possession of his domains, and,
+planting his blood-red flag on his native hills,[119] soon gathered
+around him a more formidable host than before. He even affected a
+greater pomp than he had before displayed. He surrounded himself with a
+body-guard of four hundred arquebusiers.[120] He divided his army into
+battalions and companies, and endeavoured to introduce into it something
+of the organization and tactics of the Spaniards.[121] He sent his
+brother Abdallah to Constantinople, to represent his condition to the
+Sultan, and to implore him to make common cause with his Moslem brethren
+in the Peninsula. In short, rebellion assumed a more audacious front
+than at any time during the previous campaign; and the Christians of
+Andalusia and Granada looked with the greatest anxiety for the coming of
+a commander possessed of sufficient authority to infuse harmony into the
+counsels of the rival chiefs, to enforce obedience from the turbulent
+soldiery, and to bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES.
+
+Early life of Don John of Austria--Acknowledged by Philip--His Thirst
+for Distinction--His Cruise in the Mediterranean--Made
+Commander-in-chief--The War renewed--Removal of the Moriscoes.
+
+1569.
+
+
+As Don John of Austria is to occupy an important place, not only in the
+war with the Moriscoes, but in some of the most memorable scenes in the
+remainder of this history, it will be proper to acquaint the reader with
+what is known of the earlier part of his career. Yet it is precisely
+over this part of it that a veil of mystery hangs, which no industry of
+the historian has been able wholly to remove.
+
+It seems probable that he was born in the year 1547.[122] The
+twenty-fourth of February is assigned by common consent--I hardly know
+on what ground--as the day of his birth. It was also, it may be
+remembered, the birthday of his father, Charles the Fifth. His mother,
+Barbara Blomberg, was an inhabitant of Ratisbon, in Germany. She is
+described as a beautiful young girl, who attracted the emperor's notice
+several years after the death of the empress Isabella.[123] The Spanish
+chroniclers claim a noble descent for Barbara.[124] Indeed, it would go
+hard but a Spaniard could make out a pedigree for his hero. Yet there
+are several circumstances which suggest the idea that the mother of Don
+John must have occupied a very humble position.
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA.]
+
+Subsequently to her connexion with Charles she married a German named
+Kegell, on whom the emperor bestowed the office of commissary.[125] The
+only other notice, so far as I am aware, which Charles took of his
+former mistress was the settlement on her of a yearly pension of two
+hundred florins, which he made the day before his death.[126] It was
+certainly not a princely legacy, and infers that the object of it must
+have been in a humble condition in life to have rendered it important to
+her comfort. We are led to the same conclusion by the mystery thrown
+around the birth of the child, forming so strong a contrast to the
+publicity given to the birth of the emperor's natural daughter, Margaret
+of Parma, whose mother could boast that in her veins flowed some of the
+best blood of the Netherlands.
+
+For three years the boy, who received the name of Geronimo, remained
+under his mother's roof, when, by Charles's order, he was placed in the
+hands of a Fleming, named Maffi, a musician in the imperial band. This
+man transferred his residence to Leganes, a village in Castile, not far
+from Madrid. The instrument still exists that contains the agreement by
+which Maffi, after acknowledging the receipt of a hundred florins,
+engages for fifty florins annually, to bring up the child with as much
+care as if he were his own.[127] It was a moderate allowance, certainly,
+for the nurture of one who was some day to come before the world as the
+son of an emperor. It showed that Charles was fond of a bargain, though
+at the expense of his own offspring.
+
+No instruction was provided for the child except such as he could pick
+up from the parish priest, who, as he knew as little as Maffi did of the
+secret of Geronimo's birth, probably bestowed no more attention on him
+than on the other lads of the village. And we cannot doubt that a boy of
+his lively temper must have preferred passing his days in the open
+fields, to confinement in the house and listening to the homilies of his
+teacher. As he grew in years, he distinguished himself above his young
+companions by his courage. He took the lead in all their rustic sports,
+and gave token of his belligerent propensities by making war on the
+birds in the orchards, on whom he did great execution with his little
+crossbow.[128]
+
+Four years were passed in this hardy way of life, which, if it did
+nothing else for the boy, had the advantage of strengthening his
+constitution for the serious trials of manhood, when the emperor thought
+it was time to place him in a situation where he would receive a better
+training than could be found in the cottage of a peasant. He was
+accordingly transferred to the protection of Luis Quixada, Charles's
+trusty major-domo, who received the child into his family at
+Villagarcia, in the neighbourhood of Valladolid. The emperor showed his
+usual discernment in the selection of a guardian for his son. Quixada,
+with his zeal for the faith, his loyalty, his nice sentiment of honour,
+was the very type of the Castilian hidalgo in his best form; while he
+possessed all those knightly qualities which made him the perfect mirror
+of the antique chivalry. His wife, Dona Magdalena de Ulloa, sister of
+the marquis of Mota, was a lady yet more illustrious for her virtues
+than for her rank. She had naturally the most to do with the training of
+the boy's earlier years; and under her discipline it was scarcely
+possible that one of so generous a nature should fail to acquire the
+courtly breeding and refinement of taste which shed a lustre over the
+stern character of the soldier.
+
+However much Quixada may have reposed on his wife's discretion, he did
+not think proper to try it, in the present instance, by communicating to
+her the secret of Geronimo's birth. He spoke of him as the son of a
+great man, his dear friend, expressing his desire that his wife would
+receive him as her own child. This was the less difficult, as Magdalena
+had no children of her own. The solicitude shown by her lord may
+possibly have suggested to her the idea that the boy was more nearly
+related to him than he chose to acknowledge,--in short, that he was the
+offspring of some intrigue of Quixada previous to his marriage.[129] But
+an event which took place not long after the child's introduction into
+the family, is said to have awakened in her suspicions of an origin more
+in accordance with the truth. The house at Villagarcia took fire; and,
+as it was in the night, the flames gained such head that they were not
+discovered till they burst through the windows. The noise in the street
+roused the sleeping inmates; and Quixada, thinking first of his charge,
+sprang from his bed, and, rushing into Geronimo's apartment, snatched up
+the affrighted child, and bore him in his arms to a place of safety. He
+then reentered the house, and, forcing his way through the smoke and
+flames, succeeded in extricating his wife from her perilous situation.
+This sacrifice of love to loyalty is panegyrized by a Castilian
+chronicler as "a rare achievement, far transcending any act of heroism
+of which antiquity could boast."[130] Whether Magdalena looked with the
+same complacency on the proceeding we are not informed. Certain it is,
+however, that the interest shown by her husband in the child had no
+power to excite any feeling of jealousy in her bosom. On the contrary,
+it seemed rather to strengthen her own interest in the boy, whose
+uncommon beauty and affectionate disposition soon called forth all the
+tenderness of her nature. She took him to her heart, and treated him
+with all the fondness of a mother,--a feeling warmly reciprocated by the
+object of it, who, to the day of his death, regarded her with the truest
+feelings of filial love and reverence.
+
+In 1558, the year after his retirement to Yuste, Charles the Fifth,
+whether from a wish to see his son, or, as is quite as probable, in the
+hope of making Quixada more contented with his situation, desired his
+major-domo to bring his family to the adjoining village of Cuacos. While
+there, the young Geronimo must doubtless sometimes have accompanied his
+mother, as he called Dona Magdalena, in her visits to the monastery.
+Indeed, his biographer assures us that the sight of him operated like a
+panacea on the emperor's health.[131] We find no allusion to him,
+however, in any of the letters from Yuste; and, if he did go there, we
+may be sure that Charles had sufficient control over himself not to
+betray, by any indiscreet show of fondness, his relationship to the
+child.[132] One tradition respecting him lingered to a late period
+among the people of Cuacos, where the peasants, it is said, pelted him
+with stones as he was robbing their orchards. It was the first lesson in
+war of the future hero of Lepanto.
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA.]
+
+There is no reason to doubt that the boy witnessed the obsequies of the
+emperor. One who was present tells us that he saw him there, dressed in
+full mourning, and standing by the side of Quixada, for whose page he
+passed among the brethren of the convent.[133] We may well believe that
+a spectacle so solemn and affecting as these funeral ceremonies must
+have sunk deep into his young mind, and heightened the feelings of
+veneration with which he always regarded the memory of his father. It
+was, perhaps, the appearance of Geronimo as one of the mourners that
+first suggested the idea of his relationship to the emperor. We find a
+letter from Quixada to Philip, dated soon after, in which he speaks of
+rumours on the subject as current in the neighbourhood.[134]
+
+Among the testamentary papers of Charles was found one in an envelope
+sealed with his private seal, and addressed to his son Philip, or in
+case of his death, to his grandson Carlos, or whoever might be in
+possession of the crown. It was dated in 1554, before his retirement to
+Yuste. It acknowledged his connexion with a German maiden, and the birth
+of a son named Geronimo. The mother's name was not given. He pointed out
+the quarter where information could be got respecting the child, who was
+then living with the violin-player at Leganes. He expressed the wish
+that he should be trained up for the ecclesiastical profession, and
+that, when old enough, he should enter a convent of one of the reformed
+orders. Charles would not, however, have any constraint put on the
+inclinations of the boy, and in case of his preferring a secular life,
+he would have a suitable estate settled on him in the kingdom of Naples,
+with an annual income of between thirty and forty thousand ducats.
+Whatever course Geronimo might take, the emperor requested that he
+should receive all the honour and consideration due to him as his son.
+His letter concluded by saying that, although for obvious reasons he had
+not inserted these directions in his will, he wished them to be held of
+the same validity as if he had.[135] Philip seems from the first to have
+so regarded them, though, as he was then in Flanders, he resolved to
+postpone the public acknowledgment of his brother till his return to
+Spain.
+
+Meanwhile, the rumours in regard to Geronimo's birth had reached the
+ears of the regent, Joanna. With natural curiosity, she ordered her
+secretary to write to Quixada and ascertain the truth of the report. The
+trusty hidalgo endeavoured to evade the question, by saying that some
+years since a friend of his had entrusted a boy to his care; but as no
+allusion whatever was made to the child in the emperor's will, the story
+of their relationship to each other should be treated as idle
+gossip.[136] The reply did not satisfy Joanna, who seems to have settled
+it in her own mind that the story was well founded. She took an
+occasion soon after to write to Dona Magdalena, during her husband's
+absence from home, expressing her wish that the lady would bring the boy
+where she could see him. The place selected was at an _auto de fe_ about
+to be celebrated in Valladolid. Dona Magdalena, reluctant as she was,
+felt herself compelled to receive the request from such a source as a
+command, which she had no right to disobey. One might have thought that
+a ceremony so heartrending and appalling in its character as an _auto de
+fe_ would be the last to be selected for the indulgence of any feeling
+of a light and joyous nature. But the Spaniard of that and of a much
+later age regarded this as the sweetest sacrifice that could be offered
+to the Almighty; and he went to it with the same indifference to the
+sufferings of the victim--probably with the same love of
+excitement--which he would have felt in going to a bull-fight.
+
+On the day which had been named, Magdalena and her charge took their
+seats on the carpeted platform reserved for persons of rank, in full
+view of the scaffold appropriated to the martyrs who were to suffer for
+conscience' sake. It was in the midst of the august company here
+assembled, that the son of Charles the Fifth was to receive his first
+lesson in the school of persecution; that he was to learn to steel his
+heart against sympathy with human suffering; to learn, above all, that
+compassion for the heretic was a crime of the deepest dye. It was a
+terrible lesson for one so young--of an age when the mind is most open
+to impressions; and the bitter fruits of it were to be discerned ere
+long in the war with the Moriscoes.
+
+As the royal train approached the place occupied by Dona Magdalena, the
+regent paused and looked around for the boy. Magdalena had thrown her
+mantle about him, to conceal him as much as possible from the public
+eye. She now drew it aside; and Joanna looked so long and earnestly on
+the child, that he shrunk abashed from her gaze. It was not, however,
+before she had recognized in his bright blue eyes, his ample forehead,
+and the rich yellow locks that clustered round his head, some of the
+peculiarities of the Austrian line, though happily without the deformity
+of the protruding lip, which was no less its characteristic. Her heart
+yearned with the tenderness of a sister, as she felt convinced that the
+same blood flowed in his veins as in her own; and, stooping down, she
+threw her arms around his neck, and, kissing him, called him by the
+endearing name of brother.[137] She would have persuaded him to go with
+her and sit by her side, but the boy, clinging closely to his
+foster-mother, refused to leave her for the stranger lady.
+
+This curious scene attracted the attention of the surrounding
+spectators, which was hardly diverted from the child by the appearance
+of the prisoners on the scaffold to receive their sentences. When these
+had been pronounced, and the wretched victims led away to execution, the
+multitude pressed so eagerly round Magdalena and the boy, that it was
+with difficulty the guards could keep them back, till the regent, seeing
+the awkwardness of their situation, sent one of her train, the count of
+Osorno, to their relief; and that nobleman, forcing his way through the
+crowd, carried off Geronimo in his arms to the royal carriage.[138]
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN ACKNOWLEDGED BY PHILIP.]
+
+It was not long before all mystery was dispelled by the public
+acknowledgment of the child as the son of the emperor. One of the first
+acts of Philip, after his return to Spain in 1559, was to arrange an
+interview with his brother. The place assigned for the meeting was an
+extensive park, not far from Valladolid, in the neighbourhood of the
+convent of _La Espina_, a spot much resorted to by the Castilian princes
+of the older time for the pleasures of the chase.
+
+On the appointed day, Quixada, richly dressed, and mounted on the best
+horse in his stables, rode forth, at the head of his vassals, to meet
+the king, with the little Geronimo, simply attired, and on a common
+palfrey, by his side. They had gone but a few miles when they heard,
+through the woods, the sound of horses' hoofs, announcing the approach
+of the royal cavalcade. Quixada halted, and alighting, drew near to
+Geronimo, with much deference in his manner, and, dropping on one knee,
+begged permission to kiss his hand. At the same time he desired his ward
+to dismount, and take the charger which he had himself been riding.
+Geronimo was sorely bewildered by what he would have thought a merry
+jest on the part of his guardian, had not his sedate and dignified
+character forbidden the supposition. Recovering from his astonishment,
+he complied with his guardian's directions; and the vision of future
+greatness must have flashed on his mind, if, as we are told, when
+preparing to mount, he turned round to Quixada, and with an affected air
+of dignity, told him that, "since things were so, he might hold the
+stirrup for him."[139]
+
+They had not proceeded far when they came in sight of the royal party.
+Quixada pointed out the king to his ward, adding that his majesty had
+something of importance to communicate to him. They then dismounted; and
+the boy, by his guardian's instructions, drawing near to Philip, knelt
+down and begged leave to kiss his majesty's hand. The king, graciously
+extending it, looked intently on the youth; and at length broke silence
+by asking "if he knew who was his father." Geronimo, disconcerted by the
+abruptness of the question, and, indeed, if the reports of his origin
+had ever reached his ears, ignorant of their truth, cast his eyes on the
+ground and made no answer. Philip, not displeased with his
+embarrassment, was well satisfied, doubtless, to read in his intelligent
+countenance and noble mien an assurance that he would do no discredit to
+his birth. Alighting from his horse, he embraced Geronimo, exclaiming,
+"Take courage, my child, you are descended from a great man. The emperor
+Charles the Fifth, now in glory, is your father as well as mine."[140]
+Then, turning to the lords who stood around, he presented the boy to
+them as the son of their late sovereign, and his own brother. The
+courtiers, with the ready instinct of their tribe, ever prompt to
+worship the rising sun, pressed eagerly forward to pay their obeisance
+to Geronimo. The scene was concluded by the king's buckling a sword on
+his brother's side, and throwing around his neck the sparkling collar of
+the Golden Fleece.
+
+The tidings of this strange event soon spread over the neighbourhood,
+for there were many more witnesses of the ceremony than those who took
+part in it; and the king and his retinue found, on their return, a
+multitude of people gathering along the route, eager to get a glimpse of
+this newly discovered gem of royalty. The sight of the handsome youth
+called forth a burst of noisy enthusiasm from the populace, and the air
+rang with their tumultuous _vivas_ as the royal party rode through the
+streets of the ancient city of Valladolid. Philip expressed his
+satisfaction at the events of the day, by declaring that "he had never
+met better sport in his life, or brought back game so much to his
+mind."[141]
+
+Having thus publicly acknowledged his brother, the king determined to
+provide for him an establishment suited to his condition. He assigned
+him for his residence one of the best mansions in Madrid. He was
+furnished with a numerous band of retainers, and as great state was
+maintained in his household as in that of a prince of the blood. The
+count of Priego acted as his chief major-domo; Don Luis Carrillo, the
+eldest son of that noble, was made captain of the guard; and Don Luis de
+Cordova master of the horse. In short, nobles and cavaliers of the best
+blood in Castile did not disdain to hold offices in the service of the
+peasant boy. With one or two exceptions, of little importance, he
+enjoyed all the privileges that belonged to the royal _infantes_. He did
+not, like them, have apartments in the palace; and he was to be
+addressed by the title of "Excellency," instead of "Highness," which was
+their peculiar prerogative. The distinction was not always scrupulously
+observed.[142]
+
+A more important change took place in his name, which from _Geronimo_
+was now converted into _John of Austria_,--a lofty name, which intimated
+his descent from the imperial house of Hapsburg, and on which his deeds
+in after-life shed a lustre greater than the proudest title that
+sovereignty could confer.
+
+Luis Quixada kept the same place after his pupil's elevation as before.
+He continued to be his _ayo_, or governor, and removed with Dona
+Magdalena to Madrid, where he took up his residence in the house of Don
+John. Thus living in the most intimate personal relations with him,
+Quixada maintained his influence unimpaired till the hour of his own
+death.
+
+Philip fully appreciated the worth of the faithful hidalgo, who was
+fortunate in thus enjoying the favour of the son in as great a degree as
+he had done that of the father,--and, as it would seem, with a larger
+recompense for his services. He was master of the horse to Don Carlos,
+the heir to the crown; he held the important post of president of the
+Council of the Indies; and he possessed several lucrative benefices in
+the military order of Calatrava. In one of his letters to the king, we
+find Quixada remarking that he had endeavoured to supply the
+deficiencies of his pupil's early education by training him in a manner
+better suited to his destinies in after-life.[143] We cannot doubt that,
+in the good knight's estimate of what was essential to such a training,
+the exercises of chivalry must have found more favour than the monastic
+discipline recommended by the emperor. However this may have been,
+Philip resolved to give his brother the best advantages for a liberal
+education by sending him to the University of Alcala, which, founded by
+the great Ximenes, a little more than a century before, now shared with
+the older school of Salamanca the glory of being the most famous seat of
+science in the Peninsula. Don John had for his companions his two
+nephews, Don Carlos and Alexander Farnese, the son of Margaret of Parma.
+They formed a triumvirate, each member of which was to fill a large
+space in the pages of history; Don Carlos from his errors and
+misfortunes, and the two others from their military achievements. They
+were all of nearly the same age. Don John, according to a writer of the
+time, stood foremost among the three for the comeliness, or rather
+beauty of his person, no less than for the charm of his manners;[144]
+while the soul was filled with those nobler qualities which gave promise
+of the highest excellence.[145]
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN'S THIRST FOR DISTINCTION.]
+
+His biographers tell us that Don John gave due attention to his studies,
+but the studies which found most favour in his eyes were those connected
+with the art of war. He was perfect in all chivalrous accomplishments;
+and he sighed for some field on which he could display them. The
+knowledge of his real parentage filled his soul with a generous
+ambition, and he longed by some heroic achievement to vindicate his
+claim to his illustrious descent.
+
+At the end of three years, in 1564, he left the university. The
+following year was that of the famous siege of Malta; and all
+Christendom hung in suspense on the issue of the desperate conflict,
+which a handful of warriors, on their lonely isle, were waging against
+the whole strength of the Ottoman empire. The sympathies of Don John
+were roused in behalf of the Christian knights; and he resolved to cast
+his own fortunes into the scale with theirs, and win his maiden laurels
+under the banner of the Cross. He did not ask the permission of his
+brother. That he knew would be refused to him. He withdrew secretly from
+the court, and with only a few attendants took his way to Barcelona,
+whence an armament was speedily to sail, to carry succour to the
+besieged. Everywhere on the route he was received with the respect due
+to his rank. At Saragossa he was lodged with the archbishop, under whose
+roof he was detained by illness. While there he received a letter from
+the king, who had learned the cause of his departure, commanding him to
+return, as he was altogether too young to take part in this desperate
+strife. Don John gave little heed to the royal orders. He pushed on to
+Barcelona, where he had the mortification to find that the fleet had
+sailed. He resolved to cross the mountains and take ship at Marseilles.
+The viceroy of Catalonia could not dissuade the hot-headed youth from
+his purpose, when another despatch came from court, in which Philip, in
+a more peremptory tone than before, repeated his orders for his brother
+to return, under pain of his severe displeasure. A letter from Quixada
+had warned him of the certain disgrace which awaited him, if he
+continued to trifle with the royal commands. Nothing remained but to
+obey; and Don John, disappointed in his scheme of ambition, returned to
+the capital.[146]
+
+This adventure caused a great sensation throughout the country. The
+young nobles and cavaliers about the court, fired by Don John's example,
+which seemed like a rebuke on their own sluggishness, had hastened to
+buckle on their armour, and follow him to the war.[147] The common
+people, peculiarly sensible in Spain to deeds of romantic daring, were
+delighted with the adventurous spirit of the young prince, which gave
+promise that he was one day to take his place among the heroes of the
+nation. This was the beginning of the popularity of John of Austria with
+his countrymen, who in time came to regard him with feelings little
+short of idolatry. Even Philip, however necessary he may have thought it
+to rebuke the insubordination of his brother, must in his heart have
+been pleased with the generous spirit he had exhibited. At least, the
+favour with which he continued to regard the offender showed that the
+royal displeasure was of no long continuance.
+
+The sudden change in the condition of Don John might remind one of some
+fairy tale, where the poor peasant boy finds himself all at once
+converted by enchantment into a great prince. A wiser man than he might
+well have had his head turned by such a rapid revolution of the wheel of
+fortune; and Philip may naturally have feared that the idle dalliance of
+a court, to which his brother was now exposed, might corrupt his simple
+nature and seduce him from the honourable path of duty. Great,
+therefore, must have been his satisfaction, when he saw that, far from
+this, the elevation of the youth had only served to give a wider
+expansion to his views, and to fill his bosom with still higher and
+nobler aspirations.
+
+The discreet conduct of Don John in regard to his nephew, Don Carlos,
+when the latter would have engaged him in his wild and impracticable
+schemes, established him still more firmly in the royal favour.[148]
+
+In the spring of the year 1568, an opportunity occurred for Philip to
+gratify his brother's ambition, by entrusting him with the command of a
+fleet then fitting out, in the port of Carthagena, against the Barbary
+corsairs, who had been making alarming depredations of late on the
+Spanish commerce. But, while giving him this appointment, the king was
+careful to supply the lack of experience in his brother by naming as
+second in command an officer in whose abilities he perfectly confided.
+This was Antonio de Zuniga y Requesens, grand commander of St. James, an
+eminent personage, who will come frequently before the reader in the
+progress of the narrative. Requesens, who at this time filled the post
+of ambassador at Rome, was possessed of the versatility of talent so
+important in an age when the same individual was often required to
+exchange the duties of the cabinet for those of the camp. While Don John
+appeared before the public as the captain of the fleet, the actual
+responsibility for the conduct of the expedition rested on his
+lieutenant.
+
+On the third of June, Don John sailed out of port, at the head of as
+brave an armament as ever floated on the waters of the Mediterranean.
+The prince's own vessel was a stately galley, gorgeously fitted up, and
+decorated with a profusion of paintings, the subjects of which, drawn
+chiefly from ancient history and mythology, were of didactic import,
+intended to convey some useful lesson to the young commander. The moral
+of each picture was expressed by some pithy maxim inscribed beneath it
+in Latin. Thus, to whatever quarter Don John turned his eyes, they were
+sure to fall on some homily for his instruction; so that his galley
+might be compared to a volume richly filled with illustrations, that
+serve to impress the contents on the reader's memory.[149]
+
+The cruise was perfectly successful; and Don John, on his return to
+port, some eight months later, might boast that, in more than one
+engagement, he had humbled the pride of the corsairs, and so far
+crippled them that it would be long before they could resume their
+depredations; that, in fine, he had vindicated the honour of his
+country's flag throughout the Mediterranean.
+
+His return to Madrid was welcomed with the honours of a triumph.
+Courtier and commoner, men of all classes, in short, vied with each
+other in offering up the sweet incense of adulation, filling his young
+mind with lofty visions of the future, that beckoned him forward in the
+path of glory.
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN MADE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.]
+
+When the insurrection of the Moriscoes broke out in 1568, the eyes of
+men naturally turned on Don John of Austria, as the person who would
+most likely be sent to suppress it. But Philip thought it would be
+safer to trust the command to those who, from their long residence in
+the neighbourhood, were better acquainted with the character of the
+country and of its inhabitants. When, however, the dissensions of the
+rival chiefs made it necessary to send some one invested with such
+powers as might enable him to overawe this factious spirit and enforce
+greater concert of action, the council of state recommended Don John to
+the command. Their recommendation was approved by the king, if, indeed,
+it was not originally made at his suggestion.
+
+Still the "prudent" monarch was careful not to invest his brother with
+that independent command which the public supposed him to possess. On
+the contrary, his authority was restricted within limits almost as
+narrow as those which had curbed it in the Mediterranean. A council of
+war was appointed, by whose opinions Don John was to be guided in every
+question of moment. In case of a division of opinion, the question was
+to be referred to the decision of Philip.[150]
+
+The chief members of this body, in whom the supreme power was virtually
+lodged, were the marquis of Mondejar, who from this time does not appear
+to have taken the field in person; the duke of Sessa, grandson of the
+great captain, Gonsalvo de Cordova, and endowed with no small portion of
+the military talent of his ancestor; the archbishop of Granada, a
+prelate possessed of as large a measure of bigotry as ever fell to the
+lot of a Spanish ecclesiastic; Deza, president of the Audience, who
+hated the Moriscoes with the fierce hatred of an inquisitor; and,
+finally, Don John's faithful _ayo_, Quixada, who had more influence over
+him than was enjoyed by any other, and who had come to witness the first
+of his pupil's campaigns, destined, alas! to be the closing one of his
+own.[151]
+
+There could hardly have been a more unfortunate device than the
+contrivance of so cumbrous a machinery as this council, opposed as it
+was, from its very nature, to the despatch so indispensable to the
+success of military operations. The mischief was increased by the
+necessity of referring every disputed point to the decision of the king.
+As this was a contingency that often occurred, the young prince soon
+found almost as many embarrassments thrown in his way by his friends as
+by his foes,--embarrassments which nothing but an uncommon spirit of
+determination on his own part could have overcome.
+
+On the sixth of April, 1569, Don John took leave of the king, then at
+Aranjuez, and hastened towards the south. His coming was eagerly
+expected by the inhabitants of Granada; by the Christians, from their
+hopes that it would remedy the disorders in the army and bring the war
+to a speedy conclusion; by the Moriscoes, from the protection they
+anticipated he would afford them against the violence of the Spaniards.
+Preparations were made in the capital for giving him a splendid
+reception. The programme of the ceremonies was furnished by Philip
+himself.[152] At some miles from the city, Don John was met by the count
+of Tendilla, at the head of a small detachment of infantry, wearing
+uniforms partly of the Castilian fashion, partly of the
+Morisco,--presenting altogether a strange and picturesque spectacle, in
+which silks, velvets, and rich embroidery floated gaily amidst the iron
+mail and burnished weapons of the warrior.[153] As the prince proceeded
+along his route, he was met by a long train of ecclesiastical and civic
+functionaries, followed by the principal cavaliers and citizens of
+Granada. At their head were the archbishop and the president, the latter
+of whom was careful to assert his rank by walking on the right of the
+prelate. Don John showed them both the greatest deference; and as they
+drew near, he dismounted from his horse, and, embracing the two
+churchmen, stood with hat in hand, for some moments, while conversing
+with them.[154] As their train came up, the president presented the most
+eminent persons to the prince, who received them with that frank and
+graceful courtesy which won the hearts of all who approached him. He
+then resumed his route, escorted on either side by the president and the
+archbishop. The neighbouring fields were covered with spectators, and on
+the plains of Beyro he found a large body of troops, not less than ten
+thousand, drawn up to receive him. As he approached, they greeted him
+with salvoes of musketry, delivered with admirable precision. As Don
+John glanced over their beautiful array, and beheld their perfect
+discipline and appointments, his eyes brightened and his cheek flushed
+with a soldier's pride.
+
+Hardly had he entered the gates of Granada, when he was surrounded by a
+throng of women, who gathered about him in an attitude of supplication.
+They were the widows, the mothers, and the daughters of those who had so
+miserably perished in the massacres of the Alpujarras. They were clad in
+mourning, some of them so scantily as too plainly to reveal their
+poverty. Falling on their knees, with tears streaming from their eyes,
+and their words rendered almost inarticulate by their sobs, they
+demanded justice,--justice on the murderers of their kindred. They had
+seen their friends fall, they said, beneath the blows of their
+executioners; but the pain with which their hearts were then rent was
+not so great as what they now felt on learning that the cruel acts of
+these miscreants were to go unpunished.[155] Don John endeavoured to
+calm their agitation by expressions of the deepest sympathy for their
+misfortunes,--expressions of which none who saw his countenance could
+doubt the truth; and he promised that he would do all in his power to
+secure them justice.
+
+A livelier scene awaited him as the procession held its way along the
+streets of the ancient capital. Everywhere the houses were gaily
+decorated with tapestries of cloth of gold. The multitude who thronged
+the avenues filled the air with their loyal acclamations. Bright eyes
+glanced from balconies and windows, where the noblest matrons and
+maidens of Granada, in rich attire, were gathered to look upon the
+splendid pageant, and the young hero who was the object of it.[156] In
+this state he moved along until he reached the palace of the Royal
+Audience, where, by the king's command, apartments had been sumptuously
+fitted up for his accommodation.[157]
+
+[Sidenote: DISCUSSIONS OF THE COUNCIL.]
+
+The following day, a deputation waited on Don John from the principal
+Moriscoes of the city, claiming his protection against the injuries and
+insults to which they were exposed whenever they went abroad. They
+complained especially of the Spanish troops quartered on them, and of
+the manner in which they violated the sanctity of their dwellings by the
+foulest outrages. Don John replied in a tone that expressed little of
+the commiseration which he had shown to the female petitioners on the
+preceding day. He told the Moriscoes that he had been sent to restore
+order to Granada, and that those who had proved loyal would find
+themselves protected in all their rights. Those, on the contrary, who
+had taken part in the late rebellion, would be chastised with unsparing
+rigour.[158] He directed them to state their grievances in a memorial,
+with a caution to set down nothing which they could not prove, or it
+would go hard with them. The unfortunate Moriscoes found that they were
+to expect such justice only as comes from the hand of an enemy.
+
+The first session of the council showed how defective was the system for
+conducting the war. In the discussions that ensued, Mondejar remarked
+that the contest, in his opinion, was virtually at an end; that the
+Moriscoes, for the most part, were in so favourable a mood, that he
+would undertake, if the affair were placed in his hands, to bring them
+all to submission in a very short time. This proposal was treated with
+contempt by the haughty president, who denounced them as a false-hearted
+race, on whose promises no one could rely. The war, he said, would never
+be ended so long as the Moriscoes of the capital were allowed to
+communicate with their countrymen in the mountains, and to furnish them
+with secret intelligence respecting what was passing in the Christian
+camp. The first step was to remove them all from Granada into the
+interior; the second, to make such an example of the miscreants who had
+perpetrated the massacres in the Alpujarras as should strike terror into
+the hearts of the infidels, and deter them from any further resistance
+to authority. In this division of opinion the members took different
+sides, according to the difference of their tempers. The
+commander-in-chief and Quixada both leaned to Mondejar's opinion. After
+a protracted discussion, it became necessary to refer the question to
+the king, who was by no means distinguished for the promptness with
+which he came to his conclusions. All this required much time, during
+which active operations could not be resumed.[159]
+
+Yet Don John did not pass it idly. He examined the state of the works in
+Granada and its neighbourhood; he endeavoured to improve the condition
+of the army, and to quell the spirit of insubordination which had risen
+in some portions of it; finally, he sent his commands for enforcing
+levies, not merely in Andalusia and the adjoining provinces, but in
+Castile. The appeal was successful; and the great lords in the south,
+more particularly, gathering their retainers, hastened to Granada, to
+draw their swords under this popular chieftain.[160]
+
+Meanwhile the delay was attended with most mischievous consequences, as
+it gave the enemy time to recover from the disasters of the previous
+campaign. Aben-Humeya had returned, as we have seen in the former
+chapter, to his mountain throne, where he soon found himself in greater
+strength than before. Even the "Moriscoes of the peace," as they were
+called, who had resumed their allegiance to the crown, exasperated by
+the outrages of the Spanish soldiery, and the contempt which they showed
+for the safe-conduct of the marquis of Mondejar, now came in great
+numbers to Aben-Humeya's camp, offering their services, and promising to
+stand by him to the last. Other levies he drew from Africa. The Moslem
+princes to whom he had applied for succour, though refusing to embark
+openly in his cause, as he had desired, allowed such of their subjects
+as chose to join his standard. In consequence a considerable body of
+Barbary Moors crossed the sea, and entered into the service of the
+Morisco chief. They were a fierce, intrepid race, accustomed to a life
+of wild adventure, and possessing a better acquaintance with military
+tactics than belonged to the Spanish mountaineers.[161]
+
+While strengthened by these recruits, Aben-Humeya drew a much larger
+revenue than formerly from his more extended domains.[162] Though showy
+and expensive in his tastes, he did not waste it all on the maintenance
+of the greater state which he now assumed in his way of living. He
+employed it freely in the pay of foreign levies, and in procuring arms
+and munitions for his own troops; and he profited by his experience in
+the last campaign, and by the example of his African mercenaries, to
+introduce a better system of tactics among his Morisco warriors. The
+policy he adopted, as before, was to avoid pitched battles, and to
+confine himself chiefly to the _guerilla_ warfare, better suited to the
+genius of the mountaineer. He fell on small detachments of Spaniards,
+who were patrolling the country, cut off the convoys, and thus greatly
+straitened the garrisons in their supplies. He made forays into the
+Christian territories, penetrating even into the _vega_, and boldly
+carried the war up to the walls of Granada.
+
+His ravages in this quarter, it is true, did not continue long after the
+arrival of Don John, who took effectual measures for protecting the
+capital from insult. But the prince was greatly chagrined by seeing the
+rapid extension of the Morisco domain. Yet he could take no decisive
+measures to check it until the council had determined on some plan of
+operations. He was moreover fettered by the king's orders not to take
+the field in person, but to remain and represent him in Granada, where
+he would find enough to do in regulating the affairs and providing for
+the safety of the city.[163] Philip seems to have feared that Don John's
+adventurous spirit would lead him to some rash act that might
+unnecessarily expose him to danger. He appears, indeed, as we may gather
+from numerous passages in his letters, to have been more concerned for
+the safety of his brother than for the success of the campaign.[164] He
+may have thought, too, that it was better to trust the war to the hands
+of the veteran chief, the marquis of Los Velez, who could boast so much
+larger experience than Don John, and who had possessed the king with a
+high idea of his military talents.
+
+[Sidenote: THE WAR RENEWED.]
+
+This nobleman still held the command of the country east of the
+Alpujarras, in which lay his own large property. He had, as we have
+seen, a hard and arrogant nature, which could ill brook the paramount
+authority of the young commander-in-chief, to whom he rarely
+condescended to write, preferring to make his communications directly to
+the king.[165] Philip, prompted by his appetite for power, winked at
+this irregular proceeding, which enabled him to take a more direct part
+in the management of affairs than he could otherwise have done. It was a
+most injudicious step, and was followed, as we shall see, by disastrous
+consequences.
+
+The marquis, without waiting for orders, resolved to open the campaign
+by penetrating into the Alpujarras with the small force he had under his
+command. But a body of some four hundred troops, which he had caused to
+occupy the pass of Ravaha, was cut off by the enemy, and the haughty
+chieftain reluctantly obeyed the orders of Don John to abandon his
+design. Aben-Humeya's success encouraged him to attack the marquis in
+his new quarters at Verja. It was a well-concerted enterprise, but
+unfortunately, before the time arrived for its execution, it was
+betrayed by a prisoner to the Spanish commander. It consequently failed.
+Aben-Humeya penetrated into the heart of the town, where he found
+himself in the midst of an ambuscade, and with difficulty, after a heavy
+loss, effected his retreat. But if the victory remained with the
+Spaniards, the fruits of it fell to the Moriscoes. The spirit shown by
+the Moslem prince gave new life to his countrymen, and more than
+counterbalanced the effects of his defeat. The rich and populous country
+of the Rio de Almanzora rose in arms. The marquis of Los Velez found it
+expedient to abandon his present position, and to transfer his quarters
+to Adra, a seaport on the Mediterranean, which would afford him greater
+facilities for receiving reinforcements and supplies.[166]
+
+The spirit of insurrection now spread rapidly over other parts of the
+Alpujarras, and especially along the sierra of Bentomiz, which stretches
+from the neighbourhood of Alhama towards the south. Here the
+mountaineers, who had hitherto taken no part in the troubles of the
+country, ranging themselves under the crimson banner of Aben-Humeya,
+broke forth into open rebellion. The inhabitants of Velez and of the
+more important city of Malaga were filled with consternation, trembling
+lest the enemy should descend on them from the mountains and deluge
+their streets with blood. They hastily mustered the militia of the
+country, and made preparations for their defence.
+
+Fortunately, at this conjuncture, they were gladdened by the sight of
+the grand-commander, Requesens, who sailed into the harbour of
+Velez-Malaga with a squadron from Italy, having on board several
+battalions of Spanish veterans, who had been ordered home by the
+government to reinforce the army of the Alpujarras. There were no better
+troops in the service, seasoned as they were by many a hard campaign,
+and all under the most perfect discipline. The first step of
+Requesens,--the same officer, it will be remembered, who had acted as
+the lieutenant of Don John of Austria in his cruise in the
+Mediterranean,--was to request of his young general the command of the
+expedition against the rebels of Bentomiz. These were now gathered in
+great force on the lofty table-land of Fraxiliana, where they had
+strengthened the natural defences of the ground by such works as
+rendered the approach to it nearly impracticable. The request was
+readily granted; and the grand-commander of St. James, without loss of
+time, led his battalions into the heart of the sierra.
+
+We have not space for the details. It is enough to say that the
+expedition was one of the best-conducted in the war. The enemy made a
+desperate resistance; and, had it not been for the timely arrival of the
+bold burghers of Malaga, the grand-commander would have been driven from
+the field. The Morisco women fought by the side of their husbands; and
+when all was lost, many threw themselves headlong from the precipices
+rather than fall into the hands of the Spaniards.[167] Two thousand of
+the enemy were slain, and three thousand captives, with an immense booty
+of gold, silver, jewels, and precious stuffs, became the spoil of the
+victors. The spirit of rebellion was effectually crushed in the sierra
+of Bentomiz.
+
+Yet it was not a bloodless victory. Full six hundred of the Christians
+fell on the field of battle. The loss bore most heavily on the troops
+from Italy. Nearly every captain in this valiant corps was wounded.[168]
+The bloody roll displayed, moreover, the name of more than one cavalier
+as distinguished for his birth as for his bravery. Two thousand
+Moriscoes succeeded in making their escape to the camp of Aben-Humeya.
+They proved a seasonable reinforcement, for that chief was meditating an
+assault on Seron.[169]
+
+This was a strongly-fortified place, perched like an eagle's eyry on the
+summit of a bold cliff that looked down on the Rio de Almanzora, and
+commanded its formidable passes. It was consequently a most important
+post, and at this time was held by a Spanish garrison under an officer
+named Mirones. Aben-Humeya sent a strong detachment against it,
+intending to carry it by storm. But the Moriscoes had no battering
+train, and, as it soon appeared, were little skilled in the art of
+conducting a siege. It was resolved, therefore, to abandon the present
+plan of operations, and to reduce the place by the slower but surer way
+of blockade. Five thousand men, accordingly, sat down before the town on
+the 18th of June, and effectually cut off all communication from abroad.
+
+The garrison succeeded in conveying intelligence of their condition to
+Don John, who lost no time in ordering Alonso de Carbajal to march with
+a body of troops and a good supply of provisions to their relief. But,
+just after his departure, Don John received information that the king
+had entrusted the marquis of Los Velez with the defence of Seron. He,
+therefore, by Quixada's advice, countermanded his orders to Carbajal,
+and directed him to return. That officer, who had approached within a
+short distance of the place, reluctantly obeyed, and left Seron to its
+fate. The marquis of Los Velez, notwithstanding the jealousy he
+displayed of the interference of Don John in the affair, showed so
+little alacrity in providing for the safety of the beleaguered fortress,
+that the garrison, reduced to extremity, on the eleventh of July,
+surrendered on honourable terms. But no sooner had they given up the
+place, than the victors, regardless of the terms of capitulation,
+murdered in cold blood every male over twelve years of age, and made
+slaves of the women and children. This foul act was said to have been
+perpetrated by the secret command of Aben-Humeya. The Morisca chief
+might allege, in vindication of his perfidy, that he had but followed
+the lesson set him by the Spaniards.[170]
+
+[Sidenote: REMOVAL OF THE MORISCOES.]
+
+The loss of Seron caused deep regret to the army. Nor could this regret
+be mitigated by the reflection, that its loss was to be attributed not
+so much to the valour of the Moslems as to the misconduct of their own
+commanders, or rather to the miserable system adopted for carrying on
+the war. The triumph of the Moriscoes, however, was greatly damped by
+the intelligence which they had received, shortly before the surrender
+of Seron, of disasters that had befallen their countrymen in Granada.
+
+Philip, after much hesitation, had given his sanction to Deza's project
+for the removal of the Moriscoes from the capital into the interior of
+the country. The day appointed for carrying the measure into effect was
+the twenty-third of June. A large body of troops, with the principal
+commanders, was secretly assembled in the capital to enforce the
+execution of the plan. Meanwhile, rumours were current that the
+Moriscoes in the city were carrying on a secret communication with their
+countrymen in the Alpujarras; that they supplied the mountaineers with
+arms and money; that the young men were leaving Granada to join their
+ranks; finally, that a conspiracy had been planned for an assault on the
+city, and even that the names of the leaders were given. It is
+impossible, at this time, to say what foundation there was for these
+charges; but the reader may recollect that similar ones had been
+circulated previous to the barbarous massacre in the prison of the
+Chancery.
+
+On the twenty-third of the month, on the eve of St John's, an edict was
+published, commanding all the Morisco males in Granada between ten and
+sixty years of age, to repair to the parish churches to which they
+respectively belonged, where they were to learn their fate. The women
+were to remain some time longer in the city, to dispose of the most
+valuable effects, such as could not easily be transported. This was not
+difficult, at the low prices for which, in their extremity, they were
+obliged to part with their property. We are left in ignorance of the
+fate of the children, who, no doubt, remained in the hands of the
+government, to be nurtured in the Roman Catholic faith.[171]
+
+Nothing could exceed the consternation of the Moriscoes on the
+publication of this decree, for which, though so long suspended by a
+thread, as it were, over their heads, they were wholly unprepared. It is
+not strange, as they recalled the atrocious murders perpetrated in the
+prison of the Chancery, that they should have been led to believe that
+nothing less than a massacre of the whole Moorish population was now
+designed. It was in vain that the marquis of Mondejar endeavoured to
+allay their fears. They were somewhat comforted by the assurance of the
+President Deza, given under his own hand, that their lives were in no
+danger. But their apprehensions on this point were not wholly quieted
+till Don John had pledged his royal word that no harm should come to
+their persons; that, in short, the great object of the government was to
+secure their safety. They then submitted without any attempt at
+resistance. Resistance, indeed, would have been hardly possible,
+destitute as they were of weapons or other means of defence, and
+surrounded on all quarters by the well-armed soldiery of Castile. They
+accordingly entered the churches assigned to them, at the doors of which
+strong guards were stationed during the night.
+
+On the following morning the Moriscoes were marched out and formed into
+a procession, which was to take its way to the great hospital in the
+suburbs. This was a noble building, erected by the good Queen Isabella
+the Catholic, not long after the Conquest. Here they were to stay till
+the arrangements were completed for forming them into divisions
+according to their several places of destination. It was a sad and
+solemn spectacle, that of this company of exiles, as they moved with
+slow and uncertain step, bound together by cords,[172] and escorted, or
+rather driven along like a gang of convicts, by the fierce soldiery.
+There they were, the old and the young, the rich and the poor, now,
+alas! brought to the same level, the forms of most of them bowed down,
+less by the weight of years than of sorrow, their hands meekly folded on
+their breasts, their cheeks wet with tears, as they gazed for the last
+time on their beautiful city, the sweet home of their infancy, the proud
+seat of ancient empire, endeared to them by so many tender and glorious
+recollections.[173]
+
+The march was conducted in an orderly manner, with but a single
+interruption, which, however, was near being attended by the most
+disastrous consequences. A Spanish alguazil, offended at some words that
+fell from one of the prisoners--for so they might be called--requited
+him with a blow from his staff. But the youth whom he struck had the
+fiery blood of the Arab in his veins. Snatching up a broken tile, he
+dealt such a blow on the offender's head as nearly severed his ear from
+it. The act cost him his life. He was speedily cut down by the
+Spaniards, who rushed to the assistance of their wounded comrade. A
+rumour now went round that the Moriscoes had attempted the life of Don
+John, whose dress resembled in its colour that of the alguazil. The
+passions of the soldiery were roused. They flocked to the scene of
+violence, uttering the most dreadful imprecations. Their swords and
+lances glittered in the air, and in a few moments would have been
+sheathed in the bodies of their terrified victims.
+
+Fortunately, the quick eye of Don John discerned the confusion.
+Surrounded by a body-guard of arquebusiers, he was there in person to
+superintend the removal of the Moriscoes. Spurring his horse forward
+into the midst of the tumult, and showing himself to the troops, he
+exclaimed that no one had offered him any harm. He called on them to
+return to their duty, and not to dishonour him as well as themselves, by
+offering violence to innocent men, for whose protection he had so
+solemnly pledged his word. The soldiers, abashed by the rebuke of their
+young chief, and satisfied with the vengeance they had taken on the
+offender, fell back into their ranks. The trembling Moriscoes gradually
+recovered from their panic, the procession resumed its march, and
+without further interruption reached the hospital of Isabella.[174]
+
+[Sidenote: REMOVAL OF THE MORISCOES.]
+
+There the royal _contadores_ were not long in ascertaining the number of
+the exiles. It amounted to thirty-five hundred. That of the women, who
+were soon to follow, was much greater.[175] The names, the ages, and the
+occupations of the men were all carefully registered. The following day
+they were marched into the great square before the hospital, where they
+were distributed into companies, each under a strong escort, to be
+conducted to their various places of destination. These, far from being
+confined to Andalusia, reached into New Castile. In this arrangement we
+may trust that so much respect was paid to the dictates of humanity, as
+not to separate those of the same kindred from one another. But the
+chroniclers give no information on the subject; probably regarding
+details of this sort, in regard to the fallen race, as below the dignity
+of history.
+
+It was on the twenty-fifth of June, 1569, that, bidding a sad farewell
+to the friends and companions of their youth, from whom they were now to
+be for ever parted, they set forth on their doleful pilgrimage. The
+morning light had broken on the red towers of the Alhambra, as the bands
+of exiles, issuing from the gates of their beloved capital, the spot
+dearest to them upon earth, turned their faces towards their new
+homes,--homes which many of them were destined never to behold. The
+government, with shameful indifference, had neglected to provide for the
+poor wanderers the most common necessaries of life. Some actually
+perished of hunger by the way. Others, especially those accustomed from
+infancy to a delicate nurture, sank down and died of fatigue. Some were
+seized by the soldiers, whose cupidity was roused by the sight of their
+helplessness, and were sold as slaves. Others were murdered by their
+guards in cold blood.[176] Thus reduced far below their original number,
+they reached their appointed places, there to linger out the remainder
+of their days in the midst of a population who held them in that
+abhorrence with which a good Catholic of the sixteenth century regarded
+"the enemies of God."[177]
+
+But the evils which grew out of this stern policy of the government were
+not wholly confined to the Moriscoes. This ingenious people were so far
+superior to the Spaniards in the knowledge of husbandry, and in the
+various mechanical arts, that they formed the most important part of the
+population of Granada. The only art in which their rivals excelled them
+was that which thrives at the expense of every other--the art of war.
+Aware of this, the government had excepted some of the best artisans in
+the capital from the doom of exile which had fallen on their countrymen,
+and they had accordingly remained in the city. But their number was too
+small to produce the result desired; and it was not long before the
+quarter of the town which had been occupied by the Moriscoes exhibited a
+scene of woeful desolation. The light and airy edifices, which displayed
+in their forms the fantastic graces of Arabian architecture, fell
+speedily into decay. The parterres and pleasure-grounds, filled with
+exotics, and glowing in all the exuberance of southern vegetation,
+became a wilderness of weeds; and the court-yards and public squares,
+where tanks and sparkling fountains, fed by the streams of the Sierra
+Nevada, shed a refreshing coolness over the atmosphere in the sultriest
+months of summer, were soon converted into a melancholy heap of rubbish.
+
+The mischiefs growing out of the removal of the Moriscoes fell sorely on
+the army. The men had been quartered, as we have seen, in the houses of
+the Moriscoes. From the present occupants, for the most part needy and
+thriftless speculators, they met with very different fare from what they
+had enjoyed under the former wealthy and luxurious proprietors. The
+troops supplied the deficiency, as far as they could, by plundering the
+citizens. Hence incessant feuds arose between the people and the army,
+and a spirit of insubordination rapidly grew up in the latter, which
+made it more formidable to its friends than to its foes.[178]
+
+An eyewitness of these troubles closes his narrative of the removal of
+the Moriscoes by remarking that it was a sad spectacle to one who
+reflected on the former policy and prosperity of this ill-starred race;
+who had seen their sumptuous mansions in the day of their glory, their
+gardens and pleasure-grounds, the scene of many a gay revel and jocund
+holiday, and who now contrasted all this with the ruin into which
+everything had fallen.[179] "It seems," he concludes, "as if Providence
+had intended to show, by the fate of this beautiful city, that the
+fairest things in this world are the most subject to decay."[180] To the
+philosopher of the present age it may seem rather the natural result of
+that system of religious intolerance which had converted enemies those
+who, under a beneficent rule, would have been true and loyal subjects,
+and who by their industry and skill would have added incalculably to the
+resources of the country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES.
+
+Operations of Los Velez--Conspiracy against Aben-Humeya--His
+Assassination--Election of Aben-Aboo--Vigorous Prosecution of the
+War--Fierce Combats in the Vega--Impetuous Spirit of Don John--Surprise
+of Guejar.
+
+1569.
+
+
+While the events related in the preceding chapter were occurring, the
+marquis of Los Velez lay, with a considerable force, at Adra, a port on
+the Mediterranean, at the foot of the Alpujarras, which he had selected
+chiefly from the facilities it would afford him for getting supplies for
+his army. In this he was disappointed. Before the month of June had
+expired, his troops had begun to be straitened for provisions. The evil
+went on increasing from day to day. His levies, composed chiefly of raw
+recruits from Andalusia, were full of that independent, and indeed
+turbulent spirit, which belongs to an ill-disciplined militia. There was
+no lack of courage in the soldiery. But the same men who had fearlessly
+braved the dangers of the campaign, now growing impatient under the
+pinch of hunger, abandoned their colours in great numbers.
+
+There were various causes for the deficiency of supplies. The principal
+one of these may probably be found in the remissness of the council of
+war, several of whose members regarded the marquis with an evil eye, and
+were not sorry to see his embarrassments.
+
+[Sidenote: OPERATIONS OF LOS VELEZ.]
+
+Some vigorous measures were instantly to be taken, or the army, it was
+evident, would soon altogether melt away. By the king's command, orders
+were despatched to Requesens, who lay with his squadron off the port of
+Velez-Malaga, to supply the camp with provisions, while it received
+reinforcements, as before, principally from the Andalusian militia. The
+army received a still more important accession in the well-disciplined
+veterans who had followed the grand-commander from Italy. Thus
+strengthened, and provisioned for a week or more, Los Velez, at the head
+of twelve thousand men, set forth on the twenty-sixth of July, and
+struck at once into the Alpujarras. He had been directed by the council
+to establish himself at Ugibar, which, by its central position, would
+enable him to watch the movements of Aben-Humeya, and act on any point
+as occasion required.
+
+The marquis, without difficulty, defeated a force of some five or six
+thousand men, who had been stationed to oppose his entrance into the
+mountain country. He then pressed forward, and on the high lands beyond
+Ugibar--which place he had already occupied--he came in sight of
+Aben-Humeya, with the flower of his troops drawn up to receive him.
+
+The two chiefs, in their characters, their persons, and their
+equipments, might be considered as no bad types of the European and the
+Arab chivalry. The marquis, sheathed in complete mail, of a sable
+colour, and mounted on his heavy war-horse, also covered with armour,
+was to be seen brandishing a lance which, short and thick, seemed rather
+like a truncheon, as he led his men boldly on, prepared to plunge at
+once into the thick of the fight.[181] He was the very emblem of brute
+force. Aben-Humeya, on the other hand, gracefully managing his
+swift-footed, snow-white Andalusian, with his Morisco mantle of crimson
+floating lightly from his shoulders, and his Turkish turban wreathed
+around his head,[182] instead of force, suggested the opposite ideas of
+agility and adroitness, so characteristic of the children of the East.
+
+Riding along his lines, the Morisco prince exhorted his followers not to
+fear the name of Los Velez: for, in the hour of danger, God would aid
+His own; and better was it, at any rate, to die like brave men in the
+field, than to live dishonoured.[183] Notwithstanding these magnanimous
+words, it was far from Aben-Humeya's wish to meet his enemy in a fair
+field of fight. It was contrary to the genius and the habit of his
+warfare, which was of the guerilla kind, abounding in sallies and
+surprises, in which, seeking some vulnerable point, he could deal his
+blow and retreat precipitately among the mountains.
+
+Yet his followers, though greatly inferior in numbers to the enemy,
+behaved with spirit; and the field was well contested, till a body of
+Andalusian horse, making a _detour_ under cover of some rising ground,
+fell unexpectedly on the rear of the Moriscoes, and threw them into
+confusion. The marquis pressing them at the same time vigorously in
+front, they broke, and soon gave way on all sides. Aben-Humeya,
+perceiving the day lost, gave the rein to his high-mettled genet, who
+swiftly bore him from the field; and, though hotly pursued, he soon left
+his enemies behind. On reaching the foot of the Sierra Nevada, the chief
+dismounted, and hamstringing his noble animal, plunged into the depths
+of the mountains, which again opened their friendly arms to receive
+him.[184] Yet he did not remain there long before he was joined by his
+followers; and no sooner was he in sufficient strength, than he showed
+himself on the eastern skirts of the sierra, whence, like an eagle
+stooping on his prey, he rushed down upon the plains below, sweeping
+through the rich valley of the Rio de Almanzora, and carrying fire and
+sword to the very borders of Murcia. Here he revenged himself on Los
+Velez by falling on his town of Las Cuevas, firing his dwellings,
+ravaging his estates, and rousing his Morisco vassals to rebellion.[185]
+
+Meanwhile the marquis, instead of following up his victory, remained
+torpid within the walls of Calahorra. Here he had desired the council to
+provide stores for the subsistence of his army. To his dismay, none had
+been provided; and as his own attempts to procure them were
+unsuccessful, he soon found himself in the same condition as at Adra.
+The famine-stricken troops, with little pay and less plunder, first
+became discontented, then mutinous, and at length deserted in great
+numbers. It was in vain that the irascible old chief poured out his
+wrath in menaces and imprecations. His arrogant temper had made him
+hated even more than he was feared by his soldiers. They now went off,
+not stealthily and by night, but in the open day, whole companies at a
+time, their arquebuses on their shoulders, and their matches
+lighted.[186] When Don Diego Fajardo, the marquis's son, endeavoured to
+stay them, one, more audacious than the rest, lodged a musket-ball in
+his body. It was not long before the gallant array with which the
+marquis had so proudly entered the Alpujarras, was reduced to less than
+three thousand men. Among them were the Italian veterans, who refused to
+tarnish their well-earned laurels by thus basely abandoning their
+commander.
+
+The council of war complained loudly to the king of the fatal inactivity
+of the marquis, and of his neglect to follow up the advantages he had
+gained. Los Velez angrily retorted by throwing the blame on that body,
+for neglecting to furnish him with the supplies which would have enabled
+him to do so. Philip, alarmed, with reason, at the critical aspect of
+affairs, ordered the marquis of Mondejar to repair to court, that he
+might confer with him on the state of the country. This was the avowed
+motive for his recall. But, in truth, it seems probable that the king,
+aware of that nobleman's leaning to a pacific policy, and of his
+personal hostility to Los Velez, deemed it best to remove him altogether
+from any share in the conduct of the war. This he did most effectually,
+by sending him into honourable exile, first appointing him Viceroy of
+Valentia, and afterwards raising him to the important post of Viceroy of
+Naples. From this period the name of Mondejar no more appears on the
+theatre of the Morisco war.[187]
+
+[Sidenote: DECLINE OF ABEN-HUMEYA'S POPULARITY.]
+
+The marquis did not win the favour to which he was entitled by his
+deserts. He seems to have possessed some of the best qualities of a good
+captain. Bold in action, he was circumspect in council. Slow and
+sagacious in the formation of his plans, he carried them out with
+singular perseverance. He knew the country well which was the seat of
+the insurrection, and perfectly understood the character of its
+inhabitants. What was more rare, he made allowance for the excesses into
+which they had been drawn by a long course of insult and oppression. The
+humanity of his disposition combined with his views of policy to make
+him rely more on conciliatory measures than on fear, for the reduction
+of the enemy. How well this worked we have seen. Had he been properly
+supported by those engaged with him in the direction of affairs, we can
+hardly doubt of his ultimate success. But, unhappily, the two most
+prominent of these, the President Deza and the Marquis of Los Velez,
+were narrow-minded, implacable bigots, who, far from feeling compassion
+for the Moriscoes, looked on the whole race as "God's enemies."
+Unfortunately, these views found favour with the government; and
+Philip, who rightly thought that the marquis of Mondejar would only
+prove a hindrance to carrying on hostilities with vigour, acted
+consistently in sending him from the country. Yet, while he was thus
+removed from the conduct of the war, it may be thought an unequivocal
+acknowledgment of Mondejar's deserts, that he was transferred to the
+most considerable post in the gift of the crown.
+
+Before the marquis's departure, Philip had transferred his court to
+Cordova, in order to facilitate his communication with the seat of war.
+He hoped, too, that the knowledge of his being so near would place some
+check on the disorderly temper of the soldiery, and animate them with
+more loyal and patriotic feelings. In this way of proceeding he
+considered himself as imitating the example of his great ancestors,
+Ferdinand and Isabella, who, during the war of Granada, usually
+transferred their court to one of the capitals of the South. He did not,
+however, think it necessary, like them, to lead his armies in person,
+and share in the toils of the campaign.
+
+On the nineteenth of October, Philip published an edict, which intimated
+his design of following up the war with vigour. It commanded that such
+of the Moriscoes as had hitherto been allowed to remain in Granada
+should now be removed from it, in order that no means of communication
+might be left to them with their brethren in the mountains. It was
+further proclaimed, that the war henceforth was to be carried on with
+"fire and blood;"[188] in other words, that no mercy was to be shown the
+insurgents. This was the first occasion on which this fierce
+denunciation had been made by the government. To reconcile the militia
+of the towns to the service, their pay was to be raised to a level with
+that of the Italian volunteers; and to relieve the towns, the greater
+part of the expense was to be borne by the crown. Before the publication
+of this ordinance the king had received intelligence of an event
+unexpected alike by Christian and by Moslem--the death of Aben-Humeya,
+and that by the hands of some of his own followers.
+
+The Morisco prince, after carrying the war up to the borders of Murcia,
+laid siege to two or three places of strength in that quarter. As might
+have been expected, he failed in these attempts, from his want of
+battering artillery. Thus foiled, he led back his forces into the
+Alpujarras, and established his quarters in the ancient Moorish palace
+of Lanjaron, on the slopes of the mountains commanding the beautiful
+valley of Lecrin. Here the torpid condition of the Spaniards under Los
+Velez allowed the young monarch to remain, and give himself up to those
+sensual indulgences with which the Moslem princes of the East were apt
+to solace their leisure in the intervals of war. His harem rivalled that
+of any Oriental satrap in the number of its inmates. This was strange to
+the Moriscoes, who, since their nominal conversion to Christianity, had
+of course repudiated polygamy. In the eyes of the Moslems, it might pass
+for good evidence of their prince's orthodoxy.
+
+Ever since Aben-Humeya's ascent to the throne he had been declining in
+popularity. His handsome person, the courtesy of his manners, his
+chivalrous spirit, and his devotion to the cause, had easily won him the
+affections of his subjects. But a too sudden elevation had unfortunately
+that effect on him which it is wont to have on weak minds, without any
+settled principles or lofty aim to guide them. Possessed of power, he
+became tyrannical in the use of it.[189] His arbitrary acts created
+enemies, not the less dangerous that they were concealed. The
+consciousness of the wrongs he had committed made him suspicious. He
+surrounded himself with a body-guard of four hundred men. Sixteen
+hundred more were quartered in the place where he was residing; and the
+principal avenues to it, we are told, were defended by barricades.[190]
+Those whom he suspected he treated with particular kindness. He drew
+them around his person, overwhelmed them with favours, and, when he had
+won them by a show of confidence, he struck the fatal blow.[191] During
+the short period of his reign, no less than three hundred and fifty
+persons, we are assured, fell victims to his jealousy or his
+revenge.[192]
+
+Among Aben-Humeya's officers was one named Diego Alguazil, who had a
+beautiful kinswoman, with whom he lived, it is said, on terms of greater
+intimacy than was justified by the relationship of the parties. As he
+was one day imprudently speaking of her to Aben-Humeya in the glowing
+language of a lover, the curiosity of the king was so much inflamed by
+it that he desired to see her. In addition to her personal charms, the
+fair Zahara was mistress of many accomplishments which rendered her
+still more attractive. She had a sweet voice, which she accompanied
+bewitchingly on the lute, and in her dancing displayed all the soft and
+voluptuous movements of the dark-eyed beauties of Andalusia.[193] When
+brought before the king, she did her best to please him; for though
+attached, as it seems, to her kinsman, the ambitious coquette had no
+objection to having a royal suitor in her chains. In this she perfectly
+succeeded; and the enamoured prince intimated his desire to Alguazil
+that he would resign to him the possession of his mistress. But the
+Morisco loved her too well; and neither threats nor promises of the most
+extravagant kind were able to extort his consent. Thus baffled, the
+reckless Aben-Humeya, consulting only his passion, caused the perhaps
+not reluctant Zahara to be taken by force and lodged in his harem. By
+this act he made a mortal enemy of Alguazil.
+
+Nor did he long enjoy the favour of his new mistress, who, come of an
+ancient lineage in Granada,[194] had hoped to share the throne of the
+Morisco monarch. But Aben-Humeya's passion did not carry him to this
+extent of complaisance; and Zahara, indignant at finding herself
+degraded to the rank and file of the seraglio, soon breathed only a
+desire for vengeance. In this state of things she found the means of
+communicating with her kinsman, and arranged with him a plan for
+carrying their murderous intent into execution.
+
+[Sidenote: CONSPIRACY AGAINST ABEN-HUMEYA.]
+
+The most important corps in the Morisco army was that of the Turkish
+mercenaries. But they were so fierce and turbulent a race that
+Aben-Humeya paid dear for their services. A strong body of these troops
+lay on the frontiers of Orgiba, under the command of Aben-Aboo--a near
+relative of the Morisco prince, whose life, it may be remembered, he had
+once saved by submitting to every extremity of torture rather than
+betray his lurking-place. To this commander Aben-Humeya despatched a
+messenger, directing him to engage the Turks in a certain expedition,
+which would serve both to give them employment, and to satisfy their
+appetite for plunder.
+
+The time named for the messenger's departure was communicated by Zahara
+to her kinsman, who caused him to be waylaid and murdered, and his
+despatches to be secured. He then had a letter written to Aben-Aboo,
+which bore apparently the royal signature. This was counterfeited by his
+nephew, a young man then holding the post of secretary to Aben-Humeya,
+with whom he had lately conceived some cause of disgust. The letter
+stated that the insubordination of the Turks made them dangerous to the
+state; and that in some way or other they must be removed, and that
+speedily. With this view, Aben-Aboo was directed to march them to
+Mecina, on the frontiers of the Sierra Nevada, where he would be joined
+by Diego Alguazil, with a party of soldiers, to assist him in carrying
+the plan into execution. The best mode, it was suggested, of getting rid
+of the Turks, would be by poison.
+
+This letter was despatched by a courier, who was speedily followed by
+Alguazil and a hundred soldiers, as the cunning conspirator desired to
+present himself before Aben-Aboo without leaving him time for
+consideration.
+
+He found that commander in a state of the utmost perplexity and
+consternation. Alguazil declared that he had come in consequence of
+certain instructions he had received from the king, of too atrocious a
+nature for him to execute. Aben-Aboo had as little mind to perform the
+bloody work assigned to him. He had no distrust of the genuineness of
+the letter. Hosceyn, the commander of the Turks, happening to pass the
+house at that time, was called in, and the despatches were shown to him.
+The fiery chief insisted on communicating them to some of his comrades.
+The greatest indignation prevailed among the Turkish leaders, outraged
+by this base treachery of the very man whom they had come to serve at
+the peril of their lives. They one and all demanded, not his deposition,
+but his death. Diego Alguazil saw that his scheme was working well. He
+artfully fanned the flame, and professed to share deeply in the
+indignation of the Moslems. It was at length agreed to put the tyrant to
+death, and to offer the crown to Aben-Aboo.
+
+This chieftain enjoyed a high reputation for sagacity and prudence. His
+passions, unlike those of Aben-Humeya, seemed ever under the control of
+his reason; and, far from indulging an ill-regulated ambition, he had
+been always faithful to his trust. But the present temptation was too
+strong for his virtue. He may have thought that, since the throne was to
+be vacant, the descendant of the Omeyas had a better claim to it than
+any other. Whatever may have been the sophistry to which he yielded, he
+knew that those who now promised him the crown had the power to make
+their promise good. He gave his assent on condition that, in the course
+of three months, his election should be confirmed by the dey of Algiers,
+as the representative of the Turkish sultan.
+
+Having arranged their plans, the conspirators lost no time in putting
+them in execution. They set out that very hour, on the evening of the
+third of October, for Lanjaron, with a body of four hundred troops--one
+half being Turks, the other Moriscoes. By midnight they reached their
+place of destination. Diego Alguazil and the Turkish captains were too
+well known as enjoying the confidence of Aben-Humeya to meet with any
+opposition to their entrance into the town. Nor, though the Morisco king
+had retired to rest, did the guard oppose any difficulty to their
+passing into his dwelling. Proceeding to his chamber, they found the
+doors secured, but speedily forced an entrance. Neither arm nor voice
+was raised in his defence.[195]
+
+Aben-Humeya, roused from sleep by the tumult, would have sprung from his
+couch; but the faithless Zahara held him fast in her embrace, until
+Diego Alguazil and some others of the conspirators, rushing in, bound
+his arms together with a Moorish veil.[196] Indeed, he was so much
+bewildered as scarcely to attempt resistance.
+
+The Turkish commander then showed him the letter. Aben-Humeya recognized
+the writing of his secretary, but declared that he had never dictated
+such a letter, nor was the signature his. How far his assertion gained
+credit we are not informed. But the conspirators had already gone too
+far to be forgiven. To recede was death. Either Aben-Humeya or they must
+be sacrificed. It was in vain that he protested his innocence, and that
+he offered to leave the question to the sultan, or to the dey of
+Algiers, or to any person competent to decide it. But little heed was
+given to his protestations, as the conspirators dragged him into an
+adjoining apartment. The unhappy young man perceived that his hour was
+come--that there was no one of all his friends or menials to interpose
+between him and his fate. From that moment he changed his tone, and
+assumed a bearing more worthy of his station. "They are mistaken," he
+said, "who suppose me to be a follower of the Prophet. I die, as I have
+lived, in the Christian faith. I accepted the post of head of the
+rebellion that I might the better avenge the wrongs heaped on me and my
+family by the Spaniards. They have been avenged in full measure, and I
+am now ready to die. Neither," said he, turning to Aben-Aboo, his
+destined successor, "do I envy you. It will not be long before you will
+follow me." He then, with his own hands, coolly arranged around his neck
+the cord with which he was to be strangled, adjusted his robes, and,
+covering his face with his mantle, submitted himself without a struggle
+to his executioners.[197]
+
+His body was thrown into a neighbouring sewer, with as little concern as
+if it had been that of a dog. There it continued, till Don John of
+Austria, hearing that Aben-Humeya had died a Christian, caused his
+remains to be removed to Guadix, and laid in the ground with the
+solemnities of Christian burial.[198]
+
+That Aben-Humeya should have come to so miserable an end is not strange.
+The recklessness with which he sacrificed all who came between him and
+the gratification of his passions, surrounded him with enemies, the more
+dangerous in a climate where the blood is hot, and the feeling of
+revenge is easily kindled in the bosom. At the beginning of his reign
+his showy qualities won him a popularity which, however, took no root in
+the affections of the people, and which faded away altogether when the
+defects of his character were more fully brought to light by the
+exigencies of his situation; for he was then found to possess neither
+the military skill necessary to insure success in the field, nor those
+higher moral attributes which command respect and obedience at home.
+
+[Sidenote: CHARACTER OF ABEN-ABOO.]
+
+Very different was the character of his successor, Aben-Aboo. Instead
+of displaying the frivolous and licentious tastes of Aben-Humeya, his
+private life was without reproach. He was much older than his
+predecessor; and if he had not the same fiery enthusiasm and dashing
+spirit of adventure which belonged to Aben-Humeya, he discovered both
+forecast in the formation of his plans, and singular courage in carrying
+them into execution. All confided in his integrity; while the decorum
+and gravity of his demeanour combined with the more substantial
+qualities of his character to inspire a general feeling of reverence in
+the people.[199] It was not till the time of his proposed elevation to
+the supreme power, that the lustre of these qualities was darkened by
+the perpetration of one foul deed,--his connivance at the conspiracy
+against his sovereign. But if he were really the dupe, as we are told,
+of Alguazil's plot, he might plead, to some extent, the necessity of
+self-preservation; for he may well have believed that, if he refused to
+aid Aben-Humeya in the execution of his bloody purpose in reference to
+the Turks, the tyrant would not long suffer him to live in possession of
+a secret so perilous to himself. At all events, the part he had taken in
+the conspiracy seems to have given no disgust to the people, who, weary
+of the despotism under which they had been living, welcomed with
+enthusiasm the accession of the new sovereign. Many places which had
+hitherto taken no part in the struggle for independence, now sent in
+their adhesion to Aben-Aboo, who soon found himself the ruler over a
+wider extent of territory than, at any time, had acknowledged the sway
+of his predecessor.
+
+It was not long before the confirmation of his election arrived from
+Algiers; and Aben-Aboo, assuming the regal name of Muley Abdallah
+Mohammed as a prefix to his own, went through the usual simple forms of
+a coronation of a king of Granada. In his right hand on this occasion,
+he bore a banner inscribed with the legend, "More I could not
+desire--less would not have contented me."[200] Such an inscription
+maybe thought to intimate that a more aspiring temper lurked within his
+bosom than the world had given him credit for.
+
+The new sovereign did not, like his predecessor, waste his time in
+effeminate sloth. He busied himself with various important reforms,
+giving especially a new organization to the army, and importing a large
+quantity of arms and munitions from Barbary. He determined not to allow
+his men time for discontent, but to engage them at once in active
+service. The first object he proposed was the capture of Orgiba, a
+fortified place, which commanded the route to Granada, and which served
+as a point of communication between that capital and remoter parts of
+the country.
+
+Aben-Aboo got everything in readiness with such despatch, that on the
+twenty-sixth of October, a few weeks only after the death of
+Aben-Humeya, he set out on his expedition at the head of a
+well-appointed army, consisting of more than ten thousand men, partly
+foreign mercenaries and partly natives. Hastening his march, he soon
+presented himself before Orgiba, and laid siege to the place. He pushed
+matters forward so vigorously, that in a few days he was prepared to
+storm the works. Four times he brought his men to the assault; but
+though, on the fourth, he succeeded in throwing himself, with a small
+body of troops, on the ramparts, he was met with such determined
+resistance by the garrison and their brave commander, Francisco de
+Molina, that he was obliged to fall back with loss into his trenches.
+Thus repulsed, and wholly destitute of battering ordnance, the Morisco
+chief found it expedient to convert the siege into a blockade.
+
+The time thus consumed gave opportunity to Don John of Austria to send a
+strong force, under the duke of Sesa, to the relief of the garrison.
+Aben-Aboo, desirous to intercept his enemy's march, and occupy one of
+those defiles that would give him the advantage of position, silently
+broke up his encampment, under cover of the night, and took the
+direction of Lanjaron. Here he came so suddenly on the advanced guard of
+the Christians, that, taken by surprise, it gave way, and falling back,
+after considerable loss, on the main body of the army, threw the whole
+into confusion. Happily the duke of Sesa, though labouring at the time
+under a sharp attack of gout, by extraordinary exertions was enabled to
+rally his men, and inspire them with courage to repulse the enemy, thus
+retrieving his own honour and the fortunes of the day.
+
+Meanwhile, the brave Molina and his soldiers no sooner learned that the
+besiegers had abandoned their works, than, eager to profit by their
+temporary absence, the cause of which they suspected, they dismantled
+the fortress, and, burying their guns in the ground, hastily evacuated
+the place. The duke of Sesa, finding that the great object of his
+expedition--the safety of the garrison--was now accomplished, and not
+feeling himself in sufficient strength to cope with the Morisco chief,
+instantly began his retreat on Granada. In this he was not molested by
+Aben-Aboo, who was only too glad to be allowed without interruption to
+follow up the siege of Orgiba. But, finding this place, to his surprise,
+abandoned by the enemy, he entered it without bloodshed, and with
+colours flying, as a conqueror.[201]
+
+These successes in the commencement of his reign furnished a brilliant
+augury for the future. The fame of Aben-Aboo spread far and wide through
+the country; and the warlike peasantry thronged from all quarters to his
+standard. Tidings now arrived that several of the principal places on
+the eastern skirts of the Alpujarras had proclaimed their adherence to
+the Morisco cause; and it was expected that the flame of insurrection
+would soon spread to the adjoining provinces of Murcia and Valencia. So
+widely, indeed, had it already spread, that, of all the Morisco
+territory south of Granada, the country around Malaga and the sierra of
+Ronda, on the extreme west, were the only portions that still
+acknowledged the authority of Castile.[202]
+
+The war now took the same romantic aspect that it wore in the days of
+the conquest of Granada. Beacon-fires were to be seen along the highest
+peaks of the sierra, throwing their ominous glare around for many a
+league, and calling the bold mountaineers to the foray. Then came the
+gathering of the wild militia of the country, which, pouring down on the
+lower levels, now in the faded green of autumn, swept away herds and
+flocks, and bore them off in triumph to their fastnesses.
+
+Sometimes marauders penetrated into the _vega_, the beautiful _vega_,
+every inch of whose soil was fertilized with human blood, and which now,
+as in ancient times, became the battle-ground of Christian and Moslem
+cavaliers. Almost always it was the former who had the advantage, as was
+intimated by the gory trophies,--the heads and hands of the vanquished,
+which they bore on the points of their lances, when, amidst the shouts
+of the populace, they came thundering on through the gates of the
+capital.[203]
+
+[Sidenote: IMPETUOUS SPIRIT OF DON JUAN.]
+
+Yet sometimes fortune lay in the opposite scale. The bold infidels,
+after scouring the _vega_, would burst into the suburbs, or even into
+the city of Granada, filling the place with consternation. Then might be
+seen the terror-stricken citizens hurrying to and fro, while the great
+alarm-bell of the Alhambra sent forth its summons, and the chivalry,
+mounting in haste, shouted the old war-cry of _Saint Jago_, and threw
+themselves on the invaders, who, after a short but bloody fray, were
+sure to be driven in confusion across the _vega_, and far over the
+borders.
+
+Don John, on these occasions, was always to be descried in the front of
+battle, as if rejoicing in his element, and courting danger like some
+paladin of romance. Indeed, Philip was obliged, again and again, to
+rebuke his brother for thus wantonly exposing his life, in a manner, the
+king intimated, wholly unbecoming his rank.[204] But it would have been
+as easy to rein in the war-horse when the trumpet was sounding in his
+ears, as to curb the spirits of the high-mettled young chieftain when
+his followers were mustering to the charge. In truth, it was precisely
+these occasions that filled him with the greatest glee; for they opened
+to him the only glimpses he was allowed of that career of glory for
+which his soul had so long panted. Every detachment that sallied forth
+from Granada on a warlike adventure was an object of his envy; and as he
+gazed on the blue mountains that rose as an impassable barrier around
+him, he was like the bird vainly beating its plumage against the gilded
+wires of its prison-house, and longing to be free.
+
+He wrote to the king in the most earnest terms, representing the forlorn
+condition of affairs,--the Spaniards losing ground day after day, and
+the army under the marquis of Los Velez wasting away its energies in
+sloth, or exerting them in unprofitable enterprises. He implored his
+brother not to compel him to remain thus cooped up within the walls of
+Granada, but to allow him to have a real as well as nominal command, and
+to conduct the war in person.[205]
+
+The views presented by Don John were warmly supported by Requesens, who
+wrote to Philip, denouncing, in unqualified terms, the incapacity of Los
+Velez.
+
+Philip had no objection to receive complaints, even against those whom
+he most favoured. He could not shut his eyes to the truth of the charges
+now brought against the hot-headed old chief, who had so long enjoyed
+his confidence, but whose campaigns of late had been a series of
+blunders. He saw the critical aspect of affairs, and the danger that the
+rebellion, which had struck so deep root in Granada, unless speedily
+crushed, would spread over the adjoining provinces. Mondejar's removal
+from the scene of action had not brought the remedy that Philip had
+expected.
+
+Yet it was with reluctance that he yielded to his brother's wishes;
+whether distrusting the capacity of one so young for an independent
+command, or, as might be inferred from his letters, apprehending the
+dangers in which Don John's impetuous spirit would probably involve him.
+Having formed his plans, he lost no time in communicating them to his
+brother. The young warrior was to succeed Los Velez in the command of
+the eastern army, which was to be strengthened by reinforcements, while
+the duke of Sesa, under the direction of Don John, was to establish
+himself, with an efficient corps, in the Alpujarras, in such a position
+as to cover the approaches to Granada.
+
+A summons was then sent to the principal towns of Andalusia, requiring
+them to raise fresh levies for the war, who were to be encouraged by
+promises of better pay than had before been given. But these promises
+did not weigh so much with the soldiers as the knowledge that Don John
+of Austria was to take charge of the expedition; and nobles and
+cavaliers came thronging to the war, with their well-armed retainers, in
+such numbers that the king felt it necessary to publish another
+ordinance, prohibiting any, without express permission, from joining the
+service.[206]
+
+All now was bustle and excitement in Granada, as the new levies came in,
+and the old ones were receiving a better organization. Indeed, Don John
+had been closely occupied for some time with introducing reforms among
+the troops quartered in the city, who, from causes already mentioned,
+had fallen into a state of the most alarming insubordination. A similar
+spirit had infected the officers, and to such an extent, that it was
+deemed necessary to suspend no less than thirty-seven out of forty-five
+captains from their commands.[207] Such were the difficulties under
+which the youthful hero was to enter on his first campaign.
+
+Fortunately, in the retainers of the great lords and cavaliers, he had a
+body of well-appointed and well-disciplined troops, who were actuated by
+higher motives than the mere love of plunder.[208] His labours,
+moreover, did much to restore the ancient discipline of the regiments
+quartered in Granada. But the zeal with which he had devoted himself to
+the work of reform had impaired his health. This drew forth a kind
+remonstrance from Philip, who wrote to his brother not thus to overtask
+his strength, but to remember that he had need of his services; telling
+him to remind Quixada that he must watch over him more carefully. "And
+God grant," he concluded, "that your health may be soon re-established."
+The affectionate solicitude constantly shown for his brother's welfare
+in the king's letters, was hardly to have been expected in one of so
+phlegmatic a temperament, and who was usually so little demonstrative in
+the expression of his feelings.
+
+Before entering on his great expedition, Don John resolved to secure the
+safety of Granada, in his absence, by the reduction of "the robber's
+nest," as the Spaniards called it, of Guejar. This was a fortified
+place, near the confines of the Alpujarras, held by a warlike garrison,
+that frequently sallied out over the neighbouring country, sometimes
+carrying their forays into the _vega_ of Granada, and causing a panic in
+the capital. Don John formed his force into two divisions, one of which
+he gave to the duke of Sesa, while the other he proposed to lead in
+person. They were to proceed by different routes, and, meeting before
+the place, to attack it simultaneously from opposite quarters.
+
+[Sidenote: CAPTURE OF GUEJAR.]
+
+The duke, marching by the most direct road across the mountains,
+reached Guejar first, and was not a little surprised to find that the
+inhabitants, who had received notice of the preparations of the
+Spaniards, were already evacuating the town; while the garrison was
+formed in order of battle to cover their retreat. After a short skirmish
+with the rear-guard, in which some lives were lost on both sides, the
+victorious Spaniards, without following up their advantage, marched into
+the town, and took possession of the works abandoned by the enemy.
+
+Great was the surprise of Don John, on arriving some hours later before
+Guejar, to see the Castilian flag floating from its ramparts; and his
+indignation was roused as he found that the laurels he had designed for
+his own brow had been thus unceremoniously snatched from him by another.
+"With eyes," says the chronicler, "glowing like coals of fire,"[209] he
+turned on the duke of Sesa, and demanded an explanation of the affair.
+But he soon found that the blame, if blame there were, was to be laid on
+one whom he felt that he had not the power to rebuke. This was Luis
+Quixada, who, in his solicitude for the safety of his ward, had caused
+the army to be conducted by a circuitous route, that brought it thus
+late upon the field. But though Don John uttered no word of rebuke, he
+maintained a moody silence, that plainly showed his vexation; and, as
+the soldiers remarked, not a morsel of food passed his lips until he had
+reached Granada.[210]
+
+The constant supervision maintained over him by Quixada, which, as we
+have seen, was encouraged by the king, was a subject of frequent remark
+among the troops. It must have afforded no little embarrassment and
+mortification to Don John, alike ill-suited, as it was, to his age, his
+aspiring temper, and his station. For his station as commander-in-chief
+of the army made him responsible, in the eyes of the world, for the
+measures of the campaign. Yet, in his dependent situation, he had the
+power neither to decide on the plan of operations, nor to carry it into
+execution. Not many days were to elapse before the death of his
+kind-hearted monitor was to relieve him from the jealous oversight that
+so much chafed his spirit, and to open to him an independent career of
+glory, such as might satisfy the utmost cravings of his ambition.
+
+ One of the authorities of the greatest importance, and most
+ frequently cited in this book, as the reader may have noticed, is
+ Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. He belonged to one of the most
+ illustrious houses in Castile--a house not more prominent for its
+ rank than for the great abilities displayed by its members in the
+ various walks of civil and military life, as well as for their rare
+ intellectual culture. No one of the great families of Spain has
+ furnished so fruitful a theme for the pen of both the chronicler
+ and the bard.
+
+ He was the fifth son of the marquis of Mondejar, and was born in
+ the year 1503, at Granada, where his father filled the office held
+ by his ancestors, of captain-general of the province. At an early
+ age he was sent to Salamanca, and passed with credit through the
+ course of studies taught in its venerable university. While there
+ he wrote--for, though printed anonymously, there seems no good
+ reason to distrust the authorship--his famous "Lazarillo de
+ Tormes," the origin of that class of _picaresco_ novels, as they
+ are styled, which constitutes an important branch of Castilian
+ literature, and the best specimen of which, strange to say, was
+ furnished by the hand of a foreigner,--the "Gil Blas" of Le Sage.
+
+ Mendoza had been destined to the Church, for which the extensive
+ patronage of his family offered obvious advantages. But the taste
+ of the young man, as might be inferred from his novel, took another
+ direction, and he persuaded his father to allow him to enter the
+ army, and take service under the banner of Charles the Fifth.
+ Mendoza's love of letters did not desert him in the camp; and he
+ availed himself of such intervals as occurred between the
+ campaigns to continue his studies, especially in the ancient
+ languages, in the principal universities of Italy.
+
+ It was impossible that a person of such remarkable endowments as
+ Mendoza, the more conspicuous from his social position, should
+ escape the penetrating eye of Charles the Fifth, who, independently
+ of his scholarship, recognized in the young noble a decided talent
+ for political affairs. In 1538 the emperor appointed him ambassador
+ to Venice, a capital for which the literary enterprises of the Aldi
+ were every day winning a higher reputation in the republic of
+ letters. Here Mendoza had the best opportunity of accomplishing a
+ work which he had much at heart,--the formation of a library. It
+ was a work of no small difficulty in that day, when books and
+ manuscripts were to be gathered from obscure, often remote sources,
+ and at the large cost paid for objects of _virtu_. A good office
+ which he had the means of rendering the sultan, by the redemption
+ from captivity of a Turkish prisoner of rank, was requited by a
+ magnificent present of Greek manuscripts, worth more than gold in
+ the eyes of Mendoza. It was from his collection that the first
+ edition of Josephus was given to the world. While freely indulging
+ his taste for literary occupations in his intervals of leisure, he
+ performed the duties of his mission with an ability that fully
+ vindicated his appointment as minister to the wily republic. On the
+ opening of the Council of Trent, he was one of the delegates sent
+ to represent the emperor in that body. He joined freely in the
+ discussions of the conclave, and enforced the views of his
+ sovereign with a strength of reasoning and a fervid eloquence that
+ produced a powerful impression on his audience. The independence he
+ displayed recommended him for the delicate task of presenting the
+ remonstrances of Charles the Fifth to the papal court against the
+ removal of the council to Bologna. This he did with a degree of
+ frankness to which the pontifical ear was but little accustomed,
+ and which, if it failed to bend the proud spirit of Paul the Third,
+ had its effect on his successor.
+
+ Mendoza, from whatever cause, does not seem to have stood so high
+ in the favour of Philip the Second as in that of his father.
+ Perhaps he had too lofty a nature to stoop to that implicit
+ deference which Philip exacted from the highest as well as the
+ humblest who approached him. At length, in 1568, Mendoza's own
+ misconduct brought him, with good reason, into disgrace with his
+ master. He engaged in a brawl with another courtier in the palace;
+ and the scandalous scene, of which the reader will find an account
+ in the preceding volume, took place when the prince of Asturias,
+ Don Carlos, was breathing his last. The offending parties were
+ punished first by imprisonment, and then by banishment from Madrid.
+ Mendoza, who was sixty-five years of age at this time, withdrew to
+ Granada, his native place. But he had passed too much of his life
+ in the atmosphere of a court to be content with a provincial
+ residence. He accordingly made repeated efforts to soften his
+ sovereign's displeasure, and to obtain some mitigation of his
+ sentence. These efforts, as may be believed, were unavailing; and
+ the illustrious exile took at length the wiser course of submitting
+ to his fate and seeking consolation in the companionship of his
+ books,--steady friends, whose worth he now fully proved in the hour
+ of adversity. He devoted himself to the study of Arabic, to which
+ he was naturally led by his residence in a capital filled with the
+ monuments of Arabic art. He also amused his leisure by writing
+ verses, and his labours combined with those of Boscan and
+ Garcilasso de la Vega to naturalize in Castile those more refined
+ forms of Italian versification that made an important epoch in the
+ national literature.
+
+ But the great work to which he devoted himself was the history of
+ the insurrection of the Moriscoes, which, occurring during his
+ residence in Granada, may be said to have passed before his eyes.
+ For this he had, moreover, obvious facilities, for he was the near
+ kinsman of the captain-general, and was personally acquainted with
+ those who had the direction of affairs. The result of his labours
+ was a work of inestimable value, though of no great bulk--being
+ less a history of events than a commentary on such a history. The
+ author explores the causes of these events. He introduces the
+ reader into the cabinet of Madrid, makes him acquainted with the
+ intrigues of the different factions, both in the court and in the
+ camp, unfolds the policy of the government and the plans of the
+ campaigns--in short, enables him to penetrate into the interior,
+ and see the secret working of the machinery, so carefully shrouded
+ from the vulgar eye.
+
+ The value which the work derived from the author's access to these
+ recondite sources of information is much enhanced by its
+ independent spirit. In a country where few dared even think for
+ themselves, Mendoza both thought with freedom and freely expressed
+ his thoughts. Proof of this is afforded by the caustic tone of his
+ criticism on the conduct of the government, and by the candour
+ which he sometimes ventures to display when noticing the wrongs of
+ the Moriscoes. This independence of the historian, we may well
+ believe, could have found little favour with the administration.
+ It may have been the cause that the book was not published till
+ after the reign of Philip the Second, and many years after its
+ author's death.
+
+ [Sidenote: MENDOZA.]
+
+ The literary execution of the work is not its least remarkable
+ feature. Instead of the desultory and gossiping style of the
+ Castilian chronicler, every page is instinct with the spirit of the
+ ancient classics. Indeed, Mendoza is commonly thought to have
+ deliberately formed his style on that of Sallust; but I agree with
+ my friend Mr. Ticknor, who, in a luminous criticism on Mendoza, in
+ his great work on Spanish Literature, expresses the opinion that
+ the Castilian historian formed his style quite as much on that of
+ Tacitus as of Sallust. Indeed, some of Mendoza's most celebrated
+ passages are obvious imitations of the former historian, of whom he
+ constantly reminds us by the singular compactness and energy of his
+ diction, by his power of delineating a portrait by a single stroke
+ of the pencil, and by his free criticism on the chief actors of the
+ drama, conveyed in language full of that practical wisdom which, in
+ Mendoza's case, was the result of a large acquaintance with public
+ affairs. We recognize also the defects incident to the style he has
+ chosen--rigidity and constraint, with a frequent use of ellipsis,
+ in a way that does violence to the national idiom, and, worst of
+ all, that obscurity which arises from the effort to be brief.
+ Mendoza hurts his book, moreover, by an unseasonable display of
+ learning, which, however it may be pardoned by the antiquary, comes
+ like an impertinent episode to break the thread of the narrative.
+ But, with all its defects, the work is a remarkable production for
+ the time, and, appearing in the midst of the _romantic_ literature
+ of Spain, we regard it with the same feeling of surprise which the
+ traveller might experience who should meet with a classic Doric
+ temple in the midst of the fantastic structures of China or
+ Hindostan.
+
+ Not long after Mendoza had completed his history, he obtained
+ permission to visit Madrid, not to reside there, but to attend to
+ some personal affairs. He had hardly reached the capital when he
+ was attacked by a mortal illness, which carried him off in April,
+ 1575, in the seventy-third year of his age. Shortly before his
+ death he gave his rich collection of books and manuscripts to his
+ obdurate master, who placed them, agreeably to the donor's desire,
+ in the Escorial, where they still form an interesting portion of a
+ library of which so much has been said, and so little is really
+ known by the world.
+
+ The most copious notice with which I am acquainted, of the life of
+ Mendoza, is that attributed to the pen of Inigo Lopez de Avila, and
+ prefixed to the Valencian edition of the "Guerra de Granada,"
+ published in 1776. But his countrymen have been ever ready to do
+ honour to the memory of one who, by the brilliant success which he
+ achieved as a statesman, a diplomatist, a novelist, a poet, and an
+ historian, has established a reputation for versatility of genius
+ second to none in the literature of Spain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES.
+
+Don John takes the Field--Investment of Galera--Fierce
+Assaults--Preparations for a last Attack--Explosion of the
+Mines--Desperation of the Moriscoes--Cruel Massacre--Galera demolished.
+
+1570.
+
+
+Don John lost no time in completing the arrangements for his expedition.
+The troops, as they reached Granada, were for the most part sent forward
+to join the army under Los Velez, on the east of the Alpujarras, where
+that commander was occupied with the siege of Galera, though with but
+little prospect of reducing the place. He was soon, however, to be
+superseded by Don John.
+
+Philip, unable to close his ears against the representations of his
+brother, as well as those of more experienced captains in the service,
+had at length reluctantly come to a conviction of the unfitness of Los
+Velez for the command. Yet he had a partiality for the veteran; and he
+was willing to spare him, as far as possible, the mortification of
+seeing himself supplanted by his young rival. In his letters, the king
+repeatedly enjoined it on his brother to treat the marquis with the
+utmost deference, and to countenance no reports circulated to his
+prejudice. In an epistle filled with instructions for the campaign,
+dated the twenty-sixth of November, the king told Don John to be
+directed on all occasions by the counsels of Quixada and Requesens. He
+was to show the greatest respect for the marquis, and to give him to
+understand that he should be governed by his opinions. "But, in point of
+fact," said Philip, "should his opinion clash at any time with that of
+the two other counsellors, you are to be governed by theirs."[211]
+
+On Quixada and Requesens he was indeed always to rely, never setting up
+his own judgment in opposition to theirs. He was to move with caution,
+and, instead of the impatient spirit of a boy, to show the
+circumspection of one possessed of military experience. "In this way,"
+concluded his royal monitor, "you will not only secure the favour of
+your sovereign, but establish your reputation with the world."[212] It
+is evident that Philip had discerned traits in the character of Don John
+which led him to distrust somewhat his capacity for the high station in
+which he was placed. Perhaps it may be thought that the hesitating and
+timid policy of Philip was less favourable to success in military
+operations than the bold spirit of enterprise which belonged to his
+brother. However this may be, Don John, notwithstanding his repeated
+protestations to the contrary, was of too ardent a temperament to be
+readily affected by these admonitions of his prudent adviser.
+
+The military command in Granada was lodged by the prince in the hands of
+the duke of Sesa, who, as soon as he had gathered a sufficient force,
+was to march into the western district of the Alpujarras, and there
+create a diversion in favour of Don John. A body of four thousand troops
+was to remain in Granada; and the commander-in-chief, having thus
+completed his dispositions for the protection of the capital, set forth
+on his expedition on the twenty-ninth of December, at the head of a
+force amounting only to three thousand foot and four hundred horse. With
+these troops went a numerous body of volunteers, the flower of the
+Andalusian chivalry, who had come to win renown under the banner of the
+young leader.
+
+He took the route through Guadix, and on the third day reached the
+ancient city of Baza, memorable for the siege it had sustained under his
+victorious ancestors, Ferdinand and Isabella. Here he was met by
+Requesens, who, besides a reinforcement of troops, brought with him a
+train of heavy ordnance and a large supply of ammunition. The guns were
+sent forward, under a strong escort, to Galera; but, on leaving Baza,
+Don John received the astounding tidings that the marquis of Los Velez
+had already abandoned the siege, and drawn off his whole force to the
+neighbouring town of Guescar.
+
+[Sidenote: LOS VELEZ RESIGNS HIS COMMAND.]
+
+In fact, the rumour had no sooner reached the ears of the testy old
+chief, that Don John was speedily coming to take charge of the war, than
+he swore in his wrath that if the report were true, he would abandon the
+siege and throw up his command. Yet those who knew him best did not
+think him capable of so mad an act. He kept his word, however; and when
+he learned that Don John was on the way, he broke up his encampment and
+withdrew, as above stated, to Guescar. By this course he left the
+adjacent country open to the incursions of the Moriscoes of Galera;
+while no care was taken to provide even for the safety of the convoys
+which, from time to time, came laden with supplies for the besieging
+army.
+
+This extraordinary conduct gave no dissatisfaction to his troops, who,
+long since disgusted with the fiery yet imbecile character of their
+general, looked with pleasure to the prospect of joining the standard of
+so popular a chieftain as John of Austria. Even the indignation felt by
+the latter at the senseless proceeding of the marquis was forgotten in
+the satisfaction he experienced, at being thus relieved from the
+embarrassments which his rival's overweening pretensions could not have
+failed to cause him in the campaign. Don John might now, with a good
+grace, and without any cost to himself, make all the concessions to the
+veteran so strenuously demanded by Philip. It was in this amiable mood
+that the prince pushed forward his march, eager to prevent the
+disastrous consequences which might arise from the marquis's abandonment
+of his post.
+
+As he drew near to Guescar, he beheld the old nobleman riding towards
+him at the head of his retainers, with a stiff and stately port, like
+one who had no concessions or explanations to make for himself. Without
+alighting from his horse, as he drew near the prince, he tendered him
+obeisance by kissing the hand which the latter graciously extended
+towards him. "Noble marquis," said Don John, "your great deeds have shed
+a lustre over your name. I consider myself fortunate in having the
+opportunity of becoming personally acquainted with you. Fear not that
+your authority will be in the least abridged by mine. The soldiers under
+my command will obey you as implicitly as myself. I pray you to look on
+me as a son, filled with feelings of reverence for your valour and your
+experience, and designing on all occasions to lean on your counsels for
+support."[213]
+
+The courteous and respectful tone of the prince seems to have had its
+effect on the iron nature of the marquis, as he replied, "There is no
+Spaniard living who has a stronger desire than I have to be personally
+acquainted with the distinguished brother of my sovereign, or who would
+probably be a greater gainer by serving under his banner. But to speak
+with my usual plainness, I wish to withdraw to my own house; for it
+would never do for me, old as I am, to hold the post of a
+subaltern."[214] He then accompanied Don John back to the town, giving
+him, as they rode along, some account of the siege and of the strength
+of the place. On reaching the quarters reserved for the
+commander-in-chief, Los Velez took leave of the prince; and, without
+further ceremony, gathering his knights and followers about him, and
+escorted by a company of horse, he rode off in the direction of his town
+of Velez Blanco, which was situated at no great distance, amidst the
+wild scenery stretching toward the frontiers of Murcia. Here among the
+mountains he lived in a retirement that would have been more honourable
+had it not been purchased by so flagrant a breach of duty.[215]
+
+The whole story is singularly characteristic, not merely of the man, but
+of the times in which he lived. Had so high-handed and audacious a
+proceeding occurred in our day, no rank, however exalted, could have
+screened the offender from punishment. As it was, it does not appear
+that any attempt was made at an inquiry into the marquis's conduct. This
+is the more remarkable, considering that it involved such disrespect to
+a sovereign little disposed to treat with lenity any want of deference
+to himself. The explanation of the lenity shown by him on the present
+occasion may perhaps be found, not in any tenderness for the reputation
+of his favorite, but in Philip's perceiving that the further prosecution
+of the affair would only serve to give greater publicity to his own
+egregious error in retaining Los Velez in the command, when his conduct
+and the warnings of others should long ago have been regarded as proof
+of his incapacity.
+
+On the marquis's departure, Don John lost no time in resuming his march
+at the head of a force which now amounted to twelve thousand foot and
+eight hundred horse, besides a brilliant array of chivalry, who, as we
+have seen, had come to seek their fortunes in the war. A few hours
+brought the troops before Galera; and Don John proceeded at once to
+reconnoitre the ground. In this survey he was attended by Quixada,
+Requesens, and the greater part of the cavalry. Having completed his
+observations, he made his arrangements for investing the place.
+
+The town of Galera occupied a site singularly picturesque. This,
+however, had been selected, certainly not from any regard to its
+romantic beauty, still less for purposes of convenience, but for those
+of defence against an enemy,--a circumstance of the first importance in
+a mountain country so wild and warlike as that in which Galera stood.
+The singular shape of the rocky eminence which it covered was supposed,
+with its convex summit, to bear some resemblance to that of a galley
+with its keel uppermost. From this resemblance the town had derived its
+name.[216]
+
+The summit was crowned by a castle, which in the style of its
+architecture bore evident marks of antiquity. It was defended by a wall,
+much of it in so ruinous a condition as to be little better than a mass
+of stones loosely put together. At a few paces from the fortress stood a
+ravelin. But neither this outwork nor the castle itself could boast of
+any other piece of artillery than two falconets, captured from Los Velez
+during his recent siege of the place, and now mounted on the principal
+edifice. Even these had been so injudiciously placed as to give little
+annoyance to an enemy.
+
+The houses of the inhabitants stretched along the remainder of the
+summit, and descended by a bold declivity the north-western side of the
+hill to a broad plain known as the _Eras_, or "Gardens." Through this
+plain flowed a stream of considerable depth, which, as it washed the
+base of the town on its northern side, formed a sort of moat for its
+protection on that quarter. On the side towards the Gardens, the town
+was defended by a ditch and a wall now somewhat dilapidated. The most
+remarkable feature of this quarter was a church with its belfry or
+tower, now converted into a fortress, which, in default of cannon, had
+been pierced with loopholes and filled with musketeers,--forming
+altogether an outwork of considerable strength, and commanding the
+approaches to the town.
+
+[Sidenote: INVESTMENT OF GALERA.]
+
+On two of its sides, the rock on which Galera rested descended almost
+perpendicularly, forming the walls of a ravine fenced in on the opposite
+quarter by precipitous hills, and thus presenting a sort of natural
+ditch on a gigantic scale for the protection of the place. The houses
+rose one above another, on a succession of terraces, so steep that in
+many instances the roof of one building scarcely reached the foundation
+of the one above it. The houses which occupied the same terrace, and
+stood therefore on the same level, might be regarded as so many
+fortresses. Their walls, which, after the Moorish fashion, were
+ill-provided with lattices, were pierced with loopholes, that gave the
+marksmen within the command of the streets on which they fronted; and
+these streets were still further protected by barricades thrown across
+them at only fifty paces' distance from each other.[217] Thus the whole
+place bristled over with fortifications, or rather seemed like one great
+fortification itself, which nature had combined with art to make
+impregnable.
+
+It was well victualled for a siege, at least with grain, of which there
+was enough in the magazines for two years' consumption. Water was
+supplied by the neighbouring river, to which access had been obtained by
+a subterranean gallery, lately excavated in the rock. These necessaries
+of life the Moriscoes could command. But they were miserably deficient
+in what, in their condition, was scarcely less important,--fire-arms and
+ammunition. They had no artillery except the two falconets before
+noticed; and they were so poorly provided with muskets as to be mainly
+dependent on arrows, stones, and other missiles, such as had filled the
+armories of their ancestors. To these might be added swords, and some
+other weapons for hand-to-hand combat. Of defensive armour they were
+almost wholly destitute. But they were animated by an heroic spirit, of
+more worth than breastplate or helmet, and to a man they were prepared
+to die rather than surrender.
+
+The fighting men of the place amounted to three thousand, not including
+four hundred mercenaries, chiefly Turks and adventurers from the Barbary
+shore. The town was, moreover, encumbered with some four thousand women
+and children; though, as far as the women were concerned, they should
+not be termed an incumbrance in a place where there was no scarcity of
+food; for they showed all the constancy and contempt of danger possessed
+by the men, whom they aided not only by tending the sick and wounded,
+but by the efficient services they rendered them in action. The story of
+this siege records several examples of these Morisco heroines, whose
+ferocious valour emulated the doughtiest achievements of the other sex.
+It is not strange that a place so strong in itself, where the women were
+animated by as brave a spirit as the men, should have bid defiance to
+all the efforts of an enemy like Los Velez, though backed by an army in
+the outset at least as formidable in point of numbers as that which now
+sat down before it under the command of John of Austria.[218]
+
+Having concluded his survey of the ground, the Spanish general gave
+orders for the construction of three batteries, to operate at the same
+time on different quarters of the town. The first and largest of these
+batteries, mounting ten pieces of ordnance, was raised on an eminence on
+the eastern side of the ravine. Though at a greater distance than was
+desirable, the position was sufficiently elevated to enable the guns to
+command the castle and the highest parts of the town.
+
+The second battery, consisting of six heavy cannon, was established
+lower down the ravine, towards the south, at the distance of hardly more
+than seventy paces from the perpendicular face of the rock. The
+remaining battery, composed of only three guns of smaller calibre, was
+erected in the Gardens, and so placed as to operate against the tower
+which, as already noticed, was attached to the church.
+
+The whole number of pieces of artillery belonging to the besiegers did
+not exceed twenty. But they were hourly expecting a reinforcement of
+thirteen more from Cartagena. The great body of the forces was disposed
+behind some high ground on the east, which effectually sheltered the men
+from the fire of the besieged. The corps of Italian veterans, the flower
+of the army, was stationed in the Gardens, under command of a gallant
+officer named Pedro de Padilla. Thus the investment of Galera was
+complete.
+
+The first object of attack was the tower in the Gardens, from which the
+Moorish garrison kept up a teasing fire on the Spaniards, as they were
+employed in the construction of the battery, as well as in digging a
+trench, in that quarter. No sooner were the guns in position than they
+delivered their fire, with such effect that an opening was speedily made
+in the flimsy masonry of the fortress. Padilla, to whom the assault was
+committed, led forward his men gallantly to the breach, where he was met
+by the defenders with a spirit equal to his own. A fierce combat ensued.
+It was not a long one; for the foremost assailants were soon reinforced
+by others, until they overpowered the little garrison by numbers, and
+such as escaped the sword took refuge in the defences of the town that
+adjoined the church.
+
+Flushed with his success in thus easily carrying the tower, which he
+garrisoned with a strong body of arquebusiers, Don John now determined
+to make a regular assault on the town, and from this same quarter of the
+Gardens, as affording the best point of attack. The execution of the
+affair he entrusted, as before, to Juan de Padilla and his Italian
+regiment. The guns were then turned against the rampart and the
+adjoining buildings. Don John pushed forward the siege with vigour,
+stimulating the men by his own example, carrying fagots on his shoulders
+for constructing the trenches, and, in short, performing the labours of
+a common soldier.[219]
+
+By the twenty-fourth of January, practicable breaches had been effected
+in the ancient wall; and at the appointed signal, Padilla and his
+veterans moved swiftly forward to the attack. They met with little
+difficulty from the ditch or from the wall, which, never formidable from
+its height, now presented more than one opening to the assailants. They
+experienced as little resistance from the garrison. But they had not
+penetrated far into the town before the aspect of things changed. Their
+progress was checked by one of those barricades already mentioned as
+stretched across the streets, behind which a body of musketeers poured
+well-directed volleys into the ranks of the Christians. At the same
+time, from the loopholes in the walls of the buildings, came incessant
+showers of musket-balls, arrows, stones, and other missiles, which swept
+the exposed files of the Spaniards, soon covering the streets with the
+bodies of the slain and the wounded. It was in vain that the assailants
+stormed the houses, and carried one entrenchment after another. Each
+house was a separate fortress; and each succeeding barricade, as the
+ascent became steeper, gave additional advantage to its defenders, by
+placing them on a greater elevation above their enemy.
+
+[Sidenote: FIERCE ASSAULTS.]
+
+Thus beset in front, flank, and rear, the soldiers were completely
+blinded and bewildered by the pitiless storm which poured on them from
+their invisible foe. Huddled together, in their confusion they presented
+an easy mark to the enemy, who shot at random, knowing that every
+missile would carry its errand of death. It seemed that the besieged had
+purposely drawn their foes into the snare, by allowing them to enter the
+town without resistance, until, hemmed in on all sides, they were
+slaughtered like cattle in the shambles.
+
+The fight had lasted an hour, when Padilla, seeing his best and bravest
+falling around him, and being himself nearly disabled by a wound, gave
+the order to retreat; an order obeyed with such alacrity, that the
+Spaniards left numbers of their wounded comrades lying in the street,
+vainly imploring not to be abandoned to the mercy of their enemies. A
+greater number than usual of officers and men of rank perished in the
+assault, their rich arms making them a conspicuous mark amidst the
+throng of assailants. Among others was a soldier of distinction named
+Juan de Pacheco. He was a knight of the order of St. James. He had
+joined the army only a few minutes before the attack, having just
+crossed the seas from Africa. He at once requested Padilla, who was his
+kinsman, to allow him to share in the glory of the day. In the heat of
+the struggle, Padilla lost sight of his gallant relative, whose
+insignia, proclaiming him a soldier of the Cross, made him a peculiar
+object of detestation to the Moslems; and he soon fell, under a
+multitude of wounds.[220]
+
+The disasters of the day, however mortifying, were not a bad lesson to
+the young commander-in-chief, who saw the necessity of more careful
+preparation before renewing his attempt on the place. He acknowledged
+the value of his brother's counsel, to make free use of artillery and
+mines before coming to close quarters with the enemy.[221] He determined
+to open a mine in the perpendicular side of the rock, towards the east,
+and to run it below the castle and the neighbouring houses on the
+summit. For this he employed the services of Francesco de Molina, who
+had so stoutly defended Orgiba, and who was aided in the present work by
+a skilful Venetian engineer. The rock, consisting of a light and brittle
+sandstone, was worked with even less difficulty than had been expected.
+In a short time the gallery was completed, and forty-five barrels of
+powder were lodged in it. Meanwhile the batteries continued to play with
+great vivacity on the different quarters of the town and castle. A small
+breach was opened in the latter, and many buildings on the summit of the
+rock were overthrown. By the twenty-seventh of January all was ready for
+the assault.
+
+It was Don John's purpose to assail the place on opposite quarters.
+Padilla, who still smarted from his wound, was to attack the town, as
+before, on the side towards the Gardens. The chief object of this
+manoeuvre was to create a diversion in favour of the principal
+assault, which was to be made on the other side of the rock, where the
+springing of the mine, it was expected, would open a ready access to the
+castle. The command on this quarter was given to a brave officer named
+Antonio Moreno. Don John, at the head of four thousand men, occupied a
+position which enabled him to overlook the scene of action.
+
+On the twenty-seventh, at eight in the morning, the signal was given by
+the firing of a cannon; and Padilla, at the head of his veterans, moved
+forward to the attack. They effected their entrance into the town with
+even less opposition than before; for the cannonade from the Gardens had
+blown away most of the houses, garrisoned by the Moslems, near the wall.
+But as the assailants pushed on, they soon became entangled, as before,
+in the long and narrow defiles. The enemy, entrenched behind their
+redoubts thrown across the streets, poured down their murderous volleys
+into the close ranks of the Spaniards, who were overwhelmed, as on the
+former occasion, with deadly missiles of all kinds from the occupants of
+the houses. But experience had prepared them for this; and they had come
+provided with mantelets, to shelter them from the tempest. Yet, when the
+annoyance became intolerable, they would storm the dwellings; and a
+bloody struggle usually ended in putting their inmates to the sword.
+Each barricade, too, as the Spaniards advanced, became the scene of a
+desperate combat, where the musket was cast aside, and men fought hand
+to hand with sword and dagger. Now rose the fierce battle-cries of the
+combatants, one party calling on St. Jago, the other on Mahomet, thus
+intimating that it was still the same war of the Cross and the Crescent
+which had been carried on for more than eight centuries in the
+Peninsula.[222] The shouts of the combatants, the clash of weapons, the
+report of musketry from the adjoining houses, the sounds of falling
+missiles, filled the air with an unearthly din, that was reverberated
+and prolonged in countless echoes through the narrow streets, converting
+the once peaceful city into a Pandemonium. Still the Spaniards, though
+slowly winning their way through every obstacle, were far from the
+table-land on the summit, where they hoped to join their countrymen from
+the other quarter of the town. At this crisis a sound arose which
+overpowered every other sound in this wild uproar, and for a few moments
+suspended the conflict.
+
+This was the bursting of the mine, which Don John, seeing Padilla well
+advanced in his assault, had now given the order to fire. In an instant
+came the terrible explosion, shaking Galera to its centre, rending the
+portion of the rock above the gallery into fragments, toppling down the
+houses on its summit, and burying more than six hundred Moriscoes in the
+ruins. As the smoke and dust of the falling buildings cleared away, and
+the Spaniards from below beheld the miserable survivors crawling forth,
+as well as their mangled limbs would allow, they set up a fierce yell of
+triumph. The mine, however, had done but half the mischief intended; for
+by a miscalculation in the direction, it had passed somewhat to the
+right of the castle, which, as well as the ravelin, remained uninjured.
+Yet a small breach had been opened by the artillery in the former; and
+what was more important, through the shattered sides of the rock itself
+a passage had been made, which, though strewn with the fallen rubbish,
+might afford a practicable entrance to the storming party.
+
+[Sidenote: FIERCE ASSAULTS.]
+
+The soldiers, seeing the chasm, now loudly called to be led to the
+assault. Besides the thirst for vengeance on the rebels who had so long
+set them at defiance, they were stimulated by the desire of plunder; for
+Galera, from its great strength, had been selected as a place of deposit
+for the jewels, rich stuffs, and other articles of value belonging to
+the people in the neighbourhood. The officers, before making the attack,
+were anxious to examine the breach and have the rubbish cleared away, so
+as to make the ascent easier for the troops. But the fierce and
+ill-disciplined levies were too impatient for this. Without heeding the
+commands or remonstrances of their leaders, one after another they broke
+their ranks, and, crying the old national war-cries, "_San Jago!_"
+"_Cierra Espana!_" "St. James!" and "Close up Spain!" they rushed madly
+forward, and, springing lightly over the ruins in their pathway, soon
+planted themselves on the summit. The officers, thus deserted, were not
+long in following, resolved to avail themselves of the enthusiasm of the
+men.
+
+Fortunately the Moriscoes, astounded by the explosion, had taken refuge
+in the town, and thus left undefended a position which might have given
+great annoyance to the Spaniards. Yet the cry no sooner rose, that the
+enemy had scaled the heights, than, recovering from their panic, they
+hurried back to man the defences. When the assailants, therefore, had
+been brought into order and formed into column for the attack, they were
+received with a well-directed fire from the falconets, and with volleys
+of musketry from the ravelin, that for a moment checked their advance.
+But then rallying, they gallantly pushed forward through the fiery
+sleet, and soon found themselves in face of the breach which had been
+made in the castle by their artillery. The opening, scarcely wide enough
+to allow two to pass abreast, was defended by men as strong and
+stout-hearted as their assailants. A desperate struggle ensued, in which
+the besieged bravely held their ground, though a Castilian ensign, named
+Zapata, succeeded in forcing his way into the place, and even in
+planting his standard on the battlements. But it was speedily torn down
+by the enemy, while the brave cavalier, pierced with wounds, was thrown
+headlong on the rocky ground below, still clutching the standard with
+his dying grasp.
+
+Meanwhile the defenders of the ravelin kept up a plunging fire of
+musketry on the assailants; while stones, arrows, javelins, fell thick
+as rain-drops on their heads, rattling on the harness of the cavaliers,
+and inflicting many a wound on the ill-protected bodies of the soldiery.
+The Morisco women bore a brave part in the fight, showing the same
+indifference to danger as their husbands and brothers, and rolling down
+heavy weights on the ranks of the besiegers. These women had a sort of
+military organization, being formed into companies. Sometimes they even
+joined in hand-to-hand combats with their enemies, wielding their swords
+and displaying a prowess worthy of the stronger sex. One of these
+Amazons, whose name became famous in the siege, was seen on this
+occasion to kill her antagonist, and bear away his armour as the spoils
+of victory. It was said that, before she received her mortal wound,
+several Spaniards fell by her hand.[223]
+
+Thus, while the besieged, secure within their defences, suffered
+comparatively little, the attacking column was thrown into disorder.
+Most of its leaders were killed or wounded. Its ranks were thinned by
+the incessant fire from the ravelin and castle; and, though it still
+maintained a brave spirit, its strength was fast ebbing away. Don John,
+who from his commanding position had watched the field, saw the
+necessity of sending to the support of his troops six companies of the
+reserve, which were soon followed by two others. Thus reinforced, they
+were enabled to keep their ground.
+
+Meanwhile the Italian regiment under Padilla had penetrated far into the
+town. But they had won their way inch by inch, and it had cost them
+dear. There was not an officer, it was said, that had not been wounded.
+Four captains had fallen. Padilla, who had not recovered from his former
+wound, had now received another, still more severe. His men, though
+showing a bold front, had been so roughly handled, that it was clear
+they could never fight through the obstacles in their way, and join
+their comrades on the heights. While little mindful of his own wounds,
+Padilla saw with anguish the blood of his brave followers thus poured
+out in vain; and, however reluctantly, he gave the order to retreat.
+This command was the signal for a fresh storm of missiles from the
+enemy. But the veterans of Naples, closing up their ranks as a comrade
+fell, effected their retreat in the same cool and orderly manner in
+which they had advanced, and, though wofully crippled, regained their
+position in the trenches.
+
+Thus disengaged from the conflict on this quarter, the victorious
+Moslems hastened to the support of their countrymen in the castle, where
+they served to counterbalance the reinforcement received by the
+assailants. They fell at once on the rear of the Christians, whose front
+ranks were galled by the guns from the enemy's battery--though clumsily
+served--while their flanks were sorely scathed by the storm of musketry
+that swept down from the ravelin. Thus hemmed in on all sides, they were
+indeed in a perilous situation. Several of the captains were killed. All
+the officers were either killed or wounded; and the narrow ground on
+which they struggled for mastery was heaped with the bodies of the
+slain. Yet their spirits were not broken; and the tide of battle, after
+three hours' duration, still continued to rage with impotent fury around
+the fortress. They still strove, with desperate energy, to scale the
+walls of the ravelin, and to force a way through the narrow breach in
+the castle. But the besieged succeeded in closing up the opening with
+heavy masses of stone and timber, which defied the failing strength of
+the assailants.
+
+Another hour had now elapsed, and Don John, as from his station he
+watched the current of the fight, saw that to prolong the contest would
+only be to bring wider ruin on his followers. He accordingly gave the
+order to retreat. But the men who had so impetuously rushed to the
+attack, in defiance of the commands of their officers, now showed the
+same spirit of insubordination when commanded to leave it; like the
+mastiff who, maddened by the wounds he has received in the conflict,
+refuses to loosen his hold on his antagonist, in spite of the chiding of
+his master. Seeing his orders thus unheeded, Don John, accompanied by
+his staff, resolved to go in person to the scene of action, and enforce
+obedience by his presence. But on reaching the spot, he was hit on his
+cuirass by a musket-ball, which, although it glanced from the
+well-tempered metal, came with sufficient force to bring him to the
+ground. The watchful Quixada, not far distant, sprang to his aid; but it
+appeared he had received no injury. His conduct, however, brought down
+an affectionate remonstrance from his guardian, who, reminding him of
+the king's injunctions besought him to retire, and not thus expose a
+life so precious as that of the commander-in-chief to the hazards of a
+common soldier.
+
+The account of the accident soon spread, with the usual exaggerations,
+among the troops, who, after the prince's departure, yielded a slow and
+sullen obedience to his commands. Thus for a second time the field of
+battle remained in possession of the Moslems; and the banner of the
+crescent still waved triumphantly from the battlements of Galera.[224]
+
+[Sidenote: PREPARATIONS FOR A LAST ATTACK.]
+
+The loss was a heavy one to the Spaniards, amounting, according to their
+own accounts--which will not be suspected of exaggeration--to not less
+than four hundred killed and five hundred wounded. That of the enemy,
+screened by his defences, must have been comparatively light. The loss
+fell most severely on the Spanish chivalry, whose showy dress naturally
+drew the attention of the well-trained Morisco marksmen. The bloody roll
+is inscribed with the names of many a noble house in both Andalusia and
+Castile.
+
+This second reverse of his arms stung Don John to the quick. The eyes of
+his countrymen were upon him; and he well knew the sanguine
+anticipations they had formed of his campaign, and that they would hold
+him responsible for its success. His heart was filled with mourning for
+the loss of his brave companions in arms. Yet he did not give vent to
+unmanly lamentation; but he showed his feelings in another form, which
+did little honour to his heart. Turning to his officers, he exclaimed:
+"The infidels shall pay dear for the Christian blood they have spilt
+this day. The next assault will place Galera in our power; and every
+soul within its walls--man, woman, and child--shall be put to the sword.
+Not one shall be spared. The houses shall be razed to the ground, and
+the ground they covered shall be sown with salt."[225] This inhuman
+speech was received with general acclamations. As the event proved, it
+was not an empty menace.
+
+The result of his operations showed Don John the prudence of his
+brother's recommendation,--to make good use of his batteries and his
+mines before coming to close quarters with the enemy. Philip, in a
+letter written some time after this defeat, alluding to the low state of
+discipline in the camp, urged his brother to give greater attention to
+the morals of the soldiers,--to guard especially against profanity and
+other offences to religion, that by so doing he might secure the favour
+of the Almighty.[226] Don John had intimated to Philip, that, under some
+circumstances, it might be necessary to encourage his men by leading
+them in person to the attack. But the king rebuked the spirit of the
+knight-errant, as not suited to the commander, and admonished his
+brother that the place for him was in the rear; that there he might be
+of service in stimulating the ardour of the remiss; adding, that those
+who went forward promptly in the fight, had no need of his presence to
+encourage them.[227]
+
+Don John lost no time in making his preparations for a third and last
+assault. He caused two new mines to be opened in the rock on either side
+of the former one, and at some thirty paces' distance from it. While
+this was going on, he directed that all the artillery should play
+without intermission on the town and castle. His battering-train,
+meantime, was reinforced by the arrival of fourteen additional pieces of
+heavy ordnance from Cartagena.
+
+The besieged were no less busy in preparing for their defence. The women
+and children toiled equally with the men in repairing the damages in the
+works. The breaches were closed with heavy stones and timber. The old
+barricades were strengthened, and new ones thrown across the streets.
+The magazines were filled with fresh supplies of stones and arrows. Long
+practice had made the former missile a more formidable weapon than usual
+in the hands of the Moriscoes. They were amply provided with water, and,
+as we have seen, were well victualled for a siege longer than this was
+likely to prove. But, in one respect, and that of the last importance,
+they were miserably deficient. Their powder was nearly all expended.
+They endeavoured to obtain supplies of ammunition, as well as
+reinforcements of men, from Aben-Aboo. But the Morisco prince was fully
+occupied at this time with maintaining his ground against the duke of
+Sesa, in the west. His general, El Habaqui, who had charge of the
+eastern army, encouraged the people of Galera to remain firm, assuring
+them that before long he should be able to come to their assistance. But
+time was precious to the besieged.[228]
+
+The Turkish auxiliaries in the garrison greatly doubted the possibility
+of maintaining themselves, with no better ammunition than stones and
+arrows, against the well-served artillery of the Spaniards. Their
+leaders accordingly, in a council of war, proposed that the troops
+should sally forth and cut their way through the lines of the besiegers,
+while the women and children might pass out by the subterranean avenue
+which conducted to the river, the existence of which, we are told, was
+unknown to the Christians. The Turks, mere soldiers of fortune, had no
+local attachment or patriotic feeling to bind them to the soil. But when
+their proposal was laid before the inhabitants, they all, women as well
+as men, treated the proposition with disdain, showing their
+determination to defend the city to the last, and to perish amidst its
+ruins rather than surrender.
+
+Still sustained by the hope of succour, the besieged did what they could
+to keep off the day of the assault. They did not, indeed, attempt to
+counter-mine; for, if they had possessed the skill for this, they had
+neither tools nor powder. But they had made sorties on the miners, and,
+though always repulsed with loss, they contrived to hold the camp of the
+besiegers in a constant state of alarm.
+
+On the sixth of February, the engineers who had charge of the mines gave
+notice that their work was completed. The following morning was named
+for the assault. The orders of the day prescribed that a general
+cannonade should open on the town at six in the morning. It was to
+continue an hour, when the mines were to be sprung. The artillery would
+then play for another hour, after which the signal for the attack would
+be given. The signal was to be the firing of one gun from each of the
+batteries, to be followed by a simultaneous discharge of all. The orders
+directed the troops to show no quarter to man, woman, or child.
+
+[Sidenote: EXPLOSION OF THE MINES.]
+
+On the seventh of February, the last day of the Carnival, the besiegers
+were under arms with the earliest dawn. Their young commander attracted
+every eye by the splendour of his person and appointments. He was armed
+_cap-a-pie_, and wore a suit of burnished steel, richly inlaid with
+gold. His casque, overshadowed by brilliant plumes, was ornamented with
+a medallion displaying the image of the Virgin.[229] In his hand he
+carried the baton of command; and as he rode along the lines addressing
+a few words of encouragement to the soldiers, his perfect horsemanship,
+his princely bearing, and the courtesy of his manners reminded the
+veterans of the happier days of his father, the emperor. The cavaliers
+by whom he was surrounded emulated their chief in the richness of their
+appointments; and the Murcian chronicler, present on that day, dwells
+with complacency on the beautiful array of southern chivalry gathered
+together for the final assault upon Galera.[230]
+
+From six o'clock till seven, a furious cannonade was kept up from the
+whole circle of batteries on the devoted town. Then came the order to
+fire the mines. The deafening roar of ordnance was at once hushed into a
+silence profound as that of death, while every soldier in the trenches
+waited, with nervous suspense, for the explosion. At length it came,
+overturning houses, shaking down a fragment of the castle, rending wider
+the breach in the perpendicular side of the rock, and throwing off the
+fragments with the force of a volcano. Only one mine, however, exploded.
+It was soon followed by the other, which, though it did less damage,
+spread such consternation among the garrison, that, fearing there might
+still be a third in reserve, the men abandoned their works, and took
+refuge in the town.
+
+When the smoke and dust had cleared away, an officer with a few soldiers
+was sent to reconnoitre the breach. They soon returned with the tidings
+that the garrison had fled, and left the works wholly unprotected. On
+hearing this, the troops, with furious shouts, called out to be led at
+once to the assault. It was in vain that the officers remonstrated,
+enforcing their remonstrances, in some instances, by blows with the flat
+of their sabres. The blood of the soldiery was up; and, like an
+ill-disciplined rabble, they sprang from their trenches in wild
+disorder, as before, and, hurrying their officers along with them, soon
+scaled the perilous ascent, and crowned the heights without opposition
+from the enemy. Hurrying over the _debris_ that strewed the ground, they
+speedily made themselves masters of the deserted fortress and its
+outworks,--filling the air with shouts of victory.
+
+The fugitives saw their mistake, as they beheld the enemy occupying the
+position they had abandoned. There was no more apprehension of mines.
+Eager to retrieve their error, they rushed back, as by a common impulse,
+to dispute the possession of the ground with the Spaniards. It was too
+late. The guns were turned on them from their own battery. The
+arquebusiers who lined the ravelin showered down on their heads missiles
+more formidable than stones and arrows. But, though their powder was
+nearly gone, the Moriscoes could still make fight with sword and dagger,
+and they boldly closed, in a hand-to-hand contest with their enemy. It
+was a deadly struggle, calling out--as close personal contest is sure to
+do--the fiercest passions of the combatants. No quarter was given; none
+was asked. The Spaniard was nerved by the confidence of victory, the
+Morisco by the energy of despair. Both fought like men who knew that on
+the issue of this conflict depended the fate of Galera. Again the
+war-cries of the two religions rose above the din of battle, as the one
+party invoked their military apostle, and the other called on Mahomet.
+It was the same war-cry which for more than eight centuries had sounded
+over hill and valley in unhappy Spain. These were its dying notes, soon
+to expire with the exile or extermination of the conquered race.
+
+The conflict was at length terminated by the arrival of a fresh body of
+troops on the field with Padilla. That chief had attacked the town by
+the same avenue as before; everywhere he had met with the same spirit of
+resistance. But the means of successful resistance were gone. Many of
+the houses on the streets had been laid in rains by the fire of the
+artillery. Such as still held out were defended by men armed with no
+better weapons than stones and arrows. One after another, most of them
+were stormed and fired by the Spaniards; and those within were put to
+the sword, or perished in the flames.
+
+It fared no better with the defenders of the barricades. Galled by the
+volleys of the Christians, against whom their own rude missiles did
+comparatively little execution, they were driven from one position to
+another; as each redoubt was successively carried, a shout of triumph
+went up from the victors, which fell cheerily on the ears of their
+countrymen on the heights; and when Padilla and his veterans burst on
+the scene of action, it decided the fortunes of the day.
+
+There was still a detachment of Turks, whose ammunition had not been
+exhausted, and who were maintaining a desperate struggle with a body of
+Spanish infantry, in which the latter had been driven back to the very
+verge of the precipice. But the appearance of their friends under
+Padilla gave the Spaniards new heart; and Turk and Morisco, overwhelmed
+alike by the superiority of the numbers and of the weapons of their
+antagonists, gave way in all directions. Some fled down the long avenues
+which led from the summit of the rock. They were hotly pursued by the
+Spaniards. Others threw themselves into the houses, and prepared to make
+a last defence. The Spaniards scrambled along the terraces, letting
+themselves down from one level to another by means of the Moorish
+ladders used for that purpose. They hewed openings in the wooden roofs
+of the buildings, through which they fired on those within. The helpless
+Moriscoes, driven out by the pitiless volleys, sought refuge in the
+street. But the fierce hunters were there, waiting for their miserable
+game, which they shot down without mercy,--men, women, and children;
+none were spared. Yet they did not fall unavenged; and the corpse of
+many a Spaniard might be seen stretched on the bloody pavement, lying
+side by side with that of his Moslem enemy.
+
+More than one instance is recorded of the desperate courage to which the
+women as well as the men were roused in their extremity. A Morisco girl,
+whose father had perished in the first assault in the Gardens, after
+firing her dwelling, is said to have dragged her two little brothers
+along with one hand, and, wielding a scimitar with the other, to have
+rushed against the foe, by whom they were all speedily cut to pieces.
+Another instance is told, of a man who, after killing his wife and his
+two daughters, sallied forth, and calling out, "There is nothing more to
+lose; let us die together!" threw himself madly into the thick of the
+enemy.[231] Some fell by their own weapons, others by those of their
+friends, preferring to receive death from any hands but those of the
+Spaniards.
+
+Some two thousand Moriscoes were huddled together in a square not far
+from the gate, where a strong body of Castilian infantry cut off the
+means of escape. Spent with toil and loss of blood, without ammunition,
+without arms, or with such only as were too much battered or broken for
+service, the wretched fugitives would gladly have made some terms with
+their pursuers, who now closed darkly around them. But the stag at bay
+might as easily have made terms with his hunters and the fierce hounds
+that were already on his haunches. Their prayers were answered by volley
+after volley, until not a man was left alive.
+
+More than four hundred women and children were gathered together without
+the walls, and the soldiers, mindful of the value of such a booty, were
+willing to spare their lives. This was remarked by Don John, and no
+sooner did he observe the symptoms of lenity in the troops, than the
+flinty-hearted chief rebuked their remissness, and sternly reminded them
+of the orders of the day. He even sent the halberdiers of his guard and
+the cavaliers about his person to assist the soldiers in their bloody
+work; while he sat a calm spectator, on his horse, as immovable as a
+marble statue, and as insensible to the agonizing screams of his victims
+and their heart-breaking prayers for mercy.[232]
+
+[Sidenote: CRUEL MASSACRE.]
+
+While this was going on without the town, the work of death was no less
+active within. Every square and enclosure that had afforded a temporary
+refuge to the fugitives was heaped with the bodies of the slain. Blood
+ran down the kennels like water after a heavy shower. The dwellings were
+fired, some by the conquerors, others by the inmates, who threw
+themselves madly into the flames rather than fall into the hands of
+their enemies. The gathering shadows of evening--for the fight had
+lasted nearly nine hours[233]--were dispelled by the light of the
+conflagration, which threw an ominous glare for many a league over the
+country, proclaiming far and wide the downfall of Galera.
+
+At length Don John was so far moved from his original purpose as to
+consent that the women, and the children under twelve years of age,
+should be spared. This he did, not from any feeling of compunction, but
+from deference to the murmurs of his followers, whose discontent at
+seeing their customary booty snatched from them began to show itself in
+a way not to be disregarded.[234] Some fifteen hundred women and
+children, in consequence of this, are said to have escaped the general
+doom of their countrymen.[235] All the rest, soldiers and citizens,
+Turks, Africans, and Moriscoes, were mercilessly butchered. Not one man,
+if we may trust the Spaniards themselves, escaped alive! It would not be
+easy, even in that age of blood, to find a parallel to so wholesale and
+indiscriminate a massacre.
+
+Yet, to borrow the words of the Castilian proverb, "If Africa had cause
+to weep, Spain had little reason to rejoice."[236] No success during the
+war was purchased at so high a price as the capture of Galera. The loss
+fell as heavily on the officers and men of rank as on the common file.
+We have seen the eagerness with which they had flocked to the standard
+of John of Austria. They showed the same eagerness to distinguish
+themselves under the eye of their leader. The Spanish chivalry were sure
+to be found in the post of danger. Dearly did they pay for that
+pre-eminence; and many a noble house in Spain wept bitter tears when the
+tidings came of the conquest of Galera.[237]
+
+Don John himself was so much exasperated, says the chronicler, by the
+thought of the grievous loss which he had sustained through the
+obstinate resistance of the heretics,[238] that he resolved to carry at
+once into effect his menace of demolishing the town, so that not one
+stone should be left on another. Every house was accordingly burnt or
+levelled to the ground, which was then strewed with salt, as an accursed
+spot, on which no man was to build thereafter. A royal decree to that
+effect was soon afterwards published; and the village of straggling
+houses, which, undefended by a wall, still clusters round the base of a
+hill, in the Gardens occupied by Padilla, is all that now serves to
+remind the traveller of the once flourishing and strongly fortified city
+of Galera.
+
+In the work of demolition Don John was somewhat retarded by a furious
+tempest of sleet and rain, which set in the day after the place was
+taken. It was no uncommon thing at that season of the year. Had it come
+on a few days earlier, the mountain torrents would infallibly have
+broken up the camp of the besiegers, and compelled them to suspend
+operations. That the storm was so long delayed, was regarded by the
+Spaniards as a special interposition of Heaven.
+
+The booty was great which fell into the hands of the victors; for
+Galera, from its great strength, had been selected by the inhabitants of
+the neighbouring country as a safe place of deposit for their
+effects,--especially their more valuable treasures of gold, pearls,
+jewels, and precious stuffs. Besides these, there was a great quantity
+of wheat, barley, and other grain, stored in the magazines, which
+afforded a seasonable supply to the army.
+
+No sooner was Don John master of Galera, than he sent tidings of his
+success to his brother. The king was at that time paying his devotions
+at the shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The tidings were received with
+exultation by the court,--by Philip with the stolid composure with which
+he usually received accounts either of the success or the discomfiture
+of his arms. He would allow no public rejoicings of any kind. The only
+way in which he testified his satisfaction was by offering up thanks to
+God and the Blessed Virgin, "to whom," says the chronicler, "he thought
+the cause should be especially commended, as one in which more glory was
+to be derived from peace than from a bloody victory."[239] With such
+humane and rational sentiments, it is marvellous that he did not
+communicate them to his brother, and thus spare the atrocious massacre
+of his Morisco vassals at Galera.
+
+[Sidenote: DISASTER AT SERON.]
+
+But, however revolting this massacre may appear in our eyes, it seems to
+have left no stain on the reputation of John of Austria in the eyes of
+his contemporaries. In reviewing this campaign, we cannot too often call
+to mind that it was regarded not so much as a war with rebellious
+vassals, as a war with the enemies of the Faith. It was the last link in
+that long chain of hostilities which the Spaniard for so many centuries
+had been waging for the recovery of his soil from the infidel. The
+sympathies of Christendom were not the less on his side, that now, when
+the trumpet of the crusader had ceased to send forth its notes in other
+lands, they should still be heard among the hills of Granada. The
+Moriscoes were everywhere regarded as infidels and apostates; and there
+were few Christian nations whose codes would not at that day have
+punished infidelity and apostasy with death. It was no harder for them
+that they should be exterminated by the sword than by the fagot. So far
+from the massacre of the Moriscoes tarnishing the reputation of their
+conqueror, it threw a gloomy _eclat_ over his achievement, which may
+have rather served to add to its celebrity. His own countrymen, thinking
+only of the extraordinary difficulties which he had overcome, with pride
+beheld him entering on a splendid career, that would place his name
+among those of the great paladins of the nation. In Rome he was hailed
+as the champion of Christendom; and it was determined to offer him the
+baton of generalissimo of the formidable league which the pope was at
+this time organizing against the Ottoman empire.[240]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+REBELLION OF THE MORISCOES.
+
+Disaster at Seron--Death of Quixada--Rapid Successes of Don
+John--Submission of the Moriscoes--Fate of El Habaqui--Stern Temper of
+Aben-Aboo--Renewal of the War--Expulsion of the Moors--Don Juan returns
+to Madrid--Murder of Aben-Aboo--Fortunes of the Moriscoes.
+
+1570, 1571.
+
+
+Don John was detained some days before Galera by the condition of the
+roads, which the storm had rendered impassable for heavy waggons and
+artillery. When the weather improved he began his march, moving south,
+in the direction of Baza. Passing through that ancient town, the scene
+of one of the most glorious triumphs of the good Queen Isabella the
+Catholic, he halted at Caniles. Here he left the main body of his army,
+and, putting himself at the head of a detachment of three thousand foot
+and two hundred horse, hastened forward to reconnoitre Seron, which he
+purposed next to attack.
+
+Seron was a town of some strength, situated on the slope of the sierra,
+and defended by a castle held by a Morisco garrison. On his approach,
+most of the inhabitants, and many of the soldiers, evacuated the place,
+and sought refuge among the mountains. Don John formed his force into
+two divisions, one of which he placed under Quixada, the other under
+Requesens. He took up a position himself, with a few cavaliers and a
+small body of arquebusiers, on a neighbouring eminence, which commanded
+a view of the whole ground.
+
+The two captains were directed to reconnoitre the environs, by making a
+circuit from opposite sides of the town. Quixada, as he pressed forward
+with his column, drove the Morisco fugitives before him, until they
+vanished in the recesses of the mountains. In the meantime, the
+beacon-fires, which for some hours had been blazing from the topmost
+peaks of the sierra, had spread intelligence far and wide of the coming
+of the enemy. The whole country was in arms; and it was not long before
+the native warriors, mustering to the number of six thousand, under the
+Morisco chief, El Habaqui, who held command in that quarter, came
+pouring through the defiles of the mountains, and fell with fury on the
+front and flank of the astonished Spaniards. The assailants were soon
+joined by the fugitives from Seron; and the Christians, unable to
+withstand this accumulated force, gave way, though slowly, and in good
+order, before the enemy.
+
+Meanwhile, a detachment of Spanish infantry, under command of Lope de
+Figueroa, _maestro del campo_, had broken into the town, where they were
+busily occupied in plundering the deserted houses. This was a part of
+the military profession which the rude levies of Andalusia well
+understood. While they were thus occupied, the advancing Moriscoes,
+burning for revenge, burst into the streets of the town, and, shouting
+their horrid war-cries, set furiously on the marauders. The Spaniards,
+taken by surprise, and encumbered with their booty, offered little
+resistance. They were seized with a panic, and fled in all directions.
+They were soon mingled with their retreating comrades under Quixada,
+everywhere communicating their own terror, till the confusion became
+general. It was in vain that Quixada and Figueroa, with the other
+captains, endeavoured to restore order. The panic-stricken soldiers
+heard nothing, saw nothing, but the enemy.
+
+At this crisis, Don John, who from his elevated post had watched the
+impending ruin, called his handful of brave followers around him, and at
+once threw himself into the midst of the tumult. "What means this,
+Spaniards?" he exclaimed. "From whom are you flying? Where is the honour
+of Spain? Have you not John of Austria, your commander, with you? At
+least, if you retreat, do it like brave men, with your front to the
+enemy."[241] It was in vain. His entreaties, his menaces, even his
+blows, which he dealt with the flat of his sabre, were ineffectual to
+rouse anything like a feeling of shame in the cowardly troops. The
+efforts of his captains were equally fruitless, though in making them
+they exposed their lives with a recklessness which cost some of them
+dear. Figueroa was disabled by a wound in the leg. Quixada was hit by a
+musket-ball on the left shoulder, and struck from his saddle. Don John,
+who was near, sprang to his assistance, and placed him in the hands of
+some troopers, with directions to bear him at once to Caniles. In doing
+this the young commander himself had a narrow escape; for he was struck
+on his helmet by a ball, which, however, fortunately glanced off without
+doing him injury.[242] He was now hurried along by the tide of
+fugitives, who made no attempt to rally for the distance of half a
+league, when the enemy ceased his pursuit. Six hundred Spaniards were
+left dead on the field. A great number threw themselves into the houses,
+prepared to make good their defence. But they were speedily enveloped by
+the Moriscoes, the houses were stormed or set on fire, and the inmates
+perished to a man.[243]
+
+Don John, in a letter dated the nineteenth of February, two days after
+this disgraceful affair, gave an account of it to the king, declaring
+that the dastardly conduct of the troops exceeded anything he had ever
+witnessed, or indeed could have believed, had he not seen it with his
+own eyes. "They have so little heart in the service," he adds, "that no
+effort that I can make, not even the fear of the galleys or the gibbet,
+can prevent them from deserting. Would to Heaven I could think that they
+are moved to this by the desire to return to their families, and not by
+fear of the enemy."[244] He gave the particulars of Quixada's accident,
+stating that the surgeons had made six incisions before they could
+ascertain where the ball, which had penetrated the shoulder, was lodged;
+and that, with all their efforts, they had as yet been unable to extract
+it. "I now deeply feel," he says, "how much I have been indebted to his
+military experience, his diligence, and care and how important his
+preservation is to the service of your majesty. I trust in God he may be
+permitted to regain his health, which is now in a critical
+condition."[245]
+
+[Sidenote: DEATH OF QUIXADA.]
+
+In his reply to this letter, the king expressed his sense of the great
+loss which both he and his brother would sustain by the death of
+Quixada. "You will keep me constantly advised of the state of his
+health," he says. "I know well it is unnecessary for me to impress upon
+you the necessity of watching carefully over him." Philip did not let
+the occasion pass for administering a gentle rebuke to Don John for so
+lightly holding the promise he had made to him from Galera, not again to
+expose himself heedlessly to danger. "When I think of your narrow escape
+at Seron, I cannot express the pain I have felt at your rashly incurring
+such a risk. In war, every one should confine himself to the duties of
+his own station; nor should the general affect to play the part of the
+soldier, anymore than the soldier that of the general."[246]
+
+It seems to have been a common opinion, that Don John was more fond of
+displaying his personal prowess than became one of his high rank; in
+short, that he showed more the qualities of a knight-errant, than those
+of a great commander.[247]
+
+Meanwhile, Quixada's wound, which from the first had been attended with
+alarming symptoms, grew so much worse as to baffle all the skill of the
+surgeons. His sufferings were great, and every hour he grew weaker.
+Before a week had elapsed, it became evident that his days were
+numbered.
+
+The good knight received the intelligence with composure,--for he did
+not fear death. He had not the happiness in this solemn hour to have her
+near him on whose conjugal love and tenderness he had reposed for so
+many years.[248] But the person whom he cherished next to his wife, Don
+John of Austria, was by his bedside, watching over him with the
+affectionate solicitude of a son, and ministering those kind offices
+which soften the bitterness of death. The dying man retained his
+faculties to the last, and dictated, though he had not the strength to
+sign, a letter to the king, requesting some favour for his widow, in
+consideration of his long services. He then gave himself up wholly to
+his spiritual concerns; and on the twenty-fourth of February, 1570, he
+gently expired, in the arms of his foster-son.
+
+Quixada received a soldier's funeral. His obsequies were celebrated with
+the military pomp suited to his station. His remains, accompanied by the
+whole army, with arms reversed, and banners trailing in the dust, were
+borne in solemn procession to the church of the Jeronymites in Caniles;
+and "we may piously trust," says the chronicler, "that the soul of Don
+Luis rose up to heaven with the sweet incense which burned on the altars
+of St. Jerome; for he spent his life, and finally lost it, in fighting
+like a valiant soldier the battles of the faith."[249]
+
+Quixada was austere in his manners, and a martinet in enforcing
+discipline. He was loyal in his nature, of spotless integrity, and
+possessed so many generous and knightly qualities, that he commanded the
+respect of his comrades; and the regret for his loss was universal.
+Philip, writing to Don John, a few days after the event, remarks: "I did
+not think that any letter from you could have given me so much pain as
+that acquainting me with the death of Quixada. I fully comprehend the
+importance of his loss, both to myself and to you, and cannot wonder you
+should feel it so keenly. It is impossible to allude to it without
+sorrow. Yet we may be consoled by the reflection that, living and dying
+as he did, he cannot fail to have exchanged this world for a
+better."[250]
+
+Quixada's remains were removed, the year following, to his estate at
+Villagarcia, where his disconsolate widow continued to reside.
+Immediately after her lord's decease, Don John wrote to Dona Magdalena,
+from the camp, a letter of affectionate condolence, which came from the
+fulness of his heart: "Luis died as became him, fighting for the glory
+and safety of his son, and covered with immortal honour. Whatever I am,
+whatever I shall be, I owe to him, by whom I was formed, or rather
+begotten in a nobler birth. Dear sorrowing widowed mother! I only am
+left to you; and to you, indeed, do I of right belong, for whose sake
+Luis died, and you have been stricken with this woe. Moderate your grief
+with your wonted wisdom. Would that I were near you now, to dry your
+tears, or mingle mine with them! Farewell, dearest and most honoured
+mother! and pray to God to send, back your son from these wars to your
+bosom."[251]
+
+Dona Magdalena survived her husband many years, employing her time in
+acts of charity and devotion. From Don John she ever experienced the
+same filial tenderness which he evinces in the letter above quoted.
+Never did he leave the country or return to it without first paying his
+respects to his mother, as he always called her. She watched with
+maternal pride his brilliant career; and when that was closed by an
+early death, the last link which had bound her to this world was snapped
+for ever. Yet she continued to live on till near the close of the
+century, dying in 1598, and leaving behind her a reputation for goodness
+and piety little less than that of a saint.
+
+Don John, having paid the last tribute of respect to the memory of his
+guardian, collected his whole strength, and marched at once against
+Seron. But the enemy, shrinking from an encounter with so formidable a
+force, had abandoned the place before the approach of the Spaniards. The
+Spanish commander soon after encountered El Habaqui in the
+neighbourhood, and defeated him. He then marched on Tijola, a town
+perched on a bold cliff, which a resolute garrison might have easily
+held against an enemy. But the Moriscoes, availing themselves of the
+darkness of the night, stole out of the place, and succeeded, without
+much loss, in escaping through the lines of the besiegers.[252] The fall
+of Tijola was followed by that of Purchena. In a short time the whole
+Rio de Almanzora was overrun, and the victorious general, crossing the
+south-eastern borders of the Alpujarras, established his quarters, on
+the second of May, at Padules, about two leagues from Andarax.
+
+[Sidenote: NEGOTIATIONS WITH EL HABAQUI.]
+
+These rapid successes are not to be explained simply by Don John's
+superiority over the enemy in strength or military science. Philip had
+turned a favourable ear to the pope's invitation to join the league
+against the Turk, in which he was complimented by having the post of
+commander-in-chief offered to his brother, John of Austria. But before
+engaging in a new war, it was most desirable for him to be released from
+that in which he was involved with the Moriscoes. He had already seen
+enough of the sturdy spirit of that race to be satisfied that to
+accomplish his object by force would be a work of greater time than he
+could well afford. The only alternative, therefore, was to have recourse
+to the conciliatory policy which had been so much condemned in the
+marquis of Mondejar. Instructions to that effect were accordingly sent
+to Don John, who, heartily weary of this domestic contest, and longing
+for a wider theatre of action, entered warmly into his brother's views.
+Secret negotiations were soon opened with El Habaqui, the Morisco chief,
+who received the offer of such terms for himself and his countrymen as
+left him in no doubt, at least, as to the side on which his own interest
+lay. As a preliminary step, he was to withdraw his support from the
+places in the Rio de Almanzora; and thus the war, brought within the
+narrower range of the Alpujarras, might be more easily disposed of. This
+part of his agreement had been faithfully executed; and the rebellious
+district on the eastern borders of the Alpujarras had, as we have seen,
+been brought into subjection, with little cost of life to the Spaniards.
+
+Don John followed this up by a royal proclamation, promising an entire
+amnesty for the past to all who within twenty days should tender their
+submission. They were to be allowed to state the grievances which had
+moved them to take up arms, with an assurance that these should be
+redressed. All who refused to profit by this act of grace, with the
+exception of the women, and of children under fourteen years of age,
+would be put to the sword without mercy.
+
+What was the effect of the proclamation we are not informed. It was
+probably not such as had been anticipated. The Moriscoes, distressed as
+they were, did not trust the promises of the Spaniards. At least we find
+Don John, who had now received a reinforcement of two thousand men,
+distributing his army into detachments, with orders to scour the country
+and deal with the inhabitants in a way that should compel them to
+submit. Such of the wretched peasantry as had taken refuge in their
+fastnesses were assailed with shot and shell, and slaughtered by
+hundreds. Some, who had hidden with their families in the caves in which
+the country abounded, were hunted out by their pursuers, or suffocated
+by the smoke of burning fagots at the entrance of their retreats.
+Everywhere the land was laid waste, so as to afford sustenance for no
+living thing. Such were the conciliatory measures employed by the
+government for the reduction of the rebels.[253]
+
+Meanwhile the duke of Sesa had taken the field on the northern border of
+the Alpujarras, with an army of ten thousand foot and two thousand
+horse. He was opposed by Aben-Aboo with a force which in point of
+numbers was not inferior to his own. The two commanders adopted the same
+policy; avoiding pitched battles, and confining themselves to the
+desultory tactics of _guerilla_ warfare, to skirmishes and surprises;
+while each endeavoured to distress his adversary by cutting off his
+convoys and by wasting the territory with fire and sword. The Morisco
+chief had an advantage in the familiarity of his men with this wild
+mountain fighting, and in their better knowledge of the intricacies of
+the country. But this was far more than counterbalanced by the
+superiority of the Spaniards in military organization, and by their
+possession of cavalry, artillery, and muskets, in all of which the
+Moslems were lamentably deficient. Thus, although no great battle was
+won by the Christians, although they were sorely annoyed, and their
+convoys of provisions frequently cut off, by the skirmishing parties of
+the enemy, they continued steadily to advance, driving the Moriscoes
+before them, and securing the permanency of their conquests by planting
+a line of forts, well garrisoned, along the wasted territory in their
+rear. By the beginning of May, the duke of Sesa had reached the borders
+of the Mediterranean, and soon after united his forces, greatly
+diminished by desertion, to those of Don John of Austria at
+Padules.[254]
+
+Negotiations, during this time, had been resumed with El Habaqui, who
+with the knowledge, if not the avowed sanction, of Aben-Aboo, had come
+to a place called Fondon de Andarax, not far distant from the
+head-quarters of the Spanish commander-in-chief. He was accompanied by
+several of the principal Moriscoes, who were to take part in the
+discussions. On the thirteenth of May they were met by the deputies from
+the Castilian camp, and the conference was opened. It soon appeared that
+the demands of the Moriscoes were wholly inadmissible. They insisted,
+not only on a general amnesty, but that things should be restored to the
+situation in which they were before the edicts of Philip the Second had
+given rise to the rebellion. The Moorish commissioners were made to
+understand that they were to negotiate only on the footing of a
+conquered race. They were advised to prepare a memorial preferring such
+requests as might be reasonably granted; and they were offered the
+services of Juan de Soto, Don John's secretary, to aid them in drafting
+the document. They were counselled, moreover, to see their master,
+Aben-Aboo, and obtain full powers from him to conclude a definitive
+treaty.
+
+Aben-Aboo, ever since his elevation to the stormy sovereignty of the
+Alpujarras, had maintained his part with a spirit worthy of his cause.
+But as he beheld town after town fall away from his little empire, his
+people butchered or swept into slavery, his lands burned and wasted,
+until the fairest portions were converted into a wilderness,--above all,
+when he saw that his cause excited no sympathy in the bosoms of the
+Moslem princes, on whose support he had mainly relied,--he felt more and
+more satisfied of the hopelessness of a contest with the Spanish
+monarchy. His officers, and indeed the people at large, had come to the
+same conviction; and nothing but an intense hatred of the Spaniards, and
+a distrust of their good faith, had prevented the Moriscoes from
+throwing down their arms and accepting the promises of grace which had
+been held out to them. The disastrous result of the recent campaign
+against the duke of Sesa tended still further to the discouragement of
+the Morisco chief; and El Habaqui and his associates returned with
+authority from their master to arrange terms of accommodation with the
+Spaniards.
+
+On the nineteenth of May, the commissioners from each side again met at
+Fondon de Andarax. A memorial, drafted by Juan de Soto, was laid before
+Don John, whose quarters, as we have seen, were in the immediate
+neighbourhood. No copy of the instrument has been preserved, or at least
+none has been published. From the gracious answer returned by the
+prince, we may infer that it contained nothing deemed objectionable by
+the conquerors.
+
+[Sidenote: SUBMISSION OF THE MORISCOES.]
+
+The deputies were not long in agreeing on terms of accommodation--or
+rather of submission. It was settled that the Morisco captain should
+proceed to the Christian camp, and there presenting himself before the
+commander-in-chief, should humbly crave forgiveness, and tender
+submission on behalf of his nation; that, in return for this act of
+humiliation, a general amnesty should be granted to his countrymen, who,
+though they were no longer to be allowed to occupy the Alpujarras, would
+be protected by the government wherever they might be removed. More
+important concessions were made to Aben-Aboo and El Habaqui. The
+last-mentioned chief, as the chronicler tells us, obtained all that he
+asked for his master, as well as for himself and his friends.[255] Such
+politic concessions by the Spaniards had doubtless their influence in
+opening the eyes of the Morisco leaders to the folly of protracting the
+war in their present desperate circumstances.
+
+The same evening on which the arrangement was concluded, El Habaqui
+proceeded to his interview with the Spanish commander. He was
+accompanied by one only of the Morisco deputies. The others declined to
+witness the spectacle of their nation's humiliation. He was attended,
+however, by a body of three hundred arquebusiers. On entering the
+Christian lines, his little company was surrounded by four regiments of
+Castilian infantry, and escorted to the presence of John of Austria, who
+stood before his tent, attended by his officers, from whom his princely
+bearing made him easily distinguished.
+
+El Habaqui, alighting from his horse, and prostrating himself before the
+prince, exclaimed, "Mercy! We implore your highness, in the name of his
+majesty, to show us mercy, and to pardon our transgressions, which we
+acknowledge have been great!"[256] Then unsheathing his scimitar, he
+presented it to Don John, saying that he surrendered his arms to his
+majesty in the name of Aben-Aboo and the rebel chiefs for whom he was
+empowered to act. At the same time the secretary, Juan de Soto, who had
+borne the Moorish banner, given him by El Habaqui, on the point of his
+lance, cast it on the ground before the feet of the prince. The whole
+scene made a striking picture, in which the proud conqueror, standing
+with the trophies of victory around him, looked down on the
+representative of the conquered race as he crouched in abject submission
+at his feet. Don John, the predominant figure in the _tableau_, by his
+stately demeanour tempered with a truly royal courtesy, reminded the old
+soldiers of his father the emperor, and they exclaimed, "This is the
+true son of Charles the Fifth!"
+
+Stooping forward, he graciously raised the Morisco chief from the
+ground, and, returning him his sword, bade him employ it henceforth in
+the service of the king. The ceremony was closed by flourishes of
+trumpets and salvoes of musketry, as if in honour of some great victory.
+
+El Habaqui remained some time after his followers had left the camp,
+where he met with every attention, was feasted and caressed by the
+principal officers, and was even entertained at a banquet by the bishop
+of Guadix. He received however, as we have seen, something more
+substantial than compliments. Under these circumstances, it was natural
+that he should become an object of jealousy and suspicion to the
+Moriscoes. It was soon whispered that El Habaqui, in his negotiations
+with the Christians, had been more mindful of his own interests than of
+those of his countrymen.[257]
+
+Indeed, the Moriscoes had little reason to congratulate themselves on
+the result of a treaty which left them in the same forlorn and degraded
+condition as before the breaking out of the rebellion,--which in one
+important respect, indeed, left them in a worse condition, since they
+were henceforth to become exiles from the homes of their fathers. Yet,
+cruel and pitiable in the extreme as was the situation of the Moriscoes,
+the Spanish monks, as Don John complains to his brother, inveighed
+openly in their pulpits against the benignity and mercy of the
+king;[258] and this too, he adds, when it should rather have been their
+duty to intercede for poor wretches who, for the most part, had sinned
+through ignorance.[259] The ecclesiastic on whom his censure most
+heavily falls, is the President Deza,--a man held in such abhorrence by
+the Moriscoes as to have been one principal cause of their insurrection;
+and he beseeches the king to consult the interests of Granada by
+bestowing on him a bishopric, or some other dignity, which may remove
+him from the present scene of his labours.[260]
+
+Among those disappointed at the terms of the treaty, as it soon
+appeared, was Aben-Aboo himself. At first he affected to sanction it,
+and promised to all he could to enforce its execution. But he soon
+cooled, and, throwing the blame on El Habaqui, declared that this
+officer had exceeded his powers, made a false report to him of his
+negotiations, and sacrificed the interests of the nation to his own
+ambition.[261] The attentions lavished on that chief by the Spaniards,
+his early correspondence with them, and the liberal concessions secured
+to him by the treaty, furnished plausible grounds for such an
+accusation.
+
+According to the Spanish accounts, however, Aben-Aboo at this time
+received a reinforcement of two hundred soldiers from Barbary, with the
+assurance that he would soon have more effectual aid from Africa. This,
+we are told, changed his views. Nor is it impossible that the Morisco
+chief, as the hour approached, found it a more difficult matter than he
+had anticipated to resign his royal state and descend into the common
+rank-and-file of the vassals of Castile,--the degraded caste of Moorish
+vassals, whose condition was little above that of serfs.
+
+However this maybe, the Spanish camp was much disquieted by the rumours
+which came in of Aben-Aboo's vacillation. It was even reported that, far
+from endeavouring to enforce the execution of the treaty, he was
+secretly encouraging his people to further resistance. No one felt more
+indignant at his conduct than El Habaqui, who had now become as loyal a
+subject as any other in Philip's dominions. Not a little personal
+resentment was mingled with his feeling towards Aben-Aboo; and he
+offered, if Don John would place him at the head of a detachment, to go
+himself, brave the Morisco prince in his own quarters, and bring him as
+a prisoner to the camp. Don John, though putting entire confidence in El
+Habaqui's fidelity,[262] preferred, instead of men, to give him money;
+and he placed eight hundred gold ducats in his hands, to enable him to
+raise the necessary levies among his countrymen.
+
+[Sidenote: FATE OF EL HABAQUI.]
+
+Thus fortified, El Habaqui set out for the head-quarters of Aben-Aboo,
+at his ancient residence in Mecina de Bombaron. On the second day the
+Morisco captain fell in with a party of his countrymen lingering idly by
+the way, and he inquired, with an air of authority, why they did not go
+and tender their submission to the Spanish authorities, as others had
+done. They replied, they were waiting for their master's orders. To this
+El Habaqui rejoined, "All are bound to submit: and if Aben-Aboo, on his
+part, shows unwillingness to do so, I will arrest him at once, and drag
+him at my horse's tail to the Christian camp."[263] This foolish vaunt
+cost the braggart his life.
+
+One of the party instantly repaired to Mecina and reported the words to
+Aben-Aboo. The Morisco prince, overjoyed at the prospect of having his
+enemy in his power, immediately sent a detachment of a hundred and fifty
+Turks to seize the offender and bring him to Mecina. They found El
+Habaqui at Burchal, where his family were living. The night had set in,
+when the chieftain received tidings of the approach of the Turks; and
+under cover of the darkness he succeeded in making his escape into the
+neighbouring mountains. The ensuing morning the soldiers followed
+closely on his track; and it was not long before they descried a person
+skulking among the rocks, whose white mantle and crimson turban proved
+him to be the object of their pursuit. He was immediately arrested and
+carried to Mecina. His sentence was already passed. Aben-Aboo,
+upbraiding him with his treachery, ordered him to be removed to an
+adjoining room, where he was soon after strangled. His corpse, denied
+the rights of burial, having been first rolled in a mat of reeds, was
+ignominiously thrown into a sewer; and the fate of the unhappy man was
+kept a secret for more than a month.[264]
+
+His absence, after some time, naturally excited suspicions in the
+Spanish camp. A cavalier, known to Aben-Aboo, wrote to him to obtain
+information respecting El Habaqui, and was told, in answer, by the wily
+prince, that he had been arrested and placed in custody for his
+treacherous conduct, but that his family and friends need be under no
+alarm, as he was perfectly safe. Aben-Aboo hinted, moreover, that it
+would be well to send to him some confidential person with whom he might
+arrange the particulars of the treaty,--as if these had not been already
+settled. After some further delay, Don John resolved to despatch an
+agent to ascertain the real dispositions of the Moriscoes towards the
+Christians, and to penetrate, if possible, the mystery that hung round
+the fate of El Habaqui.
+
+The envoy selected was Hernan Valle de Palacios, a cavalier possessed of
+a courageous heart, yet tempered by a caution that well fitted him for
+the delicate and perilous office. On the thirteenth of July he set out
+on his mission. On the way he encountered a Morisco, a kinsman of the
+late monarch, Aben-Humeya, and naturally no friend to Aben-Aboo. He was
+acquainted with the particulars of El Habaqui's murder, of which he gave
+full details to Palacios. He added, that the Morisco prince, far from
+acquiescing in the recent treaty, was doing all in his power to prevent
+its execution. He could readily muster, at short notice, said the
+informer, a force of five thousand men, well armed, and provisioned for
+three months; and he was using all his efforts to obtain further
+reinforcements from Algiers.
+
+Instructed in these particulars, the envoy resumed his journey. He was
+careful, however, first to obtain a safe-conduct from Aben-Aboo, which
+was promptly sent to him. On reaching Mecina, he found the place
+occupied by a body of five hundred arquebusiers; but by the royal order
+he was allowed to pass unmolested. Before entering the presence of "the
+little king of the Alpujarras," as Aben-Aboo, like his predecessor, was
+familiarly styled by the Spaniards, Palacios was carefully searched, and
+such weapons as he carried about him were taken away.
+
+He found Aben-Aboo stretched on a divan, and three or four Moorish girls
+entertaining him with their national songs and dances. He did not rise,
+or indeed change his position, at the approach of the envoy, but gave
+him audience with the lofty bearing of an independent sovereign.
+
+Palacios did not think it prudent to touch on the fate of El Habaqui.
+After expatiating on the liberal promises which he was empowered by Don
+John of Austria to make, he expressed the hope that Aben-Aboo would
+execute the treaty, and not rekindle a war which must lead to the total
+destruction of his country. The chief listened in silence; and it was
+not till he had called some of his principal captains around him, that
+he condescended to reply. He then said, that God and the whole world
+knew it was not by his own desire, but by the will of the people, that
+he had been placed on the throne. "I shall not attempt," he said, "to
+prevent any of my subjects from submitting that prefer to do so. But
+tell your master," he added, "that, while I have a single shirt to my
+back, I shall not follow their example. Though no other man should hold
+out in the Alpujarras, I would rather live and die a Mussulman than
+possess all the favours which King Philip can heap on me. At no time,
+and in no manner, will I ever consent to place myself in his
+power."[265] He concluded this spirited declaration by adding, that, if
+driven to it by necessity, he could bury himself in a cavern, which he
+had stowed with supplies for six years to come, during which it would go
+hard but he would find some means of making his way to Barbary. The
+desperate tone of these remarks effectually closed the audience.
+Palacios was permitted to return unmolested, and to report to his
+commander the failure of his mission.
+
+The war, which Don John had flattered himself he had so happily brought
+to a close, now, like a fire smothered, but not quenched, burst forth
+again with redoubled fury. The note of defiance was heard loudest among
+the hills of Ronda, a wild sierra on the western skirts of the
+Alpujarras, inhabited by a bold and untamed race, more formidable than
+the mountaineers of any other district of Granada. Aben-Aboo did all he
+could to fan the flame of insurrection in this quarter, and sent his own
+brother, El Galipe, to take the command.
+
+The Spanish government, now fully aroused, made more vigorous efforts to
+crush the spirit of rebellion than at any time during the war. Don John
+was ordered to occupy Guadix, and thence to scour the country in a
+northerly direction. Another army, under the Grand-Commander Requesens,
+marching from Granada, was to enter the Alpujarras from the north, and
+taking a route different from that of the duke of Sesa, in the previous
+campaign, was to carry a war of extermination into the heart of the
+mountains. Finally, the duke of Arcos, the worthy descendant of the
+great marquis of Cadiz, whose name was so famous in the first war of
+Granada, and whose large estates in this quarter he had inherited, was
+entrusted with the operations against the rebels of the Serrania de
+Ronda.
+
+[Sidenote: RENEWAL OF THE WAR.]
+
+The grand-commander executed his commission in the same remorseless
+spirit in which it had been dictated. Early in September, quitting
+Granada, he took the field at the head of five thousand men. He struck
+at once into the heart of the country. All the evils of war in its most
+horrid form followed in his train. All along his track, it seemed as if
+the land had been swept by a conflagration. The dwellings were sacked
+and burned to the ground. The mulberry and olive groves were cut down;
+the vines were torn up by the roots; and the ripening harvests were
+trampled in the dust. The country was converted into a wilderness.
+Occasionally small bodies of the Moriscoes made a desperate stand. But
+for the most part, without homes to shelter or food to nourish them,
+they were driven, like unresisting cattle, to seek a refuge in the
+depths of the mountains, and in the caves in which this part of the
+country abounded. Their pursuers followed up the chase with the fierce
+glee with which the hunter tracks the wild animal of the forest to his
+lair. There they were huddled together, one or two hundred frequently in
+the same cavern. It was not easy to detect the hiding-place amidst the
+rocks and thickets which covered up and concealed the entrance. But when
+it was detected, it was no difficult matter to destroy the inmates. The
+green bushes furnished the materials for a smouldering fire, and those
+within were soon suffocated by the smoke, or, rushing out, threw
+themselves on the mercy of their pursuers. Some were butchered on the
+spot; others were sent to the gibbet or the galleys; while the greater
+part, with a fate scarcely less terrible, were given up as the booty of
+the soldiers, and sold into slavery.[266]
+
+Aben-Aboo had a narrow escape in one of these caverns, not far from
+Berchul, where he had secreted himself with a wife and two of his
+daughters. The women were suffocated, with about seventy other persons.
+The Morisco chief succeeded in making his escape through an aperture at
+the farther end, which was unknown to his enemies.[267]
+
+Small forts were erected at short intervals along the ruined country. No
+less than eighty-four of these towers were raised in different parts of
+the land, twenty-nine of which were to be seen in the Alpujarras and the
+vale of Lecrin alone.[268] There they stood, crowning every peak and
+eminence in the sierra, frowning over the horrid waste, the sad
+memorials of the conquest. This was the stern policy of the victors.
+Within this rocky girdle, long held as it was by the iron soldiery of
+Castile, it was impossible that rebellion should again gather to a head.
+
+The months of September and October were consumed in these operations.
+Meanwhile the duke of Arcos had mustered his Andalusian levies, to the
+number of four thousand men, including a thousand of his own vassals. He
+took with him his son, a boy of not more than thirteen years of
+age,--following in this, says the chronicler, the ancient usage of the
+valiant house of Ponce de Leon.[269] About the middle of September he
+began his expedition into the Sierra Vermeja, or Red Sierra. It was a
+spot memorable in Spanish history for the defeat and death of Alonso de
+Aguilar, in the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, and has furnished the
+theme of many a plaintive _romance_ in the beautiful minstrelsy of the
+South. The wife of the duke of Arcos was descended from Alonso de
+Aguilar, as he himself was the grandson of the good count of Urena, who,
+with better fortune than his friend, survived the disasters of that day.
+The route of the army led directly across the fatal field. As they
+traversed the elevated plain of Calaluz, the soldiers saw everywhere
+around the traces of the fight. The ground was still covered with
+fragments of rusty armour, bits of broken sword-blades, and heads of
+spears. More touching evidence was afforded by the bones of men and
+horses, which, in this solitary region, had been whitening in the blasts
+of seventy winters. The Spaniards knew well the localities, with which
+they had become familiar from boyhood in the legends and traditions of
+the country. Here was the spot where the vanguard, under its brave
+commander, had made its halt in the obscurity of the night. There were
+the faint remains of the enemy's entrenchments, which time had nearly
+levelled with the dust; and there, too, the rocks still threw their dark
+shadows over the plain, as on the day when the valiant Alonso da Aguilar
+fell at their base in combat with the renowned Feri de Ben Estepar. The
+whole scene was brought home to the hearts of the Spaniards. As they
+gazed on the unburied relics lying around them, the tears, says the
+eloquent historian who records the incident, fell fast down their iron
+cheeks; and they breathed a soldier's prayer for the repose of the noble
+dead. But these holier feelings were soon succeeded by others of a
+fierce nature, and they loudly clamoured to be led against the
+enemy.[270]
+
+The duke of Arcos, profiting by the errors of Alonso de Aguilar, had
+made his arrangements with great circumspection. He soon came in sight
+of the Moriscoes, full three thousand strong. But, though well posted,
+they made a defence little worthy of their ancient reputation, or of the
+notes of defiance which they had so boldly sounded at the opening of the
+campaign. They indeed showed mettle at first, and inflicted some loss on
+the Christians. But the frequent reverses of their countrymen seemed to
+have broken their spirits; and they were soon thrown into disorder, and
+fled in various directions into the more inaccessible tracts of the
+sierra. The Spaniards followed up the fugitives, who did not attempt to
+rally. Nor did they ever again assemble in any strength, so effectual
+were the dispositions made by the victorious general. The insurrection
+of the Sierra Vermeja was at an end.[271]
+
+The rebellion, indeed, might be said to be everywhere crushed within the
+borders of Granada. The more stout-hearted of the insurgents still held
+out among the caves and fastnesses of the Alpujarras, supporting a
+precarious existence until they were hunted down by detachments of the
+Spaniards, who were urged to the pursuit by the promise from government
+of twenty ducats a head for every Morisco. But nearly all felt the
+impracticability of further resistance. Some succeeded in making their
+escape to Barbary. The rest, broken in spirit, and driven to extremity
+by want of food in a country now turned into a desert, consented at
+length to accept the amnesty offered them, and tendered their
+submission.
+
+[Sidenote: EXPULSION OF THE MOORS.]
+
+On the twenty-eighth of October Don John received advices of a final
+edict of Philip, commanding that all the Moriscoes in the kingdom of
+Granada should be at once removed into the interior of the country. None
+were to be excepted from this decree, not even the _Moriscos de la
+Paz_, as those were called who had loyally refused to take part in the
+rebellion.[272] The arrangements for this important and difficult step
+were made with singular prudence, and, under the general direction of
+Don John of Austria, the Grand-Commander Requesens, and the dukes of
+Sesa and Arcos, were carried into effect with promptness and energy.
+
+By the terms of the edict, the lands and houses of the exiles were to be
+forfeited to the crown. But their personal effects--their flocks, their
+herds, and their grain--would be taken, if they desired it, at a fixed
+valuation by the government. Every regard was to be paid to their
+personal conveniences and security; and it was forbidden, in the
+removal, to separate parents from children, husbands from wives; in
+short, to divide the members of a family from one another;--"an act of
+clemency," says a humane chronicler, "which they little deserved; but
+his majesty was willing in this to content them."[273]
+
+The country was divided into districts, the inhabitants of which were to
+be conducted, under the protection of a strong military escort, to their
+several places of destination. These seem to have been the territory of
+La Mancha, the northern borders of Andalusia, the Castiles, Estremadura,
+and even the remote province of Galicia. Care was taken that no
+settlement should be made near the borders of Murcia or Valencia, where
+large numbers of the Moriscoes were living in comparative quiet on the
+estates of the great nobles, who were exceedingly jealous of any
+interference with their vassals.
+
+The first of November, All-Saints' Day, was appointed for the removal of
+the Moriscoes throughout Granada. On that day they were gathered in the
+principal churches of their districts, and after being formed into their
+respective divisions, began their march. The grand-commander had
+occupied the passes of the Alpujarras with strong detachments of the
+military. The different columns of emigrants were placed under the
+directions of persons of authority and character. The whole movement was
+conducted with singular order,--resistance being attempted in one or two
+places only, where the blame, it may be added, as intimated by a
+Castilian chronicler, was to be charged on the brutality of the
+soldiers.[274] Still, the removal of the Moriscoes on the present
+occasion was attended with fewer acts of violence and rapacity than the
+former removal, from Granada. At least this would seem to be inferred by
+the silence of the chroniclers; though it is true such silence is far
+from being conclusive, as the chroniclers, for the most part, felt too
+little interest in the sufferings of the Moriscoes to make a notice of
+them indispensable. However this may be, it cannot be doubted that,
+whatever precautions may have been taken to spare the exiles any
+unnecessary suffering, the simple fact of their being expelled from
+their native soil is one that suggests an amount of misery not to be
+estimated. For what could be more dreadful than to be thus torn from
+their pleasant homes, the scenes of their childhood, where every
+mountain, valley, and stream were as familiar friends,--a part of their
+own existence,--to be rudely thrust into a land of strangers, of a race
+differing from themselves in faith, language, and institutions, with no
+sentiment in common but that of a deadly hatred? That the removal of a
+whole nation should have been so quietly accomplished, proves how
+entirely the strength and spirit of the Moriscoes must have been broken
+by their reverses.[275]
+
+The war thus terminated, there seemed no reason for John of Austria to
+prolong his stay in the province. For some time he had been desirous to
+obtain the king's consent to his return. His ambitious spirit, impatient
+of playing a part on what now seemed to him an obscure field of action,
+pent up within the mountain barrier of the Alpujarras, longed to display
+itself on a bolder theatre before the world. He aspired, too, to a more
+independent command. He addressed repeated letters to the king's
+ministers,--to the Cardinal Espinosa and Gomez de Silva in
+particular,--to solicit their influence in his behalf. "I should be
+glad," he wrote to the latter, "to serve his majesty, if I might be
+allowed, on some business of importance. I wish he may understand that I
+am no longer a boy. Thank God, I can begin to fly without the aid of
+others' wings, and it is full time, as I believe, that I was out of
+swaddling-clothes."[276] In another letter he expresses his desire to
+have some place more fitting the brother of such a monarch as Philip,
+and the son of such a father as Charles the Fifth.[277] On more than one
+occasion he alludes to the command against the Turk as the great object
+of his ambition.
+
+His importunity to be allowed to resign his present office had continued
+from the beginning of summer, some months before the proper close of the
+campaign. It may be thought to argue an instability of character, of
+which a more memorable example was afforded by him at a later period of
+life. At length he was rejoiced by obtaining the royal consent to resign
+his command and return to court.
+
+[Sidenote: MURDER OF ABEN-ABOO.]
+
+On the eleventh of November, Don John repaired to Granada. Till the
+close of the month he was occupied with making the necessary
+arrangements preparatory to his departure. The greater part of the army
+was paid off and disbanded. A sufficient number was reserved to garrison
+the fortresses and to furnish detachments which were to scour the
+country and hunt down such Moriscoes as still held out in the mountains.
+As Requesens was to take part in the expedition against the Ottomans,
+the office of captain-general was placed in the hands of the valiant
+duke of Arcos. On the twenty-ninth of November, Don John, having
+completed his preparations, quitted Granada and set forth on his
+journey to Madrid, where the popular chieftain was welcomed with
+enthusiasm by the citizens, as a conqueror returned from a victorious
+campaign. By Philip and his newly-married bride, Anne of Austria, he was
+no less kindly greeted; and it was not long before the king gave a
+substantial proof of his contentment with his brother, by placing in his
+hands the baton, offered by the allies, of generalissimo in the war
+against the Turks.
+
+There was still one Morisco insurgent who refused to submit, and who had
+hitherto eluded every attempt to capture him, but whose capture was of
+more importance than that of any other of his nation. This was
+Aben-Aboo, the "little king" of the Alpujarras. His force of five
+thousand men had dwindled to scarcely more than four hundred. But they
+were men devoted to his person, and seemed prepared to endure every
+extremity rather than surrender. Like the rest of his nation, the
+Morisco chief took refuge in the mountain caves, in such remote and
+inaccessible districts as had hitherto baffled every attempt to detect
+his retreat. In March, 1571, an opportunity presented itself for making
+the discovery.
+
+Granada was at this time the scene of almost daily executions. As the
+miserable insurgents were taken, they were brought before Deza's
+tribunal, where they were at once sentenced by the inexorable president
+to the galleys or the gibbet, or the more horrible doom of being torn in
+pieces with red-hot pincers. Among the prisoners sentenced to death, was
+one Zatahari, who was so fortunate as to obtain a respite of his
+punishment at the intercession of a goldsmith named Barredo, a person of
+much consideration in Granada. From gratitude for this service, or
+perhaps as the price of it, Zatahari made some important revelations to
+his benefactor respecting Aben-Aboo. He disclosed the place of his
+retirement and the number of his followers, adding, that the two persons
+on whom he most relied were his secretary, Abou-Amer, and a Moorish
+captain named El Senix. The former of these persons was known to
+Barredo, who, in the course of his business, had frequent occasion to
+make journeys into the Alpujarras. He resolved to open a correspondence
+with the secretary, and, if possible, win him over to the Spanish
+interests. Zatahari consented to bear the letter, on condition of a
+pardon. This was readily granted by the president, who approved the
+plan, and who authorized the most liberal promises to Abou-Amer in case
+of his co-operation with Barredo.
+
+Unfortunately--or, rather, fortunately for Zatahari, as it proved,--he
+was intercepted by El Senix, who, getting possession of the letter,
+carried it to Abou-Amer. The loyal secretary was outraged by this
+attempt to corrupt him. He would have put the messenger to death, had
+not El Senix represented that the poor wretch had undertaken the mission
+only to save his life.
+
+Privately the Moorish captain assured the messenger that Barredo should
+have sought a conference with him, as he was ready to enter into
+negotiations with the Christians. In fact, El Senix had a grudge against
+his master, and had already made an attempt to leave his service and
+escape to Barbary.
+
+A place of meeting was accordingly appointed in the Alpujarras, to which
+Barredo secretly repaired. El Senix was furnished with an assurance,
+under the president's own hand, of a pardon for himself and his friends,
+and of an annual pension of a hundred thousand maravedis, in case he
+should bring Aben-Aboo, dead or alive, to Granada.
+
+The interview could not be conducted so secretly but that an intimation
+of it reached the ears of Aben-Aboo, who resolved to repair at once to
+the quarters of El Senix, and ascertain the truth for himself. That
+chief had secreted himself in a cabin in the neighbourhood. Aben-Aboo
+took with him his faithful secretary and a small body of soldiers. On
+reaching the cave, he left his followers without, and, placing two men
+at the entrance, he, with less prudence than was usual with him, passed
+alone into the interior.
+
+There he found El Senix, surrounded by several of his friends and
+kinsmen. Aben-Aboo, in a peremptory tone, charged him with having held
+a secret correspondence with the enemy, and demanded the object of his
+late interview with Barredo. Senix did not attempt to deny the charge,
+but explained his motives by saying that he had been prompted only by a
+desire to serve his master. He had succeeded so well, he said, as to
+obtain from the president an assurance that, if the Morisco would lay
+down his arms, he should receive an amnesty for the past, and a liberal
+provision for the future.
+
+Aben-Aboo listened scornfully to this explanation; then, muttering the
+word, "Treachery!" he turned on his heel, and moved towards the mouth of
+the cave, where he had left his soldiers, intending probably to command
+the arrest of his perfidious officer. But he had not given them, it
+appears, any intimation of the hostile object of his visit to El Senix;
+and the men, supposing it to be on some matter of ordinary business, had
+left the spot to see some of their friends in the neighbourhood. El
+Senix saw that no time was to be lost. On a signal which he gave, his
+followers attacked the two guards at the door, one of whom was killed on
+the spot, while the other made his escape. They then all fell upon the
+unfortunate Aben-Aboo. He made a desperate defence. But though the
+struggle was fierce, the odds were too great for it to be long. It was
+soon terminated by the dastard Senix coming behind his master, and with
+the butt-end of his musket dealing him a blow on the back, of his head
+that brought him to the ground, where he was quickly despatched by a
+multitude of wounds.[278]
+
+The corpse was thrown out of the cavern. His followers, soon learning
+their master's fate, dispersed in different directions. The faithful
+secretary fell shortly after into the hands of the Spaniards, who, with
+their usual humanity in this war, caused him to be drawn and quartered.
+
+The body of Aben-Aboo was transported to the neighbourhood of Granada,
+where preparations were made for giving the dead chief a public entrance
+into the city, as if he had been still alive. The corpse was set astride
+on a mule, and supported erect in the saddle by a wooden frame, which
+was concealed beneath ample robes. On one side of the body rode Barredo;
+on the other, El Senix, bearing the scimitar and arquebuse of his
+murdered master. Then followed the kinsmen and friends of the Morisco
+prince, with their arms by their side. A regiment of Castilian infantry
+and a troop of horse brought up the rear. As the procession defiled
+along the street of Zacatin, it was saluted by salvoes of musketry,
+accompanied by peals of artillery from the ancient towers of the
+Alhambra, while the population of Granada, with eager though silent
+curiosity, hurried out to gaze on the strange and ghastly spectacle.
+
+In this way the company reached the great square of Vivarambla, where
+were assembled the president, the duke of Arcos, and the principal
+cavaliers and magistrates of the city. On coming into their presence, El
+Senix dismounted, and, kneeling before Deza, delivered to him the arms
+of Aben-Aboo. He was graciously received by the president, who confirmed
+the assurance which had been given him of the royal favour. The
+miserable ceremony of public execution was then gone through with. The
+head of the dead man was struck off. His body was given to the boys of
+the city, who, after dragging it through the streets with scoffs and
+imprecations, committed it to the flames. Such was one of the lessons by
+which the Spaniards early stamped on the minds of their children an
+indelible hatred of the Morisco.
+
+[Sidenote: CHARACTER OF ABEN-ABOO.]
+
+The head of Aben-Aboo, enclosed in a cage, was set up over the gate
+which opened on the Alpujarras. There, with the face turned towards his
+native hills, which he had loved so well, and which had witnessed his
+brief and disastrous reign, it remained for many a year. None ventured,
+by removing it, to incur the doom which an inscription on the cage
+denounced on the offender: "This is the head of the traitor Aben-Aboo.
+Let no one take it down, under penalty of death."[279]
+
+Such was the sad end of Aben-Aboo, the last of the royal line of the
+Omeyades who ever ruled in the Peninsula. Had he lived in the peaceful
+and prosperous times of the Arabian empire in Spain, he might have
+swayed the sceptre with as much renown as the best of his dynasty.
+Though the blood of the Moor flowed in his veins, he seems to have been
+remarkably free from some of the greatest defects in the Moorish
+character. He was temperate in his appetites, presenting in this respect
+a contrast to the gross sensuality of his predecessor. He had a lofty
+spirit, was cool and circumspect in his judgments, and, if he could not
+boast that fiery energy of character which belonged to some of his
+house, he had a firmness of purpose not to be intimidated by suffering
+or danger. Of this he gave signal proof when, as the reader may
+remember, the most inhuman tortures could not extort from him the
+disclosure of the lurking-place of his friends.[280] His qualities, as I
+have intimated, were such as peculiarly adapted him to a time of
+prosperity and peace. Unhappily, he had fallen upon evil times, when his
+country lay a wreck at his feet; when the people, depressed by long
+servitude, were broken down by the recent calamities of war; when, in
+short, it would not have been possible for the wisest and most warlike
+of his predecessors to animate them to a successful resistance against
+odds so overwhelming as those presented by the Spanish monarchy in the
+zenith of its power.
+
+The Castilian chroniclers have endeavoured to fix a deep stain on his
+memory, by charging him with the murder of El Habaqui, and with the
+refusal to execute the treaty to which he had given his sanction. But,
+in criticising the conduct of Aben-Aboo, we must not forget the race
+from which he sprung, or the nature of its institutions. He was a
+despot, and a despot of the Oriental type. He was placed in a
+situation--much against his will, it may be added--which gave him
+absolute control over the lives and fortunes of his people. His word was
+their law. He passed the sentence, and enforced its execution. El
+Habaqui he adjudged to be a traitor; and, in sentencing him to the
+bowstring, he inflicted on him only a traitor's doom.
+
+With regard to the treaty, he spoke of himself as betrayed, saying that
+its provisions were not such as he had intended. And when we consider
+that the instrument was written in the Spanish tongue; that it was
+drafted by a Spaniard; finally, that the principal Morisco agent who
+subscribed the treaty was altogether in the Spanish interest, as the
+favours heaped on him without measure too plainly proved, it can hardly
+be doubted that there were good grounds for the assertion of Aben-Aboo.
+From the hour of his accession, he seems to have devoted himself to the
+great work of securing the independence of his people. He could scarcely
+have agreed to a treaty which was to leave that people in even a worse
+state than before the rebellion. From what we know of his character, we
+may more reasonably conclude that he was sincere when he told the
+Spanish envoy, Palacios, who had come to press the execution of the
+treaty, and to remind him of the royal promises of grace, that "his
+people might do as they listed, but, for himself, he would rather live
+and die a Mussulman than possess all the favours which the king of Spain
+could heap on him." His deeds corresponded with his words; and,
+desperate as was his condition, he still continued to bid defiance to
+the Spanish government, until he was cut off by the hand of a traitor.
+
+The death of Aben-Aboo severed the last bond which held the remnant of
+the Moriscoes together. In a few years the sword, famine, and the
+gallows had exterminated the outcasts who still lurked in the fastnesses
+of the mountains. Their places were gradually occupied by Christians,
+drawn thither by the favourable terms which the government offered to
+settlers. But it was long before the wasted and famine-stricken
+territory could make a suitable return to the labours of the colonists.
+They were ignorant of the country, and were altogether deficient in the
+agricultural skill necessary for turning its unpromising places to the
+best account. The Spaniard, adventurous as he was, and reckless of
+danger and difficulty in the pursuit of gain, was impatient of the
+humble drudgery required for the tillage of the soil; and many a valley
+and hill-side which, under the Moriscoes, had bloomed with all the rich
+embroidery of cultivation, now relapsed into its primitive barrenness.
+
+The exiles carried their superior skill and industry into the various
+provinces where they were sent. Scattered as they were, and wide apart,
+the presence of the Moriscoes was sure to be revealed by the more minute
+and elaborate culture of the soil, as the secret course of the
+mountain-stream is betrayed by the brighter green of the meadow. With
+their skill in husbandry they combined a familiarity with various kinds
+of handicraft, especially those requiring dexterity and fineness of
+execution, that was unknown to the Spaniards. As the natural result of
+this superiority, the products of their labour were more abundant, and
+could be afforded at a cheaper rate than those of their neighbours. Yet
+this industry was exerted under every disadvantage which a most cruel
+legislation could impose on it. It would be hard to find in the pages of
+history a more flagrant example of the oppression of a conquered race,
+than that afforded by the laws of this period in reference to the
+Moriscoes. The odious law of 1566, which led to the insurrection, was
+put in full force. By this the national songs and dances, the peculiar
+baths of the Moriscoes, the _fetes_ and ceremonies which had come down
+to them from their ancestors, were interdicted under heavy penalties. By
+another ordinance, dated October 6, 1572, still more cruel and absurd,
+they were forbidden to speak or to write the Arabic, under penalty of
+thirty days' imprisonment in irons for the first offence, double that
+term for the second, and for the third a hundred lashes and four years'
+confinement in the galleys. By another monstrous provision in the same
+edict, whoever read, or even had in his possession, a work written or
+printed in the Arabic, was to be punished with a hundred stripes and
+four years in the galleys. Any contract or public instrument made in
+that tongue was to be void, and the parties to it were condemned to
+receive two hundred lashes and to tug at the oar for six years.[281]
+
+[Sidenote: FORTUNES OF THE MORISCOES.]
+
+But the most oppressive part of this terrible ordinance related to the
+residence of the Moriscoes. No one was allowed to change his abode, or
+to leave the parish or district assigned to him, without permission from
+the regular authorities. Whoever did so, and was apprehended beyond
+these limits, was to be punished with a hundred lashes and four years'
+imprisonment in the galleys. Should he be found within ten leagues of
+Granada, he was condemned, if between ten and seventeen years of age, to
+toil as a galley-slave the rest of his days; if above seventeen, he was
+sentenced to death![282] On the escape of a Morisco from his limits, the
+hue and cry was to be raised, as for the pursuit of a criminal. Even his
+own family were required to report his absence to the magistrate; and
+in case of their failure to do this, although it should be his wife or
+his children, says the law, they incurred the penalty of a whipping and
+a month's imprisonment in the common gaol.[283]
+
+Yet, in the face of these atrocious enactments, we find the Moriscoes
+occasionally making their escape into the province of Valencia, where
+numbers of their countrymen were living as serfs on the estates of the
+great nobles, under whose powerful protection they enjoyed a degree of
+comfort, if not of independence, unknown to their race in other parts of
+the country. Some few, also, finding their way to the coast, succeeded
+in crossing the sea to Barbary. The very severity of the law served in
+some measure to defeat its execution. Indeed, Philip, in more than one
+instance in which he deemed that the edicts pressed too heavily on his
+Moorish vassals, judged it expedient to mitigate the penalty, or even to
+dispense with it altogether,--an act of leniency which seems to have
+found little favour with his Castilian subjects.[284]
+
+Yet, strange to say, under this iron system, the spirit of the
+Moriscoes, which had been crushed by their long sufferings in the war of
+the rebellion, gradually rose again as they found a shelter in their new
+homes, and resumed their former habits of quiet industry. Though
+deprived of their customary amusements, their _fetes_, their songs, and
+their dances,--though debarred from the use of the language which they
+had lisped from the cradle, which embodied their national traditions,
+and was associated with their fondest recollections,--they were said to
+be cheerful, and even gay. They lived to a good age, and examples of
+longevity were found among them, to which it was not easy to find a
+parallel among the Spaniards. The Moorish stock, like the Jewish, seems
+to have thriven under persecution.[285]
+
+One would be glad to find any authentic data for an account of the
+actual population at the time of their expulsion from Granada. But I
+have met with none. They must have been sorely thinned by the war of the
+insurrection and the countless woes it brought upon the country. One
+fact is mentioned by the chroniclers, which shows that the number of the
+exiles must have been very considerable. The small remnant still left in
+Granada, with its lovely _vega_ and the valley of Lecrin, alone
+furnished, we are told, over six thousand.[286] In the places to which
+they were transported they continued to multiply to such an extent that
+the Cortes of Castile, in the latter part of the century, petitioned the
+king not to allow the census to be taken, lest it might disclose to the
+Moriscoes the alarming secret of their increase of numbers.[287] Such a
+petition shows, as strongly as language can show, the terror in which
+the Spaniards still stood of this persecuted race.
+
+Yet the Moriscoes were scattered over the country in small and isolated
+masses, hemmed in all around by the Spaniards. They were transplanted to
+the interior, where, at a distance from the coast, they had no means of
+communicating with their brethren of Africa. They were without weapons
+of any kind; and, confined to their several districts, they had not the
+power of acting in concert together. There would seem to have been
+little to fear from a people so situated. But the weakest individual,
+who feels that his wrongs are too great to be forgiven, may well become
+an object of dread to the person who has wronged him.
+
+The course of the government in reference to the Moriscoes was clearly a
+failure. It was as impolitic as it was barbarous. Nothing but the
+blindest fanaticism could have prevented the Spaniards from perceiving
+this. The object of the government had been to destroy every vestige of
+nationality in the conquered race. They were compelled to repudiate
+their ancient usages, their festivals, their religion, their
+language,--all that gave them a separate existence as a nation. But this
+served only to strengthen in secret the sentiment of nationality. They
+were to be divorced for ever from the past. But it was the mistake of
+the government that it opened to them no future. Having destroyed their
+independence as a nation, it should have offered them the rights of
+citizenship, and raised them to an equality with the rest of the
+community. Such was the policy of ancient Rome towards the nations which
+she conquered; and such has been that of our own country towards the
+countless emigrants who have thronged to our shores from so many distant
+lands. The Moriscoes, on the contrary, under the policy of Spain, were
+condemned to exist as foreigners in the country,--as enemies in the
+midst of the community into which they were thrown. Experience had
+taught them prudence and dissimulation; and in all outward observances
+they conformed to the exactions of the law. But in secret they were as
+much attached to their national institutions as were their ancestors
+when the caliphs of Cordova ruled over half the Peninsula. The
+Inquisition rarely gleaned an apostate from among them to swell the
+horrors of an _auto da fe_; but whoever recalls the facility with which,
+in the late rebellion, the whole population had relapsed into their
+ancient faith, will hardly doubt that they must have still continued to
+be Mahometans at heart.
+
+Thus the gulf which separated the two races grew wider and wider every
+day. The Moriscoes hated the Spaniards for the wrongs which they had
+received from them. The Spaniards hated the Moriscoes the more, that
+they had themselves inflicted these wrongs. Their hatred was further
+embittered by the feeling of jealousy caused by the successful
+competition of their rivals in the various pursuits of gain,--a
+circumstance which forms a fruitful theme of complaint in the petition
+of the Cortes above noticed.[288] The feeling of hate became in time
+mingled with that of fear, as the Moriscoes increased in opulence and
+numbers; and men are not apt to be over scrupulous in their policy
+towards those whom they both hate and fear.
+
+With these evil passions rankling in their bosoms, the Spaniards were
+gradually prepared for the consummation of their long train of
+persecutions by that last act, reserved for the reign of the imbecile
+Philip the Third,--the expulsion of the Moriscoes from the
+Peninsula,--an act which deprived Spain of the most industrious and
+ingenious portion of her population, and which must be regarded as one
+of the principal causes of the subsequent decline of the monarchy.
+
+[Sidenote: MARMOL--CIRCOURT.]
+
+ An historian less renowned than Mendoza, but of more importance to
+ one who would acquaint himself with the story of the Morisco
+ rebellion, is Luis del Marmol Carbajal. Little is known of him but
+ what is to be gathered from brief notices of himself in his works.
+ He was a native of Granada, but we are not informed of the date of
+ his birth. He was of a good family, and followed the profession of
+ arms. When a mere youth, as he tells us, he was present at the
+ famous siege of Tunis, in 1535. He continued in the imperial
+ service two-and-twenty years. Seven years he was a captive, and
+ followed the victorious banner of Mohammed, Scherif of Morocco, in
+ his campaigns in the west of Africa. His various fortunes and his
+ long residence in different parts of the African continent,
+ especially in Barbary and Egypt, supplied him with abundant
+ information in respect to the subjects of his historical inquiries;
+ and, as he knew the Arabic, he made himself acquainted with such
+ facts as were to be gleaned from books in that language. The fruits
+ of his study and observation he gave to the world in his
+ "_Descripcion General de Africa_," a work in three volumes folio,
+ the first part of which appeared at Granada in 1573. The remainder
+ was not published till the close of the century.
+
+ The book obtained a high reputation for its author, who was much
+ commended for the fidelity and diligence with which he had pushed
+ his researches in a field of letters into which the European
+ scholar had as yet rarely ventured to penetrate.
+
+ In the year 1600 appeared, at Malaga, his second work, the
+ "_Historia del Rebelion y Castigo de los Moriscos del Reyno de
+ Granada_," in one volume, folio. For the composition of this
+ history the author was admirably qualified, not only by his
+ familiarity with all that related to the character and condition of
+ the Moriscoes, but by the part which he had personally taken in the
+ war of the insurrection. He held the office of commissary in the
+ royal army, and served in that capacity from the commencement of
+ the war to its close. In the warm colouring of the narrative, and
+ in the minuteness of its details, we feel that we are reading the
+ report of one who has himself beheld the scenes which he describes.
+ Indeed, the interest which, as an actor, he naturally takes in the
+ operations of the war, leads to an amount of detail which may well
+ be condemned as a blemish by those who do not feel a similar
+ interest in the particulars of the struggle. But if his style have
+ somewhat of the rambling, discursive manner of the old Castilian
+ chronicler, it has a certain elegance in the execution, which
+ brings it much nearer to the standard of a classic author. Far from
+ being chargeable with the obscurity of Mendoza, Marmol is
+ uncommonly perspicuous. With a general facility of expression, his
+ language takes the varied character suited to the theme, sometimes
+ kindled into eloquence and occasionally softened into pathos, for
+ which the melancholy character of his story afforded too many
+ occasions. Though loyal to his country and his faith, yet he shows
+ but few gleams of the fiery intolerance that belonged to his
+ nation, and especially to that portion of it which came into
+ collision with the Moslems. Indeed, in more than one passage of his
+ work we may discern gleams of that Christian charity which, in
+ Castile was the rarest, as it was, unhappily, the least precious of
+ virtues, in the age in which he lived.
+
+ In the extensive plan adopted by Marmol, his history of the
+ rebellion embraces a preliminary notice of the conquest of Granada,
+ and of that cruel policy of the conquerors which led to the
+ insurrection. The narrative, thus complete, supplied a most
+ important hiatus in the annals of the country. Yet notwithstanding
+ its importance in this view, and its acknowledged merit as a
+ literary composition, such was the indifference of the Spaniards to
+ their national history, that it was not till the close of the last
+ century, in 1797, that a second edition of Marmol's work was
+ permitted to appear. This was in two volumes, octavo, from the
+ press of Sancha, at Madrid,--the edition used in the preparation of
+ these pages.
+
+ The most comprehensive, and by far the most able history of the
+ Moors of Spain with which I am acquainted, is that of the Count
+ Albert de Circourt,--"_Histoire des Arabes en Espagne_." Beginning
+ with the beginning, the author opens his narrative with the
+ conquest of the Peninsula by the Moslems. He paints in glowing
+ colours the magnificent empire of the Spanish caliphs. He dwells
+ with sufficient minuteness on those interminable feuds which,
+ growing out of a diversity of races and tribes, baffled every
+ attempt at a permanent consolidation under one government. Then
+ comes the famous war of Granada, with the conquest of the country
+ by the "Catholic Kings;" and the work closes with the sad tale of
+ the subsequent fortunes of the conquered races until their final
+ expulsion from the Peninsula. Thus the rapidly shifting scenes of
+ this most picturesque drama, sketched by a master's hand, are
+ brought in regular succession before the eye of the reader.
+
+ In conducting his long story, the author, far from confining
+ himself to a dry record of events, diligently explores the causes
+ of these events. He scrutinizes with care every inch of debateable
+ ground which lies in his path. He enriches his narrative with
+ copious disquisitions on the condition of the arts, and the
+ progress made by the Spanish Arabs in science and letters; thus
+ presenting a complete view of that peculiar civilization which so
+ curiously blended together the characteristic elements of European
+ and Oriental culture.
+
+ If, in pursuing his speculations, M. de Circourt may be sometimes
+ thought to refine too much, it cannot be denied that they are
+ distinguished by candour and by a philosophical spirit. Even when
+ we may differ from his conclusions, we must allow that they are the
+ result of careful study, and display an independent way of
+ thinking. I may regret that in one important instance--the policy
+ of the government of Ferdinand and Isabella--he should have been
+ led to dissent from the opinions which I had expressed in my
+ history of those sovereigns. It is possible that the predilection
+ which the writer, whether historian or novelist, naturally feels
+ for his hero when his conduct affords any ground for it, may have
+ sometimes seduced me from the strict line of impartiality in my
+ estimate of character and motives of action. I see, however, no
+ reason to change the conclusions at which I had arrived after a
+ careful study of the subject. Yet I cannot deny that the labours of
+ the French historian have shed a light upon more than one obscure
+ passage in the administration of Ferdinand and Isabella, for which
+ the student of Spanish history owes him a debt of gratitude.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+WAR WITH THE TURKS.
+
+League against the Turks--Preparations for the War--Don John
+Commander-in-Chief--His Reception at Naples--His Departure from Messina.
+
+1570-1571.
+
+
+While Philip was occupied with the Morisco insurrection, his attention
+was called to another quarter, where a storm was gathering that menaced
+Spain in common with the rest of Christendom. In 1566, Solyman the
+Magnificent closed his long and prosperous reign. His son and successor,
+Selim the Second, possessed few of the qualities of his great father.
+Bred in the seraglio, he showed the fruits of his education in his
+indolent way of life, and in the free indulgence of the most licentious
+appetites. With these effeminate tastes, he inherited the passion for
+conquest which belonged not only to his father, but to the whole of his
+warlike dynasty. Not that, like them, he headed his armies in the field.
+These were led by valiant commanders, who had learned the art of war
+under Solyman. Selim was, above all, fortunate in possessing for his
+grand vizier a minister whose untiring industry and remarkable talents
+for business enabled him to bear on his own shoulders the whole burden
+of government. It was fortunate for the state, as well as for the
+sultan, that Mahomet had the art to win the confidence of his master,
+and to maintain it unshaken through the whole of his reign.
+
+The scheme which most occupied the thoughts of Selim was the conquest of
+Cyprus. This island, to which nature had been so prodigal of her gifts,
+belonged to Venice. Yet, placed at the extremity of the Mediterranean,
+it seemed in a manner to command the approaches to the Dardanelles,
+while its line of coast furnished convenient ports, from which swarms of
+cruisers might sally forth in time of war, and plunder the Turkish
+commerce.
+
+Selim, resolved on the acquisition of Cyprus, was not slow in devising a
+pretext for claiming it from Venice as a part of the Ottoman empire. The
+republic, though willing to make almost any concession rather than come
+to a rupture with the colossal power under whose shadow she lay, was not
+prepared to surrender without a struggle the richest gem in her colonial
+diadem. War was accordingly declared against her by the Porte, and vast
+preparations were made for fitting out an armament against Cyprus.
+Venice, in her turn, showed her usual alacrity in providing for the
+encounter. She strained her resources to the utmost. In a very short
+time she equipped a powerful fleet, and took measures to place the
+fortifications of Cyprus in a proper state of defence. But Venice no
+longer boasted a navy such as in earlier days had enabled her to humble
+the pride of Genoa, and to ride the unquestioned mistress of the
+Mediterranean. The defences of her colonies, moreover, during her long
+repose, had gradually fallen into decay. In her extremity, she turned to
+the Christian powers of Europe, and besought them to make common cause
+with her against the enemy of Christendom.
+
+[Sidenote: LEAGUE AGAINST THE TURKS.]
+
+Fortunately the chair of St. Peter was occupied, at this crisis, by Pius
+the Fifth, one of those pontiffs who seem to have been called forth by
+the exigencies of the time, to uphold the pillars of Catholicism, as
+they were yet trembling under the assaults of Luther. Though he was near
+seventy years of age, the fire of youth still glowed in his veins. He
+possessed all that impetuous eloquence which, had he lived in the days
+of Peter the Hermit, would have enabled him, like that enthusiast, to
+rouse the nations of Europe to a crusade against the infidel. But the
+days of the crusades were past; and a summons from the Vatican had no
+longer the power to stir the souls of men like a voice from heaven. The
+great potentates of Europe were too intent on their own selfish schemes
+to be turned from these by the apprehension of a danger so remote as
+that which menaced them from the East. The forlorn condition of Venice
+had still less power to move them; and that haughty republic was now
+made to feel, in the hour of her distress, how completely her perfidious
+and unscrupulous policy had estranged from her the sympathies of her
+neighbours.
+
+There was one monarch, however, who did not close his ears against the
+appeal of Venice,--and that monarch, one of more importance to her cause
+than any other, perhaps all others united. In the spring of 1570, Luigi
+Torres, clerk of the apostolic chamber, was sent to Spain by Pius the
+Fifth, to plead the cause of the republic. He found the king at Ecija,
+on the route from Cordova, where he had been for some time presiding
+over a meeting of the Cortes. The legate was graciously received by
+Philip, to whom he presented a letter from his holiness, urging the
+monarch, in the most earnest and eloquent language, to give succour to
+Venice, and to unite with her in a league against the infidel. Philip
+did not hesitate to promise his assistance in the present emergency; but
+he had natural doubts as to the expediency of binding himself by a
+league with a power on whose good faith he had little reliance. He
+postponed his decision until his arrival at Seville. Accompanied by the
+legate, on the first of May, he made his solemn entry into the great
+commercial capital of the South. It was his first visit there, and he
+was received with tumultuous joy by the loyal inhabitants. Loyalty to
+their monarchs has ever been a predominant trait of the Spaniards; and
+to none of their princes did they ever show it in larger measure than to
+Philip the Second. No one of them, certainly, was more thoroughly
+Spanish in his own nature, or more deeply attached to Spain.
+
+After swearing to respect the privileges of the city, the king received
+the homage of the authorities. He then rode through the streets under a
+gorgeous canopy, upheld by the principal magistrates, and visited the
+churches and monasteries, hearing _Te Deum_, and offering up his prayers
+in the cathedral. He was attended by a gay procession of nobles and
+cavaliers, while the streets of the populous city were thronged with
+multitudes, filled with enthusiasm at the presence of their sovereign.
+By this loyal escort Philip was accompanied to the place of his
+residence, the royal alcazar of Seville. Here he prolonged his stay for
+a fortnight, witnessing the shows and festivals which had been prepared
+for his entertainment. At his departure he received a more substantial
+proof of the attachment of the citizens, in a donation of six hundred
+thousand ducats. The object of this magnificent present was to defray,
+in part, the expenses of the king's approaching marriage with his fourth
+wife, Anne of Austria, the daughter of his cousin, the emperor
+Maximilian. The fair young bride had left her father's court, and was
+already on her way to Madrid, where her nuptials were to be celebrated,
+and where she was to take the place of the lovely Isabella, whose death,
+not two years since, had plunged the nation in mourning.[289]
+
+While at Seville, Philip laid the subject of the league before his
+ministers. Some of these, and among the number Espinosa, president of
+the council of Castile, entertained great doubts as to the policy of
+binding Spain by a formal treaty with the Venetian republic. But, with
+all his distrust of that power, Philip took a broader view of the matter
+than his ministers. Independently of his willingness to present himself
+before the world as the great champion of the Faith, he felt that such
+an alliance offered the best opportunity for crippling the maritime
+power of Turkey, and thus providing for the safety of his own colonial
+possessions in the Mediterranean. After much deliberation, he dismissed
+the legate with the assurance that, notwithstanding the troubles which
+pressed on him both in the Low Countries and in Granada, he would
+furnish immediate succours to Venice, and would send commissioners to
+Rome, with full powers to unite with those of the pope and the republic
+in forming a treaty of alliance against the Ottoman Porte. The papal
+envoy was charged with a letter to the same effect, addressed by Philip
+to his holiness.
+
+The ensuing summer, the royal admiral, the famous John Andrew Doria, who
+was lying with a strong squadron off Sicily, put to sea by the king's
+orders. He was soon after reinforced by a few galleys which were
+furnished by his holiness, and placed under the command of Mark Antonio
+Colonna, the representative of one of the most ancient and illustrious
+houses in Rome. On the last of August, 1570, the combined fleet effected
+its junction with the Venetians at Candia, and a plan of operations was
+immediately arranged. It was not long before the startling intelligence
+arrived that Nicosia, the capital of Cyprus, had been taken and sacked
+by the Turks, with all the circumstances of cruelty which distinguish
+wars in which the feeling of national hostility is embittered by
+religious hatred. The plan was now to be changed. A dispute arose among
+the commanders as to the course to be pursued. No one had authority
+enough to enforce compliance with his own opinion. The dispute ended in
+a rupture. The expedition was abandoned; and the several commanders
+returned home with their squadrons, without having struck a blow for the
+cause. It was a bad omen for the success of the league.[290]
+
+Still the stout-hearted pontiff was not discouraged. On the contrary, he
+endeavoured to infuse his own heroic spirit into the hearts of his
+allies, giving them the most cheering assurances for the future, if they
+would but be true to themselves. Philip did not need this encouragement.
+Once resolved, his was not a mind lightly to be turned from its purpose.
+Venice, on the other hand, soon showed that the Catholic king had good
+reason for distrusting her fidelity. Appalled by the loss of Nicosia,
+with her usual inconstancy, she despatched a secret agent to
+Constantinople, to see if some terms might not yet be made with the
+Sultan. The negotiation could not be managed so secretly, however, but
+that notice of it reached the ears of Pius the Fifth. He forthwith
+despatched an envoy to the republic to counteract this measure, and to
+persuade the Venetians to trust to their Christian allies rather than to
+the Turks, the enemies of their country and their religion. The person
+selected for this mission was Colonna, who was quite as much
+distinguished for his address as for his valour. He performed his task
+well. He represented so forcibly to the government that the course he
+recommended was the one dictated not less by interest than by honour,
+that they finally acquiesced, and recalled their agent from
+Constantinople. It must be acknowledged that Colonna's arguments were
+greatly strengthened by the cold reception given to the Venetian envoy
+at Constantinople, where it was soon seen that the conquest of the
+capital had by no means tended to make the sultan relax his hold on
+Cyprus.[291]
+
+[Sidenote: LEAGUE AGAINST THE TURKS.]
+
+Towards the close of 1570, the deputies from the three powers met in
+Rome to arrange the terms of the league. Spain was represented by the
+cardinals Granvelle and Pacheco, together with the ambassador, Juan de
+Zuniga, all three at that time being resident in Rome. It will readily
+be believed that the interests of Spain would not suffer in the hands of
+a commission with so skilful a tactician as Granvelle to direct it.
+
+Yet though the parties seemed to be embarked in a common cause, there
+was found much difficulty in reconciling their different pretensions.
+The deputies from Venice, in the usual spirit of her diplomacy, regarded
+the league as exclusively designed for her benefit; in other words, for
+the protection of Cyprus against the Turks. The Spanish commissioners
+took a wider view, and talked of the war as one waged by the Christian
+against the Infidel; against the Moors no less than the Turks. In this
+politic view of the matter, the Catholic king was entitled to the same
+protection for his colonies on the coast of Africa as Venice claimed for
+Cyprus.
+
+Another cause of disagreement was the claim of each of the parties to
+select a commander-in-chief for the expedition from its own nation. This
+pre-eminence was finally conceded to Spain, as the power that was to
+bear the largest share of the expenses.
+
+It was agreed that the treaty should be permanent in its duration, and
+should be directed against the Moors of Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers, as
+well as against the Turks; that the contracting parties should furnish
+two hundred galleys, one hundred transports and smaller vessels, fifty
+thousand foot, and four thousand five hundred horse, with the requisite
+artillery and munitions; that by April, at farthest, of every succeeding
+year, a similar force should be held in readiness by the allies for
+expeditions to the Levant; and that any year in which there was no
+expedition in common, and either Spain or the republic should desire to
+engage in one on her own account against the Infidel, the other
+confederates should furnish fifty galleys towards it; that if the enemy
+should invade the dominions of any of the three powers, the others
+should be bound to come to the aid of their ally; that three-sixths of
+the expenses of the war should be borne by the Catholic king, two-sixths
+by the republic, the remaining sixth by the Holy See; that the Venetians
+should lend his holiness twelve galleys, which he was to man and equip
+at his own charge, as his contribution towards the armament; that each
+power should appoint a captain-general; that the united voices of the
+three commanders should regulate the plan of operations; that the
+execution of this plan should be entrusted to the captain-general of the
+league, and that this high office should be given to Don John of
+Austria; that, finally, no one of the parties should make peace, or
+enter into a truce with the enemy, without the knowledge and consent of
+the others.[292]
+
+Such were the principal provisions of the famous treaty of the Holy
+League. The very first article declares this treaty perpetual in its
+nature. Yet we should be slow to believe that the shrewd and politic
+statesmen who directed the affairs of Spain and the republic could for a
+moment believe in the perpetuity of a contract which imposed such
+burdensome obligations on the parties. In fact, the league did not hold
+together two years. But it held together long enough to accomplish a
+great result, and as such occupies an important place in the history of
+the times.
+
+Although a draft of the treaty had been prepared in the latter part of
+the preceding year, it was not ratified till 1571.[293] On the
+twenty-fourth of May, the pope caused it to be read aloud in full
+consistory. He then, laying his hand on his breast, solemnly swore to
+the observance of it. The ambassadors of Spain and Venice made oath to
+the same effect, on behalf of their governments, placing their hands on
+a missal with a copy of the Gospels beneath it. On the day following,
+after mass had been performed, the treaty was publicly proclaimed in the
+church of St. Peter.[294]
+
+The tidings of the alliance of the three powers caused a great sensation
+throughout Christendom. Far from dismaying the sultan, however, it only
+stimulated him to greater exertions. Availing himself of the resources
+of his vast empire, he soon got together a powerful fleet, partly drawn
+from his own dominions, and in part from those of the Moslem powers on
+the Mediterranean, who acknowledged allegiance to the Porte. The armada
+was placed under the command of Selim's brother-in-law, the Pacha Piali,
+a man of an intrepid spirit, who had given many proofs of a humane and
+generous nature; qualities more rare among the Turks, perhaps among all
+nations, than mere physical courage.
+
+Early in the spring of 1571, the Ottoman admiral sailed out of the
+Golden Horn, and directed his course towards Candia. Here he remained
+until joined by a strong Algerine force under the redoubtable corsair
+Uluch Ali,--a Calabrian renegade, who had risen from the humblest
+condition to the post of dey of Algiers. Early in the season the
+combined fleets sailed for the Adriatic; and Piali, after landing and
+laying waste the territory belonging to the republic, detached Uluch
+with his squadron to penetrate higher up the gulf. The Algerine, in
+executing these orders, advanced so near to Venice as to throw the
+inhabitants of that capital into a consternation such as they had not
+felt since the cannon of the Genoese, two centuries before, had
+resounded over their waters. But it was not the dey's purpose to engage
+in so formidable an enterprise as an assault upon Venice; and soon
+drawing off, he joined the commander-in-chief at Corfu, where they
+waited for tidings of the Christian fleet.[295]
+
+The indefatigable Pius, even before the treaty was signed, had
+despatched his nephew, Cardinal Alessandrino, to the different courts,
+to rouse the drooping spirits of the allies, and to persuade other
+princes of Christendom to join the league. In the middle of May, the
+legate, attended by a stately train of ecclesiastics, appeared at
+Madrid. Philip gave him a reception that fully testified his devotion to
+the Holy See. The king's brother, Don John, and his favourite minister,
+Ruy Gomez de Silva, with some of the principal nobles, waited at once on
+the cardinal who had taken up his quarters in the suburbs, at the
+Dominican monastery of Atocha, tenanted by brethren of his own order. On
+the following morning the papal envoy made his entrance, in great state,
+into the capital. He was mounted on a mule, gorgeously caparisoned, the
+gift of the city. John of Austria rode on his right; and he was escorted
+by a pompous array of prelates and grandees, who seemed to vie with one
+another in the splendour of their costumes. On the way he was met by the
+royal cavalcade. As the legate paid his obeisance to the monarch, he
+remained with his head uncovered; and Philip, with a similar act of
+courtesy, while he addressed a few remarks to the churchman, held his
+hat in his hand.[296] He then joined the procession, riding between the
+legate on the right and his brother on the left, who was observed, from
+time to time, to take part in the conversation,--a circumstance
+occasioning some surprise, says an historian, as altogether contrary to
+the established etiquette of the punctilious Castilian court.[297]
+
+[Sidenote: PREPARATIONS FOR THE WAR.]
+
+The ceremonies were concluded by religious services in the church of
+Santa Maria, where the legate, after preaching a discourse, granted all
+present a full remission of the pains of purgatory for two hundred
+years.[298] A gift of more worth, in a temporal view, was the grant to
+the king of the _cruzada_, the _excusada_, and other concessions of
+ecclesiastical revenue, which the Roman see knows so well how to bestow
+on the champions of the Faith. These concessions came in good time to
+supply the royal coffers, sorely drained by the costly preparations for
+the war.
+
+Meanwhile, the Venetians were pushing forward their own preparations
+with their wonted alacrity,--indeed, with more alacrity than
+thoroughness. They were prompt in furnishing their quota of vessels, but
+discreditably remiss in their manner of equipping them. The fleet was
+placed under the charge of Sebastian Veniero, a noble who had grown grey
+in the service of his country. Zanne, who had had the command of the
+fleet in the preceding summer, was superseded on the charge of
+incapacity, shown especially in his neglect to bring the enemy to
+action. His process continued for two years, without any opportunity
+being allowed to the accused of appearing in his own vindication. It was
+finally brought to a close by his death,--the consequence, as it is
+said, of a broken heart. If it were so, it would not be a solitary
+instance of such a fate in the annals of the stern republic. Before
+midsummer the new admiral sailed with his fleet, or as much of it as was
+then ready, for the port of Messina, appointed as the place of
+rendezvous for the allies. Here he was soon joined by Colonna, the papal
+commander, with the little squadron furnished by his holiness; and the
+two fleets lay at anchor, side by side, in the capacious harbour,
+waiting the arrival of the rest of the confederates and of John of
+Austria.
+
+Preparations for the war were now going actively forward in Spain.
+Preparations on so large a scale had not been seen since the war with
+Paul the Fourth and Henry the Third, which ushered in Philip's
+accession. All the great ports in the Peninsula, as well as in the
+kingdom of Naples, in Sicily, in the Balearic Isles, in every part of
+the empire in short, swarmed with artisans, busily engaged in fitting
+out the fleet which was to form Philip's contingent to the armament. By
+the terms of the treaty, he was to bear one-half of the charges of the
+expedition. In his naval preparations he spared neither cost nor care.
+Ninety royal galleys, and more than seventy ships of small dimensions,
+were got in readiness in the course of the summer. They were built and
+equipped in that thorough manner which vindicated the pre-eminence in
+naval architecture claimed by Spain, and formed a strong contrast to the
+slovenly execution of the Venetians.[299]
+
+Levies of troops were at the same time diligently enforced in all parts
+of the monarchy. Even a corps of three thousand German mercenaries was
+subsidized for the campaign. Troops were drawn from the veteran
+garrisons in Lombardy and the kingdom of Naples. As the Morisco
+insurrection was fortunately quelled, the forces engaged in it, among
+whom were the brave Neapolitan battalion and its commander, Padilla,
+could now be employed in the war against the Turk.
+
+But it can hardly be said to have required extraordinary efforts to fill
+the ranks on the present occasion; for seldom had a war been so popular
+with the nation. Indeed, the Spaniards entered into it with an alacrity
+which might well have suggested the idea that their master had engaged
+in it on his own account, rather than as an ally. It was, in truth, a
+war that appealed in a peculiar manner to the sensibilities of the
+Castilian, familiar from his cradle with the sound of the battle-cry
+against the Infidel. The whole number of infantry raised by the
+confederates amounted to twenty-nine thousand. Of this number Spain
+alone sent over nineteen thousand well-appointed troops, comprehending
+numerous volunteers, many of whom belonged to the noblest houses of the
+Peninsula.[300]
+
+On the sixth of June, Don John, after receiving the last instructions of
+his brother, set out from Madrid on his journey to the south. Besides
+his own private establishment, making a numerous train, he was escorted
+by a splendid company of lords and cavaliers, eager to share with him in
+the triumphs of the Cross. Anxious to reach the goal, he pushed forward
+at a more rapid rate than was altogether relished by the rest of the
+cavalcade. Yet, notwithstanding this speed on the road, there were
+matters that claimed his attention in the towns through which he passed
+that occasioned some delay. His journey had the appearance of a royal
+progress. The castles of the great lords were thrown open with princely
+hospitality to receive him and his suite. In the chief cities, as
+Saragossa and Barcelona, he was entertained by the viceroys with all the
+pomp and ceremony that could have been shown to the king himself. He
+remained some days in the busy capital of Catalonia, and found there
+much to engage his attention in the arsenals and dockyards, now alive
+with the bustle of preparation. He then made a brief pilgrimage to the
+neighbouring hermitage of our Lady of Montserrat, where he paid his
+devotions, and conversed with the holy fathers, whom he had always
+deeply reverenced, and had before visited in their romantic solitudes.
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN'S RECEPTION AT NAPLES.]
+
+Embarking at Barcelona, he set sail with a squadron of more than thirty
+galleys,--a force strong enough to guard against the Moslem corsairs in
+the Mediterranean, and landed, on the twenty-fifth, at Genoa. The doge
+and the senate came out to welcome him, and he was lodged during his
+stay in the palace of Andrew Doria. Here he received embassies and
+congratulatory addresses from the different princes of Italy. He had
+already been greeted with an autograph letter, couched in the most
+benignant terms, from the sovereign pontiff. To all these communications
+Don John was careful to reply. He acquainted his holiness, in
+particular, with the whole course of his proceedings. While on the way,
+he had received a letter from his brother, giving him a full catalogue
+of the appropriate titles by which each one of his correspondents should
+be addressed. Nor was this list confined to crowned heads, but
+comprehended nobles and cavaliers, of every degree.[301] In no country
+has the perilous code of etiquette been more diligently studied than in
+Spain, and no Spaniard was better versed in it than Philip.
+
+Pursuing his route by water, Don John, in the month of August, dropped
+anchor in the beautiful bay of Naples. Arrangements had been made in
+that city for his reception on a more magnificent scale than any he had
+witnessed on his journey. Granvelle, who had lately been raised to the
+post of viceroy, came forth, at the head of a long and brilliant
+procession, to welcome his royal guest. The houses that lined the
+streets were hung with richly-tinted tapestries, and gaily festooned
+with flowers. The windows and verandahs were graced with the beauty and
+fashion of that pleasure-loving capital; and many a dark eye sparkled as
+it gazed on the fine form and features of the youthful hero, who at the
+age of twenty-four had come to Italy to assume the baton of command, and
+lead the crusade against the Moslems. His splendid dress of white velvet
+and cloth of gold set off his graceful person to advantage. A crimson
+scarf floated loosely over his breast; and his snow-white plumes,
+drooping from his cap, mingled with the yellow curls that fell in
+profusion over his shoulders. It was a picture which the Italian maiden
+might love to look on. It was certainly not the picture of the warrior
+sheathed in the iron panoply of war. But the young prince, in his
+general aspect, might be relieved from the charge of effeminacy, by his
+truly chivalrous bearing and the dauntless spirit which beamed from his
+clear blue eye. In his own lineaments he seemed to combine all that was
+most comely in the lineaments of his race. Fortunately he had escaped
+the deformity of the heavy Burgundian lip, which he might perhaps have
+excused, as establishing his claims to a descent from the imperial house
+of Hapsburg.[302]
+
+Don John had found no place more busy with preparations for the campaign
+than Naples. A fleet was riding at anchor in her bay, ready to sail
+under the command of Don Alvaro Bazan, first marquis of Santa Cruz, a
+nobleman who had distinguished himself by more than one gallant
+achievement in the Mediterranean, and who was rapidly laying the
+foundations of a fame that was one day to eclipse that of every other
+admiral in Castile.
+
+Ten days Don John remained at Naples, detained by contrary winds. Though
+impatient to reach Messina, his time passed lightly amidst the _fetes_
+and brilliant spectacles which his friendly hosts had provided for his
+entertainment. He entered gaily into the revels; for he was well skilled
+in the courtly and chivalrous exercises of the day. Few danced better
+than he, or rode, or fenced, or played at tennis with more spirit and
+skill, or carried off more frequently the prizes of the tourney. Indeed,
+he showed as much ambition to excel in the mimic game of war as on the
+field of battle. With his accomplishments and personal attractions, we
+may well believe that Don John had little reason to complain of coldness
+in the fair dames of Italy. But he seems to have been no less a
+favourite with the men. The young cavaliers, in particular, regarded him
+as the very mirror of chivalry, and studiously formed themselves on him
+as their model. His hair clustered thickly round his temples, and he was
+in the habit of throwing it back, so as to display his fine forehead to
+advantage. This suited his physiognomy. It soon became the mode with
+the gallants of the court; and even those whose physiognomies it did not
+suit were no less careful to arrange their hair in the same manner.
+
+While at Naples he took part in a ceremony of an interesting and
+significant character. It was on the occasion of the presentation of a
+standard sent by Pius the Fifth for the Holy War. The ceremony took
+place in the church of the Franciscan convent of Santa Chiara. Granvelle
+officiated on the occasion. Mass was performed by the cardinal-viceroy
+in his pontificals. _Te Deum_ was then chanted, after which Don John,
+approaching the altar with a slow and dignified step, gracefully knelt
+before the prelate, who, first delivering to him the baton of
+generalissimo, in the name of his holiness, next placed in his hands the
+consecrated standard. It was of azure damask. A crucifix was embroidered
+on the upper part of the banner, while below were the arms of the
+Church, with those of Spain on the right, and of Venice on the left,
+united by a chain, from which were suspended the arms of John of
+Austria. The prelate concluded the ceremony by invoking the blessing of
+Heaven on its champion, and beseeching that he might be permitted to
+carry the banner of the Cross victorious over its enemies. The choir of
+the convent then burst forth into a triumphant peal, and the people from
+every quarter of the vast edifice shouted "Amen!"[303]
+
+It was a striking scene, pregnant with matter for meditation to those
+who gazed on it. For what could be more striking than the contrast
+afforded by these two individuals,--the one in the morning of life, his
+eye kindling with hope and generous ambition, as he looked into the
+future and prepared to tread the path of glory under auspices as
+brilliant as ever attended any mortal; the other drawing near to the
+evening of his day, looking to the past rather than the future, with
+pale and thoughtful brow, as of one who, after many a toilsome day and
+sleepless night, had achieved the proud eminence for which his companion
+was panting,--and had found it barren!
+
+The wind having become more favourable, Don John took leave of the gay
+capital of the South, and embarked for Messina, which he reached on the
+twenty-fifth of August. If in other places he had seen preparations for
+war, here he seemed to be brought on the very theatre of war. As he
+entered the noble port, he was saluted with the thunders of hundreds of
+pieces of ordnance from the combined fleets of Rome and Venice, which
+lay side by side awaiting his arrival. He landed beneath a triumphal
+arch of colossal dimensions, embossed with rich plates of silver, and
+curiously sculptured with emblematical bas-reliefs, and with
+complimentary legends in Latin verse, furnished by the classical poets
+of Italy.[304] He passed under two other arches of similar rich and
+elaborate construction, as he rode into the town amidst the ringing of
+bells, the cheers of the multitude, the waving of scarfs and
+handkerchiefs from the balconies, and other lively demonstrations of the
+public joy, such as might have intoxicated the brain of a less ambitious
+soldier than John of Austria. The festivities were closed in the evening
+by a general illumination of the city, and by a display of fireworks
+that threw a light far and wide over the beautiful harbour and the
+countless ships that floated on its waters.
+
+[Sidenote: THE ARMADA OF THE ALLIES.]
+
+Nothing could be finer, indeed, whether by day or by night, than the
+spectacle presented by the port of Messina. Every day a fresh
+reinforcement of squadrons, or of single galleys or brigantines, under
+some brave adventurer, entered the harbour to swell the numbers of the
+great armada. Many of these vessels, especially the galleys, were richly
+carved and gilt, after the fashion of the time, and with their
+many-coloured streamers, and their flags displaying the arms of their
+several states, made a magnificent show as they glanced over the waters.
+None, in the splendour of their decorations, exceeded the _Real_, as the
+galley of the commander-in-chief was termed. It was of great size, and
+had been built in Barcelona, famous for its naval architecture all the
+world over. The stern of the vessel was profusely decorated with emblems
+and devices drawn from history. The interior was furnished in a style of
+luxury that seemed to be designed for pleasure, rather than for the
+rough duties of war. But the galley was remarkable for both strength and
+speed,--the two most essential qualities in the construction of a ship.
+Of this she gave ample evidence in her contest with the Turk.[305]
+
+The whole number of vessels in the armada, great and small, amounted to
+something more than three hundred. Of these full two-thirds were "royal
+galleys." Venice alone contributed one hundred and six, besides six
+_galeazzas_. These were ships of enormous bulk, and, as it would seem,
+of clumsy construction, carrying each more than forty pieces of
+artillery. The Spaniards counted a score of galleys less than their
+Venetian confederates. But they far exceeded them in the number of their
+frigates, brigantines, and vessels of smaller size. They boasted a still
+greater superiority in the equipment of their navy. Indeed, the Venetian
+squadron was found so indifferently manned, that Don John ordered
+several thousand hands to be drafted from the ships of the other Italian
+powers, and from the Spanish, to make up the necessary complement. This
+proceeding conveyed so direct a censure on the remissness of his
+countrymen, as to give great disgust to the admiral, Veniero. But in the
+present emergency he had neither the power to resist nor to resent
+it.[306]
+
+The number of persons on board of the fleet, soldiers and seamen, was
+estimated at eighty thousand. The galleys, impelled by oars more than by
+sails, required a large number of hands to navigate them. The soldiers,
+as we have seen, did not exceed twenty-nine thousand; of which number
+more than nineteen thousand were furnished by Spain. They were
+well-appointed troops, most of them familiar with war, and officered by
+men, many of whom had already established a high reputation in the
+service. On surveying the muster-roll of cavaliers who embarked in this
+expedition, one may well believe that Spain had never before sent forth
+a fleet in which were to be found the names of so many of her sons
+illustrious for rank and military achievement. If the same can be said
+of Venice, we must consider that the present war was one in which the
+prosperity, perhaps the very existence, of the republic was involved.
+The Spaniard was animated by the true spirit of the Crusades, when,
+instead of mercenary motives, the guerdon for which men fought was glory
+in this world and paradise in the next.
+
+Sebastian Veniero, trembling for the possessions of the republic in the
+Adriatic, would have put to sea without further delay, and sought out
+the enemy. But Don John, with a prudence hardly to have been expected,
+declined moving until he had been strengthened by all his
+reinforcements. He knew the resources of the Ottoman empire; he could
+not doubt that in the present emergency they would be strained to the
+utmost to equip a formidable armament; and he resolved not to expose
+himself unnecessarily to the chances of defeat, by neglecting any means
+in his power to prepare for the encounter. It was a discreet
+determination, which must have met the entire approbation of his
+brother.
+
+While he was thus detained at Messina, a papal nuncio, Odescalco, bishop
+of Pena, arrived there. He was the bearer of sundry spiritual favours
+from the pontiff, whose real object, no doubt, was to quicken the
+movements of John of Austria. The nuncio proclaimed a jubilee; and every
+man in the armada, from the captain-general downwards, having fasted
+three days, confessed and partook of the communion. The prelate, in the
+name of his holiness, then proclaimed a full remission of their sins;
+and he conceded to them the same indulgences as had been granted to the
+deliverers of the Holy Sepulchre. To Don John the pope communicated
+certain revelations and two cheering prophecies from St. Isadore, which
+his holiness declared had undoubted reference to the prince. It is
+further stated, that Pius appealed to more worldly feelings, by
+intimating to the young commander that success could not fail to open
+the way to the acquisition of some independent sovereignty for
+himself.[307] Whether this suggestion first awakened so pleasing an idea
+in Don John's mind, or whether the wary pontiff was aware that it
+already existed there, it is certain that it became the spectre which
+from this time forward continued to haunt the imagination of the
+aspiring chieftain, and to beckon him onward in the path of perilous
+ambition to its melancholy close.
+
+All being now in readiness, orders were given to weigh anchor; and on
+the sixteenth of September the magnificent armament--unrivalled by any
+which had rode upon these waters since the days of imperial Rome--stood
+out to sea. The papal nuncio, dressed in his pontificals, took a
+prominent station on the mole; and as each vessel passed successively
+before him, he bestowed on it his apostolic benediction. Then, without
+postponing a moment longer his return, he left Messina and hastened back
+to Rome to announce the joyful tidings to his master.[308]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+WAR WITH THE TURKS.
+
+Plan of Operations--Tidings of the Enemy--Preparations for
+Combat--Battle of Lepanto--Rout of the Turkish Armada.
+
+1571.
+
+
+[Sidenote: PLAN OF OPERATIONS.]
+
+As the allied fleet coasted along the Calabrian shore, it was so much
+baffled by rough seas and contrary winds that its progress was slow. Not
+long before his departure Don John had sent a small squadron under a
+Spanish captain, Gil de Andrada, to collect tidings of the enemy. On his
+return that commander met the Christian fleet, and reported that the
+Turks, with a powerful armament, were still in the Adriatic, where they
+had committed fearful ravages on the Venetian territories. Don John now
+steered his course for Corfu, which, however, he did not reach till the
+twenty-sixth of September. He soon had ample opportunities of seeing for
+himself the traces of the enemy, in the smoking hamlets and desolated
+fields along the coast. The allies were welcomed with joy by the
+islanders, who furnished them with whatever supplies they needed. Here
+Don John learned that the Ottoman fleet had been standing into the Gulf
+of Lepanto, where it lay as if waiting the coming of the Christians.
+
+The young commander-in-chief had now no hesitation as to the course he
+ought to pursue. But he chose to call a council of his principal
+captains before deciding. The treaty of alliance, indeed, required him
+to consult with the other commanders before taking any decisive step in
+matters of importance; and this had been strenuously urged on him by the
+king, ever afraid of his brother's impetuosity.
+
+The opinions of the council were divided. Some who had had personal
+experience of the naval prowess of the Turks appeared to shrink from
+encountering so formidable an armament, and would have confined the
+operations of the fleet to the siege of some place belonging to the
+Moslems. Even Doria, whose life had been spent in fighting with the
+infidel, thought it was not advisable to attack the enemy in his present
+position, surrounded by friendly shores, whence he might easily obtain
+succour. It would be better, he urged, to attack some neighbouring
+place, like Navarino, which might have the effect of drawing him from
+the gulf, and thus compel him to give battle in some quarter more
+advantageous to the allies.
+
+But the majority of the council took a very different view of the
+matter. To them it appeared that the great object of the expedition was
+to destroy the Ottoman fleet, and that a better opportunity could not be
+offered than the present one, while the enemy was shut up in the gulf,
+from which, if defeated, he would find no means of escape. Fortunately,
+this was the opinion, not only of the majority, but of most of those
+whose opinions were entitled to the greatest deference. Among these were
+the gallant marquis of Santa Cruz, the Grand-Commander Requesens, who
+still remained near the person of Don John, and had command of a galley
+in his rear, Cardona, general of the Sicilian squadron, Barbarigo, the
+Venetian _provveditore_, next in authority to the captain-general of his
+nation, the Roman Colonna, and Alexander Farnese, the young prince of
+Parma, Don John's nephew, who had come, on this memorable occasion, to
+take his first lesson in the art of war,--an art in which he was
+destined to remain without a rival.
+
+The commander-in-chief, with no little satisfaction, saw himself so well
+supported in his own judgment; and he resolved, without any unnecessary
+delay, to give the Turks battle in the position they had chosen. He was
+desirous, however, to be joined by part of his fleet, which, baffled by
+the winds, and without oars, still lagged far behind. For the galley,
+with its numerous oars in addition to its sails, had somewhat of the
+properties of a modern steamer, which so gallantly defies both wind and
+wave. As Don John wished also to review his fleet before coming into
+action, he determined to cross over to Comenizza, a capacious and
+well-protected port on the opposite coast of Albania.
+
+This he did on the thirtieth of September. Here the vessels were got in
+readiness for immediate action. They passed in review before the
+commander-in-chief, and went through their various evolutions, while the
+artillerymen and musketeers showed excellent practice. Don John looked
+with increased confidence to the approaching combat. An event, however,
+occurred at this time, which might have been attended with the worst
+consequences.
+
+A Roman officer, named Tortona, one of those who had been drafted to
+make up the complement of the Venetian galleys, engaged in a brawl with
+some of his crew. This reached the ears of Veniero, the Venetian
+captain-general. The old man, naturally of a choleric temper, and still
+smarting from the insult which he fancied he had received by the
+introduction of the allies on board of his vessels, instantly ordered
+the arrest of the offender. Tortona for a long while resisted the
+execution of these orders; and when finally seized, with some of his
+companions, they were all sentenced by the vindictive Veniero to be hung
+at the yardarm. Such a high-handed proceeding caused the deepest
+indignation in Don John, who regarded it, moreover, as an insult to
+himself. In the first moments of his wrath he talked of retaliating on
+the Venetian admiral by a similar punishment. But, happily, the
+remonstrances of Colonna--who, as the papal commander, had in truth the
+most reason to complain--and the entreaties of other friends, prevailed
+on the angry chief to abstain from any violent act. He insisted,
+however, that Veniero should never again take his place at the
+council-board, but should be there represented by the _provveditore_
+Barbarigo, next in command,--a man, fortunately, possessed of a better
+control over his temper than was shown by his superior. Thus the cloud
+passed away, which threatened for a moment to break up the harmony of
+the allies, and to bring ruin on the enterprise.[309]
+
+On the third of October, Don John, without waiting longer for the
+missing vessels, again put to sea, and stood for the Gulf of Lepanto. As
+the fleet swept down the Ionian Sea, it passed many a spot famous in
+ancient story. None, we may imagine, would be so likely to excite an
+interest at this time as Actium, on whose waters was fought the greatest
+naval battle of antiquity. But the mariner probably gave little thought
+to the past, as he dwelt on the conflict that awaited him at Lepanto. On
+the fifth, a thick fog enveloped the armada, and shut out every object
+from sight. Fortunately, the vessels met with no injury, and, passing by
+Ithaca, the ancient home of Ulysses, they safely anchored off the
+eastern coast of Cephalonia. For two days their progress was thwarted by
+headwinds. But on the seventh, Don John, impatient of delay, again put
+to sea, though wind and weather were still unfavourable.
+
+While lying off Cephalonia he had received tidings that Famagosta, the
+second city of Cyprus, had fallen into the hands of the enemy, and this
+under circumstances of unparalleled perfidy and cruelty. The place,
+after a defence that had cost hecatombs of lives to the besiegers, was
+allowed to capitulate on honourable terms. Mustapha, the Moslem
+commander, the same fierce chief who had conducted the siege of Malta,
+requested an interview at his quarters with four of the principal
+Venetian captains. After a short and angry conference, he ordered them
+all to execution. Three were beheaded. The other, a noble named
+Bragadino, who had held the supreme command, he caused to be flayed
+alive in the market-place of the city. The skin of the wretched victim
+was then stuffed; and with this ghastly trophy dangling from the yardarm
+of his galley, the brutal monster sailed back to Constantinople, to
+receive the reward of his services from Selim.[310] These services were
+great. The fall of Famagosta secured the fall of Cyprus, which thus
+became permanently incorporated in the Ottoman empire.[311]
+
+[Sidenote: PREPARATIONS FOR COMBAT.]
+
+The tidings of these shocking events filled the breast of every Venetian
+with an inextinguishable thirst for vengeance. The confederates entered
+heartily into these feelings; and all on board of the armada were
+impatient for the hour that was to bring them hand to hand with the
+enemies of the Faith.
+
+It was two hours before dawn, on Sunday, the memorable seventh of
+October, when the fleet weighed anchor. The wind had become lighter; but
+it was still contrary, and the galleys were indebted for their progress
+much more to their oars than their sails. By sunrise they were abreast
+of the Curzolari,--a cluster of huge rocks, or rocky islets, which on
+the north defends the entrance of the Gulf of Lepanto. The fleet moved
+laboriously along, while every eye was strained to catch the first
+glimpse of the hostile navy. At length the watch on the fore-top of the
+_Real_ called out "A sail!" and soon after declared that the whole
+Ottoman fleet was in sight. Several others, climbing up the rigging,
+confirmed his report; and in a few moments more, word was sent to the
+same effect by Andrew Doria, who commanded on the right. There was no
+longer any doubt; and Don John, ordering his pennon to be displayed at
+the mizen-peak, unfurled the great standard of the League, given by the
+pope, and directed a gun to be fired, the signal for battle. The report,
+as it ran along the rocky shores, fell cheerily on the ears of the
+confederates, who, raising their eyes towards the consecrated banner,
+filled the air with their shouts.[312]
+
+The principal captains now came on board the _Real_, to receive the last
+orders of the commander-in-chief. Even at this late hour, there were
+some who ventured to intimate their doubts of the expediency of engaging
+the enemy in a position where he had a decided advantage. But Don John
+cut short the discussion. "Gentlemen," he said, "this is the time for
+combat, not for counsel." He then continued the dispositions he was
+making for the attack.
+
+He had already given to each commander of a galley written instructions
+as to the manner in which the line of battle was to be formed in case of
+meeting the enemy. The armada was now disposed in that order. It
+extended on a front of three miles. Far on the right, a squadron of
+sixty-four galleys was commanded by the Genoese admiral, Andrew
+Doria,--a name of terror to the Moslems. The centre, or _battle_, as it
+was called, consisting of sixty-three galleys, was led by John of
+Austria, who was supported on the one side by Colonna, the
+captain-general of the pope, and on the other by the Venetian
+captain-general, Veniero. Immediately in the rear was the galley of the
+Grand-Commander Requesens, who still remained near the person of his
+former pupil; though a difference which arose between them on the
+voyage, fortunately now healed, showed that the young commander-in-chief
+was wholly independent of his teacher in the art of war.
+
+The left wing was commanded by the noble Venetian, Barbarigo, whose
+vessels stretched along the AEtolian shore, to which he approached as
+near as, in his ignorance of the coast, he dared to venture, so as to
+prevent his being turned by the enemy. Finally, the reserve, consisting
+of thirty-five galleys, was given to the brave marquis of Santa Cruz,
+with directions to act in any quarter where he thought his presence most
+needed. The smaller craft, some of which had now arrived, seem to have
+taken little part in the action, which was thus left to the galleys.
+
+Each commander was to occupy so much space with his galley as to allow
+room for manoeuvring it to advantage, and yet not enough to allow the
+enemy to break the line. He was directed to single out his adversary, to
+close with him at once, and board as soon as possible. The beaks of the
+galleys were pronounced to be a hindrance rather than a help in action.
+They were rarely strong enough to resist a shock from an antagonist, and
+they much interfered with the working and firing of the guns. Don John
+had the beak of his vessel cut away. The example was followed
+throughout the fleet, and, as it is said, with eminently good effect. It
+may seem strange that this discovery should have been reserved for the
+crisis of a battle.[313]
+
+When the officers had received their last instructions, they returned to
+their respective vessels; and Don John, going on board of a light
+frigate, passed rapidly through the part of the armada lying on his
+right, while he commanded Requesens to do the same with the vessels on
+his left. His object was to feel the temper of his men, and to rouse
+their mettle by a few words of encouragement. The Venetians he reminded
+of their recent injuries. The hour for vengeance, he told them, had
+arrived. To the Spaniards and other confederates he said--"You have come
+to fight the battle of the Cross; to conquer or to die. But whether you
+are to die or conquer, do your duty this day, and you will secure a
+glorious immortality." His words were received with a burst of
+enthusiasm which went to the heart of the commander, and assured him
+that he could rely on his men in the hour of trial. On returning to his
+vessel, he saw Veniero on his quarter-deck; and they exchanged
+salutations in as friendly a manner as if no difference had existed
+between them. At this solemn hour both these brave men were willing to
+forget all personal animosity in a common feeling of devotion to the
+great cause in which they were engaged.[314]
+
+The Ottoman fleet came on slowly and with difficulty. For, strange to
+say, the wind, which had hitherto been adverse to the Christians, after
+lulling for a time, suddenly shifted to the opposite quarter, and blew
+in the face of the enemy.[315] As the day advanced, moreover, the sun,
+which had shone in the eyes of the confederates, gradually shot its rays
+into those of the Moslems. Both circumstances were of good omen to the
+Christians, and the first was regarded as nothing short of a direct
+interposition of Heaven. Thus ploughing its way along, the Turkish
+armament, as it came more into view, showed itself in greater strength
+than had been anticipated by the allies. It consisted of nearly two
+hundred and fifty royal galleys, most of them of the largest class,
+besides a number of smaller vessels in the rear, which, like those of
+the allies, appear scarcely to have come into action. The men on board
+of every description were computed at not less than a hundred and twenty
+thousand.[316] The galleys spread out, as usual with the Turks, in the
+form of a regular halfmoon, covering a wider extent of surface than the
+combined fleets, which they somewhat exceeded in number. They presented,
+indeed, as they drew nearer, a magnificent array, with their gilded and
+gaudily-painted prows, and their myriads of pennons and streamers,
+fluttering gaily in the breeze; while the rays of the morning sun
+glanced on the polished scimitars of Damascus and on the superb
+aigrettes of jewels which sparkled in the turbans of the Ottoman chiefs.
+
+[Sidenote: PREPARATIONS FOR COMBAT.]
+
+In the centre of the extended line, and directly opposite to the station
+occupied by the captain-general of the League, was the huge galley of
+Ali Pasha. The right of the armada was commanded by Mahomet Sirocco,
+viceroy of Egypt, a circumspect as well as courageous leader; the left,
+by Uluch Ali, dey of Algiers, the redoubtable corsair of the
+Mediterranean. Ali Pasha had experienced a difficulty like that of Don
+John, as several of his officers had strongly urged the inexpediency of
+engaging so formidable an armament as that of the allies. But Ali, like
+his rival, was young and ambitious. He had been sent by his master to
+fight the enemy; and no remonstrances, not even those of Mahomet
+Sirocco, for whom he had great respect, could turn him from his purpose.
+
+He had, moreover, received intelligence that the allied fleet was much
+inferior in strength to what it proved. In this error he was fortified
+by the first appearance of the Christians; for the extremity of their
+left wing, commanded by Barbarigo, stretching behind the AEtolian shore,
+was hidden from his view. As he drew nearer, and saw the whole extent of
+the Christian lines, it is said his countenance fell. If so, he still
+did not abate one jot of his resolution. He spoke to those around him
+with the same confidence as before, of the result of the battle. He
+urged his rowers to strain every nerve. Ali was a man of more humanity
+in his nature than often belonged to his nation. His galley-slaves were
+all, or nearly all, Christian captives; and he addressed them in this
+brief and pithy manner: "If your countrymen are to win this day, Allah
+give you the benefit of it; yet if I win it, you shall certainly have
+your freedom. If you feel that I do well by you, do then the like by
+me."[317]
+
+As the Turkish admiral drew nearer, he made a change in his order of
+battle, by separating his wings further from his centre; thus conforming
+to the dispositions of the allies. Before he had come within
+cannon-shot, he fired a gun by way of challenge to his enemy. It was
+answered by another from the galley of John of Austria. A second gun
+discharged by Ali was as promptly replied to by the Christian commander.
+The distance between the two fleets was now rapidly diminishing. At this
+solemn moment a deathlike silence reigned throughout the armament of the
+confederates. Men seemed to hold their breath, as if absorbed in the
+expectation of some great catastrophe. The day was magnificent. A light
+breeze, still adverse to the Turks, played on the waters, somewhat
+fretted by the contrary winds. It was nearly noon; and as the sun,
+mounting through a cloudless sky, rose to the zenith, he seemed to
+pause, as if to look down on the beautiful scene, where the multitude of
+galleys, moving over the water, showed like a holiday spectacle rather
+than a preparation for mortal combat.
+
+The illusion was soon dispelled by the fierce yells which rose on the
+air from the Turkish armada. It was the customary war-cry with which the
+Moslems entered into battle. Very different was the scene on board of
+the Christian galleys. Don John might be there seen, armed _cap-a-pie_,
+standing on the prow of the _Real_, anxiously awaiting the conflict. In
+this conspicuous position, kneeling down, he raised his eyes to heaven,
+and humbly prayed that the Almighty would be with His people on that
+day. His example was followed by the whole fleet. Officers and men, all
+prostrating themselves on their knees, and turning their eyes to the
+consecrated banner which floated from the _Real_, put up a petition like
+that of their commander. They then received absolution from the priests,
+of whom there were some in every vessel; and each man, as he rose to his
+feet, gathered new strength, as he felt assured that the Lord of Hosts
+would fight on his side.[318]
+
+When the foremost vessels of the Turks had come within cannon-shot, they
+opened their fire on the Christians. The firing soon ran along the whole
+of the Turkish line, and was kept up without interruption as it
+advanced. Don John gave orders for trumpet and atabal to sound the
+signal for action; which was followed by the simultaneous discharge of
+such of the guns in the combined fleet as could be brought to bear on
+the enemy. The Spanish commander had caused the _galeazzas_, those
+mammoth war-ships of which some account has been already given, to be
+towed half a mile ahead of the fleet, where they might intercept the
+advance of the Turks. As the latter came abreast of them, the huge
+galleys delivered their broadsides right and left; and their heavy
+ordnance produced a startling effect. Ali Pasha gave orders for his
+galleys to open their line and pass on either side, without engaging
+these monsters of the deep, of which he had had no experience. Even so,
+their heavy guns did considerable damage to several of the nearest
+vessels, and created some confusion in the pacha's line of battle. They
+were, however, but unwieldy craft, and, having accomplished their
+object, seem to have taken no further part in the combat.
+
+The action began on the left wing of the allies, which Mahomet Sirocco
+was desirous of turning. This had been anticipated by Barbarigo, the
+Venetian admiral, who commanded in that quarter. To prevent it, as we
+have seen, he lay with his vessels as near the coast as he dared.
+Sirocco, better acquainted with the soundings, saw there was space
+enough for him to pass; and darting by with all the speed that oars
+could give him, he succeeded in doubling on his enemy. Thus placed
+between two fires, the extreme of the Christian left fought at terrible
+disadvantage. No less than eight galleys went to the bottom, and several
+others were captured. The brave Barbarigo, throwing himself into the
+heat of the fight, without availing himself of his defensive armour, was
+pierced in the eye by an arrow, and, reluctant to leave the glory of the
+field to another, was borne to his cabin. The combat still continued
+with unabated fury on the part of the Venetians. They fought like men
+who felt that the war was theirs, and who were animated not only by the
+thirst for glory, but for revenge.[319]
+
+Far on the Christian right a manoeuvre similar to that so successfully
+executed by Sirocco was attempted by Uluch Ali, the dey of Algiers.
+Profiting by his superiority in numbers, he endeavoured to turn the
+right wing of the confederates. It was in this quarter that Andrew Doria
+commanded. He had foreseen this movement of his enemy, and he succeeded
+in foiling it. It was a trial of skill between the two most accomplished
+seamen in the Mediterranean. Doria extended his line so far to the right
+indeed, to prevent being surrounded, that Don John was obliged to remind
+him that he left the centre too much exposed. His dispositions were so
+far unfortunate for himself, that his own line was thus weakened, and
+afforded some vulnerable points to his assailant. These were soon
+detected by the eagle eye of Uluch Ali; and, like the king of birds
+swooping on his prey, he fell on some galleys separated by a
+considerable interval from their companions, and, sinking more than one,
+carried off the great _Capitana_ of Malta in triumph as his prize.[320]
+
+[Sidenote: BATTLE OF LEPANTO.]
+
+While the combat opened thus disastrously to the allies both on the
+right and on the left, in the centre they may be said to have fought
+with doubtful fortune. Don John had led his division gallantly forward.
+But the object on which he was intent was an encounter with Ali Pasha,
+the foe most worthy of his sword. The Turkish commander had the same
+combat no less at heart. The galleys of both were easily recognized, not
+only from their position, but from their superior size and richer
+decoration. The one, moreover, displayed the holy banner of the League;
+the other, the great Ottoman standard. This, like the ancient standard
+of the caliphs, was held sacred in its character. It was covered with
+texts from the Koran, emblazoned in letters of gold, and had the name of
+Allah inscribed upon it no less than twenty-eight thousand nine hundred
+times. It was the banner of the sultan, having passed from father to son
+since the foundation of the imperial dynasty, and was never seen in the
+field unless the Grand Seigneur or his lieutenant was there in
+person.[321]
+
+Both the chiefs urged on their rowers to the top of their speed. Their
+galleys soon shot ahead of the rest of the line, driven through the
+boiling surges as by the force of a tornado, and closed with a shock
+that made every timber crack, and the two vessels quiver to their very
+keels. So powerful, indeed, was the impetus they received, that the
+pacha's galley, which was considerably the larger and loftier of the
+two, was thrown so far upon its opponent that the prow reached the
+fourth bench of rowers. As soon as the vessels were disengaged from each
+other, and those on board had recovered from the shock, the work of
+death began. Don John's chief strength consisted in some three hundred
+Spanish arquebusiers, culled from the flower of his infantry. Ali, on
+the other hand, was provided with an equal number of janizaries. He was
+followed by a smaller vessel, in which two hundred more were stationed
+as a _corps de reserve_. He had, moreover, a hundred archers on board.
+The bow was still as much in use with the Turks as with the other
+Moslems.
+
+The pacha opened at once on his enemy a terrible fire of cannon and
+musketry. It was returned with equal spirit and much more effect: for
+the Turks were observed to shoot over the heads of their adversaries.
+The Moslem galley was unprovided with the defences which protected the
+sides of the Spanish vessels; and the troops, crowded together on the
+lofty prow, presented an easy mark to their enemy's balls. But though
+numbers of them fell at every discharge, their places were soon supplied
+by those in reserve. They were enabled, therefore, to keep up an
+incessant fire, which wasted the strength of the Spaniards; and as both
+Christian and Mussulman fought with indomitable spirit, it seemed
+doubtful to which side victory would incline.
+
+The affair was made more complicated by the entrance of other parties
+into the conflict. Both Ali and Don John were supported by some of the
+most valiant captains in their fleets. Next to the Spanish commander, as
+we have seen, were Colonna and the veteran Veniero, who, at the age of
+seventy-six, performed feats of arms worthy of a paladin of romance. In
+this way a little squadron of combatants gathered round the principal
+leaders, who sometimes found themselves assailed by several enemies at
+the same time. Still the chiefs did not lose sight of one another; but,
+beating off their inferior foes as well as they could, each, refusing to
+loosen his hold, clung with mortal grasp to his antagonist.[322]
+
+Thus the fight raged along the whole extent of the entrance to the Gulf
+of Lepanto. The volumes of vapour rolling heavily over the waters
+effectually shut out from sight whatever was passing at any considerable
+distance, unless when a fresher breeze dispelled the smoke for a moment,
+or the flashes of the heavy guns threw a transient gleam on the dark
+canopy of battle. If the eye of the spectator could have penetrated the
+cloud of smoke that enveloped the combatants, and have embraced the
+whole scene at a glance, he would have perceived them broken into small
+detachments, separately engaged one with another, independently of the
+rest, and indeed ignorant of all that was doing in other quarters. The
+contest exhibited few of those large combinations and skilful
+manoeuvres to be expected in a great naval encounter. It was rather an
+assemblage of petty actions, resembling those on land. The galleys,
+grappling together, presented a level arena, on which soldier and
+galley-slave fought hand to hand; and the fate of the engagement was
+generally decided by boarding. As in most hand-to-hand contests, there
+was an enormous waste of life. The decks were loaded with corpses,
+Christian and Moslem lying promiscuously together in the embrace of
+death. Instances are recorded where every man on board was slain or
+wounded.[323] It was a ghastly spectacle, where blood flowed in rivulets
+down the sides of the vessels, staining the waters of the gulf for miles
+around.
+
+It seemed as if a hurricane had swept over the sea, and covered it with
+the wreck of the noble armaments which a moment before were so proudly
+riding on its bosom. Little had they now to remind one of their late
+magnificent array, with their hulls battered, their masts and spars gone
+or splintered by the shot, their canvas cut into shreds and floating
+wildly on the breeze, while thousands of wounded and drowning men were
+clinging to the floating fragments, and calling piteously for help. Such
+was the wild uproar which succeeded the Sabbath-like stillness that, two
+hours before, had reigned over these beautiful solitudes.
+
+The left wing of the confederates, commanded by Barbarigo, had been
+sorely pressed by the Turks, as we have seen, at the beginning of the
+fight. Barbarigo himself had been mortally wounded. His line had been
+turned. Several of his galleys had been sunk. But the Venetians gathered
+courage from despair. By incredible efforts, they succeeded in beating
+off their enemies. They became the assailants in their turn. Sword in
+hand, they carried one vessel after another. The Capuchin was seen in
+the thickest of the fight, waving aloft his crucifix, and leading the
+boarders to the assault.[324] The Christian galley-slaves, in some
+instances, broke their fetters, and joined their countrymen against
+their masters. Fortunately, the vessel of Mahomet Sirocco the Moslem
+admiral, was sunk; and though extricated from the water himself, it was
+only to perish by the sword of his conqueror, Giovanni Contarini. The
+Venetian could find in his heart no mercy for the Turk.
+
+[Sidenote: BATTLE OF LEPANTO.]
+
+The fall of their commander gave the final blow to his followers.
+Without further attempt to prolong the fight, they fled before the
+avenging swords of the Venetians. Those nearest the land endeavoured to
+escape by running their vessels ashore, where they abandoned them as
+prizes to the Christians. Yet many of the fugitives, before gaining the
+land, perished miserably in the waves. Barbarigo, the Venetian admiral,
+who was still lingering in agony, heard the tidings of the enemy's
+defeat, and, uttering a few words expressive of his gratitude to Heaven,
+which had permitted him to see this hour, he breathed his last.[325]
+
+During this time the combat had been going forward in the centre between
+the two commanders-in-chief, Don John and Ali Pasha, whose galleys
+blazed with an incessant fire of artillery and musketry, that enveloped
+them like "a martyr's robe of flames." The parties fought with equal
+spirit, though not with equal fortune. Twice the Spaniards had boarded
+their enemy, and both times they had been repulsed with loss. Still
+their superiority in the use of fire-arms would have given them a
+decided advantage over their opponents, if the loss they had inflicted
+had not been speedily repaired by fresh reinforcements. More than once
+the contest between the two chieftains was interrupted by the arrival of
+others to take part in the fray. They soon, however, returned to each
+other, as if unwilling to waste their strength on a meaner enemy.
+Through the whole engagement both commanders exposed themselves to
+danger as freely as any common soldier. In such a contest even Philip
+must have admitted that it would be difficult for his brother to find,
+with honour, a place of safety. Don John received a wound in the foot.
+It was a slight one, however, and he would not allow it to be dressed
+till the action was over.
+
+Again his men were mustered, and a third time the trumpets sounded to
+the attack. It was more successful than the preceding. The Spaniards
+threw themselves boldly into the Turkish galley. They were met with the
+same spirit as before by the janizaries. Ali Pasha led them on.
+Unfortunately, at this moment, he was struck in the head by a
+musket-ball, and stretched senseless in the gangway. His men fought
+worthily of their ancient renown. But they missed the accustomed voice
+of their commander. After a short but ineffectual struggle against the
+fiery impetuosity of the Spaniards, they were overpowered, and threw
+down their arms. The decks were loaded with the bodies of the dead and
+the dying. Beneath these was discovered the Turkish commander-in-chief,
+severely wounded, but perhaps not mortally. He was drawn forth by some
+Castilian soldiers, who, recognizing his person, would at once have
+despatched him. But the disabled chief, having rallied from the first
+effects of his wound, had sufficient presence of mind to divert them
+from their purpose, by pointing out the place below where he had
+deposited his money and jewels; and they hastened to profit by the
+disclosure, before the treasure should fall into the hands of their
+comrades.
+
+Ali was not so successful with another soldier, who came up soon after,
+brandishing his sword, and preparing to plunge it into the body of the
+prostrate commander. It was in vain that the latter endeavoured to turn
+the ruffian from his purpose. He was a convict, one of those
+galley-slaves whom Don John had caused to be unchained from the oar and
+furnished with arms. He could not believe that any treasure would be
+worth so much as the head of the pacha. Without further hesitation, he
+dealt him a blow which severed it from his shoulders. Then, returning to
+his galley, he laid the bloody trophy before Don John. But he had
+miscalculated on his recompense. His commander gazed on it with a look
+of pity mingled with horror. He may have thought of the generous conduct
+of Ali to his Christian captives, and have felt that he deserved a
+better fate. He coldly inquired "of what use such a present could be to
+him;" and then ordered it to be thrown into the sea. Far from the order
+being obeyed, it is said the head was stuck on a pike, and raised aloft
+on board of the captured galley. At the same time the banner of the
+Crescent was pulled down; while that of the Cross, run up in its place,
+proclaimed the downfall of the pacha.[326]
+
+The sight of the sacred ensign was welcomed by the Christians with a
+shout of "Victory!" which rose high above the din of battle.[327] The
+tidings of the death of Ali soon passed from mouth to mouth, giving
+fresh heart to the confederates, but falling like a knell on the ears of
+the Moslems. Their confidence was gone. Their fire slackened. Their
+efforts grew weaker and weaker. They were too far from shore to seek an
+asylum there, like their comrades on the right. They had no resource but
+to prolong the combat or to surrender. Most preferred the latter. Many
+vessels were carried by boarding, others were sunk by the victorious
+Christians. Ere four hours had elapsed, the centre, like the right wing,
+of the Moslems might be said to be annihilated.
+
+Still the fight was lingering on the right of the confederates, where,
+it will be remembered, Uluch Ali, the Algerine chief, had profited by
+Doria's error in extending his line so far as greatly to weaken it.
+Uluch Ali, attacking it on its most vulnerable quarter, had succeeded,
+as we have seen, in capturing and destroying several vessels; and would
+have inflicted still heavier losses on his enemy had it not been for the
+seasonable succour received from the marquis of Santa Cruz. This brave
+officer, who commanded the reserve, had already been of much service to
+Don John when the _Real_ was assailed by several Turkish galleys at once
+during his combat with Ali Pasha; for at this juncture the marquis of
+Santa Cruz arriving, and beating off the assailants, one of whom he
+afterwards captured, enabled the commander-in-chief to resume his
+engagement with the pacha.
+
+No sooner did Santa Cruz learn the critical situation of Doria, than,
+supported by Cardona, "general" of the Sicilian squadron, he pushed
+forward to his relief. Dashing into the midst of the _melee_, the two
+commanders fell like a thunderbolt on the Algerine galleys. Few
+attempted to withstand the shock. But in their haste to avoid it, they
+were encountered by Doria and his Genoese galleys. Thus beset on all
+sides, Uluch Ali was compelled to abandon his prizes, and provide for
+his own safety by flight. He cut adrift the Maltese _Capitana_, which he
+had lashed to his stern, and on which three hundred corpses attested the
+desperate character of her defence. As tidings reached him of the
+discomfiture of the centre, and of the death of Ali Pasha, he felt that
+nothing remained but to make the best of his way from the fatal scene of
+action, and save as many of his own ships as he could. And there were no
+ships in the Turkish fleet superior to his, or manned by men under more
+perfect discipline. For they were the famous corsairs of the
+Mediterranean, who had been rocked from infancy on its waters.
+
+[Sidenote: ROUT OF THE TURKISH ARMADA.]
+
+Throwing out his signals for retreat, the Algerine was soon to be seen,
+at the head of his squadron, standing towards the north, under as much
+canvas as remained to him after the battle, and urged forward through
+the deep by the whole strength of his oarsmen. Doria and Santa Cruz
+followed quickly in his wake. But he was borne on the wings of the wind,
+and soon distanced his pursuers. Don John, having disposed of his own
+assailants, was coming to the support of Doria, and now joined in the
+pursuit of the viceroy. A rocky headland, stretching far into the sea,
+lay in the path of the fugitive; and his enemies hoped to intercept him
+there. Some few of his vessels were stranded on the rocks. But the rest,
+near forty in number, standing more boldly out to sea, safely doubled
+the promontory. Then, quickening their flight, they gradually faded from
+the horizon, their white sails, the last thing visible, showing in the
+distance like a flock of Arctic sea-fowl on their way to their native
+homes. The confederates explained the inferior sailing of their own
+galleys on this occasion by the circumstance of their rowers, who had
+been allowed to bear arms in the fight, being crippled by their wounds.
+
+The battle had lasted more than four hours. The sky, which had been
+almost without a cloud through the day, began now to be overcast, and
+showed signs of a coming storm. Before seeking a place of shelter for
+himself and his prizes, Don John reconnoitred the scene of action. He
+met with several vessels too much damaged for further service. These,
+mostly belonging to the enemy, after saving what was of any value on
+board, he ordered to be burnt. He selected the neighbouring port of
+Petala, as affording the most secure and accessible harbour for the
+night. Before he had arrived there, the tempest began to mutter, and
+darkness was on the water. Yet the darkness rendered only more visible
+the blazing wrecks, which, sending up streams of fire mingled with
+showers of sparks, looked like volcanoes on the deep.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+WAR WITH THE TURKS.
+
+Losses of the Combatants--Don John's Generosity--Triumphant
+Return--Enthusiasm throughout Christendom--Results of the
+Battle--Operations in the Levant--Conquest of Tunis--Retaken by the
+Turks.
+
+1571--1574.
+
+
+Long and loud were the congratulations now paid to the young
+commander-in-chief by his brave companions-in-arms, on the success of
+the day. The hours passed blithely with officers and men, while they
+recounted to one another their manifold achievements. But feelings of
+gloom mingled with their gaiety, as they gathered tidings of the loss of
+friends who had bought this victory with their blood.
+
+It was, indeed, a sanguinary battle, surpassing, in this particular, any
+sea-fight of modern times. The loss fell much the most heavily on the
+Turks. There is the usual discrepancy about numbers; but it may be safe
+to estimate their loss at nearly twenty-five thousand slain and five
+thousand prisoners. What brought most pleasure to the hearts of the
+conquerors was the liberation of twelve thousand Christian captives,
+who had teen chained to the oar on board the Moslem galleys, and who now
+came forth, with tears of joy streaming down their haggard cheeks, to
+bless their deliverers.[328]
+
+The loss of the allies was comparatively small,--less than eight
+thousand.[329] That it was so much less than that of their enemies, may
+be referred in part to their superiority in the use of fire-arms; in
+part also to their exclusive use of these, instead of employing bows and
+arrows, weapons on which, though much less effective, the Turks, like
+the other Moslem nations, seem to have greatly relied. Lastly, the Turks
+were the vanquished party, and in their heavier loss suffered the almost
+invariable lot of the vanquished.
+
+As to their armada, it may almost be said to have been annihilated. Not
+more than forty galleys escaped out of near two hundred and fifty which
+entered into the action. One hundred and thirty were taken and divided
+among the conquerors. The remainder, sunk or burned, were swallowed up
+by the waves. To counterbalance all this, the confederates are said to
+have lost not more than fifteen galleys, though a much larger number,
+doubtless, were rendered unfit for service. This disparity affords good
+evidence of the inferiority of the Turks in the construction of their
+vessels, as well as in the nautical skill required to manage them. A
+great amount of booty, in the form of gold, jewels, and brocade, was
+found on board several of the prizes. The galley of the
+commander-in-chief alone is stated to have contained one hundred and
+seventy thousand gold sequins,--a large sum, but not large enough, it
+seems, to buy off his life.[330]
+
+The losses of the combatants cannot be fairly presented without taking
+into the account the quality as well as the number of the slain. The
+number of persons of consideration, both Christians and Moslems, who
+embarked in the expedition, was very great. The roll of slaughter showed
+that in the race of glory they gave little heed to their personal
+safety. The officer second in command among the Venetians, the
+commander-in-chief of the Turkish armament, and the commander of its
+right wing, all fell in the battle. Many a high-born cavalier closed at
+Lepanto a long career of honourable service. More than one, on the other
+hand, dated the commencement of their career from this day. Such was
+Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma. Though he was but a few years
+younger than his uncle, John of Austria, those few years had placed an
+immense distance between their conditions, the one filling the post of
+commander-in-chief, the other being only a private adventurer. Yet even
+so, he succeeded in winning great renown by his achievements. The galley
+in which he sailed was lying yardarm and yardarm alongside of a Turkish
+galley, with which it was hotly engaged. In the midst of the action
+Farnese sprang on board of the enemy, and with his good broadsword hewed
+down all who opposed him, opening a path into which his comrades poured
+one after another, and, after a short but murderous contest, succeeded
+in carrying the vessel. As Farnese's galley lay just astern of Don
+John's, the latter could witness the achievement of his nephew, which
+filled him with an admiration he did not affect to conceal. The
+intrepidity displayed by the young warrior on this occasion gave augury
+of his character in later life, when he succeeded his uncle in command,
+and surpassed him in military renown.[331]
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN'S GENEROSITY.]
+
+Another youth was in that fight, who, then humble and unknown, was
+destined one day to win laurels of a purer and more enviable kind than
+those which grow on the battle-field. This was Cervantes, who, at the
+age of twenty-four, was serving on board the fleet as a common soldier.
+He had been confined to his bed by a fever; but, notwithstanding the
+remonstrances of his captain, he insisted, on the morning of the action,
+not only on bearing arms, but on being stationed in the post of danger.
+And well did he perform his duty there, as was shown by two wounds on
+the breast, and by another in the hand, by which he lost the use of it.
+Fortunately it was the left hand. The right yet remained to indite those
+immortal productions which were to be known as household words, not only
+in his own land, but in every quarter of the civilized world.[332]
+
+A fierce storm of thunder and lightning raged for four-and-twenty hours
+after the battle, during which time the fleet rode safely at anchor in
+the harbour of Petala. It remained there three days longer. Don John
+profited by the delay to visit the different galleys and ascertain their
+condition. He informed himself of the conduct of the troops, and was
+liberal of his praises to those who deserved them. With the sick and the
+wounded he showed the greatest sympathy, endeavouring to alleviate their
+sufferings, and furnishing them with whatever his galley contained that
+could contribute to their comfort. With so generous and sympathetic a
+nature, it is not wonderful that he should have established himself in
+the hearts of his soldiers.[333]
+
+But the proofs of this kindly temper were not confined to his own
+followers. Among the prisoners were two sons of Ali, the Turkish
+commander-in-chief. One was seventeen, the other only thirteen years of
+age. Thus early had their father desired to initiate them in a
+profession which, beyond all others, opened the way to eminence in
+Turkey. They were not on board of his galley; and when they were
+informed of his death, they were inconsolable. To this affliction was
+now to be added the doom of slavery.
+
+As they were led into the presence of Don John, the youths prostrated
+themselves on the deck of his vessel. But raising them up, he
+affectionately embraced them, and said all he could to console them
+under their troubles. He caused them to be treated with the
+consideration due to their rank. His secretary, Juan de Soto,
+surrendered his quarters to them. They were provided with the richest
+apparel that could be found among the spoil. Their table was served with
+the same delicacies as that of the commander-in-chief; and his
+chamberlains showed the same deference to them as to himself. His
+kindness did not stop with these acts of chivalrous courtesy. He
+received a letter from their sister Fatima, containing a touching appeal
+to Don John's humanity, and soliciting the release of her orphan
+brothers. He had sent a courier to give their friends in Constantinople
+the assurance of their personal safety; "which," adds the lady, "is
+held by all this court as an act of great courtesy,--_gran
+gentileza_;--and there is no one here who does not admire the goodness
+and magnanimity of your highness." She enforced her petition with a rich
+present, for which she gracefully apologized, as intended to express her
+own feelings, though far below his deserts.[334]
+
+In the division of the spoil, the young princes had been assigned to the
+pope. But Don John succeeded in obtaining their liberation.
+Unfortunately, the elder died--of a broken heart, it is said--at Naples.
+The younger was sent home, with three of his attendants, for whom he had
+a particular regard. Don John declined keeping Fatima's present, which
+he gave to her brother. In a letter to the Turkish princess, he remarked
+that he had done this, not because he undervalued her beautiful gift,
+but because it had ever been the habit of his royal ancestors freely to
+grant their favours to those who stood in need of them, but not to
+receive aught by way of recompense.[335]
+
+The same noble nature he showed in his conduct towards Veniero. We have
+seen the friendly demonstration he made to the testy Venetian on
+entering into battle. He now desired his presence on board his galley.
+As he drew near, Don John came forward frankly to greet him. He spoke of
+his desire to bury the past in oblivion, and complimenting the veteran
+on his prowess in the late engagement, saluted him with the endearing
+name of "father." The old soldier, not prepared for so kind a welcome,
+burst into tears; and there was no one, says the chronicler who tells
+the anecdote, that could witness the scene with a dry eye.[336]
+
+While at Petala, a council of war was called to decide on the next
+operations of the fleet. Some were for following up the blow by an
+immediate attack on Constantinople. Others considered that, from the
+want of provisions and the damaged state of the vessels, they were in no
+condition for such an enterprise. They recommended that the armada
+should be disbanded, that the several squadrons of which it was composed
+should return to their respective winter quarters, and meet again in the
+spring to resume operations. Others, again, among whom was Don John,
+thought that before disbanding, they should undertake some enterprise
+commensurate with their strength. It was accordingly determined to lay
+siege to Santa Maura, in the island of Leucadia, a strongly-fortified
+place, which commanded the northern entrance into the Gulf of Lepanto.
+
+[Sidenote: DON JUAN'S TRIUMPHANT RETURN]
+
+The fleet, weighing anchor on the eleventh of October, arrived off Santa
+Maura on the following day. On a careful reconnaissance of the ground,
+it became evident that the siege would be a work of much greater
+difficulty than had been anticipated. A council of war was again
+summoned; and it was resolved, as the season was far advanced, to
+suspend further operations for the present, to return to winter
+quarters, and in the ensuing spring to open the campaign under more
+favourable auspices.
+
+The next step was to make a division of the spoil taken from the enemy,
+which was done in a manner satisfactory to all parties. One half of the
+galleys and inferior vessels, of the artillery and small arms, and also
+of the captives, was set apart for the Catholic king. The other half was
+divided between the pope and the republic, in the proportion settled by
+the treaty of confederation.[337] Next proceeding to Corfu, Don John
+passed three days at that island, making some necessary repairs of his
+vessels; then, bidding adieu to the confederates, he directed his course
+to Messina, which he reached, after a stormy passage, on the
+thirty-first of the month.
+
+We may imagine the joy with which he was welcomed by the inhabitants of
+that city, which he had left but little more than six weeks before, and
+to which he had now returned in triumph, after winning the most
+memorable naval victory of modern times. The whole population, with the
+magistrates at their head, hurried down to the shore to witness the
+magnificent spectacle. As the gallant armament swept into port, it
+showed the results of the late contest in many a scar. But the
+consecrated standard was still proudly flying at the masthead of the
+_Real_; and in the rear came the long line of conquered galleys, in much
+worse plight than their conquerors, trailing their banners ignominiously
+behind them in the water. On landing at the head of his troops, Don John
+was greeted with flourishes of music, while salvoes of artillery
+thundered from the fortresses which commanded the city. He was received
+under a gorgeous canopy, and escorted by a numerous concourse of
+citizens and soldiers. The clergy, mingling in the procession, broke
+forth into the _Te Deum_; and thus entering the cathedral, they all
+joined in thanksgivings to the Almighty, for granting them so glorious a
+victory.[338]
+
+Don John was sumptuously lodged in the castle. He was complimented with
+a superb banquet,--a mode of expressing the public gratitude not
+confined to our day,--and received a more substantial guerdon in a
+present from the city of thirty thousand crowns. Finally, a colossal
+statue in bronze was executed by a skilful artist, as a permanent
+memorial of the conqueror of Lepanto. Don John accepted the money, but
+it was only to devote it to the relief of the sick and wounded soldiers.
+In the same generous spirit, he had ordered that all his own share of
+the booty taken in the Turkish vessels, including the large amount of
+gold and rich brocades found in the galley of Ali Pasha, should be
+distributed among the captors.[339]
+
+The news of the victory of Lepanto caused a profound sensation
+throughout Christendom; for it had been a general opinion that the Turks
+were invincible by sea. The confederates more particularly testified
+their joy by such extraordinary demonstrations as showed the extent of
+their previous fears. In Venice, which might be said to have gained a
+new lease of existence from the result of the battle, the doge, the
+senators, and the people met in the great square of St. Mark, and
+congratulated one another on the triumph of their arms. By a public
+decree, the seventh of October was set apart, to be observed for ever as
+a national anniversary.
+
+The joy was scarcely less in Naples, where the people had so often seen
+their coasts desolated by the Ottoman cruisers; and when their admiral,
+the marquis of Santa Cruz, returned to port with his squadron, he was
+welcomed with acclamations such as greet the conqueror returning from
+his campaign.
+
+But even these honours were inferior to those which in Rome were paid to
+Colonna, the Captain-general of the papal fleet. As he was borne in
+stately procession, with the trophies won from the enemy carried before
+him, and a throng of mourning captives in the rear, the spectacle
+recalled the splendours of the ancient Roman triumph. Pius the Fifth
+had, before this, announced that the victory of the Christians had been
+revealed to him from Heaven. But when the tidings reached him of the
+actual result, it so far transcended his expectations, that, overcome by
+his emotions, the old pontiff burst into a flood of tears, exclaiming in
+the words of the Evangelist, "There was a man sent from God; and his
+name was John."[340]
+
+We may readily believe that the joy with which the glad tidings were
+welcomed in Spain fell nothing short of that with which they were
+received in other parts of Christendom. While lying off Petala, Don John
+sent Lope de Figueroa with despatches for the king, together with the
+great Ottoman standard, as the most glorious trophy taken in the
+battle.[341] He soon after sent a courier with further letters. It so
+happened that neither the one nor the other arrived at the place of
+their destination till some weeks after the intelligence had reached
+Philip by another channel. This was the Venetian Minister, who on the
+last of October received despatches from his own government, containing
+a full account of the fight. Hastening with them to the palace, he found
+the king in his private chapel, attending vespers on the eve of
+All-Saints. The news, it cannot be doubted, filled his soul with joy;
+though _it is said_ that, far from exhibiting this in his demeanour, he
+continued to be occupied with his devotions, without the least change of
+countenance, till the services were concluded. He then ordered _Te Deum_
+to be sung.[342] All present joined with overflowing hearts in pouring
+forth their gratitude to the Lord of Hosts for granting such a triumph
+to the Cross.[343]
+
+[Sidenote: ENTHUSIASM THROUGHOUT CHRISTENDOM.]
+
+That night there was a grand illumination in Madrid. The following day
+mass was said by the papal legate in presence of the king, who
+afterwards took part in a solemn procession to the church of St. Mary,
+where the people united with the court in a general thanksgiving.
+
+In a letter from Philip to his brother, dated from the Escorial, the
+twenty-ninth of November, he writes to him out of the fulness of his
+heart, in the language of gratitude and brotherly love:--"I cannot
+express to you the joy it has given me to learn the particulars of your
+conduct in the battle, of the great valour you showed in your own
+person, and your watchfulness in giving proper directions to others--all
+which has doubtless been a principal cause of the victory. So to you,
+after God, I am to make my acknowledgments for it, as I now do; and
+happy am I that it has been reserved for one so near and so dear to me
+to perform this great work, which has gained such glory for you in the
+eyes of God and of the whole world."[344]
+
+The feelings of the king were fully shared by his subjects. The
+enthusiasm roused throughout the country by the great victory was
+without bounds. "There is no man," writes one of the royal secretaries
+to Don John, "who does not discern the hand of the Lord in it;--though
+it seems rather like a dream than a reality, so far does it transcend
+any naval encounter that the world ever heard of before."[345] The best
+sculptors and painters were employed to perpetuate the memory of the
+glorious event. Amongst the number was Titian, who in the time of
+Charles the Fifth had passed two years in Spain, and who now, when more
+than ninety years of age, executed the great picture of "The Victory of
+the League," still hanging on the walls of the _Museo_ at Madrid.[346]
+The lofty theme proved a fruitful source of inspiration to the Castilian
+muse. Among hecatombs of epics and lyrics, the heroic poem of
+Ercilla[347] and the sublime _cancion_ of Fernando de Herrera perpetuate
+the memory of the victory of Lepanto in forms more durable than canvas
+or marble--as imperishable as the language itself.
+
+While all were thus ready to render homage to the talent and bravery
+which had won the greatest battle of the time, men, as they grew cooler,
+and could criticise events more carefully, were disposed to ask, where
+were the fruits of this great victory. Had Don John's father, Charles
+the Fifth, gained such a victory, it was said, he would not thus have
+quitted the field, but, before the enemy could recover from the blow,
+would have followed it up by another. Many expressed the conviction,
+that the young generalissimo should at once have led his navy against
+Constantinople.
+
+There would indeed seem to be plausible ground for criticising his
+course after the action. But we must remember, in explanation of the
+conduct of Don John, that his situation was altogether different from
+that of his imperial father. He possessed no such absolute authority as
+the latter did over his army. The great leaders of the confederates were
+so nearly equal in rank, that they each claimed a right to be consulted
+on all measures of importance. The greatest jealousy existed among the
+three commanders, as there did also among the troops whom they
+commanded. They were all united, it is true, in their hatred to the
+Turk. But they were all influenced, more or less, by the interest of
+their own states, in determining the quarter where he was to be
+assailed. Every rood of territory wrung from the enemy in the Levant
+would only serve to enlarge the domain of Venice; while the conquests in
+the western parts of the Mediterranean would strengthen the empire of
+Castile. This feeling of jealousy between the Spaniards and the
+Venetians was, as we have seen, so great in the early part of the
+expedition, as nearly to bring ruin on it.
+
+Those who censured Don John for not directing his arms against
+Constantinople would seem to have had but a very inadequate notion of
+the resources of the Porte--as shown in the course of that very year.
+There is a remarkable letter from the duke of Alva, written the month
+after the battle of Lepanto, in which he discusses the best course to be
+taken in order to reap the full fruits of the victory. In it he
+expresses the opinion, that an attempt against Constantinople, or indeed
+any part of the Turkish dominions, unless supported by a general
+coalition of the great powers of Christendom, must end only in
+disappointment--so vast were the resources of that great empire.[348] If
+this were so,--and no better judge than Alva could be found in military
+affairs,--how incompetent were the means at Don John's disposal for
+effecting this object--confederates held together, as the event proved,
+by a rope of sand, and a fleet so much damaged in the recent combat that
+many of the vessels were scarcely seaworthy!
+
+In addition to this, it may be stated, that Don John knew it was his
+brother's wish that the Spanish squadron should return to Sicily to pass
+the winter.[349] If he persisted, therefore, in the campaign, he must do
+so on his own responsibility. He had now accomplished the great object
+for which he had put to sea. He had won a victory more complete than the
+most sanguine of his countrymen had a right to anticipate. To prolong
+the contest under the present circumstances, would he in a manner to
+provoke his fate, to jeopard the glory he had already gained, and incur
+the risk of closing the campaign with melancholy cypress, instead of the
+laurel-wreath of victory. Was it surprising that even an adventurous
+spirit like his should have shrunk from hazarding so vast a stake with
+the odds against him?
+
+[Sidenote: RESULTS OF THE BATTLE.]
+
+It is a great error to speak of the victory of Lepanto as a barren
+victory, which yielded no fruits to those who gained it. True, it did
+not strip the Turks of an inch of territory. Even the heavy loss of
+ships and soldiers which it cost them was repaired in the following
+year. But the loss of reputation--that tower of strength to the
+conqueror--was not to be estimated. The long and successful career of
+the Ottoman princes, especially of the last one, Solyman the
+Magnificent, had made the Turks to be thought invincible. There was not
+a nation in Christendom that did not tremble at the idea of a war with
+Turkey. The spell was now broken. Though her resources were still
+boundless, she lost confidence in herself. Venice gained confidence in
+proportion. When the hostile fleets met in the year following the battle
+of Lepanto, the Turks, though greatly the superior in numbers, declined
+the combat. For the seventy years which elapsed after the close of the
+present war, the Turks abandoned their efforts to make themselves
+masters of any of the rich possessions of the republic, which lay so
+temptingly around them. When the two nations came next into collision,
+Venice, instead of leaning on confederates, took the field
+single-handed, and disputed it with an intrepidity which placed her on a
+level with the gigantic power that assailed her. That power was already
+on the wane; and those who have most carefully studied the history of
+the Ottoman empire date the commencement of her decline from the battle
+of Lepanto.[350]
+
+The allies should have been ready with their several contingents early
+in the spring of the following year, 1572. They were not ready till the
+summer was well advanced. One cause of delay was the difficulty of
+deciding on what quarter the Turkish empire was to be attacked. The
+Venetians, from an obvious regard to their own interests, were for
+continuing the war in the Levant. Philip, on the other hand, from
+similar motives, would have transferred it to the western part of the
+Mediterranean, and have undertaken an expedition against the Barbary
+powers. Lastly, Pius the Fifth, urged by that fiery enthusiasm which
+made him overlook or overleap every obstacle in his path, would have
+marched on Constantinople, and then carried his conquering banners to
+the Holy Land. These chimerical fancies of a crusader provoked a
+smile--it may have been a sneer--from men better instructed in military
+operations than the pontiff.[351]
+
+Pius again laboured to infuse his own spirit into the monarchs of
+Christendom. But it was in vain that he urged them to join the League.
+All, for some reason or other, declined it. It is possible that they may
+have had less fear of the Turk, than of augmenting the power of the king
+of Spain. But the great plans of Pius the Fifth were terminated by his
+death, which occurred on the first of May, 1572. He was the true author
+of the League. It occupied his thoughts to the latest hour of his
+existence; and his last act was to appropriate to its uses a
+considerable sum of money lying in his coffers.[352] He may be truly
+said to have been the only one of the confederates who acted solely for
+what he conceived to be the interests of the Faith. This soon became
+apparent.
+
+[Sidenote: WAR WITH THE TURKS.]
+
+The affairs of Philip the Second were at this time in a critical
+situation. He much feared that one of the French faction would be
+raised to the chair of St. Peter. He had great reason to distrust the
+policy of France in respect to the Netherlands. Till he was more assured
+on these points, he was not inclined to furnish the costly armament to
+which he was pledged as his contingent. It was in vain that the allies
+called on Don John to aid them with his Spanish fleet. He had orders
+from his brother not to quit Messina; and it was in vain that he chafed
+under these orders, which threatened thus prematurely to close the
+glorious career on which he had entered, and which exposed him to the
+most mortifying imputations. It was not till the sixth of July that the
+king allowed him to send a part of his contingent, amounting only to
+twenty-two galleys and five thousand troops, to the aid of the
+confederates.
+
+Some historians explain the conduct of Philip, not so much by the
+embarrassments of his situation, as by his reluctance to afford his
+brother the opportunity of adding fresh laurels to his brow, and
+possibly of achieving for himself some independent sovereignty, like
+that to which Pius the Fifth had encouraged him to aspire. It may be
+thought some confirmation of this opinion--at least, it infers some
+jealousy of his brother's pretensions--that, in his despatches to his
+ministers in Italy, the king instructed them that, while they showed all
+proper deference to Don John, they should be careful not to address him
+in speech or in writing by the title of _Highness_, but to use that of
+_Excellency_; adding, that they were not to speak of this suggestion as
+coming from him.[353] He caused a similar notice to be given to the
+ambassadors of France, Germany, and England. This was but a feeble
+thread by which to check the flight of the young eagle as he was soaring
+to the clouds. It served to show, however, that it was not the will of
+his master that he should soar too high.
+
+Happily Philip was relieved from his fears in regard to the new pope, by
+the election of Cardinal Buoncampagno to the vacant throne. This
+ecclesiastic, who took the name of Gregory the Thirteenth, was
+personally known to the king, having in earlier life passed several
+years at the court of Castile. He was well affected to that court, and
+he possessed in full measure the zeal of his predecessor for carrying on
+the war against the Moslems. He lost no time in sending his "briefs of
+fire,"[354] as Don John called them, to rouse him to new exertions in
+the cause. In France, too, Philip learned with satisfaction that the
+Guises, the devoted partisans of Spain, had now the direction of public
+affairs. Thus relieved from apprehensions on these two quarters, Philip
+consented to his brother's departure with the remainder of his squadron.
+It amounted to fifty-five galleys and thirty smaller vessels. But when
+the prince reached Corfu, on the ninth of August, he found that the
+confederates, tired of waiting, had already put to sea, under the
+command of Colonna, in search of the Ottoman fleet.
+
+The Porte had shown such extraordinary despatch, that in six months it
+had built and equipped a hundred and twenty galleys, making, with those
+already on hand, a formidable fleet.[355] It was a remarkable proof of
+its resources, but suggests the idea of the wide difference between a
+Turkish galley of the sixteenth century and a man-of-war in our day. The
+command of the armament was given to the Algerine chieftain, Uluch Ali,
+who had so adroitly managed to bring off the few vessels which effected
+their escape at the battle of Lepanto. He stood deservedly high in the
+confidence of the sultan, and had the supreme direction in maritime
+affairs.
+
+[Sidenote: OPERATIONS IN THE LEVANT.]
+
+The two fleets came face to face with each other off the western coast
+of the Morea. But though the Algerine commander was much superior to the
+Christians in the number and strength of his vessels, he declined an
+action, showing the same adroitness in eluding a battle that he had
+before shown in escaping from one.
+
+At the close of August the confederates returned to Corfu, where they
+were reinforced by the rest of the Spanish squadron. The combined fleet,
+with this addition, amounted to some two hundred and forty-seven
+vessels, of which nearly two-thirds were galleys. It was a force
+somewhat superior to that of the enemy. Thus strengthened, Don John,
+unfurling the consecrated banner as generalissimo of the League, weighed
+anchor, and steered with his whole fleet in a southerly direction. It
+was not long before he appeared off the harbours of Modon and Navarino,
+where the two divisions of the Turkish armada were lying at anchor. He
+would have attacked them separately, but, notwithstanding his efforts,
+failed to prevent their effecting a junction in the harbour of Modon. On
+the seventh of October, Uluch Ali ventured out of port, and seemed
+disposed to give battle. It was the anniversary of the fight of Lepanto;
+and Don John flattered himself that he should again see his arms crowned
+with victory, as on that memorable day. But if the Turkish commander was
+unwilling to fight the confederates when he was superior to them in
+numbers, it was not likely that he would fight them now that he was
+inferior. After some manoeuvres which led to no result, he took refuge
+under the castle of Modon, and again retreated into port. There Don John
+would have followed him, with the design of forcing him to a battle. But
+from this he was dissuaded by the other leaders of the confederates, who
+considered that the chances of success in a place so strongly defended
+by no means warranted the risk.
+
+It was in vain that the allies prolonged their stay in the
+neighbourhood, with the hope of enticing the enemy to an engagement. The
+season wore away with no prospect of a better result. Meantime
+provisions were failing, the stormy weather of autumn was drawing nigh,
+and Don John, disgusted with what he regarded as the timid counsels of
+his associates, and with the control which they were permitted to
+exercise over him, decided, as it was now too late for any new
+enterprise, to break up and postpone further action till the following
+spring, when he hoped to enter on the campaign at an earlier day than he
+had done this year. The allies, accordingly, on reaching the island of
+Paxo, late in October, parted from each other, and withdrew to their
+respective winter-quarters. Don John, with the Spanish armament,
+returned to Sicily.[356]
+
+The pope and the king of Spain, nowise discouraged by the results of the
+campaign, resolved to resume operations early in the spring on a still
+more formidable scale than before. But their intentions were defeated by
+the startling intelligence, that Venice had entered into a separate
+treaty with the Porte. The treaty, which was negotiated, it is said,
+through the intervention of the French ambassador, was executed on the
+seventh of March, 1573. The terms seemed somewhat extraordinary,
+considering the relative positions of the parties. By the two principal
+articles the republic agreed to pay the annual sum of one hundred
+thousand ducats for three years to the sultan, and to cede the island of
+Cyprus, the original cause of the war. One might suppose it was the
+Turks, and not the Christians, who had won the battle of Lepanto.[357]
+
+Venice was a commercial state, and doubtless had more to gain from peace
+than from any war, however well conducted. In this point of view, even
+such a treaty may have been politic with so formidable an enemy. But a
+nation's interests, in the long run, cannot, any more than those of an
+individual, be divorced from its honour. And what could be more
+dishonourable than for a state secretly to make terms for herself with
+the enemy, and desert the allies who had come into the war at her
+solicitation and in her defence? Such conduct, indeed, was too much in
+harmony with the past history of Venice, and justified the reputation
+for bad faith which had made the European nations so reluctant to enter
+into the League.[358]
+
+The tidings were received by Philip with his usual composure. "If
+Venice," he said, "thinks she consults her own interests by such a
+proceeding, I can truly say that in what I have done I have endeavoured
+to consult both her interests and those of Christendom." He, however,
+spoke his mind more plainly afterwards to the Venetian ambassador. The
+pope gave free vent to his feelings in the consistory, where he
+denounced the conduct of Venice in the most bitter and contemptuous
+terms. When the republic sent a special envoy to deprecate his anger,
+and to excuse herself by the embarrassments of her situation, the
+pontiff refused to see him. Don John would not believe in the defection
+of Venice when the tidings were first announced to him. When he was
+advised of it by a direct communication from her government, he replied
+by indignantly commanding the great standard of the League to be torn
+down from his galley, and in its place to be unfurled the banner of
+Castile.[359]
+
+Such was the end of the Holy League, on which Pius the Fifth had so
+fully relied for the conquest of Constantinople and the recovery of
+Palestine. Philip could now transfer the war to the quarter he had
+preferred. He resolved, accordingly, to send an expedition to the
+Barbary coast. Tunis was selected as the place of attack,--a thriving
+city, and the home of many a corsair who preyed on the commerce of the
+Mediterranean. It had been taken by Charles the Fifth, in the memorable
+campaign of 1535, but had since been recovered by the Moslems. The
+Spaniards, however, still retained possession of the strong fortress of
+the Goletta, which overlooked the approaches to Tunis.
+
+In the latter part of September, 1574, Don John left the shores of
+Sicily at the head of a fleet consisting of about a hundred galleys, and
+nearly as many smaller vessels. The number of his troops amounted to not
+less than twenty thousand.[360] The story of the campaign is a short
+one. Most of the inhabitants of Tunis fled from the city. The few who
+remained did not care to bring the war on their heads by offering
+resistance to the Spaniards. Don John, without so much as firing a shot,
+marched in at the head of his battalions, through gates flung open to
+receive him. He found an ample booty awaiting him,--nearly fifty pieces
+of artillery, with ammunition and military stores, large quantities of
+grain, cotton and woollen cloths, rich silks and brocades, with various
+other kinds of costly merchandise. The troops spent more than a week in
+sacking the place.[361] They gained, in short, everything--but glory;
+for little glory was to be gained where there were no obstacles to be
+overcome.
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN AT TUNIS.]
+
+Don John gave orders that no injury should be offered to the persons of
+the inhabitants. He forbade that any should be made slaves. By a
+proclamation, he invited all to return to their dwellings, under the
+assurance of his protection. In one particular his conduct was
+remarkable. Philip, disgusted with the expenses to which the maintenance
+of the castle of the Goletta annually subjected him, had recommended, if
+not positively directed, his brother to dismantle the place, and to
+demolish in like manner the fortifications of Tunis.[362] Instead of
+heeding these instructions, Don John no sooner saw himself in possession
+of the capital, than he commanded the Goletta to be thoroughly repaired,
+and at the same time provided for the erection of a strong fortress in
+the city. This work he committed to an Italian engineer, named
+Cerbelloni, a knight of Malta, with whom he left eight thousand
+soldiers, to be employed in the construction of the fort, and to furnish
+him with a garrison to defend it.
+
+Don John, it is said, had been urged to take this course by his
+secretary, Juan de Soto, a man of ability, but of an intriguing temper,
+who fostered in his master those ambitious projects which had been
+encouraged, as we have seen, by Pius the Fifth. No more eligible spot
+seemed likely to present itself for the seat of his dominion than
+Tunis,--a flourishing capital surrounded by a well-peopled and fruitful
+territory. Philip had been warned of the unwholesome influence exerted
+by De Soto; and he now sought to remove him from the person of his
+brother by giving him a distinct position in the army, and by sending
+another to replace him in his post of secretary. The person thus sent
+was Juan de Escovedo. But it was soon found that the influence which
+Escovedo acquired over the young prince was both greater and more
+mischievous than that of his predecessor; and the troubles that grew out
+of this new intimacy were destined, as we shall see hereafter, to form
+some of the darkest pages in the history of the times.
+
+Having provided for the security of his new acquisition, and received,
+moreover, the voluntary submission of the neighbouring town of Biserta,
+the Spanish commander returned with his fleet to Sicily. He landed at
+Palermo, amidst the roaring of cannon, the shouts of the populace, and
+the usual rejoicings that announce the return of the victorious
+commander. He did not, however, prolong his stay in Sicily. After
+dismissing his fleet, he proceeded to Naples, where he landed about the
+middle of November. He proposed to pass the winter in this capital,
+where the delicious climate and the beauty of the women, says a
+contemporary chronicler, had the attractions for him that belonged
+naturally to his age.[363] His partiality for Naples was amply requited
+by the inhabitants, especially that lovelier portion of them whose
+smiles were the well-prized guerdon of the soldier. If his brilliant
+exterior and the charm of his society had excited their admiration when
+he first appeared among them as an adventurer in the path of honour, how
+much was this admiration likely to be increased when he returned with
+the halo of glory beaming around his brow, as the successful champion of
+Christendom?
+
+The days of John of Austria glided merrily along in the gay capital of
+Southern Italy. But we should wrong him did we suppose that all his
+hours were passed in idle dalliance. A portion of each day, on the
+contrary, was set apart for study. Another part was given to the
+despatch of business. When he went abroad, he affected the society of
+men distinguished for their science, or still more for their knowledge
+of public affairs. In his intercourse with these persons he showed
+dignity of demeanour tempered by courtesy; while his conversation
+revealed those lofty aspirations which proved that his thoughts were
+fixed on a higher eminence than any he had yet reached. It was clear to
+every observer that ambition was the moving principle of his
+actions,--the passion to which every other passion, even the love of
+pleasure, was wholly subordinate.
+
+In the midst of the gaieties of Naples his thoughts were intent on the
+best means of securing his African empire. He despatched his secretary,
+Escovedo, to the pope, to solicit his good offices with Philip. Gregory
+entertained the same friendly feelings for Don John which his
+predecessor had shown, and he good-naturedly acquiesced in his petition.
+He directed his nuncio at the Castilian court to do all in his power to
+promote the suit of the young chief, and to assure the king that nothing
+could be more gratifying to the head of the Church than to see so worthy
+a recompense bestowed on one who had rendered such signal services to
+Christendom. Philip received the communication in the most gracious
+manner. He was grateful, he said, for the interest which the pope
+condescended to take in the fortunes of Don John; and nothing,
+certainly, would be more agreeable to his own feelings than to have the
+power to reward his brother according to his deserts. But to take any
+steps at present in the matter would be premature. He had received
+information that the sultan was making extensive preparations for the
+recovery of Tunis. Before giving it away, therefore, it would be well to
+see to whom it belonged.[364]
+
+Philip's information was correct. No sooner had Selim learned the fate
+of the Barbary capital, than he made prodigious efforts for driving the
+Spaniards from their conquests. He assembled a powerful armament, which
+he placed under the command of Uluch Ali. As lord of Algiers, that chief
+had a particular interest in preventing any Christian power from
+planting its foot in the neighbourhood of his own dominions. The command
+of the land forces was given to Sinan Pasha, Selim's son-in-law.
+
+Early in July, the Ottoman fleet arrived off the Barbary coast. Tunis
+offered as little resistance to the arms of the Moslems as it had before
+done to those of the Christians. That city had been so often transferred
+from one master to another, that it seemed almost a matter of
+indifference to the inhabitants to whom it belonged. But the Turks found
+it a more difficult matter to reduce the castle of the Goletta and the
+fort raised by the brave engineer Cerbelloni, now well advanced, though
+not entirely completed. It was not till the middle of September, after
+an incredible waste of life on the part of the assailants, and the
+extermination of nearly the whole of the Spanish garrisons, that both
+the fortresses surrendered.[365]
+
+[Sidenote: DON JOHN ON A MISSION TO GENOA.]
+
+No sooner was he in possession of them, than the Turkish commander did
+that which Philip had in vain wished his brother to do. He razed to the
+ground the fortress of the Goletta. Thus ended the campaign, in which
+Spain, besides her recent conquests, saw herself stripped of the strong
+castle which had defied every assault of the Moslems since the time of
+Charles the Fifth.
+
+One may naturally ask, Where was John of Austria all this time? He had
+not been idle, nor had he remained an indifferent spectator of the loss
+of the place he had so gallantly won for Spain. But when he first
+received tidings of the presence of a Turkish fleet before Tunis, he was
+absent on a mission to Genoa, or rather to its neighbourhood. That
+republic was at this time torn by factions so fierce, that it was on the
+brink of a civil war. The mischief threatened to extend even more
+widely, as the neighbouring powers, especially France and Savoy,
+prepared to take part in the quarrel, in hopes of establishing their own
+authority in the state. At length Philip, who had inherited from his
+father the somewhat ill-defined title of "Protector of Genoa," was
+compelled to interpose in the dispute. It was on this mission that Don
+John was sent, to watch more nearly the rival factions. It was not till
+after this domestic broil had lasted for several months, that the
+prudent policy of the Spanish monarch succeeded in reconciling the
+hostile parties, and thus securing the republic from the horrors of a
+civil war. He reaped the good fruits of his temperate conduct in the
+maintenance of his own authority in the counsels of the republic; thus
+binding to himself an ally whose navy, in time of war, served greatly to
+strengthen his maritime resources.[366]
+
+While detained on this delicate mission, Don John did what he could for
+Tunis, by urging the viceroys of Sicily and Naples to send immediate aid
+to the beleaguered garrisons.[367] But these functionaries seem to have
+been more interested in the feuds of Genoa than in the fate of the
+African colony. Granvelle, who presided over Naples, was even said to be
+so jealous of the rising fame of John of Austria, as not to be unwilling
+that his lofty pretensions should be somewhat humbled.[368] The supplies
+sent were wholly unequal to the exigency.
+
+Don John, impatient of the delay, as soon as he could extricate himself
+from the troubles of Genoa, sailed for Naples, and thence speedily
+crossed to Sicily. He there made every effort to assemble an armament,
+of which he prepared, in spite of the remonstrances of his friends, to
+take the command in person. But nature, no less than man, was against
+him. A tempest scattered his fleet: and when he had reassembled it, and
+fairly put to sea, he was baffled by contrary winds, and taking refuge
+in the neighbouring port of Trapani, was detained there until tidings
+reached him of the fall of Tunis. They fell heavily on his ear; for they
+announced to him that all his bright visions of an African empire had
+vanished, like the airy fabric of an Eastern tale. All that remained was
+the consciousness that he had displeased his brother by his scheme of
+independent sovereignty, and by his omission to raze the fortress of the
+Goletta, the unavailing defence of which had cost the lives of so many
+of his brave countrymen.
+
+But Don John, however chagrined by the tidings, was of too elastic a
+temper to yield to despondency. He was a knight-errant in the true sense
+of the term. He still clung as fondly as ever to the hope of one day
+carving out with his good sword an independent dominion for himself. His
+first step, he considered, was to make his peace with his brother.
+Though not summoned thither, he resolved to return at once to the
+Castilian court,--for in that direction, he felt, lay the true road to
+preferment.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK VI.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF SPAIN.
+
+Internal Administration of Spain--Absolute Power of the Crown--Royal
+Councils--Alva and Ruy Gomez--Espinoza--Personal Habits of Philip--Court
+and Nobles--The Cortes--The Guards of Castile.
+
+
+Seventeen years had now elapsed since Philip the Second ascended the
+throne of his ancestors,--a period long enough to disclose the policy of
+his government; longer, indeed, than that of the entire reigns of some
+of his predecessors. In the previous portion of this work, the reader
+has been chiefly occupied with the foreign relations of Spain, and with
+military details. It is now time to pause, and, before plunging anew
+into the stormy scenes of the Netherlands, to consider the internal
+administration of the country and the character and policy of the
+monarch who presided over it.
+
+The most important epoch in Castilian history since the great Saracen
+invasion in the eighth century, is the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+when anarchy was succeeded by law, and from the elements of chaos arose
+that beautiful fabric of order and constitutional liberty which promised
+a new era for the nation. In the assertion of her rights, Isabella, to
+whom this revolution is chiefly to be attributed, was obliged to rely on
+the support of the people. It was natural that she should requite their
+services by aiding them in the recovery of their own rights,--especially
+of those which had been usurped by the rapacious nobles. Indeed, it was
+the obvious policy of the crown to humble the pride of the aristocracy
+and abate their arrogant pretensions. In this it was so well supported
+by the commons, that the scheme perfectly succeeded. By the depression
+of the privileged classes and the elevation of the people, the different
+orders were brought more strictly within their constitutional limits;
+and the state made a nearer approach to a well-balanced limited monarchy
+than at any previous period of its history.
+
+This auspicious revolution was soon, alas! to be followed by another, of
+a most disastrous kind. Charles the Fifth, who succeeded his grandfather
+Ferdinand, was born a foreigner,--and a foreigner he remained through
+his whole life. He was a stranger to the feelings and habits of the
+Spaniards, had little respect for their institutions, and as little love
+for the nation. He continued to live mostly abroad; was occupied with
+foreign enterprises; and the only people whom he really loved were those
+of the Netherlands, his native land. The Spaniards requited these
+feelings of indifference in full measure. They felt that the glory of
+the imperial name shed no lustre upon them. Thus estranged at heart,
+they were easily provoked to insurrection by his violation of their
+rights. The insurrection was a failure; and the blow which crushed the
+insurgents on the plains of Villalar, deprived them for ever of the few
+liberties which they had been permitted to retain. They were excluded
+from all share in the government, and were henceforth summoned to the
+Cortes only to swear allegiance to the heir apparent, or to furnish
+subsidies for their master. They were indeed allowed to lay their
+grievances before the throne. But they had no means of enforcing
+redress; for, with the cunning policy of a despot, Charles would not
+receive their petitions until they had first voted the supplies.
+
+The nobles, who had stood by their master in the struggle, fared no
+better. They found too late how short-sighted was the policy which had
+led them to put their faith in princes. Henceforth they could not be
+said to form a necessary part of the legislature. For as they insisted
+on their right to be excused from bearing any share in the burdens of
+the state, they could take no part in voting the supplies; and as this
+was almost the only purpose for which the Cortes was convened, their
+presence was no longer required in it. Instead of the powers which were
+left to them untouched by Ferdinand and Isabella, they were now amused
+with high-sounding and empty titles, or with offices about the person of
+the monarch. In this way they gradually sank into the unsubstantial
+though glittering pageant of a court. Meanwhile the government of
+Castile, assuming the powers of both making the laws and enforcing their
+execution, became in its essential attributes nearly as absolute as that
+of Turkey.
+
+Such was the gigantic despotism which, on the death of Charles, passed
+into the hands of Philip the Second. The son had many qualities in
+common with his father. But among these was not that restless ambition
+of foreign conquest which was ever goading the emperor. Nor was he, like
+his father, urged by the love of glory to military achievement. He was
+of too sluggish a nature to embark readily in great enterprises. He was
+capable of much labour; but it was of that sedentary kind which belongs
+to the cabinet rather than the camp. His tendencies were naturally
+pacific: and up to the period at which we are now arrived, he had
+engaged in no wars but those into which he had been drawn by the revolt
+of his vassals, as in the Netherlands and Granada, or those forced on
+him by circumstances beyond his control. Such was the war which he had
+carried on with the pope and the French monarchy at the beginning of his
+reign.
+
+But while less ambitious than Charles of foreign acquisitions, Philip
+was full as tenacious of the possessions and power which had come to him
+by inheritance. Nor was it likely that the regal prerogative would
+suffer any diminution in his reign, or that the nobles or commons would
+be allowed to retrieve any of the immunities which they had lost under
+his predecessors.
+
+Philip understood the character of his countrymen better than his father
+had done. A Spaniard by birth, he was, as I have more than once had
+occasion to remark, a Spaniard in his whole nature. His tastes, his
+habits, his prejudices, were all Spanish. His policy was directed solely
+to the aggrandisement of Spain. The distant races whom he governed were
+all strangers to him. With a few exceptions, Spaniards were the only
+persons he placed in offices of trust. His Castilian countrymen saw with
+pride and satisfaction that they had a native prince on the throne, who
+identified his own interests with theirs. They contrasted this conduct
+with that of his father, and requited it with a devotion such as they
+had shown to few of his predecessors. They not only held him in
+reverence, says the Venetian minister Contarini, but respected his laws,
+as something sacred and inviolable.[369] It was the people of the
+Netherlands who rose up against him. For similar reasons it fared just
+the opposite with Charles. His Flemish countrymen remained loyal to the
+last: it was his Castilian subjects who were driven to rebellion.
+
+[Sidenote: ALVA AND RUY GOMEZ.]
+
+Though tenacious of power, Philip had not the secret consciousness of
+strength which enabled his father, unaided as it were, to bear up so
+long under the burden of empire. The habitual caution of the son made
+him averse to taking any step of importance without first ascertaining
+the opinions of others. Yet he was not willing, like his ancestor, the
+good Queen Isabella, to invoke the co-operation of the Cortes, and thus
+awaken the consciousness of power in an arm of the government which had
+been so long smitten with paralysis. Such an expedient was fraught with
+too much danger. He found a substitute in the several councils, the
+members of which, appointed by the crown and removable at its pleasure,
+were pledged to the support of the prerogative.
+
+Under Ferdinand and Isabella there had been a complete reorganization of
+these councils. Their number was increased under Charles the Fifth, to
+suit the increased extent of the empire. It was still further enlarged
+by Philip.[370] Under him there were no less than eleven councils, among
+which may be particularly noticed those of war, of finance, of justice,
+and of state.[371] Of these various bodies the council of state, charged
+with the most important concerns of the monarchy, was held in highest
+consideration. The number of its members varied. At the time of which I
+am writing, it amounted to sixteen.[372] But the weight of the business
+devolved on less than half that number. It was composed of both
+ecclesiastics and laymen. Among the latter were some eminent jurists. A
+sprinkling of men of the robe, indeed, was to be found in most of the
+councils. Philip imitated in this the policy of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+who thus intended to humble the pride of the great lords, and to provide
+themselves with a loyal militia, whose services would be of no little
+advantage in maintaining the prerogative.
+
+Among the members of the council of state, two may be particularly
+noticed for their pre-eminence in that body. These were the duke of Alva
+and Ruy Gomez de Silva, prince of Eboli. With the former the reader is
+well acquainted. His great talents, his ample experience both in civil
+and military life, his iron will, and the fearlessness with which he
+asserted it, even his stern and overbearing manner, which seemed to
+proclaim his own superiority, all marked him out as the leader of a
+party.
+
+The emperor appears to have feared the ascendancy which Alva might one
+day acquire over Philip. "The duke," wrote Charles to his son in a
+letter before cited, "is the ablest statesman and the best soldier I
+have in my dominions. Consult him, above all, in military affairs. But
+do not depend on him entirely in these or any other matters. Depend on
+no one but yourself." The advice was good; and Philip did not fail to
+profit by it. Though always seeking the opinions of others, it was the
+better to form his own. He was too jealous of power to submit to the
+control, even to the guidance, of another. With all his deference to
+Alva, on whose services he set the greatest value, the king seems to
+have shown him but little of that personal attachment which he evinced
+for his rival, Ruy Gomez.
+
+This nobleman was descended from an ancient house in Portugal, a branch
+of which had been transplanted to Castile. He had been early received as
+a page in the imperial household, where, though he was several years
+older than Philip, his amiable temper, his engaging manners, and above
+all, that tact which made his fortune in later life, soon rendered him
+the prince's favourite. An anecdote is reported of him at this time,
+which, however difficult to credit, rests on respectable authority.
+While engaged in their sports, the page accidentally struck the prince.
+The emperor, greatly incensed, and conceiving that such an indignity to
+the heir-apparent was to be effaced only by the blood of the offender,
+condemned the unhappy youth to lose his life. The tears and entreaties
+of Philip at length so far softened the heart of his father, that he
+consented to commute the punishment of death for exile. Indeed, it is
+hard to believe that Charles had ever really intended to carry his cruel
+sentence into execution. The exile was of no long duration. The society
+of Gomez had become indispensable to the prince, who, pining under the
+separation, at length prevailed on his father to recall the young noble,
+and reinstate him in his former situation in the palace.[373]
+
+The regard of Philip, who was not of a fickle disposition, seemed to
+increase with years. We find Ruy Gomez one of the brilliant suite who
+accompanied him to London on his visit there to wed the English queen.
+After the emperor's abdication, Ruy Gomez continued to occupy a
+distinguished place in Philip's household, as first gentleman of the
+bedchamber. By virtue of this office he was required to attend his
+master both at his rising and his going to rest. His situation gave him
+ready access at all hours to the royal person. It was soon understood
+that there was no one in the court who exercised a more important
+influence over the monarch; and he naturally became the channel through
+which applicants for favours sought to prefer their petitions.[374]
+
+Meanwhile the most substantial honours were liberally bestowed on him.
+He was created duke of Pastrana, with an income of twenty-five thousand
+crowns--a large revenue, considering the value of money in that day. The
+title of Pastrana was subsequently merged in that of Eboli, by which he
+has continued to be known. It was derived from his marriage with the
+princess of Eboli, Anna de Mendoza, a lady much younger than he, and,
+though blind of one eye, celebrated for her beauty no less than her wit.
+She was yet more celebrated for her gallantries, and for the tragic
+results to which they led--a subject closely connected with the personal
+history of Philip, to which I shall return hereafter.
+
+Among his other dignities Ruy Gomez was made a member of the council of
+state, in which body he exercised an influence not inferior, to say the
+least of it, to that of any of his associates. His head was not turned
+by his prosperity. He did not, like many a favourite before him, display
+his full-blown fortunes in the eye of the world; nor, though he
+maintained a state suited to his station, did he, like Wolsey, excite
+the jealousy of his master by a magnificence in his way of living that
+eclipsed the splendours of royalty. Far from showing arrogance to his
+inferiors, he was affable to all, did what he could to serve their
+interests with the king, and magnanimously spoke of his rivals in terms
+of praise. By this way of proceeding he enjoyed the good fortune, rare
+for a favourite, of being both caressed by his sovereign and beloved by
+the people.[375]
+
+[Sidenote: FIGUEROA AND ESPINOSA.]
+
+There is no evidence that Ruy Gomez had the moral courage to resist the
+evil tendency of Philip's policy, still less that he ventured to open
+the monarch's eyes to his errors. He had too keen a regard to his own
+interests to attempt this. He may have thought, probably with some
+reason, that such a course would avail little with the king, and would
+bring ruin on himself. His life was passed in the atmosphere of a court,
+and he had imbibed its selfish spirit. He had profoundly studied the
+character of his master, and he accommodated himself to all his humours
+with an obsequiousness which does little honour to his memory. The duke
+of Alva, who hated him with all the hatred of a rival, speaking of him
+after his death, remarked: "Ruy Gomez, though not the greatest statesman
+that ever lived, was such a master in the knowledge of the humours and
+dispositions of kings, that we were all of us fools in comparison."[376]
+
+Yet the influence of the favourite was, on the whole, good. He was
+humane and liberal in his temper, and inclined to peace,--virtues which
+were not too common in that iron age, and which in the council served
+much to counteract the stern policy of Alva. Persons of a generous
+nature ranged themselves under him as their leader. When John of Austria
+came to court, his liberal spirit prompted him at once to lean on Ruy
+Gomez as his friend and counsellor. The correspondence which passed
+between them when the young soldier was on his campaigns, in which he
+addressed the favourite by the epithet of "father," confessing his
+errors to him and soliciting his advice, is honourable to both.
+
+The historian Cabrera, who had often seen him, sums up the character of
+Ruy Gomez by saying: "He was the first pilot who in these stormy seas
+both lived and died secure, always contriving to gain a safe port."[377]
+His death took place in July, 1573. "Living," adds the writer, in his
+peculiar style, "he preserved the favour of his sovereign;--dead, he was
+mourned by him,--and by the whole nation, which kept him in its
+recollection as the pattern of loyal vassals and prudent
+favourites."[378]
+
+Besides the two leaders in the council, there were two others who
+deserve to be noticed. One of these was Figueroa, count, afterwards
+created by Philip duke, of Feria, a grandee of Spain. He was one of
+those who accompanied the king on his first visit to England. He there
+married a lady of rank, and, as the reader may remember, afterwards
+represented his master at the court of Elizabeth. He was a man of
+excellent parts, enriched by that kind of practical knowledge which he
+had gained from foreign travel and a familiarity with courts. He lived
+magnificently, somewhat encumbering his large estates indeed by his
+profusion. His person was handsome; and his courteous and polished
+manners made him one of the most brilliant ornaments of the royal
+circle. He had a truly chivalrous sense of honour, and was greatly
+esteemed by the king, who placed him near his person as captain of his
+Spanish guard. Feria was a warm supporter of Ruy Gomez; and the long
+friendship that subsisted between the two nobles seems never to have
+been clouded by those feelings of envy and jealousy which so often arise
+between rivals contending for the smiles of their sovereign.
+
+The other member of the council of state was a person of still more
+importance. This was the Cardinal Espinosa, who, though an ecclesiastic,
+possessed such an acquaintance with affairs as belonged to few laymen.
+Philip's eye readily discovered his uncommon qualities, and he heaped
+upon him offices in rapid succession, any one of which might well have
+engrossed his time. But Espinosa was as fond of labour as most men are
+of ease; and in every situation he not only performed his own share of
+the work, but very often that of his associates. He was made president
+of the council of Castile, as well as that of the Indies, and finally a
+member of the council of state. He was inquisitor-general, sat in the
+royal chancery of Seville, and held the bishopric of Siguenca, one of
+the richest sees in the kingdom. To crown the whole, in 1568, Pius the
+Fifth, on the application of Philip, gave him a cardinal's hat. The king
+seems to have taken the greater pleasure in this rapid elevation of
+Espinosa, that he sprang from a comparatively humble condition; and thus
+the height to which he raised him served the more keenly to mortify the
+nobles.
+
+But the cardinal, as is too often the case with those who have suddenly
+risen to greatness, did not bear his honours meekly. His love of power
+was insatiable; and when an office became vacant in any of his own
+departments, he was prompt to secure it for one of his dependents. An
+anecdote is told in relation to a place in the chancery of Granada,
+which had become open by the death of the incumbent. As soon as the news
+reached Madrid, Hernandez de Cordova, the royal equerry, made
+application to the king for it. Philip answered that he was too late,
+that the place had been already given away. "How am I to understand your
+majesty?" said the petitioner; "the tidings were brought to me by a
+courier the moment at which the post became vacant, and no one could
+have brought them sooner unless he had wings." "That may be," said the
+monarch; "but I have just given the place to another, whom the cardinal
+recommended to me as I was leaving the council."[379]
+
+Espinosa, says a contemporary, was a man of noble presence. He had the
+air of one born to command. His haughty bearing, however, did little for
+him with the more humble suitors, and disgusted the great lords, who
+looked down with contempt on his lowly origin. They complained to the
+king of his intolerable arrogance; and the king was not unwilling to
+receive their charges against him. In fact, he had himself grown to be
+displeased with his minister's presumption. He was weary of the
+deference which, now that Espinosa had become a cardinal, he felt
+obliged to pay him; of coming forward to receive him when he entered the
+room; of taking off his cap to the churchman, and giving him a seat as
+high as his own; finally, of allowing him to interfere in all
+appointments to office. It seemed incredible, says the historian, that a
+prince so jealous of his prerogatives should have submitted to all this
+so long.[380] Philip was now determined to submit to it no longer; but
+to tumble from its pride of place the idol which he had raised with his
+own hands.
+
+He was slow in betraying his intention, by word or act, to the
+courtiers, still more to the unfortunate minister, who continued to show
+the same security and confidence as if he were treading the solid
+ground, instead of the crust of a volcano.
+
+[Sidenote: THE COUNCIL OF STATE.]
+
+At length an opportunity offered when Espinosa, in a discussion
+respecting the affairs of Flanders, made a statement which the king
+deemed not entirely conformable to truth. Philip at once broke in upon
+the discourse with an appearance of great indignation, and charged the
+minister with falsehood. The blow was the more effectual, coming from
+one who had been scarcely ever known to give way to passion.[381] The
+cardinal was stunned by it. He at once saw his ruin, and the vision of
+glory vanished for ever. He withdrew, more dead than alive, to his
+house. There he soon took to his bed; and in a short time, in September
+1572, he breathed his last. His fate was that of more than one minister
+whose head had been made giddy by the height to which he had
+climbed.[382]
+
+The council of state under its two great leaders, Alva and Ruy Gomez,
+was sure to be divided on every question of importance. This was a
+fruitful source of embarrassment, and to private suitors, especially,
+occasioned infinite delay. Such was the hostility of the parties to each
+other, that, if an applicant for favour secured the good-will of one of
+the chiefs, he was very certain to encounter the ill-will of the
+other.[383] He was a skilful pilot who in such cross seas could keep his
+course.
+
+Yet the existence of these divisions does not seem to have been
+discouraged by Philip, who saw in them only the natural consequence of
+rivalry for his favour. They gave him, moreover, the advantage of seeing
+every question of moment well canvassed, and, by furnishing him with the
+opposite opinions of his councillors, enabled him the more accurately to
+form his own.
+
+In the mean time, the value which he set on both the great chiefs made
+him careful not to disgust either by any show of preference for his
+rival. He held the balance adroitly between them; and if on any occasion
+he bestowed a mark of his favour on the one, it was usually followed by
+some equivalent to the other.[384] Thus, for the first twelve years of
+his reign, their influence may be said to have been pretty equally
+exerted. Then came the memorable discussion respecting the royal visit
+to the Netherlands, Alva, as the reader may remember, was of the opinion
+that Philip should send an army to punish the refractory and bring the
+country to obedience, when the king might visit it with safety to his
+own person. Ruy Gomez, on the other hand, recommended that Philip should
+go at once, without an army, and by mild and conciliatory measures win
+the malcontents back to their allegiance. Each advised the course most
+congenial to his own temper, and the one, moreover, which would have
+required the aid of his own services to carry into execution.
+Unfortunately, the violent measures of Alva were more congenial to the
+stern temper off the king, and the duke was sent at the head of his
+battalions.
+
+But if Alva thus gained the victory, it was Ruy Gomez who reaped the
+fruits of it. Left without a rival in the council, his influence became
+predominant over every other. It became still more firmly established,
+as the result showed that his rival's mission was a failure. So it
+continued, after Alva's return, till the favourite's death. Even then
+his well-organized party was so deeply rooted, that for several years
+longer it maintained an ascendancy in the cabinet, while the duke
+languished in disgrace.
+
+Philip, unlike most of his predecessors, rarely took his seat in the
+council of state. It was his maxim that his ministers would more freely
+discuss measures in the absence of their master than when he was there
+to overawe them. The course he adopted was for a _consulta_, or a
+committee of two or three members, to wait on him in his cabinet, and
+report to him the proceedings of the council.[385] He more commonly,
+especially in the later years of his reign, preferred to receive a full
+report of the discussion, written so as to leave an ample margin for his
+own commentaries. These were eminently characteristic of the man, and
+were so minute as usually to cover several sheets of paper. Philip had a
+reserved and unsocial temper. He preferred to work alone, in the
+seclusion of his closet, rather than in the presence of others. This may
+explain the reason, in part, why he seemed so much to prefer writing to
+talking. Even with his private secretaries, who were always near at
+hand, he chose to communicate by writing; and they had as large a mass
+of his autograph notes in their possession, as if the correspondence had
+been carried on from different parts of the kingdom.[386] His thoughts
+too--at any rate his words--came slowly; and by writing he gained time
+for the utterance of them.
+
+Philip has been accused of indolence. As far as the body was concerned,
+such an accusation was well founded. Even when young, he had no
+fondness, as we have seen, for the robust and chivalrous sports of the
+age. He never, like his father, conducted military expeditions in
+person. He thought it wiser to follow the example of his
+great-grandfather, Ferdinand the Catholic, who stayed at home and sent
+his generals to command his armies. As little did he like to
+travel,--forming too in this respect a great contrast to the emperor. He
+had been years on the throne before he made a visit to his great
+southern capital, Seville. It was a matter of complaint in Cortes that
+he thus withdrew himself from the eyes of his subjects. The only sport
+he cared for--not by any means to excess--was shooting with his gun or
+his crossbow such game as he could find in his own grounds at the wood
+of Segovia, or Aranjuez, or some other of his pleasant country seats,
+none of them at a great distance from Madrid.
+
+On a visit to such places he would take with him as large a heap of
+papers as if he were a poor clerk, earning his bread; and after the
+fatigues of the chase, he would retire to his cabinet and refresh
+himself with his despatches.[387] It would, indeed, be a great mistake
+to charge him with sluggishness of mind. He was content to toil for
+hours, and long into the night, at his solitary labours.[388] No
+expression of weariness or of impatience was known to escape him. A
+characteristic anecdote is told of him in regard to this. Having written
+a despatch, late at night, to be sent on the following morning, he
+handed it to his secretary to throw some sand over it. This functionary,
+who happened to be dozing, suddenly roused himself, and, snatching up
+the ink-stand, emptied it on the paper. The king, coolly remarking that
+"it would have been better to use the sand," set himself down, without
+any complaint, to rewrite the whole of the letter.[389] A prince so much
+addicted to the pen, we may well believe, must have left a large amount
+of autograph materials behind him. Few monarchs, in point of fact, have
+done so much in this way to illustrate the history of their reigns.
+Fortunate would it have been for the historian who was to profit by it,
+if the royal composition had been somewhat less diffuse and the
+handwriting somewhat more legible.
+
+[Sidenote: PERSONAL HABITS OF PHILIP.]
+
+Philip was an economist of time, and regulated the distribution of it
+with great precision. In the morning, he gave audience to foreign
+ambassadors. He afterwards heard mass. After mass came dinner, in his
+father's fashion. But dinner was not an affair with Philip of so much
+moment as it was with Charles. He was exceedingly temperate both in
+eating and drinking, and not unfrequently had his physician at his side,
+to warn him against any provocative of the gout,--the hereditary disease
+which at a very early period had begun to affect his health. After a
+light repast, he gave audience to such of his subjects as desired to
+present their memorials. He received the petitioners graciously, and
+listened to all they had to say with patience,--for that was his virtue.
+But his countenance was exceedingly grave,--which, in truth, was its
+natural expression; and there was a reserve in his deportment which made
+the boldest feel ill at ease in his presence. On such occasions he would
+say, "Compose yourself,"--a recommendation that had not always the
+tranquillizing effect intended.[390] Once when a papal nuncio forgot, in
+his confusion, the address he had prepared, the king coolly remarked:
+"If you will bring it in writing, I will read it myself, and expedite
+your business."[391] It was natural that men of even the highest rank
+should be overawed in the presence of a monarch who held the destinies
+of so many millions in his hands, and who surrounded himself with a veil
+of mystery which the most cunning politician could not penetrate.
+
+The reserve so noticeable in his youth increased with age. He became
+more difficult of access. His public audiences were much less frequent.
+In the summer he would escape from them altogether, by taking refuge in
+some one of his country places. His favourite retreat was his
+palace-monastery of the Escorial, then slowly rising under his
+patronage, and affording him an occupation congenial with his taste. He
+seems, however, to have sought the country not so much from the love of
+its beauties as for the retreat it afforded him from the town. When in
+the latter, he rarely showed himself to the public eye, going abroad
+chiefly in a close carriage, and driving late, so as to return to the
+city after dark.[392]
+
+Thus he lived in solitude even in the heart of his capital, knowing much
+less of men from his own observation than from the reports that were
+made to him. In availing himself of these sources of information he was
+indefatigable. He caused a statistical survey of Spain to be prepared
+for his own use. It was a work of immense labour, embracing a vast
+amount of curious details, such as were rarely brought together in those
+days.[393] He kept his spies at the principal European courts, who
+furnished him with intelligence; and he was as well acquainted with what
+was passing in England and in France, as if he had resided on the spot.
+We have seen how well he knew the smallest details of the proceedings in
+the Netherlands, sometimes even better than Margaret herself. He
+employed similar means to procure information that might be of service
+in making appointments to ecclesiastical and civil offices.
+
+In his eagerness for information, his ear was ever open to accusations
+against his ministers, which, as they were sure to be locked up in his
+own bosom, were not slow in coming to him.[394] This filled his mind
+with suspicions. He waited till time had proved their truth, treating
+the object of them with particular favour till the hour of vengeance had
+arrived. The reader will not have forgotten the terrible saying of
+Philip's own historian, "His dagger followed close upon his smile."[395]
+
+Even to the ministers in whom Philip appeared most to confide, he often
+gave but half his confidence. Instead of frankly furnishing them with a
+full statement of facts, he sometimes made so imperfect a disclosure,
+that, when his measures came to be taken, his counsellors were surprised
+to find of how much they had been kept in ignorance. When he
+communicated to them any foreign despatches, he would not scruple to
+alter the original, striking out some passages and inserting others, so
+as best to serve his purpose. The copy, in this garbled form, was given
+to the council. Such was the case with, a letter of Don John of Austria,
+containing an account of the troubles of Genoa; the original of which,
+with its numerous alterations in the royal handwriting, still exists in
+the archives of Simancas.[396]
+
+But though Philip's suspicious nature prevented him from entirely
+trusting his ministers,--though with chilling reserve he kept at a
+distance even those who approached him nearest,--he was kind, even
+liberal, to his servants, was not capricious in his humours, and seldom,
+if ever, gave way to those sallies of passion so common in princes
+clothed with, absolute power. He was patient to the last degree, and
+rarely changed his ministers without good cause. Ruy Gomez was not the
+only courtier who continued in the royal service to the end of his days.
+
+Philip was of a careful, or, to say truth, of a frugal disposition,
+which he may well have inherited from his father; though this did not,
+as with his father in later life, degenerate into parsimony. The
+beginning of his reign, indeed, was distinguished by some acts of
+uncommon liberality. One of these occurred at the close of Alva's
+campaigns in Italy, when the king presented that commander with a
+hundred and fifty thousand ducats, greatly to the discontent of the
+emperor. This was contrary to his usual policy. As he grew older, and
+the expenses of government pressed more heavily on him, he became more
+economical. Yet those who served him had no reason, like the emperor's
+servants, to complain of their master's meanness. It was observed,
+however, that he was slow to recompense those who served him until they
+had proved themselves worthy of it. Still it was a man's own fault, says
+a contemporary, if he was not well paid for his services in the
+end.[397]
+
+[Sidenote: THE ROYAL ESTABLISHMENT.]
+
+In one particular he indulged in a most lavish expenditure. This was his
+household. It was formed on the Burgundian model,--the most stately and
+magnificent in Europe. Its peculiarity consisted in the number and
+quality of the members who composed it. The principal officers were
+nobles of the highest rank, who frequently held posts of great
+consideration in the state. Thus the duke of Alva was chief major-domo;
+the prince of Eboli was first gentleman of the bedchamber; the duke of
+Feria was captain of the Spanish guard. There was the grand equerry, the
+grand huntsman, the chief muleteer, and a host of officers, some of whom
+were designated by menial titles, though nobles and cavaliers of
+family.[398] There were forty pages, sons of the most illustrious houses
+in Castile. The whole household amounted to no less than fifteen hundred
+persons.[399] The king's guard consisted of three hundred men, one-third
+of whom were Spaniards, one-third Flemings, and the remainder
+Germans.[400]
+
+The queen had also her establishment on the same scale. She had
+twenty-six ladies-in-waiting, and, among other functionaries, no less
+than four physicians to watch over her health.[401]
+
+The annual cost of the royal establishment amounted to full two hundred
+thousand florins.[402] The Cortes earnestly remonstrated against this
+useless prodigality, beseeching the king to place his household on the
+modest scale to which the monarchs of Castile had been accustomed.[403]
+And it seems singular that one usually so averse to extravagance and
+pomp should have so recklessly indulged in them here. It was one of
+those inconsistencies which we sometimes meet with in private life, when
+a man, habitually careful of his expenses, indulges himself in some,
+which taste, or, as in this case, early habits, have made him regard as
+indispensable. The emperor had been careful to form the household of his
+son, when very young, on the Burgundian model; and Philip, thus early
+trained, probably regarded it as essential to the royal dignity.
+
+The king did not affect an ostentation in his dress corresponding with
+that of his household. This seemed to be suited to the sober-coloured
+livery of his own feelings, and was almost always of black velvet or
+satin, with shoes of the former material. He wore a cap garnished with
+plumes after the Spanish fashion. He used few ornaments, scarce any but
+the rich jewel of the Golden Fleece, which hung from his neck. But in
+his attire he was scrupulously neat, says the Venetian diplomatist who
+tells these particulars; and he changed his dress for a new one every
+month, giving away his cast-off suits to his attendants.[404]
+
+It was a capital defect in Philip's administration, that his love of
+power and his distrust of others made him desire to do everything
+himself; even those things which could be done much better by his
+ministers. As he was slow in making up his own opinions, and seldom
+acted without first ascertaining those of his council, we may well
+understand the mischievous consequences of such delay. Loud were the
+complaints of private suitors, who saw month after month pass away
+without an answer to their petitions. The state suffered no less, as the
+wheels of government seemed actually to stand still under the
+accumulated pressure of the public business. Even when a decision did
+come, it often came too late to be of service; for the circumstances
+which led to it had wholly changed. Of this the reader has seen more
+than one example in the Netherlands. The favourite saying of Philip,
+that "time and he were a match for any other two," was a sad mistake.
+The time he demanded was his ruin. It was in vain that Granvelle, who at
+a later day came to Castile to assume the direction of affairs,
+endeavoured, in his courtly language, to convince the king of his error,
+telling him that no man could bear up under such a load of business,
+which sooner or later must destroy his health, perhaps his life.[405]
+
+A letter addressed to the king by his grand almoner, Don Luis Manrique,
+told the truth in plainer terms, such as had not often reached the royal
+ear. "Your majesty's subjects everywhere complain," he says, "of your
+manner of doing business; sitting all day long over your papers, from
+your desire, as they intimate, to seclude yourself from the world, and
+from a want of confidence in your ministers.[406] Hence such
+interminable delays as fill the soul of every suitor with despair. Your
+subjects are discontented that you refuse to take your seat in the
+council of state. The Almighty," he adds, "did not send kings into the
+world to spend their days in reading or writing, or even in meditation
+and prayer,"--in which Philip was understood to pass much of his
+time,--"but to serve as public oracles, to which all may resort for
+answers. If any sovereign have received this grace, it is your majesty;
+and the greater the sin, therefore, if you do not give free access to
+all."[407] One may be surprised to find that language such as this was
+addressed to a prince like Philip the Second, and that he should have
+borne it so patiently. But in this the king resembled his father.
+Churchmen and jesters--of which latter he had usually one or two in
+attendance--were privileged persons at his court. In point of fact, the
+homilies of the one had as little effect as the jests of the other.
+
+The pomp of the royal establishment was imitated on a smaller scale by
+the great nobles living on their vast estates scattered over the
+country. Their revenues were very large, though often heavily burdened.
+Out of twenty-three dukes, in 1581, only three had an income so low as
+forty thousand ducats a year.[408] That of most of the others ranged
+from fifty to a hundred thousand; and that of one, the duke of Medina
+Sidonia, was computed at a hundred and thirty-five thousand. Revenues
+like these would not easily have been matched in that day by the
+aristocracy of any other nation in Christendom.[409]
+
+[Sidenote: POMP OF THE NOBLES.]
+
+The Spanish grandees preferred to live on their estates in the country.
+But in the winter they repaired to Madrid, and displayed their
+magnificence at the court of their sovereign. Here they dazzled the eye
+by the splendour of their equipages, the beauty of their horses, their
+rich liveries, and the throng of their retainers. But with all this the
+Castilian court was far from appearing in the eyes of foreigners a gay
+one; forming in this respect a contrast to the Flemish court of Margaret
+of Parma. It seemed to have imbibed much of the serious and indeed
+sombre character of the monarch who presided over it. All was stately
+and ceremonious, with old-fashioned manners and usages. "There is
+nothing new to be seen there," write the Venetian envoys. "There is no
+pleasant gossip about the events of the day. If a man is acquainted with
+any news, he is too prudent to repeat it.[410] The courtiers talk
+little, and for the most part are ignorant; in fact, without the least
+tincture of learning. The arrogance of the great lords is beyond belief;
+and when they meet a foreign ambassador, or even the nuncio of his
+holiness, they rarely condescend to salute him by raising their
+caps.[411] They all affect that imperturbable composure, or apathy,
+which they term _sosiego_."[412]
+
+They gave no splendid banquets, like the Flemish nobles. Their chief
+amusement was gaming,--the hereditary vice of the Spaniard. They played
+deep, often to the great detriment of their fortunes. This did not
+displease the king. It may seem strange that a society so cold and
+formal should be much addicted to intrigue.[413] In this they followed
+the example of their master.
+
+Thus passing their days in frivolous amusements and idle dalliance, the
+Spanish nobles, with the lofty titles and pretensions of their
+ancestors, were a degenerate race. With a few brilliant exceptions, they
+filled no important posts in the state or in the army. The places of
+most consideration to which they aspired were those connected with the
+royal household; and their greatest honour was to possess the empty
+privileges of the grandee, and to sit with their heads covered in the
+presence of the king.[414]
+
+From this life of splendid humiliation they were nothing loth to escape
+into the country, where they passed their days in their ancestral
+castles, surrounded by princely domains, which embraced towns and
+villages within their circuit, and a population sometimes reaching to
+thirty thousand families. Here the proud lords lived in truly regal
+pomp. Their households were formed on that of the sovereign. They had
+their major-domos, their gentlemen of the bedchamber, their grand
+equerries, and other officers of rank. Their halls were filled with
+hidalgos and cavaliers, and a throng of inferior retainers. They were
+attended by body-guards of one or two hundred soldiers. Their dwellings
+were sumptuously furnished, and their sideboards loaded with plate from
+the silver quarries of the New World. Their chapels were magnificent.
+Their wives affected a royal state: they had their ladies of honour; and
+the page who served as cupbearer knelt while his mistress drank. Even
+knights of ancient blood, whom she addressed from her seat, did not
+refuse to bend the knee to her.[415]
+
+Amidst all this splendour, the Spanish grandees had no real power to
+correspond with it. They could no longer, as in the days of their
+fathers, engage in fends with one another; nor could they enjoy the
+privilege, so highly prized, of renouncing their allegiance and
+declaring war upon their sovereign. Their numerous vassals, instead of
+being gathered as of yore into a formidable military array, had sunk
+into the more humble rank of retainers, who served only to swell the
+idle pomp of their lord's establishment: they were no longer allowed to
+bear arms, except in the service of the crown; and after the Moriscoes
+had been reduced, the crown had no occasion for their services, unless
+in foreign war.[416]
+
+The measures by which Ferdinand and Isabella had broken the power of the
+aristocracy had been enforced with still greater rigour by Charles the
+Fifth, and were now carried out even more effectually by Philip the
+Second; for Philip had the advantage of being always in Spain, while
+Charles passed most of his time in other parts of his dominions. Thus
+ever present, Philip was as prompt to enforce the law against the
+highest noble as against the humblest of his subjects.
+
+Men of rank commanded the armies abroad, and were sent as viceroys to
+Naples, Sicily, Milan, and the provinces of the New World. But at home
+they were rarely raised to civil or military office. They no longer
+formed a necessary part of the national legislature, and were seldom
+summoned to the meetings of the Cortes; for the Castilian noble claimed
+exemption from the public burdens, and it was rarely that the Cortes
+were assembled for any other purpose than to impose those burdens. Thus,
+without political power of any kind, they resided like so many private
+gentlemen on their estates in the country. Their princely style of
+living gave no umbrage to the king, who was rather pleased to see them
+dissipate their vast revenues in a way that was attended with no worse
+evil than that of driving the proprietors to exactions which made them
+odious to their vassals.[417] Such, we are assured by a Venetian
+envoy--who, with great powers of observation, was placed in the best
+situation for exerting them--was the policy of Philip. "Thus," he
+concludes, "did the king make himself feared by those who, if they had
+managed discreetly, might have made themselves feared by him."[418]
+
+While the aristocracy was thus depressed, the strong arm of Charles the
+Fifth had stripped the Castilian commons of their most precious rights.
+Philip, happily for himself, was spared the odium of having reduced them
+to this abject condition. But he was as careful as his father could have
+been, that they should not rise from it. The legislative power of the
+commons--that most important of all their privileges--was nearly
+annihilated. The Castilian Cortes were, it is true, frequently convoked
+under Philip--more frequently, on the whole, than in any preceding
+reign; for in them still resided the power of voting supplies for the
+crown. To have summoned them so often, therefore, was rather a proof of
+the necessities of the government than of respect for the rights of the
+commons.
+
+[Sidenote: THE CORTES.]
+
+The Cortes, it is true, still enjoyed the privilege of laying their
+grievances before the king; but as they were compelled to vote the
+supplies before they presented their grievances, they had lost the only
+lever by which they could effectually operate on the royal will. Yet
+when we review their petitions, and see the care with which they watched
+over the interests of the nation, and the courage with which they
+maintained them, we cannot refuse our admiration. We must acknowledge
+that, under every circumstance of discouragement and oppression, the
+old Castilian spirit still lingered in the hearts of the people. In
+proof of this, it will not be amiss to cite a few of these petitions,
+which, whether successful or not, may serve at least to show the state
+of public opinion on the topics to which they relate.
+
+One, of repeated recurrence, is a remonstrance to the king on the
+enormous expense of his household--"as great," say the Cortes, "as would
+be required for the conquest of a kingdom."[419] The Burgundian
+establishment, independently of its costliness, found little favour with
+the honest Castilian; and the Cortes prayed his majesty to abandon it,
+and to return to the more simple and natural usage of his ancestors.
+They represented "the pernicious effects which this manner of living
+necessarily had on the great nobles and others of his subjects, prone to
+follow the example of their master."[420] To one of these petitions
+Philip replied, that "he would cause the matter to be inquired into, and
+such measures to be taken as were most for his service." "No alteration
+took place during his reign; and the Burgundian establishment, which in
+1562 involved an annual charge of a hundred and fifty-six millions of
+maravedis, was continued by his successor."[421]
+
+Another remonstrance of constant recurrence--a proof of its
+inefficacy--was that against the alienation of the crown lands, and the
+sale of offices and the lesser titles of nobility. To this the king made
+answer in much the same equivocal language as before. Another petition
+besought him no longer to seek an increase of his revenue by imposing
+taxes without the sanction of the Cortes, required by the ancient law
+and usage of the realm. Philip's reply on this occasion was plain
+enough. It was, in truth, one worthy of an eastern despot. "The
+necessities," he said, "which have compelled me to resort to these
+measures, far from having ceased, have increased, and are still
+increasing, allowing me no alternative but to pursue the course I have
+adopted."[422] Philip's embarrassments were indeed great,--far beyond
+the reach of any financial skill of his ministers to remove. His various
+expedients for relieving himself from the burden which, as he truly
+said, was becoming heavier every day, form a curious chapter in the
+history of finance. But we have not yet reached the period at which they
+can be most effectively presented to the reader.
+
+The commons strongly urged the king to complete the great work he had
+early undertaken, of embodying in one code the municipal law of
+Castile.[423] They gave careful attention to the administration of
+justice, showed their desire for the reform of various abuses,
+especially for quickening the despatch of business, proverbially slow in
+Spain, and, in short, for relieving suitors, as far as possible, from
+the manifold vexations to which they were daily exposed in the
+tribunals. With a wise liberality they recommended that, in order to
+secure the services of competent persons in judicial offices, their
+salaries--in many cases wholly inadequate--should be greatly
+increased.[424]
+
+The Cortes watched with a truly parental care over the great interests
+of the state--its commerce, its husbandry, and its manufactures. They
+raised a loud, and as it would seem not an ineffectual, note of
+remonstrance against the tyrannical practice of the crown in seizing for
+its own use the bullion which, as elsewhere stated, had been imported
+from the New World on their own account by the merchants of Seville.
+
+Some of the petitions of the Cortes show what would be thought at the
+present day a strange ignorance of the true principles of legislation in
+respect to commerce. Thus, regarding gold and silver, independently of
+their value as a medium of exchange, as constituting in a peculiar
+manner the wealth of a country, they considered that the true policy was
+to keep the precious metals at home, and prayed that their exportation
+might be forbidden. Yet this was a common error in the sixteenth century
+with other nations besides the Spaniards. It may seem singular, however,
+that the experience of three-fourths of a century had not satisfied the
+Castilian of the futility of such attempts to obstruct the natural
+current of commercial circulation.
+
+In the same spirit, they besought the king to prohibit the use of gold
+and silver in plating copper and other substances, as well as for
+wearing-apparel and articles of household luxury. It was a waste of the
+precious metals, which were needed for other purposes. This petition of
+the commons may be referred in part, no doubt, to their fondness for
+sumptuary laws, which in Castile formed a more ample code than could be
+easily found in any other country.[425] The love of costly and
+ostentatious dress was a passion which they may have caught from their
+neighbours, the Spanish Arabs, who delighted in this way of displaying
+their opulence. It furnished accordingly, from an early period, a
+fruitful theme of declamation to the clergy, in their invectives against
+the pomp and vanities of the world.
+
+Unfortunately Philip, who was so frequently deaf to the wiser
+suggestions of the Cortes, gave his sanction to this petition; and in a
+_pragmatic_ devoted to the object, he carried out the ideas of the
+legislature as heartily as the most austere reformer could have desired.
+As a state paper, it has certainly a novel aspect, going at great length
+into such minute specifications of wearing-apparel, both male and
+female, that it would seem to have been devised by a committee of
+tailors and milliners, rather than of grave legislators.[426] The
+tailors, indeed, the authors of these seductive abominations, did not
+escape the direct animadversion of the Cortes. In another petition they
+were denounced as unprofitable persons, occupied with needlework, like
+women, instead of tilling the ground or serving his majesty in the wars,
+like men.[427]
+
+In the same spirit of impertinent legislation, the Cortes would have
+regulated the expenses of the table, which, they said, of late years had
+been excessive. They recommended that no one should be allowed to have
+more than four dishes of meat and four of fruit served at the same meal.
+They were further scandalized by the increasing use of coaches, a mode
+of conveyance which had been introduced into Spain only a few years
+before. They regarded them as tempting men to an effeminate indulgence,
+which most of them could ill afford. They considered the practice,
+moreover, as detrimental to the good horsemanship for which their
+ancestors had been so renowned. They prayed, therefore, that,
+considering "the nation had done well for so many years without the use
+of coaches, it might henceforth be prohibited."[428] Philip so far
+complied with their petition, as to forbid any one but the owner of four
+horses to keep a coach. Thus he imagined that, while encouraging the
+raising of horses, he should effectually discourage any but the more
+wealthy from affecting this costly luxury.
+
+[Sidenote: THE CORTES.]
+
+There was another petition, somewhat remarkable, and worth citing, as it
+shows the attachment of the Castilians to a national institution which
+has often incurred the censure of foreigners. A petition of the Cortes
+of 1573 prayed that some direct encouragement might be given to
+bull-fights, which of late had shown symptoms of decline. They advised
+that the principal towns should be required to erect additional
+circuses, and to provide lances for the combatants, and music for the
+entertainments, at the charge of the municipalities. They insisted on
+this as important for mending the breed of horses, as well as for
+furnishing a chivalrous exercise for the nobles and cavaliers. This may
+excite some surprise in a spectator of our day, accustomed to see only
+the most wretched hacks led to the slaughter, and men of humble
+condition skirmishing in the arena. It was otherwise in those palmy days
+of chivalry, when the horses employed were of a generous breed, and the
+combatants were nobles, who entered the lists with as proud a feeling as
+that with which they would have gone to a tourney. Even so late as the
+sixteenth century it was the boast of Charles the Fifth, that, when a
+young man, he had fought like a _matador_, and killed his bull. Philip
+gave his assent to this petition, with a promptness which showed that he
+understood the character of his countrymen.
+
+It would be an error to regard the more exceptionable and frivolous
+petitions of the Cortes, some of which have been above enumerated, as
+affording a true type of the predominant character of Castilian
+legislation. The laws, or, to speak correctly, the petitions of that
+body, are strongly impressed with a wise and patriotic sentiment,
+showing a keen perception of the wants of the community, and a tender
+anxiety to relieve them. Thus we find the Cortes recommending that
+guardians should be appointed to find employment for such young and
+destitute persons as, without friends to aid them, had no means of
+getting a livelihood for themselves.[429] They propose to have visitors
+chosen, whose duty it should be to inspect the prisons every week, and
+see that fitting arrangements were made for securing the health and
+cleanliness of the inmates.[430] They desire that care should be taken
+to have suitable accommodations provided at the inns for
+travellers.[431] With their usual fondness for domestic inquisition,
+they take notice of the behaviour of servants to their masters, and,
+with a simplicity that may well excite a smile, they animadvert on the
+conduct of maidens who, "in the absence of their mothers, spend their
+idle hours in reading romances full of lies and vanities, which they
+receive as truths for the government of their own conduct in their
+intercourse with the world."[432] The books thus stigmatized were
+doubtless the romances of chivalry, which at this period were at the
+height of their popularity in Castile. Cervantes had not yet aimed at
+this pestilent literature those shafts of ridicule which did more than
+any legislation could have done towards driving it from the land.
+
+The commons watched over the business of education as zealously as over
+any of the material interests of the state. They inspected the condition
+of the higher seminaries, and would have provision made for the
+foundation of new chairs in the universities. In accordance with their
+views, though not in conformity to any positive suggestion, Philip
+published a pragmatic in respect to these institutions. He complained of
+the practice, rapidly increasing among his subjects, of going abroad to
+get their education, when the most ample provision was made for it at
+home. The effect was eminently disastrous; for while the Castilian
+universities languished for want of patronage, the student who went
+abroad was pretty sure to return with ideas not the best suited to his
+own country. The king, therefore, prohibited Spaniards from going to any
+university out of his dominions, and required all now abroad to return.
+This edict he accompanied with the severe penalty of forfeiture of their
+secular possessions for ecclesiastics, and of banishment and
+confiscation of property for laymen.[433]
+
+This kind of pragmatic, though made doubtless in accordance with the
+popular feeling, inferred a stretch of arbitrary power that cannot be
+charged on those which emanated directly from the suggestion of the
+legislature. In this respect, however, it fell far short of those
+ordinances which proceeded exclusively from the royal will, without
+reference to the wishes of the commons. Such ordinances--and they were
+probably more numerous than any other class of laws during this
+reign--are doubtless among the most arbitrary acts of which a monarch
+can be guilty; for they imply nothing less than an assumption of the
+law-making power into his own hands. Indeed, they met with a strong
+remonstrance in the year 1579, when Philip was besought by the commons
+not to make any laws but such as had first received the sanction of the
+Cortes.[434] Yet Philip might vindicate himself by the example of his
+predecessors--even of those who, like Ferdinand and Isabella, had most
+at heart the interests of the nation.[435]
+
+It must be further admitted, that the more regular mode of proceeding,
+with the co-operation of the Cortes, had in it much to warrant the idea,
+that the real right of legislation was vested in the king. A petition,
+usually couched in the most humble terms, prayed his majesty to give his
+assent to the law proposed. This he did in a few words; or, what was
+much more common, he refused to give it, declaring that, in the existing
+case, "it was not expedient that any change should be made." It was
+observed that the number of cases in which Philip rejected the petitions
+of the commons was much greater than had been usual with former
+sovereigns.
+
+[Sidenote: THE GUARDS OF CASTILE.]
+
+A more frequent practice with Philip was one that better suited his
+hesitating nature and habit of procrastination. He replied in ambiguous
+terms, that "he would take the matter into consideration," or "that he
+would lay it before his council, and take such measures as would be best
+for his service." Thus the Cortes adjourned in ignorance of the fate of
+their petitions. Even when he announced his assent, as it was left to
+him to prescribe the terms of the law, it might be more or less
+conformable to those of the petition. The Cortes having been dismissed,
+there was no redress to be obtained if the law did not express their
+views, nor could any remonstrance be presented by that body until their
+next session, usually three years later. The practice established by
+Charles the Fifth, of postponing the presenting of petitions till the
+supplies had been voted, and the immediate adjournment of the
+legislature afterwards, secured an absolute authority to the princes of
+the house of Austria, that made a fearful change in the ancient
+constitution of Castile.
+
+Yet the meetings of the Cortes, shorn as that body was of its ancient
+privileges, were not without important benefits to the nation. None
+could be better acquainted than the deputies with the actual wants and
+wishes of their constituents. It was a manifest advantage for the king
+to receive this information. It enabled him to take the course best
+suited to the interests of the people, to which he would naturally be
+inclined when he did not regard them as conflicting with his own. Even
+when he did, the strenuous support of their own views by the commons
+might compel him to modify his measures. However absolute the monarch,
+he would naturally shrink from pursuing a policy so odious to the people
+that, if persevered in, it might convert remonstrance into downright
+resistance.
+
+The freedom of discussion among the deputies is attested by the
+independent tone with which in their petitions they denounce the
+manifold abuses in the state. It is honourable to Philip, that he should
+not have attempted to stifle this freedom of debate; though perhaps this
+may be more correctly referred to his policy, which made him willing to
+leave this safety-valve open for the passions of the people. He may have
+been content to flatter them with the image of power, conscious that he
+alone retained the substance of it. However this may have been, the good
+effect of the exercise of these rights, imperfect as they were, by the
+third estate, must be highly estimated. The fact of being called
+together to consult on public affairs gave the people a consideration in
+their own eyes which raised them far above the abject condition of the
+subjects of an Eastern despotism. It cherished in them that love of
+independence which was their birthright, inherited from their ancestors,
+and thus maintained in their bosoms those lofty sentiments which were
+the characteristics of the humbler classes of the Spaniards beyond those
+of any other nation in Christendom.
+
+One feature was wanting to complete the picture of absolute monarchy.
+This was a standing army,--a thing hitherto unknown in Spain. There was,
+indeed, an immense force kept on foot in the time of Charles the Fifth,
+and many of the troops were Spaniards. But they were stationed abroad,
+and were intended solely for foreign enterprises. It is to Philip's time
+that we are to refer the first germs of a permanent military
+establishment, designed to maintain order and obedience at home.
+
+The levies raised for this purpose amounted to twenty companies of
+men-at-arms, which, with the complement of four or five followers to
+each lance, made a force of some strength. It was further swelled by
+five thousand _ginetes_, or light cavalry.[436] These corps were a heavy
+charge on the crown. They were called "the Guards of Castile." The
+men-at-arms, in particular, were an object of great care, and were under
+admirable discipline. Even Philip, who had little relish for military
+affairs, was in the habit of occasionally reviewing them in person. In
+addition to these troops there was a body of thirty thousand militia,
+whom the king could call into the field when necessary. A corps of some
+sixteen hundred horsemen patrolled the southern coast of Andalusia, to
+guard the country from invasion by the African Moslems; and garrisons
+established in fortresses along the frontiers of Spain, both, north and
+south, completed a permanent force for the defence of the kingdom
+against domestic insurrection, as well as foreign invasion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF SPAIN.
+
+The Clergy--Their Subordination to the Crown--The Escorial--Queen Anne.
+
+
+A review of the polity of Castile would be incomplete without a notice
+of the ecclesiastical order, which may well be supposed to have stood
+pre-eminent in such a country, and under such a monarch as Philip the
+Second. Indeed, not only did that prince present himself before the
+world as the great champion of the Faith, but he seemed ever solicitous
+in private life to display his zeal for religion and its ministers. Many
+anecdotes are told of him in connection with this. On one occasion,
+seeing a young girl going within the railing of the altar, he rebuked
+her, saying, "Where the priest enters is no place either for me or
+you."[437] A cavalier who had given a blow to a canon of Toledo he
+sentenced to death.[438]
+
+Under his protection and princely patronage, the Church reached its most
+palmy state. Colleges and convents--in short, religious institutions of
+every kind--were scattered broadcast over the land. The good fathers
+loved pleasant and picturesque sites for their dwellings; and the
+traveller, as he journeyed through the country, was surprised by the
+number of stately edifices which crowned the hill-tops, or rested on
+their slopes, surrounded by territories that spread out for many a
+league over meadows and cultivated fields and pasture-land.
+
+The secular clergy, at least the higher dignitaries, were so well
+endowed as sometimes to eclipse the grandees in the pomp of their
+establishments. In the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, the archbishop of
+Toledo held jurisdiction over fifteen principal towns and a great number
+of villages. His income amounted to full eighty thousand ducats a
+year.[439] In Philip's time the income of the archbishop of Seville
+amounted to the same sum, while that of the see of Toledo had risen to
+two hundred thousand ducats, nearly twice as much as that of the richest
+grandee in the kingdom.[440] In power and opulence, the primate of Spain
+ranked next in Christendom to the pope.
+
+The great source of all this wealth of the ecclesiastical order in
+Castile, as in most other countries, was the benefactions and bequests
+of the pious--of those, more especially, whose piety had been deferred
+till the close of life, when, anxious to make amends for past
+delinquencies, they bestowed the more freely that it was at the expense
+of their heirs. As what was thus bequeathed was locked up by entail, the
+constantly accumulating property of the Church had amounted, in Philip's
+time, if we may take the assertion of the Cortes, to more than one-half
+of the landed property in the kingdom.[441] Thus the burden of providing
+for the expenses of the state fell with increased heaviness on the
+commons. Alienations in mortmain formed the subject of one of their
+earliest remonstrances after Philip's accession, but without effect; and
+though the same petition was urged in very plain language at almost
+every succeeding session, the king still answered that it was not
+expedient to make any change in the existing laws. Besides his goodwill
+to the ecclesiastical order, Philip was occupied with the costly
+construction of the Escorial; and he had probably no mind to see the
+streams of public bounty, which had hitherto flowed so freely into the
+reservoirs of the Church, thus suddenly obstructed, when they were so
+much needed for his own infant institution.
+
+[Sidenote: THE CLERGY.]
+
+While Philip was thus willing to exalt the religious order, already far
+too powerful, he was careful that it should never gain such a height as
+would enable it to overtop the royal authority. Both in the Church and
+in the council--for they were freely introduced into the
+councils--theologians were ever found the most devoted servants of the
+crown. Indeed, it was on the crown that they were obliged to rest all
+their hopes of preferment.
+
+Philip perfectly understood that the control of the clergy must be
+lodged with that power which had the right of nomination to benefices.
+The Roman see, in its usual spirit of encroachment, had long claimed the
+exercise of this right in Castile, as it had done in other European
+states. The great battle with the Church was fought in the time of
+Isabella the Catholic. Fortunately the sceptre was held by a sovereign
+whose loyalty to the Faith was beyond suspicion. From this hard struggle
+she came off victorious; and the government of Castile henceforth
+retained possession of the important prerogative of appointing to vacant
+benefices.
+
+Philip, with all his deference to Rome, was not a man to relinquish any
+of the prerogatives of the crown. A difficulty arose under Pius the
+Fifth, who contended that he still had the right, possessed by former
+popes, of nominating to ecclesiastical offices in Milan, Naples, and
+Sicily, the Italian possessions held by Spain. He complained bitterly of
+the conduct of the councils in those states, which refused to allow the
+publication of his bulls without the royal _exequatur_. Philip, in mild
+terms, expressed his desire to maintain the most amicable relations with
+the see of Rome, provided he was not required to compromise the
+interests of his crown. At the same time he intimated his surprise that
+his holiness should take exceptions at his exercise of the rights of his
+predecessors, to many of whom the Church was indebted for the most
+signal services. The pope was well aware of the importance of
+maintaining a good understanding with so devoted a son of the Church;
+and Philip was allowed to remain henceforth in undisturbed possession of
+this inestimable prerogative.[442]
+
+The powers thus vested in the king he exercised with great discretion.
+With his usual facilities for information he made himself acquainted
+with the characters of the clergy in the different parts of his
+dominions. He was so accurate in his knowledge, that he was frequently
+able to detect an error or omission in the information he received. To
+one who had been giving him an account of a certain ecclesiastic, he
+remarked--"You have told me nothing of his amours." Thus perfectly
+apprised of the characters of the candidates, he was prepared, whenever
+a vacancy occurred, to fill the place with a suitable incumbent.[443]
+
+It was his habit, before preferring an individual to a high office, to
+have proof of his powers by trying them first in some subordinate
+station. In his selection he laid much stress on rank, for the influence
+it carried with it. Yet frequently, when well satisfied of the merits of
+the parties, he promoted those whose humble condition had made them
+little prepared for such, an elevation.[444] There was no more effectual
+way to secure his favour than to show a steady resistance to the
+usurpations of Rome. It was owing, in part at least, to the refusal of
+Quiroga, the bishop of Cuenca, to publish a papal bull without the royal
+assent, that he was raised to the highest dignity in the kingdom, as
+archbishop of Toledo. Philip chose to have a suitable acknowledgment
+from the person on whom he conferred a favour; and once, when an
+ecclesiastic, whom he had made a bishop, went to take possession of his
+see without first expressing his gratitude, the king sent for him back,
+to remind him of his duty.[445] Such an acknowledgment was in the nature
+of a homage rendered to his master on his preferment.
+
+Thus gratitude for the past and hopes for the future were the strong
+ties which bound every prelate to his sovereign. In a difference with
+the Roman see, the Castilian churchman was sure to be found on the side
+of the sovereign, rather than, on that of the pontiff. In his own
+troubles, in like manner, it was to the king, and not to the pope, that
+he was to turn for relief. The king, on the other hand, when pressed by
+those embarrassments with which he was too often surrounded, looked for
+aid to the clergy, who for the most part rendered it cheerfully and in
+liberal measure. Nowhere were the clergy so heavily burdened as in
+Spain.[446] It was computed that at least one-third of their revenues
+was given to the king. Thus completely were the different orders, both
+spiritual and temporal, throughout the monarchy, under the control of
+the sovereign.
+
+A few pages back, while touching on alienations in mortmain, I had
+occasion to allude to the Escorial, that "eighth wonder of the world,"
+as it is proudly styled by the Spaniards. There can be no place more
+proper to give an account of this extraordinary edifice, than the part
+of the narrative in which I have been desirous to throw as much light as
+possible on the character and occupations of Philip. The Escorial
+engrossed the leisure of more than thirty years of his life; it reflects
+in a peculiar manner his tastes, and the austere character of his mind;
+and whatever criticism may be passed on it as a work of art, it cannot
+be denied that, if every other vestige of his reign were to be swept
+away, that wonderful structure would of itself suffice to show the
+grandeur of his plans and the extent of his resources.
+
+The common tradition that Philip built the Escorial in pursuance of a
+vow which he made at the time of the great battle of St. Quentin, the
+10th of August, 1557, has been rejected by modern critics, on the ground
+that contemporary writers, and amongst them the historians of the
+convent, make no mention of the fact. But a recently-discovered document
+leaves little doubt that such a vow was actually made.[447] However this
+may have been, it is certain that the king designed to commemorate the
+event by this structure, as is intimated by its dedication to St.
+Lawrence, the martyr on whose day the victory was gained. The name given
+to the place was _El Sitio de San Lorenzo el Real_. But the monastery
+was better known from the hamlet near which it stood,--_El Escurial_, or
+_El Escorial_,--which latter soon became the orthography generally
+adopted by the Castilians.[448]
+
+[Sidenote: THE ESCORIAL.]
+
+The motives which, after all, operated probably most powerfully on
+Philip, had no connection with the battle of St. Quentin. His father,
+the emperor, had directed by his will that his bones should remain at
+Yuste, until a more suitable place should be provided for them by his
+son. The building now to be erected was designed expressly as a
+mausoleum for Philip's parents, as well as for their descendants of the
+royal line of Austria. But the erection of a religious house on a
+magnificent scale, that would proclaim to the world his devotion to the
+Faith, was the predominant idea in the mind of Philip. It was, moreover,
+a part of his scheme to combine in the plan a palace for himself; for,
+with a taste which he may be said to have inherited from his father, he
+loved to live in the sacred shadows of the cloister. These ideas,
+somewhat incongruous as they may seem, were fully carried out by the
+erection of an edifice dedicated at once to the threefold purpose of a
+palace, a monastery, and a tomb.[449]
+
+Soon after the king's return to Spain, he set about carrying his plan
+into execution. The site which, after careful examination, he selected
+for the building, was among the mountains of the Guadarrama, on the
+borders of New Castile,[450] about eight leagues north-west of Madrid.
+The healthiness of the place and its convenient distance from the
+capital combined with the stern and solitary character of the region, so
+congenial to his taste, to give it the preference over other spots,
+which might have found more favour with persons of a different nature.
+Encompassed by rude and rocky hills, which sometimes soar to the
+gigantic elevation of mountains, it seemed to be shut out completely
+from the world. The vegetation was of a thin and stunted growth, seldom
+spreading out into the luxuriant foliage of the lower regions; and the
+winds swept down from the neighbouring sierra with the violence of a
+hurricane. Yet the air was salubrious, and the soil was nourished by
+springs of the purest water. To add to its recommendations, a quarry,
+close at hand, of excellent stone, somewhat resembling granite in
+appearance, readily supplied the materials for building,--a
+circumstance, considering the vastness of the work, of no little
+importance.
+
+The architect who furnished the plans, and on whom the king relied for
+superintending their execution, was Juan-Bautista de Toledo. He was born
+in Spain, and, early discovering uncommon talents for his profession,
+was sent to Italy. Here he studied the principles of his art, under the
+great masters who were then filling their native land with those
+monuments of genius that furnished the best study to the artist. Toledo
+imbibed their spirit, and under their tuition acquired that simple,
+indeed severe taste, which formed a contrast to the prevalent tone of
+Spanish architecture, but which, happily, found favour with his royal
+patron.
+
+Before a stone of the new edifice was laid, Philip had taken care to
+provide himself with the tenants who were to occupy it. At a general
+chapter of the Jeronymite fraternity, a prior was chosen for the convent
+of the Escorial, which was to consist of fifty members, soon increased
+to double that number. Philip had been induced to give the preference to
+the Jeronymite order, partly from their general reputation for ascetic
+piety, and in part from the regard shown for them by his father, who had
+chosen a convent of that order as the place of his last retreat. The
+monks were speedily transferred to the village of the Escorial, where
+they continued to dwell until accommodations were prepared for them in
+the magnificent pile which they were thenceforth to occupy.
+
+Their temporary habitation was of the meanest kind, like most of the
+buildings in the hamlet. It was without window or chimney, and the rain
+found its way through the dilapidated roof of the apartment which they
+used as a chapel; so that they were obliged to protect themselves by a
+coverlet stretched above their heads. A rude altar was raised at one end
+of the chapel, over which was scrawled on the wall, with charcoal, the
+figure of a crucifix.[451]
+
+The king, on his visits to the place, was lodged in the house of the
+curate, in not much better repair than the other dwellings in the
+hamlet. While there, he was punctual in his attendance at mass, when a
+rude seat was prepared for him near the choir, consisting of a
+three-legged stool, defended from vulgar eyes by a screen of such old
+and tattered cloth that the inquisitive spectator might, without
+difficulty, see him through the holes in it.[452] He was so near the
+choir, that the monk who stood next to him could hardly avoid being
+brought into contact with the royal person. The Jeronymite who tells the
+story assures us that Brother Antonio used to weep as he declared that
+more than once, when he cast a furtive glance at the monarch, he saw his
+eyes filled with tears. "Such," says the good father, "were the devout
+and joyful feelings with which the king, as he gazed on the poverty
+around him, meditated his lofty plans for converting this poverty into a
+scene of grandeur more worthy of the worship to be performed
+there."[453]
+
+The brethren were much edified by the humility shown by Philip when
+attending the services in this wretched cabin. They often told the story
+of his one day coming late to matins, when, unwilling to interrupt the
+services, he quietly took his seat by the entrance, on a rude bench, at
+the upper end of which a peasant was sitting. He remained some time
+before his presence was observed, when the monks conducted him to his
+tribune.[454]
+
+On the twenty-third of April, 1563, the first stone of the monastery was
+laid. On the twentieth of August following, the corner-stone of the
+church was also laid, with still greater pomp and solemnity. The royal
+confessor, the bishop of Cuenca, arrayed in his pontificals, presided
+over the ceremonies. The king was present, and laid the stone with his
+own hands. The principal nobles of the court were in attendance, and
+there was a great concourse of spectators, both ecclesiastics and
+laymen; the solemn services were concluded by the brotherhood, who
+joined in an anthem of thanksgiving and praise to the Almighty, to whom
+so glorious a monument was to be reared in this mountain
+wilderness.[455]
+
+[Sidenote: THE ESCORIAL.]
+
+The rude sierra now swarmed with life. The ground was covered with tents
+and huts. The busy hum of labour mingled with the songs of the
+labourers, which, from their various dialects, betrayed the different,
+and oftentimes distant, provinces from which they had come. In this
+motley host the greatest order and decorum prevailed; nor were the
+peaceful occupations of the day interrupted by any indecent brawls.
+
+As the work advanced, Philip's visits to the Escorial were longer and
+more frequent. He had always shown his love for the retirement of the
+cloister, by passing some days of every year in it. Indeed, he was in
+the habit of keeping Holy Week not far from the scene of his present
+labours, at the convent of Guisando. In his present monastic retreat he
+had the additional interest afforded by the contemplation of the great
+work, which seemed to engage as much of his thoughts as any of the
+concerns of government.
+
+Philip had given a degree of attention to the study of the fine arts
+seldom found in persons of his condition. He was a connoisseur in
+painting, and, above all, in architecture, making a careful study of its
+principles, and occasionally furnishing designs with his own hand.[456]
+No prince of his time left behind him so many proofs of his taste and
+magnificence in building. The royal mint at Segovia, the hunting-seat of
+the Pardo, the pleasant residence of Aranjuez, the alcazar of Madrid,
+the "Armeria Real," and other noble works which adorned his infant
+capital, were either built or greatly embellished by him. The land was
+covered with structures both civil and religious, which rose under the
+royal patronage. Churches and convents--the latter in lamentable
+profusion--constantly met the eye of the traveller. The general style of
+their execution was simple in the extreme. Some, like the great
+cathedral of Valladolid, of more pretension, but still showing the same
+austere character in their designs, furnished excellent models of
+architecture to counteract the meretricious tendencies of the age.
+Structures of a different kind from these were planted by Philip along
+the frontiers in the north and on the southern coasts of the kingdom;
+and the voyager in the Mediterranean beheld fortress after fortress
+crowning the heights above the shore, for its defence against the
+Barbary corsair. Nor was the king's passion for building confined to
+Spain. Wherever his armies penetrated in the semi-civilized regions of
+the New World, the march of the conqueror was sure to be traced by the
+ecclesiastical and military structures which rose in his rear.
+
+Fortunately, similarity of taste led to the most perfect harmony between
+the monarch and his architect, in their conferences on the great work
+which was to crown the architectural glories of Philip's reign. The king
+inspected the details, and watched over every step in the progress of
+the building, with as much care as Toledo himself. In order to judge of
+the effect from a distance, he was in the habit of climbing the
+mountains at a spot about half a league from the monastery, where a kind
+of natural chair was formed by the crags. Here, with his spyglass in his
+hand, he would sit for hours, and gaze on the complicated structure
+growing up below. The place is still known as the "king's seat."[457]
+
+It was certainly no slight proof of the deep interest which Philip took
+in the work, that he was content to exchange his palace at Madrid for a
+place that afforded him no better accommodations than the
+poverty-stricken village of the Escorial. In 1571 he made an important
+change in these accommodations, by erecting a chapel which might afford
+the monks a more decent house of worship than their old weather-beaten
+hovel; and with this he combined a comfortable apartment for himself. In
+these new quarters he passed still more of his time in cloistered
+seclusion than he had done before. Far from confining his attention to
+a supervision of the Escorial, he brought his secretaries and his papers
+along with him, read here his despatches from abroad, and kept up a busy
+correspondence with all parts of his dominions. He did four times the
+amount of work here, says a Jeronymite, that he did in the same number
+of days in the capital.[458] He used to boast that, thus hidden from the
+world, with a little bit of paper, he ruled over both hemispheres. That
+he did not always wisely rule, is proved by more than one of his
+despatches relating to the affairs of Flanders, which issued from this
+consecrated place. Here he received accounts of the proceedings of his
+heretic subjects in the Netherlands, and of the Morisco insurgents in
+Granada. And as he pondered on their demolition of church and convent,
+and their desecration of the most holy symbols of the Catholic faith, he
+doubtless felt a proud satisfaction in proving his own piety to the
+world by the erection of the most sumptuous edifice ever dedicated to
+the Cross.
+
+In 1577, the Escorial was so far advanced towards its completion as to
+afford accommodations not merely for Philip and his personal attendants,
+but for many of the court, who were in the habit of spending some time
+there with the king during the summer. On one of these occasions, an
+accident occurred which had nearly been attended with most disastrous
+consequences to the building.
+
+A violent thunderstorm was raging in the mountains, and the lightning
+struck one of the great towers of the monastery. In a short time the
+upper portion of the building was in a blaze. So much of it,
+fortunately, was of solid materials, that the fire made slow progress.
+But the difficulty of bringing water to bear on it was extreme. It was
+eleven o'clock at night when the fire broke out, and in the orderly
+household of Philip all had retired to rest. They were soon roused by
+the noise. The king took his station on the opposite tower, and watched
+with deep anxiety the progress of the flames. The duke of Alva was one
+among the guests. Though sorely afflicted with the gout at the time, he
+wrapped his dressing-gown about him, and climbed to a spot which
+afforded a still nearer view of the conflagration. Here the "good duke"
+at once assumed the command, and gave his orders with as much promptness
+and decision as on the field of battle.[459]
+
+All the workmen, as well as the neighbouring peasantry, were assembled
+there. The men showed the same spirit of subordination which they had
+shown throughout the erection of the building. The duke's orders were
+implicitly obeyed; and more than one instance is recorded of daring
+self-devotion among the workmen, who toiled as if conscious they were
+under the eye of their sovereign. The tower trembled under the fury of
+the flames; and the upper portion of it threatened every moment to fall
+in ruins. Great fears were entertained that it would crush the hospital,
+situated in that part of the monastery. Fortunately, it fell in an
+opposite direction, carrying with it a splendid chime of bells that was
+lodged in it, but doing no injury to the spectators. The loss which bore
+most heavily on the royal heart was that of sundry inestimable relics
+which perished in the flames. But Philip's sorrow was mitigated when he
+learned that a bit of the true cross, and the right arm of St. Lawrence,
+the martyred patron of the Escorial, were rescued from the flames. At
+length, by incredible efforts, the fire, which had lasted till six in
+the morning, was happily extinguished, and Philip withdrew to his
+chamber, where his first act, we are told, was to return thanks to the
+Almighty for the preservation of the building consecrated to his
+service.[460]
+
+[Sidenote: THE ESCORIAL.]
+
+The king was desirous that as many of the materials as possible for the
+structure should be collected from his own dominions. These were so
+vast, and so various in their productions, that they furnished nearly
+every article required for the construction of the edifice, as well as
+for its interior decoration. The grey stone, of which its walls were
+formed, was drawn from a neighbouring quarry. It was called
+_berroquena_,--a stone bearing a resemblance to granite, though not so
+hard. The blocks hewn from the quarries, and dressed there, were of such
+magnitude as sometimes to require forty or fifty yoke of oxen to drag
+them. The jasper came from the neighbourhood of Burgo de Osma. The more
+delicate marbles, of a great variety of colours, were furnished by the
+mountain-ranges in the south of the Peninsula. The costly and elegant
+fabrics were many of them supplied by native artisans. Such were the
+damasks and velvets of Granada. Other cities, as Madrid, Toledo, and
+Saragossa, showed the proficiency of native art in curious manufactures
+of bronze and iron, and occasionally of the more precious metals.
+
+Yet Philip was largely indebted to his foreign possessions, especially
+those in Italy and the Low Countries, for the embellishment of the
+interior of the edifice, which, in its sumptuous style of decoration,
+presented a contrast to the stern simplicity of its exterior. Milan, so
+renowned at that period for its fine workmanship in steel, gold, and
+precious stones, contributed many exquisite specimens of art. The walls
+were clothed with gorgeous tapestries from the Flemish looms. Spanish
+convents vied with each other in furnishing embroideries for the altars.
+Even the rude colonies in the New World had their part in the great
+work, and the American forests supplied their cedar and ebony and
+richly-tinted woods, which displayed all their magical brilliancy of
+colour under the hands of the Castilian workman.[461]
+
+Though desirous, as far as possible, to employ the products of his own
+dominions, and to encourage native art, in one particular he resorted
+almost exclusively to foreigners. The oil-paintings and frescoes which
+profusely decorated the walls and ceilings of the Escorial were executed
+by artists drawn chiefly from Italy, whose schools of design were still
+in their glory. But of all living painters, Titian was the one whom
+Philip, like his father, most delighted to honour. To the king's
+generous patronage the world is indebted for some of that great master's
+noblest productions, which found a fitting place on the walls of the
+Escorial.
+
+The prices which Philip paid enabled him to command the services of the
+most eminent artists. Many anecdotes are told of his munificence. He
+was, however, a severe critic. He did not prematurely disclose his
+opinion. But when the hour came, the painter had sometimes the
+mortification to find the work he had executed, it may be with greater
+confidence than skill, peremptorily rejected, or at best condemned to
+some obscure corner of the building. This was the fate of an Italian
+artist, of much more pretension than power, who, after repeated failures
+according to the judgment of the king--which later critics have not
+reversed--was dismissed to his own country. But even here Philip dealt
+in a magnanimous way with the unlucky painter. "It is not Zuccaro's
+fault," he said, "but that of the persons who brought him here;" and
+when he sent him back to Italy, he gave him a considerable sum of money
+in addition to his large salary.[462]
+
+Before this magnificent pile, in a manner the creation of his own taste,
+Philip's nature appeared to expand, and to discover some approach to
+those generous sympathies for humanity which elsewhere seemed to have
+been denied him. He would linger for hours while he watched the labours
+of the artist, making occasional criticisms, and laying his hand
+familiarly on his shoulder.[463] He seemed to put off the coldness and
+reserve which formed so essential a part of his character. On one
+occasion, it is said, a stranger, having come into the Escorial when the
+king was there, mistook him for one of the officials, and asked him some
+questions about the pictures. Philip, without undeceiving the man,
+humoured his mistake, and good-naturedly undertook the part of
+_cicerone_, by answering his inquiries, and showing him some of the
+objects most worth seeing.[464] Similar anecdotes have been told of
+others. What is strange is, that Philip should have acted the part of
+the good-natured man.
+
+In 1584, the masonry of the Escorial was completed. Twenty-one years had
+elapsed since the first stone of the monastery was laid. This certainly
+must be regarded as a short period for the erection of so stupendous a
+pile. St. Peter's church, with which one naturally compares it as the
+building nearest in size and magnificence, occupied more than a century
+in its erection, which spread over the reigns of at least eighteen
+popes. But the Escorial, with the exception of the subterraneous chapel
+constructed by Philip the Fourth for the burial-place of the Spanish
+princes, was executed in the reign of one monarch. That monarch held in
+his hands the revenues of both the Old World and the New; and as he
+gave, in some sort, a personal supervision to the work, we may be sure
+that no one was allowed to sleep on his post.
+
+Yet the architect who designed the building was not permitted to
+complete it. Long before it was finished, the hand of Toledo had
+mouldered in the dust. By his death it seemed that Philip had met with
+an irreparable loss. He felt it to be so himself; and with great
+distrust consigned the important task to Juan de Herrera, a young
+Asturian. But though young, Herrera had been formed on the best models;
+for he was the favourite pupil of Toledo, and it soon appeared that he
+had not only imbibed the severe and elevated tastes of his master, but
+that his own genius fully enabled him to comprehend all Toledo's great
+conceptions, and to carry them out as perfectly as that artist could
+have done himself. Philip saw with satisfaction that he had made no
+mistake in his selection. He soon conferred as freely with the new
+architect as he had done with his predecessor. He even showed him
+greater favour, settling on him a salary of a thousand ducats a year,
+and giving him an office in the royal household, and the cross of St.
+Iago. Herrera had the happiness to complete the Escorial. Indeed, he
+lived some six years after its completion. He left several works, both
+civil and ecclesiastical, which perpetuate his fame. But the Escorial is
+the monument by which his name, and that of his master, Toledo, have
+come down to posterity as those of the two greatest architects of whom
+Spain can boast.
+
+This is not the place for criticism on the architectural merits of the
+Escorial. Such criticism more properly belongs to a treatise on art. It
+has been my object simply to lay before the reader such an account of
+the execution of this great work as would enable him to form some idea
+of the object to which Philip devoted so large a portion of his time,
+and which so eminently reflected his peculiar cast of mind.
+
+[Sidenote: THE ESCORIAL.]
+
+Critics have greatly differed from each other in their judgments of the
+Escorial. Few foreigners have been found to acquiesce in the undiluted
+panegyric of those Castilians who pronounce it the eighth wonder of the
+world.[465] Yet it cannot be denied that few foreigners are qualified to
+decide on the merits of a work, to judge of which correctly requires a
+perfect understanding of the character of the country in which it was
+built, and of the monarch who built it. The traveller who gazes on its
+long lines of cold grey stone, scarcely broken by an ornament, feels a
+dreary sensation creeping over him, while he contrasts it with the
+lighter and more graceful edifices to which his eye has been accustomed.
+But he may read in this the true expression of the founder's character.
+Philip did not aim at the beautiful, much less at the festive and
+cheerful. The feelings which he desired to raise in the spectator were
+of that solemn, indeed sombre complexion, which corresponded best with
+his own religious faith.
+
+Whatever defects may be charged on the Escorial, it is impossible to
+view it from a distance, and see the mighty pile as it emerges from the
+gloomy depths of the mountains, without feeling how perfectly it
+conforms in its aspect to the wild and melancholy scenery of the sierra.
+Nor can one enter the consecrated precincts without confessing the
+genius of the place, and experiencing sensations of a mysterious awe as
+he wanders through the desolate halls, which fancy peoples with the
+solemn images of the past.
+
+The architect of the building was embarrassed by more than one
+difficulty of a very peculiar kind. It was not simply a monastery that
+he was to build. The same edifice, as we have seen, was to comprehend at
+once a convent, a palace, and a tomb. It was no easy problem to
+reconcile objects so discordant, and to infuse into them a common
+principle of unity. It is no reproach to the builder that he did not
+perfectly succeed in this, and that the palace should impair the
+predominant tone of feeling raised by the other parts of the structure,
+looking in fact like an excrescence, rather than an integral portion of
+the edifice.
+
+Another difficulty, of a more whimsical nature, imposed on the
+architect, was the necessity of accommodating the plan of the building
+to the form of a gridiron--as typical of the kind of martyrdom suffered
+by the patron saint of the Escorial. Thus the long lines of cloisters,
+with their intervening courts, served for the bars of the instrument.
+The four lofty spires at the corners of the monastery, represented its
+legs inverted; and the palace, extending its slender length on the east,
+furnished the awkward handle.
+
+It is impossible for language to convey any adequate idea of a work of
+art. Yet architecture has this advantage over the sister arts of design,
+that the mere statement of the dimensions helps us much in forming a
+conception of the work. A few of these dimensions will serve to give an
+idea of the magnitude of the edifice. They are reported to us by Los
+Santos, a Jeronymite monk, who has left one of the best accounts of the
+Escorial.
+
+The main building, or monastery, he estimates at seven hundred and forty
+Castilian feet in length by five hundred and eighty in breadth. Its
+greatest height, measured to the central cross above the dome of the
+great church, is three hundred and fifteen feet. The whole circumference
+of the Escorial, including the palace, he reckons at two thousand nine
+hundred and eighty feet, or near three-fifths of a mile. The patient
+inquirer tells us there were no less than twelve thousand doors and
+windows in the building; that the weight of the keys alone amounted to
+fifty _arrobas_, or twelve hundred and fifty pounds, and, finally, that
+there were sixty-eight fountains playing in the halls and courts of this
+enormous pile.[466]
+
+The cost of its construction and interior decoration, we are informed by
+Father Siguenca, amounted to very near six millions of ducats.[467]
+Siguenca was prior of the monastery, and had access, of course, to the
+best sources of information. That he did not exaggerate, may be inferred
+from the fact that he was desirous to relieve the building from the
+imputation of any excessive expenditure incurred in its erection--a
+common theme of complaint, it seems, and one that was urged with strong
+marks of discontent by contemporary writers. Probably no single edifice
+ever contained such an amount and variety of inestimable treasures as
+the Escorial,--so many paintings and sculptures by the greatest
+masters,--so many articles of exquisite workmanship, composed of the
+most precious materials. It would be a mistake to suppose that, when the
+building was finished, the labours of Philip were at an end. One might
+almost say they were but begun. The casket was completed; but the
+remainder of his days was to be passed in filling it with the rarest and
+richest gems. This was a labour never to be completed. It was to be
+bequeathed to his successors, who with more or less taste, but with the
+revenues of the Indies at their disposal, continued to lavish them on
+the embellishment of the Escorial.[468]
+
+Philip the Second set the example. He omitted nothing which could give a
+value, real or imaginary, to his museum. He gathered at an immense cost
+several hundred cases of the bones of saints and martyrs, depositing
+them in rich silver shrines, of elaborate workmanship. He collected four
+thousand volumes, in various languages, especially the Oriental, as the
+basis of the fine library of the Escorial.
+
+The care of successive princes, who continued to spend there a part of
+every year, preserved the palace-monastery and its contents from the
+rude touch of Time. But what the hand of Time had spared, the hand of
+violence destroyed. The French, who in the early part of the present
+century swept like a horde of Vandals over the Peninsula, did not
+overlook the Escorial. For in it they saw the monument designed to
+commemorate their own humiliating defeat. A body of dragoons under La
+Houssaye burst into the monastery in the winter of 1808; and the ravages
+of a few days demolished what it had cost years and the highest efforts
+of art to construct. The apprehension of similar violence from the
+Carlists, in 1837, led to the removal of the finest paintings to Madrid.
+The Escorial ceased to be a royal residence: tenantless and unprotected,
+it was left to the fury of the blasts which swept down the hills of the
+Guadarrama.
+
+The traveller who now visits the place will find its condition very
+different from what it was in the beginning of the century. The bare and
+mildewed walls no longer glow with the magical tints of Raphael and
+Titian, and the sober pomp of the Castilian school. The exquisite
+specimens of art with which the walls were filled have been wantonly
+demolished, or more frequently pilfered for the sake of the rich
+materials. The monks, so long the guardians of the place, have shared
+the fate of their brethren elsewhere, since the suppression of religious
+houses, and their venerable forms have disappeared.
+
+[Sidenote: QUEEN ANNE.]
+
+Silence and solitude reign throughout the courts, undisturbed by any
+sound save that of the ceaseless winds, which seem to be ever chanting
+their melancholy dirge over the faded glories of the Escorial. There is
+little now to remind one of the palace or of the monastery. Of the three
+great objects to which the edifice was devoted, one alone
+survives,--that of a mausoleum for the royal line of Castile. The spirit
+of the dead broods over the place,--of the sceptred dead, who lie in the
+same dark chamber where they have lain for centuries, unconscious of the
+changes that have been going on all around them.
+
+During the latter half of Philip's reign, he was in the habit of
+repairing with his court to the Escorial, and passing here a part of the
+summer. Hither he brought his young queen, Anne of Austria,--when the
+gloomy pile assumed an unwonted appearance of animation. In a previous
+chapter, the reader has seen some notice of his preparations for his
+marriage with that princess, in less than two years after he had
+consigned the lovely Isabella to the tomb. Anne had been already
+plighted to the unfortunate Don Carlos. Philip's marriage with her
+afforded him the melancholy triumph of a second time supplanting his
+son. She was his niece; for the empress Mary, her mother, was the
+daughter of Charles the Fifth. There was, moreover, a great disparity in
+their years; for the Austrian princess, having been born in Castile
+during the regency of her parents, in 1549, was at this time but
+twenty-one years of age, less than half the age of Philip. It does not
+appear that her father, the emperor Maximilian, made any objection to
+the match. If he felt any, he was too politic to prevent a marriage
+which would place his daughter on the throne of the most potent monarchy
+in Europe.
+
+It was arranged that the princess should proceed to Spain by the way of
+the Netherlands. In September, 1570, Anne bade a last adieu to her
+father's court, and with a stately retinue set out on her long journey.
+On entering Flanders, she was received with great pomp by the duke of
+Alva, at the head of the Flemish nobles. Soon after her arrival, Queen
+Elizabeth despatched a squadron of eight vessels, with offers to
+transport her to Spain, and an invitation for her to visit England on
+her way. These offers were courteously declined; and the German
+princess, escorted by Count Bossu, captain-general of the Flemish navy,
+with a gallant squadron, was fortunate in reaching the place of her
+destination after a voyage of less than a week. On the third of October
+she landed at Santander, on the northern coast of Spain, where she found
+the archbishop of Seville and the duke of Bejar, with a brilliant train
+of followers, waiting to receive her.
+
+Under this escort, Anne was conducted by the way of Burgos and
+Valladolid to the ancient city of Segovia. In the great towns through
+which she passed she was entertained in a style suited to her rank; and
+everywhere along her route she was greeted with the hearty acclamations
+of the people: for the match was popular with the nation; and the Cortes
+had urged the king to expedite it as much as possible.[469] The
+Spaniards longed for a male heir to the crown; and since the death of
+Carlos, Philip had only daughters remaining to him.
+
+In Segovia, where the marriage ceremony was to be performed, magnificent
+preparations had been made for the reception of the princess. As she
+approached that city, she was met by a large body of the local militia,
+dressed in gay uniforms, and by the municipality of the place, arrayed
+in their robes of office and mounted on horseback. With this brave
+escort she entered the gates. The streets were ornamented with beautiful
+fountains, and spanned by triumphal arches, under which the princess
+proceeded, amidst the shouts of the populace, to the great
+cathedral.[470]
+
+Anne, then in the bloom of youth, is described as having a rich and
+delicate complexion. Her figure was good, her deportment gracious, and
+she rode her richly-caparisoned palfrey with natural ease and dignity.
+Her not very impartial chronicler tells us that the spectators
+particularly admired the novelty of her Bohemian costume, her riding-hat
+gaily ornamented with feathers, and her short mantle of crimson velvet
+richly fringed with gold.[471]
+
+After _Te Deum_ had been chanted, the splendid procession took its way
+to the far-famed _alcazar_, that palace-fortress, originally built by
+the Moors, which now served both as a royal residence and as a place of
+confinement for prisoners of state. Here it was that the unfortunate
+Montigny passed many a weary month of captivity; and less than three
+months had elapsed since he had been removed from the place which was so
+soon to become the scene of royal festivity, and consigned to the fatal
+fortress of Simancas, to perish by the hand of the midnight executioner.
+Anne, it may be remembered, was said, on her journey through the Low
+Countries, to have promised Montigny's family to intercede with her lord
+in his behalf. But the king, perhaps willing to be spared the
+awkwardness of refusing the first boon asked by his young bride,
+disposed of his victim soon after her landing, while she was yet in the
+north.
+
+Anne entered the _alcazar_ amidst salvoes of artillery. She found there
+the good Princess Joanna, Philip's sister, who received her with the
+same womanly kindness which she had shown twelve years before to
+Elizabeth of France, when, on a similar occasion, she made her first
+entrance into Castile. The marriage was appointed to take place on the
+following day, the fourteenth of November. Philip, it is said, obtained
+his first view of his betrothed when, mingling in disguise among the
+cavalcade of courtiers, he accompanied her entrance into the
+capital.[472] When he had led his late queen, Isabella, to the altar,
+some white hairs on his temples attracted her attention.[473] During the
+ten years which had since elapsed, the cares of office had wrought the
+same effect on him as on his father, and turned his head prematurely
+grey. The marriage was solemnized with great pomp in the cathedral of
+Segovia. The service was performed by the archbishop of Seville. The
+spacious building was crowded to overflowing with spectators, among whom
+were the highest dignitaries of the Church and the most illustrious of
+the nobility of Spain.[474]
+
+During the few days which followed, while the royal pair remained in
+Segovia, the city was abandoned to jubilee. The auspicious event was
+celebrated by public illuminations and by magnificent _fetes_, at which
+the king and queen danced in the presence of the whole court, who stood
+around in respectful silence.[475] On the eighteenth, the new-married
+couple proceeded to Madrid, where such splendid preparations had been
+made for their reception as evinced the loyalty of the capital.
+
+As soon as the building of the Escorial was sufficiently advanced to
+furnish suitable accommodations for his young queen, Philip passed a
+part of every summer in its cloistered solitudes, which had more
+attraction for him than any other of his residences. The presence of
+Anne and her courtly train diffused something like an air of gaiety over
+the grand but gloomy pile, to which it had been little accustomed. Among
+other diversions for her entertainment, we find mention made of _autos
+sacramentales_, those religious dramas that remind one of the ancient
+Mysteries and Moralities which entertained our English ancestors. These
+_autos_ were so much in favour with the Spaniards as to keep possession
+of the stage longer than in most other countries; nor did they receive
+their full development until they had awakened the genius of Calderon.
+
+[Sidenote: QUEEN ANNE.]
+
+It was a pen, however, bearing little resemblance to that of Calderon
+which furnished these edifying dramas. They proceeded, probably, from
+some Jeronymite gifted with a more poetic vein than his brethren. The
+actors were taken from among the pupils in the seminary established in
+the Escorial. Anne, who appears to have been simple in her tastes, is
+said to have found much pleasure in these exhibitions, and in such
+recreation as could be afforded her by excursions into the wild,
+romantic country that surrounded the monastery. Historians have left us
+but few particulars of her life and character,--much fewer than of her
+lovely predecessor. Such accounts as we have, represent her as of an
+amiable disposition, and addicted to pious works. She was rarely idle,
+and employed much of her time in needlework, leaving many specimens of
+her skill in this way in the decorations of the convents and churches. A
+rich piece of embroidery, wrought by her hands and those of her maidens,
+was long preserved in the royal chapel, under the name of "Queen Anne's
+tapestry."
+
+Her wedded life was destined not to be a long one,--only two years
+longer than that of Isabella. She was blessed, however, with a more
+numerous progeny than either of her predecessors. She had four sons and
+a daughter. But all died in infancy or early childhood, except the third
+son, who, as Philip the Third, lived to take his place in the royal
+dynasty of Castile.
+
+The queen died on the twenty-sixth of October, 1580, in the thirty-first
+year of her age, and the eleventh of her reign. A singular anecdote is
+told in connection with her death. This occurred at Badajoz, where the
+court was then established, as a convenient place for overlooking the
+war in which the country was at that time engaged with Portugal. While
+there the king fell ill. The symptoms were of the most alarming
+character. The queen, in her distress, implored the Almighty to spare a
+life so important to the welfare of the kingdom and of the Church, and
+instead of it to accept the sacrifice of her own. Heaven, says the
+chronicler, as the result showed, listened to her prayer.[476] The king
+recovered; and the queen fell ill of a disorder which in a few days
+terminated fatally. Her remains, after lying in state for some time,
+were transported with solemn pomp to the Escorial, where they enjoyed
+the melancholy pre-eminence of being laid in the quarter of the
+mausoleum reserved exclusively for kings and the mothers of kings. Such
+was the end of Anne of Austria, the fourth and last wife of Philip the
+Second.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] "Que ningun Moro ni Mora seran apremiados a ser Christianos contra
+su voluntad; y que si alguna doncella, o casada, o viuda, por razon de
+algunas se quisiere tornar Christiana, tampoco sera recebida, hasta ser
+interrogada." See the original treaty as given _in extenso_ by Marmol,
+Rebelion de los Moriscos (Madrid, 1797), tom. i. pp. 88-98.
+
+[2] "Y que pues habian sido rebeldes, y por ello merecian pena de muerte
+y perdimento de bienes, el perdon que les concediese fuese condicional,
+con que se tornasen Christianos, o dexasen la tierra."--Ibid. p. 122.
+
+[3] The reader curious in the matter will find a full account of it in
+the History of Ferdinand and Isabella, part II. chapters 6, 7.
+
+[4] Advertimientos de Don Geronimo Corella sobre la Conversion de los
+Moriscos del Reyno de Valencia, MS.
+
+[5] "Sin tratar de instruir a cada uno en particular ni de examinar los
+ni saber su voluntad los baptizaron a manadas y de modo que algunos de
+ellos, segun es fama, pusieron pleito que no les avia tocado el agua que
+en comun les hechavan."--Ibid.
+
+[6] Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. pp. 133-155.--Bleda,
+Coronica de los Moros de Espana (Valencia, 1618), p.
+656.--Advertimientos de Corella, MS.--Ferreras, Hist. Generale
+d'Espagne, tom. ix. pp. 65, 68.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+55.
+
+The last writer says that, besides the largess to the emperor, the
+Moriscoes were canny enough to secure the good-will of his ministers by
+a liberal supply of doubloons to them also.--"Sirvieron al Emperador con
+ochenta mil ducados. Aprovecholes esto, y buena suma de doblones que
+dieron a los privados para que Carlos suspendiesse la execucion deste
+acuerdo."
+
+[7] Calderon, in his "Amar despues de la Muerte," has shed the
+splendours of his muse over the green and sunny spots that glitter like
+emeralds amidst the craggy wilds of the Alpujarras,
+
+ "Porque entre puntas y puntas
+ Hay valles que la hermosean,
+ Campos que la fertilizan,
+ Jardines que la deleitan.
+ Toda ella esta poblada
+ De villages y de aldeas;
+ Tal, que, cuando el sol se pono
+ A las vislumbres que deja,
+ Parecen riscos nacidos
+ Concavos entre las penas,
+ Que rodaron de la cumbre
+ Aunque a la falda no llegan."
+
+[8] Senor de Gayangos, correcting a blunder of Casiri on the subject,
+tells us that the Arabic name of the Alpujarras was _Al-busherat_,
+signifying "mountains abounding in pastures."--See that treasure of
+Oriental learning, the History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain
+(London, 1843), vol. ii. p. 515.
+
+[9] Such was the exemption from certain duties paid by the Christians in
+their trade with the Barbary coast--a singular and not very politic
+provision.--"Que si los Moros que entraren debaxo de estas
+capitulaciones y conciertos, quisieren ir con sus mercaderias a tratar y
+contratar en Berberia, se les dara licencia para poderlo hacer
+libremente, y lo mesmo en todos los lugares de Castilla y de la
+Andalucia, sin pagar portazgos, ni los otros derechos que los
+Christianos acostumbran pagar."--Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom.
+i. p. 93.
+
+[10] Such is the opinion expressed by the author of the
+"_Advertimientos_," whose remarks--having particular reference to
+Valencia--are conceived in a spirit of candour, and of charity towards
+the Moslems, rarely found in a Spaniard of the sixteenth century.--"De
+donde," he says, "colije claramente que el no sanar estos enfermos hasta
+agora no se puede imputar a ser incurable la enfermedad, si no a averse
+errado la cura, y tambien se vee que hasta oy no estan bastamente
+descargados delante de Dios nuestro Senor aquellos a quien toca este
+negocio, pues no han puesto los medios que Christo nuestro Senor tiene
+ordenados para la cura de este mal."--MS.
+
+[11] "Forzandoles con injurias y penas pecuniarias y justiciando a
+algunos de ellos."--Ibid.
+
+Mendoza, speaking of a somewhat later period, just before the outbreak,
+briefly alludes to the fact that the Inquisition was then beginning to
+worry the Moriscoes more than usual:--"Porque la Inquisicion los comenzo
+a apretar mas de lo ordinario."--Guerra de Granada (Valencia, 1776), p.
+20.
+
+[12] Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. p. 135.
+
+[13] Ibid. tom. ii. p. 338.--Ordenanzas de Granada, fol. 375, ap.
+Circourt, Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne (Paris, 1846), tom. ii. p. 267.
+
+The penalty for violating the above ordinance was six years' hard labour
+in the galleys. That for counterfeiting the stamp of the Mendoza arms
+was death. _Vae victis!_
+
+[14] The name of Mendoza, which occupied for so many generations a
+prominent place in arms, in politics, and in letters, makes its first
+appearance in Spanish history as far back as the beginning of the
+thirteenth century.--Mariana, Historia de Espana, tom. i. p. 676.
+
+[15] M. de Circourt in his interesting volumes, has given a minute
+account--much too minute for these pages--of the first developments of
+the insurrectionary spirit of the Moriscoes, in which he shows a very
+careful study of the subject.--Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom. ii. pp.
+268 et seq.
+
+[16] Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. ix. p. 524.--Marmol, Rebelion de
+los Moriscos, tom. i. p. 142.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+55.
+
+[17] Such was the judgment of the acute Venetian who, as one of the
+train of the minister Tiepolo, obtained a near view of what was passing
+in the court of Philip the Second.--"Levato di bassissimo stato dal re,
+e posto in tanta grandezza in pochi anni, per esser huomo da bene,
+libero et schietto, et perche S. M. vuol tener bassi li grandi di
+Spagna, conoscendo l' altierissima natura loro."--Gachard, Relations des
+Ambassadeurs Venitiens sur Charles-Quint et Philippe II. (Bruxelles,
+1855), p. 175.
+
+[18] This remarkable ordinance may be found in the Nueva Recopilacion
+(ed. 1640), lib. viii. tit. 2, leyes 13-18.
+
+The most severe penalties were those directed against the heinous
+offence of indulging in warm baths. For a second repetition of this, the
+culprit was sentenced to six years' labour in the galleys and the
+confiscation of half his estates.
+
+[19] "De los enemigos los menos."--Circourt gives a version of the whole
+of the professor's letter, with his precious commentary on this text.
+(Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom. ii. p. 278.) According to Ferreras,
+Philip highly relished the maxim of his ghostly counsellor.--Hist.
+d'Espagne, tom. ix. p. 525.
+
+[20] Cabrera, throwing the responsibility of the subsequent troubles on
+Espinosa and Deza, sarcastically remarks that "two cowls had the
+ordering of an affair which had been better left to men with helmets on
+their heads."--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. vii, cap. 21.
+
+[21] Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. pp. 147-151,--Circourt,
+Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom. ii. p. 283.--Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne,
+tom. ix. p. 535.
+
+Dr. Salazar de Mendoza considers that nothing but a real love of
+rebellion could have induced the Moriscoes to find a pretext for it in a
+measure so just and praiseworthy, and every way so conducive to their
+own salvation as this ordinance.--"Tomaron par achaque esta accion tan
+justificada, y meritoria del Rey, y para sus almas tan provechosa y
+saludable."--Monarquia de Espana, tom. ii. p. 137.
+
+[22] "Y al fin concluyo con decirle resolutamente, que su Majestad
+queria mas fe que farda, y que preciaba mas salvar una alma, que todo
+quanto le podian dar le renta los Moriscos nuevamente
+convertidos."--Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. p. 163.
+
+[23] "Que el habia consultado aquel negocio con hombres de ciencia y
+conciencia, y le decian que estaba obligado a hacer lo que
+hacia."--Ibid. p. 175.
+
+[24] "Que el negocio de la prematica estaba determinado, y su Magestad
+resoluta en que se cumpliese."--Ibid, ubi supra.
+
+[25] Ibid. p. 176.--Cabrera. Filipe Segundo, lib. vii. cap.
+
+[26] "A estas y otras muchas razones que el marques de Mondejar daba,
+Don Diego de Espinosa le respondio, que la voluntad de su Magestad era
+aquella, y que se fuese al reyno de Granada, donde serio de mucha
+importancia su persona, atropellando como siempre todas las dificultades
+que le ponian por delante."--Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i.
+p. 168.
+
+[27] An ordinance was passed at this time that the Moriscoes who had
+come from the country to reside with their families in Granada should
+leave the city and return whence they came, under pain of
+death.--(Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. p. 169.) By another
+ordinance, the Moriscoes were required to give up their children between
+the ages of three and fifteen, to be placed in schools and educated in
+the Christian doctrine and the Castillan tongue. (Ibid. p. 170.) The
+_Nueva Recopilacion_ contains two laws passed about this time, making it
+a capital offence to hold any intercourse with Turks or Moors who might
+visit Granada, even though they came not as corsairs, but for purposes
+of traffic. (Lib. viii. tit. 26, leyes 16, 18.) Such a law proves the
+constant apprehensions in which the Spaniards lived of a treasonable
+correspondence between their Morisco subjects and the foreign Moslems.
+
+[28] Marmol Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. pp. 223-233.--Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada (Valencia, 1776), p. 43.--Hita, Guerras de Granada,
+tom. ii. p. 724.
+
+[29] "Escrita en noches de augustia y de lagrimas corrientes,
+sustentadas con esperanza, y la esperanza deriva de la
+amargura."--Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. p. 219.
+
+[30] Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. p. 235.
+
+[31]
+
+ "La furia horrible de los torbellinos
+ Cada momento mas se vee yr creciendo;
+ Cubre la blanca nieve les caminos,
+ Tambien los hombres luego va cubriendo."
+
+So sings, or rather says, the poet-chronicler Rufo, whose epic of four
+and twenty cantos shows him to have been much more of a chronicler than
+a poet. Indeed, in his preface, he avows that strict conformity to truth
+which is the cardinal virtue of the chronicler.--See the Austriada
+(Madrid, 1584).
+
+[32] "Pocos sois, i venis presto."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 47.
+
+Hita gives a _cancion_ in his work, the burden of which is a complaint
+that the mountaineers had made their attack too late instead of too
+early:--
+
+ "Pocos sois, y venis tarde."
+
+(Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 32.) The difference is explained by the
+circumstance that the author of the verses--probably Hita
+himself--considers that Christmas Eve, not New Year's Eve, was the time
+fixed for the assault.
+
+[33] Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. p. 238.--Mendoza, Guerra
+de Granada, pp. 45-52.--Miniana, Hist. de Espana, p. 367.--Herrera,
+Historia General, tom. i. p. 726.--Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. ix
+pp. 573-575.
+
+[34] "Creyendo que lo uno y lo otro seria parte para que por bien de paz
+se diese nueva orden en lo de la prematica, sin aventurar ellos sus
+personas y haciendas."--Marmol, Rebelion de los Moriscos, tom. i. p.
+239.
+
+[35] Beni Umeyyah, in the Arabic, according to an indisputable
+authority, my learned friend Don Pascual de Gayangos. See his Mohammedan
+Dynasties in Spain, _passim_.
+
+[36] "Era mancebo de veinte y dos anos, de poca barba, color moreno,
+verdinegro, cejijunto, ojos negros y grandes, gentil hombre de cuerpo:
+mostraba en su talle y garbo ser de sangre real, como en verdad lo era,
+teniendo los pensamientos correspondientes."--Hita, Guerras de Granada,
+tom. ii. p. 13.
+
+Few will be disposed to acquiesce in the savage tone of criticism with
+which the learned Nic. Antonio denounces Hita's charming volumes as
+"Milesian tales, fit only to amuse the lazy and the listless."
+(Bibliotheca Nova, tom. i. p. 536.) Hita was, undoubtedly, the prince of
+romancers; but fiction is not falsehood; and when the novelist, who
+served in the wars of the Alpujarras, tells us of things which he
+professes to have seen with his own eyes, we may surely cite him as an
+historical authority.
+
+[37] "Usava de blandura general; queria ser tenido por Cabeza, i no por
+Rei: la crueldad, la codicia cubierta engano a muchos en los
+principios."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 129.
+
+[38] Ibid. p. 40.
+
+The ceremonies of the coronation make, of course, a brave show in Rufo's
+epic. One stanza will suffice:--
+
+ "Entonces con aplauso le pusieron
+ Al nuevo Rey de purpura un vestido,
+ Y a manera de beca le cineron
+ Al cuello y ombros un cendal brunido,
+ Quatro vanderas a sus pies tendieron,
+ Una hazia el Levante esclarecido,
+ Otra a do el sol se cubre en negro velo,
+ Y otras dos a los polos dos del cielo."
+
+ La Austriada, fol. 24.
+
+[39] "Tal era la antigua ceremonia con que eligian los reyes de la
+Andalucia, i despues los de Granada."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p.
+40.
+
+[40]
+
+ "Que en la agricultura tienen
+ Tal estudio, tal destreza,
+ Que a preneces de su hazada
+ Hacen fecundas las piedras."
+
+ Calderon, Amar despues de la Muerte, Jornada ii.
+
+[41]
+
+ "Tres anos tuvo en silencio
+ Esta traicion encubierta
+ Tanto numero de gentes,
+ Cosa, que admira y eleva."--Ibid, ubi supra.
+
+[42] "Una cosa mui de notar califica los principios desta rebelion, que
+gente de mediana condicion mostrada a guardar poco secreto i hablar
+juntos, callasen tanto tiempo, i tantos hombres, en tierra donde hai
+Alcaldes de corte i Inquisidores, cuya profesion es descubrir
+delitos."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 36.
+
+[43] Bleda, Cronica de Espana, p. 680--"Robaron la iglesia, hicieron
+pedazos los retablos y imagines, destruyeron todas las cosas sagradas, y
+no dexaron maldad ni sacrilegio que no cometieron."--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. i. p. 275.
+
+[44] "Quemaron por voto un convento de Frailes Augustinos, que se
+recogieron a la Torre echandoles por un horado de lo alto azeite
+hirviendo: sirviendose de la abundancia que Dios les dio en aquella
+tierra, para ahogar sus Frailes."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 60.
+
+[45] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 271.--Ferreras, Hist.
+d'Espagne, tom. ix. P. 582.
+
+[46] "Y para darle mayor tormento traxeron alli dos hermanas doncellas
+que tenia, para que le viesen morir, y en su presencia las vituperaron y
+maltrataron."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 316.
+
+[47] "Llego un herege a el con una navaja, y le persino con ella,
+hendiendole el rostro de alto abaxo, y por traves; y luego le despedazo
+coyuntura por coyuntura, y miembro a miembro."--Ibid. p. 348.
+
+Among other kinds of torture which they invented, says Mendoza, they
+filled the curate of Manena with gunpowder, and then blew him
+up.--Guerra de Granada, p. 60.
+
+[48] Of all the Spanish historians no one discovers so insatiable an
+appetite for these horrors as Ferreras, who has devoted nearly fifty
+quarto pages to an account of the diabolical cruelties practised by the
+Moriscoes in this persecution--making, altogether, a momentous
+contribution to the annals of Christian martyrologv. One may doubt,
+however, whether the Spaniards are entirely justified in claiming the
+crown of martyrdom for all who perished in this persecution. Those,
+undoubtedly, have a right to it who might have saved their lives by
+renouncing their faith; but there is no evidence that this grace was
+extended to all; and we may well believe that the Moriscoes were
+stimulated by other motives besides those of a religious nature,--such
+motives as would naturally operate on a conquered race, burning with
+hatred of their conquerors and with the thirst of vengeance for the
+manifold wrongs which they had endured.
+
+[49] "Murieron en pocos mas de quatro dias, con muertes exquesitas y no
+imaginados tormentos, mas de tres mil martires."--Vanderhammen, Don Juan
+de Austria, fol. 70.
+
+[50] "Se adelanto un Moro, que solia ser grande amigo suyo, y haciendose
+encontradizo con el en el umbral de la puerta, le atraveso una espada
+por el cuerpo, diciendole: Toma, amigo, que mas vale que te mate yo que
+otro."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 277.
+
+[51] Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. ix. p. 617.
+
+[52] "Fue gran testimonio de nuestra fe i de compararse con la del
+tiempo de los Apostoles; que en tanto numero de gente como murio a manos
+de infieles ninguno huvo que quisiese renegar."--Mendoza, Guerra de
+Granada, p. 61.
+
+[53] "Todos estuvieron tan constantes en la fe, que si bien fueron
+combidados con grandes riquezas y bienes a que la dejasen, con ninguno
+se pudo acabar; aunque entre los martyrizados huvo muchas mugeres,
+ninos, y hombres que havian vivido descompuestamente."--Salazar de
+Mendoza, Monarquia de Espana, tom. ii. p. 139.
+
+[54] "Murieron este dia en Uxixar docientos y quarenta Christianos
+clerigos y legos, y entre ellos seis canonigos de aquella iglesia, que
+es colegial."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 297.
+
+[55] "Estavan las casas yermas i tiendas cerradas, suspenso el trato,
+mudadas las horas de oficios divinos i humanos; atentos los Religiosos i
+ocupados en oraciones i plegarias, como se suele en tiempo i punto de
+grandes peligros."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 54.
+
+Mendoza paints the panic of Granada with the pencil of Tacitus.
+
+[56] Circourt, Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom. ii. p. 322.
+
+[57] "En un punto se mudaron todos los oficios y tratos en soldadesca,
+tanto que los relatores, secretarios, letrados, procuradores de la
+Audiencia entraban con espadas en los estrados, y no dexaban de pareseer
+muy bien en aquella coyuntura."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p.
+358.
+
+[58] "Servian tres meses pagados por sus pueblos enteramente, i seis
+meses adelante pagavan los pueblos la mitad, i otra mitad el
+Rei."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 53.
+
+[59] Mendoza, with a few vigorous touches, has sketched, or rather
+sculptured in bold relief, the rude and rapacious character of the
+Andalusian soldiery.--"Mal pagada i por esto no bien disciplinada;
+mantenida del robo, i a trueco de alcanzar o conservar este mucha
+libertad, poca verguenza, i menos honra."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada,
+p. 103.
+
+[60] "Toda gente lucida y bien arreada a punto de guerra, que cierto
+representaban la pompa y nobleza de sus ciudades."--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. i. p. 396.
+
+[61]
+
+ "Muchos capitanos fuertes,
+ muchos lucidos soldados,
+ ricos banderas tendidas,
+ y su estandarte dorado."
+
+ Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 63.
+
+[62] Circourt, Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom. ii. p. 326.
+
+Seville alone furnished two thousand troops, with one of the most
+illustrious cavaliers of the city at their head. They did not arrive,
+however, till a later period of the war.--See Zuniga, Annales de Sevilla
+(Madrid, 1677, fol.), p. 533.
+
+[63] "Repartio los lugares de la vega en siete partidos, y mandoles, que
+cada uno tuviese cuidado de llevar diez mil panes amasados de a dos
+libras al campo el dia que le tocase de la semana."--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. i. p. 404.
+
+[64] "Paso este negocio tan adelante, que muchos Moriscos afrentados y
+gastados se arrepintieron por no haber tomado las armas cuando Abenfarax
+los llamaba."--Ibid. p. 407.
+
+[65] "Apenas podia ir por ella un hombre suelto; y aun este poco paso,
+le tenian descavado y solapado por los cimientos, de manera que si
+cargase mas de una persona, fuese abaxo."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada,
+p. 409.
+
+[66] "Mas un bendito frayle de la orden del serafico padre San
+Francisco, llamado fray Christoval de Molina, con un crucifixo en la
+mano izquierda, y la espada desnuda en la derecha, los habitos cogidos
+en la cinta, y una rodela echada a las espaldas, invocando el poderoso
+nombre de Jesus, llego al peligroso paso, y se metio determinadamente
+por el."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 410.
+
+[67] Ibid. p. 410, et seq.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, pp. 67,
+68.--Herrera, Historia General, tom. i. p. 736.
+
+Hita has commemorated the bold passage of the bridge at Tablate in one
+of the _romances_, or ballads, with which he has plentifully besprinkled
+the second volume of his work, and which present a sorry contrast to the
+ballads in the preceding volume. These, which form part of the popular
+minstrelsy of an earlier age, have all the raciness and flavour that
+belong to the native wild-flower of the soil. The ballads in the second
+volume are, probably, the work of Hita himself,--poor imitations of the
+antique, and proving that, if his rich and redundant prose is akin to
+poetry, his poetry is still nearer allied to prose.
+
+[68] "Estuvo alli aquella noche a vista de los enemigos, que teniendo
+ocupado el paso con grandes fuegos por aquellos cerros, no hacian sino
+tocar sus atabalejos, dulzaynas, y xabecas, haciendo algazaras para
+atemorizar nuestros Cristianos, que con grandisimo recato estuvieron
+todos con las armas en las manos."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i.
+p. 413.
+
+[69] Ibid. p. 414.--Herrera, Historia General, tom. i. p. 737.--Bleda,
+Cronica de Espana, p. 684.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, pp. 69,
+70.--Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. p. 17.
+
+[70] "A la mano derecha cubiertos con un sierro, havia emboscados
+quinientos arcabuceros i vallesteros, demas desto otra emboscada en lo
+hondo del barranco de mucho mayor numero de gente."--Mendoza, Guerra de
+Granada, tom. i. p. 71.
+
+[71] "Ellos quando pensaron que nuestra gente iva cansada acometieron
+por la frente, por el costado, i por la retaguardia, todo a un tiempo;
+de manera que quasi una hora se peleo con ellos a todas partes i a las
+espaldas, no sin igualdad i peligro."--Ibid. ubi supra.
+
+[72] This poison was extracted from the aconite, or wolf's-bane, that
+grew rife among the Alpujarras. It was of so malignant a nature that the
+historian assures us that, if a drop mingled with the blood flowing from
+a wound, the virus would ascend the stream and diffuse itself over the
+whole system! Quince-juice was said to furnish the best
+antidote.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, tom. i. pp. 73, 74.
+
+[73] Ibid. pp. 71-74.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 554.--Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. pp. 416-418.--Herrera, Historia General,
+tom. i. p. 737.--Bleda, Cronica de Espana, p. 684.
+
+[74] "Mas la priesa de caminar en siguimiento de los enemigos, i la
+falta de bagages en que la cargar i gente con que aseguralla, fue causa
+de quemar la mayor parte, porque ellos no se aprovechasen."--Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada, p. 75.
+
+[75] "Los Moros tomaron lo alto de la sierra, y no pararon hasta meterse
+en la nieve, donde perecieron cantidad de mugeres y de criatura de
+frio."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 437.
+
+[76] "El Marques les dio a saco todo el mueble, en que habia ricas cosas
+de seda, oro, plata, y aljofar, de que cupo la mejor y mayor parte a los
+que habian ido delante."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 444.
+
+[77] "No tomen, senores, a vida hombre ni muger de aquestos hereges, que
+tan malos han sido, y tanto mal nos han hecho."--Ibid. p. 440.
+
+[78] "El Marques se enternecio de ver aquellas pobres mugeres tan
+lastimadas, y consolandolas lo mejor que pudo," &c.--Ibid, ubi supra.
+
+[79] "Hubo muchos soldados heridos, los mas que se herian unos a otros,
+entendiendo los que venian de fuera, que los que martillaban con las
+espadas eran Moros, porque solamente les alumbraba el centellear del
+acero, y el relampaguear de la polvora de los arcabuces en la tenebrosa
+escuridad de la noche."--Ibid. p. 445.
+
+[80] "De los Moriscos quasi ninguno quedo vivo, de las Moriscas huvo
+muchas muertas, de los nuestros algunos heridos, que con la escuridad de
+la noche se hacian dano unos a otros."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p.
+77.
+
+[81] Ibid. ubi supra.--Bleda, Cronica de Espana, p. 685.--Herrera,
+Historia General, tom. i. p. 787.--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i.
+p. 441 et seq.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 558.
+
+[82] "Habia entre ellas muchas duenas nobles, apuestas y hermosas
+doncellas, criadas con mucho regalo, que iban desnudas y descalzas, y
+tan maltratadas del trabajo del captiverio y del camino, que no solo
+quebraban los corazones a los que las conocian, mas aun a quien no las
+habia visto."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 448.
+
+[83] "Y volviendo a las casas del Arzobispo, las que tenian parientes
+las llevaron a sus posadas, y las otras fueron hospedadas con caridad
+entre la buena gente, y de limosna se les compro de vestir y de
+calzar."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. ubi supra.
+
+[84] "Los soldados no podian llevar a paciencia ver que se tratase de
+medios con los rebeldes; y quando otro dia se supo que los admitia, fue
+tan grande la tristeza en el campo, como si hubieran perdido la
+jornada."--Ibid. p. 443.
+
+[85] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 455.
+
+[86] Abderrahman--or, as spelt by Gayangos, Abdu-r-rhaman--the First,
+the founder of the dynasty from which Aben-Humeya claimed his descent,
+took refuge in Spain from a bloody persecution, in which every member of
+his numerous family is said to have perished by the scimitar or the
+bowstring.
+
+[87] "Y como vio que los Christanos iban la sierra arriba, y que los
+suyos huian desvergonzadamente, entendiendo que todo lo que Don Alonso
+Venegas trataba era engano, echo las cartas en el suelo, y subiendo a
+gran priesa en un caballo, dexo su familia atras, y huyo tambien la
+vuelta de la sierra."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 460.
+
+[88] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 458 et seq.--Ferreras,
+Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. PP. 28-31.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, pp. 80,
+81.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, pp. 560, 561.--Herrera, Historia General,
+tom. i. p. 737.
+
+[89] The decision referred to was, probably, one in the last Council of
+Toledo, A.D. 690.--See Mariana, Hist. de Espana, tom. i. p. 452.
+
+[90] I quote the words of Marmol:--"Con una moderacion piadosa, de que
+quiso usar como principe considerado y justo."--Rebelion de Granada,
+tom. i. p. 495.
+
+[91] Ibid. ubi supra.
+
+[92] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. pp. 465, 498.
+
+Mendoza says they were all returned:--"a thing never before seen,
+whether it arose from fear or obedience, or that there was such an
+abundance of women that they were regarded as little better than
+household furniture."--Guerra de Granada, p. 96.
+
+[93] "Fue tanta la indignacion del Margues de Mondejar, que, sin
+perdonar a ninguna edad ni sexo, mando pasar a cuchillo hombres y
+mugeres, quantos habia en el fuerte; y en su presencia los hacia matar a
+los alabarderos de su guardia, que no bastaban los ruegos de los
+caballeros y capitanes, ni las piadosas lagrimas de las que pedian la
+miserable vida."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 493.
+
+[94] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 482 et seq.--Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada, pp. 85-95.--Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. pp.
+32-36.--Bleda, Cronica de Espana, p. 688 et seq.--Herrera, Historia
+General, tom. i. p. 738.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 589.
+
+The storming of Guajaras is a favorite theme with both chroniclers and
+bards. Among the latter Hita has not failed to hang his garland of verse
+on the tombs of more than one illustrious cavalier who perished in that
+bloody strife, and for whose loss "all the noble dames of Seville," as
+he tells us, "went into mourning."--Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. pp.
+112-118.
+
+[95] "Que no habia osado parar en la Alpuxarra, y con solos cincuenta o
+sesenta hombres, que le seguian, andaba huyendo de pena en
+pena."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 464.
+
+[96] The Castillian chronicler Marmol refuse his admission--somewhat
+roughly expressed--to this brave Morisco,-"este barbaro," as he calls
+him, "hijo de aspereza y frialdad indomable, y menospreciador de la
+muerte."--(Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 503.) The story of
+the escape of Aben-Humeya is also told, and with little discrepancy, by
+Cabrera (Filipe Segundo, p. 573), and Ferreras (Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x.
+pp. 39, 40).
+
+[97] "Quando entendieron que peleaban contra el campo del Marques de los
+Velez, a quien los Moros de aquella tierra solian llamar Ibiliz Arraez
+el Hadid, que quiere decir, _diabolo cabeza de hierro_, perdieron
+esperanza de vitoria."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 451.
+
+Hita, who was a native of Murcia, and followed Los Velez to the war,
+gives an elaborate portrait of this powerful chief, whom he extols as
+one of the most valiant captains in the world, rivalling in his
+achievements the Cid, Bernardo del Carpio, or any other hero of greatest
+renown in Spain.--Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 68 et seq.
+
+[98] Circourt, Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom. ii. p. 346.
+
+[99] "Mas mugeres que hombres," says Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 83.
+
+[100] "En menos de dos horas fueron muertas mas de seis mil personas
+entre hombres y mugeres; y de ninos, desde uno hasta diez anos, habia
+mas de dos mil degollados."--Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 126.
+
+We may hope this is an exaggeration of the romancer. Mendoza says
+nothing of the children, and reduces the slain to seven hundred. But
+Hita was in the action.
+
+[101] "La soldadesca que andaba suelta por el lugar cometio crueldades
+inauditas, y que la pluma se resiste a transcribir."--Ibid. p. 125.
+
+[102] "El nino arrastrando como pudo se llego a ella, y movido del deseo
+de mamar, se asio de los pechos de la madre, sacando leche mezclada con
+la sangre de las heridas."--Hita, Guerras de Granada, p. 126.
+
+[103] "Advirtiendo al mismo tiempo que hay tres mil hombres paisanos
+suyos puestos sobre las armas, y decididos a perder la vida por
+salvarle."--Ibid. p. 132.
+
+[104] Hita has devoted one of the most spirited of his _romances_ to the
+rout of Ohanez. The opening stanza may show the tone of it:--
+
+ "Las tremolantes banderas
+ del grande Fajardo parten
+ para las Nevadas Sierras,
+ y van camino de Ohanez.
+ Ay de Ohanez!"
+
+
+[105] "Todos los caballeros y capitanes en la procesion armados de todas
+sus armas, con velas de cera blanca en las manos, que se las habian
+enviado para aquel dia desde su casa, y todas las Christianas en medio
+vestidas de azul y blanco, que por ser colores aplicados a nuestra
+Senora, mando el Marques que las vistiesen de aquella manera a su
+costa."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 469.
+
+[106] "Trayendose muchas Moras hermosas, pues pasaron de trescientas las
+que se tomaron alli; y habiendolas tenido los soldados a su voluntad mas
+de quince dias, al cabo de ellos mando el marques que llevasen a la
+iglesia."--Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 155.
+
+[107] "Por manera que estaba la Alpuxarra tan llana, que diez y doce
+soldados iban de unos lugares en otros, sin hallar quien los
+enojase."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 498.
+
+Mendoza fully confirms Marmol's account of the quiet state of the
+country.--Guerra de Granada, pp. 96, 97.
+
+[108] "Le suplicase de su parte los admitiese, habiendose
+misericordiosamente con los que no fuesen muy culpados, para que el
+pudiese cumplir la palabra que tenia ya dada a los reducidos,
+entendiendo ser aquel camino el mas breve para acabar con ellos por la
+via de equidad."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 483.
+
+[109] "Que hiciese por su parte lo que pudiese, porque ansi haria el de
+la suya."--Ibid. p. 470.
+
+[110] "Dexar sin castigo exemplar a quien tantos crimenes habian
+cometido contra la Magestad _divina y humana_."--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, p. 499.
+
+[111] "El Marques," says Mendoza, "hombre de estrecha i rigurosa
+disciplina, criado al favor de su abuelo i padre en gran oficio, sin
+igual ni contradictor, impaciente de tomar compania, communicava sus
+consejos consigo mismo."--Guerra de Granada, p. 103.
+
+[112] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 115 et seq.--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. i. pp. 511-513.--Miniana, Historia de Espana, p.
+376.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, pp. 573, 574.
+
+[113] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 8 et seq.--Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada, pp. 97, 128.--Miniana, Historia de Espana, p.
+376.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, pp. 575, 576.
+
+[114] "Otros, como desesperados, juntando esteras, tascos, y otras cosas
+secas, que pudiesen arder, so metian entre sus mesmas llamas, y las
+avivaban, para que, ardiendo la carcel y la Audiencia, pereciesen todos
+los que estaban dentro."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 517.
+
+[115] Ibid. ubi supra.
+
+[116] "Los mataron a todos, sin dexar hombre a vida, sino fueron los dos
+que defendio la guardia que tenian."--Ibid. ubi supra. See also Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada, p. 122; Herrera, Historia General, tom. i. p. 744.
+
+[117] "Havia en ellos culpados en platicas i demonstraciones, i todos en
+deseo; gente flaca, liviana, inhabil para todo, sino para dar ocasion a
+su desventura."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 122.
+
+[118] "Las culpas de los quales debieron ser mayores de lo que aqui se
+escribe, porque despues pidiendo las mugeres y hijos de los muertos sus
+dotes y haciendas ante los alcaldes del crimen de aquella Audiencia, y
+saliendo el fiscal a la causa, se formo proceso en forma; y por
+sentencias y revista fueron condenados, y aplicados todos sus bienes al
+real fisco."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. i. p. 517.
+
+[119] "Levanto un estandarte bermejo, que mostrava el lugar de la
+persona del Rei a manera de Guion."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 118.
+
+[120] "Para seguridad de su persona pago arcabuceria de guardia, que fue
+creciendo hasta quatrocientos hombres."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, ubi
+supra.
+
+[121] "Siguio nuestra orden de guerra, repartio la gente por escuadras,
+juntola en companias, nombro capitanes."--Ibid. ubi supra.
+
+[122] This, which is two years later than the date commonly assigned by
+historians, seems to be settled by the researches of Lafuente. (See
+Historia General de Espana (Madrid, 1854), tom. xiii. p. 437, note.)
+Among other evidence adduced by the historian is that of a medal struck
+in honour of Don John's victory at Lepanto, in the year 1571, the
+inscription on which expressly states that he was twenty-four years of
+age.
+
+[123] Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol 3.--Villafane, Vida y
+Virtudes de Dona Magdalena de Ulloa (Salamanca, 1722), p. 36.--See also
+Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiii. p. 432.
+
+This last historian has made the parentage of John of Austria the
+subject of a particular discussion in the Revista de Ambos Mundos, No.
+3.
+
+[124] Vanderhammen, alluding to the doubts thrown on the rank of his
+hero's mother, consoles himself with the reflection that, if there was
+any deficiency in this particular, no one can deny that it was more than
+compensated by the proud origin of her imperial lover.--Don Juan de
+Austria, fol. 3.
+
+[125] Lafuente, Hist. de Espana, tom. xiii. p. 432, note.
+
+[126] Gachard, Retraite et Mort de Charles-Quint, tom. ii. p. 506.
+
+In a private interview with Luis Quixada, the evening before his death,
+the emperor gave him six hundred gold crowns to purchase the
+above-mentioned pension.
+
+[127] This interesting document was found among the testamentary papers
+of Charles the Fifth. A copy of it has been preserved among the
+manuscripts of Cardinal Granvelle.--Papiers d'Etat, tom. iv. pp. 499,
+500.
+
+[128] "Gastava buena parte del dia en tirar con una ballestilla a los
+paxaros."--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 10.
+
+[129] "Y puede ser llegase a sospechar, si acaso tendria por padre a su
+esposo."--Villefane, Vida de Magdalena de Ulloa, p. 38.
+
+[130] "Accion singular y rara, y que dexa atras quantas la antiguedad
+celebra por peregrinas."--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 31.
+
+According to another biographer, two fires occurred to Quixada, one in
+Villagarcia and one in Valladolid. On each of these occasions the house
+was destroyed, but his ward was saved, borne off by the good knight in
+his arms. (Villafane, Vida de Magdalena de Ulloa, pp. 44, 53.) The
+coincidences are too much opposed to the doctrine of chances to commend
+themselves readily to our faith. Vanderhammen's reflection was drawn
+forth by the second fire, the only one he notices. It applies, however,
+equally well to both.
+
+[131] Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 16.
+
+[132] Indeed, Siguenza, who may have had it from the monks of Yuste,
+tells us that the boy sometimes was casually seen by the emperor, who
+was careful to maintain his usual reserve and dignified demeanour; so
+that no one could suspect his secret. "Once or twice," adds the
+Jeronymite father, "the lad entered the apartment of his father, who
+doubtless spoke to him as he would have spoken to any other
+boy."--Historia de la Orden de San Geronimo, tom. iii. p. 205.
+
+[133] Relation d'un Religieux de Yuste, ap. Gachard, Retraite et Mort de
+Charles-Quint, tom. ii. p. 55.
+
+[134] "Hallo tan publico aqui lo que toca aquella persona que V. Mtad
+sabe que esta a mi cargo que me ha espantado, y espantame mucho mas las
+particularidades que sobrello oyo."--Ibid. tom. i. p. 449.
+
+[135] A copy of this interesting document was found in the collection of
+Granvelle at Besancon, and has been lately published in the beautiful
+edition of the cardinal's papers.--Papiers d'Etat, tom. iv. p. 495 et
+seq.
+
+[136] "Que pues su Mtad, en su testamento ni codecilo, no hazia memoria
+del, que era razon tenello por burla, y que no sabia que poder responder
+otra cosa, en publico ni en secreto."--Gachard, Retraite et Mort de
+Charles-Quint, tom. i. p. 446.
+
+[137] "La Princesa al punto arrebatada del amor, lo abraco, y beso, sin
+reparar en el lugar que estava, y el acto que exercia. Llamole hermano y
+tratole de alteza."--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 23.
+
+[138] "Llego el caso a estado, que le huvo de tomar en bracos el Conde
+Osorno hasta la carroca de la Princesa, porque le gozassen
+todos."--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 25.
+
+The story must be admitted to be a strange one, considering the
+punctilious character of the Castilian court, and the reserved and
+decorous habits of Joanna. But the author, born and bred in the palace,
+had access, as he tells us, to the very highest sources of information,
+oral and written.
+
+[139] "Vuelto ya en si de la suspension primera, alargo la mano, y monto
+en el caballo; y aun se dice que con airosa grandeza, anadio; Pues si
+eso es asi tened el estribo."--Villafane, Vida de Dona Magdalena de
+Ulloa, p. 51.
+
+[140] "Macte, inquit, animo puer, praenobilis vire filius es tu; Carolus
+Quintus Imperator, qui coelo degit, utriusque nostrum pater
+est."--Strada, De Bello Belgico, tom. i. p. 608.
+
+[141] "Jamas habia tenido dia de caza mas gustoso, ni logrado presa que
+le hubiese dado tanto contento."--Villafane, Vida de Dona Magdalena de
+Ulloa, p. 52.
+
+This curious account of Philip's recognition of his brother is told,
+with less discrepancy than usual, by various writers of that day.
+
+[142] Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 27.--"Mandole llamar
+Ecelencia; pero sus reales costunbres le dieron adelante titulo de
+Alteza i de senor entre los grandes i menores."--Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, lib. v. cap. 3.
+
+[143] "Tengo mucho cuidado que aprenda y se le ensenen las cosas
+necesarias, conforme a su edad y a la calidad de su persona, que, segun
+la estrecheza en que se crio y ha estado hasta que vino a mi poder, es
+bien menester con todo cuidado tener cuenta con el."--Gachard, Retraite
+et Mort de Charles-Quint, tom. i. p. 450.
+
+[144] "Longe tamen anteibat Austriacus et corporis habitudine, et morum
+suavitate. Facies illi non modo pulchra, sed etiam venusta."--Strada, De
+Bello Belgico, tom. i. p. 609.
+
+[145] "Eminebat in adolescente comitas, industria, probitas, et, ut in
+novae potentiae hospite, verecundia."--Ibid. loc. cit.
+
+[146] Strada, Be Bello Belgico, tom. ii. pp. 609, 610.--Vanderhammen,
+Don Juan de Austria, fol. 34-36.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. vi. cap.
+24.
+
+[147] "La fama de la partida de Don Juan saco del ocio a muchos
+cavalleros de la corte i reynos, que avergoncados de quedarse en el, le
+siguieron."--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, loc. cit.
+
+[148] Ante, vol. ii. book iv. ch. 6.
+
+[149] Vanderhammen has given a minute description of this royal galley,
+with its pictorial illustrations. Among the legends emblazoned below
+them, that of "_Dolum reprimere dolo_" savours strongly of the politic
+monarch.--Don Juan de Austria, fol. 44-48.
+
+[150] "Su comision fue sin limitacion ninguna; mas su libertad tan
+atada, que de cosa grande ni pequena podia disponer sin comunicacion i
+parecer de los consegeros, i mandado del Rei."--Mendoza, Guerra de
+Granada, p. 139.
+
+[151] Ibid. p. 130 et seq.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+81.--Marmol, tom. i. pp. 511-513.--Villafane, Vida de Dona Magdalena de
+Ulloa, p. 73.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. ix. cap. 1.
+
+[152] "Ya el Presidente tenia orden de su Magestad de la que se habia de
+tener en el recibimiento de su hermano."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada,
+tom. ii. p. 17.
+
+[153] "De manera que entre gala y guerra hacian hermosa y agradable
+vista."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, ubi supra.
+
+[154] "El qual lo recibio muy bien, y con el sombrero en el mano, y le
+tuvo un rato abrazado. Y apartandose a un lado, llego el Arzobispo, y
+hizo lo mismo con el."--Ibid. tom. ii. p. 18.
+
+[155] "Que no sintieron tanto dolor con oir los crueles golpes de las
+armas con que los hereges los mataban a ellos y a sus hijos, hermanos y
+parientes, como el que sienten en ver que han de ser perdonados."--Ibid.
+p. 19.
+
+From this, it would seem that the love of revenge was a stronger feeling
+with these Christian women than the love of friends.
+
+[156] "Y mas galas y regocijos, porque estaban las ventanas de las
+calles, por donde habia de pasar, entoldadas de panos de oro y seda, y
+mucho numero de damas y doncellas nobles en ellas, ricamente ataviadas,
+que habian acudido de toda la ciudad por verle."--Ibid. ubi supra.
+
+[157] Ibid. pp. 17-19.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+83.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 133.
+
+[158] "Juntamente con usar de equidad y clemencia con los que lo
+merecieren, los que no hubieren sido tales seran castigados con
+grandisimo rigor."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 21.
+
+[159] Ibid. pp. 23, 24.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+85.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. ix. cap. 1.--Herrera, Historia
+General, tom. i. pp. 744, 745.
+
+[160] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 141.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de
+Austria, fol. 85.--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p.
+27.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. ix. cap. 1.
+
+[161] The historian of the Morisco rebellion tells us that these
+Africans wore garlands round their heads, intimating their purpose to
+conquer or to die like martyrs in defence of their faith.--Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 73.
+
+[162] Besides a tenth of the produce of the soil, one source of his
+revenue, we are told, was the confiscated property of such Moriscoes as
+refused to yield him obedience. Another was a fifth of the spoil taken
+from the enemy.--Ibid. p. 35.--Also Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 120.
+
+[163] "Y la vuestra, ya yo os dixe que la queria para cosas mayores, y
+que asi agora yo no os embiaba a las de la guerra sino a esa ciudad a
+dar desde ella la orden en todo que combiniese: Pues y por otras
+ocupaciones y cartas no lo podia hazer."--Carta del Rey a Don Juan de
+Austria, 10 de Mayo, 1569, MS.
+
+[164] Don John seems to have chafed under the restrictions imposed on
+him by the king. At least we may infer so from a rebuke of Philip, who
+tells his brother that, "though for the great love he bears him he will
+overlook such language this time, it will not be well for him to repeat
+it."--Ibid. 20 de Mayo, 1569, MS.
+
+[165] Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 94.
+
+Marmol, with one or two vigorous _coups de pinceau_, gives the portrait
+of the marquis. "No se podia determinar qual era en el mayor extremo, su
+esfuerzo, valentia y discrecion, o la arrogancia y ambicion de honra,
+acompanada de aspereza de condicion."--Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p.
+99.
+
+[166] Ibid. p. 73 et seq.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+94.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 175 et seq.--Miniana, Historia de
+Espana, p. 377.
+
+[167] "Quando vieron el fuerte perdido, se despenaron por las penas mas
+agrias, quiriendo mas morir hechas pedazos, que venir en poder de
+Christianos."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 89.
+
+[168] "Casi todos los capitanes."--Ibid. loc. cit.
+
+[169] The fierce encounter at Fraxiliana is given in great detail by
+Mendoza (Guerra de Granada, pp. 165-169), and Marmol (Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. ii. pp. 86-90). No field of fight was better contested
+during the war; and both historians bear testimony to the extraordinary
+valour of the Moriscoes, worthy of the best days of the Arabian empire.
+Philip, while he commends the generous ardour shown by the
+grand-commander in the expedition, condemns him for having quitted his
+fleet to engage in it. "El comendador mayor tubo buen suceso como
+deseais, y como entiendo yo que lo merece su zelo y su intencion, mas
+salir su persona en tierra, teniendo en vuestra ausencia el cargo de la
+mas fue cosa digna de mucha reprehension."--Carta del Rey a Don Juan, 25
+de Junio 1569, MS.
+
+[170] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 108-111.--Ferreras,
+Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. pp. 83, 84--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. ix.
+cap. 6.
+
+[171] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 146--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada,
+tom. ii. p. 100.--Bleda (Cronica de Espana, p. 705), in the part of his
+work, has done nothing more than transcribe the pages of Mendoza, and
+that in so blundering a style as to mistake the date of this event by a
+month.
+
+[172] "Puestos en la cuerda, con guarda de infanteria i cavalleria por
+una i otra parte."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 147.
+
+[173] "Fue un miserable espectaculo," says an eyewitness; "ver tantos
+hombres de todas edades, las cabezas baxas, las manos cruzadas y los
+rostros banados de lagrimas, con semblante doloroso y triste, viendo que
+dexaban sus regaladas casas, sus familias, su patria, y tanto bien como
+tenian, y aun no sabian cierto lo que se haria de sus cabezas."--Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 102.
+
+[174] Ibid. p. 103.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 147. Both historians
+were present on this occasion.
+
+[175] "Los que salieron por todos tres mil i quinientos, el numero de
+mugeres mucho mayor."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 147.
+
+[176] "Muchos murieron por los caminos de trabajo, de cansancio, de
+pesar, de hambre; a hierro, por mano de los mismos que los havian de
+guardar, robados, vendidos por cautivos."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada,
+p. 148.
+
+[177] "Los enemigos de Dios,"--the charitable phrase by which the
+Moriscoes, as well as Moors, came now to be denominated by the
+Christians.
+
+[178] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, pp. 148-150.
+
+[179] "Quedo grandisima lastima a los que habiendo visto la prosperidad,
+la policia, y el regalo de las casas, carmenes y guertas, donde los
+Moriscos tenian todas sus recreaciones y pasatiempos, y desde a pocos
+dias lo vieron todo asolado y destruido."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada,
+tom. ii. p. 104.
+
+[180] "Parecia bien estar sujeta aquella felicisima ciudad a tal
+destruccion, para que se entienda que las cosas mas esplendidas y
+floridas entre la gente estan mas aparejadas a los golpes de
+fortuna."--Marmol, ubi supra.
+
+[181] "Armado de unas armas negras de la color del acero, y una celada
+en la cabeza llena de plumages, y una gruesa lanza en la mano mas recia
+que larga."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 133.
+
+[182] "Andaba Aben Umeya vistoso delante de todos en un caballo blanco
+con una aljuba de grana vestida, y un turbante Turquesco en la
+cabeza."--Ibid. p. 134.
+
+[183] "No temiesen el vano nombre del Marques de los Velez, porque en
+los mayores trabajos acudia Dios a los suyos; y quando les faltase, no
+les podria faltar una honrosa muerte con las armas en las manos, que les
+estaba mejor que vivir deshonrados."--Ibid. p. 134.
+
+[184] "Y apeandose del caballo, le hizo desjarretar, y se embreno en las
+sierras."--Ibid. loc. cit.
+
+Hita commemorates the flight of the "little king" of the Alpujarras in
+one of his ballads.--Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 310.
+
+[185] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 209.--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada,
+tom. ii. p. 150.--Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 233.
+
+[186] "I tan adelante paso la desorden, que so juntaron quatrocientos
+arcabuceros, i con las mechas en las serpentinas salieron a vista del
+campo."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 195.
+
+[187] Ibid. p. 198 et seq.--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p.
+146.
+
+[188] "Que se publicase la guerra a fuego y a sangre."--Marmol, Rebelion
+de Granada, tom. ii. p. 160.
+
+[189] "Vivia ya con estado de Rei, pero con arbitrio de
+tirano."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 209.
+
+[190] "Teniendo barreadas las calles del lugar de manera, que nadie
+pudiese entrar en el sin ser visto o sentido."--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. ii. p. 163.
+
+[191] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 210.
+
+Such is the Tiberius-like portrait given of him by an enemy--by one
+however, it may be added, who for liberal views and for discrimination
+of character was not surpassed by any chronicler of his time.
+
+[192] "Los cuales pasaron de trescientos cincuenta, segun yo he sido
+informado de varios Moriscos que seguian sus banderas; y de tal manera
+procedia el reyecillo, que vino a ser odiosisimo a los suyos por sus
+crueldades."--Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 303.
+
+[193]
+
+ "Que no la hay mas hermosa
+ en toda la Andalucia:
+ blanca es y colorada,
+ como la rosa mas fina;
+ Tane, danza, canta a estremo,
+ que es un encanto el oirla;
+ es moza, bella y graciosa
+ nadie vio tal en su vida."--Ibid. tom. ii. p. 324.
+
+The severer pencil of Mendoza does not disdain the same warm colouring
+for the portrait of the Morisco beauty.--Guerra de Granada, p. 213.
+
+[194] "Muger igualmente hermosa i de linage."--Ibid.
+
+[195] "Ninguno huvo que tomase las armas, ni bolviese de palabra por
+el."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 217.
+
+[196] "Ataronle las manos con un almaizar."--Ibid. p. 218.
+
+[197] "El mismo se dio la buelta como le hiciesen menos mal; concerto la
+ropa, cubriose el rostro."--Ibid. p. 219.
+
+[198] There is less discrepancy than usual in the accounts both of
+Aben-Humeya's assassination and of the circumstances which led to it.
+These circumstances have a certain Oriental colouring, which makes them
+not the less probable, considering the age and country in which they
+occurred.--Among the different authorities in prose and verse, see
+Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 162-169; Mendoza, Guerra de
+Granada, pp. 212-220; Rufo, La Austriada, cantos 13, 14; Hita, Guerras
+de Granada, tom. ii. p. 337 et seq. Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria,
+fol. 103-105.
+
+[199] "Con la reputacion de valiente i hombre del campo, con la
+afabilidad, gravedad, autoridad de la presencia, fue bien quisto,
+respetado, obedecido, tenido como Rei generalmente de todos."--Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada, p. 224.
+
+This was painting him _en beau_. For a painting of an opposite
+complexion see Miniana, who represents him as "audaz, perfido, suspicaz,
+y de pesimas costumbres." (Historia de Espana, p. 378.) Fortunately for
+Aben-Aboo, the first-mentioned writer, a contemporary, must be admitted
+to be the better authority of the two.
+
+[200] "No pude desear mas, ni contentarme con menos."--Marmol, Rebelion
+de Granada, tom. ii. p. 168.
+
+See also, for the account of this martial ceremony, Mendoza, Guerra de
+Granada, p. 222.
+
+[201] Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. pp. 111-118.--Marmol, Rebelion
+de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 169-189.--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 225 et
+seq.--Miniana, Hist. d'Espana, p. 378.
+
+[202] "Desta manera quedaron levantados todos los Moriscos del Reino,
+sino los de la Hoya de Malaga i Serrania de Ronda."--Mendoza, Guerra de
+Granada, p. 241.
+
+[203] "Llevando los escuderos las cabezas y las manos de los Moros en
+los hierros de las lanzas."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p.
+159.
+
+The head of an enemy was an old perquisite of the victor--whether
+Christian or Moslem--in the wars with the Spanish Arabs. It is
+frequently commemorated in the Moorish _romances_ as among the most
+honourable trophies of the field, down to as late a period as the war of
+Granada. See, among others, the ballad beginning
+
+ "A vista de los dos Reyes."
+
+
+[204] "Y que salir a tales rebatos es desautoridad vuestra, siendo quien
+sois y teniendo el cargo que tenis."--Carta de Felipe Segundo a Don Juan
+de Austria, 30 de Setiembre, 1569, MS.
+
+[205] "Le suplico mire que ni a quien soy, ni a la edad que tengo ni a
+otra cosa alguna conviene encerrarme, cuando mas razon es que me
+muestre."--Carta de Don Juan de Austria al Rey, 23 de Setiembre, 1569,
+MS.
+
+[206] "Entendiose por Espana la fama de su ida sobre Galera, i moviose
+la nobleza della con tanto calor, que fue necesario dar al Rei a
+entender que no era con sua voluntad ir Cavalleros sin licencia a servir
+en aquella empresa."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 256.
+
+[207] "Havian las desordenes pasad tan adelante, que fue necesario para
+remediallas hacer demostracion no vista ni leida en los tiempos pasados,
+en la guerra: suspandar treinta i dos capitanes de quarenta i uno que
+havia, con nombre de reformacion."--Ibid. p. 237.
+
+[208] "Tambien la gente embiada por los senores, escogida, igual,
+disciplinada, movidos por obligacion de virtud i deseo de acreditar sus
+personas."--Ibid. p. 234.
+
+[209] "Pusieronsele los ojos encendidos como brasa de puro
+corage."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 224.
+
+[210] "Sin comer bocado en todo aquel dia se volvio a la ciudad de
+Granada."--Ibid. p. 225.
+
+[211] "Y porque podria ser que ordenase al marques de los Velez que
+quedase con vos y os aconsejase, convendra en este caso que vos le
+mostreis muy buena cara y le trateis muy bien y le deis a entender que
+tomais su parecer, mas que en efecto tomeis el de los que he dicho
+cuando fuesen diferentes del suyo."--Carta del Rey a D. Juan de Austria,
+26 de Noviembre, 1569, MS.
+
+[212] "Y que os goberneis como si hubiesedes visto mucha guerra y
+halladoos en ella, que os digo que comigo y con todos ganeis harta mas
+reputacion en gobernaros desta manera, que no haciendo alguna mocedad
+que a todos nos costare caro."--Ibid. MS.
+
+[213] "I que seais obedecido de toda mi gente, haciendolo yo asimismo
+como hijo vuestro, acatando vuestro valor i canas, i amparandome en
+todas ocasiones de vuestros consejos."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p.
+260.
+
+[214] "Pues no conviene a mi edad anciana haver de ser cabo de
+esquadra."--Ibid. loc. cit.
+
+[215] The marquis of Los Velez was afterwards summoned to Madrid, where
+he long continued to occupy an important place in the council of state,
+apparently without any diminution of the royal favour.
+
+For the preceding pages consult Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii.
+pp. 229-232; Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, pp. 257-260; Herrera, Hist.
+General, tom. i, pp. 777, 778; Bleda, Cronica, pp. 733, 734.
+
+[216] The punning attractions of the name were too strong to be resisted
+by the ballad-makers of the day. See in particular the _romance_ (one of
+the best, it may be added--and no great praise--in Hita's second volume)
+beginning--
+
+ "Mastredages marineros
+ de Huescar y otro lugar
+ han armado una Galera
+ que no la hay tal en la mar.
+ No tiene velas, ni remos,
+ y navegar, y hace mal,"--
+
+and so on, for more stanzas than the reader will care to see.--Guerras
+de Granada, tom. ii. p. 469.
+
+[217] "Las tenian los Moros barreadas de cincuenta en cincuenta pasos, y
+hechos muchos traveses de una parte y de otro en las puertas y paredes
+de las casas, para herir a su salvo a los que fuesen pasando."--Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 234.
+
+The best and by far the most minute account of the topography of Galera
+is given by this author.
+
+[218] Ibid. p. 233 et seq.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 112,
+113.--Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 377 et seq.
+
+Hita tells us he was not present at the siege of Galera; but he had in
+his possession the diary of a Murcian officer named Tomas Perez de
+Hevia, who served through the siege, and of whom Hita speaks as a person
+well known for his military science. He says he has conformed implicitly
+to Hevia's journal which he commends for its scrupulous veracity.
+According to the judgment of some critics, the Murcian officer, if he
+merits this encomium, may be thought to have the advantage of Hita
+himself.
+
+[219] "Para que los soldados se animasen al trabajo, iba delante de
+todos a pie, y traia su haz acuestas como cada uno, hasta ponerlo en la
+trinchea."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 237.
+
+[220] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, pp. 236-238.--Hevia, ap. Hita,
+Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 386, 387.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de
+Austria, fol. 113.--Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. p. 140.
+
+[221] "Convendra por no aventurar mas gente buena que se haga todo lo
+que sea posible con las minas y artilleria, antes de venir a las
+manos."--Carta del Rey a D. Juan de Austria, 6 de Febrero, 1570, MS.
+
+[222]
+
+ "Unos llaman a Mahoma
+ otros dicen _Santiago_,
+ Otros gritan _cierra Espana,_
+ _muera el bando renegado_."
+
+ Romance, ap. Hita, Guerras de Granada.
+
+[223] No less than eighteen, according to Hevia. But this number,
+notwithstanding Hita's warrant for the writer's scrupulous accuracy, is
+somewhat too heavy a tax on the credulity of the reader.--"Esta brava
+mora se llamaba a Zarzamodonia, era corpulenta, recia de miembros, y
+alcanzaba grandisima fuerza; se averiguo que en este dia mato ella sola
+por su mano a diez y ocho soldados, na de los peores del campo."--Hita,
+Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 393.
+
+[224] For an account of the second assault see Mendoza, Guerra de
+Granada, pp. 264, 265; Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp.
+240-243; Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 113, 114; Hevia, ap.
+Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 389 et seq.; Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, pp. 629, 630.
+
+[225] "Yo hundire a Galera, y la asolare, y sembrare toda de sal; y por
+el riguroso filo de la espada pasaran chicos y grandes, quantos estan
+dentro, por castigo de su pertinacia, y en venganza de la sangre que han
+derramado."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 244.
+
+[226] "No puedo yo dejar de encargaros que le engais muy grande de que
+el no sea deservido en ese campo, ni haya las maldades y desordenes que
+decis, que siendo tales no pueden hacer cosa buena, y asi lo procurad, y
+que no haya juramentos ni otras ofensas de Dios, que con esto el nos
+ayudara y todo se hara bien."--Carta del Rey a D Juan de Austria, 6 de
+Febrero, 1570, MS.
+
+[227] "Y con esa gente, segun lo que decis, mas importara estar detras
+dellos deteniendolos y castigandolos que no delante, pues para los que
+lo estan y hacen lo que deben no es menester."--Ibid.
+
+[228] It is singular that no one of the chroniclers gives us the name of
+the Moorish chief who commanded in Galera. A romance of the time calls
+him Abenhozmin.
+
+ "Marinero que la rige
+ Sarracino es natural,
+ criado aca en nuestra Espana
+ por su mal y nuestro mal:
+ Abenhozmin ha por nombre,
+ y es hombre de gran caudal."
+
+ Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 470.
+
+
+[229] "Relumbrante y fortisimo morrion adornado de un penacho bello y
+elegante, sentado sobre una rica medalla de la imagen de nuestra Senora
+de la Concepcion."--Hevia, ap. Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p.
+429.
+
+[230] "Igualmente se arreo lo mejor que pado toda la caballeria, y era
+cosa digna de ver la elegancia y hermosura de un ejercito tan lucido y
+gallardo."--Hevia, ap. Hita, Guerras de Granada, loc. cit.
+
+[231] These anecdotes are given by Hevia, ap. Hita, Guerras de Granada,
+tom. ii. pp. 449-451.
+
+[232] "Los quales mataron mas de quatrocientas mugeres y ninos... y ansi
+hizo matar muchos en su presencia a los alabarderos de su
+guardia."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 248.
+
+[233] "Duro el combate, despues de entrado el lugar, desde las ocho de
+la manana hasta las cinco de la tarde."--Hevia, ap. Hita, Guerras de
+Granada, tom. ii. p. 448.
+
+[234] "Y no pararan hasta acabarlas a todas, si las quejas de los
+soldados, a quien se quitaba el premio de la vitoria, no le movieran;
+mas esto fue quando se entendio que la villa estaba ya por nosotros, y
+no quiso que se perdonase a varon que pasase de doce anos."--Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 248.
+
+[235] "Se cautivaron hasta otras mil y quinientas personas de mugeres y
+ninos, porque a hombre ninguno se tomo con vida, habiendo muerto todos
+sin quedar uno en este dia, y en los asaltos pasados."--Hevia, ap. Hita,
+Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 448.
+
+Marmol, while he admits that not a man was spared, estimates the number
+of women and children saved at three times that given in the text.
+
+[236] "Si Africa llora, Espana no rie."
+
+[237] For the account of the final assault, as told by the various
+writers, with sufficient inconsistency in the details, compare Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 244-249; Mendoza, Guerra de Granada,
+pp. 266-268; Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 114, 115; Hevia,
+ap. Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 429 et seq.; Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, pp. 630, 631; Bleda, Cronica, p. 734; Ferreras, Hist.
+d'Espagne, tom. x. pp. 143, 144.
+
+[238] "Tanto le crecia la ira, pensando en el dano que aquellos hereges
+habian hecho."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 248.
+
+[239] "Solo dar gracias a Dios y a la gloriosa virgen Maria,
+encomendandoles el Catholico Rey aquel negocio, por ser de calidad, que
+deseaba mas gloria de la concordia y paz, que de la vitoria
+sangrienta."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 249.
+
+[240] "Cela faict, par sa renommee qui voloit par le monde, tant des
+chrestiens que des infidelles, il fut faict general de la saincte
+ligue."--Brantome, OEuvres, tom. i. p. 326.
+
+[241] "Que es esto, Espanoles? de que huis? donde esta la honra de
+Espana? No teneis delante a Don Juan de Austria, vuestro capitan? de que
+temeis? Retiraos con orden como hombres de guerra con el rostro al
+enemigo."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 257.
+
+[242] "Acudiendo a todas las necesidades con peligro de su persona,
+porque le dieron un escopetazo en la cabeza sobre una celada fuerte que
+llevaba, que a no ser tan buena, le mataran."--Ibid. p. 258.
+
+[243] Carta de D. Juan de Austria al Rey, 19 de Febrero, 1570,
+MS.--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 253 et seq.--Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada, p. 273.--Villafane, Vida de Magdalena de
+Ulloa.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 116, 117.
+
+[244] "Conforme a esto entendera V. M. la poca costancia y aficion que
+tienen a la guerra, estos que la dejan al mejor tiempo sin poderles
+reprimir galeras, ni horca ni cuantas diligencias se hacen. Y plega a
+Dios que el amor de los hijos y parientes sea la causa y no miedo de los
+enemigos."--Carta de D. Juan de Austria al Rey, 19 de Febrero, 1570, MS.
+
+[245] Ibid.
+
+[246] "Que cada uno ha de hacer su oficio y no el general de soldado, ni
+el soldado el de general."--Carta del Rey a D. Juan de Austria, 24 de
+Febrero, 1570, MS.
+
+[247] One evidence of this is afforded by the frankness of his friend,
+Ruy Gomez de Silva. "La primera," he writes to Don John, "que por cuanto
+V. Ex.ª esta reputado de atrevido y de hombre que quiere mas ganar
+credito de soldado que de general, que mude este estilo y se deje
+gobernar."--(Carta de 4 de Marzo, 1570, MS.) It is to Don John's credit
+that, in his reply, he thanks Ruy Gomez warmly for his admonition, and
+begs his monitor to reprove him without hesitation, whenever he deems it
+necessary, since, now that his guardian is gone, there is no other who
+can take this liberty.--Carta de D. Juan de Austria a Ruy Gomez de
+Silva, MS.
+
+[248] According to Villafane, Dona Magdalena left Madrid on learning her
+husband's illness, and travelled with such despatch that she arrived in
+time to receive his last sighs. Hita also speaks of her presence at his
+bedside. But as seven days only elapsed between the date of the knight's
+wound and that of his death, one finds it difficult to believe that this
+could have allowed time for the courier who brought the tidings, and for
+the lady afterwards, whether in the saddle or litter, to have travelled
+a distance of over four hundred and fifty miles, along execrable roads,
+with much of the way lying through the wild passes of the Alpujarras.
+
+[249] "Creemos piadosamente que el alma de D. Luis subiria al ciclo con
+el oloroso incienso que se quemo en los altares de S. Geronimo, porque
+siempre habia empleado la vida en pelear contra enemigos de nuestra
+santa fe, y por ultimo murio batallando con ellos como soldado
+valeroso."--Hita, Guerras de Granada, tom. ii. p. 487.
+
+[250] Carta del Rey a D. Juan de Austria, 3 de Marzo, 1570, MS.
+
+[251] The letter is translated by Stirling from a manuscript, entitled
+"Joannis Austriaci Vita, auctore Antonio Ossorio," in the National
+Library at Madrid.--See Cloister Life of Charles the Fifth (Am. ed.), p.
+286.
+
+[252] Tijola is the scene of the story, familiar to every lover of
+Castilian romance, and better suited to romance than history, of the
+Moor Tuzani and his unfortunate mistress, the beautiful Maleha. It forms
+the most pleasing episode in Hita's second volume (pp. 523-540), and is
+translated with pathos and delicacy by Circourt, Hist. des Arabes
+d'Espagne, tom. iii. p. 345 et seq.
+
+[253] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 290-320,
+340-346.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 119 et seq.--Ferreras
+Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. p. 170 et seq.
+
+[254] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 271 et seq.--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. ii. pp. 283-289, 303-315, 321 et seq.
+
+In a letter without date, of the duke of Sesa, forming part of a mass of
+correspondence which I was so fortunate as to obtain from the collection
+at Holland House, he insists on starvation as a much more effectual
+means of reducing the enemy than the sword. "Esta guerra parece que no
+puede acabarse por medio mas cierto que el de la hambre que necesitara a
+los enemigos a rendirse o perecer, y esta los acabara primero que el
+espada."--MS.
+
+[255] "Con estas cosas y otras particulares que El Habaqui pidio para
+Aben Aboo, y para los amigos, y para si mismo, que todas se le
+concedieron."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 360.
+
+[256] "Misericordia, Senor, misericordia nos conceda vuestra Alteza en
+nombre de su Magestad, y perdon de nuestras culpas, que conocemos haber
+sido graves."--Ibid. p. 361.
+
+[257] The fullest account of these proceedings is to be found in Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 355-362.
+
+[258] "Predicando en los pulpitos publicamente contra la benignidad y
+clemencia que V. M. ha mandado usar con esta gente."--Carta de D. Juan
+de Austria al Rey, 7 de Junio, 1570, MS.
+
+[259] "Que los religiosos que habrian de interceder con V. M. por estos
+miserables, que cierto la mayor parte ha pecado con ignorancia, hagan su
+esfuerzo en reprender la clemencia."--Ibid.
+
+[260] "The wise king," as Bleda tells us, "did not forget Deza's eminent
+services. He became one of the richest cardinals, passing the remainder
+of his days in Rome, where he built a sumptuous palace for his
+residence."--(Cronica de Espana, p. 753.) Unfortunately this happy
+preferment did not take place till some time later--too late for the
+poor Moriscoes to profit by it.
+
+[261] "Que El Habaqui habia mirado mal por el bien comun, contendandose
+con lo que solamente Don Juan de Austria le habia querido conceder, y
+procurando el bien y provecho para si y para sus deudos."--Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 390.
+
+[262] "En lo que a esto toca, no tengo mas prendas que la palabra del
+Habaqui, el cual me podria enganar; pero certifico a V. M. que en su
+manera de proceder ma paresce hombre que tracta verdad, y tal fama
+tiene."--Carta de D. Juan de Austria al Rey, 21 de Mayo, 1570, MS.
+
+[263] "Que quando Aben Aboo de su voluntad no lo hiciese, le llevaria el
+atado a la cola de su caballo."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii.
+p. 392.
+
+[264] "Lo hizo ahogar secretamente, y mando echar el cuerpo en un
+muladar envuelto en un zarzo de canas, donde estuvo mas de treinta dias
+sin saberse de su muerte."--Ibid. p. 393.
+
+[265] "Que quando no quedase otro sino el en la Alpuxarra con sola la
+camisa que tenia vestida, estimaba mas vivir y morir Moro, que todas
+quantas mercedes el Rey Filipe le podia hacer; y que fuese cierto, que
+en ningun tiempo, ni por ninguna manera, se pondria en su
+poder."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 410.
+
+[266] It is the language of Marmol, who will not be suspected of
+exaggerating the cruelties of his countrymen. He does not seem, indeed,
+to regard them as cruelties. "Unos enviaba el Comendador mayor a las
+galeras, otros hacia justicia de ellos, y los mas consentia que los
+vendiesen los soldados para que fuesen aprovechados."--Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. ii. p. 436.
+
+[267] Ibid. p. 433.
+
+[268] Circourt gives a precise enumeration of the fortresses in
+different districts of the country.--Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom.
+iii. pp. 135, 136.
+
+[269] "Llevando cerca de si a su hijo, mozo quasi de trece anos Don Luis
+Ponce de Leon, cosa usada en otra edad en aquella Casa de los Ponces de
+Leon, criarse los muchachos peleando con los Moros, i tener a sus padres
+por maestros."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 318.
+
+[270] For the celebrated description of this event by Mendoza, see
+Guerra de Granada, pp. 301, 302. The Castilian historian, who probably
+borrowed the hint of it from Tacitus (Annales, lib. i. sec. 31), has
+painted the scene with a consummate art that raises him from the rank of
+an imitator to that of a rival. The reader may find a circumstantial
+account of Alonso de Aguilar's disastrous expedition, in 1501, in the
+History of Ferdinand and Isabella, part ii. chap. 7.
+
+[271] Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, pp. 298-314.--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. ii. pp. 425-431.
+
+[272] Circourt quotes a remarkable passage from the _Ordenanzas de
+Granada_, which well illustrates the _conscientious manner_ in which the
+government dealt with the Moriscoes. It forms the preamble of the law of
+February 24, 1571. "The Moriscoes who took no part in the insurrection
+ought not to be punished. We should not desire to injure them; but they
+cannot hereafter cultivate their lands; and then it would be an endless
+task to attempt to separate the innocent from the guilty. We shall
+indemnify them certainly. Meanwhile their estates must be confiscated,
+like those of the rebel Moriscoes."--Hist. des Arabes d'Espagne, tom.
+iii. p. 148.
+
+[273] "Que las casas fuesen y estuviesen juntas; porque aunque lo
+merecian poco, quiso su Magestad que se les diese esto
+contento."--Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. p. 439.
+
+[274] "Saquearon los soldados las casas del lugar, y tomaron todas las
+mugeres por esclavas; cosa que dio harta sospecha de que la desorden
+habia nacido de su cudicia."--Ibid. p. 444.
+
+The better feelings of the old soldier occasionally--and it is no small
+praise, considering the times--triumph over his national antipathies.
+
+[275] For the removal and dispersion of the Moriscoes, see Marmol,
+Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 437-444; Ferraras, Hist. d'Espagne,
+tom. x. pp. 227, 228; Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 126.
+
+It may well seem strange that an event of such moment as the removal of
+the Moriscoes should have been barely noticed, when indeed noticed at
+all, by the general historian. It is still more strange that it should
+have been passed over in silence by a writer like Mendoza, to whose
+narrative it essentially belonged, and who could bestow thirty pages of
+more on the expedition into the Serrania de Ronda. But this was a tale
+of Spanish glory. The haughty Castilian chronicler held the race of
+unbelievers in too great contempt to waste a thought on their
+calamities, except so far as they enabled him to exhibit the prowess of
+his countrymen.
+
+[276] "Querria tambien que alla se entendiese que ya no soy mochacho, y
+que puedo, a Dios gracias, comenzar en alguna manera a volar sin alas
+ajenas, y sospecho ques ya tiempo de salir de panales."--Carta de D.
+Juan de Austria a Ruy Gomez de Silva, 16 de Mayo, 1570, MS.
+
+[277] "No teniendo el lugar y auctoridad que ha de tener hijo de tal
+padre, y hermano de tal hermano."--Ibid., 4 de Junio, 1570, MS.
+
+[278] Marmol, Rebelion de Granada, tom. ii. pp. 449-454.--Mendoza,
+Guerra de Granada, pp. 324-327.--Bleda, Cronica de Espana, p.
+752.--Herrera, Historia General, tom. i. p. 781.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan
+de Austria, fol. 123.
+
+[279] "Esta es la cabeza del traidor de Abenabo. Nadie la quite so pena
+de muerte."--Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, p. 329.--Marmol, Rebelion de
+Granada, tom. ii. pp. 455, 456--Bleda, Cronica de Espana, p.
+752.--Miniara, Hist. de Espana, p. 383.
+
+[280] Ante, p. 40.
+
+[281] Nueva Recopilacion, lib. viii. tit. ii. ley 19.
+
+[282] "Si estos tales que se huyieren huydo, y ausentado fueren hallados
+en el dicho Reyno de Granada, o dentro de diez leguas cercanas a el,
+caygan e incurran en pena de muerte que sea en sus personas
+executada."--Ibid. ubi supra.
+
+[283] Nueva Recopilacion, lib. viii. tit. ii. ley 19.
+
+[284] Examples of this are cited by Circourt, Hist. des Arabes
+d'Espagne, tom. iii. pp. 150, 151.
+
+[285] Ibid. p. 163.
+
+M. de Circourt has collected, from some authentic and not very
+accessible sources, much curious information relative to this part of
+his subject.
+
+[286] Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. p. 227.
+
+[287] "Ils representerent que ce recensement allait leur reveler la
+secret de leur nombre effrayant; qu'ils fourmillaient."--Circourt, Hist.
+des Arabes d'Espagne, tom. iii. p. 164.
+
+[288] "Qu'ils accapareaint tous les metiers, teut le commerce."--Ibid.
+loc. cit.
+
+[289] Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. pp. 239, 240.--Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, p. 641.--Zuniga, Anales de Sevilla, pp. 536-538.
+
+The chroniclers paint in glowing colours the splendours of the royal
+reception at Seville, which, enriched by the Indian trade, took its
+place among the great commercial capitals of Christendom in the
+sixteenth century. It was a common saying,
+
+ "Quien no ha visto a Sevilla
+ No ha visto a maravilla."
+
+
+[290] Herrera, Historia General, tom. i. p. 798 et seq.--Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, lib. vi. cap. 17.--Sagredo, Monarcas Othomanos, p. 277.
+
+[291] Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 667.--Sagredo, Monarcas Othomanos, p.
+277.
+
+[292] A copy of the treaty in Latin, dated May 25, 1571, exists in the
+library of the Academy of History, at Madrid. Senor Rosell has
+transferred it to the appendix of his work, Historia del Combate Naval
+de Lepanto (Madrid, 1853), pp. 180-189.
+
+[293] A copy from the first draft of the treaty, as prepared in 1570, is
+incorporated in the Documentos Ineditos (tom. iii. pp. 337 et seq.). The
+original is in the library of the duke of Ossuna.
+
+[294] Rosell, Combate Naval de Lepanto, p. 56.
+
+[295] Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, p. 120 et seq.--Herrera, Hist. General,
+tom. ii. pp. 14, 15.
+
+[296] Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. ix. cap. 22.--Ferreras, Hist.
+d'Espagne, tom. x. pp. 247, 248.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria,
+fol. 152.
+
+[297] "No poco se maravillaron los curiosos, viendole, o por casualidad
+o bien de intento, terciar llanamente en la conversacion, contra las
+etiquetas hasta entonces observadas."--Rosell, Combate Naval de Lepanto,
+p. 59.
+
+[298] "Y concede dozientos anos de perdon a los
+presentes."--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 152.
+
+[299] "_De las mejores que jamas se han visto_,"--"among the best
+galleys that were ever seen,"--says Don John in a letter, from Messina,
+to Don Garcia de Toledo.--Documentos Ineditos, tom. iii. p. 15.
+
+The earlier part of the third volume of the Documentos Ineditos is taken
+up with the correspondence between John of Austria and Garcia de Toledo,
+in which the former asks information and advice in respect to the best
+mode of conducting the war. Don Garcia de Toledo, fourth marquis of
+Villafranca, was a man of high family, and of great sagacity and
+experience. He had filled some of the highest posts in the government,
+and, as the reader may remember, was viceroy of Sicily at the time when
+Malta was besieged by the Turks. The coldness which on that occasion he
+appeared to show to the besieged, excited general indignation; and I
+ventured to state, on an authority which I did not profess to esteem the
+best, that in consequence of this he fell into disgrace, and was
+suffered to pass the remainder of his years in obscurity. (Ante, vol.
+ii. circ. fin.) An investigation of documents which I had not then seen
+shows this to have been an error. The ample correspondence which both
+Philip the Second and Don John carried on with him, gives undeniable
+proofs of the confidence which he continued to enjoy at court, and the
+high deference which was paid to his opinion.
+
+[300] Authorities differ as usual as to the precise number both of
+vessels and troops. I have accepted the estimate of Rosell, who
+discreetly avoids the extremes on either side.
+
+[301] Vanderhammen has been careful to transcribe this precious
+catalogue.--Don Juan de Austria, fol. 156 et seq.
+
+[302] Ibid. fol. 159 et seq.--Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. p.
+251.--Herrera, Hist. General, tom. ii. p. 15 et seq.
+
+[303] "Luego su Alteza, el Coro, y Pueblo dixeron con musica, vozes, y
+alegria; Amen."--Vanderhammen, Juan de Austria, fol. 159.
+
+[304] For a minute account of these arches and their manifold
+inscriptions, see Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 160-162.
+
+[305] Rosell, Combate Naval de Lepanto, p. 84.
+
+[306] Don John, in his correspondence with his friend Don Garcia de
+Toledo, speaks with high disgust of the negligence shown in equipping
+the Venetian galleys. In a letter dated Messina, August 30, he says:
+"Poneme cierta congoja ver que el mundo me obliga a hacer alguna cosa de
+momento, contando las galeras pro numero y no por cualidad."--Documentos
+Ineditos, tom. iii. p. 18.
+
+[307] Rosell, Combate Naval de Lepanto, p. 82.
+
+The clearest and by far the most elaborate account of the battle of
+Lepanto is to be found in the memoir of Don Cayetan Rosell, which
+received the prize of the Royal Academy of History of Madrid, in 1853.
+It is a narrative which may be read with pride by Spaniards, for the
+minute details it gives of the prowess shown by their heroic ancestors
+on that memorable day. The author enters with spirit into the stormy
+scene he describes. If his language may be thought sometimes to betray
+the warmth of national partiality, it cannot be denied that he has
+explored the best sources of information, and endeavoured to place the
+result fairly before the reader.
+
+[308] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica de Guerra que ha acontescido en Italia
+y partes de Levante y Berberia desde 1570 en 1574 (Caragoca, 1579), fol.
+54.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 165 et seq.--Cabrera,
+Filipe Segundo, lib. lx. cap. 23.
+
+[309] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 64.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de
+Austria, fol. 173.--Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, p. 149.--Relacion de la
+Batalla Naval que entre Christianos y Turcos hubo el ano 1571, MS.--Otra
+Relacion, Documentos Ineditos, tom. iii. p. 365.
+
+[310] Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, pp. 143, 144.--"Despues hizo que lo
+degollassen vivo, y lleno el pellejo de paja lo hizo colgar de la entena
+de una galeota, y desta manera lo llevo pol toda la ribera de la
+Suria."--Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 45.
+
+[311] Ibid. fol. 44, 45.--Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, pp.
+130-144.--Sagredo, Monarcas Othomanos, pp. 283-289.
+
+[312] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 65.--Documentos Ineditos, tom.
+iii. p. 241.--Rosell, Historia del Combate Naval, pp. 93, 94.
+
+[313] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 53.--Herrera, Hist. General,
+tom. ii. p. 30.--Relacion de la Batalla Naval, MS.--Rosell, Historia del
+Combate Naval, pp. 95, 99, 100.
+
+[314] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 67 et seq.--Relacion de la
+Batalla Naval, MS.--Otras Relaciones, Documentos Ineditos, tom. iii. pp.
+242, 262.
+
+[315] Most of the authorities notice this auspicious change of the wind.
+Among others, see Relacion de la Batalla Naval, MS.; Relacion escrita
+por Miguel Servia, confesor de Don Juan, Documentos Ineditos, tom. xi.
+p. 368: Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 75. The testimony is that of
+persons present in the action.
+
+[316] Amidst the contradictory estimates of the number of the vessels
+and the forces to the Turkish armada to be found in the different
+writers, and even in official relations, I have conformed to the
+statement given in Senor Rosell's _Memoria_, prepared after a careful
+comparison of the various authorities.--Historia del Combate Naval, p.
+94.
+
+[317] "Si hoy es vuestro dia, Dios os lo de; pero estad ciertos que si
+gano la jornada, os dare libertad: por lo tanto haced lo que debeis a
+las obras que de mi habeis recebido."--Rosell, Historia del Combate
+Naval, p. 101.
+
+For the last pages see Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, pp. 150, 151; Sagrado,
+Monarcas Othomanos, p. 292; Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 65, 66;
+Relacion de la Batalla Naval, MS.
+
+[318] This fact is told by most of the historians of the battle. The
+author of the manuscript so often cited by me further says, that it was
+while the fleet was thus engaged in prayer for aid from the Almighty
+that the change of wind took place. "Y en este medio, que en la oracion
+se pedia a Dios la victoria, estaba el mar alterado de que nuestra
+armada recibia gran dano y antes que se acabase la dicha oracion el mar
+estuvo tan quieto y sosegado que jamas se a visto, y fue fuerca a la
+armada enemiga amainar y venir al remo."
+
+[319] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 71.--Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, p.
+156.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 688.--Relacion de la Batalla Naval,
+MS.--Otra Relacion, Documentos Ineditos, tom. xi. p. 368.
+
+The inestimable collection of the Documentos Ineditos contains several
+narratives of the battle of Lepanto by contemporary pens. One of these
+is from the manuscript of Fray Miguel Servia, the confessor of John of
+Austria, and present with him in the engagement. The different
+narratives have much less discrepancy with one another than is usual on
+such occasions.
+
+[320] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 72.--Relacion de la Batalla
+Naval, MS.
+
+The last-mentioned manuscript is one of many left us by parties engaged
+in the fight. The author of this relation seems to have written it on
+board one of the galleys, while lying at Petala, during the week after
+the engagement. The events are told in a plain, unaffected manner, that
+invites the confidence of the reader. The original manuscript, from
+which my copy was taken, is to be found in the library of the University
+of Leyden.
+
+[321] A minute description of the Ottoman standard, taken from a
+manuscript of Luis del Marmol, is given in the Colleccion de Documentos
+Ineditos, tom. iii. pp. 270 et seq.
+
+[322] Documentos Ineditos, tom. iii. p. 265; tom. xi. p. 368.--Torres y
+Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 70.--Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, pp. 156,
+157.--Relacion de la Batalla Naval, MS.
+
+[323] Herrera notices one galley, "_La Piamontesa de Saboya_ degollada
+en ella toda la gente de cabo y remo y despedazado con once heridas D.
+Francisco de Saboya." Another, "_La Florencia_," says Rosell, "perdio
+todos los soldados, chusma, galeotes y caballeros de San Esteban que en
+ella habia, excepto su capitan Tomas de Medicis y diez y seis hombres
+mas, aunque todos heridos y estropeados."--Historia del Combate Naval,
+p. 113.
+
+[324] "Tomo una Alabarda o Pertesana, y ligando en ella el Sancto
+Crucifixo, verdadera pendon, se puso delante de todos assi desarinado
+como estava, y fue el primero que entro en la Galera Turquesca, haziendo
+con su Alabarda cosas que ponian admiracion."--Torres y Aguilera,
+Chronicas, fol. 75.
+
+[325] "Vivio hasta que sabiendo que la vitoria era ganada dijo: que daba
+gracias a Dios que lo hubiese guardado tanto que viese vencida la
+batalla y roto aquel comun enemigo que tanto deseo ver
+destruido."--Herrera, Relacion de la Guerra de Cipro, Documentos
+Ineditos, tom. xxi. p. 360.
+
+[326] Relacion de la Batalla Naval, MS.--Herrera, Hist. General, tom.
+ii. p. 33.--Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, pp. 157, 158.--Documentos Ineditos,
+tom. iii. p. 244.
+
+Torres y Aguilera tells a rather extraordinary anecdote respecting the
+great standard of the League in the _Real_. The figure of Christ
+emblazoned on it was not hit by ball or arrow during the action,
+notwithstanding every other banner was pierced in a multitude of places.
+Two arrows, however, lodged on either side of the crucifix, when a
+monkey belonging to the galley ran up the mast, and, drawing out the
+weapons with his teeth, threw them overboard! (Chronica, fol. 75)
+Considering the number of ecclesiastics on board the fleet, it is
+remarkable that no more miracles occurred on this occasion.
+
+[327] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 72 et seq.--Relacion de la
+Batalla Naval, MS.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+182.--Documentos Ineditos, tom. iii. p. 247 et seq.--Paruta, Guerra di
+Cipro, p. 160.--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. ix. cap. 25, 26.
+
+ "Do el estandarte barbaro abatido
+ la Cruz del Redentor fue enarbolada
+ con un triunfo solene y grande gloria,
+ cantando abiertamente la vitoria."
+
+ Ercilla, La Araucana, par. ii. canto 24.
+
+
+[328] The loss of the Moslems is little better than matter of
+conjecture, so contradictory are the authorities. The author of the
+Leyden MS. dismisses the subject with the remark, "La gente muerta de
+Turcos no se ha podido saber por que la que se hecho en la mar fuera de
+los degollados fueron infinitos." I have conformed, as in my other
+estimates, to those of Senor Rosell, Historia del Combate Naval, p. 118.
+
+[329] Rosell computes the total loss of the allies at not less than
+seven thousand six hundred; of whom one thousand were Romans, two
+thousand Spaniards, and the remainder Venetians.--Ibid. p. 113.
+
+[330] Ibid. ubi supra.--Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 74 et
+seq.--Documentos Ineditos, tom. iii. pp. 246-249; tom. xi. p.
+370.--Sagredo, Monarcas Othomanos, pp. 295, 296.--Relacion de la Batalla
+Naval, MS.
+
+[331] Relacion de la Batalla Naval, MS.
+
+Don John notices this achievement of his gallant kinsman in the first
+letter which he wrote to Philip after the action. The letter, dated at
+Petala, October 10, is published by Aparici, Documentos Ineditos
+relativos a la Batalla de Lepanto, p. 26.
+
+[332] Navarrete, Vida de Cervantes (Madrid, 1819), p. 19.
+
+Cervantes, in the prologue to the second part of "Don Quixote," alluding
+to Lepanto, enthusiastically exclaims, that, for all his wounds, he
+would not have missed the glory of being present on that day. "Quisiera
+antes haberme hallado en aquella faccion prodigiosa, que sano ahora de
+mis heridas, sin haberme hallado en ella."
+
+[333] This humane conduct of Don John is mentioned, among other writers,
+by the author of the Relacion de la Batalla Naval, whose language shows
+that his manuscript was written on the spot: "El queda visitando los
+heridos y procurando su remedio haziendoles merced y dandoles todo lo
+que aviase menester."--MS.
+
+[334] "Lo qual toda esta corte tuvo a gran gentileza, y no hazen sino
+alabar la virtud y grandeza de vuestra Alteza."
+
+The letter of Fatima is to be found in Torres y Aguilera, Chronica (fol.
+92). The chronicler adds a list of the articles sent by the Turkish
+princess to Don John, enumerating, among other things, robes of sable,
+brocade, and various rich stuffs, fine porcelain, carpets, and tapestry,
+weapons curiously inlaid with gold and silver, and Damascus blades
+ornamented with rubies and turquoises.
+
+[335] "El presente que me embio dexe de rescibir, y le huvo el mismo
+Mahamet Bey, no por no preciarle como cosa venida de su mano, sino por
+que la grandeza de mis antecessores no acostumbra rescibir dones de los
+necessitados de favor, sino darios y hazeries gracias."--Ibid. fol. 94.
+
+[336] According to some, Don John was induced, by the persuasion of his
+friends, to make these advances to the Venetian admiral. (See Torres y
+Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 75; Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol.
+123.) It is certain he could not erase the memory of the past from his
+bosom, as appears from more than one of his letters, in which he speaks
+of the difficulty he should find, in another campaign, in acting in
+concert with a man of so choleric a temper. In consequence the Venetian
+government was induced, though very reluctantly, to employ Veniero on
+another service. In truth, the conduct which had so much disgusted Don
+John and the allies seems to have found favour with Veniero's
+countrymen, who regarded it as evidence of his sensitive concern for the
+honour of his nation. A few years later they made ample amends to the
+veteran for the slight put on him, by raising him to the highest dignity
+in the republic. He was the third of his family who held the office of
+doge, to which he was chosen in 1576, and in which he continued till his
+death.
+
+[337] The spoil found on board the Turkish ships was abandoned to the
+captors. There was enough of it to make many a needy adventurer rich.
+"Assi por la victoria havida como porque muchos venian tan ricos y
+prosperados que no havia hombre que se preciasse de gastar moneda de
+plata sino Zequies, ni curasse de regatear en nada que
+comprasse."--Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 79.
+
+[338] For the preceding pages see Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria,
+fol. 186; Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 79; Cabrera, Filipe Segundo,
+p. 696; Herrera, Historia General, tom. ii. p. 37; Ferreras, Hist.
+d'Espagne, tom. x. p. 261.
+
+[339] An old _romance_ thus commemorates this liberal conduct of Don
+John:--
+
+ "Y ansi seda como de oro
+ Ninguna cosa ha querido
+ Don Juan, como liberal,
+ Por mostrar do ha descendido,
+ Sino que entre los soldados
+ Fuese todo repartido
+ En premio de sus trabajos
+ Pues lo habian merecido."
+
+ Duran, Romancero General (Madrid, 1851), tom. ii. p. 185.
+
+
+[340] Lorea, Vida de Pio Quinto, cap. xxiv. Sec. ii.--Torres y Aguilera,
+Chronica, fol. 80.--Rosell, Historia del Combate Naval, pp. 124, 125.
+
+[341] Philip, in a letter to his brother, dated from the Escorial in the
+following November, speaks of his delight at receiving this trophy from
+the hands of Figueroa. (See the letter, ap. Rosell, Hist. del Combate
+Naval, Apend. No. 15.) The standard was deposited in the Escorial, where
+it was destroyed by fire in the year 1671.--Documentos Ineditos tom.
+iii. p. 256.
+
+[342] "Y S. M. no se altero, ni demudo, ni hizo sentimiento alguno, y se
+estuvo con el semblante y serenidad que antes estaba, con el qual
+semblante estuvo hasta que se acabaron de cantar las
+visperas."--Memorias de Fray Juan de San Geronimo, Documentos Ineditos,
+tom. iii. p. 258.
+
+[343] The third volume of the Documentos Ineditos contains a copious
+extract from a manuscript in the Escorial written by a Jeronymite monk.
+In this the writer states that Philip received intelligence of the
+victory from a courier despatched by Don John, while engaged at vespers
+in the palace monastery of the Escorial. This account is the one
+followed by Cabrera (Filipe Segundo, p. 696) and by the principal
+Castilian writers. Its inaccuracy, however, is sufficiently attested by
+two letters written at the time to Don John of Austria, one by the royal
+secretary Alzamora, the other by Philip himself. According to their
+account, the person who first conveyed the tidings was the Venetian
+minister; and the place where they were received by the king was the
+private chapel of the palace of Madrid, while engaged at vespers on
+All-Saints eve. It is worthy of notice, that the secretary's letter
+contains no hint of the _nonchalance_ with which Philip is said to have
+heard the tidings. The originals of these interesting despatches still
+exist in the National Library at Madrid. They have been copied by Senor
+Rosell for his memoir (Apend. Nos. 13, 15). One makes little progress in
+history before finding that it is much easier to repeat an error than to
+correct it.
+
+[344] "Y ansi a vos (despues de Dios) se ha de dar el parabien y las
+gracias della, como yo os las doy, y a mi de que por mano de persona que
+tanto me toca como la vuestra, y a quien yo tanto quiero, se haya hecho
+un tan gran negocio, y ganado vos tanta honra y gloria con Dios y con
+todo el mundo."--Rosell, Historia del Combate Naval, Apend. No. 15.
+
+[345] Carta del secretario Alzamora a Don Juan de Austria, Madrid, Nov.
+11, 1571, ap. Rosell, Historia del Combate Naval, Apend. No. 13.
+
+[346] See Ford, Handbook for Spain, vol. ii. p. 697.
+
+[347] Ercilla has devoted the twenty-fourth canto of the Araucana to the
+splendid episode of the battle of Lepanto. If Ercilla was not, like
+Cervantes, present in the fight, his acquaintance with the principal
+actors in it makes his epic, in addition to its poetical merits, of
+considerable value as historical testimony.
+
+[348] The letter, which is dated Brussels, Nov. 17, 1571, is addressed
+to Juan de Zuniga, the Castilian ambassador at the court of Rome. A copy
+from a manuscript of the sixteenth century, in the library of the duke
+of Ossuna, is inserted in the Documentos Ineditos, tom. iii. pp.
+292-303.
+
+[349] "Ya havreis entendido la orden que se os ha dado de que inverneis
+en Mecina, y las causas dello."--Carta del Rey a su hermano, ap. Rosell,
+Historia del Combate Naval, Apend. No. 15.
+
+[350] See Rosell, Historia del Combate Naval, p. 157; Lafuente, Historia
+de Espana (Madrid, 1850), tom. xiii. p. 538. Ranke, who has made the
+history of the Ottoman empire his particular study, remarks: "The Turks
+lost all their old confidence after the battle of Lepanto. They had no
+equal to oppose to John of Austria. The day of Lepanto broke down the
+Ottoman supremacy."--Ottoman and Spanish Empires (Eng. tr.), p. 23.
+
+[351] "Su Santidad ha de querer que de gane Constantinopla y la Casa
+Santa, y que tendra muchos que le querran adular con facilitarselo, y
+que no faltaran entre estos algunos quo hacen profesion de soldados y
+que como su Beatitud no pueden entender estas cosas."--Carta del Duque
+de Alba, ap. Documentos Inedites, tom. iii. p. 300.
+
+[352] Ranke, History of the Popes (Eng. tr.), vol i. p. 384.
+
+[353] Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiii. p. 530.
+
+[354] "Breves de fuego."--Ibid, p. 529.
+
+[355] "E si e veduto, che quando gli fu data la gran rotta, in sei mesi
+rifabbrico canto venti galere, oltre quelle che si trovavano in essere,
+cosa che essendo preveduta e scritta da me, fu giudicata piuttosto
+impossibile che creduta."--Relazione di Marcantino Barbaro 1573, Alberi,
+Relazioni Venete, tom. iii, p. 306.
+
+[356] For the preceding pages see Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol.
+87-89; Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. x. cap. 5; Vanderhammen, Don Juan
+de Austria, fol. 159 et seq.; Paruta, Guerra di Cipro, p. 206 et seq.;
+Sagredo, Monarcas Othomanos, pp. 301, 302.
+
+[357] It is Voltaire's reflection: "Il semblait que les Turques eussent
+gagne la bataille de Lepante."--Essais sur les Moeurs, chap. 160.
+
+[358] The treaty is to be found in Dumont, Corps Diplomatique, tom. v.
+par. 1 pp. 218, 219.
+
+[359] Rosell, Historia del Combate Naval, p. 149.--Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, p. 747.--Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 95.
+
+[360] Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 172.
+
+[361] Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 765.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan de
+Austria, fol. 174, 175--Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 103 et
+seq.--The author last cited who was present at the capture of Tunis,
+gives a fearful picture of the rapacity of the soldiers.
+
+[362] The Castilian writers generally speak of it as the _peremptory
+command_ of Philip. Cabrera, one of the best authorities, tells us:
+"Mandio el Rey Catolico a Don Juan de Austria enplear su armada en la
+conquista de Tunez, i que le desmantelase, i la Goleta." But soon after
+he remarks: "Olvidando el _buen acuerdo_ del Rey, por consejo de
+lisongeros determino de conservar la ciudad." (Filipe Segundo, pp. 763,
+764.) From this qualified language we may infer that the king meant to
+give his brother his decided opinion, not amounting, however, to such an
+absolute command as would leave him no power to exercise his discretion
+in the matter. This last view is made the more probable by the fact that
+in the following spring a correspondence took place between the king and
+his brother, in which the former, after stating the arguments both for
+preserving and for dismantling the fortress of Tunis, concludes by
+referring the decision of the question to Don John himself.
+"Representadas todas estas dificultades, manda remitir S. M. al Senor
+Don Juan que el tome la resolucion que mas convenga."--Documentos
+Ineditos, tom. iii. p. 139.
+
+[363] "Porque la gentileza de la tierra i de las damas en su
+conservacion agradaba a su gallarda edad."--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p.
+755.--Also Vanderhammen, Don Juan de Austria, fol. 176.
+
+[364] Ferreras, Hist. d'Espagne, tom. x. p. 286.--Vanderhammen, Don Juan
+de Austria, fol. 178.
+
+[365] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 116 et seq.--Relacion particular
+de Don Juan Sanogera, MS.
+
+Vanderhammen states the loss of the Moslems at thirty-three thousand
+slain. (Don Juan de Austria, fol. 189.) But the arithmetic of the
+Castilian is little to be trusted as regards the infidel.
+
+[366] For a brief but very perspicuous view of the troubles of Genoa,
+see San Migual, Hist. de Flipe Segundo (tom. ii. cap. 36). The care of
+this judicious writer to acquaint the reader with contemporary events in
+other countries, as they bore more or less directly on Spain, is a
+characteristic merit of his history.
+
+[367] Torres y Aguilera, Chronica, fol. 113.
+
+[368] The principal cause of Granvelle's coldness to Don John, as we are
+told by Cabrera (Filipe Segundo, p. 794), echoed, as usual, by
+Vanderhammen (Don Juan de Austria, fol. 184), was envy of the fame which
+the hero of Lepanto had gained by his conquests both in love and in war.
+"La causa principal era el poco gasto que tenia de acudir a Don Juan,
+invidioso de sus favores de Marte i Venus." Considering the cardinal's
+profession, he would seem to have had no right to envy any one's success
+in either of these fields.
+
+[369] "Questa oppinione, che di lui si ha, rende le sue leggi piu
+sacrosancte et inviolabili."--Relazione di Contarini, MS.
+
+[370] A manuscript, entitled "_Origen de los Consejos_," without date or
+the name of the author, in the library of Sir Thomas Phillips, gives a
+minute account of the various councils under Philip the Second.
+
+[371] "Sono XI.; il consiglio dell' Indie, Castiglia, d'Aragona,
+d'inquisitione, di camera, dell' ordini, di guerra, di hazzienda, dl
+giustizia, d'Italia, et di stato."--Sommario del' ordine che si tiene
+alla corte di Spagna circa il governo delli stati del Re Catholico, MS.
+
+[372] Ibid. The date of this manuscript is 1570.
+
+[373] Relazione di Badoer, MS.
+
+[374] Instead of "Ruy Gomez," Badoer tells us they punningly gave him
+the title of "Rey Gomez," to denote his influence over the king. "Il
+titolo principal che gli vien dato e di Rey Gomez e non Ruy Gomez,
+perche pare che non sia stato mai alcun privato con principe del mondo
+di tanta autorita e cosi stimato dal signor suo come egli e da questa
+Maesta."--Relazione, MS.
+
+[375] Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, pp. 712, 713.
+
+Cabrera has given us, in the first chapter of the tenth book of his
+history, a finished portrait of Ruy Gomez, which for the niceness of its
+discrimination and the felicity of its language may compare with this
+best compositions of the Castilian chroniclers.
+
+[376] "El senor Ruy Gomez no fue de los mayores consejeros que ha
+habido, pero del humor y natural de los reyes le roconozco por tan gran
+maestro, que todos los que por aqui dentro andamos tenemos la cabeza
+donde pensamos que traemos los pies."--Bermudez de Castro, Antonio Perez
+(Madrid, 1841), p. 28.
+
+[377] "Fue Rui Gomez el primero piloto que en trabajos tan grandes vivio
+y murio seguro, tomando sienpre el mejor puerto."--Cabrera, p. 713.
+
+[378] "Vivo conservo la gracia de su Rey, muerto le dolio su falta, i la
+lloro su Reyno, que en su memoria le a conservado paro exemplo de fieles
+vasallos i prudentes privados de los mayores Principes."--Ibid. ubi
+supra.
+
+[379] "Puede ser, pero el Cardenal Espinosa me consulto en saliendo del
+consejo, i provei la placa."--Cabrera, p. 700.
+
+[380] "Que en principe tan zeloso de su immunidad i oficio parecio
+increible su tolerancia hasta alli."--Ibid. ubi supra.
+
+[381] The anonymous author of a contemporary relation speaks of the king
+as a person little subject to passions of any kind. The language is
+striking: "E questo Re poco soggetto alle pasioni, venga cio, o per
+inclinazione naturale, o per costume; e quasi non appariscono in lui i
+primi movimenti ne dell' allegrezza, ne del dolore, ne dell' ira
+ancora."--MS.
+
+[382] "El Rey le hablo tan asperamente sobre el afinar una verdad, que
+le mato brevemente," says Cabrera emphatically.--Filipe Segundo, p. 699.
+
+[383] "Perche chi vuole il favore del duoa d'Alva perde quello di Ruy
+Gomez, e chi cerca il favore di Ruy Gomez, non ha quello del duca
+d'Alva."--Relazione di Soriano, MS.
+
+[384] Ranke has given some pertinent examples of this in an interesting
+sketch which he has presented of the relative positions of these two
+statesmen in the cabinet of Philip.--Ottoman and Spanish Empires (Eng.
+trans.), p. 38.
+
+[385] "Non si trova mai S.M. presente alle deliberationi ne i consigli,
+ma deliberato chiama una delle tre consulte.... alla qual sempre si
+ritrova, onde sono lette le risolutioni del consiglio."--Relazione di
+Tiepolo, MS.
+
+[386] Ranke, Ottoman and Spanish Empires, p. 32.
+
+[387] "El dia que iva a caca bolvia con ansias de bolver al trabajo,
+como un oficial pobre que huviera de ganar la comida con ello."--Los
+Dichos y Hechos, del Rey Phelipe II. (Brusselas, 1666), p. 214.--See
+also Relazione di Pigafetta, MS.
+
+[388] Relazione di Vandramino, MS.--Relazione di Contarini, MS.
+
+"Distribuia las horas del dia, se puede decir, todas en los negocios,
+quando yo lo conoci; porque aunque las tenia de ocio u ocupaciones
+forcosas de su persona, las gastava con tales criados elegidos tan a
+proposito que quanto hablava venia a ser informarse mucho, descanso en
+lo que a otro costara nota y fatiga."--MS. Anon. in the Library of the
+dukes of Burgundy.
+
+[389] Dichos y Hechos de Phelipe II., pp. 339, 340.
+
+[390] "A estos estando turbados, y desalentados, los animava
+diziendoles, Sossegaos."--Dichos y Hechos de Phelipe II., p. 40.
+
+[391] "Diziendole si lo traeis escrito, lo vere, y os hare
+despachar."--Ibid. p. 41.
+
+[392] "Quando esce di Palazzo, suole montare in un cocchio coperto di
+tela incerata, et serrata a modo che non si vede..... Suole quando va in
+villa ritornare la sera per le porte del Parco, senza esser veduto da
+alcuno."--Relazione di Pigafetta, MS.
+
+[393] Ranke, Ottoman and Spanish Empires, p. 32.
+
+Inglis speaks of seeing this work in the library when he visited the
+Escorial.--Spain in 1830, vol. i. p. 348.
+
+[394] Ranke, Ottoman and Spanish Empires, p. 33.
+
+[395] See ante, vol. ii. circ. fin.
+
+[396] Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiv. p. 44.
+
+The historian tells us he has seen the original letter with the changes
+made in it by Philip.
+
+[397] "Chi comincia a servirlo puo tener per certa la remunerazione, se
+il difetto non vien da rei."--Relazione Anon. MS.
+
+[398] Relazione della Corte di Spagna, MS.--Relazione di Badoer,
+MS.--Etiquetas de Palacio, MS.
+
+[399] Relazione di Badoer, MS.
+
+[400] "Ha tre guardie die 100 persone l'una; la piu honorata e di
+Borgognoni e Fiamminghi, che hanno ad esser ben nati e servono a
+cavallo, e si dicono Arcieri accompagnando bene il Re per la citta a
+piede non in fila, ma alla rinfusa intorno alla persona reale; l'altri
+sono d'Albardieri 100 di nazion tedesca, et altri e tanti
+Spagnuoli."--Relazione della Corte di Spagna, MS.
+
+[401] Raumer, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, vol. i. p. 106.
+
+[402] Ibid. p. 105.
+
+[403] Cortes of 1558, peticion 4.
+
+[404] "Questi habiti sempre sono nuovi et puliti, perche ogni mese se
+gli muta, et poi gli dona quando ad uno, e quando ad un
+altro."--Relazione di Pigafetta, MS.
+
+[405] Gachard cites a passage from one of Granvelle's unpublished
+letters, in which he says, "Suplico a V. M., con la humildad qua devo,
+que considerando quanto su vida importa al principe nuestro senor, a
+todos sus reynos y Estados, y vasallos suyos, y aun a toda la
+christiandad, mirando en que miserando estado quedaria sin V. M., sea
+servido mirar adelante mas por su salud, descargandose de tan grande y
+continuo trabajo, que tanto dano le haze."--Rapport prefixed to the
+Correspondance de Philippe II. (tom. i. p. li.), in which the Belgian
+scholar, with his usual conscientiousness and care, enters into an
+examination of the character and personal habits of Philip.
+
+[406] "Habiendo en otra ocasion avisado a vuestra magestad de la publica
+querella y desconsuelo que habia del estilo que vuestra magestad habia
+tomado de negociar, estando perpetuamente asido a los papeles, por tener
+mejor titulo para huir de la gente, ademas de no quererse fiar de
+nadie."--Carta que escrivio al Senor Rey Felipe Segundo Don Luis
+Manrique, su limosnero mayor, MS.
+
+[407] "No embio Dios a vuestra magestad y a todos los otros Reyes, que
+tienen sus veces en la tierra, para que se extravien leyendo ni
+escribiendo ni aun contemplando ni rezando, si no para que fuesen y sean
+publicos y patentes oraculos a donde todos sus subditos vengan por sus
+respuestas.... Y si a algun Rey en el mundo dio Dios esta gracia, es a
+vuestra magestad y por eso es mayor la culpa de no manifestarse a
+todos."--Ibid.
+
+A copy of this letter is preserved among the Egerton MSS. in the British
+Museum.
+
+[408] Nota di tutti li Titolati di Spagna con li loro casate et rendite,
+&c. fatta nel 1581, MS.
+
+[409] Ibid.
+
+The Spanish aristocracy, in 1581, reckoned twenty-three dukes, forty-two
+marquises, and fifty-six counts. All the dukes and thirteen of the
+inferior nobles were grandees.
+
+[410] "La corte e muta; in publico non si ragiona di nuove, et chi pure
+le sa, se le trace."--Relazione di Pigafetta, MS.
+
+[411] "Sono d'animo tanto elevato... che e cosa molto difficile da
+credere.... e quando avviene che incontrino o nunzi del pontefice o
+ambasciadori di qualehe testa cororata o d'altro stato, pochissimi son
+quelli che si levin la berreta."--Relazione di Badoero, MS.
+
+[412] "Non si attende a lettere, ma la Nobilita e a maraviglia ignorante
+e ritirata, mantenenda una certa sua alterigia, ehe loro clriamano
+_sussiego_, che vuol dire tranquillita et sicurezza, et quasi
+serenita."--Relazione di Pigafette, MS.
+
+[413] "Non si convita, non si cavalca, si giuoca, et si fa all'
+amore."--Ibid.
+
+See also the Relazioni of Badoero and Contarini.
+
+[414] Dr. Salazar y Mendoza takes a very exalted view of the importance
+of this right to wear the hat in the presence of the king,--"a
+prerogative," he remarks, "so illustrious in itself and so admirable in
+its effects, that it alone suffices to stamp its peculiar character on
+the dignity of the grandee."--Dignidades de Castilla, p. 34.
+
+[415] Ranke, Ottoman and Spanish Empires, p. 57.
+
+[416] Relazione di Tiepolo, MS.--Relazione Anon. MS.--Relazione di
+Contarini, MS.
+
+[417] "Che per contrario affligiono i loro proprii sudditi ende
+incorrono nel loro odio."--Relazione di Contarini, MS.
+
+[418] "Temono Sua Maesta, dove, quando si governassero prudentemente,
+sarieno da essa per le loro forze temuti."--Ibid.
+
+[419] "Que bastaran para conquistar y ganar un reyno."--Cortes of
+Valladolid of 1558, pet. 4.
+
+[420] Cortes of Toledo of 1559, pet. 3.
+
+[421] Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiii. p. 118.
+
+[422] Ibid. tom. xiv. p. 397.
+
+[423] Cortes of Valladolid of 1558, pet. 12.
+
+[424] Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiii. p. 125.
+
+[425] The history of luxury in Castile, and of the various enactments
+for the restraint of it, forms the subject of a work by Sempere y
+Guarinos, containing many curious particulars, especially in regard to
+the life of the Castilians at an earlier period of their
+history.--Historia del Luxo (Madrid, 1788, 2 tom. 12mo.).
+
+[426] "Anssi mismo mandamos que ninguna persona de ninguna condicion ni
+calidad que sea, no pueda traer ni traya en ropa ni en vestido, ni en
+calzas, ni jubon, ni en gualdrapa, ni guarnicion de mula ni de cavallo,
+ningun genero de bordado ni recamado, ni gandujado, ni entorchado, ni
+chaperia de oro ni de plata, ni de oro de canutillo, ni de martillo, ni
+ningun genero de trenza ni cordon ni cordoncillo, ni franja, ni
+pasamano, ni pespunte, ni perfil de oro ni plata ni seda, ni otra cosa,
+aunque el dicho oro y plata sean falsos," &c.--Pracmatica expedida a
+peticion de la Cortes de Madrid de 1563.
+
+[427] "Ocupados en este oficio y genero de vivienda de coser, que habia
+de se para las mugeres, muchos hombres que podrian servir a S. M. en la
+guerra dejaban de ir a ella, y dejaban tambien de labrar los
+campos."--Cortes of 1573, pet. 75, ap. Lafuente, Hist. de Espana, tom.
+xiv. p. 407.
+
+[428] Cortes of 1573, pet. 75, ap. Lafuente, Hist. de Espana, tom. xiv.
+p. 408.
+
+[429] Ranke, Ottoman and Spanish Empires, p. 59.
+
+[430] "Que cada semana o cada mes se nombren en los ayuntamientos de
+cada ciudad o villa destos Reynos, dos Regidores, los quales se hallen a
+la vision y visitas de la carcel."--Cortes of Toledo of 1559, 1560, pet.
+102.
+
+[431] Provision real para que los mesones del reyno esten bien proveidos
+de los mantenimientos necesarios para los caminantes, Toledo, 20 de
+Octubre de 1560.
+
+[432] "Como los mancebos y las donzellas por su ociosidad se
+principalmente ocupan en aquello [leer libros de mentiras y vanidades],
+desvanecense y aficionanse en cierta manera a los casos que leen en
+aquellos libros haver acontescido, ansi da amores como de armas y otras
+vanidades: y afficionados, quando se offrece algun caso semejante, danse
+a el mas a rienda suelta que si no lo huviessen leydo."--Cortes of 1558,
+pet. 107, cited by Ranke, Ottoman and Spanish Empires, p. 60.
+
+[433] Pracmatica para que ningun natural de estos reynos vaya a estudiar
+fuera de ellos, Aranjuez, 22 de Noviembre de 1559.
+
+[434] Marina, Teoria de las Cortes, tom. ii. p. 219.
+
+[435] See the "Pragmaticas del Reyno," first printed at Alcala de
+Henares, at the close of Isabella's reign, in 1503. This famous
+collection was almost wholly made up of the ordinances of Ferdinand and
+Isabella. After passing through several editions, it was finally
+absorbed in the "Nueva Recopilacion" of Philip the Second.
+
+[436] Relazione di Contarini, MS.
+
+[437] "Vos ni yo no avenios de subir donde los Sacerdotes."--Dichos y
+Hechos de Phelipe II., p. 96.
+
+[438] Catrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 894.
+
+[439] L. Marineo Siculo, Cosas Memorabiles, fol. 23.
+
+[440] Nota di tutti li Titolati di Spagna, MS.
+
+[441] Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiv. p. 416.
+
+[442] Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiii. p. 261.--Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, pp. 432, 433.
+
+[443] Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. xi. cap. 11; lib. xii. cap.
+21.--Relazione Anon. 1588, MS.
+
+[444] "Otras vezes presentaba para Obispos Canonigos tan particulares i
+presbiteros tan apartados no solo de tal esperanca, mas pensamiento en
+si mismos, i en la comun opinion, que la cedula de su presentacion no
+admitia su rezelo de ser enganados o burlados. Eligia a quien no pedia,
+i merecia."--Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, p. 891.
+
+[445] Cabrera, Filipe Segundo, lib. xi. cap. 11.
+
+[446] Relazione di Contarini, MS.--Ranke, Ottoman and Spanish Empires,
+p. 61.
+
+[447] The document alluded to is a letter, without date or signature,
+but in the handwriting of the sixteenth century, and purporting to be
+written by a person entrusted with the task of drafting the necessary
+legal instruments or the foundation of the convent. He inquires whether
+in the preamble he shall make mention of his majesty's vow. "_El voto
+que S. M. hijo_, si S. M. no lo quiere poner ni declarar, bien puede,
+porque no hay para que; pero si S. M. quisiere que se declare en las
+escrituras, avisemelo v. m."--Documentos Ineditos, tom. xxviii. p. 567.
+
+[448] Examples equally ancient, of both forms of spelling the name, may
+be found; though _Escorial_, now universal in the Castilian, seems to
+have been also the more common from the first. The word is derived from
+_scoriae_, the dross of iron-mines, found near the spot.--See Ford,
+Handbook for Spain (3rd edition), p. 751.
+
+[449] A letter of the royal founder, published by Siguenca, enumerates
+the objects to which the new building was to be specially
+devoted.--Historia de la Orden de San Geronimo, tom. iii. p. 534.
+
+[450] "The Escorial is placed by some geographers in Old Castile; but
+the division of the provinces is carried on the crest of the _Sierra_
+which rises behind it."--Ford, Handbook for Spain, p. 750.
+
+[451] Siguenca, Hist. de la Orden de San Geronimo, tom. iii. p.
+549.--Memorias de Fray Juan de San Geronimo, Documentos Ineditos, tom.
+vii. p. 22.
+
+[452] "Tenia de ordinario una banquetilla de tres pies, batisima y
+grosera, por silla, y cuando iba a misa porque estuviese con algun
+decencia se le ponia un pano viejo frances de Almaguer el contador, que
+ya de gastado y deshilado hacia harto lugar por sus agujeros a los que
+querian ver a la Persona Real."--Memorias de Fray Juan de San Geronimo,
+Documentos Ineditos, tom. vii. p. 22.
+
+[453] "Jurabame muchas veces llorando el dicho fray Antonio que muchas
+veces alzando cautamente los ojos vio correr por los de S. M. lagrimas;
+tanta era su devocion mezclada con el alegria de verse en aquella
+pobreza y ver tras esto aquella alta idea que en su mente traia de la
+grandeza a que pensaba levantar aquella pequenez del divino
+culto."--Ibid., ubi supra.
+
+[454] "Para levantar tanta fabrica menester eran actos de humildad tan
+profunda!"--Ibid., p. 23.
+
+[455] Ibid., p. 25 et seq.--Siguenca, Hist. de la Orden de San Geronimo,
+tom. iii. p. 546.
+
+[456] "Tenia tanta destreca en disponer las tracas de Palacios,
+Castillos, Jardines, y otras cosas, que quando Francisco de Mora mi Tio
+Tracador mayor suyo, y Juan de Herrara su Antecessor le traian la
+primera planta, assi mandava quitar, o poner, o mudar, como si fuera on
+Vitrubio."--Dichos y Hechos de Phelipe II., p. 181.
+
+[457] Lafuente, Historia de Espana, tom. xiii. p. 253.
+
+[458] "Sabese de cierto que se negociava aqui mas en un dia que en
+Madrid en quatro."--Siguenca, Hist. de la Orden de San Geronimo, tom.
+iii. p. 575.
+
+[459] "El buen Duque de Alba, aunque su vejez y gota no le daban lugar,
+se subio a lo alto de la torre a dar animo y esfuerzo a los oficiales y
+gente;.... y esto lo hacia S.E. como diestro capitan y como quien se
+habia visto en otros mayores peligros en la guerra."--Memorias de Fray
+Juan de San Geronimo, Documentos Ineditos, tom. vii. p. 197.
+
+[460] Memorias de Fray Juan de San Geronimo, Documentos Ineditos, tom.
+vii. p. 201.
+
+[461] Siguenca, Hist. de la Orden de San Geronimo, tom. iii. p.
+596.--Dichos y Hechos de Phelipe II., p. 289.--Lafuente, Hist. de
+Espana, tom. xiv. p. 427.
+
+[462] Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain, tom. i. p. 211.
+
+[463] Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain, tom. i. p. 203.
+
+[464] Dichos y Hechos de Phelipe II., p. 81.
+
+[465] One of its historians, Father Francisco de los Santos, styles it
+on his title-page, "_Unica Maravilla del Mundo_."--Descripcion del Real
+Monasterio de San Lorenzo de el Escorial (Madrid, 1698).
+
+[466] Los Santos, Descripcion del Escorial, fol. 116.
+
+[467] Siguenca, Hist. de la Orden de San Geronimo, tom. iii. p. 862.
+
+[468] The enthusiasm of Fray Alonso de San Geronimo carries him so far,
+that he does not hesitate to declare that the Almighty owes a debt of
+gratitude to Philip the Second for the dedication of so glorious a
+structure to the Christian worship! "Este Templo, Senor, deve a Filipo
+Segundo vuestra Grandeza; con que gratitud le estara mirando, en el
+Impireo, vuestra Divinidad!"
+
+This language, so near akin to blasphemy, as it would be thought in our
+day, occurs in a panegyric delivered at the Escorial on the occasion of
+a solemn festival in honour of the hundredth anniversary of its
+foundation. A volume compiled by Fray Luis de Santa Maria is filled with
+a particular account of the ceremonies, under the title of "Octava
+sagradamente culta, celebrada en la Octava Maravilla," &c. (Madrid,
+1664, folio).
+
+[469] Florez, Reynas Catholicas, tom. ii. p. 905.
+
+[470] Ibid. p. 908.
+
+[471] "Realzada con gracia por el mismo trage del camino, sombrero alto
+matizado con plumas, capotillo de terciopelo carmesi, bordado de oro a
+la moda Bohema."--Florez, Reynas Catholicas, tom. ii. p. 907.
+
+[472] Ibid., ubi supra.
+
+[473] Ante, vol. i. circ. fin.
+
+[474] Florez, Reynas Catholicas, tom. ii. p. 908.--Cabrera, Filipe
+Segundo, p. 661.
+
+[475] "En el sarao bailaron Rey y Reyna, estando de pie toda la
+Corte."--Florez, Reynas Catholicas, tom. ii. p. 908.
+
+[476] "El efecto dijo, que oyo Dios su oracion: pues mejorando el Rey,
+cayo mala la Reyna."--Ibid., p. 913.
+
+[Illustration: image of book's back cover]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of The Reign of Philip The
+Second King of Spain, by William H. Prescott
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