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diff --git a/34122.txt b/34122.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a49a93 --- /dev/null +++ b/34122.txt @@ -0,0 +1,30417 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius +by Samuel Dill + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius + +Author: Samuel Dill + +Release Date: October 23, 2010 [Ebook #34122] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROMAN SOCIETY FROM NERO TO MARCUS AURELIUS*** + + + + + + ROMAN SOCIETY + + + FROM + + NERO TO MARCUS AURELIUS + + + BY + SAMUEL DILL, M.A. + HON. LITT.D. DUBLIN, HON. LL.D. EDINBURGH, HON. FELLOW AND LATE TUTOR, + C.C.C., OXFORD; +PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN QUEEN'S COLLEGE, BELFAST; AUTHOR OF "ROMAN SOCIETY + IN THE LAST CENTURY OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE" + + + +MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED +ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON +1925 + + + + + + COPYRIGHT + + + _First Edition 1904_ + + _Second Edition 1905_ + + _Reprinted December 1905, 1911, 1919, 1920, 1925_ + + + + + + + PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN + + + + + + PREFACE + + +There must always be something arbitrary in the choice and isolation of a +period of social history for special study. No period can, from one point +of view, be broken off and isolated from the immemorial influences which +have moulded it, from the succession of coming ages which it will help to +fashion. And this is specially true of the history of a race at once so +aggressive, yet so tenacious of the past, as the Roman. The national fibre +was so tough, and its tone and sentiment so conservative under all +external changes, that when a man knows any considerable period of Roman +social history, he may almost, without paradox, be said to know a great +deal of it from Romulus to Honorius. + +Yet, as in the artistic drama there must be a beginning and an end, +although the action can only be ideally severed from what has preceded and +what is to follow in actual life, so a limited space in the collective +history of a people may be legitimately set apart for concentrated study. +But as in the case of the drama, such a period should possess a certain +unity and intensity of moral interest. It should be a crisis and +turning-point in the life of humanity, a period pregnant with momentous +issues, a period in which the old order and the new are contending for +mastery, or in which the old is melting into the new. Above all, it should +be one in which the great social and spiritual movements are incarnate in +some striking personalities, who may give a human interest to dim forces +of spiritual evolution. + +Such a period, it seems to the writer of this book, is that which he now +presents to the reader. It opens with the self-destruction of lawless and +intoxicated power; it closes with the realisation of Plato's dream of a +reign of the philosophers. The revolution in the ideal of the principate, +which gave the world a Trajan, a Hadrian, and a Marcus Aurelius in place +of a Caligula and a Nero, may not have been accompanied by any change of +corresponding depth in the moral condition of the masses. But the world +enjoyed for nearly a century an almost unexampled peace and prosperity, +under skilful and humane government. The civic splendour and social +charities of the Antonine age can be revived by the imagination from the +abundant remains and records of the period. Its materialism and social +vices will also sadden the thoughtful student of its literature and +inscriptions. But if that age had the faults of a luxurious and highly +organised civilisation, it was also dignified and elevated by a great +effort for reform of conduct, and a passion, often, it is true, sadly +misguided, to rise to a higher spiritual life and to win the succour of +unseen Powers. To the writer of this book, this seems to give the Antonine +age its great distinction and its deepest interest for the student of the +life of humanity. The influence of philosophy on the legislation of the +Antonines is a commonplace of history. But its practical effort to give +support and guidance to moral life, and to refashion the old paganism, so +as to make it a real spiritual force, has perhaps hardly yet attracted the +notice which it deserves. It is one great object of this book to show how +the later Stoicism and the new Platonism, working in eclectic harmony, +strove to supply a rule of conduct and a higher vision of the Divine +world. + +But philosophy failed, as it will probably fail till some far-off age, to +find an anodyne for the spiritual distresses of the mass of men. It might +hold up the loftiest ideal of conduct; it might revive the ancient gods in +new spiritual power; it might strive to fill the interval between the +remote Infinite Spirit and the life of man with a host of mediating and +succouring powers. But the effort was doomed to failure. It was an +esoteric creed, and the masses remained untouched by it. They longed for a +Divine light, a clear, authoritative voice from the unseen world. They +sought it in ever more blind and passionate devotion to their ancient +deities, and in all the curiosity of superstition. But the voice came to +them at last from the regions of the East. It came through the worships of +Isis and Mithra, which promised a hope of immortality, and provided a +sacramental system to soothe the sense of guilt and prepare the trembling +soul for the great ordeal on the verge of another world. How far these +eastern systems succeeded, and where they failed, it is one great purpose +of this book to explain. + +The writer, so far as he knows himself, has had no _arriere pensee_ in +describing this great moral and spiritual movement. As M. Boissier has +pointed out, the historian of the Antonine age is free to treat paganism +apart from the growth of the Christian Church. The pagan world of that age +seems to have had little communication with the loftier faith which, +within a century and a half from the death of M. Aurelius, was destined to +seize the sceptre. To Juvenal, Tacitus, and Pliny, to Plutarch, Dion +Chrysostom, Lucian, and M. Aurelius, the Church is hardly known, or known +as an obscure off-shoot of Judaism, a little sect, worshipping a +"crucified Sophist" in somewhat suspicious retirement, or more favourably +distinguished by simple-minded charity. The modern theologian can hardly +be content to know as little of the great movement in the heathen world +which prepared or deferred the victory of the Church. + +It will be evident to any critical reader that the scope of this book is +strictly limited. As in a former work on the Society of the later Empire, +attention has been concentrated on the inner moral life of the time, and +comparatively little space has been given to its external history and the +machinery of government. The relation of the Senate to the Emperor in the +first century, and the organisation of the municipal towns have been dwelt +on at some length, because they affected profoundly the moral character of +the age. On the particular field which the writer has surveyed, Dean +Merivale, Dr. Mahaffy, Professor Bury, and Mr. Capes have thrown much +light by their learning and sympathy. But these distinguished writers have +approached the period from a different point of view from that of the +present author, and he believes that he has not incurred the serious peril +of appearing to compete with them. He has, as a first duty, devoted +himself to a complete survey of the literature and inscriptions of the +period. References to the secondary authorities and monographs which he +has used will be found in the notes. But he owes a special obligation to +Friedlaender, Zeller, Reville, Schiller, Boissier, Martha, Peter, and +Marquardt, for guidance and suggestion. He must also particularly +acknowledge his debt to M. Cumont's exhaustive work on the monuments of +Mithra. Once more he has to offer his warmest gratitude to his learned +friend, the Rev. Charles Plummer, Fellow of C.C.C., Oxford, for the +patience and judgment with which he has revised the proof sheets. His +thanks are also due to the Messrs. R. and R. Clark's reader, for the +scrupulous accuracy which has saved the author much time and labour. + +_September 19, 1904._ + + + + + + CONTENTS + + + BOOK I + + CHAPTER I + + THE ARISTOCRACY UNDER THE TERROR + +How far the Antonine age is marked by a moral and spiritual +revolution--Light which Seneca throws on the moral condition of his class +in Nero's reign--Value of his testimony--His pessimism--Human degeneracy the +result of selfish greed and luxury--Picture of contemporary society--Cruel +selfishness and the _taedium vitae_--The _Ardelio_--The terror under which +Seneca lived--Seneca's ideal of the principate expounded to Nero in the _De +Clementia_--The character of Nero--Taint in the blood of the Domitii--Nero at +first showed glimpses of some better qualities--How he was injured by the +ambition to be an artist--False aestheticism and insane profusion--Feeling +of Tacitus as to his time--His career--Views as to his impartiality as a +historian--He was under complex influences--His chief motive as a +historian--He is not a political doctrinaire--He is avenging a moral, not a +political ideal--His pessimism--His prejudices and limitations--His ideal of +education and character--His hesitating religious faith--His credulity and +his scepticism--His view of the corrupting influence of despotic power--The +influence of imperial example--Profusion of the early Caesars, leading to +murder and confiscation in order to replenish their treasury--Dangers of +life about the court from espionage--Causes of delation--Its temptations and +its great rewards--The secret of the imperial terror--Various theories of +it--Was the Senate a real danger?--Its impotence in spite of its prestige +and claims--The philosophic opposition--Was it really +revolutionary?--"Scelera sceleribus tuenda"--The undefined position of the +principate--Its working depended greatly on the character of the Emperor +for the time--Pliny's ideal of the principate--The danger from +pretenders--Evil effects of astrology--The degradation of the aristocracy +under Nero and Domitian illustrated from the Pisonian conspiracy--and the +Year of the Four Emperors--The reign of Domitian--Its puzzling character--Its +strange contrasts--The terrors of its close--Confiscation and massacre--The +funereal banquet + + Pages 1-57 + + CHAPTER II + + THE WORLD OF THE SATIRIST + +Juvenal and Tacitus compared--Social position and experience of +Juvenal--Juvenal and Martial deal with the same features of society--Their +motives compared--Character of Martial--The moral standard of Juvenal--His +humanity and his old Roman prejudices--He unites the spirit of two +different ages--His rhetorical pessimism--His sweeping +generalisations--Abnormal specimens become types--Roman luxury at its +height--Yet similar extravagance is denounced for five centuries--Such +judgments need qualification--The great social changes depicted by Juvenal, +some of which he misunderstands--Roman respect for birth--The decay of the +aristocracy and its causes--Aristocratic poverty and servility--How the +early Emperors lowered senatorial dignity--Aristocratic gladiators and +actors--Nero made bohemianism the fashion--"The Legend of Bad Women"--Its +untrustworthiness and defects of treatment--High ideals of womanhood among +contemporaries of Juvenal--He is influenced by old Roman prejudice--Juvenal +hates the "new woman" as much as the vicious woman--The emancipation of +women began in the second century B.C.--Higher culture of women and their +growing influence on public affairs--Juvenal's dislike of the oriental +worships and their female devotees--This is another old movement--The +influence of Judaism at Rome, even in the Imperial household--Women in +Juvenal's day were exposed to serious dangers--The corruptions of the +theatre and the circus--Intrigues with actors and slaves--The invasion of +Hellenism--Its history--The Hellenism of the Emperors--The lower Hellenism +which Juvenal attacks--Social and economic causes of the movement--Greek +tutors and professors--The medical profession chiefly recruited from +foreigners--The character of the profession in those days--The astrologer +and the parasite--The client of the early Empire--His degradation and his +hardships--General poverty--The contempt for trade and industry--The growth +of captation--The worship of wealth--The cry of the poor + + Pages 58-99 + + CHAPTER III + + THE SOCIETY OF THE FREEDMEN + +The rise of the freedmen a great movement--Roman prejudice against them +expressed in the literature of the age--Economic and social causes of the +movement--Trade and industry despised--The freedmen occupied a vacant +place--Causes of the contempt for them--Their many vices and vulgar +taste--Yet their rise was a hopeful sign--The freedmen in imperial +office--The policy of the early Emperors to employ freedmen in their +bureaux--Vitellius the first Emperor to employ Equites as imperial +secretaries--Hadrian confined the three great ministries to men of +equestrian rank--The great imperial freedmen--Polybius, Claudius Etruscus, +and Abascantus--Their career and their immense power described by +Statius--The intrigues and crimes of the freedmen of Claudius--The insolence +of Pallas--The wealth of the freedmen and its sources--Their luxurious +display--The baths of Cl. Etruscus and the gardens of Entellus--Yet the +freedmen were seldom admitted to equal rank with the aristocracy--The +Senate flattered and despised them--The doubtful position of +freedwomen--Plebeian Aspasias--The influence of Acte, Caenis, and +Panthea--Manumission--It was often not a very abrupt change--The better side +of slave life--Trusted and favourite slaves--How they could obtain their +freedom--Slaves employed in offices of trust--The growing _peculium_--The +close tie between patron and freedman--The freedman gets a start in +trade--His rapid rise in wealth--His vulgar ostentation--The _Satiricon_ of +Petronius--Theories as to its motive, date and authorship--Its author +probably the C. Petronius of Nero's reign--His character in Tacitus--His +probable motive--The literary character and scene of the _Satiricon_--The +character of the Greek adventurers--Trimalchio's dinner, to which they are +invited--Sketch of Trimalchio's career--The dinner--Carving to music--Dishes +descend from the ceiling--Wine 100 years old--Confused recollections of +Homer--Hannibal at the Trojan war--Rope-dancers and tales of witchcraft--The +manners of Fortunata--The conversation of some of the guests--True bourgeois +vulgarity--Grumbling about the management of the aediles--"Everything is +going back--It all arises from neglect of religion"--The coming gladiatorial +show, when there will be plenty of blood--The education of a freedman's +son--"You learn for profit"--Fast and furious--The ladies get drunk, and +Trimalchio gives an unflattering account of his wife's history--He gives +directions to his friend, the stone-cutter, for the erection of his +monument--He has himself laid out for dead, and the horn-blowers sound his +lament + + Pages 100-137 + + BOOK II + + CHAPTER I + + THE CIRCLE OF THE YOUNGER PLINY + +The contrast between the pictures of society in Juvenal and in Pliny--They +belonged to different worlds--They were also of very different +temperaments--Moral contrasts side by side in every age--There were puritan +homes in Italy, even in the worst days--Influence of old Roman tradition +and country life--The circle at Como--Pliny's youth and early +training--Character of the Elder Pliny--His immense industry--Retreats of old +Roman virtue--The character and reforms of Vespasian--His endowment of +education--The moral influence of Quintilian on Roman youth--Pliny's student +friends--His relations with the Stoic circle--His reverence for Fannia--His +career at the Bar--He idealises the practice in the Centumviral +court--Career of M. Aquilius Regulus, the great delator and +advocate--Pliny's passion for fame--The crowd of literary amateurs in his +day--Pliny and Martial--Pliny's relation to the literary movement of his +time--His admiration for Cicero--His reverence for Greece--He once wrote a +Greek tragedy--His apology for his loose verses--His ambition as an orator, +and canons of oratorical style--Pliny's Letters compared with Cicero's--The +merits and fame of the Letters--Their arrangement--They are a memorial of +the social life and literary tone of the time--The character of Silius +Italicus--Literary coteries--Pliny's friendship with Suetonius--The devotion +of literary amateurs to poetic composition and its causes--The influence of +the great Augustan models read at school--Signs of decay in literature--The +growing love of the archaic style--Immense literary ambition of the +time--Attempts of Nero and Domitian to satisfy it by public literary +competitions--The plague of recitations--Pliny believes in the duty of +attending them--The weariness and emptiness of life in the capital--The +charm of the country--Roman country seats on the Anio or the Laurentine and +Campanian shores--The sites of these villas--Their furniture and +decorations--Doubtful appreciation of works of art--The gardens of the +villa--The routine of a country gentleman's day--The financial management of +an estate--Difficulties with tenants--Pliny's kindness to freedmen and +slaves--The darker side of slavery--Murder of a master--Pliny's views on +suicide--Tragedies in his circle--Pliny's charity and optimism--The +solidarity of the aristocratic class--Pliny thinks it a duty to assist the +career of promising youth--The women of his circle--His love for Calpurnia +and his love letters--The charity and humanitarian sentiment of the +age--_Bene fac, hoc tecum feres_--The wealthy recognise the duties of +wealth--Charitable foundations of the emperors--Pliny's lavish generosity, +both private and public--Yet he is only a shining example among a crowd of +similar benefactors in the Antonine age + + Pages 141-195 + + CHAPTER II + + MUNICIPAL LIFE + +Little known of country town life from Roman literature--Yet the love of +the country was strong--A relief from the strain of the capital, which, +however, always maintained its attraction--The Empire a realm of +cities--Immense development of urban life in the first two centuries--The +rise of Thamugadi in Numidia--Great tolerance of municipal freedom under +the early Empire--Yet there was a general drift to uniformity of +organisation--Influence of the capital--The rage for travel--Travelling +became easy and luxurious--Posting facilities on the great roads--The speed +of travelling by land and sea--Growth of towns--Many sprang from the +_canabae legionis_--History of Lambesi--Aristocratic or timocratic character +of municipal organisation--Illustrated by the _album Canusii_--The sharp +demarcation of social grades--Yet, in the first century, the Commons had +still considerable power--Examples from Pompeii--The magistracies and +popular election--The _honorarium_ payable on admission to office--The power +of the duumvirs--Position of the Curia--The mode of filling its ranks--Local +Equites--The origin and position of the Augustales--Their organisation and +their importance in the Roman world--Municipal finance--Direct taxation in +the first century almost unknown--Sources of municipal revenue--The objects +of expenditure--Municipal mismanagement, as in Bithynia--Signs of decay in +Trajan's reign--First appointment of _Curatores_--Immense private +munificence--Examples from Pompeii, which was only a third rate town--Other +instances--Pliny--The Stertinii--Herodes Atticus, the prince of +benefactors--Testimony of the Inscriptions--Example of imperial +liberality--The public works of the Flavian and Antonine Emperors--Feasts to +the populace--Distributions of money, graduated according to social +rank--The motives of this munificence were mixed--Yet a high ideal of the +duties of wealth--The better side of municipal life--Local patriotism and +general kindly feeling--But there is another side to the picture--Immense +passion for amusement, which was often debasing--Games and spectacles on +135 days in the year--Description of a scene in the amphitheatre in the +Antonine age--Passion for gladiatorial shows especially in Campania--Remains +of gladiatorial barracks at Pompeii--Advertisements of games--Pictures on +tombs and on the walls--The shows in small country towns--Shows at Cremona a +few days after the battle of Bedriacum--Greece was little infected with the +taste--The feeling of the philosophers--Statistics as to the cost of a +gladiatorial show--How the ranks of the profession were recruited--Its +attractions--Organisation of the gladiatorial schools--The gladiator in +retirement--How municipal benefactors were honoured--Municipal life begins +to lose its attractions--The causes of this--Plutarch on municipal duty--The +growth of centralisation--The beginning of the end + + Pages 196-250 + + CHAPTER III + + THE COLLEGES AND PLEBEIAN LIFE + +The _plebs_ of the municipal town chiefly known from the +Inscriptions--Great development of a free proletariat--The effects of +manumission--The artisan class in the Inscriptions--Their pride in their +callings--Emblems on their tombs--Early history of the _Collegia_--Rigorous +restraint of their formation by Julius and Augustus--The evidence of +Gaius--Dangers from the colleges not imaginary--Troubles in the reign of +Aurelian--Yet the great movement could not be checked--The means of evading +the law--Extended liberty in reigns of M. Aurelius and Alexander +Severus--The social forces behind the movement of combination--The wish for +funeral rites and lasting remembrance--Evidence of the Inscriptions--The +horror of loneliness in death--The funerary colleges--That of Lanuvium shows +how the privilege granted to them might be extended--Any college might +claim it--Description of the college at Lanuvium--Its foundation deed--The +fees--The grants for burial--The college of Aesculapius and Hygia--Its +organisation for other objects than burial--Any college might assume a +quasi-religious character--The influence of religion on all ancient social +organisation--The colleges of traders--Wandering merchants organise +themselves all over the world--And old soldiers--Colleges of youth for +sporting purposes--Every branch of industry was organised in these +societies--Evidence from Ostia, Lyons, and Rome, in the Inscriptions--Clubs +of slaves in great houses, and in that of the Emperor--They were encouraged +by the masters--The organisation of the college was modelled on the +city--Its officers bear the names of republican magistrates--The number of +members limited--Periodical revision of the _Album_--Even in the plebeian +colleges the gradation of rank was observed--Patrons carefully sought +for--Meeting-place of the college--Description of the _Schola_--Sacred +associations gathered round it--Even the poorest made presents to decorate +it--The poor college of Silvanus at Philippi--But the colleges relied on the +generosity of patrons--Their varying social rank--Election of a patron--A man +might be a patron of many colleges--The college often received bequests to +guard a tomb, and perform funerary rites for ever--The common feasts of the +colleges--The division of the _sportula_ by ranks--Regulations as to decorum +at college meetings--The college modelled on the family--Mommsen's +opinion--Fraternal feeling--The slave in the college, for the time, treated +as an equal--Yet the difference of rank, even in the colleges, was probably +never forgotten--Were the colleges really charitable foundations?--The +military colleges--Their object, not only to provide due burial, but to +assist an officer throughout his career--The extinction of a college--The +college at Alburnus in Dacia vanishes probably in the Marcomannic invasion + + Pages 251-286 + + BOOK III + + CHAPTER I + + THE PHILOSOPHIC DIRECTOR + +The great change in the motive and character of philosophy--The schools +forsook metaphysical speculation, and devoted themselves to the +cultivation of character--Why faith in abstract thought declined, and the +conduct of life became all important--The effect of the loss of free civic +life and the establishment of world-empires--The commonwealth of man--The +great _ars vivendi_--Spiritual directors before the imperial times--They are +found in every great family--The power of Seneca as a private director of +souls--How his career and experience prepared him for the office--He had +seen the inner life of the time, its sensuality, degradation, and +remorse--He was himself an ascetic, living in a palace which excited Nero's +envy--His experience excited an evangelistic passion--His conception of +philosophy as the art of saving souls--His contempt for unpractical +speculation--Yet he values Physics for its moral effect in elevating the +mind to the region of eternal truth--Curious examples of physical study for +moral ends--The pessimism of Seneca--Its causes in the inner secrets of his +class--It is a lost world which must be saved by every effort--Stoicism +becomes transfigured by moral enthusiasm--Yet can philosophic religion +dispense with dogma?--Empirical rules of conduct are not enough--There must +be true theory of conduct--Seneca not a rigorous dogmatist--His varying +conceptions of God--Often mingles Platonic conceptions with old Stoic +doctrine--But all old Stoic doctrine can be found in him--"The kingdom of +Heaven is within"--Freedom is found in renunciation, submission to the +Universal Reason--Whence comes the force of self-reform?--The problem of +freedom and necessity--How man may attain to moral freedom--The struggle to +recover a primeval virtue--Modifications of old Stoic theory--The ideal +_sapiens_--Instantaneous conversion--Ideas fatal to practical moral +reform--For practical purposes, Stoic theory must be modified--The _sapiens_ +a mythical figure--There may be various stages of moral +progress--Aristotelian ideas--Seneca himself far from the ideal of the Stoic +sage--The men for whom Seneca is providing counsel--How their weaknesses +have to be dealt with--The "ars vitae" develops into casuistry in the hands +of the director--Obstacles in the way to the higher life--Seneca's skill in +dealing with different cases--His precepts for reform--Necessity of +confession, self-examination, steadiness of purpose, self-denial--_Vivere +militare est_--The real victor--The mind can create its own world, and +triumph even over death--Seneca's not the Cynic ideal of moral +isolation--Competing tendencies in Stoicism--Isolated renunciation and +social sympathy--A citizen of two cities--The great commonwealth of +humanity--The problem of serving God and man variously solved by the +Stoics--Seneca's ideas of social duty--Social instinct innate--Duty of help, +forgiveness, and kindness to others--The example of the Infinite +Goodness--The brotherhood of man includes the slave--Seneca's attitude to +slavery--His ideal of womanhood--Women may be the equals of men in culture +and virtue--The greatness of Seneca as a moral teacher--He belongs to the +modern world, and was claimed by the Church--A pagan Thomas a Kempis + + Pages 289-333 + + CHAPTER II + + THE PHILOSOPHIC MISSIONARY + +Seneca the director of an aristocratic class--The masses needed a +gospel--Their moral condition--The Antonine age produced a great movement +for their moral elevation--Lucian's attitude to the Cynics--His kindred with +them--Detached view of human life and its vanity--Gloomy view of the moral +state of the masses--The call for popular evangelism--Can philosophy furnish +the gospel?--Lucian's Hermotimus--The quarrels of the schools--Yet they show +real agreement on the rule of life--The fashionable sophist--Rhetorical +philosophy despised by more earnest minds--Serious preaching--The sermons of +Apollonius of Tyana--Sudden conversions--The preaching of Musonius, +Plutarch, and Maximus of Tyre--The mystic fervour of Maximus--Dion's view of +the Cynic preacher--The "mendicant monks of paganism"--Lucian's caricature +of their vices--Many vulgar impostors adopt the profession--It offered a +tempting field--Why the charges against the Cynics must be taken with +reserve--S. Augustine's testimony--Causes of the prejudice against +Cynicism--Lucian's treatment of Peregrinus--The history of Peregrinus--The +credibility of the charges which Lucian makes against him--He is about to +immolate himself at Olympia when Lucian arrives--Lucian treats the +self-martyrdom as a piece of theatrical display--Yet Peregrinus may have +honestly desired to teach contempt for death--Stoic suicide--The scene at +the pyre--The last words of Peregrinus--Lucian creates a myth and sees it +grow--Testimony of A. Gellius as to Peregrinus--The power of the later +Cynicism--The ideal Cynic in Epictetus--An ambassador of God--Kindred of +Cynicism and Monasticism--Cultivated Cynics--The character of Demetrius, a +leader of the philosophic opposition--Cynic attitude to popular +religion--Oenomaus a pronounced rationalist--Disbelief in oracles--The +character of Demonax--His great popular influence--Prosecuted for neglect of +religious observances--His sharp sayings--Demonstrations of reverence for +him at his death--The career of Dion Chrysostom--His conversion during his +exile--Becomes a preacher with a mission to the Roman world--The character +of his eighty orations--He is the rhetorical apostle of a few great +truths--His idea of philosophy--His pessimism about the moral state of the +world--A materialised civilisation--Warning to the people of Tarsus--Rebukes +the feuds of the Bithynian cities--A sermon at Olbia on the Black Sea--The +jealousies of the Asiatic towns--Prusa and Apamea--Sermon on civic +harmony--He assails the vices and frivolity of the Alexandrians--His prose +idyll--Simple pastoral life in Euboea--The problems and vices of city life +exposed--Dion on true kingship--The vision of the Two Peaks--The ideal +king--The sermon at Olympia inspired by the Zeus of Pheidias--Its majesty +and benignity--Sources of the idea of God--The place of art in +religion--Relative power of poetry and sculpture to express religious +truth--Pheidias defends his anthropomorphism--His Zeus a God of mercy and +peace + + Pages 334-383 + + CHAPTER III + + THE PHILOSOPHIC THEOLOGIAN + +The pagan revival and the growth of superstition called for a theodicy--Old +Roman religion was still powerful--But there was an immense accretion of +worships from the conquered countries--And an immense growth in the belief +in genii, dreams, omens, and oracles--Yet amid the apparent chaos, there +was a tendency, in the higher minds, to monotheism--The craving for a moral +God in sympathy with man--The ideas of Apuleius, Epictetus, M. Aurelius--The +change in the conception of God among the later Stoics--God no longer mere +Force or Fate or impersonal Reason--He is a Father and Providence, giving +moral support and comfort--The attitude of the later Stoics to external +worship and anthropomorphic imagery--How was the ancient worship to be +reconciled with purer conceptions of the Divine?--God being so remote, +philosophy may discover spiritual help in all the religions of the +past--The history of Neo-Pythagoreanism--Apollonius of Tyana--His attitude to +mythology--His mysticism and ritualism--Plutarch's associations and early +history--His devotion to Greek tradition--His social life--His Lives of the +great Greeks and Romans--He is a moralist rather than a pure +philosopher--The tendency of philosophy in his day was towards the +formation of character--The eclecticism of the time--Plutarch's attitude to +Platonism and Stoicism--His own moral system was drawn from various +schools--Precepts for the formation of character--Plutarch on freedom and +necessity--His contempt for rhetorical philosophy--Plutarch on +Tranquillity--How to grow daily--The pathos of life--The need for a higher +vision--How to reconcile the God of philosophy with the ancient mythology +was the great problem--Plutarch's conception of God--His cosmology mainly +that of the _Timaeus_--The opposition between the philosophic idea of God +and the belief of the crowd was an old one--Yet great political and +spiritual changes had made it a more urgent question--The theology of +Maximus of Tyre--His pure conception of God, combined with tolerance of +legend and symbolism--Myth not to be discarded, but interpreted by +philosophy, to discover the kernel of truth which is reverently veiled--The +effort illustrated by the treatise of Plutarch on Isis and Osiris--Its +theory of Evil and daemonic powers--The Platonist daemonology--The history +of daemons traced from Hesiod--The conception of daemons justified by +Maximus--The daemonology of the early Greek philosophers--The nature of +daemons as conceived by Maximus and Plutarch--The ministering spirits of +Maximus--The theory of bad daemons enabled Plutarch to explain the +grossness of myth and ritual--The bad daemons a _damnosa hereditas_--The +triumphant use made of the theory by the Christian Apologists--The +daemonology of Plutarch was also used to explain the inspiration or the +silence of the ancient oracles--"The oracles are dumb"--Yet in the second +century, to some extent, Delphi revived--Questions as to its inspiration +debated--The quality of Delphic verse--The theory of inspiration--Concurrent +causes of it--The daemon of the shrine may depart--The problem of +inspiration illustrated by a discussion on the daemon of Socrates--What was +it?--The result of the inquiry is that the human spirit, at its best, is +open to influences from another world + + Pages 384-440 + + BOOK IV + + CHAPTER I + + SUPERSTITION + +Superstition a term of shifting meaning--Plutarch's treatise on +Superstition--Why it is worse than atheism--Immense growth of superstition +in the first century, following on a decay of old religion--Forgotten rites +and fallen temples--The revival of Augustus--The power of astrology--The +Emperors believed in it and dreaded it--Tiberius and Thrasyllus at +Capreae--The attitude of Nero, Otho, and Vitellius to astrology--The +superstition of the Flavian Emperors--And of Hadrian and M. Aurelius--The +superstition of the literary class--The Elder Pliny--Suetonius--Tacitus--His +wavering treatment of the supernatural--How it may be explained by the +character of the age--Epictetus on divination--The superstition of Aelian of +Praeneste--His credulity and his anathemas on the sceptics--P. Aelius +Aristides--His history and character--His illness of thirteen years--Was he a +simple devotee?--The influence of rhetorical training on him--The temples of +healing in his time--Their organisation and routine--Recipes by dreams in +the temples of Asclepius, Isis, and Serapis--Medical skill combined with +superstition--The amusements and cheerful social life of these +temple-hospitals were powerful healers--The ailments of Aristides and his +journeys in quest of health--Strange divine prescriptions astonish the +medical attendants--Their own heroic remedies--Epiphanies of the Gods--The +return of his rhetorical power--The debt is repaid in the Sacred +Orations--The treatise on dreams by Artemidorus--His idea of founding a +science of dreams--His enormous industry in collecting materials--His +contempt for less scientific interpreters--His classification of dreams and +methods of interpretation--The new oracles--The failure of the old was not +so complete as it is sometimes represented--The revival of Delphi--The +history of the oracle of Alexander of Abonoteichos--His life and +character--How he played on the superstition of the Paphlagonians--The +business-like management of the oracle--Its fees and revenue--Its secret +methods--Its fame spreads everywhere--Oracles in many tongues--Rutilianus, a +great noble, espouses Alexander's daughter--The Epicureans resist the +impostor, but in vain--The mysteries of Glycon--Alexander, a second +Endymion--Immense superstition of the time--Apotheosis in the air--The cult +of Antinous--And of M. Aurelius--In Croton there were more gods than +men!--The growing faith in daemons and genii--The evidence of inscriptions +as to the adoption of local deities all over the world--Revived honours of +classic heroes--The belief in recurring miracle--Christian and pagan were +equally credulous--The legend of the "Thundering Legion"--Sorcery in +Thessaly--The lawless romance of Apuleius + + Pages 443-483 + + CHAPTER II + + BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY + +The conception of immortality determined by the idea of God--Religion +supplies the assurance denied by philosophy--Vagueness of the conception +natural and universal--"It doth not yet appear what we shall be"--Confused +and various beliefs on the subject in the Early Empire--The cult of the +Manes in old Italian piety--The guardianship of the tomb, and call for +perpetual remembrance--The eternal sleep--The link between the living and +the dead--The craving for continued human sympathy with the shade in its +eternal home--The Lemures and the Lemuria--Visitations from the other +world--The _Mundus_ in every Latin town--The general belief in apparitions +illustrated from the _Philopseudes_ of Lucian, from the Younger Pliny, +Suetonius, Dion Cassius, and Maximus of Tyre--The eschatology of Virgil a +mixture of different faiths--Scenes from the Inferno of the _Aeneid_--Its +Pythagorean elements--How Virgil influenced later conceptions of the future +state--Scepticism and credulity in the first century--Perpetuity of heathen +beliefs--The inscriptions, as to the future state, must be interpreted with +care and discrimination--The phrases often conventional, and springing from +different orders of belief--Inscriptions frankly atheistic or +sensualist--Ideas of immortality among the cultivated class--The influence +of Lucretius--The Stoic idea of coming life, and the Peripatetic--The +influence of Platonism--In the last age of the Republic, and the first of +the Empire, educated opinion was often sceptical or negative--J. Caesar, +the Elder Pliny, Tacitus--The feeling of Hadrian--Epictetus on +immortality--Galen--His probable influence on M. Aurelius--The wavering +attitude of M. Aurelius on immortality--How he could reconcile himself by a +saintly ideal to the resignation of the hope of a future life--His sadness +and pessimism fully justified by the circumstances of the time--"Thou hast +come to shore, quit the ship"--Change in the religious character long +before M. Aurelius--Seneca's theology as it moulded his conception of +immortality--A new note in Seneca--The influence of Pythagorean and Platonic +conceptions in modifying Stoicism--The revival of Pythagoreanism in the +first century--Its tenets and the secret of its power--Apollonius of Tyana +on immortality--His meeting with the shade of Achilles--Plutarch and Maximus +of Tyre on immortality--Plutarch's arguments for the faith in it--The Delays +of Divine Vengeance--But, like Plato, Plutarch feels that argument on such +a subject must be reinforced by poetic imagination--The myths of Thespesius +of Soli and Timarchus in Plutarch--Mythic scenery of the eternal world + + Pages 484-528 + + CHAPTER III + + THE OLD ROMAN RELIGION + +The decay of old religion in the last age of the Republic--Its +causes--Influence of Greek philosophy and rationalism--Distinction drawn +between the religion of philosophy and that of the State--The moral and +religious results--Sceptical conformity or desuetude of ancient rites--The +religious revival of Augustus--How far a matter of policy--Ancient temples +and worships restored--The position of Pontifex Maximus--How the Emperors +utilised the dignity and kept a firm hold on the old religion--The +religious character of the early Emperors--The force of antiquarian +sentiment in the second century--The Inscriptions plainly show that the +popular faith in old Latin religion was still strong--The revival of the +Arval brotherhood--Its history and ritual described--A stronghold of +imperial power--How the Arval College supported and flattered the +Emperors--How the cultivated class reconciled themselves to the rudest +forms of the ancient religion--The philosophic reconciliation--The influence +of patriotism in compelling men to support a religion which was +intertwined with all social and political life--The sentiment powerful down +to the end of paganism--But other religious ideas were in the air, +preparing the triumph of the cults of the East + + 529-546 + + CHAPTER IV + + MAGNA MATER + +The fascination of the worship of the Great Mother--It was still powerful +in the days of S. Augustine--Its arrival from Pessinus in 204 B.C.--The +history of its growing influence--The taurobolium in the second century--The +legend and its interpretations--The Megalesia in spring--The priesthood--The +sacred colleges of the worship--Evidence of the Inscriptions--The worship in +country places--Vagabond priests in Thessaly described by Apuleius--Picture +of their wild orgies--The problem of these eastern cults--From a gross +origin, they became transmuted into a real spiritual power--The elevation +of Magna Mater--The rite of the taurobolium--Its history in Asia Minor--Its +immense influence in the last age of the Empire--A challenge to the +Church--The history of the taurobolium in the West from the +Inscriptions--Description of the scene from Prudentius--The connection of +Magna Mater with Mithra and other deities + + Pages 547-559 + + CHAPTER V + + ISIS AND SERAPIS + +Their long reign in Europe--Established at Peiraeus in the fourth century +B.C.--And in Asia Minor--How the Egyptian cults had been transformed under +Greek influences--Greek settlers, soldiers, and travellers in Egypt from +the seventh century B.C.--Greek and Egyptian gods identified--The new +propaganda of the Ptolemies--Theories of the origin of Serapis--The new +Egyptian Trinity--The influence of Greek mysticism--The worship probably +established in Campanian towns before 150 B.C.--The religious excitement in +Italy in the early part of the second century B.C.--The Bacchanalian +scandal--The apocryphal books of Numa--Efforts of the Government in the +first century B.C. to repress the worship--A violent struggle with varying +fortunes--The triumvirs in 42 B.C. erect a temple of Isis--Persecution of +eastern worships in the reign of Tiberius--Thenceforth there was little +opposition--Attitude of the Flavian Emperors--Domitian builds a temple of +Isis, 92 A.D.--The Egyptian worship propagated from Alexandria by slaves, +officials, philosophers, and savants--Votaries in the imperial +household--Spread of Isiac worship through Europe--It reaches York--The +secret of its fascination--The cult appealed to many kinds of mind--Its +mysticism--Its charm for women--Its pomp and ceremonial--How a religion +originally gross may be transformed--The zoolatry of Egypt justified as +symbolism by Greek philosophers--But there is little trace of it in the +Isiac worship of the West--Isis becomes an all-embracing spiritual +power--And Serapis is regarded by Aristides as sovereign lord of life--Yet +the worship never broke away from the traditions of idolatry--It fostered +an immense superstition--The Petosiris--But there was undoubted spiritual +power in the worship--The initiation of Lucius--The faith in +immortality--_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_ on tombs--Impressive ritual--Separation of the +priesthood from the world--Description of the daily offices--Matins and +Vespers--Silent meditation--The great festivals of the Isiac +calendar--Ascetic preparation--The blessing of the sacred ship--Description +of the procession in Apuleius--The grades of priests--The sacred guilds--The +place of women--The priesthood an aggressive power--The Isiac +presbytery--Priestly rule of life--Tertullian holds it up as an example--The +popular charm of the Divine Mother + + Pages 560-584 + + CHAPTER VI + + THE RELIGION OF MITHRA + +The causes which in the second century A.D. prepared the triumph of +Mithra--Heliolatry the natural goal of heathenism--Early history of Mithra +in the Vedas and Avestas--He is a moral power from the beginning--His place +in the Zoroastrian hierarchy--His relation to Ormuzd--The influence of +Babylon on the Persian worship--Mithra identified with the Sun--The astral +lore of Babylonia inseparable from Mithraism--Yet Mithra and the Sun are +distinct in the later Inscriptions--How Mithra worship was modified in Asia +Minor--The influence of Greek mythology, philosophy, and art--The group of +the Tauroctonus probably first fashioned by a Pergamene artist--Mithra in +literature--Herodotus--Xenophon--The _Thebaid_ of Statius--Plutarch--Lucian may +have heard the Mazdean litany--Mithra's first coming to the West probably +in the reign of Tiberius--The earliest inscriptions of Mithraism belong to +the Flavian age--At the same time, the worship is established in +Pannonia--The earliest temples at Ostia and Rome--The power of Mithra in the +capital--The secret of the propaganda--Soldiers were the most effective +missionaries of Mithra--Slaves and imperial officials of every degree +propagate the Persian faith--Its progress traced around Rome and through +various regions of Italy, especially to the north--Mithra's chapels in the +valleys of the Alps and on the roads to the Danube from Aquileia--Along the +line of the Danube--His remains abundant in Dacia and Pannonia--Chapels at +Aquincum and Carnuntum--The enthusiasm of certain legions--The splendid +remains of Mithra worship in Upper Germany in the early part of the second +century A.D.--Mithra passes on, through Cologne and Boulogne, to London, +Chester, York and the wall of Hadrian--Mithra made least impression on W. +Gaul, Spain, and N. Africa--In spite of tolerance and syncretism, Mithraism +never ceased to be a Persian cult--The influence of astrology--The share of +Babylonia in moulding the worship--Yet Greek mystic influences had a large +part in it--The descent and ascent of the soul--Yet, although Mithraism came +to be a moral creed, it never ceased to be a cosmic symbolism--The great +elemental powers--The daemonology of Mithraism--Its affinity with the later +Neo Platonism--The evil effect of belief in planetary influences--The +struggle between formal and spiritual ideals of religion--The craving for +mediatorial sympathy in the moral life was urgent--Mithra was a mediator +both in a cosmic and a moral sense--He stands between Cautes and +Cautopates, and between Ormuzd and Ahriman--The legend of Mithra as faintly +recovered from the monuments--The _petra genetrix_--The adoration of the +shepherds--The fountain gushing at the arrow stroke--The legend of the +mystic bull--Its chase and slaughter--Its death as the source of resurgent +life--The mysterious reconciliation of Mithra and the Sun--Their solemn +agape--Various interpretations of the legend--Yet there was a real spiritual +meaning under it all--A religion of strenuous combat--How it touched the +Roman soldier on the Danube--Its eschatology--Its promise of immortality and +final triumph over evil--The sacramental mystery of Mithraism--The daily +offices, and the annual festivals--The mysteries of Mithra and the seven +grades of initiation--Symbolic ceremonies--The colleges of Mithra--Their +influence in levelling social distinctions--The suspicions of the +Apologists--Description of a chapel of Mithra--The form of the cave always +preserved--The scene of full initiation--Mithraism as an imperial cult and a +support of imperial power--Sketch of the history of imperial apotheosis--The +historic causes which aided it--The influence of Egypt and Persia on the +movement--The Persian attitude to kings--The Fortune of the monarch--How +these ideas blended with old Roman conceptions--The influence of +Sun-worship in the third century, in stimulating theocratic ideas--The +Emperors appropriate the titles and insignia of the Sun--The imperial house +consecrate a temple to Mithra at Carnuntum, twenty years before the +conversion of Constantine--Could Mithra ever have become the god of western +Europe?--His chances of success in the chaos of belief seemed promising--His +syncretism and tolerance, yet his exclusive claims--His moral charm--The +fears of the Fathers--Parallels between his legend and the Bible--His +sacramental system a travesty of the mysteries of the medieval church--Yet +there was a great gulf between the two religions--The weaknesses of +Mithraism--It did not appeal to women--It had no Mater Dolorosa--It offered +little human sympathy--And in its tolerance of other heathen systems lay +its great weakness--A Mithraist might be a votary of all the ancient +gods--Mithraism was rooted in nature-worship, and remained the patron of +the worst superstitions--Mithra belonged to the order which was passing +away + + Pages 585-626 + + + + + + + BOOK I. + + + _INFESTA VIRTUTIBUS TEMPORA_ + + + + + CHAPTER I + + + THE ARISTOCRACY UNDER THE TERROR + + +The period of social history which we are about to study is profoundly +interesting in many ways, but not least in the many contrasts between its +opening and its close. It opens with the tyranny of one of the worst men +who ever occupied a throne; it ends with the mild rule of a Stoic saint. +It begins in massacre and the carnage of civil strife; it closes in the +apparent triumph of the philosophic ideal, although before the end of the +reign of the philosophers the shadows have begun to fall. The contrast of +character between the two princes is generally supposed to find a +correspondence in the moral character and ideals of the men over whom they +ruled. The accession of Vespasian which, after a deadly struggle, seemed +to bring the orgies of a brutal despotism to a close, is regarded as +marking not only a political, but a moral, revolution. It was the dawn of +an age of repentance and amendment, of beneficent administration, of a +great moral revival. We are bound to accept the express testimony of a +contemporary like Tacitus,(1) who was not prone to optimist views of human +progress, that along with the exhaustion of the higher class from massacre +and reckless extravagance, the sober example of the new emperor, and the +introduction of fresh blood and purer manners from the provinces, had +produced a great moral improvement. Even among the old noblesse, whose +youth had fallen on the age of wild licence, it is probable that a better +tone asserted itself at the beginning of what was recognised by all to be +a new order. The crushed and servile, who had easily learnt to imitate the +wasteful vices of their oppressors, would probably, with equal facility, +at least affect to conform to the simpler fashions of life which Vespasian +inherited from his Sabine ancestors and the old farm-house at Reate.(2) +The better sort, represented by the circles of Persius, of Pliny and +Tacitus, who had nursed the ideal of Stoic or old Roman virtue in some +retreat on the northern lakes or in the folds of the Apennines, emerged +from seclusion and came to the front in the reign of Trajan. + +Yet neither the language of Tacitus nor the testimony from other sources +justify the belief in any sudden moral revolution. The Antonine age was +undoubtedly an age of conscientious and humane government in the interest +of the subject; it was even more an age of religious revival. But whether +these were accompanied by a corresponding elevation of conduct and moral +tone among the masses may well be doubted. On the other hand the pessimism +of satirist and historian who had lived through the darkness of the Terror +has probably exaggerated the corruption of the evil days. If society at +large had been half as corrupt as it is represented by Juvenal, it would +have speedily perished from mere rottenness. The Inscriptions, the Letters +of the younger Pliny, even the pages of Tacitus himself, reveal to us +another world from that of the satirist. On countless tombs we have the +record or the ideal of a family life of sober, honest industry, and pure +affection. In the calm of rural retreats in Lombardy or Tuscany, while the +capital was frenzied with vicious indulgence, or seething with conspiracy +and desolated by massacre, there were many families living in almost +puritan quietude, where the moral standard was in many respects as high as +among ourselves. The worst period of the Roman Empire was the most +glorious age of practical Stoicism. The men of that circle were ready, at +the cost of liberty or life, to brave an immoral tyranny; their wives were +eager to follow them into exile, or to die by their side.(3) And even in +the palace of Nero there was a spotless Octavia, and slave-girls who were +ready to defend her honour at the cost of torture and death.(4) In the +darkest days, the violence of the bad princes spent itself on their +nobles, on those whom they feared, or whom they wished to plunder. The +provinces, even under a Tiberius, a Nero, or a Domitian, enjoyed a freedom +from oppression which they seldom enjoyed under the Republic.(5) Just and +upright governors were the rule and not the exception, and even an Otho or +a Vitellius, tainted with every private vice, returned from their +provincial governments with a reputation for integrity.(6) Municipal +freedom and self-government were probably at their height at the very time +when life and liberty in the capital were in hourly peril. The great Stoic +doctrine of the brotherhood and equality of men, as members of a +world-wide commonwealth, which was destined to inspire legislation in the +Antonine age, was openly preached in the reigns of Caligula and Nero. A +softer tone--a modern note of pity for the miserable and succour for the +helpless--makes itself heard in the literature of the first century.(7) The +moral and mental equality of the sexes was being more and more recognised +in theory, as the capacity of women for heroic action and self-sacrifice +was displayed so often in the age of the tyranny and of the Stoic martyrs. +The old cruelty and contempt for the slave will not give way for many a +generation; but the slave is now treated by all the great leaders of moral +reform as a being of the same mould as his master, his equal, if not his +superior, in capacity for virtue. + +The peculiar distinction of the Antonine age is not to be sought in any +great difference from the age preceding it in conduct or moral ideals +among the great mass of men. Nor can it claim any literary distinction of +decided originality, except in the possession of the airy grace and +half-serious mockery of Lucian. Juvenal, Tacitus, and the younger Pliny, +Suetonius and Quintilian, Plutarch and Dion Chrysostom, were probably all +dead before Antoninus Pius came to the throne. After Hadrian's reign pure +Roman literature, in any worthy sense, is extinct; it dies away in that +Sahara of the higher intellect which stretches forward to the Fall of the +Empire. There is no great historian after Tacitus; there is no +considerable poet after Statius and Juvenal, till the meteor-like +apparition of Claudian in the ominous reign of Honorius. + +The material splendour and municipal life of the Antonine age are +externally its greatest glory. It was pre-eminently a sociable age, an age +of cities. From the wall of Hadrian to the edge of the Sahara towns sprang +up everywhere with as yet a free civic life. It was an age of engineers +and architects, who turned villages into cities and built cities in the +desert, adorned with temples and stately arches and basilicas, and feeding +their fountains from the springs of distant hills. The rich were powerful +and popular; and never had they to pay so heavily for popularity and +power. The cost of civic feasts and games, of forums and temples and +theatres, was won by flattery, or extorted by an inexorable force of +public opinion from their coffers. The poor were feasted and amused by +their social superiors who received a deference and adulation expressed on +hundreds of inscriptions. And it must be confessed that these records of +ambitious munificence and expectant gratitude do not raise our conception +of either the economic or the moral condition of the age. + +The glory of classic art had almost vanished; and yet, without being able +to produce any works of creative genius, the inexhaustible vitality of the +Hellenic spirit once more asserted itself. After a long eclipse, the +rhetorical culture of Greece vigorously addressed itself in the reign of +Hadrian to the conquest of the West. Her teachers and spiritual directors +indeed had long been in every family of note. Her sophists were now seen +haranguing crowds in every town from the Don to the Atlantic. The +influence of the sophistic discipline in education will be felt in the +schools of Gaul, when Visigoth and Burgundian will be preparing to assume +the heritage of the falling Empire.(8) From the early years of the second +century can be traced that great combined movement of the Neo-Pythagorean +and Platonist philosophies and the renovated paganism which made a last +stand against the conquering Church in the reigns of Julian and +Theodosius. Philosophy became a religion, and devoted itself not only to +the private direction of character and the preaching of a higher life, but +to the justification and unification of pagan faith. In spite of its +rather bourgeois ideal of material enjoyment and splendour, the Antonine +age, at least in its higher minds, was an age of a purified moral sense +and religious intuition. It was, indeed, an age of spiritual +contradictions. On the one hand, not only was the old ritual of classical +polytheism scrupulously observed even by men like Plutarch and M. +Aurelius, but religious imagination was appropriating the deities of every +province, almost of every canton, embraced by the Roman power. At the same +time the fecundity of superstition created hosts of new divinities and +genii who peopled every scene of human life.(9) On the other hand +syncretism was in the air. Amid all the confused ferment of devotion a +certain principle of unity and comprehension was asserting itself, even in +popular religion. The old gods were losing their sharp-cut individuality; +the provinces and attributes of kindred deities tended to fade into one +another, and melt into the conception of a single central Power. The +religions of Egypt and the remoter East, with their inner monotheism, +supported by the promise of sacramental grace and the hope of immortality, +came in to give impetus to the great spiritual movement. The simple +peasant might cling to his favourite god, as his Neapolitan descendant has +his favourite saint. But an Apuleius, an Apollonius, or an Alexander +Severus(10) sought a converging spiritual support in the gods and +mysteries of every clime. + +Platonist philosophy strove to give rational expression to this movement, +to reconcile cultivated moral sense with the worships of the past, to find +a bond between the vagrant religious fancies of the crowd and the remote +esoteric faith of the philosophic few. On the higher minds, from whatever +quarter, a spiritual vision had opened, which was strange to the ancient +world, the vision of One who is no longer a mere Force, but an infinite +Father, Creator, Providence and Guardian, from whom we come, to whom we go +at death. Prayer to Him is a communion, not the means of winning mere +temporal blessings; He is not gratified by bloody sacrifice; He is +dishonoured by immoral legend.(11) He cannot be imaged in gold or ivory +graven by the most cunning hand, although the idealised human form may be +used as a secondary aid to devotion. These were some of the religious +ideas current among the best men, Dion Chrysostom, Plutarch, Maximus of +Tyre, which the Neo-Platonic school strove to harmonise with the rites and +legends of the past. The means by which they tried to do so, and the +measure of their success, it is one purpose of this book to explain. + +The Antonine age saw for a brief space the dream of Plato realised, when +kings should be philosophers, and philosophers should be kings. Philosophy +had given up its detached and haughty reserve, or outspoken opposition to +imperial power. In the second century it lent all its forces to an +authority which in the hands of the Antonine princes seemed to answer to +its ideals.(12) The votaries of the higher life, after their persecution +under the last cruel despot, rose to an influence such as they had never +wielded save in the Pythagorean aristocracies of southern Italy. +Philosophy now began to inspire legislation and statesmanship.(13) Its +professors were raised to the consulship and great prefectures. Above all, +it was incarnate, as it were, in the ruler who, whatever we may think of +his practical success, brought to the duties of government a loftiness of +spiritual detachment which has never been equalled by any ruler of men. +Whether there was any corresponding elevation of conduct or moral tone in +the mass of men may well be doubted by any one who has studied the +melancholy thoughts of the saintly emperor. Lucian and M. Aurelius seem to +be as hopeless about the moral condition of humanity as Seneca and +Petronius were in the darkest days of Nero's tyranny.(14) Such opinions, +indeed, have little scientific value. They are often the result of +temperament and ideals, not of trustworthy observation. But it would be +rash to assume that heightened religious feeling and the efforts of +philosophy had within a hundred years worked any wide-spread +transformation of character. It was, however, a great step in advance that +the idea of the principate, expounded by Seneca, and the younger Pliny, as +a clement, watchful, infinitely laborious earthly providence had been +realised since the accession of Trajan. It was easier to be virtuous in +the reign of M. Aurelius than in the reign of Nero, and it was especially +easier for a man of the highest social grade. The example of the prince +for good or evil must always powerfully influence the class who are by +birth or office nearest to the throne. And bad example will be infinitely +more corrupting when it is reinforced by terror. A fierce, capricious +tyranny generates a class of vices which are perhaps more degrading to +human dignity, and socially more dangerous, than the vices of the flesh. +And the reign of such men as Caligula, Nero, and Domitian not only +stimulated the grossness of self-indulgence, but superadded the treachery +and servility of cowardice. In order to appreciate fully what the world +had gained by the mild and temperate rule of the princes of the second +century, it is necessary to revive for a moment the terrors of the +Claudian Caesars. + +The power of Seneca as a moral teacher has, with some reservations, been +recognised by all the ages since his time. But equal recognition has +hardly been given to the lurid light which he throws, in random flashes, +on the moral conditions of his class under the tyranny of Caligula and +Nero. This may be due, perhaps, to a distrust of his artificial +declamation, and that falsetto note which he too often strikes even in his +most serious moments. Yet he must be an unsympathetic reader who does not +perceive that, behind the moral teaching of Seneca, there lies an awful +experience, a lifelong torture, which turns all the fair-seeming blessings +of life, state and luxury and lofty rank, into dust and ashes. There is a +haunting shadow over Seneca which never draws away, which sometimes +deepens into a horror of darkness. In whatever else Seneca may have been +insincere, his veiled references to the terrors of the imperial despotism +come from the heart. + +Seneca's life almost coincides with the Julio-Claudian tyranny. He had +witnessed in his early manhood the gloomy, suspicious rule of Tiberius, +when no day passed without an execution,(15) when every accusation was +deadly, when it might be fatal for a poet to assail Agamemnon in tragic +verse, or for a historian to praise Brutus and Cassius,(16) when the +victims of delation in crowds anticipated the mockery of justice by +self-inflicted death, or drank the poison even in the face of the judges. +Seneca incurred the jealous hatred of Caligula by a too brilliant piece of +rhetoric in the Senate,(17) and he has taken his revenge by damning the +monster to eternal infamy.(18) Not even in Suetonius is there any tale +more ghastly than that told by Seneca of the Roman knight whose son had +paid with his life for a foppish elegance which irritated the tyrant.(19) +On the evening of the cruel day, the father received an imperial command +to dine. With a face betraying no sign of emotion, he was compelled to +drink to the Emperor, while spies were eagerly watching every expression +of his face. He bore the ordeal without flinching. "Do you ask why? He had +another son." Exiled to Corsica in the reign of Claudius,(20) Seneca bore +the sentence with less dignity than he afterwards met death. He witnessed +the reign of the freedmen, the infamies of Messalina, the intrigues of +Agrippina, and the treacherous murder of Britannicus; he knew all the +secrets of that ghastly court. Installed as the tutor of the young Nero, +he doubtless, if we may judge by the treatise on Clemency, strove to +inspire him with a high ideal of monarchy as an earthly providence. He +probably at the same time discovered in the son of Cn. Domitius +Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the fatal heritage of a vicious blood and the +omens of a ghastly reign. The young tiger was held on leash for the famous +quinquennium by Burrus and Seneca. It seemed only the device of a divine +tragic artist, by a brief space of calm and innocence, to deepen the +horror of the catastrophe. And, for Seneca, life darkened terribly towards +its close. With high purposes for the commonweal, he had probably lent +himself to doubtful means of humouring his wayward pupil, perhaps even to +crime.(21) His enormous wealth, whether won from imperial favour, or +gained by usury and extortion,(22) his power, his literary brilliance, +aroused a host of enemies, who blackened his character and excited the +fears or the jealousy of Nero. He had to bear the unenviable distinction +of a possible pretender to the principate.(23) He withdrew into almost +monastic seclusion, and even offered to resign his wealth.(24) He strove +to escape the evil eyes of calumny and imperial distrust by the most +abject renunciation. But he could not descend from the precipice on which +he hung; his elevation was a crucifixion.(25) Withdrawn to a remote corner +of his palace, which was crowded with the most costly products of the +East, and surrounded by gardens which moved the envy of Nero,(26) the +fallen statesman sought calm in penning his counsels to Lucilius, and +bracing himself to meet the stealthy stroke which might be dealt at any +moment.(27) In reading many passages of Seneca, you feel that you are +sitting in some palace on the Esquiline, reading the _Phaedo_ or listening +to the consolations of a Stoic director, while the centurion from the +palace may at any moment appear with the last fateful order. + +Seneca, like Tacitus, has a remarkable power of moral diagnosis. He had +acquired a profound, sad knowledge of the pathology of the soul. It was a +power which was almost of necessity acquired in that time of terror and +suspicion, when men lived in daily peril from seeming friends. There never +was a period when men more needed the art of reading the secrets of +character. Nor was there ever a time when there were greater facilities +for the study. Life was sociable almost to excess. The Roman noble, unless +he made himself deliberately a recluse, spent much of his time in those +social meeting-places of which we hear so often,(28) where gossip and +criticism dealt mercilessly with character, where keen wits were pitted +against one another, sometimes in a deadly game, and where it might be a +matter of life or death to pierce the armour of dissimulation.(29) Seneca +had long shone in such circles. In his later years, if he became a +recluse, he was also a spiritual director. And his Letters leave little +doubt that many a restless or weary spirit laid bare its secret misery to +him, for advice or consolation. Knowing well the wildest excesses of +fantastic luxury, all the secrets of the philosophic confessional, the +miseries of a position oscillating between almost princely state and +monastic renunciation, the minister of Nero, with a self-imposed cure of +souls, had unrivalled opportunities of ascertaining the moral condition of +his class. + +Seneca is too often a rhetorician, in search of striking effects and vivid +phrase. And, like all rhetoricians, he is often inconsistent. At times he +appears to regard his own age as having reached the very climax of insane +self-indulgence. And yet, in a calmer mood, he declares his belief that +the contemporaries of Nero were not worse than the contemporaries of +Clodius or Lucullus, that one age differs from another rather in the +greater prominence of different vices.(30) His pessimism extends to all +ages which have been allured by the charm of ingenious luxury from the +simplicity of nature. In the fatal progress of society, the artificial +multiplication of human wants has corrupted the idyllic innocence of the +far-off Eden, where the cope of heaven or the cave was the only shelter, +and the skin-clad savage made his meal on berries and slaked his thirst +from the stream.(31) It is the revolutionary dream of Rousseau, revolting +from the oppression and artificial luxury of the _Ancien Regime_. Seneca's +state of nature is the antithesis of the selfish and materialised society +in which he lived. Our early ancestors were not indeed virtuous in the +strict sense.(32) For virtue is the result of struggle and philosophic +guidance. But their instincts were good, because they were not tempted. +They enjoyed in common the natural bounties of mother earth.(33) Their +fierceness of energy spent itself on the beasts of the chase. They lived +peaceably in willing obedience to the gentle paternal rule of their wisest +and best, with no lust of gold or power, no jealousy and hatred, to break +a contented and unenvious harmony. The great disturbers of this primeval +peace were avarice and luxury.(34) The moment when the first nugget +flashed its baleful temptations on the eyes of the roaming hunter was the +beginning of all human guilt and misery.(35) Selfish greed, developing +into insatiable appetite, is the original sin which turned the garden into +wilderness. In individualist cravings men lost hold on the common wealth +of nature. Luxury entered on its downward course, in the search for fresh +food and stimulus for appetite, till merely superfluous pleasures led on +to those from which untainted nature recoils.(36) Man's boasted conquests +over nature, the triumphs of his perverted ingenuity, have bred an +illimitable lust, ending in wearied appetite; they have turned those who +were brothers into cunning or savage beasts. + +Such a theory of society has, of course, no value or interest in itself. +Its interest, like that of similar _a priori_ dreams, lies in the light +which it sheds on the social conditions which gave it birth. Like the +Germany of Tacitus, and the Social Contract of Rousseau, Seneca's theory +of the evolution of humanity is an oblique satire on the vices of his own +age. And not even in Tacitus or Suetonius are to be found more ghastly +revelations of a putrescent society, and the ennui and self-loathing which +capricious sensualism generates in spirits born for something higher. It +may be worth noting that the vices which Seneca treats as most prevalent +and deadly are not so much those of sexual impurity, although they were +rife enough in his day, as those of greed, gross luxury, treacherous and +envious cruelty, the weariness of jaded nerves and exhausted capacities of +indulgence.(37) It is not the coarse vices of the Suburra, but the more +deadly and lingering maladies of the Quirinal and the Esquiline which he +is describing. There is a universal lust of gold:(38) riches are the one +ornament and stay of life. And yet in those days a great fortune was only +a splendid servitude.(39) It had to be guarded amid perpetual peril and +envy. The universal greed and venality are worthily matched by the endless +anxiety of those who have won the prize. Human life has become a scene of +cruel and selfish egotism, a ferocious struggle of beasts of prey, eager +for rapine, and heedless of those who go down in the obscene struggle.(40) +It is an age when men glorify the fortunate and trample on the fallen. The +cunning and cruelty of the wild beast on the throne have taught a lesson +of dissimulation to the subject. At such a court it is a miracle to reach +old age, and the feat can only be accomplished by accepting insult and +injury with a smiling face.(41) For him who goes undefended by such armour +of hypocrisy there is always ready the rack, the poisoned cup, the order +for self-murder. It is characteristic of the detachment of Seneca that he +sees the origin of this hateful tyranny. No modern has more clearly +discerned the far-reaching curse of slavery.(42) Every great house is a +miniature of the Empire under a Caligula or Nero, a nursery of pretenders +capable of the same enormities. The unchecked power of the master, which +could, for the slightest faults, an ill-swept pavement, an unpolished +dish, or a sullen look, inflict the most brutal torture,(43) produced +those cold hearts which gloated over the agony of gallant men in the +arena, and applauded in the Senate the tyrant's latest deed of blood. And +the system of household slavery enervated character while it made it +heartless and cruel. The Inscriptions confirm Seneca's picture of the +minute division of functions among the household, to anticipate every +possible need or caprice of the master.(44) Under such a system the master +became a helpless dependent. There is real truth, under some ludicrous +exaggeration, in the tale of a Roman noble, taking his seat in his sedan +after the bath, and requiring the assurance of his slave that he was +really seated.(45) + +It is little wonder that on such lives an utter weariness should settle, +the disgust of oversated appetite, which even the most far-fetched +luxuries of the orient, the most devilish ingenuity of morbid vice, could +hardly arouse. Yet these jaded souls are tortured by an aimless +restlessness, which frets and chafes at the slow passing of the hours,(46) +or vainly hopes to find relief in change of scene.(47) The more energetic +spirits, with no wholesome field for energy, developed into a class which +obtained the name of "Ardeliones." Seneca,(48) Martial,(49) and the +younger Pliny(50) have left us pictures of these idle busybodies, hurrying +round the forums, theatres, and great houses, in an idle quest of some +trivial object of interest, waiting on patrons who ignore their existence, +following some stranger to the grave, rushing pell-mell to the wedding of +a much-married lady, or to a scene in the law courts, returning at +nightfall, worn out with these silly labours, to tread the same weary +round next day. Less innocent were they who daily gathered in the +_circuli_,(51) to hear and spread the wildest rumours about the army on +the frontier, to kill a woman's reputation with a hint, to find a sinister +meaning in some imperial order, or to gloat in whispers over the last +highly-coloured tale of folly or dark guilt from the palace. It was a +perilous enjoyment, for, with a smiling face, some seeming friend was +probably noting every hint which might be tortured into an accusation +before the secret tribunal on the Palatine, or angling for a sneer which +might cost its author a fortune, or send him to the rocks of Gyarus. + +In reading Seneca's writings, especially those of his last years, you are +conscious of a horror which hardly ever takes definite shape, a thick +stifling air, as it were, charged with lightning. Again and again, you +feel a dim terror closing in silently and stealthily, with sudden glimpses +of unutterable torture, of cord and rack and flaming tunic.(52) You seem +to see the sage tossing on his couch of purple under richly panelled +ceilings of gold, starting at every sound in the wainscot,(53) as he +awaits the messenger of death. It is not so much that Seneca fears death +itself, although we may suspect that his nerves sometimes gave the lie to +his principles. He often hails death as welcome at any age, as the +deliverer who strikes off the chain and opens the prison door, the one +harbour on a tempestuous and treacherous sea.(54) He is grateful for +having always open this escape from life's long torture, and boldly claims +the right to anticipate the executioner. The gloom of Seneca seems rather +to spring from a sense of the terrible contrast between wealth and state +and an ignominious doom which was ever ready to fall. And to his fevered +eye all stately rank seems at last but a precipice overhanging the abyss, +a mark for treacherous envy or the spitefulness of Fortune.(55) "A great +fortune is a great servitude,"(56) which, if it has been hard to win, is +harder still to guard. And all life is full of these pathetic contrasts. +Pleasure is nearest neighbour to pain; the summer sea in a moment is +boiling in the tempest; the labour of long years is scattered in a day; +there is always terror lurking under our deepest peace. And so we reach +the sad gospel of a universal pessimism; "nothing is so deceitful and +treacherous as the life of man."(57) No one would knowingly accept such a +fatal gift, of which the best that can be said is that the torture is +short, that our first moment of existence is the first stage to the +grave.(58) Thus to Seneca, with all his theoretical indifference to things +external to the virtuous will, with all his admiration for the +invulnerable wisdom, withdrawn in the inner citadel of the soul, and +defying the worst that tyrants or fortune could inflict, the _taedium +vitae_ became almost unendurable. The interest of all this lies, not in +Seneca's inconsistency, but in the nightmare which brooded on such minds +in the reign of Nero. + +Something of the gloom of Seneca was part of the evil heritage of a class, +commanding inexhaustible wealth and assailed by boundless temptations to +self-indulgence, which had been offered by the conquest of East and West. +The weary senses failed to respond to the infinite sensual seductions +which surrounded the Roman noble from his earliest years. If he did not +succeed in squandering his fortune, he often exhausted too early his +capacity for healthy joy in life, and the nemesis of sated appetite and +disillusionment too surely cast its shadow over his later years. Prurient +slander was rife in those days, and we are not bound to accept all its +tales about Seneca. Yet there are passages in his writings which leave the +impression that, although he may have cultivated a Pythagorean asceticism +in his youth,(59) he did not altogether escape the taint of his time.(60) +His enormous fortune did not all come by happy chance or the bounty of the +emperor.(61) His gardens and palace, with all its priceless furniture, +must have been acquired because at one time he felt pleasure in such +luxuries. A soul so passionate in its renunciation may, according to laws +of human nature, have been once as passionate in indulgence. In his case, +as so often in the history of the Church, the saint may have had a +terrible repentance. + +It is probable, however, that this pessimism is more the result of the +contrast between Seneca's ideal of the principate, and the degradation of +its power in the hands of his pupil Nero. Seneca may have been regarded +once as a possible candidate for the throne, but he was no conspirator or +revolutionary.(62) He would have condemned the visionaries whose rudeness +provoked even the tolerant Vespasian.(63) In a letter, which must have +been written during the Neronian terror, he emphatically repudiates the +idea that the votaries of philosophy are refractory subjects. Their great +need is quiet and security. They should surely reverence him who, by his +sleepless watch, guards what they most value, just as, on a merchantman, +the owner of the most precious part of the cargo will be most grateful for +the protection of the god of the sea.(64) Seneca would have his +philosophic brethren give no offence by loud self-assertion or a parade of +superior wisdom.(65) In that deceitful dawn of his pupil's reign, Seneca +had written a treatise in which he had striven to charm him by the ideal +of a paternal monarchy, in the consciousness of its god-like power ever +delighting in mercy and pity, tender to the afflicted, gentle even to the +criminal. It is very much the ideal of Pliny and Dion Chrysostom under the +strong and temperate rule of Trajan.(66) Addressed to one of the worst +emperors, it seems, to one looking back, almost a satire. Yet we should +remember that, strange as it may seem, Nero, with all his wild depravity, +appears to have had a strange charm for many, even to the end. The men who +trembled under the sombre and hypocritical Domitian, regretted the wild +gaiety and bonhomie of Nero, and each spring, for years after his death, +flowers were laid by unknown hands upon his grave.(67) The charm of +boyhood, with glimpses of some generous instincts, may for a time have +deceived even the experienced man of the world and the brooding analyst of +character. But it is more probable that the piece is rather a warning than +a prophecy. Seneca had watched all the caprices of an imperial tyrant, +drunk with a sense of omnipotence, having in his veins the maddening taint +of ancestral vice,(68) with nerves unstrung by maniacal excesses, brooding +in the vast solitudes of the Palatine till he became frenzied with terror, +striking down possible rivals, at first from fear or greed,(69) in the end +from the wild beast's lust for blood, and the voluptuary's delight in +suffering. The prophecy of the father as to the future of Agrippina's +son(70) found probably an echo in the fears of his tutor. But, in spite of +his forebodings, Seneca thought the attempt to save him worth making. He +first appeals to his imagination. Nero has succeeded to a vicegerency of +God on earth.(71) He is the arbiter of life and death, on whose word the +fortunes of citizens, the happiness or misery of whole peoples depend. +His innocence raises the highest hopes.(72) But the imperial task is +heavy, and its perils are appalling. The emperor is the one bond by which +the world-empire is held together;(73) he is its vital breath. Man, the +hardest of all animals to govern,(74) can only be governed long by love, +and love can only be won by beneficence and gentleness to the frowardness +of men. In his god-like place, the prince should imitate the mercy of the +gods.(75) Wielding illimitable power, he is yet the servant of all, and +cannot usurp the licence of the private subject. He is like one of the +heavenly orbs, bound by inevitable law to move onward in a fixed orbit, +unswerving and unresting. If he relies on cruel force, rather than on +clemency, he will sink to the level of the tyrant and meet his proper +fate.(76) Cruelty in a king only multiplies his enemies and envenoms +hatred. In that fatal path there is no turning back. The king, once +dreaded by his people, loses his nerve and strikes out blindly in +self-defence.(77) The atmosphere of treachery and suspicion thickens +around him, and, in the end, what, to his maddened mind, seemed at first a +stern necessity becomes a mere lust for blood. + +It has been suggested that Seneca was really, to some extent, the cause of +the grotesque or tragic failure of Nero.(78) The rhetorical spirit, which +breathes through all Seneca's writings, may certainly be an evil influence +in the education of a ruler of men. The habit of playing with words, of +aiming at momentary effect, with slight regard to truth, may inspire the +excitable vanity of the artist, but is hardly the temper for dealing with +the hard problems of government. And the dazzling picture of the boundless +power of a Roman emperor, which Seneca put before his pupil, in order to +heighten his sense of responsibility, might intoxicate a mind naturally +prone to grandiose visions, while the sober lesson would be easily +forgotten. The spectacle of "the kingdoms of the world and all the glory +of them" at his feet was a dangerous temptation to a temperament like +Nero's.(79) Arrogance and cruelty were in the blood of the Domitii. Nero's +grandfather, when only aedile, had compelled the censor to give place to +him; he had produced Roman matrons in pantomime, and given gladiatorial +shows with such profusion of cruelty, as to shock that not very +tender-hearted age.(80) The father of the emperor, in addition to crimes +of fraud, perjury, and incest, had, in the open forum, torn out the eye of +a Roman knight, and deliberately trampled a child under his horse's feet +on the Appian Way.(81) Yet such is the strange complexity of human nature, +that Nero seems by nature not to have been destitute of some generous and +amiable qualities. We need not lay too much stress on the innocence +ascribed to him by Seneca.(82) Nor need we attribute to Nero's initiative +the sound or benevolent measures which characterised the beginning of his +reign. But he showed at one time some industry and care in performing his +judicial work.(83) He saw the necessity, in the interests of public health +and safety, of remodelling the narrow streets and mean insanitary +dwellings of Rome.(84) His conception of the Isthmian canal, if the +engineering problem could have been conquered, would have been an immense +boon to traders with the Aegean. Even his quinquennial festival, inspired +by the Greek contests in music and gymnastic,(85) represented a finer +ideal of such gatherings, which was much needed by a race devoted to the +coarse realism of pantomime and the butchery of the arena. Fierce and +incalculably capricious as he could be, Nero, at his best, had also a +softer side. He had a craving for love and appreciation(86); some of his +cruelty was probably the revenge for the denial of it. He was singularly +patient of lampoons and invective against himself.(87) Although he could +be brutal in his treatment of women, he also knew how to inspire real +affection, and perhaps in a few cases return it. He seems to have had +something of real love for Acte, his mistress. His old nurses consoled him +in his last hour of agony, and, along with the faithful Acte, laid the +last of his race in the vault of the Domitii.(88) Nero must have had +something of that charm which leads women in every age to forget faults, +and even crimes in the men whom they have once loved. And the strange, +lingering superstition, which disturbed the early Church, and which looked +for his reappearance down to the eleventh century, could hardly have +gathered around an utterly mean and mediocre character.(89) + +When Nero uttered the words "Qualis artifex pereo,"(90) he gave not only +his own interpretation of his life, he also revealed one great secret of +its ghastly failure. It may be admitted that Nero had a certain artistic +enthusiasm, a real ambition to excel.(91) He painted with some skill, he +composed verses not without a certain grace. In spite of serious natural +defects, he took endless pains to acquire the technique of a singer. Far +into the night he would sit in rapt enthusiasm listening to the effects of +Terpnus, and trying to copy them.(92) His artistic tour in Greece, which +lowered him so much in the eyes of the West, was really inspired by the +passion to find a sympathetic audience which he could not find at Rome. +And, in spite of his arrogance and vanity, he had a wholesome deference +for the artistic judgment of Greece. Yet it is very striking that in the +records of his reign, the most damning accusation is that he disgraced the +purple by exhibitions on the stage. His songs to the lyre, his +impersonation of the parturient Canace or the mad Hercules, did as much to +cause his overthrow as his murders of Britannicus and Agrippina.(93) The +stout Roman soldier and the Pythagorean apostle have the same scorn for +the imperial charioteer and actor. A false literary ambition, born of a +false system of education, was the bane of Roman culture for many ages. +The dilettante artist on the throne in the first century had many a +successor in the literary arts among the grand seigneurs of the fifth. +They could play with their ingenious tricks of verse in sight of the +Gothic camp-fires. He could contend for the wreath at Olympia when his +faithful freedman was summoning him back by the news that the West was +seething with revolt.(94) + +Nero's mother had dissuaded him from the study of philosophy; his tutor +debarred him from the study of the manly oratory of the great days.(95) +The world was now to learn the meaning of a false artistic ambition, +divorced from a sense of reality and duty. Aestheticism may be only a love +of sensational effects, with no glimpse of the ideal. It may be a +hypocritical materialism, screening itself under divine names. In this +taste Nero was the true representative of his age. It was deeply tainted +with that mere passion for the grandiose and startling, and for feverish +intellectual effects, which a true culture spurns as a desecration of +art.(96) Mere magnitude and portentousness, the realistic expression of +physical agony, the coarse flush of a half-sensual pleasure, captivated a +vulgar taste, to which crapulous excitement and a fever of the senses took +the place of the purer ardours and visions of the spirit.(97) Nero paid +the penalty of outraging the conventional prejudices of the Roman. And yet +he was in some respects in thorough sympathy with the masses. His lavish +games and spectacles atoned to some extent for his aberrations of +Hellenism. He was generous and wasteful, and he encouraged waste in +others,(98) and waste is always popular till the bill has to be paid. He +was a "cupitor incredibilium."(99) The province of Africa was ransacked to +find the fabled treasure of Dido.(100) Explorers were sent to pierce the +mysterious barrier of the Caucasus, and discover the secret sources of the +Nile. He had great engineering schemes which might seem baffling even to +modern skill, and which almost rivalled the wildest dreams of the lunatic +brain of Caligula.(101) His Golden House, in a park stretching from the +Palatine to the heights of the Esquiline, was on a scale of more than +oriental magnificence. At last the master of the world was properly +lodged. With colonnades three miles long, with its lakes and pastures and +sylvan glades, it needed only a second Nero in Otho to dream of adding to +its splendour.(102) To such a prince the astrologers might well predict +another monarchy enthroned on Mount Zion, with the dominion of the +East.(103) The materialist dreamer was, like Napoleon I., without a +rudimentary moral sense. Stained with the foulest enormities himself, he +had a rooted conviction that virtue was a pretence, and that all men were +equally depraved.(104) His surroundings gave him some excuse for thinking +so. He was born into a circle which believed chiefly in "the lust of the +eye and the pride of life." He formed a circle many of whom perished in +the carnage of Bedriacum. With a treasury drained by insane profusion, +Nero resorted to rapine and judicial murder to replenish it.(105) The +spendthrift seldom has scruples in repairing his extravagance. The temples +were naturally plundered by the man who, having no religion, was at least +honest enough to deride all religions.(106) The artistic treasures of +Greece were carried off by the votary of Greek art; the gold and silver +images of her shrines were sent to the melting-pot.(107) Ungrateful +testators paid their due penalty after death; and delation, watching every +word or gesture, skilfully supplied the needed tale of victims for +plunder. It is all a hackneyed story. Yet it is perhaps necessary to +revive it once more to explain the suppressed terror and lingering agony +of the last days of Seneca. + +The impressions of the Terror which we receive from Seneca are powerful +and almost oppressive. A thick atmosphere of gloom and foreboding seems to +stifle us as we turn his pages. But Seneca deals rather in shadowy hint +and veiled suggestion than in definite statement. For the minute picture +of that awful scene of degradation we must turn to Tacitus. He wrote in +the fresh dawn of an age of fancied freedom, when the gloom of the tyranny +seemed to have suddenly vanished like an evil dream. Yet he cannot shake +off the sense of horror and disgust which fifteen years of ignoble +compliance or silent suffering have burnt into his soul. Even under the +manly, tolerant rule of Trajan, he hardly seems to have regained his +breath.(108) He can scarcely believe that the light has come at last. His +attitude to the tyranny is essentially different from that of Seneca. The +son of the provincial from Cordova views the scene rather as the +cosmopolitan moralist, imperilled by his huge fortune and the +neighbourhood of the terrible palace. Tacitus looks at it as the Roman +Senator, steeped in all old Roman tradition, caring little for philosophy, +but caring intensely for old Roman dignity and the prestige of that great +order, which he had seen humbled and decimated.(109) The feeling of Seneca +is that of a Stoic monk, isolated in a corner of his vast palace, now +trembling before the imperial jealousy, which his wealth and celebrity may +draw down upon him, and again seeking consolation in thoughts of God and +eternity which might often seem to belong to Thomas a Kempis. The tone of +Tacitus is sometimes that of a man who should have lived in the age of the +Samnite or the Carthaginian wars, before luxury and factious ambition had +sapped the moral strength of the great aristocratic caste, while his +feelings are divided between grim anger at a cruel destiny, and scornful +regret for the weakness and the self-abandonment of a class which had been +once so great. The feelings of Seneca express themselves rather in +rhetorical self-pity. The feelings of Tacitus find vent in words which +sometimes veil a pathos too proud for effusive utterance, sometimes cut +like lancet points, and which, in their concentrated moral scorn, have +left an eternal brand of infamy on names of historic renown. + +More than forty years had passed between the date of Seneca's last letters +to Lucilius and the entry of Tacitus on his career as a historian.(110) He +was a child when Seneca died.(111) His life is known to us only from a few +stray glimpses in the Letters of Pliny,(112) eked out by the inferences of +modern erudition. As a young boy, he must have often heard the tales of +the artistic follies and the orgies of Nero, and the ghastly cruelties of +the end of his reign. As a lad of fifteen, he may have witnessed something +of the carnival of blood and lust which appropriately closed the regime of +the Julio-Claudian line. He entered on his _cursus honorum_ in the reign +of Vespasian, and attained the praetorship under Domitian.(113) A military +command probably withdrew him from Rome for three years during the tyranny +of the last Flavian.(114) He was consul suffectus in 97, and then held the +proconsulship of Asia. It cannot be doubted from his own words that, as a +senator, he had to witness tamely the Curia beset with soldiery, the +noblest women driven into exile, and men of the highest rank and virtue +condemned to death on venal testimony in the secret tribunal of the Alban +Palace. His hand helped to drag Helvidius to the dungeon, and was stained +with the blood of Senecio. He lived long enough under a better prince to +leave an unfading picture of the tragedy of solitary and remorseless +power, but not long enough to forget the horrors and degradation through +which he had passed. + +The claim of Tacitus to have been uninfluenced by passion or +partiality(115) has been disputed by a modern school of critics.(116) +Sometimes, from a love of Caesarism and strong government, sometimes from +the scholarly weakness for finding a new interpretation of history, the +great historic painter of the Julio-Claudian despotism has been +represented as an acrid rhetorician of the Senatorial reaction, a dreamer +who looks back wistfully to the old Republic, belonging to one of those +haughty circles of the old regime which were always in chronic revolt, +which lived in an atmosphere of suspicion and poisonous gossip, and +nourished its dreams and hatreds till fiction and fact melted into one +another in gloomy retrospect.(117) He is the great literary avenger of the +Senate after its long sanguinary conflict with the principate, using the +freedom of the new order to blacken the character of princes who had been +forced, in the interests of the world-wide empire, to fight and to crush a +selfish and narrow-minded caste.(118) + +The weakness of all such estimates of Tacitus lies in their failure to +recognise the complex nature of the man, the mingled and crossing +influences of training, official experience, social environment, and lofty +moral ideals(119); it lies even more in a misconception of his aims as a +historian. Tacitus was a great orator, and the spirit of the rhetorical +school, combined with the force and dexterity of style which it could +communicate, left the greatest Roman historians with a less rigorous sense +of truth than their weakest modern successors often possess.(120) No Roman +ever rose to the Thucydidean conception of history. Moreover Tacitus, +although originally not of the highest social rank,(121) belonged to the +aristocratic class by sympathy and associations. Like Suetonius, he +necessarily drew much of his information from the memories of great houses +and the tales of the elders who had lived through the evil days.(122) He +acquired thus many of the prejudices of a class which, from its history, +and still more from its education, sought its ideals in the past rather +than in the future. He mingled in those circles, which in every age +disguise the meanness and bitterness of gossip by the airy artistic touch +of audacious wit, polished in many social encounters. He had himself +witnessed the triumph of delation and the cold cruelty of Domitian. He had +shared in the humiliation of the Senate which had been cowed into +acquiescence in his worst excesses. And the spectacle had inspired him +with a horror of unchecked power in the hands of a bad man, and a gloomy +distrust of that human nature which could sink to such ignoble +servility.(123) Yet on the other hand Tacitus had gained practical +experience in high office, both as soldier and administrator, which has +always a sobering effect on the judgment. He realised the difficulties of +government and the unreasonableness of ordinary men. Hence he has no +sympathy with a doctrinaire and chimerical opposition even under the worst +government.(124) However much he might respect the high character of the +philosophic enthusiasts of the day, he distrusted their theatrical +defiance of power, and he threw his shield over a discreet reserve, which +could forget that it was serving a tyrant in serving the +commonwealth.(125) Tacitus may at times express himself with a stern +melancholy bitterness, which might at first seem to mark him as a +revolutionary dreamer, avenging an outraged political ideal. Such an +interpretation would be a grave mistake, which he would himself have been +the first to correct. The ideal which he is avenging is not a political, +but a moral ideal.(126) The bitter sadness is that of the profound analyst +of character, with a temperament of almost feverish intensity and nervous +force. The interest of history to Thucydides and Polybius lies in the +political lessons which it may teach posterity. Its interest to Tacitus +lies in the discovery of hidden motives and the secret of character, in +watching the stages of an inevitable degeneracy, the moral preparation for +a dark, inglorious end. And the analyst was a curiously vivid painter of +character, the character of individuals, of periods, and of peoples. His +portraits burn themselves into the imaginative memory, so that the +impression, once seized, can never be lost. Tiberius and Claudius and +Nero, Messalina and Agrippina, in spite of the most mordant criticism, +will live for ever as they have been portrayed by the fervid imagination +of Tacitus. Nor is he less searching and vivid in depicting the collective +feeling and character of masses of men. We watch the alternating fury and +repentance of the mutinous legions of Germanicus,(127) or the mingled +fierceness and sorrow with which they wandered among the bleaching bones +on the lost battlefield of Varus,(128) or the passion of grief and +admiration with which the praetorian cohorts kissed the self-inflicted +wounds of Otho.(129) Or, again, we follow the changing moods of the Roman +populace, passing from anger and grief to short-lived joy, and then to +deep silent sorrow, at the varying rumours from the East about the health +of Germanicus.(130) In Tacitus events are nearly always seen in their +moral setting. The misery and shame of the burning of the Capitol by the +Vitellians are heightened by the thought that the catastrophe is caused by +the madness of civil strife.(131) In the awful conflict which raged from +street to street, the horror consists in the mixture of cruelty and +licence. The baths and brothels and taverns are crowded at the very hour +when the neighbouring ways are piled with corpses and running with blood; +the rush of indulgence paused not for a moment; men seemed to revel in the +public disasters. There was bloodshed enough in the days of Cinna and +Sulla, but the world was at least spared such a carnival of lust.(132) +Even in reporting or imagining the speech of Galgacus to his warriors on +the Grampians,(133) even in the pictures of the German tribes,(134) the +ethical interest is always foremost. The cruel terror of the prince, the +effeminacy and abandoned adulation of the nobles, the grossness and +fierceness of the masses, contrasted with the loyalty, chastity, and +hardihood of the German clans, seem to have dimly foreshadowed to Tacitus +a danger from which all true Romans averted their eyes till the end.(135) + +The key to the interpretation of Tacitus is to regard him as a moralist +rather than a politician. And he is a moralist with a sad, clinging +pessimism.(136) He is doomed to be the chronicler of an evil time, +although he will save from oblivion the traces and relics of ancient +virtue.(137) He has Seneca's pessimist theory of evolution. The early +equality and peace and temperance have been lost through a steady growth +of greed and egotistic ambition.(138) It is in the past we must seek our +ideals; it is from the past we derive our strength. With the same gloomy +view of his contemporaries as M. Aurelius had,(139) he holds vaguely a +similar view of cycles in human affairs.(140) And probably the fairest +hope which ever visited the mind of Tacitus was that of a return to the +simplicity of a long gone age. He hailed the accession of Vespasian and of +Trajan as a happy change to purer manners and to freedom of speech.(141) +But the reign of Vespasian had been followed by the gloomy suspicious +despotism of Domitian. Who could be sure about the successors of Trajan? +Tacitus hardly shared the enthusiasm and exuberant hopes expressed by his +friend Pliny in his _Panegyric_. It was a natural outbreak of joy at +escaping from the dungeon, and the personal character of Trajan succeeded +in partially veiling the overwhelming force of the emperor under the +figment of the freely accepted rule of the first citizen. Tacitus no doubt +felt as great satisfaction as his friend at the suppression of the +informers, the restored freedom of speech, the recovered dignity of the +Senate, the prince's respect for old republican forms and etiquette.(142) +He felt probably even keener pleasure that virtue and talent had no longer +to hide themselves from a jealous eye, and that the whole tone of society +was being raised by the temperate example of the emperor. But he did not +share Pliny's illusions as to the prince's altered position under the new +regime. The old Republic was gone for ever.(143) It was still the rule of +one man, on whose character everything depended. He would never have +joined Plutarch and Dion in exalting the emperor to the rank of vicegerent +of God. With his experience and psychologic skill, he was bound to regard +all solitary power as a terrible danger both to its holder and his +subjects.(144) "Capax imperii, nisi imperasset" condenses a whole +disquisition on imperialism. In truth, Tacitus, like many thoughtful +students of politics, had little faith in mere political forms and +names.(145) They are often the merest imposture: they depend greatly on +the spirit and social tone which lie behind them. In the abstract, +perhaps, Tacitus would have given a preference to aristocracy. But he saw +how easily it might pass into a selfish despotism.(146) He had no faith in +the people or in popular government, with its unstable excitability. He +admitted that the conquests of Rome, egotistic ambition, and the long +anarchy of the Civil Wars had made the rule of one inevitable. But +monarchy easily glides into tyranny, and he accepts the Empire only as a +perilous necessity which may be justified by the advent of a good prince. +The hereditary succession, which had been grafted on the principate of +Augustus, had inflicted on the world a succession of fools or monsters. +The only hope lay in elevating the standard of virtue, and in the choice +of a worthy successor by the forms of adoption.(147) The one had in his +own time given the world a Domitian, and was destined within three +generations to give it a Commodus. The other secured to it the peace and +order of the age of which Tacitus saw the dawn.(148) + +The motive of Tacitus was essentially ethical, and his moral standard was +in many respects lofty. Yet his standard was sometimes limited by the +prejudices of his class. He cherished the old Roman ideal of "virtus" +rather than the Stoic gospel of a cosmopolitan brotherhood of man.(149) +Like Pliny, he felt little horror at gladiatorial combats,(150) although +he may have had a certain contempt for the rage for them. He had probably +far less humane feelings than Pliny on the subject of slavery.(151) While +he admired many of the rude virtues of the Germans, he prayed Heaven that +their tribal blood-feuds might last for ever.(152) He has all the faith of +Theognis in the moral value of blood and breeding. He feels a proud +satisfaction in recording the virtues of the scion of a noble race, and +degeneracy from great traditions moves his indignant pity.(153) He +sometimes throws a veil over the degenerates.(154) The great economic +revolution which was raising the freedman, the petty trader, the obscure +provincial, to the top, he probably regarded with something of Juvenal's +suspicion and dislike. The new man would have needed a fine character, or +a great record of service, to commend him to Tacitus.(155) But, with all +these defects of hard and narrow prejudice, Tacitus maintains a lofty +ideal of character, a severe enthusiasm for the great virtues which are +the salt of every society. + +Of the early nurture of Tacitus nothing is directly known. But we may be +permitted to imagine him tenderly yet strictly guarded from the taint of +slave nurses(156) by a mother who was as unspotted as Julia Procilla, the +mother of his hero Agricola.(157) What importance he attached to this +jealous care of a good woman, what a horror he had of the incitements to +cruelty and lust which surrounded the young Roman from his cradle, are to +be traced in many a passage coming from the heart. His ideal of youthful +chastity and of the pure harmony of a single wedded union, reveals to us +another world from the scene of heartless, vagrant intrigue, on which Ovid +wasted his brilliant gifts. His taste, if not his principles, revolted +against the coarse seductions of the spectacles and the wasteful grossness +of the banquets of his time.(158) He envies the Germans their freedom from +these great corrupters of Roman character, from the lust for gold, and the +calculating sterility which cut itself from nature's purest pleasure, to +be surrounded on the deathbed by a crowd of hungry, shameless sycophants. +While Tacitus had a burning contempt for the nerveless cowardice and +sluggishness which degraded so many of his order,(159) he may have valued +even to excess, although it is hardly possible to do so, the virtues of +the strenuous soldier. Proud submission to authority, proud, cold +endurance in the face of cruel hardship and enormous odds, readiness to +sacrifice even life at the call of the State, must always tower over the +safe aspirations of an untried virtue. The soldier, though he never knows +it, is the noblest of idealists. The ideal of Tacitus, although he sees +his faults of temper,(160) was probably the character of his +father-in-law, Agricola, grave, earnest and severe, yet with a mingled +clemency, free from all vulgar avarice or ostentation of rank, from all +poisonous jealousy, an eager ambitious warrior, yet one knowing well how +to temper audacious energy with prudence.(161) Tacitus would probably have +sought his ideal among those grey war-worn soldiers on a dangerous +frontier, half warrior and half statesman, just and clement, stern in +discipline, yet possessing the secret of the Roman soldier's love, the men +who were guarding the Solway, the Rhine, and the Danube, while their +brethren in the Senate were purchasing their lives or their ease by +adulation and treachery. Yet, after all, Tacitus was too great for such a +limited ideal. He could admire faith and courage and constancy in any +rank.(162) With profound admiration and subdued pathos, he tells how the +freedwoman Epicharis, racked and fainting in every limb with the extremity +of torture, refused to tell the secret of the Pisonian conspiracy, and by +a voluntary death shamed the knights and nobles who were ready to betray +their nearest kin.(163) The slave girls of the empress, who defiantly +upheld her fair fame, under the last cruel ordeal, are honoured by a like +memorial.(164) + +The deepest feeling of Tacitus about the early Empire seems to have been +that it was fatal to character both in prince and subject. This conviction +he has expressed with the burning intensity of the artist. He could never +have penned one of those laborious paragraphs of Suetonius which seem +transcribed from a carefully kept note-book, with a lifeless catalogue of +the vices, the virtues, and the eccentricities of the subject. For +Tacitus, history is a living and real thing, not a matter of mere +antiquarian interest. He has seen a single lawless will, unchecked by +constitutional restraints or ordinary human feeling, making sport of the +lives and fortunes of men. He has seen the sons of the proudest houses +selling their ancestral honour for their lives, betraying their nearest +and dearest, and kissing the hand which was reeking with innocent +blood.(165) When he looked back, he saw that, for more than fifteen years, +with brief intervals, virtue had been exiled or compelled to hide itself +in impotent seclusion, and that power and wealth had been the reward of +perfidy and grovelling self-abasement.(166) The brooding silence of those +years of humiliating servitude did not extinguish the faith of Tacitus in +human virtue, but it almost extinguished his faith in a righteous God. +Tacitus is no philosopher, with either a reasoned theodicee or a +consistent repudiation of faith.(167) He uses popular language about +religion, and often speaks like an old Roman in all things touching the +gods.(168) He is, moreover, often as credulous as he is sceptical in his +treatment of omens and oracles.(169) But, with all his intense faith in +goodness, the spectacle of the world of the Caesars has profoundly shaken +his trust in the Divine justice. Again and again, he attributes the long +agony of the Roman world to mere chance or fate,(170) or the anger of +Heaven, as well as to the madness of men.(171) Sometimes he almost denies +a ruling power which could permit the continuance of the crimes of a +Nero.(172) Sometimes he grimly notes its impartial treatment of the good +and the evil.(173) And again, he speaks of the Powers who visit not to +protect, but only to avenge. And so, by a curse like that which haunted +the Pelopidae in tragic legend, the monarchy, cradled in ambition and +civil strife, has gone on corrupting and corrupted. The lust of despotic +power which Tacitus regards as the fiercest and most insatiable of human +passions, has been intensified by the spectacle of a monarchy commanding, +with practically unlimited sway, the resources and the fortunes of a +world. + +It was a dazzling prize, offering frightful temptations both to the holder +and to possible rivals and pretenders. The day on which a Nero or a +Caligula awoke to all the possibilities of power was a fateful one. And +Tacitus, with the instinct of the tragic artist, has painted the steady, +fatal corruption of a prince's character by the corroding influence of +absolute and solitary sway. Of all the Caesars down to his time, the only +one who changed for the better was the homely Vespasian. In Tiberius, +Caligula, and Nero, some of this deterioration of character must be set +down to the morbid strain in the Julio-Claudian line, with its hard and +cruel pride, and its heritage of a tainted blood, of which Nero's father +knew the secret so well. Much was also due to the financial exhaustion +which, in successive reigns, followed the most reckless waste. It would be +difficult to say whether the emperors or their nobles were the most to +blame for the example of spendthrift extravagance and insane luxury. Two +generations before the foundation of the Empire, the passion for profusion +had set in, which, according to Tacitus, raged unchecked till the +accession of Vespasian.(174) Certainly, the man who would spend L3000 on a +myrrhine vase, L4000 on a table of citrus-wood, or L40,000 on a richly +wrought carpet from Babylon, had little to learn even from Nero.(175) Yet +the example of an emperor must always be potent for good or evil. We have +the testimony of Pliny and Claudian,(176) separated by an interval of +three hundred years, that the world readily conforms its life to that of +one man, if that man is head of the State. Nero's youthful enthusiasm for +declamation gave an immense impulse to the passion for rhetoric.(177) His +enthusiasm for acting and music spread through all ranks, and the +emperor's catches were sung at wayside inns.(178) M. Aurelius made +philosophy the mode, and the Stoic Emperor is responsible for some of the +philosophic imposture which moved the withering scorn of Lucian. The +Emperor's favourite drug grew so popular that the price of it became +almost prohibitory.(179) If the model of Vespasian's homely habits had +such an effect in reforming society, we may be sure that the evil example +of his spendthrift predecessors did at least as much to deprave it. + +And what an example it was! The extravagance of the Claudian Caesars and +the last Flavian has become a piece of historic commonplace. Every one has +heard of the unguent baths of Caligula, his draughts of melted pearls, his +galleys with jewel-studded sterns and gardens and orchards on their decks, +his viaduct connecting the Palatine with the Capitoline, his bridge from +Bauli to Puteoli, and many another scheme of that wild brain, which had in +the end to be paid for in blood.(180) In a single year Caligula scattered +in reckless waste more than L20,000,000.(181) Nero proclaimed that the +only use of money was to squander it, and treated any prudent calculation +as meanness.(182) In a brief space he flung away nearly L18,000,000. The +Egyptian roses for a single banquet cost L35,000.(183) He is said never to +have made a progress with less than a thousand carriages; his mules were +shod with silver.(184) He would stake HS.400,000 on a single throw of the +dice. The description of his Golden House is like a vision of lawless +romance.(185) The successors of Galba were equally lavish during their +brief term. Otho, another Nero, probably regarded death in battle as a +relief from bankruptcy.(186) Within a very few months, Vitellius had flung +away more than L7,000,000 in vulgar luxury.(187) Vespasian found the +exhaustion of the public treasury so portentous(188) that he had to resort +to unpopular economies and taxation on a great scale. Under Domitian, the +spectacles and largesses lavished on the mob undid all the scrupulous +finance of his father,(189) and Nerva had to liquidate the ruinous +heritage by wholesale retrenchment, and the sale even of the imperial +furniture and plate,(190) as M. Aurelius brought to the hammer his +household treasures, and even the wardrobe and jewels of the empress, in +the stress of the Marcomannic war.(191) + +But the great imperial spendthrifts resorted to more simple and primitive +methods of replenishing their coffers. Self-indulgent waste is often seen +linked with meanness and hard cruelty. The epigram of Suetonius on +Domitian, _inopia rapax, metu saevus_,(192) sums up the sordid history of +the tyranny. The cool biographer of Caligula, Nero, and Domitian, when in +his methodical fashion, he has recorded their financial difficulties, +immediately proceeds to describe the unblushing rapine or ingenious +chicanery by which the needy tyrants annexed a coveted estate. The +emperors now generally protected the provinces from plunder,(193) but they +applied all the Verrine methods to their own nobles. It was not hard with +the help of the sleuth hounds who always gather round the despot, to find +plausible grounds of accusation. The vague law of majesty, originally +intended to guard the security of the commonwealth, was now used to throw +its protection around the sacrosanct prince in whom all the highest powers +of government were concentrated.(194) The slightest suspicion of +disloyalty or discontent, the most insignificant act or word, which a +depraved ingenuity could misinterpret, was worked up into a formidable +indictment by men eager for their share of the plunder. To have written +the memoir of a Stoic saint or kept the birthday of a dead emperor, to +possess an imperial horoscope or a map of the world, to call a slave by +the name of Hannibal or a dish by that of Lucullus, might become a fatal +charge.(195) "Ungrateful testators" who had failed to remember the emperor +in their wills had to pay heavily for the indiscreet omission.(196) The +materials for such accusations were easily obtained in the Rome of the +early Caesars. Life was eminently sociable. A great part of the day was +spent at morning receptions, in the Forum, the Campus Martius, the +barber's or bookseller's shops, or in the colonnades where crowds of +fashionable idlers gathered to relieve the tedium of life by gossip and +repartee. It was a city, says Tacitus, which knew everything and talked of +everything.(197) Never was curiosity more eager or gossip more reckless. +Men were almost ready to risk their lives for a _bon mot_. And in the +reign of Nero or Domitian, the risk was a very real one. The imperial +espionage, of which Maecenas in Dion Cassius recognised at once the danger +and the necessity,(198) was an organised system even under the most +blameless emperors It can be traced in the reigns of Nerva, Hadrian, and +Antoninus Pius.(199) But under the tyrants, voluntary informers sprang up +in every class. Among the hundreds of slaves attached to a great +household, there were in such times sure to be spies, attracted by the +lure of freedom and a fortune, who might report and distort what they had +observed in their master's unguarded hours. Men came to dread possible +traitors even among their nearest of kin, among their closest friends of +the highest rank.(200) Who can forget the ignominy of those three +Senators, one of them bearing the historic name of Cato, who, to win the +consulship from Sejanus, hid themselves between the ceiling and the roof, +and caught, through chinks and crannies, the words artfully drawn from the +victim by another member of the noble gang? The seventh book of the _Life +of Apollonius_ by Philostratus is a revelation of the mingled caution and +truculence of the methods of Domitian. Here at least we have left the +world of romance behind and are on solid ground. We feel around us, as we +read, the hundred eyes of an omnipresent tyranny. We meet in the prison +the magistrate of Tarentum who had been guilty of a dangerous omission in +the public prayers, and an Acarnanian who had been guilty of settling in +one of the Echinades.(201) A spy glides into the cells, to listen to the +prisoners' talk, and is merely regaled by Apollonius with a description of +the wonders he has seen in his wanderings. When we are admitted to the +secret tribunal on the Palatine, after Domitian has paid his devotion to +Athene, we have before us a cruel, stealthy despot, as timid as he is +brutally truculent. In spite of all scepticism about Philostratus, we are +there at the heart of the Terror. + +Compared with this base espionage, even the trade of the delator becomes +almost respectable. Like everything in Roman social organisation, delation +had a long history, too long to be developed within the space of this +work. The work of impeachment, which might be wholesome and necessary +under the Republic, in exposing the enormities of provincial government, +became the curse of the Empire. The laws of Augustus for the restoration +of social morality gave the first chance to the professional delator. The +jealous, secretive rule of Tiberius welcomed such sinister support,(202) +and although the dark, tortuous policy of the recluse of Capreae might +punish the excess of zeal in the informers, it was also ready to reward +them for opportune displays of energy.(203) The open and daring tyranny of +Caligula and Nero often dispensed with the hypocrisy of judicial forms of +assassination. It was reserved for the last Flavian to revive the methods +of Tiberius.(204) Domitian was at once timid and cruel. He was also a +pedant who concealed from himself his own baseness by a scrupulous +devotion to ancient forms even in religion. The obscene libertine, who +chose the Virgin Goddess as his patroness,(205) could easily make the +forms of old Roman justice a cloak for confiscation and massacre. In +theory the voluntary accuser, without a commission from authority, was a +discredited person. And successive emperors punished or frowned upon the +delators of a previous reign.(206) Yet the profession grew in reputation +and emolument. It is a melancholy proof of the degradation of that society +that the delator could be proud of his craft and even envied and admired. +Men of every degree, freedmen, schoolmasters, petty traders, descendants +of houses as old as the Republic, men from the rank of the shoemaker +Vatinius(207) to a Scaurus, a Cato, or a Regulus, flocked to a trade which +might earn a fabulous fortune and the favour of the prince. There must +have been many a career like that of Palfurius Sura, who had fought in the +arena in the reign of Nero, who had been disgraced and stripped of his +consular rank under Vespasian, who then turned Stoic and preached the +gospel of popular government, and, in the reign of Domitian, crowned his +career by becoming a delator, and attempting to found a juristic theory of +absolute monarchy.(208) + +The system of Roman education, which was profoundly rhetorical, became a +hot-bed of this venal oratory. It nourished its pupils on the masterpieces +of free speech; it inflamed their imaginations with dreams of rhetorical +triumph. When they went forth into the world of the Empire, they found the +only arena for displaying their powers to be the dull court of the +Centumviri, or the hired lecture hall, where they might dilate on some +frigid or silly theme before a weary audience. It was a tempting +excitement to exert the arts learnt in the school of Quintilian in a real +onslaught, where the life or liberty of the accused was at stake. And the +greatest orators of the past had never offered to them such a splendid +material reward. One fourth of the estate of the condemned man had been +the old legal fee of the accuser.(209) But this limit was left far behind +in the judicial plunder of the early Caesars. Probably in no other way +could a man then so easily make himself a millionaire. The leading +accusers of Thrasea and Soranus in the reign of Nero received each L42,000 +as their reward.(210) These notorious delators, Eprius Marcellus and +Vibius Crispus, accumulated gains reaching, in the end, the enormous +amount of L2,400,000. The famous, or infamous, Regulus, after the most +prodigal expenditure, left a fortune of half a million.(211) His career is +a striking example of the arts by which, in a debased society, men may +rise to fortune, and the readiness with which such a society will always +forgive anything to daring and success. Sprung from an illustrious but +ruined race,(212) Regulus possessed shameless audacity and ruthless +ambition,(213) which were more valuable than birth and fortune. He had +every physical defect for a speaker, yet he made himself an orator, with a +weird power of strangling his victims.(214) He was poor, but he resolved +to be wealthy, and he reached the fortune which he proposed to himself as +his goal. He was vain, cruel, and insolent, a slave of superstition,(215) +stained with many a perfidious crime. He was a peculiarly skilful and +perfectly shameless adept in the arts of captation.(216) Yet this cynical +agent of judicial murder, who began his career in the reign of Nero, lived +on in peace and wealth into the reign of Trajan. He even enjoyed a certain +consideration in society.(217) The humane and refined Pliny at once +detested and tolerated him. The morning receptions of Regulus, in his +distant gardens on the Tiber, were thronged by a fashionable crowd. + +The inner secret of the imperial Terror will probably always perplex the +historian. The solution of the question depends, not only on the value +which is to be attached to our authorities, but on the prepossessions and +prejudices which are brought to their interpretation. To one critic +Tacitus, although liable to the faults which spring from rhetorical +training and fervid temperament, seems fairly impartial and +trustworthy.(218) Another treats the great historian as essentially a +partisan who derived his materials from the memoirs and traditions of a +class inflamed with reactionary dreams and saturated with a hatred of +monarchy.(219) Some regard the tragedy of the early Empire as the result +of a real peril from a senatorial conspiracy which perpetually surrounded +the emperor. Others trace it to the diseased brains of princes, giddy with +the sense of omnipotence, and often unstrung by vicious excesses, natures +at once timorous and arrogant, anticipating danger by a maniacal cruelty +which ended in creating the peril that they feared. Is it not possible +that there may be truth in both theories? It may be admitted that there +probably was never a powerful opposition, with a definitely conceived +purpose of overthrowing the imperial system, as it had been organised by +Augustus, and of restoring the republican rule of the Senate. It may be +admitted that, while so many of the first twelve Caesars died a violent +death, the violence was used to rid the world of a monster, and not to +remodel a constitution; it was the emperor, not the Empire, that was +hated. Yet these admissions need to be qualified by some reservations. The +effect of the rhetorical character of Roman education in moulding the +temper and ideals of the upper classes, down to the very end of the +Western Empire, has hardly yet been fully recognised. It petrified +literature by the slavish imitation of unapproachable models. It also +glorified the great ages of freedom and republican government; it exalted +Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Brutus and Cassius, to a moral height which +might suggest to generous youth the duty or the glory of imitating them. +When a rhetor's class, in the reign of Caligula or of Nero, applauded the +fall of a historic despot, is it not possible that some may have applied +the lesson to the reigning emperor? Although it is evident that +philosophic debates on the three forms of government were not unknown, yet +probably few ever seriously thought of a restoration of the republic. None +but a maniac would have entrusted the nerveless, sensual mob of Rome with +the destinies of the world. As a matter of fact, the mob themselves very +much preferred the rule of a lavish despot, who would cater for their +pleasures.(220) But the Senate was still a name of power. In the three or +four generations which had passed since the death of the first Caesar, men +had forgotten the weakness and perfidy which had made senatorial +government impossible. They thought of the Senate as the stubborn, haughty +caste which had foiled the strategy of Hannibal, which had achieved the +conquest of the world. The old families might have been more than +decimated; new men of doubtful origin might have filled their places.(221) +But ancient institutions possess a prestige and power which is often +independent of the men who work them. Men are governed largely through +imagination and mere names. Thus the Senate remained an imaginative symbol +of the glory of Roman power, down to the last years of the Western Empire. +The accomplished Symmachus cherishes the phantasm of its power under +Honorius. And although a Caligula or Nero might conceive a feverish hatred +of the assembly which they feared,(222) while they affected to despise it, +the better emperors generally made almost a parade of their respect for +the Senate.(223) The wisest princes had a feeling that, although they +might have at their back the devotion of the legions, and an immense +material force, still it was wiser to conciliate old Roman feeling by a +politic deference to a body which was surrounded by the aureole of +antiquity, which had such splendid traditions of conquest and +administration. + +The Senate was thus the only possible rival of the Emperor. The question +is, was the Senate ever a dangerous rival? The true answer seems to be +that the Senate was dangerous in theory, but not in fact. There can be +little doubt that, in the reigns of Caligula and Nero, there were men who +dreamed of a restored senatorial power.(224) It is equally certain that +the Senate was incapable of asserting it. Luxury, self-indulgence, and +conscription had done their work effectually. There were many pretenders +to the principate in the reign of Nero, and even some in the reign of +Vespasian.(225) But they had not a solid and determined Senate at their +back. The world, and even the Senate, were convinced that the Roman Empire +needed the administration of one man. How to get the one man was the +problem. Hereditary succession had placed only fools or monsters on the +throne. There remained the old principle of adoption. An emperor, feeling +that his end was approaching, might, with all his vast experience of the +government of a world, with all his knowledge of the senatorial class, +with no fear of offence in the presence of death,(226) designate one +worthy of the enormous charge. If such an one came to the principate, with +a generous desire to give the Senate a share of his burdens and his glory, +that was the highest ideal of the Empire, and that was the ideal which +perhaps was approached in the Antonine age. Yet, outside the circle of +practical statesmen, there remained a class which was long irreconcilable. +It has been recently maintained with great force that the Stoic opposition +was only the opposition of a moral ideal, not the deliberate propaganda of +a political creed.(227) This may be true of some of the philosophers: it +is certainly not true of all. Thrasea was a genial man of the world, whose +severest censure expressed itself in silence and absence from the +Senate,(228) who could even, on occasion, speak with deference of Nero. +But his son-in-law, Helvidius Priscus, seemed to exult in flouting and +insulting a great and worthy emperor such as Vespasian.(229) And the life +of Apollonius by Philostratus leaves the distinct impression that +philosophy, in the reign of Nero and Domitian, was a revolutionary force. +Apollonius, it is true, is represented by Philostratus as supporting the +cause of monarchy in a debate in the presence of Vespasian.(230) But he +boasted of having been privy to conspiracies against Nero,(231) and he was +deeply involved with Nerva and Orfitus in a plot against Domitian.(232) He +was summoned before the secret tribunal to answer for speeches against the +emperor delivered to crowds at Ephesus.(233) It may be admitted that the +invective or scorn of philosophy was aimed at unworthy princes, rather +than at the foundations of their power. Yet Dion Cassius evidently regards +Helvidius Priscus as a turbulent agitator with dangerous democratic +ideals,(234) and he contrasts his violence with the studied moderation, +combined with dignified reserve, displayed by Thrasea in the reign of +Nero. The tolerant Vespasian, who bore so long the wanton insults of the +philosophers, must have come at length to think them not only an offence +but a real danger when he banished them. In the first century there can be +little doubt that there were members of the philosophic class who +condemned monarchy, not only as a moral danger, but as a lamentable +aberration from the traditions of republican freedom. There were probably +some, who, if the chance had offered itself, might even have ventured on a +republican reaction. + +With a gloomy recognition of the realities of life, Domitian used to say +that conspiracy against an emperor was never believed till the emperor was +killed.(235) Of the first twelve Caesars seven died a violent death. Every +emperor from Tiberius to M. Aurelius was the mark of conspiracy. This was +often provoked by the detestable character of the prince. But it sometimes +sprang from other causes than moral disgust. The mild rule of Vespasian +was generally popular; yet even he had to repel the conspiracy of Aelianus +and Marcellus.(236) The blameless Nerva, the emperor after the Senate's +own heart, was twice assailed by risings organised by great nobles of +historic name.(237) The conspiracy of Nigrinus against Hadrian received +formidable support, and had to be sternly crushed.(238) M. Aurelius had to +endure with sad resignation the open rebellion of Avidius Cassius.(239) +The better emperors, strong in their character and the general justice of +their administration, might afford to treat such opposition with +comparative calmness. But it was different in the case of a Nero or a +Domitian. The conspiracy of Piso and the conspiracy of Saturninus formed, +in each case, a climax and a turning-point. Springing from real and +justified impatience, they were ruthlessly crushed and followed up with a +cruel and suspicious repression which only increased the danger of the +despot. "Scelera sceleribus tuenda" sums up the awful tale, in the words +of Tacitus, "of the wrath of God and the madness of men." + +There were many causes which rendered the tragedy of the early Empire +inevitable. Probably the most potent was the undefined position of the +prince and the dreams of republican power and freedom which for ages were +cherished by the Senate. Carefully disguised under ancient forms, the +principate of Augustus was really omnipotent, through the possession of +the proconsular imperium in the provinces, and the tribunician prerogative +at home.(240) In the last resort there was no legal means of challenging +the man who controlled the legions, nominated the magistrates, and +manipulated a vast treasury at his pleasure. The fiction of Augustus, that +he had restored the Republic to the hands of the Senate and people, is +unlikely to have deceived his own astute intellect.(241) The hand which, +of its grace could restore the _simulacra libertatis_, might as easily +withdraw them. The Comitia lost even the shadow of constitutional power in +the following reign.(242) Henceforth the people is the army.(243) The +holders of the great republican magistracies are mere creatures of the +prince and obedient ministers of his power. The Senate alone retained some +vestiges of its old power, and still larger pretensions and antiquarian +claims. In theory, during a vacancy in the principate, the Senate was the +ultimate seat of authority, and the new emperor received his prerogatives +by a decree of the Senate. In the work of legislation, its decisions +divided the field with the edicts of the prince,(244) and it claimed a +parallel judicial power. But all this was really illusory. The working of +such a system manifestly depends on the character and ideas of the man who +for the time wields the material force of the Empire. And "the share of +the Senate in the government was in fact determined by the amount of +administrative activity which each emperor saw fit to allow it to +exercise."(245) + +The half-insane Caligula had really a clearer vision of the emperor's +position than the reactionary dreamers, when he told his grandmother +Antonia, "_Memento omnia mihi in omnes licere_."(246) He did not need the +lessons of Agrippa and Antiochus to teach him the secret of tyranny.(247) +Yet institutions can never be separated from the moral and social forces +which lie behind and around them. The emperor had to depend on agents and +advisers, many of them of social rank and family traditions equal to his +own. He had by his side a Senate with a history of immemorial antiquity +and glory, which cast a spell on the conservative imagination of a race +which recoiled from any impiety to the past. Above all, he was surrounded +by a populace which took its revenge for the loss of its free Comitia by a +surprising licence of lampoon and epigram and mordant gossip and clamorous +appeal in the circus and theatre.(248) And even the soldiers, who were the +sworn supporters of the prince, and who often represented better than any +other class the tone of old Roman gravity and manly virtue, could +sometimes make their Imperator feel that there was in reserve a power +which he could not safely defy. Hence it was that, with the changing +character of the prince, the imperial power might pass into a lawless +tyranny, only to be checked by assassination, while again it might veil +its forces under constitutional forms, adopt the watchwords of the +Republic, exalt the Senate to a place beside the throne, and make even +accomplished statesmen fancy for the time that the days of ancient liberty +had returned. + +Such a dream, not altogether visionary, floated before Pliny's mind when +he delivered his _Panegyric_ in the presence of Trajan. That speech is at +once an act of thanksgiving and a manifesto of the Senate. The tone of +fulsome extravagance is excused by the joy at escaping from a treacherous +tyranny, which drove virtue into remote retreat, which made friendship +impossible, which poisoned the security of household life by a continual +fear of espionage.(249) The confidence which Pliny expresses in the +majestic strength, mingled with modesty and self-restraint, which Trajan +brought to the task of the principate, was amply justified. The +overwhelming force of the emperor seemed, in the new age, to pass into the +freely accepted rule of the great citizen.(250) Pliny indeed does not +conceal from himself the immense actual power of the emperor. He is the +vicegerent of God, an earthly Providence.(251) His power is not less than +Nero's or Domitian's, but it is a power no longer wielded wildly by +selfish or cruel self-will; it is a power inspired by benevolence, +voluntarily submitting itself to the restraints of law and ancient +sentiment.(252) Founded on service and virtue, it can fearlessly claim the +loving support of the citizens, while it recalls the freedom of the old +Republic. A prince who is hedged by the devotion of his people may +dispense with the horde of spies and informers, who have driven virtue +into banishment and made a crowd of sneaks and cowards. Free speech has +been restored. The Senate, which has so long been expected to applaud with +grovelling flattery the most trivial or the most flagitious acts of the +emperor, is summoned to a share in the serious work of government.(253) A +community of interest and feeling secures to it a free voice in his +counsels, without derogating from his dignity.(254) All this is expressed +by a scrupulous observance of old republican forms. The commander of +conquering legions, the Caesar, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, has actually +condescended to take the oath of office, standing before the consul seated +in his chair!(255) Here we seem to have the key to the senatorial +position. They were ready to recognise the overwhelming power of the +prince, if he, for his part, would only respect in form, if not in +substance, the ancient dignity of the Senate. Tolerance, affability, +politic deference to a great name, seemed to Pliny and his kind a +restoration of the ancient freedom, almost a revival of the old Republic. +Fortunately for the world a succession of wise princes perceived that, by +deference to the pride of the Senate, they could secure the peace of their +administration, without diminishing its effective power. + +Yet, even from Pliny's _Panegyric_, we can see that the recognition of the +prerogatives, or rather of the dignity, of the Senate, the coexistence of +old republican forms side by side with imperial power, depended entirely +on the grace and tolerance of the master of the legions. Nothing could be +more curious than Pliny's assertion of the senatorial claims, combined +with the most effusive gratitude to Trajan for conceding them. The emperor +is only _primus inter pares_, and yet Pliny, by the whole tone of his +speech, admits that he is the master who may equally indulge the +constitutional claims or superstitions of his subjects or trample on them. +In the first century a power, the extent of which depended only on the +will of the prince, and yet seemed limited by shadowy claims of ancient +tradition, was liable to be distrustful of itself and to be challenged by +pretenders. In actual fact, the prince was so powerful that he might +easily pass into a despot; in theory he was only the first of Roman +nobles, who might easily have rivals among his own class. Pliny +congratulates Trajan on having, by his mildness and justice, escaped the +terror of pretenders which haunted the earlier emperors, and was often +justified and cruelly avenged.(256) In spite of the lavish splendour of +Nero or Caligula, the imperial household, till Hadrian's reorganisation, +was still modelled on the lines of other great aristocratic houses. Nero's +suspicions were more than once excited by the scale of establishments like +that of the Silani, by wealth and display like Seneca's, by the lustre of +great historic traditions in a gens like the Calpurnian.(257) The loyalty +of Corbulo could not save him from the jealousy aroused by his exploits in +eastern war.(258) And the power of great provincial governors, in command +of great armies, and administering realms such as Gaul or Spain or Syria, +was not an altogether imaginary danger. If Domitian seemed distrustful of +Agricola in Britain, we must remember that he had in his youth seen Galba +and Vindex marching on Rome, and his father concentrating the forces of +the East for the overthrow of Vitellius in the great struggle on the Po. + +The emperor's fears and suspicions were immensely aggravated by the adepts +in the dark arts of the East. The astrologers were a great and baneful +power in the early Empire. They inspired illicit ambitions, or they +stimulated them, and they often suggested to a timorous prince the danger +of conspiracy. These venal impostors, in the words of Tacitus, were always +being banished, but they always returned. For the men who drove them into +temporary exile had the firmest faith in their skill. The prince would +have liked to keep a monopoly of it, while he withdrew from his nobles the +temptation which might be offered to their ambition by the mercenary +adept.(259) Dion Cassius and Suetonius, who were themselves eager +believers in this superstition, never fail to record the influence of the +diviners. The reign of Tiberius is full of dark tales about them.(260) +Claudius drove Scribonianus into exile for consulting an astrologer about +the term of his reign.(261) On the appearance of a flaming comet, Nero was +warned by his diviner, Bilbilus, that a portent, which always boded ill to +kings, might be expiated by the blood of their nobles.(262) Otho's +astrologer, Seleucus, who had promised that he should survive Nero,(263) +stimulated his ambition to be the successor of Galba. Vitellius, as +superstitious as Nero or Otho, cruelly persecuted the soothsayers and +ordered their expulsion from Italy.(264) He was defied by a mocking edict +of the tribe, ordaining his own departure from earth by a certain +day.(265) Vespasian once more banished the diviners from Rome, but, +obedient to the superstition which cradled the power of his dynasty, he +retained the most skilful for his own guidance.(266) The terror of +Domitian's last days was heightened by a horoscope, which long before had +foretold the time and manner of his end.(267) Holding such a faith as +this, it is little wonder that the emperors should dread its effect on +rivals who were equally credulous, or that superstition, working on +ambitious hopes, should have been the nurse of treason. Thus the emperor's +uncertain position made him ready to suspect and anticipate a treachery +which may often have had no existence. The objects of his fears in their +turn were driven into conspiracy, sometimes in self-defence, sometimes +from the wish to seize a prize which seemed not beyond their grasp. +Gossip, lampoon, and epigram redoubled suspicion, while they retaliated +offences. And cruel repression either increased the danger of revolt in +the more daring, or the degradation of the more timorous. + +In the eyes of Tacitus, the most terrible result of the tyranny of the bad +emperors was the fawning servility of a once proud order, and their craven +treachery in the hour of danger. He has painted it with all the +concentrated power of loathing and pity. It is this almost personal +degradation which inspires the ruthless, yet haughtily restrained, force +with which he blasts for ever the memory of the Julio-Claudian despotism. +It was in this spirit that he penned the opening chapters of his chronicle +of the physical and moral horrors of the year in which that tyranny +closed. The voice of history has been silenced or perverted, partly by the +ignorance of public affairs, partly by the eagerness of adulation, or the +bitterness of hatred. It was an age darkened by external disasters, save +on the eastern frontier, by seditions and civil war, and the bloody death +of four princes. The forces of nature seemed to unite with the rage of men +to deepen the universal tragedy. Italy was overwhelmed with calamities +which had been unknown for many ages; Campania's fairest cities were +swallowed up; Rome itself had been wasted by fire; the ancient Capitol was +given to the flames by the hands of citizens. Polluted altars, adultery in +high places, the islands of the sea crowded with exiles, rank and wealth +and virtue made the mark for a cruel jealousy, all this forms an awful +picture.(268) But even more repulsive is the spectacle of treachery +rewarded with the highest place, slaves and clients betraying their master +for gain, and men without an enemy ruined by their friends. When the +spotless Octavia, overwhelmed by the foulest calumnies, had been tortured +to death, to satisfy the jealousy of an adulteress, offerings were voted +to the temples.(269) And Tacitus grimly requests his readers to presume +that, as often as a banishment or execution was ordered by Nero, so often +were thanksgivings offered to the gods. The horrors of Nero's remorse for +the murder of Agrippina were soothed by the flatteries and congratulations +of his staff, and the grateful sacrifices which were offered for his +deliverance by the Campanian towns.(270) Still, the notes of a funereal +trumpet and ghostly wailings from his mother's grave were ever in his +ears,(271) and he long doubted the reception which he might meet with on +his return to the capital. He need not have had any anxiety. Senate and +people vied with one another in self-abasement. He was welcomed by all +ranks and ages with fawning enthusiasm as he passed along in triumphal +progress to return thanks on the Capitol for the success of an unnatural +crime. + +The Pisonian conspiracy against Nero was undoubtedly an important and +serious event. Some of the greatest names of the Roman aristocracy were +involved in it, and the man whom it would have placed on the throne, if +not altogether untainted by the excesses of his time, had some imposing +qualities which might make him seem a worthy competitor for the +principate.(272) But, to Tacitus, the conspiracy seems to be chiefly +interesting as a damning proof of the degradation of the aristocracy under +the reign of terror. Epicharis, the poor freedwoman of light character, +who bore the accumulating torture of scourge and rack and fire, and the +dislocation of every limb, is brought into pathetic contrast with the +high-born senators and knights, who, without any compulsion of torture, +betrayed their relatives and friends.(273) Scaevinus, a man of the highest +rank, knowing himself betrayed by his freedman and a Roman knight, +revealed the whole plot.(274) The poet Lucan tried in vain to purchase +safety by involving his own mother. But Nero was inexorable, and the poet +died worthily, reciting some verses from the _Pharsalia_, which describe a +similar end.(275) The scenes which followed the massacre are an awful +revelation of cowardly sycophancy. While the streets were thronged with +the funerals of the victims, the altars on the Capitol were smoking with +sacrifices of gratitude. One craven after another, when he heard of the +murder of a brother or a dear friend, would deck his house with laurels, +and, falling at the emperor's feet, cover his hand with kisses.(276) The +Senate prostrated themselves before Nero when, stung by the popular +indignation, he appeared to justify his deed. The august body voted him +thanksgivings and honours.(277) The consul elect, one of the Anician +house, proposed that a temple should be built with all speed to the divine +Nero! Tacitus relieves this ghastly spectacle of effeminate cowardice by a +scene which is probably intended, by way of contrast, to save the +tradition of Roman dignity. Vestinus, the consul of that fatal year, had +been a boon companion of the emperor, and had shown contempt for his +cowardice in dangerous banter. Nero was eager to find him implicated in +the plot, but no evidence of his guilt could be obtained. All legal forms +at length were flung aside, and a cohort was ordered to surround his +house. Vestinus was at dinner in his palace which towered over the Forum, +surrounded by guests, with a train of handsome slaves in waiting, when he +received the mandate. He rose at once from table, and shut himself in his +chamber with his physician, lancet in hand, by his side. His veins were +opened, and, without a word of self-pity, Vestinus allowed his life to ebb +away in the bath.(278) + +Vestinus, after all, only asserted, in the fashion of the time, his right +to choose the manner of a death which could not be evaded. But Tacitus, +here and there, gives glimpses of self-sacrifice, courageous loyalty and +humanity, which save his picture of society from utter gloom. The love and +devotion of women shine out more brightly than ever against the background +of baseness. Tender women follow their husbands or brothers into exile, or +are found ready to share their death.(279) Even the slave girls of Octavia +brave torture and death in their hardy defence of her fair fame.(280) +There is no more pathetic story of female heroism than that of Politta, +the daughter of L. Vetus. He had been colleague of the emperor in the +consulship, but he had the misfortune to be father-in-law of Rubellius +Plautus, whose lofty descent and popularity drew down the sentence of +death, even in distant exile.(281) Politta had clasped the bleeding neck +of Plautus in her arms, and nursed her sorrow in an austere +widowhood.(282) She now besieged the doors of Nero with prayers, and even +menaces, for her father's acquittal. Vetus himself was of the nobler sort +of Roman men, who even then were not extinct. When he was advised, in +order to save the remnant of his property for his grandchildren, to make +the emperor chief heir, he spurned the servile proposal, divided his ready +money among his slaves, and prepared for the end.(283) When all hope was +abandoned, father, grandmother, and daughter opened their veins and died +together in the bath. Plautius Lateranus met his end with the same stern +dignity. Forbidden even to give a last embrace to his children, and +dragged to the scene of servile executions, he died in silence by the hand +of a man who was an undiscovered partner in the plot.(284) Even the mob of +Rome, for whose fickle baseness Tacitus has a profound scorn, now and then +reveal a wholesome moral feeling. When Octavia, on a trumped-up charge of +adultery, was divorced and banished by Nero, the clamour of the populace +forced him to recall her for a time, and the mob went so far in their +virtuous enthusiasm as to overthrow the statues of the adulteress Poppaea, +and crown the images of Octavia with flowers.(285) Perhaps even more +striking is the humane feeling displayed towards the slaves of the urban +prefect, Pedanius Secundus. He had been murdered by a slave, and the +ancient law required, in such a case, the execution of the whole +household. The proposal to carry out the cruel custom drove the populace +almost to revolt. And it is a relief to find that a strong minority of the +Senate were on the side of humanity.(286) But the army, above all other +classes, still bred a rough, honest virtue. It was left, amid the general +effeminate cowardice, for a tribune of a pretorian cohort to tell Nero to +his face that he loathed him as a murderer and an incendiary.(287) Again +and again, in that terrible year, when great nobles were flattering the +Emperor, whom in a few days or hours they meant to desert, the common +soldiers remained true to the death of their unworthy chiefs. When Otho +redeemed a tainted life by a not ignoble end, the pretorians kissed his +wounds, bore him with tears to burial, and many killed themselves over his +corpse.(288) In the storming of the pretorian camp by the troops of +Vespasian, the soldiers of Vitellius, outnumbered and doomed to certain +defeat, fell to a man with all their wounds in front.(289) + +To these faithful, though often bloodthirsty, warriors the senators and +knights of those days offered a contemptible contrast. Often the +inheritors of great names and great traditions, the mass of them knew +nothing of arms or the military virtue of their ancestors.(290) Sunk in +sloth and enervated by excess, they followed Otho to the battlefield on +the Po with their cooks and minions and all the apparatus of luxury.(291) +In the rapid changes of fortune, from Galba to Otho, from Otho to +Vitellius, from Vitellius to Vespasian, the great nobles had one guiding +principle, the determination to be on the winning side. It was indeed a +puzzling and anxious time for a calculating selfishness, when a reign +might not last for a month, and when the adulation of Otho or Vitellius in +the Senate-house was disturbed by the sound of the legions advancing from +East and West. But the supple cowards of the Senate proved equal to the +strain. They had the skill to flatter their momentary master without any +compromising word against his probable successor. They soothed the +anxieties of Vitellius with unstinted adulation, yet carefully refrained +from anything reflecting on the Flavianist leaders.(292) Within a few +months, full of joy and hope, which were now at last well founded, they +were voting all the customary honours of a new principate to +Vespasian.(293) The terror of Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero had done its +work effectually. And its worst result was the hopeless self-abandonment +and sluggish cowardice of a class, whose chief _raison d'etre_ in every +age is to maintain a tradition of gallant dignity. It is true that many of +the scions of great houses were mere mendicants, ruined by confiscation or +prodigality, and compelled to live on the pension by which the emperor +kept them in shameful dependence,(294) or on the meaner dole of some +wealthy patron.(295) A Valerius Messala, grandson of the great Corvinus, +had to accept a pension from Nero.(296) A grandson of Hortensius had to +endure the contempt of Tiberius in obtaining a grant for his sons.(297) +Others were unmanned by the voluptuous excesses of an age which had +carried the ingenuity of sensual allurement to its utmost limits. The +hopelessness of any struggle with a power so vast as that of the emperor, +so ruthless and wildly capricious as that of the Claudian Caesars, reduced +many to despairing apathy.(298) And while, from a safe historic distance, +we pour our contempt on the cringing Senate of the first century, it might +be well to remind ourselves of their perils and their tortures. There was +many a senatorial house, like that of the Pisos, whose leading members +were never allowed to reach middle age.(299) Much should be forgiven to a +class which was daily and hourly exposed to such danger, so sudden in its +onsets, so secret and stealthy, so all-pervading. It might come in an open +circumstantial indictment, with all the forms of law and the weight of +suborned testimony; it might appear in a quiet order for suicide; the +stroke might descend at the farthest limits of the Empire,(300) in some +retreat in Spain or Asia. The haunting fear of death had an unnerving +effect. But not less degrading were the outrages to Roman, or ordinary +human dignity to which the noble order had to submit for more than a +generation. They had seen their wives defiled or compelled to expose +themselves as harlots in a foul spectacle, to gratify the diseased +prurience of the emperor.(301) They had been forced to fight in the arena +or to exhibit themselves on the tragic stage.(302) Men who had borne the +ancient honours of the consulship had been ordered to run for miles beside +the chariot of Caligula, or to wait at his feet at dinner.(303) Fathers +had had to witness without flinching the execution of their sons, and +drink smilingly to the emperor on the evening of the fatal day.(304) The +only safety at such a court lay in calmly accepting insults with affected +gratitude. The example of Nero's debauchery, and the seductive charm which +he undoubtedly possessed, were probably as enfeebling and demoralising as +the Terror. He formed a school, which laughed at all virtue and made +self-indulgence a fine art. Men who had shared in these obscene revels +were the leaders in the awful scenes of perfidy, lust, and cruelty which +appropriately followed the death of their patron.(305) Some of them, +Petronius, Otho, Vitellius, closed their career appropriately by a tragic +death. But others lived on into the age of reformation, to defame the +stout Sabine soldier who saved the Roman world.(306) + +In spite of the manly virtue and public spirit of Vespasian, the Roman +world had to endure a fierce ordeal before it entered on the peace of the +Antonine age. Even Vespasian's reign was troubled by conspiracy.(307) His +obscure origin moved the contempt of the great senatorial houses who still +survived. His republican moderation gave the philosophic doctrinaires a +chance of airing their impossible dream of restoring a municipal Republic +to govern a world. His conscientious frugality, which was absolutely +needed to retrieve the bankruptcy of the Neronian regime, was despised and +execrated both by the nobles and the mob. Another lesson was needed both +by the Senate and the philosophers. Society had yet to be purged as by +fire, and the purging came with the accession of Domitian. + +The inner secret of that sombre reign will probably remain for ever a +mystery. There is the same question about Domitian as there is about +Tiberius. Was he bad from the beginning, or was he gradually corrupted by +the consciousness of immense power,(308) and the fear of the great order +who might challenge it? Our authorities do not furnish a satisfying +answer. We know Domitian only from the narrative of men steeped in +senatorial traditions and prejudices,(309) and, some of them, intoxicated +by the vision of a reconciliation of the principate with the republican +ideals. The dream was a noble one, and it was about to be partially +realised for three generations, under a succession of good emperors. But +the men inspired with such an ideal were not likely to be impartial judges +of an emperor like Domitian. And even from their narrative of his reign, +we can see that he was not, at least in the early years of his reign,(310) +the utter monster he has been painted. Even severe judges in modern days +admit that he was an able and strenuous man, with a clear, cold, cynical +intellect,(311) which recognised some of the great problems of the time, +and strove to solve them. He was indefatigable in judicial work.(312) In +spite of the sneers at his mock triumphs,(313) his military and provincial +administration was probably guided by a sound conception of the resources +and the dangers of the Empire. His recall of Agricola, after a seven +years' command in Britain, was attributed to jealousy and fear.(314) It is +more probable that it was dictated by a wish to stop a campaign which was +diverting large sums to the conquest of barren mountains. Domitian was an +orator and verse writer of some merit, and he gave his patronage, although +not in a very liberal way, to men like Quintilian, Statius, and +Martial.(315) Like Nero, he felt the force of the new Hellenist movement, +and, under forms sanctioned by Roman antiquarians, he established a +quinquennial festival in which literary genius was pompously +rewarded.(316) He had the public libraries, which had been devastated by +fires in the previous reigns, liberally restocked with fresh stores of +MSS. from Alexandria.(317) He gave close attention, whatever we may think +of his science, to the economic problems of the Empire. And his +discouragement of the vine, in favour of a greater acreage of corn, would +find sympathy in our own time, as it was applauded by Apollonius of +Tyana.(318) The man who decimated the Roman aristocracy towards the end of +his reign, advanced to high positions some of those who were destined to +be his bitterest defamers. Pliny and Tacitus and Trajan's father rose to +high office in the earlier part of Domitian's reign.(319) He designated to +the consulship such men as Nerva, Trajan, Verginius Rufus, Agricola, and +the grandfather of Antoninus Pius.(320) This strange character was also a +moral reformer of the antiquarian type. He punished erring Vestals, _more +majorum_. He revived the Scantinian law against those enormities of the +East, of which Statius shows that the emperor was not guiltless +himself.(321) Yet a voluptuary, with a calm outlook on his time, may have +a wish to restrain vices with which he is himself tainted. A statesman may +be a puritan reformer, both in religion and morals, without being +personally severe and devout. Domitian may have had a genuine, if a +pedantic, desire to restore the old Roman tone in morals and religion. He +was, after all, sprung from a sober Sabine stock,(322) although he may +have sadly degenerated from it in his own conduct. And his attempt to +reform Roman society may perhaps have been as sincere as that of Augustus. + +But there can be little doubt that Domitian, although he was astute and +able, was also a bad man, with the peculiar traits which always make a man +unpopular. He was disloyal as a son and as a brother. He was morose, and +he cultivated a suspicious solitude,(323) around which evil rumour is sure +to gather. The rumour in his case may have been well-founded, although we +are not bound to believe all the tales of prurient gossip which Suetonius +has handed down. It is the penalty of high place that peccadilloes are +magnified into sins, and sins are multiplied and exaggerated. It was a +recognised and effective mode of flattering a new emperor to blacken the +character of his predecessors; Domitian himself allowed his court poets to +vilify Caligula and Nero.(324) And Pliny in his fulsome adulation of +Trajan, finds his most effective resource in a perpetual contrast with +Domitian. Tacitus could never forgive the recall and humiliation of his +father-in-law. The Senate as a whole bore an implacable hatred to the man +who carried to its furthest point the assertion of imperial +prerogative.(325) Still the authorities are so unanimous that we are bound +to believe that Domitian, with some strength and ability, had many +execrable qualities. He shows the contradictions of a nature in which the +force of a sturdy rural ancestry has not been altogether sapped by the +temptations of luxury and power. He had a passionate desire to rival the +military glory of his father and brother, yet he was too cautious and +self-indulgent to attain it. He had some taste for literature, but he kept +literature in leading-strings, and put one man to death for his delight in +certain speeches in Livy, and another for a too warm eulogy of Thrasea and +Helvidius Priscus.(326) He threw his whole strength into a moral and +religious reaction, while he was the bitterest enemy of the republican +pretensions and dreams of the Senate. Great historical critics have called +him a hypocrite.(327) It may be doubted whether any single phrase or +formula could express the truth about such a twisted and perverse +character. Probably his dominant passion was vanity and love of grandiose +display. He assumed the consulship seventeen times, a number quite +unexampled.(328) His pompous triumphs for unreal victories were a subject +of common jest. He filled the Capitol with images of himself, and a +colossal statue towered for a time over the temple roofs.(329) The son and +brother of emperors, already exalted to divine honours, he went farther +than any of his predecessors in claiming divinity for himself, and he +allowed his ministers and court poets to address him as "our Lord +God."(330) His lavish splendour in architecture was to some extent +justified by the ravages of fire in previous reigns. But the L2,400,000 +expended on the gilding of a temple on the Capitol,(331) was only one item +in an extravagance which drained the treasury. Its radiance, which dazzled +the eyes of Rutilius in the reign of Honorius,(332) was paid for in blood +and tears. The emperor, who was the ruthless enemy of the nobles, like all +his kind, was profusely indulgent to the army and the mob. The legions had +their pay increased by a fourth. The populace of Rome were pampered with +costly and vulgar spectacles,(333) as they were to the end of the Western +Empire. Domitian's indulgence of that fierce and obscene proletariat was +only a little more criminal than that of other emperors, because it ended +in a bankruptcy which was followed by robbery and massacre. While the rich +and noble were assailed on any trivial accusation, in order to fill an +empty treasury, the beasts of Numidia were tearing their victims, +gladiators were prostituting a noble courage in dealing inglorious wounds +in the arena, and fleets of armed galleys charged and crashed in mimic, +yet often deadly, battle in the flooded Flavian amphitheatre.(334) + +To repair this waste the only resource was plunder. But Domitian was a +pettifogger as well as a plunderer; he would fleece or assassinate his +victims under forms of law. The law of majesty, and the many laws for +restoring old Roman morality, needed only a little ingenuity and +effrontery to furnish lucrative grounds for impeachment.(335) The tribe of +delators were ready to his hand. He had punished them for serving Nero; +they were now to reap a richer harvest under Domitian. Every fortune which +rose above mediocrity, every villa with rich pastures and woodlands in the +Apennines, or on the northern lakes, was marked for plunder.(336) Domitian +was the first and only emperor who assumed the censorship for life.(337) +The office made him absolute master of the lives and fortunes of his +nobles. A casual word, a thoughtless gesture, might be construed into an +act of treason; and the slave households furnished an army of spies. Nay, +even kindred and near friends were drawn into this vast conspiracy against +domestic peace and security. It may be admitted that Domitian had to face +a real peril. The rebellion of Antonius Saturninus was an attempt which no +prince could treat lightly, and the destruction of the correspondence in +which so many men of rank were involved, may well have heightened +Domitian's alarm.(338) He struck out blindly and savagely. He compelled +the Senate to bear a part in the massacre, and Tacitus has confessed, with +pathetic humiliation, his silent share in the murder of the upright and +innocent.(339) Yet the imperial inquisitor was himself racked with terror +in his last hours. He walked in a corridor where the walls were lined with +mirrors,(340) so that no unseen hand might strike him from behind. On his +last morning he started in terror from his bed and called for the diviner +whom he had summoned from Germany.(341) But, amid all his terror, Domitian +had a deep natural love of cruelty. He was never more dangerous than when +he chose to be agreeable;(342) he loved to play with his victims. What a +grim delight in exquisite torture, what a cynical contempt for the Roman +nobles, are revealed in the tale of his funereal banquet!(343) The select +company were ushered into a chamber draped from floor to ceiling in black. +At the head of each couch stood a pillar like a tombstone, with the +guest's name engraved upon it, while overhead swung a cresset such as men +hang in vaults of the dead. A troop of naked boys, black as all around, +danced an awful measure, and then set on the dismal meal which was +offered, by old Roman use, to the spirits of the departed. The guests were +palsied with terror, expecting every moment to be their last. And the +death-like silence was only broken by the voice of the Emperor as he told +a gruesome tale of bloody deaths. In such cynicism of lawless power, in +such meek degradation of a once proud order, did the tyranny of the first +century reach its close. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + + THE WORLD OF THE SATIRIST + + +Juvenal and Tacitus, although they moved in different circles and probably +never met, have much in common. Both were released from an ignominious +silence by the death of Domitian. Both were then at the age which combines +the ripeness of experience and reflection with a fire and energy still +unflagging.(344) They were, from different causes, both filled with hatred +and disgust for the vices of their time, and their experience had +engendered in both a pessimism which darkened their faith. Tacitus +belonged to the senatorial order who had held high office, and had seen +its ranks decimated and its dignity outraged under the tyranny. Juvenal +sprang from the lower middle class, which hated alike the degenerate noble +and the insolent _parvenu_ far more than it hated even a Domitian. Yet +both Juvenal and Tacitus are united in a passionate admiration for the old +Roman character. Their standards and ideals are drawn from the +half-mythical ages of the simple warriors and farmer-statesmen of the old +Republic. And their estimate of their time needs to be scrutinised in the +light both of their hatreds and of their ideals. + +The life of Juvenal is wrapt in obscurity, although nine lives of him are +extant.(345) Scholars are still at variance as to the date of his birth, +the date of many of his satires, and especially as to the time and +circumstances of his banishment, about which there is so uniform a +tradition. But, for our purpose, some facts are clear enough. Juvenal was +the son of a well-to-do freedman of Aquinum, and rose to the highest +magisterial office in his native town at some time of his career.(346) He +carefully hides his personal history from us; but we might gather from his +Satires that he belonged to the lower middle class,(347) that he was in +temper and tone an old plebeian of the times of the Republic, although +vividly touched by the ideas of a new morality which had been afloat for +more than two generations. But, like Tacitus, he has little sympathy with +the great philosophic movement which was working a silent revolution. He +had the rhetorical training of the time, with all its advantages and its +defects. And he is more a rhetorician than a poet. We can well believe the +report that his early literary enthusiasm found vent in declamation on +those mythical or frivolous themes which exercised the youth in the Roman +schools for many centuries. Although he was hardly a poor man(348) in the +sense in which Martial, his friend, was poor, yet he had stooped to bear +the ignominy and hardships of client dependence. He had hurried in rain +and storm in the early morning to receptions at great houses on the +Esquiline, through the squalor and noises and congested traffic of the +Suburra.(349) He had doubtless often been a guest at those "unequal +dinners," where the host, who was himself regaled with far-fetched +dainties and old crusted Alban or Setine wine, insulted his poorer friends +by offering them the cheapest vintage and the meanest fare.(350) He had +been compelled, as a matter of social duty, to sit through the recitation +of those ambitious and empty Theseids and Thebaids, with which the rich +amateur in literature in those days afflicted his long-suffering +friends.(351) He may have been often elbowed aside by some supple, clever +Greek, with versatile accomplishments and infinite audacity. He may have +been patronised or insulted by a millionaire _parvenu_, like the +Trimalchio of Petronius, tainted with the memories of a shameful +servitude. He saw new vulgar wealth everywhere triumphant, while the +stiff, yet, in many ways, wholesome conventionality of old Roman life was +defied and trampled upon by an aggressive vulgarity. In such a world there +was little room for the man whose wealth is in his genius, and who clings +to the traditions of ages which believed that men had a soul as well as a +body. A man like Juvenal, living in such a society, almost necessarily +becomes embittered. Like Johnson, in his Grub Street days, he will have +his hours when bitterness passes into self-abandonment, and he will sound +the depths of that world of corruption which in his better moods he +loathes. Some of the associates of Juvenal were of very doubtful position, +and more than doubtful morals;(352) and the warmth of some of his +realistic painting of dark sides of Roman life arouses the suspicion that +he may have at times forgotten his moral ideal. He certainly knows the +shameful secrets of Roman life almost as well as his friend Martial does. +But his knowledge, however gained, was turned to a very different purpose +from that which inspired Martial's brilliant prurience.(353) + +The Satires of Juvenal were probably not given to the world till after the +death of Domitian.(354) The date of the earliest is about 100 A.D., that +of the latest probably 127. Juvenal cautiously disguises his attacks on +his own time. He whets his sword against the sinners whose ashes have long +reposed beside the Flaminian and the Latin ways.(355) Very few of his +contemporaries appear in his pages,(356) and the scenery is often that of +the reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, or Nero. But his deepest and most vivid +impressions must have come to Juvenal in that period which has been +photographed with such minute exactness by Martial. And there is a +striking correspondence between the two writers, not only in many of the +characters whom they introduce, but in their pictures of the whole state +of morals and letters.(357) They both detested that frigid epic which +laboriously ploughed the sands of conventional legend, and they turned +with weariness from the old-world tales of Thebes or Argos to the real +tragedy or comedy of Roman life around them. Although they were friends +and companions, it is needless to assume any close partnership in their +studies. Starting with the same literary impulse, they deal to a large +extent with the same vices and follies, some of them peculiar to their own +age, others common to all ages of Rome, or even of the world of +civilisation. A long list might easily be compiled of their common stock +of subjects, and their common antipathies. In both writers we meet the +same grumbling of the needy client against insolent or niggardly patrons, +the complaints of the struggling man of letters about the extravagant +rewards of low vulgar impostors. Both are bored to death, like the patient +Pliny, by the readings of wealthy scribblers, or by tiresome pleadings in +the courts, measured by many a turn of the clepsydra. They feel an equal +disgust for the noise and squalor of the narrow streets, an equal love for +the peace and freshness and rough plenty of the country farm. In both may +be seen the scions of great houses reduced to mendicancy, ambitious +poverty betaking itself to every mean or disreputable device, the +legacy-hunter courting the childless rich with flattery or vicious +compliance. You will often encounter the sham philosopher, as you meet him +sixty years afterwards in the pages of Lucian, with his loud talk of +virtue and illustrious names, while his cloak covers all the vices of dog +and ape. Both deal rather ungently with the character of women,--their +intrigues with actors, gladiators, and slaves, their frequent divorces and +rapid succession of husbands, their general abandonment of antique +matronly reserve. Both have, in fact, with different motives, uncovered +the secret shame of the ancient world; and, more even than by that shame, +was their indignation moved by the great social revolution which was +confusing all ranks, and raising old slaves, cobblers, and auctioneers to +the benches of the knights. + +Yet with this resemblance in the subjects of their choice, there is the +widest difference between the two writers in their motive and mode of +treatment. Martial, of course, is not a moralist at all; the mere +suggestion excites a smile. He is a keen and joyous observer of the faults +and follies, the lights and shades, of a highly complex and artificial +society which is "getting over-ripe." In the power of mere objective +description and minute portraiture of social life, Martial is almost +unique. Through his verses, we know the society of Domitian as we know +hardly any other period of ancient society. But this very vividness and +truthfulness is chiefly due to the fact that Martial was almost without a +conscience. He was indeed personally, perhaps, not so bad as he is often +painted.(358) He knows and can appreciate a good woman;(359) he can love, +with the simplest, unsophisticated love, an innocent slave-child, the poor +little Erotion,(360) whom he has immortalised. He can honour a simple +manly character, free from guile and pretence.(361) He has a genuine, +exuberant love of the fresh joys of country life, sharpened, no doubt, by +the experience of the client's sordid slavery, amid the mingled poverty +and lavish splendour of the capital.(362) Where could one find a fresher, +prettier idyll than his picture of the farm of Faustinus, with its packed +granaries, and its cellars fragrant with the juice of many an old autumn +vintage, the peacock spreading his jewelled plumage, and the ring-dove +cooing overhead from the towers? The elegant slaves of the great house in +the city are having a holiday, and busy, under the bailiff's care, with +rural toils, or fishing in the stream. The tall daughters of the +neighbouring cottages bring in their well-stocked baskets to the villa, +and all gather joyously at evening to a plenteous meal.(363) Martial has, +moreover, one great virtue, which is a powerful antidote for many moral +faults, the love of the far-off home of his childhood, the rugged +Bilbilis, with its iron foundries near the sources of the Tagus, to which +he retreated from the crush and din of plebeian life at Rome, and where he +rests.(364) But when charity or justice has done its best for Martial, and +no scholar will repudiate the debt, it still remains true that he +represents, perhaps better than any other, that pagan world, naked and +unabashed, and feels no breath of inspiration from the great spiritual +movement which, in paganism itself, was setting towards an ideal of purity +and self-conquest. + +Juvenal, at least in his later work, reveals a moral standard and motive +apparently unknown to Martial.(365) It may be admitted, indeed, that +Juvenal did not always write under the same high impulse. He had the +rhetorician's love of fine, telling phrases, and startling effects. He had +a rare gift of realistic painting, and he exults in using it. He has also +burning within him an old plebeian pride which looked down at once on the +degenerate son of an ancient house, and on the _nouveaux riches_, whose +rise seemed to him the triumph of vulgar opulence without the restraint of +traditions or ideals. Conscious of great talents, with a character almost +fierce in its energy, he felt a burning hatred of a society which seemed +to value only material success, or those supple and doubtful arts which +could invent some fresh stimulus for exhausted appetite. In Juvenal a +great silent, sunken class, whom we hardly know otherwise than from the +inscriptions on their tombs,(366) finds for once a powerful voice and a +terrible avenger. But, along with this note of personal or class feeling, +there is in Juvenal a higher moral intuition, a vision of a higher life, +which had floated before some Roman minds long before his time,(367) and +which was destined to broaden into an accepted ideal. Juvenal, indeed, was +no philosopher, and he had, like Tacitus, all the old Roman distrust of +the theories of the schools.(368) He had probably little respect for such +teaching as Seneca's.(369) Yet in important points he and Seneca belong to +the same order of the elect. Although, perhaps, a less spotless character +than Tacitus, he is far more advanced and modern in his breadth of +sympathy and moral feeling. He feels acutely for the conquered provinces +which have been fleeced and despoiled of their wealth and artistic +treasures, and which are still exposed to the peculation and cruelty of +governors and their train.(370) He denounces, like Seneca, the contempt +and cruelty often shown to slaves. The man whose ideal seems often to be +drawn from the hard, stern warriors who crushed the Samnites and baffled +the genius of Hannibal, in his old age has come to glorify pity and +tenderness for suffering as the best gift of God, the gift that separates +him most widely from the brute creation.(371) He preaches sympathy and +mutual help, in an age torn by selfish individualist passions. He +denounces the lust for revenge almost in the tones of a Christian +preacher.(372) What heathen moralist has painted more vividly the horrors +of the guilty conscience, that unseen inquisitor, with sterner more +searching eyes than Rhadamanthus? Who has taught with greater power that +the root of sin is in the evil thought?(373) Juvenal realises, like +Tacitus and Quintilian, the curse of a tainted ancestry, and the +incalculable importance of pure example in the education of youth.(374) +He, who knew so well the awful secrets of Roman households, sets an +immense value on the treasure of an untainted boyhood, like that of the +ploughman's son, who waits at Juvenal's simple meal "and sighs for his +mother, and the little cottage, and his playmates the kids."(375) +Observation of character had also taught him the fatal law that the +downward path in conduct, once entered on, is seldom retraced. And this +moral insight seems to come to Juvenal not from any consciously held +philosophic doctrine, nor from a settled religious faith. His faith, like +that of many of his time, was probably of the vaguest. He scorns and +detests the Eastern worships which were pouring in like a flood, and +carrying away even loose women of the world.(376) He pillories the venal +star-reader from the East and the Jewish hag who interprets dreams. But he +has also scant respect for classic mythologies, and regrets the simple, +long-gone age, before heaven became crowded with divinities, before Saturn +had exchanged the diadem for the sickle, when Juno was still a little +maid,(377) when the terrors of Tartarus, the wheel, the vulture, and the +lash of the Furies had not taken the place of a simple natural +conscience.(378) + +Juvenal's moral tone then appears to unite the spirit of two different +ages. In some of his later Satires you catch the accent of the age which +was just opening when Juvenal began to write, its growing sense of the +equality and brotherhood of man, its cosmopolitan morality, its ideals of +spiritual culture. But there are other elements in Juvenal, derived from +old Roman prejudice and conventionality, or the result of personal +temperament and experience, which are quite as prominent. Juvenal is an +utter pessimist about his time, more extreme even than Tacitus. His age, +if we believe him, has attained the climax of corruption, and posterity +will never improve upon its finished depravity.(379) His long practice as +a declaimer had given him a habit of exaggeration, and of aiming rather at +rhetorical brilliancy than truth. Whole passages in his poems read like +declamatory exercises turned into verse.(380) A mere hanger-on of great +society, one of the obscure crowd who flocked to the rich man's levee, and +knowing the life of the aristocracy only by remote observation or the +voice of scandalous gossip, he hardly deserves the implicit trust which +has been often accorded to his indictments of the society of his day. His +generalisations are of the most sweeping kind; the colours are all dark. +He thinks that the number of decent people in his day is infinitesimally +small. And yet we may reasonably suspect, from his own evidence, that he +often generalised from single cases, that he treated abnormal specimens as +types. His moral ideals cannot have been a monopoly of his own. In the +palace of Nero in the worst days, there was a pure Octavia as well as a +voluptuous Poppaea. The wife and mother of the gross Vitellius were women +of spotless fame.(381) And in reading the fierce, unmeasured declamation +of Juvenal, we should never forget that he knew nothing personally of +Pliny or Tacitus, or of the circle which surrounded Verginius Rufus and +Spurinna. He has the same pessimist theory of human declension which was +held by Seneca and by Tacitus. Every form of crime and sensuality has been +rampant since Rome lost the treasure of poverty, since the days when +silver shone only on the Roman's arms.(382) Juvenal's ideal lies in that +mythical past when a Curius, thrice consul, strode homeward from the +hills, mattock on shoulder, to a meal of home-grown herbs and bacon served +on earthenware.(383) It is the luxury of the conquered lands which has +relaxed the Roman fibre, which has introduced a false standard of life, +degraded great houses, and flooded the city with an alien crew of +astrologers and grammarians, parasites and pimps. + +Modern criticism has laboured hard to correct some of the harsher +judgments on the luxury and self-indulgence of the period of the early +Empire. Perhaps the scholarly reaction against an indictment which had +degenerated sometimes into ignorant commonplace, may have been carried +here and there too far. The testimony of Tacitus is explicit that the +luxury of the table reached its height in the hundred years extending from +the battle of Actium to the accession of Vespasian.(384) It was a period +of enormous fortunes spent in enormous waste. Seneca or Pallas or +Narcissus had accumulated wealth probably three or four times greater than +even the fortune of a Crassus or a Lucullus. The long peace, the safety of +the seas, and the freedom of trade, had made Rome the entrepot for the +peculiar products and the delicacies of every land from the British +Channel to the Ganges. The costly variety of these foreign dainties was +vulgarly paraded at every great dinner-party. Palaces, extending almost +over the area of a town, were adorned with marbles from the quarries of +Paros, Laconia, Phrygia, or Numidia,(385) with gilded ceilings and curious +panels changing with the courses of the banquet,(386) with hundreds of +tables of citrus-wood, resting on pillars of ivory, each costing a +moderate fortune, with priceless bronzes and masterpieces of ancient +plate. Nearly a million each year was drained away to the remoter East, to +purchase aromatics and jewels for the elaborate toilette of the Roman +lady.(387) Hundreds of household slaves, each with his minute special +function, anticipated every want, or ministered to every passion of their +masters. Every picturesque or sheltered site on the great lakes, on the +Anio, or the Alban hills, in the Laurentine pine forests, or on the bays +of Campania, was occupied by far-spreading country seats. Lavish +expenditure and luxurious state was an imperious duty of rank, even +without the precept of an emperor.(388) The senator who paid too low a +rent, or rode along the Appian or Flaminian Way with too scanty a train, +became a marked man, and immediately lost caste.(389) These are the merest +commonplace of the social history of the time. + +Yet in spite of the admitted facts of profusion and self-indulgence, we +may decline to accept Juvenal's view of the luxury of the age without some +reserve. It is indeed no apology for the sensuality of a section of the +Roman aristocracy in that day, to point out that the very same excesses +made their appearance two centuries before him, and that they will be +lamented both by Pagan and Christian moralists three centuries after his +death. But these facts suggest a doubt whether the cancer of luxury had +struck so deep as satirists thought into the vitals of a society which +remained for so many centuries erect and strong. Before the end of the +third century B.C., began the long series of sumptuary laws which Tiberius +treated as so futile.(390) The elder Pliny and Livy date the introduction +of luxurious furniture from the return of the army in 188 B.C., after the +campaign in Asia.(391) Crassus, who left, after the most prodigal +expenditure, a fortune of L1,700,000, had a town house which cost over +L60,000.(392) The lavish banquets of Lucullus were proverbial, and his +villa at Misenum was valued at L24,000. It was an age when more than L1000 +was given for a slave-cook or a pair of silver cups.(393) Macrobius has +preserved the menu of a pontifical banquet, at which Julius Caesar and the +Vestals were present, and which in its costly variety surpassed, as he +says, any epicurism of the reign of Honorius.(394) And yet Ammianus and S. +Jerome level very much the same charges against the nobles of the fourth +century,(395) which satire makes against the nobles of the first. When we +hear the same anathemas of luxury in the days of Lucullus and in the reign +of Honorius, separated by an interval of more than five centuries, in +which the Roman race stamped itself on the page of history and on the face +of nature by the most splendid achievements of military virtue and of +civilising energy, we are inclined to question either the report of our +authorities, or the satirist's interpretation of the social facts. + +The good faith of the elder Pliny, of Seneca and Juvenal, need not, +indeed, be called in question. But the first two were men who led by +preference an almost ascetic life. The satirist was a man whose culinary +tastes were satisfied by the kid and eggs and asparagus of his little farm +at Tibur.(396) And the simple abstemious habits of the south, which are +largely the result of climate, tended to throw into more startling +contrast any indulgence of superfluous appetite. It is true that the +conquests which unlocked the hoarded treasures of eastern monarchies, gave +a great shock to the hardy frugality and self-restraint of the old Roman +character, just as the stern simplicity of Spartan breeding was imperilled +by contact with the laxer life of the Hellespontine towns and the wealth +of the Persian court.(397) The Roman aristocracy were for two centuries +exposed to the same temptations as the treasures of the Incas offered to +Pizarro,(398) or the treasures of the Moguls to Clive. In the wild +licence, which prevailed in certain circles for more than a century, many +a fortune and many a character were wrecked. Yet the result may easily be +exaggerated. Extravagant luxury and self-indulgence is at all times only +possible to a comparatively small number. And luxury, after all, is a +relative term. The luxuries of one age often become the necessities of the +next. There are many articles of food or dress, which free-trade and +science have brought to the doors of our cottagers, which would have +incurred the censure of the elder Pliny or of Seneca. There are aldermanic +banquets in New York or the city of London in our own day, which far +surpass, in costliness and variety, the banquets of Lucullus or the +pontiff's feast described by Macrobius. The wealth of Pallas, Narcissus, +or Seneca, was only a fraction of many a fortune accumulated in the last +thirty years in the United States.(399) The exaggerated idea of Roman +riches and waste has been further heightened by the colossal extravagance +of the worst emperors and a few of their boon companions and imitators. +But we are apt to forget that these were the outbreaks of morbid and +eccentric character, in which the last feeble restraints were sapped and +swept away by the sense of having at command the resources of a world. +Nero is expressly described by the historian as a lover of the +impossible;(400) and both he and Caligula had floating before their +disordered imaginations the dream of astounding triumphs, even over the +most defiant forces and barriers of nature. There was much in the +extravagance of their courtiers and imitators, springing from the same +love of sensation and display. Rome was a city of gossip, and the ambition +to be talked about, as the inventor of some new freak of prodigality, was +probably the only ambition of the blase spendthrift of the time. + +Yet, after all the deductions of scrupulous criticism, the profound moral +sense of Juvenal has laid bare and painted with a realistic power, hardly +equalled even by Tacitus, an unhealthy temper in the upper classes, which +was full of peril. He has also revealed, alongside of this decline, a +great social change, we may even call it a crisis, which the historian, +generally more occupied with the great figures on the stage, is apt to +ignore. The decay in the morale and wealth of the senatorial order, +together with the growing power of a new moneyed class, the rise to +opulence of the freedman and the petty trader, the invasion of Greek and +Oriental influences, and the perilous or hopeful emancipation, especially +of women, from old Roman conventionality, these are the great facts in the +social history of the first century which, under all his rhetoric, stand +out clearly to the eye of the careful student of the satirist. + +The famous piece, in which Juvenal describes an effeminate Fabius or +Lepidus, before the mutilated statues and smoke-stained pedigree of his +house, rattling the dice-box till the dawn, or sunk in the stupor of +debauch at the hour when his ancestors were sounding their trumpets for +the march,(401) has, for eighteen centuries, inspired many a homily on the +vanity of mere birth. Its moral is now a hackneyed one. But, when the +piece was written, it must have been a powerful indictment. For the +respect for long descent was still deep in the true Roman, and was +gratified by fabulous genealogies to the end. Pliny extols Trajan for +reserving for youths of illustrious birth the honours due to their +race.(402) Suetonius recounts the twenty-eight consulships, five +dictatorships, seven censorships, and many triumphs which were the glory +of the great Claudian house,(403) and the similar honours which had been +borne by the paternal ancestors of Nero.(404) Tacitus, although not +himself a man of old family, has a profound belief in noble tradition, and +sometimes speaks with an undisguised scorn of a low alliance.(405) As the +number of the "Trojugenae" dwindled, the pride of the vanishing remnant +probably grew in proportion, and a clan like the Calpurnian reluctantly +yielded precedence even to Tiberius or Nero.(406) It is a sign of the +social tone that the manufacture of genealogies for the new men, who came +into prominence from the reign of Vespasian, went on apace. A Trojan +citizen in the days of Apollonius traced himself to Priam.(407) Herodes +Atticus claimed descent from the heroes of Aegina,(408) just as some of +the Christian friends of S. Jerome confidently carried their pedigree back +to Aeneas or Agamemnon.(409) Juvenal would certainly not have accepted +such fables, but he was no leveller. He had a firm belief in moral +heredity and the value of tradition. Plebeian as he was, he had, like +Martial, his own old Roman pride, which poured contempt on the upstarts +who, with the stains of servile birth or base trade upon them, were +crowding the benches of the knights. He would, indeed, have applauded the +_mot_ of Tiberius, that a distinguished man was his own ancestor;(410) he +recalls with pride that one humble son of Arpinum had annihilated the +hordes of the Cimbri, and another had crushed the rising of Catiline.(411) +But he had the true Roman reverence for the Curii, Fabii, and Scipios, and +would gladly salute any of their descendants who reproduced their virtues. + +It is a melancholy certainty that a great many of the senatorial class in +Juvenal's day had fallen very low in all things essential to the strength +of a great caste. Their numbers had long been dwindling,(412) owing to +vicious celibacy or the cruel proscriptions of the triumvirate and the +four Claudian Caesars, or from the unwillingness or inability of many to +support the burdens of their rank. It was a rare thing in many great +houses to reach middle age.(413) Three hundred senators and two thousand +knights had fallen in the proscription of the second triumvirate.(414) The +massacre of old and young of both sexes, which followed the fall of +Sejanus, must have extinguished many an ancient line; not a day passed +without an execution.(415) Three hundred knights and thirty-five senators +perished in the reign of Claudius.(416) Very few of the most ancient +patrician houses were left when Claudius revised the lists of the Senate, +and introduced a fresh element from Gaul.(417) Who can tell the numbers of +those who fell victims to the rage or greed or suspicion of Caligula, +Nero, and Domitian? The list must have been enormously swelled by the +awful year of the four emperors. Vespasian found it necessary to recruit +the ranks of the aristocracy from Italy and the provinces.(418) + +At the same time, prodigality or confiscation had rendered many of those +who survived unable to maintain their rank, and to bear the social and +official burdens which, down to the end of the Western Empire were +rigorously imposed on the great order. The games of the praetorship in the +first century, as in the fifth,(419) constituted a tax which only a great +fortune could easily bear. Aristocratic poverty became common. As early as +the reign of Augustus, the emperor had found it politic to subsidise many +great families.(420) The same policy had been continued by Tiberius, Nero, +and Vespasian.(421) Tiberius, indeed, had scrutinised and discouraged some +of these claims on grounds which the treasury officials of every age would +applaud.(422) A grandson of the great orator Hortensius once made an +appeal in the Senate for the means of supporting the dignity of his name. +He had received a grant from Augustus to enable him to rear a family, and +four sons were now waiting at the doors of the Curia to second his prayer. +Hortensius, who was the great rival of Cicero, had possessed immense +wealth. He had many splendid villas, he used to give dinners in his park, +around which the deer would troop to the lute of a slave-Orpheus; he left +10,000 casks of old Chian in his cellars. His mendicant and spiritless +descendant had to go away with a cold withering refusal from Tiberius, +softened by a contemptuous dole to his sons. The revision of the +senatorial roll by Claudius in 48 A.D., revealed a portentous +disappearance of old houses of the Republic, and the gaps had to be filled +up from the provinces in the teeth of aristocratic exclusiveness.(423) +Among the boon companions of Nero there must have been many loaded with +debt, like Otho and Vitellius. The Corvinus in Juvenal who is keeping +sheep on a Laurentine farm, and his probable kinsman who obtained a +subsidy from Nero, the Fabii and Mamerci who were dancing and playing the +harlequin on the comic stage, or selling their blood in the arena, must +represent many a wreck of the great houses of the Republic.(424) Among the +motley crowd who swarm in the hall of the great patron to receive the +morning dole, the descendants of houses coeval with the Roman State are +pushed aside by the freedmen from the Euphrates.(425) But aristocratic +poverty knew no lower depth of degradation than in the hungry adulation +which it offered to the heirless rich. Captation became a regular +profession in a society where trade, industry, and even professional +skill, were treated as degrading to the men of gentle blood.(426) It is +characteristic of Juvenal that he places on the same level the +legacy-hunter, who would stoop to any menial service or vicious +compliance, with the honest tradesfolk, in whose ranks, if we may judge by +their funerary inscriptions, was to be found, perhaps, the wholesomest +moral tone in the society of the early Empire. + +In a satire written after Domitian's death,(427) Juvenal has described a +scene of fatuous adulation which, if not true in fact, is only too true to +the character of the time. A huge mullet, too large for any private table, +had been caught in a bay of the Adriatic. Its captor hastens through +winter storms to lay his spoil at the emperor's feet. The kitchen of the +Alban palace had no dish large enough for such a monster, and a council of +trembling senators is hastily summoned to consult on the emergency. +Thither came the gentle Crispus, that Acilius, whose son was to be the +victim of the despot's jealousy, Rubrius tainted with a nameless crime, +the bloated Montanus, and Crispinus, once an Egyptian slave, now a vulgar +exquisite, reeking with unguents. There, too, was the informer whose +whisper stabbed like a stiletto, the lustful, blind Catullus, and the arch +flatterer Veiento, who had revelled at the Gargantuan feasts of Nero from +noon till midnight. These are worthy brethren of the assembly who stabbed +Proculus to death with their stiles at the nod of the freedman of +Caligula,(428) and led Nero home in triumphal procession after his +mother's murder.(429) + +Many things had contributed to the degradation of the senatorial +character. The dark and tortuous policy of Tiberius tended, indeed, to +absolutism; yet he still maintained a tone of deference to the Senate, and +sometimes, with cold good sense, repelled a too eager adulation.(430) But, +in the reigns of Caligula and Nero, the great order had to submit to the +deepest personal degradation, and were tempted, or compelled by their +masters to violate every instinct of Roman dignity. The wild epileptic +frenzy of Caligula, who spared not the virtue of his sisters,(431) as he +boasted of his own incestuous birth,(432) who claimed divine honours,(433) +temples, and costly sacrifices, who, as another Endymion, called the Moon +to his embraces, who dreamt of obliterating the memory of Homer and Virgil +and Livy, was not likely to spare the remnant of self-respect still left +in his nobles.(434) He gave an immense impetus to the rage for singing, +dancing, and acting,(435) for chariot-driving and fighting in the arena, +not unknown before, which Juvenal and Tacitus brand as the most flagrant +sign of degenerate morals. There was indeed a great conflict of sentiment +under the early Empire as to some of these arts. Julius Caesar had +encouraged or permitted Roman senators and knights to fight in the +gladiatorial combats, and a Laberius to act in his own play.(436) But a +decree of the Senate, not long afterwards, had placed a ban on these +exhibitions by men of noble rank.(437) Tiberius, who was, beyond anything, +a haughty aristocrat, at a later date intervened to save the dignity of +the order.(438) But the rage of the rabble for these spectacles had +undoubtedly caught many in the ranks of the upper class. And Caligula and +Nero(439) found, only too easily, youths of birth and breeding, but ruined +fortune, who were ready to exhibit themselves for a welcome _douceur_, or +to gain the favour of the prince, or even to bring down the applause of +the crowded benches of the amphitheatre or the circus. Yet the old Roman +feeling must have been very persistent, when a man like Domitian, who +posed as a puritan, found it politic to remove from the Senate one who had +disgraced his order by dancing in the pantomime, and even laid his +interdict on all public theatrical performances.(440) The revels and +massacres and wild debauchery of Nero did not so much to hasten his +destruction as his singing his catches to the lute, or appearing in the +parts of the incestuous Canace and the matricide Orestes.(441) From every +part of the world, in all the literature of the time, there is a chorus of +astounded indignation against the prince who could stoop to pit himself +against Greek players and singers at Delphi or Olympia. Juvenal has been +reproached for putting the chariot-driving of Damasippus in the same +category with the Verrine plunder of provinces.(442) He is really the +exponent of old Roman sentiment. And it may be doubted whether, from the +Roman point of view, Juvenal might not justify himself to his critics. +Even in our own emancipated age, we might be pardoned for feeling a shock +if an English prime minister rode his own horse at the Derby, or appeared +in a risky part on the boards of the Gaiety. And the collective sense of +senatorial self-respect was too precious to a Roman patriot and moralist, +to be flung away for mere love of sport, or in a fit of spurious artistic +enthusiasm. Nero, and in an even lower fashion Caligula, were rebels +against old Roman conventional restraints, and it is possible that some of +the hideous tales about them, which were spread in the "circuli," may have +been the vengeance of Roman pride on shameless social revolutionaries, who +paraded their contempt for old-fashioned dignity and for social tradition. +Nero was never so happy as when he was deafened with applause, and +smothered with roses at the Greek festivals. He had once predicted for him +a monarchy in those regions of the East,(443) where he would have escaped +from the tradition of old Roman puritanism, and combined all the ingenious +sensuality of Syria with the doubtful artistic taste of a decadent +Hellenism. The cold haughty refinement of senatorial circles of the old +regime, and the rude honest virtue of the plebeian soldiery,(444) rightly +mistrusted this false sensational artist on the throne of the world. + +Art, divorced from moral ideals, may become a dangerous thing. The emperor +might spend the morning with his favourites in patching up lilting verses +which would run well to the lute.(445) But the scene soon changed to a +revel, where the roses and music hardly veiled the grossness of excess. +The "noctes Neronis" made many a debauchee and scattered many a senatorial +fortune.(446) And amid all this elaborate luxury and splendour of +indulgence, there was a strange return to the naturalism of vice and mere +blackguardism. A Messalina or a Nero or a Petronius developed a curious +taste for the low life that reeks and festers in the taverns and in the +stews. Bohemianism for a time became the fashion.(447) Its very grossness +was a stimulant to appetites jaded with every diabolical refinement of +vicious ingenuity. The distinguished dinner party, with the emperor at +their head, sallied forth to see how the people were living in the slums. +Many a scene from these midnight rambles has probably been preserved in +the tainted, yet brilliant, pages of the _Satiricon_. Petronius had +probably often plunged with Nero after night-fall into those low dens, +where slave minions and sailors and the obscene priests of the great +Mother were roistering together, or sunk in the slumber of debauch.(448) +These elegant aristocrats found their sport in rudely assaulting quiet +citizens returning from dinner, or plundering some poor huckster's stall +in the Suburra, or insulting a lady in her chair. In the fierce faction +fights of the theatre, where stones and benches were flying, the Emperor +had once the distinction of breaking a praetor's head.(449) It was nobles +trained in this school, experts in vice, but with no nerve for arms, who +encumbered the train of Otho on his march to the sanguinary conflict on +the Po.(450) + +The demoralisation of a section of the upper class under the bad emperors +must have certainly involved the degradation of many women. And one of the +most brilliant and famous of Juvenal's Satires is devoted to this +unsavoury subject. The "Legend of Bad Women" is a graphic picture, and yet +it suffers from a defect which spoils much of Juvenal's work. Full of +realistic power, with an undoubted foundation of truth, it is too vehement +and sweeping in its censures to gain full credence. It is also strangely +wanting in balance and due order of idea.(451) The problem of marriage is +illustrated by a series of sketches of female manners, which are very +disconnected, and, indeed, sometimes inconsistent. Thorough depravity, +superstition, and ignorant devotion, interest in literature and public +affairs, love of gymnastic and decided opinions on Virgil--in fact, vices, +innocent hobbies, and laudable tastes are all thrown together in a +confused indictment. The bohemian man of letters had heard many a scandal +about great ladies, some of them true, others distorted and exaggerated by +prurient gossip, after passing through a hundred tainted imaginations. In +his own modest class, female morality, as we may infer from the +Inscriptions and other sources, was probably as high as it ever was, as +high as the average morality of any age.(452) There were aristocratic +families, too, where the women were as pure as Lucretia or Cornelia, or +any matron of the olden days.(453) The ideal of purity, both in men and +women, in some circles was actually rising. In the families of Seneca, of +Tacitus, of Pliny and Plutarch, there were, not only the most spotless and +high minded women, there were also men with a rare conception of +temperance and mutual love, of reverence for a pure wedlock, to which S. +Jerome and S. Augustine would have given their benediction. Even Ovid, +that "debauchee of the imagination," writes to his wife, from his exile in +the Scythian wilds, in the accents of the purest affection.(454) And, amid +all the lubricity of his pictures of gallantry, he has not lost the ideal +of a virgin heart, which repels and disarms the libertine by the spell of +an impregnable purity.(455) Plutarch's ideal of marriage, at once severe +and tender, would have satisfied S. Paul.(456) Favorinus, the friend and +contemporary of Plutarch, thought it not beneath the dignity of +philosophic eloquence to urge on mothers the duty of suckling and +personally caring for their infants.(457) Seneca and Musonius, who lived +through the reign of Nero, are equally peremptory in demanding a like +continence from men and from women. And Musonius severely condemns +concubinage and vagrant amours of every kind, the man guilty of seduction +sins not only against another, but against his own soul.(458) Dion +Chrysostom was probably the first of the ancients to raise a clear voice +against the traffic in frail beauty which has gone on pitilessly from age +to age. Nothing could exceed the vehemence with which he assails an evil +which he regards as not only dishonouring to human nature, but charged +with the poison of far spreading corruption.(459) Juvenal's ideal of +purity, therefore, is not peculiar to himself. The great world was bad +enough, but there was another world beside that whose infamy Juvenal has +immortalised. + +It is also to be observed that Juvenal seems to be quite as much under the +influence of old Roman conventionality as of permanent moral ideals. He +condemns eccentricities, or mere harmless aberrations from old-fashioned +rules of propriety, as ruthlessly as he punishes lust and crime. The +blue-stocking who is a purist in style, and who balances, with deafening +volubility, the merits of Homer and Virgil,(460) the eager gossip who has +the very freshest news from Thrace or Parthia, or the latest secret of a +tainted family,(461) the virago who, with an intolerable pride of virtue, +plays the household tyrant and delivers curtain lectures to her lord,(462) +seem to be almost as detestable in Juvenal's eyes as the doubtful person +who has had eight husbands in five years, or one who elopes with an ugly +gladiator,(463) or tosses off two pints before dinner.(464) We may share +his disgust for the great ladies who fought in the arena and wrestled in +the ring,(465) or who order their poor tire-women to be flogged for +deranging a curl in the towering architecture of their hair.(466) But we +cannot feel all his contempt for the poor penitent devotee of Isis who +broke the ice to plunge thrice in the Tiber on a winter morning, and +crawled on bleeding knees over the Campus Martius, or brought a phial of +water from the Nile to sprinkle in the fane of the goddess.(467) Even +lust, grossness, and cruelty, even poisoning and abortion, seem to lose +some of their blackness when they are compared with an innocent literary +vanity, or a pathetic eagerness to read the future or to soothe the pangs +of a guilty conscience. + +The truth is that Juvenal is as much shocked by the "new woman" as he is +by the vicious woman. He did not understand, or he could not acquiesce in +the great movement for the emancipation of women, which had set in long +before his time, and which, like all such movements, brought evil with it +as well as good. There is perhaps nothing more striking in the social +history of Rome than the inveterate conservatism of Roman sentiment in the +face of accomplished change. Such moral rigidity is almost necessarily +prone to pessimism. The Golden Age lies in the past; the onward sweep of +society seems to be always moving towards the abyss. The ideal past of the +Roman woman lay more than two centuries and a half behind the time when +Juvenal was born. The old Roman matron was, by legal theory, in the power +of her husband, yet assured by religion and sentiment a dignified position +in the family, and treated with profound, if somewhat cold, respect; she +was busied with household cares, and wanting in the lighter graces and +charms, austere, self-contained, and self-controlled. But this severe +ideal had begun to fade even in the days of the elder Cato.(468) And there +is hardly a fault or vice attributed by Juvenal to the women of Domitian's +reign, which may not find parallel in the nine or ten generations before +Juvenal penned his great indictment against the womanhood of his age. The +Roman lady's irritable pride of birth is at least as old as the rivalry of +the two Fabiae in the fourth century.(469) The elder Cato dreaded a rich +wife as much as Juvenal,(470) and satirised as bitterly the pride and +gossip and luxury of the women of his time. Their love of gems and gold +ornaments and many-coloured robes and richly adorned carriages, is +attested by Plautus and the impotent legislation of C. Oppius.(471) +Divorce and ghastly crime in the noblest families were becoming common in +the days of the Second Punic War. About the same time began that +emancipation of women from the jealous restraints of Roman law, which was +to be carried further in the Antonine age.(472) The strict forms of +marriage, which placed the wife in the power of her husband, fell more and +more into desuetude. Women attained more absolute control over their +property, and so much capital became concentrated in their hands that, +about the middle of the second century B.C., the Voconian law was passed +to prohibit bequests to them, with the usual futile result of such +legislation.(473) Yet the old ideal of the industrious housewife never +died out, and Roman epitaphs for ages record that the model matron was a +wool-worker and a keeper at home. A senator of the reign of Honorius +praises his daughter for the same homely virtues.(474) But from the second +century B.C. the education of the Roman girl of the higher classes +underwent a great change.(475) Dancing, music, and the higher +accomplishments were no longer under a ban, although they were still +suspected by people of the old-fashioned school. Boys and girls received +the same training from the grammarian, and read their Homer and Ennius +together.(476) There were women in the time of Lucretius, as in the time +of Juvenal, who interlarded their conversation with Greek phrases.(477) +Cornelia, the wife of Pompey, was trained in literature and mathematics, +and even had some tincture of philosophy.(478) The daughter of Atticus, +who became the wife of Agrippa, was placed under the tuition of a +freedman, who, as too often happened, seems to have abused his trust.(479) +Even in the gay circle of Ovid, there were learned ladies, or ladies who +wished to be thought so.(480) Even Martial reckons culture among the +charms of a woman. Seneca maintained that women have an equal capacity for +cultivation with men.(481) Thus the blue-stocking of Juvenal, for whom he +has so much contempt, had many an ancestress for three centuries, as she +will have many a daughter till the end of the Western Empire.(482) Even in +philosophy, usually the last study to attract the female mind, Roman +ladies were asserting an equal interest. Great ladies of the Augustan +court, even the empress herself, had their philosophic directors,(483) and +the fashion perhaps became still more general under M. Aurelius. Epictetus +had met ladies who were enthusiastic admirers of the Platonic Utopia, but +the philosopher rather slyly attributes their enthusiasm to the absence of +rigorous conjugal relations in the Ideal Society.(484) Even in the field +of authorship, women were claiming equal rights. The _Memoirs of +Agrippina_ was one of the authorities of Tacitus.(485) The poems of +Sulpicia, mentioned by Martial,(486) were read in Gaul in the days of +Sidonius.(487) Greek verses, of some merit in spite of a pedantic +affectation, by Balbilla, a friend of the wife of Hadrian, can still be +read on the Colossus of Memnon.(488) Calpurnia, the wife of Pliny, may not +have been an author; but she shared all Pliny's literary tastes; she set +his poems to music, and gave him the admiration of a good wife, if not of +an impartial critic. + +Juvenal feels as much scorn for the woman who is interested in public +affairs and the events on the frontier,(489) as he feels for the woman who +presumes to balance the merits of Virgil and Homer. And here he is once +more at war with a great movement towards the equality of the sexes. From +the days of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, to the days of Placidia, +the sister of Honorius, Roman women exercised, from time to time, a +powerful, and not always wholesome, influence on public affairs. The +politic Augustus discussed high matters of state with Livia.(490) The +reign of Claudius was a reign of women and freedmen. Tacitus records, with +a certain distaste for the innovation, that Agrippina sat enthroned beside +Claudius on a lofty tribunal, to receive the homage of the captive +Caractacus.(491) Nero emancipated himself from the grasping ambition of +his mother only by a ghastly crime. The influence of Caenis on Vespasian +in his later days tarnished his fame.(492) The influence of women in +provincial administration was also becoming a serious force. In the reign +of Tiberius, Caecina Severus, with the weight of forty years' experience +of camps, in a speech before the Senate, denounced the new-fangled custom +of the wives of generals and governors accompanying them abroad, attending +reviews of troops, mingling freely with the soldiers, and taking an active +part in business, which was not always favourable to pure +administration.(493) In the inscriptions of the first and second +centuries, women appear in a more wholesome character as "mothers of the +camp," or patronesses of municipal towns and corporations.(494) They have +statues dedicated to them for liberality in erecting porticoes or adorning +theatres or providing civic games or feasts.(495) And on one of these +tablets we read of a _Curia mulierum_ at Lanuvium.(496) We are reminded of +the "chapter of matrons" who visited Agrippina with their censure,(497) +and another female senate, under Elagabalus, which dealt with minute +questions of precedence and graded etiquette.(498) On the walls of Pompeii +female admirers posted up their election placards in support of their +favourite candidates.(499) Thus Juvenal was fighting a lost battle, lost +long before he wrote. For good or evil, women in the first and second +centuries were making themselves a power. + +Although he was probably a very light believer in the old mythology,(500) +and treated its greatest figures with scant respect, Juvenal had all the +old Roman prejudice against those eastern worships which captivated so +many women of his day. And, here again, the satirist is assailing a +movement which had set in long before he wrote, and which was destined to +gain immense impetus and popularity in the two following centuries. The +eunuch priests of the Great Mother, with their cymbals and Phrygian +tiaras, had appeared in Italy in the last years of the Hannibalic +War.(501) The early years of the second century B.C. were convulsed by the +scandals and horrors of the Dionysiac orgies, which fell on Rome like a +pestilence.(502) The purity of women and the peace of families were in +serious danger, till the mischief was stamped out in blood. The worship of +Isis found its way into the capital at least as early as Sulla, and defied +the hesitating exclusion of Augustus.(503) At this distance, we can see +the _raison d'etre_ of what the satirist regarded as religious +aberrations, the full treatment of which must be reserved for another +chapter. The world was in the throes of a religious revolution, and +eagerly in quest of some fresh vision of the Divine, from whatever quarter +it might dawn. The cults of the East seemed to satisfy cravings and +emotions, which found no resting-place in the national religion. Their +ritual appealed to the senses and imagination, while their mysteries +seemed to promise a revelation of God and immortality. Their strange +mixture of the sensuous and the ascetic was specially adapted to fascinate +weak women who had deeply sinned, and yet occasionally longed to repent. +The repentance indeed was often shallow enough; the fasting and +mortification were compatible with very light morals.(504) There were the +gravest moral abuses connected with such worships as that of Magna Mater. +It is well known that the temples of Isis often became places of +assignation and guilty intrigue.(505) An infatuated Roman lady in the +reign of Tiberius had been seduced by her lover in the pretended guise of +the god Anubis.(506) The Chaldaean seer or the Jewish hag might often +arouse dangerous hopes, or fan a guilty passion by casting a horoscope or +reading a dream.(507) But Juvenal's scorn seems to fall quite as heavily +on the innocent votary who was striving to appease a burdened conscience, +as on one who made her superstition a screen for vice. + +In spite of the political extinction of the Jewish race, its numbers and +influence grew in Italy. The very destruction of the Holy Place and the +external symbols of Jewish worship threw a more impressive air of mystery +around the dogmas of the Jewish faith, of which even the most cultivated +Romans had only vague conceptions.(508) The Jews, from the time of the +first Caesar, had worked their way into every class of society.(509) A +Jewish prince had inspired Caligula with an oriental ideal of +monarchy.(510) There were adherents of Judaism in the household of the +great freedmen of Claudius, and their growing influence and turbulence +compelled that emperor to expel the race from the capital.(511) The +worldly, pleasure-loving Poppaea had, perhaps, yielded to the mysterious +charm of the religion of Moses.(512) But it was under the Flavians, who +had such close associations with Judaea, that Jewish influences made +themselves most felt. And in the reign of Domitian, two members of the +imperial house, along with many others, suffered for following the Jewish +mode of life.(513) Their crime is also described as "atheism," and Clemens +is, in the old Roman spirit, said to have been a man of the most +"contemptible inactivity." In truth, the "Jewish life" was a description +which might cover many shades of belief and practice in religion, +including Christianity itself. The secret worship of a dim, mysterious +Power, Who was honoured by no imposing rites, a spirit of detachment and +quietism, which shrank from games and spectacles and the scenes of +fashion, and nursed the dream of a coming kingdom which was not of this +world, excited the suspicion and contempt of the coarse, strenuous Roman +nature. Yet, in the gloom and deep corruption of that sombre time, such a +life of retreat and renunciation had a strange charm for naturally pious +souls, especially among women. There were indeed many degrees of +conformity to the religion of Palestine. While some were attracted by its +more spiritual side, others confined themselves to an observance of the +Sabbath, which became very common in some quarters of Rome under the +Empire. The children, as Juvenal tells us, were sometimes trained to a +complete conformity to the law of Moses.(514) But Juvenal is chiefly +thinking of the mendicant population from Palestine who swarmed in the +neighbourhood of the Porta Capena and the grove of the Muses, practising +all the arts which have appealed in all ages to superstitious women. Thus +the Judaism of the times of Nero or Domitian might cover anything from the +cunning of the gipsy fortune-teller to the sad, dreaming quietism of +Pomponia Graecina.(515) + +Yet it must be admitted that, although Juvenal, in his attacks on women, +has mixed up very real vice with superstition and mere innocent +eccentricity, or the explosive energy of a new freedom, the real vices of +many women of his time are a melancholy fact. The Messalinas and Poppaeas +had many imitators and companions in their own class. It is true that even +the licentious fancy of Ovid and Martial generally spares the character of +the unmarried girl. She was, in the darkest times, as a rule, carefully +guarded from the worst corruptions of the spectacles,(516) or from the +reckless advances of the hardened libertine, although an intrigue with a +tutor was not unknown.(517) Her marriage was arranged often in mere +childhood, seldom later than her seventeenth year. A girl was rarely +betrothed after nineteen.(518) Her temptations and danger often began on +her wedding-day. That there was a high ideal of pure and happy marriage, +even in the times of the greatest licence, we know from Pliny and +Plutarch, and from Martial himself.(519) But there were serious perils +before the child-bride, when she was launched upon the great world of +Roman society. A marriage of convenience with some member of a tainted +race, _blase_ with precocious and unnatural indulgence, and ready to +concede the conjugal liberty which he claimed, was a perilous trial to +virtue. The bonds of old Roman marriage had, for ages, been greatly +relaxed, and the Roman lady of independent fortune and vigorous, highly +trained intellect, could easily find consolation for marital neglect. From +Seneca to S. Jerome, the foppish procurator of the great lady was a +dangerous and suspected person,(520) and not always without good cause. +Surrounded by an army of slaves and the other obsequious dependents of a +great house, treated with profound deference, and saluted with the pompous +titles of _domina_ and _regina_, the great lady's lightest caprice became +law.(521) Costly jewels and the rarest luxuries of the toilet poured in +upon her from regions which were only visited by the captains of Red Sea +merchantmen, or by some Pythagorean ascetic seeking the fountains of the +wisdom of the East.(522) + +The political life of Rome had been extinguished by a jealous despotism, +but social life in the higher ranks was never so intense and so seductive, +and women had their full share in it. Ladies dined out regularly with +their husbands, even at the emperor's table,(523) and they were liable to +be assailed by the artistic wiles of which Ovid taught the secret, or by +the brutal advances of the lawless Caligula.(524) It was a time when +people loved to meet anywhere, under the trees of the Campus Martius, in +the colonnades of the theatre, or round the seats of the public squares. +Everywhere were to be seen those groups which spared no reputation, not +even the emperor's. And behind the chair of the young matron often hovered +the dangerous exquisite, who could hum in a whisper the latest suggestive +song from Alexandria or Gades,(525) who knew the pedigree of every +racehorse and the secret of every intrigue. It is at such scenes that +Tacitus is probably glancing when he says that in Germany no one makes a +jest of vice, or calls the art of corruption the fashion of the +world;(526) chastity is not sapped by the seductions of the spectacles. +Augustus had, indeed, set apart the upper seats for women in the theatre +and amphitheatre,(527) but on the benches of the circus the sexes freely +mingled. It was there, while the factions of the red and blue were +shouting themselves hoarse, Ovid pointed out to his pupil in gallantry, +that he had his fairest chance of making a dangerous impression.(528) Yet +even Ovid is half inclined to be shocked at the scenes on the stage which +were witnessed by women and young boys.(529) The foulest tales of the old +mythology, the loves of Pasiphae or the loves of Leda, were enacted to the +life, or told with a nakedness of language, compared with which even +Martial might seem chaste.(530) Not less degrading were the gladiatorial +shows, so lavishly provided by Augustus and Trajan, as well as by Caligula +and Domitian, at which the Vestals had a place of honour.(531) It is +little wonder that women accustomed to take pleasure in the sufferings and +death of brave men, should be capable of condemning their poor slave women +to torture or the lash for a sullen look, or a half-heard murmur. The +grossness with which Juvenal describes the effect of the stage on the +morals of women savours of the Suburra.(532) But of the poisonous +character of these performances there can be no doubt. And actors, +musicians, and gladiators became a danger to the peace of households, as +well as to the peace of the streets. The artistes of the pantomime were +sternly suppressed both by Tiberius and Domitian, and not without good +cause.(533) One famous dancer had the fatal honour of captivating +Messalina.(534) The empress of Domitian was divorced for her love of +Paris.(535) And the scandals which darkened the fame of the younger +Faustina, and impeached the legitimacy of Commodus, even if they were +false, must have rested on a certain ground of probability.(536) It is +melancholy to hear that M. Aurelius had to restrain the excesses of Roman +matrons even under the reign of the philosophers.(537) To all these perils +must be added the allurements of household slavery. While a Musonius or a +Seneca was demanding equal chastity in man and woman, the new woman of +Juvenal boldly claims a vicious freedom equal to her husband's.(538) The +testimony of Petronius is tainted by a suspicion of prurient imagination. +But the student of other sources can hardly doubt that, in the first +century, as in the fourth, the Roman lady of rank sometimes degraded +herself by a servile _liaison_. A decree of Vespasian's reign, which his +biographer tells us was called for by the general licence, punished the +erring matron with the loss of her rank.(539) + +These illustrations from other authorities may serve towards a judicial +estimate of Juvenal's famous satire on women. That it is not a prurient +invention is proved by the pages of Tacitus and Suetonius and the records +of Roman morals for more than two centuries. On the other hand, it must be +read with some reservations. Juvenal is a rhetorician with a fiery +temperament, who will colour and exaggerate, if he will not invent. He is +intensely prejudiced and conventional, a man to whom desertion of ancient +usage is almost as bad as a breach of the moral law, a man incapable of +seeing that the evils of a new social movement may be more than +compensated by the good which it brings. Moreover, the graver vices which +he depicts with so much realistic power were certainly not so general as +he implies. It is to be suspected that single instances of abnormal +depravity have swelled in his heated imagination till they have become +types of whole classes of sinners. At the worst, these vices infected only +a comparatively small class, idle, luxurious, enervated by the slave +system, depraved by the example of a vicious court. The very scorn and +indignation with which Juvenal pillories the aristocratic debauchee reveal +the existence of a higher standard of virtue. Both the literature and the +inscriptions of that age make us acquainted with a very different kind of +woman. Over against the Hippia or Saufeia or Messalina of Juvenal we must +set the pure and cultivated women whom we meet in the pages of Pliny or +Tacitus, or the poor soldier's concubine in the Inscriptions, who has all +the self-denying love and virtue of our own cottagers' wives.(540) + +Just as Juvenal misunderstood the movement of female emancipation, which +was to culminate in the legislation of the Antonine age, so has he +misconceived some other great social movements of his time. Two in +particular, the invasion of the new Hellenism and the rise of the +Freedmen, he anathematises with the scorn and old Roman prejudice of the +elder Cato. + +There was nothing new in the invasion of Hellenism in the time of Juvenal. +Nearly three hundred years before his day, the narrow conservatism of +ancient Rome was assailed by the cosmopolitan culture of Hellas, which it +alternately hated and admired. The knowledge of Greek was widely diffused +in Italy in the time of the Hannibalic war.(541) Almost the last Roman of +the ancient breed stooped in his old age to learn Greek, in order to train +his son in the culture of the world.(542) But there were two different +aspects of Hellenism. There was the Hellenism represented by Homer and +Plato and Chrysippus; and there was the Hellenism of the low comic stage, +of the pimp and parasite. And there were reactions against the lower Greek +influences long before the days of Juvenal. Cicero, who did more than any +man of his race to translate Greek thought into Roman idiom, yet expressed +as bitter a contempt as Juvenal's for the fickle, supple, histrionic Greek +adventurer.(543) Juvenal is not waging war with that nobler Hellenism +which had furnished models and inspiration to the great writers of the +Augustan age, and which was destined to refashion Italian culture in the +generation following his death. The emperors, from Julius Caesar to M. +Aurelius, were, with few exceptions, trained in the literature of Greece, +and some of them gave a great impetus to Greek culture in the West. +Augustus delighted in the Old Comedy, entertained Greek philosophers in +his house, and sprinkled his private letters to Tiberius with Greek +quotations.(544) Tiberius, although he had lived at Rhodes in his youth, +seems to show less sympathy for the genius of Greece.(545) Caligula also +can hardly be claimed as a Hellenist. Although he had once a wild dream of +restoring the palace of Polycrates, and one, more sane, of a canal through +the Corinthian Isthmus, he also thought of wiping out the memory of the +poems of Homer.(546) Dr. Mahaffy is probably right in treating Claudius as +the first really Hellenist emperor.(547) Like our own James I., Claudius +was a learned and very ludicrous person. Yet he was perhaps not so +contemptible a character as he is painted by Suetonius. He had, at any +rate, the merit of being a lover of Greek literature,(548) and he heaped +honour on the country which gave it birth.(549) He used to quote Homer in +his speeches in the Senate, and he composed histories in the Greek +language, which, by an imperial ordinance, were to be read aloud regularly +in the Museum of Alexandria.(550) In spite of the vices and pompous +follies of Nero, his phil-Hellenism seems to have been a genuine and +creditable impulse. His visits to the Greek festivals, and his share in +the competitions, were not all mere vanity. He had a futile passion for +fame as an artist, and he sought the applause of the race which had a real +artistic tradition.(551) When we reach the plebeian Flavian race, +Hellenism is still favoured. The bluff soldier, Vespasian, had an adequate +command of the Greek language, and was the first emperor who gave liberal +endowments to Greek rhetoric.(552) His son Domitian, that puzzling enigma, +the libertine who tried to revive the morality of the age of Cato, the man +who was said, but most improbably, to confine his reading to the memoirs +of Tiberius, founded a quinquennial festival, with competitions, on the +Greek model, in music, gymnastic, and horsemanship. By drawing on the +inexhaustible stores of Alexandria, he also repaired the havoc which had +been wrought in the Roman libraries by fire.(553) Already in Juvenal's +life the brilliant sophistic movement had set in which was destined to +carry the literary charm of Hellenism throughout the West. From the close +of the first century there appeared in its full bloom that ingenious +technique of style, that power of conquering all the difficulties of a +worn-out or trifling subject, that delicate command of all varieties of +rhythm, which carried the travelling sophist through a series of triumphs +wherever he wandered. Classical Latin literature about the same time came +to a mysterious end. The only authors of any merit in the second century +wrote in both languages indifferently.(554) And the great Emperor, who +closes our period, preferred to leave his inner thoughts to posterity in +Greek. + +Juvenal, however, was not thinking of this great literary movement. Like +so many of his literary predecessors, who had been formed by the loftier +genius of the Greek past, like Plautus and Cicero, he vented his rage on a +degenerate Hellenism. His shafts were levelled at the suttlers and +camp-followers of the invading army from the East. The phenomena of Roman +social history are constantly repeating themselves for centuries. And one +of the most curious examples of perpetuity of social sentiment is the +hatred and scorn for the Greek or Levantine character, from the days of +Plautus and the elder Cato to the days of the poet Claudian.(555) For more +than 600 years, the Roman who had borrowed his best culture, his polish +and ideas from the Greek, was ready to sneer at the "Greekling." The +conquerors of Macedon could never forgive their own conquest by Greek +knowledge and versatility, by which old Roman victories in the field had +been avenged. And, as the pride of the imperial race grew with the +consciousness of great achievements, the political degradation and +economic decay of Greece and Greek-speaking lands produced a type of +character which combined the old cleverness and keenness of intellect with +the moral defects of an impoverished and subject race. Something of Roman +contempt for the Greek must be set down to that national prejudice and +difference of temperament, which made our ancestors treat the great French +nation, with all its brilliant gifts and immense contributions to European +culture, as a race of posturing dancing-masters.(556) Such prejudices are +generally more intense in the lower than in the upper and the cultivated +classes. Juvenal, indeed, was a cultivated man, who knew Greek literature, +and had been formed by Greek rhetors in the schools. But he was also a +Roman plebeian, with that pride of race which is often as deep in the +plebeian as in the aristocrat. He gives voice to the feeling of his class +when he indignantly laments that the true-born Roman, whose infancy has +drunk in the air of the Aventine, should have to yield place to the +supple, fawning stranger, who has come with the same wind as the figs and +prunes. The Orontes is pouring its pollutions into the Tiber.(557) Every +trade and profession, from the master of the highest studies down to the +rope-dancer and the pander, is crowded with hungry, keen-witted +adventurers from the East. Every island of the Aegean, every city of Asia, +is flooding Rome with its vices and its venal arts.(558) Quickness of +intellect and depravity of morals, the brazen front and the ready tongue +are driving into the shade the simple, unsophisticated honesty of the old +Roman breed. At the morning receptions of the great patron, the poor Roman +client, who has years of honest, quiet service to show, even the +impoverished scion of an ancient consular line, are pushed aside by some +sycophant from the Euphrates,(559) who can hardly conceal the brand of +recent servitude upon him. These men, by their smooth speech, their +effrontery and ready wit, their infinite capacity for assuming every mood +and humouring every caprice of the patron, are creeping into the recesses +of great houses, worming out their secrets, and mastering their +virtue.(560) Rome is becoming a Greek town,(561) in which there will soon +be no place for Romans. + +Much of this indictment, as we have said, is the offspring of prejudice +and temperament. But there was a foundation of truth under the declamation +of Juvenal. The higher education of Roman youth had for generations been +chiefly in the hands of men of Greek culture, from the days of Ennius and +Crates of Mallus, before the third Punic War.(562) The tutor's old title +_literatus_ had early given place to that of _grammaticus_.(563) And, of +the long line of famous _grammatici_ commemorated by Suetonius, there are +few who were not by origin or culture connected with the Greek east. Most +of them had been freedmen of savants or great nobles.(564) Some had +actually been bought in the slave market.(565) The profession was +generally ill-paid and enjoyed little consideration, and it was often the +last resort of those who had failed in other and not more distinguished +callings. Orbilius, the master of Horace, had been an attendant in a +public office.(566) Others had been pugilists or low actors in +pantomime.(567) Q. Remmius Palaemon, whose vices made him infamous in the +reign of Tiberius and Claudius, had been a house-slave, and was originally +a weaver.(568) He educated himself while attending his young master at +school, and by readiness, versatility, and arrogant self-assertion, rose +to an income of more than L4000 a year. Sometimes they attained to rank +and fortune by being entrusted with the tuition of the imperial +children.(569) But the grammarian, to the very end, as a rule never +escaped the double stigma of doubtful origin and of poverty. + +The medical profession, according to the elder Pliny, was a Greek art +which was seldom practised by Romans.(570) Julius Caesar, by giving civic +rights to physicians from Egypt and Hellenic lands,(571) while he raised +the status of the medical calling, also stimulated the immigration of +foreign practitioners. The rank and fortune attained by the court +physicians of the early Caesars, Antonius Musa, the Stertinii,(572) and +others, which almost rivalled the medical successes of our own day, seemed +to offer a splendid prize. Yet the profession was generally in low +repute.(573) It was long recruited from the ranks of old slaves, and men +of the meanest callings. Carpenters and smiths and undertakers flocked +into it, often with only a training of six months.(574) Galen found most +of his medical brethren utterly illiterate, and recommends them to pay a +little attention to grammar in dealing with their patients.(575) They +compounded in their own shops, and touted for practice.(576) They called +in the aid of spells and witchcraft to reinforce their drugs. We need not +believe all the coarse insinuations of Martial against their morality, any +more than the sneers of Petronius against their skill. But we are bound to +conclude that the profession held a very different place in public esteem +from that which it enjoys and deserves in our own time. + +Astrology, which was the aristocratic form of divination, and involved in +many a dark intrigue of the early Empire, was a Greek as well as a +Chaldaean art. The name of the practitioner often reveals his nationality. +The Seleucus(577) and Ptolemaeus who affected to guide the fate of Otho, +and the Ascletarion of Domitian's reign,(578) are only representatives of +a nameless crowd. And their strange power is seen in that tale of a Greek +diviner, Pammenes, in the last years of Nero, whose horoscopes led to the +tragic end of P. Anteius and Ostorius Scapula.(579) In other countless +arts of doubtful repute, which ministered to the pleasure or amusement of +the crowd, the Greek was always an adept. But it was his success as a +courtier and accomplished flatterer of the great, which chiefly roused the +scornful hatred of Juvenal and his fellows. The "adulandi gens +prudentissima," would hardly have been guilty of the simple and obvious +grossness of flattery which the rhetoric of Juvenal attributes to +them.(580) They knew their trade better than the Roman plebeian. It was an +old and highly rewarded profession in Greece, and had often been the theme +of Greek moralists. Plutarch wrote an elaborate treatise on the difference +between the sycophant and the true friend, in which he seems almost to +exhaust the wily resources of the pretender. Lucian, with his delicate +irony, seems almost to raise the Greek skill in adulation to the level of +a fine art.(581) And the polished and versatile Greek, with his lively +wit, his delicate command of expression, his cool audacity, and his +unscrupulousness, was a formidable rival of the coarser Roman parasite +celebrated in Latin comedy. We can well imagine that the young Greek, +fresh from the schools of Ionia, was a livelier companion at dinner than +the proud Roman man of letters who snatched the dole and disdained himself +for receiving it. + +There is perhaps no phase of Roman society in Domitian's day which we know +more intimately than the life of the client. It is photographed, in all +its sordid slavery, by both Juvenal and Martial. And Martial himself is +perhaps the best example of a man of genius submitting, with occasional +intervals of proud rebellion,(582) to a degradation which in our eyes no +poverty could excuse. The client of the early Empire was a totally +different person from the client of Republican times. In the days of +freedom, the tie of patron and client was rather that of clansman and +chief; it was justified by political and social necessity, and ennobled by +feelings of loyalty and mutual obligation. Under the Empire, the relation +was tainted by the selfish materialism of the age; it had seldom any trace +of sentiment. The rich man was expected to have a humble train of +dependents to maintain his rank and consequence. There was a host of needy +people ready to do him such service. The hungry client rushed to his +patron's morning reception, submitted to all his coldness and caprice, or +to the insolence of his menials, followed his chair through the streets, +and ran on his errands, for the sake of a miserable alms in money or in +kind.(583) The payment was sometimes supplemented by a cast-off cloak, or +an invitation at the last moment to fill a place at dinner, when perhaps +it could not be accepted.(584) In the train which the great man gathered +about him, to swell his importance, were to be seen, not only the starving +man of letters, the loafer and mere mendicant, but the sons of ruined +houses "sprung from Troy," and even senators and men of consular rank who +had a clientele of their own.(585) + +Nothing throws a more lurid light on the economic condition of Italy in +the time of the early Empire than this form of pensioned dependence. The +impression which we derive from Juvenal and Martial is that of a society +divided between a small class of immensely wealthy people, and an almost +starving proletariat.(586) Poverty seems almost universal, except in the +freedman class, who by an industrial energy and speculative daring, which +were despised by the true-born Roman, were now rapidly rising to opulence. +The causes of this plebeian indigence can only be glanced at here. The +agricultural revolution, which ruined the small freeholders and created +the plantation system,(587) had driven great numbers of once prosperous +farmers to the capital, to depend on the granaries of the State, or on the +charity of a wealthy patron. Such men were kept in poverty and dependence +by that general contempt for trade and industrial pursuits which always +prevails in a slave-owning society. Many of the greatest families had been +reduced to poverty by proscription and confiscation. A great noble might +be keeping sheep on a Laurentine farm, if he could not win a pension from +the grace of the Emperor. At the same time, from various causes, what we +should call the liberal professions, with the doubtful exception of +medicine, tortured those engaged in them by the contrast between ambitious +hopes and the misery of squalid poverty. "Make your son an auctioneer or +an undertaker rather than an advocate or a man of letters" is the advice +of Martial and Juvenal, and of the shrewd vulgar guests of +Trimalchio.(588) Any mean and malodorous trade will be more lucrative than +the greatest knowledge and culture. The rich literary amateur, who should +have been a Maecenas, in that age became an author himself, composed his +own Thebaid or Codrid, and would only help the poor man of genius by the +loan of an unfurnished hall for a reading.(589) The unabashed mendicancy +of Martial shows the mean straits to which the genuine literary man was +reduced.(590) The historian will not earn as much as the reader of the +_Acta Diurna_.(591) It is the same with education. What costs the father +least is the training of his son. The man who will expend a fortune on his +baths and colonnades, can spare a Quintilian only a fraction of what he +will give for a pastry cook.(592) The grammarian, who is expected to be +master of all literature, will be lucky if he receives as much for the +year as a charioteer gains by a single victory.(593) If the rhetor, weary +of mock battles, descends into the real arena of the courts, he fares no +better.(594) The bar is overcrowded by men to whom no other career of +ambition is open, by old informers who find their occupation gone, by the +sons of noble houses who parade the glory of their ancestors in order to +attract vulgar clients. They are carried in a litter, surrounded by slaves +and dependents, down to the courts of the Centumviri. The poor pleader +must hire or borrow purple robes and jewelled rings, if he is to compete +with them. And in the end, he may find his honorarium for a day's hard +pleading to be a leg of pork, a jar of tunnies, or a few flasks of cheap +wine. In this materialised society all the prizes go to the coarser +qualities; there is nothing but neglect and starvation before taste and +intellect. And poverty is punished by being forced to put on the show of +wealth.(595) That stately person in violet robes who stalks through the +forum, or reclines in a freshly decorated chair, followed by a throng of +slaves, has just pawned his ring to buy a dinner.(596) That matron, who +has sold the last pieces of her ancestral plate, will hire splendid dress, +a sedan chair, and a troop of attendants, to go in proper state to the +games.(597) Thus you have the spectacle of a society divided between the +idle, luxurious rich and the lazy, hungry poor, who imitate all the vices +of the rich, and although too proud to work, are not ashamed to borrow or +to beg. + +In such a society, where the paths of honest industry seemed closed to the +poor, or as yet undiscovered, the great problem was how to secure without +labour a share of the wealth which was monopolised by the few. The problem +was solved by the obsequiousness of the client, or by the arts of the +will-hunter. Owing to celibacy and vice, childlessness in that age was +extraordinarily common in the upper class. In a society of "ambitious +poverty," a society where poverty was unable, or where it disdained, to +find the path to competence through honest toil, the wealthy, without +natural heirs, offered a tempting prey to the needy adventurer. Captation +by every kind of mean flattery, or vicious service, became a recognised +profession. In the Croton of Petronius there are only two classes, the +rich and the sycophant, the hunters and the hunted.(598) Even men of high +position, with no temptation from want, would stoop to this detestable +trade.(599) And the social tone which tolerated the captator, made it +almost an honour to be beset on a sick-bed by these rapacious sycophants. +One of the darkest and most repulsive features in that putrescent society +was the social value which attached to a vicious and shameful +childlessness. A morose and unlovely old age could thus gather around it a +little court of dependents and pretended friends, such as a career of +great achievement would hardly attract. There have been few more loathsome +characters than the polished hypocrite by the sick-bed of his prey, +shedding tears of feigned sympathy, while with eager eyes he is noting +every symptom of the approaching end.(600) + +Juvenal and Petronius, the embittered plebeian, and the cynical, +fastidious epicure of Nero's court, alike treat their age as utterly +corrupted and vulgarised by the passion for money; "inter nos sanctissima +divitiarum Majestas."(601) No virtue, no gifts, no eminence of service, +will be noticed in the poor.(602) A great fortune will conceal the want of +talent, sense, or common decency. Everything is forgiven to the master of +money bags, even the brand of the slave prison.(603) In Juvenal and +Martial probably the most resonant note is the cry of the poor--"How long." +Yet, after all, it is not a fierce cry of revolt; against that highly +organised and centralised society the disinherited never dreamed of +rebellion, even when the Goths were under the walls. It is rather an +appeal, though often a bitter and angry appeal, for pity and a modest +share in a wasted abundance. In the poems of Juvenal and Martial, as in +the sentiment of the colleges and municipalities for generations, the one +hope for the mass of helpless indigence lay in awaking the generosity and +charity of the rich. The rich, as we shall see in another chapter, +admitted the obligation, and responded to the claim, often in the most +lavish fashion. A long line of emperors not only fed the mob of the +capital, but squandered the resources of the State in providing gross and +demoralising amusements for them.(604) Under the influence of the Stoic +teaching of the brotherhood of man and the duty of mutual help, both +private citizens and benevolent princes, from Nero to M. Aurelius, created +charitable foundations for the orphan and the needy.(605) Public +calamities were relieved again and again by imperial aid and private +charity.(606) The love of wealth was strong, but a spirit of benevolence +was in the air, even in the days of Juvenal; and the constant invectives +of poet or philosopher against wealth and luxury are not so much the sign +of a growing selfishness, as of a spreading sense of the duty of the +fortunate to the miserable. Although the literary men seem never to have +thought of any economic solution of the social problem, through the +tapping of fresh sources of wealth from which all might draw, yet there +can be no doubt that there was, at least in provincial cities, a great +industrial movement in the Antonine age, which gave wealth to some, and a +respectable competence to many. The opulent freedman and the contented +artisan have left many a memorial in the inscriptions. Yet the movement +had not solved the social problem in the days of Lucian, as it has not +solved it after seventeen centuries. The cry of the poor against the +selfish rich, which rings in the ears of the detached man of letters at +the end of the Antonine age, will still ring in the ears of the ascetic +Salvianus, when the Germans have passed the Rhine.(607) + +The scorn and hatred of Juvenal for wealth and its vices is natural to a +class which was too proud to struggle out of poverty, by engaging in the +industries which it despised. And the freedman, who occupied the vacant +field, and rose to opulence, is even more an object of hatred to Juvenal +and Martial than the recreant noble or the stingy patron. He was an alien +of servile birth, and he had made himself wealthy by the usual method of +thinking of nothing but gold. These men, who were not even free Romans, +had mastered the power which commands the allegiance of the world. The +rise of this new class to wealth and importance probably irritated men of +Juvenal's type more than any other sign of social injustice in their time. +And the Trimalchio of Petronius, a man of low, tainted origin, the +creature of economic accident, whose one faith is in the power of money, +who boasts of his fortune as if it had been won by real talent or +honourable service, who expends it with coarse ostentation and a ludicrous +affectation of cultivated taste, may be tolerated in literature, if not in +actual life, for the charm of a certain kindly bonhomie and honest +vulgarity, which the art of Petronius has thrown around him. Yet, after +all, we must concede to Juvenal and Martial, that such a person is always +a somewhat unpleasing social product. But the subject is so important that +it claims a chapter to itself. And, fortunately for us and our readers, +the new freedmen were not all of the type of Trimalchio. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + + THE SOCIETY OF THE FREEDMEN + + +The historian, who is occupied with war and politics, and the fate of +princes and nobles, is apt to lose sight of great silent movements in the +dim masses of society. And, in the history of the early Empire, the deadly +conflict between the Emperor and the Senate, the carnival of luxury, and +the tragic close of so many reigns, have diverted attention from social +changes of immense moment. Not the least important of these was the rise +of the freedmen, in the face of the most violent prejudice, both popular +and aristocratic. And literature has thrown its whole weight on the side +of prejudice, and given full vent alike to the scorn of the noble, and to +the hate and envy of the plebeian. The movement, indeed, was so swift and +far spreading that old conservative instincts might well be alarmed. +Everywhere in the inscriptions freedmen are seen rising to wealth and +consequence throughout the provinces, as well as in Italy, and winning +popularity and influence by profuse benefactions to colleges and +municipalities. In almost every district of the Roman Empire the order of +the Augustales, which was composed to a great extent of wealthy +freedmen,(608) has left its memorials. "Freedman's wealth" in Martial's +day had become a proverb.(609) Not only are they crowding all the meaner +trades, from which Roman pride shrank contemptuously, but, by industry, +shrewdness, and speculative daring, they are becoming great capitalists +and landowners on a senatorial scale. The Trimalchio of Petronius, who has +not even seen some of his estates,(610) if we allow for some artistic +exaggeration, is undoubtedly the representative of a great class. In the +reign of Nero, a debate arose in the Senate on the insolence and +misconduct of freedmen.(611) And it was argued by those opposed to any +violent measures of repression, that the class was widely diffused; they +were found in overwhelming numbers in the city tribes, in the lower +offices of the civil service, in the establishments of the magistrates and +priests; a considerable number even of the knights and Senate drew their +origin from this source. If freedmen were marked off sharply as a separate +grade, the scanty numbers of the freeborn would be revealed. In the reigns +of Claudius and Nero especially, freedmen rose to the highest places in +the imperial service, sometimes by unquestionable knowledge, tact, and +ability, sometimes by less creditable arts. The promotion of a Narcissus +or a Pallas was also a stroke of policy, the assertion of the prince's +independence of a jealous nobility. The rule of the freedmen was a bitter +memory to the Senate.(612) The scorn of Pliny for Pallas expresses the +long pent-up feelings of his order; it is a belated vengeance for the +humiliation they endured in the evil days when they heaped ridiculous +flattery on the favourite, and voted him a fortune and a statue.(613) Some +part of the joy with which the accession of Trajan was hailed by the +aristocracy was due to the hope that the despised interlopers would be +relegated to their proper obscurity. Tacitus is undoubtedly glancing at +the Claudian regime when he grimly congratulates the Germans on the fact +that their freedmen are little above the level of slaves, that they have +seldom any power in the family, and never in the State.(614) + +It shows the immense force of old Roman conservatism and of social +prejudice which is the same from age to age, when men so cultivated, yet +of such widely different temperament and associations as Pliny and +Tacitus, Juvenal and Martial(615) and Petronius, denounce or ridicule an +irresistible social movement. We can now see that the rise of the +emancipated slave was not only inevitable, but that it was, on the whole, +salutary and rich in promise for the future. The slave class of antiquity +really corresponded to our free labouring class. But, unlike the mass of +our artisans, it contained many who, from accident of birth and education, +had a skill and knowledge which their masters often did not possess.(616) +The slaves who came from the ancient seats of civilisation in the East are +not to be compared with the dark gross races who seem to be stamped by +nature as of an inferior breed. This frequent mental and moral equality of +the Roman slave with his master had forced itself upon men of the detached +philosophic class, like Seneca, and on kindly aristocrats, like +Pliny.(617) It must have been hard to sit long hours in the library beside +a cultivated slave-amanuensis, or to discuss the management of lands and +mines and quarries with a shrewd, well-informed slave-agent, or to be +charmed by the grace and wit of some fair, frail daughter of Ionia, +without having some doubts raised as to the eternal justice of such an +institution. Nay, it is certain that slaves were often treated as +friends,(618) and received freedom and a liberal bequest at their master's +death. Many educated slaves, as we have seen, rose to distinction and +fortune as teachers and physicians.(619) But the field of trade and +industry was the most open and the most tempting. The Senator was +forbidden, down to the last age of the Empire, both by law and sentiment, +to increase his fortune by commerce.(620) The plebeian, saturated with +Roman prejudice, looking for support to the granaries of the state or the +dole of the wealthy patron, turned with disdain from occupations which are +in our days thought innocent, if not honourable. Juvenal feels almost as +much scorn for the auctioneer and undertaker as he has for the pander, and +treats almost as a criminal the merchant who braves the wintry Aegean with +a cargo of wine from Crete.(621) His friend Umbricius, worsted in the +social struggle, and preparing to quit Rome for a retreat in Campania, +among the other objects of his plebeian scorn, is specially disgusted with +the low tribe who contract for the building of a house, or who farm the +dues of a port or undertake to cleanse a river-bed.(622) There is no room +left in Rome for men who will not soil themselves with such sordid trades. +Manifestly, if the satirist is not burlesquing the feeling of his class, +there was plenty of room left for the vigorous freedman who could accept +Vespasian's motto that no gain is unsavoury.(623) But those men had not +only commercial tact and ability, the wit to see where money was to be +made by seizing new openings and unoccupied fields for enterprise; they +had also among them men of great ambitions, men capable of great affairs. +It required no common deftness, suppleness, and vigilant energy for an old +slave to work his way upwards through the grades of the imperial chancery, +to thread the maze of deadly intrigue, in the reigns of Claudius or Nero, +and to emerge at last as master of the palace. Yet one of these freedmen +ministers, when he died, had served ten emperors, six of whom had come to +a violent end.(624) That a class so despised and depressed should rise to +control the trade, and even the administration of the Empire, furnishes a +presumption that they were needed, and that they were not unworthy of +their destiny. + +Yet however inevitable, or even desirable, this great revolution may seem +to the cool critic of the twentieth century, it is possible that, had he +lived in the first, he might have denounced it as vigorously as Juvenal. +The literary and artistic spirit, often living in a past golden age, and +remotely detached from the movements going on around it, is prone to +regard them with uneasy suspicion. It is moved by sacred sentiment, by +memories and distant ideals, by fastidious taste, which expresses itself +often with passionate hatred for what seems to it revolutionary sacrilege. +It is also apt to fasten on the more grotesque and vulgar traits of any +great popular movement, and to use a finished skill in making it +ridiculous. It was in this way that literature treated the freedmen. They +had many gross and palpable faults; they were old slaves and Orientals; as +they rose in the world they were eager for money, and they got it; they +were, many of them, naturally vulgar, and they paraded their new wealth +with execrable taste, and trampled on better, though poorer, men than +themselves, Juvenal and Martial, by birth and associations, have little in +common with that accomplished exquisite of the Neronian circle who has +painted with the power of careless genius the household of the _parvenu_ +Trimalchio. Yet they have an equal scorn or detestation for the new man +who was forcing his way from the lowest debasement of servile life to +fortune and power. But the embittered man of letters, humiliated by +poverty, yet brimful of Roman pride, avenges his ideals with a rougher, +heavier hand than the Epicurean noble, who had joined in the "Noctes +Neronis" with a delicate, scornful cynicism, who was too disillusioned, +and too fastidiously contemptuous, to waste anger on what he despised. +Juvenal would blast and wither the objects of his hatred. Petronius takes +the surer method of making these people supremely ridiculous. The feeling +of men like Juvenal and Martial is a mixture of contempt and envy and +outraged taste. The Grub Street man of letters in those days despised +plodding industry because he dearly loved fits of idleness; he hated +wealth because he was poor. The polished man of the world was alternately +amused and disgusted by the spectacle of sudden fortune accumulated by +happy chance or unscrupulous arts, with no tradition of dignity to gild +its grossness, yet affecting and burlesquing the tastes of a world from +which it was separated by an impassable gulf. There is more moral +sentiment, more old Roman feeling, in the declamation of Juvenal than in +the cold artistic scorn of the _Satiricon_; there is also more personal +and class feeling. The triumph of mere money is to Juvenal a personal +affront as well as a moral catastrophe. Poverty now makes a man +ridiculous.(625) It blocks the path of the finest merit. The rich freedman +who claims the foremost place at a levee is equally objectionable because +he was born on the Euphrates, and because he is the owner of five taverns +which yield HS.400,000 a year.(626) The impoverished knight must quit his +old place on the benches to make way for some auctioneer or pimp, some old +slave from the Nile who stalks in with purple robes and bejewelled +fingers, and hair reeking with unguents.(627) The only refuge will soon be +some half-deserted village on old-fashioned Sabine ground, where the +country folk sit side by side in the same white tunics with their aediles +in the grassy theatre.(628) It is evident from Juvenal, Martial, and +Petronius that the popular hostility to the new men was partly the result +of envy at their success, partly of disgust at their parade of it. Juvenal +and Martial are often probably dressing up the rough epigrams of the +crowd. We can almost hear the contemptuous growl as one of these people, +suspected of a dark crime, sweeps by in his downy sedan. That other noble +knight used to hawk the cheap fish of his native Egypt, and now possesses +a palace towering over the Forum, with far-spreading colonnades and acres +of shady groves.(629) A eunuch minister has reared a pile which out-tops +the Capitol.(630) Fellows who used to blow the horn in the circus of +country towns now give gladiatorial shows themselves.(631) Prejudice or +envy may not improbably have invented some of the tales of crime and +turpitude by which these fortunes had been won. Rome was a city of +poisonous rumour. Yet slavery was not a nursery of virtue, and the +_Satiricon_ leaves the impression that the emancipated slave too often +imitated the vices of his master. The poisoner, the perjurer, the minion, +were probably to be found in the rising class. After their kind in all +ages, they looked down with vulgar insolence on those less fortunate or +more scrupulous. When they rose to the highest place, the imperial +freedmen were often involved in peculation and criminal intrigue.(632) +Yet, after all reservations, the ascent of the freedmen remains a great +and beneficent revolution. The very reasons which made Juvenal hate it +most are its best justification to a modern mind. It gave hope of a future +to the slave; by creating a free industrial class, it helped to break down +the cramped social ideal of the slave-owner and the soldier; it planted in +every municipality a vigorous mercantile class, who were often excellent +and generous citizens. Above all, it asserted the dignity of man. The +vehement iteration of Juvenal is the best testimony to the sweep and force +of the movement. And the later student of Roman society cannot afford to +neglect a great social upheaval which, in an aristocratic society, +dominated by pride of class and race, made an Oriental slave first +minister of the greatest monarchy in history, while it placed men of +servile origin in command of nearly all the industrial arts and commerce +of the time. + +The reign of the freedman in public affairs began with the foundation of +the Empire, when Julius Caesar installed some of his household as officers +of the mint.(633) The emperor in the first century was, theoretically at +least, only the first citizen, and his household was modelled on the +fashion of other great houses. In the management of those vast senatorial +estates, which were often scattered over three continents, there was need +of an elaborate organisation, and freedmen of education and business +capacity were employed to administer such private realms. And in the +organisation of a great household, there was a hierarchy of office which +offered a career to the shrewd and trustworthy slave. Many such careers +can be traced in the inscriptions, from the post of valet or groom of the +bedchamber, through the offices of master of the jewels and the wardrobe, +superintendent of the carriages or the vineyards, up to the highest +financial control.(634) + +During the first century the same system was transferred to the imperial +administration. It suited the cautious policy of Augustus to disguise his +vast powers under the quiet exterior of an ordinary noble; and the +freedmen of his household carried on the business of the State. He sternly +punished any excesses or treachery among his servants.(635) Tiberius gave +them little power, until his character began to deteriorate.(636) Under +Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, the imperial freedmen attained their +greatest ascendency. Callistus, Narcissus, and Pallas rose to the rank of +great ministers, and, in the reign of Claudius, were practically masters +of the world. They accumulated enormous wealth by abusing their power, and +making a traffic in civic rights, in places or pardons. Polyclitus, who +was sent to compose the troubles in Britain in 61 A.D., travelled with an +enormous train, and gave the provinces an exhibition of the arrogance of +their servile masters.(637) Helius was left to carry on the government +during Nero's theatrical travels, and the exhibitions of his artistic +skill in Greece.(638) Galba put to death two of the great freedmen of +Nero's reign, but himself fell under the influence of others as corrupt +and arrogant, and he showered the honours of rank on the infamous +Icelus.(639) + +It is curious that it was left for Vitellius to break the reign of the +freedmen by assigning offices in the imperial bureaux to the knights, the +policy which was said to have been recommended by Maecenas,(640) and which +was destined to prevail in the second century. But the change was very +incomplete, and the brief tragic reign of Vitellius was disgraced by the +ascendency for a time of his minion Asiaticus, whom the Emperor raised to +the highest honours, then sold into a troop of wandering gladiators, and +finally received back again into freedom and favour.(641) The policy of +the Flavian dynasty in the employment of freedmen is rather ambiguous. +Vespasian is charged with having elevated Hormus, a disreputable member of +the class, and with having appointed to places of trust the most rapacious +agents.(642) But this is probably a calumny of the Neronian and Othonian +circle who defamed their conqueror. Under Domitian, the freedmen, Entellus +and Abascantus, held two of the great secretaryships. But it is distinctly +recorded that Domitian distributed offices impartially between the +freedmen and the knights.(643) On the accession of Trajan, Pliny, in his +Panegyric, exults in the fall of the freedmen from the highest place.(644) +Yet Hadrian is said to have procured his selection as emperor by carefully +cultivating the favour of Trajan's freedmen. Hadrian, in reorganising the +imperial administration, and founding the bureaucratic system, which was +finally elaborated by Diocletian and Constantine, practically confined the +tenure of the three great secretaryships to men of equestrian rank. Among +his secretaries was the historian Suetonius.(645) Antoninus Pius severely +repressed men of servile origin in the interest of pure +administration;(646) but they regained some influence for a time under M. +Aurelius, and rose still higher under his infamous son. + +The position of freedmen in the imperial administration was partly, as we +have seen, a tradition of aristocratic households. The emperor employed +his freedmen to write his despatches and administer the finances of the +Empire, as he would have used them to write his private letters or to +manage his private estates. But, in the long conflict between the prince +and the Senate, the employment of trusted freedmen in imperial affairs was +also a measure of policy. It was meant to teach the nobles that the Empire +could be administered without their aid.(647) Nor was the confidence of +the Emperor in his humble subordinates unjustified. The eulogies of the +great freedmen in Seneca and Statius, even if they be exaggerated, leave +the impression that a Polybius, a Claudius Etruscus, or an Abascantus +were, in many respects, worthy of their high place. The provinces were, on +the whole, well governed and happy in the very years when the capital was +seething with conspiracy, and racked with the horrors of confiscation and +massacre. This must have been chiefly due to the knowledge, tact, and +ability of the great officials of the palace. Although of servile origin, +they must have belonged to that considerable class of educated slaves who, +along with the versatility and tact of the Hellenic East, brought to their +task also a knowledge and a literary and linguistic skill which were not +common among Roman knights. The three imperial secretaryships, _a +rationibus_, _a libellis_, and _ab epistulis_, covered a vast field of +administration, and the duties of these great ministries could only have +been performed by men of great industry, talent, and diplomatic +adroitness.(648) The Polybius to whom Seneca, from his exile in Sardinia, +wrote a consolatory letter on the death of his brother, was the successor +of Callistus, as secretary of petitions, in the reign of Claudius, and +also the emperor's adviser of studies. Seneca magnifies the dignity, and +also the burden, of his great rank, which demands an abnegation of all the +ordinary pleasures of life.(649) A man has no time to indulge a private +grief who has to study and arrange for the Emperor's decision thousands of +appeals coming from every quarter of the world. Yet this busy man could +find time for literary work, and his translations from the Greek are +lauded by the philosopher with an enthusiasm of which the cruelty of time +does not allow us to estimate the value.(650) The panegyric on Claudius +Etruscus, composed by Statius, records an even more remarkable +career.(651) Claudius Etruscus died at the age of eighty, in the reign of +Domitian, having served in various capacities under ten emperors,(652) six +of whom had died by a violent death. It was a strangely romantic life, to +which we could hardly find a parallel in the most democratic community in +modern times. Claudius, a Smyrniote slave,(653) in the household of +Tiberius, was emancipated and promoted by that Emperor. He followed the +train of Caligula to Gaul,(654) rose to higher rank under Claudius, and, +probably in Nero's reign, on the retirement of Pallas, was appointed to +that financial office of which the world-wide cares are pompously +described by the poet biographer.(655) The gold of Iberian mines, the +harvests of Egypt, the fleeces of Tarentine flocks, pearls from the depths +of Eastern seas, the ivory tribute of the Indies, all the wealth wafted to +Rome by every wind, are committed to his keeping. He had also the task of +disbursing a vast revenue for the support of the populace, for roads and +bulwarks against the sea, for the splendour of temples and palaces.(656) +Such cares left space only for brief slumber and hasty meals; there was +none for pleasure. Yet Claudius had the supreme satisfaction of wielding +enormous power, and he occasionally shared in its splendour. The poor +slave from the Hermus had a place in the "Idumaean triumph" of Vespasian, +which his quiet labours had prepared, and he was raised by that emperor to +the benches of the knights.(657) The only check in that prosperous course +seems to have been a brief exile to the shores of Campania in the reign of +Domitian.(658) + +Abascantus,(659) the secretary _ab epistulis_ of Domitian's reign, has +also been commemorated by Statius. That great office which controlled the +imperial correspondence with all parts of the world, was generally held by +freedmen in the first century. Narcissus, in the reign of Claudius, first +made it a great ministry.(660) Down to the reign of Hadrian the despatches +both in Greek and Latin were under a single superintendence. But in the +reorganisation of the service in the second century, it was found +necessary, from the growing complication of business, to create two +departments of imperial correspondence.(661) Men of rank held the +secretaryship from the end of the first century. Titinius Capito, one of +Pliny's circle, filled the office under Domitian; Suetonius was appointed +by Hadrian.(662) And during the Antonine age, the secretaries were often +men of literary distinction.(663) Abascantus, the freedman secretary in +the Silvae, had upon his shoulders, according to the poet, the whole +weight of the correspondence with both East and West.(664) He received the +laurelled despatches from the Euphrates, the Danube, and the Rhine; he had +to watch the distribution of military grades and commands. He must keep +himself informed of a thousand things affecting the fortunes of the +subject peoples. Yet this powerful minister retained his native modesty +with his growing fortune. His household was distinguished by all the +sobriety and frugality of an Apulian or Sabine home.(665) He could be +lavish, however, at the call of love or loyalty. He gave his wife +Priscilla an almost royal burial.(666) Embalmed with all the spices and +fragrant odours of the East, and canopied with purple, her body was borne +to her last stately home of marble on the Appian Way.(667) + +Some of the great imperial freedmen were of less unexceptionable character +than Claudius Etruscus and Abascantus, and had a more troubled career. +Callistus, Narcissus, and Pallas, were deeply involved in the intrigues +and crimes connected with the history of Messalina and Agrippina. +Callistus had a part in the murder of Caligula, and prolonged his power in +the following reign. Narcissus revealed the shameless marriage of +Messalina with Silius, and, forestalling the vacillation of Claudius, had +the imperial harlot ruthlessly struck down as she lay grovelling in the +gardens of Lucullus.(668) But he incurred the enmity of a more formidable +woman even than Messalina, and his long career of plunder was ended by +suicide.(669) Pallas had an even longer and more successful, but a not +less infamous and tragic career.(670) Of all the great freedmen, probably +none approached him in magnificent insolence. When he was impeached along +with Burrus, on a groundless charge of treason, and when some of his +freedmen were called in evidence as his supposed accomplices, the old +slave answered that he had never degraded his voice by speaking in such +company.(671) Never, even in those days of self-abasement, did the Senate +sink so low as in its grovelling homage to the servile minister. At a +meeting of the august body in the year 52, the consul designate made a +proposal, which was seconded by a Scipio, that the praetorian insignia, +and a sum of HS.15,000,000, should be offered to Pallas, together with the +thanks of the state that the descendant of the ancient kings of Arcadia +had thought less of his illustrious race than of the common weal, and had +deigned to be enrolled in the service of the prince!(672) When Claudius +reported that his minister was satisfied with the compliment, and prayed +to be allowed to remain in his former poverty, a senatorial decree, +engraved on bronze, was set up to commemorate the old-fashioned frugality +of the owner of HS.300,000,000! His wealth was gained during a career of +enormous power in the worst days of the Empire. He was one of the lovers +of Agrippina,(673) and, when he made her empress on the death of +Messalina, two kindred spirits for a time ruled the Roman world. He +gratified his patroness by securing the adoption of Nero by Claudius, and +he was probably an accomplice in that emperor's murder. But his fate was +involved with that of Agrippina. When Nero resolved to shake off the +tyranny of that awful woman, his first step was to remove the haughty +freedman from his offices.(674) Pallas left the palace in the second year +of Nero's reign. For seven years he lived on undisturbed. But at last his +vast wealth, which had become a proverb, became too tempting to the +spendthrift prince, and Pallas was quietly removed by poison.(675) + +The wealth of freedmen became proverbial, and the fortunes of Pallas and +Narcissus reached a figure hardly ever surpassed even by the most colossal +senatorial estates.(676) The means by which this wealth was gained might +easily be inferred by any one acquainted with the inner history of the +times. The manner of it may be read in the life of Elagabalus, whose +freedman Zoticus, the son of a cook at Smyrna, piled up vast riches by +levying a payment, each time he quitted the presence, for his report of +the emperor's threats or promises or intentions.(677) In the +administration of great provinces, in the distribution of countless places +of trust, in the chaos of years of delation, confiscation, and massacre, +there must have been endless opportunities for self-enrichment, without +incurring the dangers of open malversation. Statius extols the simple +tastes and frugality of his heroes Abascantus and Claudius Etruscus, and +yet he describes them as lavishing money on baths and tombs and funeral +pomp. The truth is that, as a mere matter of policy, these wealthy aliens, +who were never loved by a jealous aristocracy, had to justify their huge +fortunes by a sumptuous splendour. The elder Pliny has commemorated the +vapour baths of Posides, a Claudian freedman, and the thirty pillars of +priceless onyx which adorned the dining saloon of Callistus.(678) A bijou +bath of the younger Claudius Etruscus seems to have been a miracle of +costly beauty. The dome, through which a brilliant light streamed upon the +floor, was covered with scenes in rich mosaic. The water gushed from pipes +of silver into silver basins, and the quarries of Numidia and Synnada +contributed the various colours of their marbles.(679) The gardens of +Entellus, with their purple clusters which defied the rigours of winter, +seemed to Martial to outrival the legendary gardens of Phaeacia.(680) In +the suburbs, hard by the Tiburtine way, rose that defiant monument of +Pallas, bearing the decree of the Senate, which aroused the angry scorn of +the younger Pliny.(681) + +The life of one of these imperial slave ministers was a strangely romantic +career which has surely been seldom matched in the history of human +fortunes. Exposed and sold in early youth in the slave markets of Smyrna, +Delos, or Puteoli, after an interval of ignominious servitude, installed +as groom of the chambers, thence promoted, according to his aptitudes, to +be keeper of the jewels, or tutor of the imperial heir, still further +advanced to be director of the post, or to a place in the financial +service, the freedman might end by receiving the honour of knighthood, the +procuratorship of a province, or one of those great ministries which +placed him in command of the Roman world. Yet we must not deceive +ourselves as to his real position.(682) To the very end of the Empire, the +fictions on which aristocratic power is largely based, retained their +fascination. In the fifth century a Senate, whose ancestors were often +originally of servile race, could pour their scorn on the eunuch ministers +of the East.(683) And the decaying or _parvenu_ Senate of the Flavians +had, when they were free to express it, nothing but loathing for the reign +of the freedmen.(684) These powerful but low-born officials are a curious +example of what has been often seen in later times, the point-blank +refusal, or the grudging concession, of social status to men wielding vast +and substantial power. The younger Pliny, in his Panegyric on Trajan, +glories in the preference shown under the new regime for young men of +birth, and in his letters he vents all the long-suppressed scorn of his +order for the Claudian freedmen. Even the emperors who freely employed +their services, were chary of raising them to high social rank. Freedmen +ministers were hardly ever admitted to the ranks of the Senate(685); they +were rarely present at its sittings, even at the very time when they were +governing the world. Sacerdotal and military distinctions were seldom +conferred upon any of them. They were sometimes invested with the insignia +of praetorian or quaestorian rank.(686) A few were promoted to the dignity +of knighthood, Icelus, Asiaticus, Hormus, and Claudius Etruscus(687); but +many a passage in Martial or Juvenal seems to show that ordinary +equestrian rank was in those days a very doubtful distinction.(688) The +emperors, as raised above all ranks, might not have been personally +unwilling to elevate their creatures to the highest social grade.(689) But +even the emperors, in matters of social prejudice, were not omnipotent. + +Still, the men who could win the favours of an Agrippina and a Messalina, +could not be extinguished by the most jealous social prejudice. The Roman +Senate were ready, on occasion, to fawn on a Pallas or a Narcissus, to +vote them money and insignia of rank, nor did they always refuse them +their daughters in marriage. In the conflict which is so often seen +between caste pride and the effective power of new wealth, the wealth and +power not unfrequently prevail. The lex Julia prohibited the union of +freedmen with daughters of a senatorial house.(690) Yet we know of several +such marriages in the first century. The wife of the freedman Claudius +Etruscus, was the sister of a consul who had held high command against the +Dacians.(691) Priscilla, the wife of Abascantus, another minister of +servile origin, belonged to the great consular family of the Antistii. +Felix, the brother of Pallas, had married in succession three ladies of +royal blood, one of them the granddaughter of Cleopatra.(692) + +The women of this class, for generations, wielded, in their own way, a +power which sometimes rivalled that of the men. These plebeian Aspasias +are a puzzling class. With no recognised social position, with the double +taint of servile origin and more than doubtful morals, they were often +endowed with many charms and accomplishments, possessing a special +attraction for bohemian men of letters. Their morals were the result of an +uncertain social position, combined with personal attractions and +education. To be excluded from good society by ignoble birth, yet to be +more than its equal in culture, is a dangerous position, especially for +women. Often of oriental extraction, these women were the most prominent +votaries of the cults or superstitions which poured into Rome from the +prolific East. Loose character and religious fervour were easily combined +in antiquity. And the _demi-monde_ of those days were ready to mourn +passionately for Adonis and keep all the feasts of Isis or Jehovah, +without scrupling to make a temple a place of assignation.(693) The +history of the early Empire, it has been rather inaccurately said, shows +no reign of mistresses. Yet some of the freedwomen have left their mark on +that dark page of history. Claudius was the slave of women, and two of his +mistresses lent their aid to Narcissus to compass the ruin of +Messalina.(694) The one woman whom Nero really loved, and who loved him in +return, was Acte, who had been bought in a slave market in Asia. She +captured the heart of the Emperor in his early youth, and incurred the +fierce jealousy of Agrippina, as she did, at a later date, that of the +fair, ambitious Poppaea.(695) Acte was faithful to his memory even after +the last awful scene in Phaon's gardens.(696) And, along with his two +nurses, the despised freedwoman guarded his remains and laid the last of +his line beside his ancestors. Caenis, the mistress who consoled Vespasian +after his wife's death, without any attractions of youth or beauty, suited +well the taste of the bourgeois Emperor. It was a rather sordid and +prosaic union. And Caenis is said to have accumulated a fortune, and +besmirched the honest Emperor's name, by a wholesale traffic in State +secrets and appointments.(697) In the last years of our period a very +different figure has been glorified by the art of Lucian. Panthea, the +mistress of L. Verus, completely fascinated the imagination of Lucian when +he saw her at Smyrna, during the visit of her lover to the East.(698) +Lucian pictures her delicately chiselled beauty and grace of form by +recalling the finest traits in the great masterpieces of Pheidias and +Praxiteles and Calamis, of Euphranor and Polygnotus and Apelles; Panthea +combines them all. She has a voice of a marvellous and mellow sweetness, +which lingers in the ear with a haunting memory. And the soul was worthy +of such a fair dwelling-place. In her love of music and poetry, combined +with a masculine strength of intellect capable of handling the highest +problems in politics or dialectic, she was a worthy successor of those +elder daughters of Ionia whose charm and strength drew a Socrates or a +Pericles to their feet.(699) Surrounded by luxury and the pomp of imperial +rank, and linked to a very unworthy lover, Panthea never lost her natural +modesty and simple sweetness. + +The great freedmen, who held the highest offices in the imperial service +till the time of Hadrian with almost undisputed sway, are interesting by +reason of the strangely romantic career of some of them. But these are +very exceptional cases. In the bureaux of finance, it has been discovered +from the inscriptions that the officials were all of equestrian rank. On +the other hand, a great number of the provincial procurators were +freedmen. And the agents of the Emperor's private fisc seem to have been +nearly always drawn from this class. The lower grades of the civil service +were full of them.(700) But to the student of society, the official +freedmen are, as a class, not so interesting as their brethren who in +these same years were making themselves masters of the trade and +commercial capital of the Roman world. And the interest is heightened by +the vivid art with which Petronius has ushered us into the very heart of +this rather vulgar society. The _Satiricon_ is to some extent a +caricature. There were hosts of modest, estimable freedmen whose only +record is in two or three lines on a funeral slab. Yet a caricature must +have a foundation of truth, and a careful reader may discover the truth +under the humorous exaggeration of Petronius. + +The transition from the status of slave to that of freedman was perhaps +not so abrupt and marked as we might at first sight suppose. It is +probable that many a slave of the better and more intelligent class found +little practical change in the tenor of his life when he received the +touch of the wand before the praetor. Some, like Melissus, the free-born +slave of Maecenas, actually rejected the proffered boon.(701) There was, +of course, much cruelty to slaves in many Roman households, and the +absolute power of a master, unrestrained by principle or kindly feeling, +was an unmitigated curse till it was limited by the humane legislation of +the second century.(702) But there must have been many houses, like that +of the younger Pliny, where the slaves were treated, in Seneca's phrase, +as humble friends and real members of the family, where their marriages +were feted with general gaiety,(703) where their sicknesses were tenderly +watched, and where they were truly mourned in death. The inscriptions +reveal to us a better side of slave life, which is not so prominent in our +literary authorities. There is many an inscription recording the love and +faithfulness of the slave husband and wife, although not under those +honoured names. And it is significant that on many of these tablets the +honourable title of _conjunx_ is taking the place of the old servile +_contubernalis_. The inscriptions which testify to the mutual love of +master and servant are hardly less numerous. In one a master speaks of a +slave-child of four years as being dear to him as a son.(704) Another +contains the memorial of a learned lady erected by her slave +librarian.(705) Another records the love of a young noble for his +nurse,(706) while another is the pathetic tribute of the nurse to her +young charge, who died at five years of age. The whole city household of +another great family subscribe from their humble savings for an +affectionate memorial of their young mistress.(707) Seneca, in his +humanitarian tone about slavery, represents a great moral movement, which +was destined to express itself in legislation under the Antonines. And the +energy with which Seneca denounced harsh or contemptuous conduct to these +humble dependents had evidently behind it the force of a steadily growing +sentiment. The master who abused his power was already beginning to be a +marked man.(708) + +Frequent manumissions were swelling the freedman class to enormous +dimensions. The emancipation of slaves by dying bequest was not then, +indeed, inspired by the same religious motive as in the Middle Ages. But +it was often dictated by the natural, human wish to make some return to +faithful servants, and to leave a memory of kindness behind. But without +the voluntary generosity of the master, the slave could easily purchase +his own freedom. The price of slaves varied enormously, according to their +special aptitude and grade of service. It might range from L1700, in rare +cases, to L10, or even less, in our money.(709) But taking the average +price of ordinary slaves, one careful and frugal might sometimes save the +cost of his freedom in a few years. The slave, especially if he had any +special gift, or if he occupied a prominent position in the household, had +many chances of adding to his _peculium_. But the commonest drudge might +spare something from the daily allowance of food.(710) Others, like the +cooks in Apuleius, might sell their perquisites from the remains of a +banquet.(711) The door-keepers, a class notorious for their insolence in +Martial's day,(712) often levied heavy tolls for admission to their +master's presence. And good-natured visitors would not depart without +leaving a gift to those who had done them service. It must also be +remembered that the slave system of antiquity covered much of the ground +of our modern industrial organisation. A great household, or a great +estate, was a society almost complete in itself. And intelligent slaves +were often entrusted with the entire management of certain +departments.(713) The great rural properties had their quarries, +brickworks, and mines; and manufactures of all kinds were carried on by +servile industry, with slaves or freedmen as managers. The merchant, the +banker, the contractor, the publisher, had to use, not only slave labour, +but slave skill and superintendence.(714) The great household needed to be +organised under chiefs. And on rural estates, down to the end of the +Western Empire, the villicus or procurator was nearly always a man of +servile origin.(715) In these various capacities, the trusted slave was +often practically a partner, with a share of the profits, or he had a +commission on the returns. Such a fortunate servant, by hoarding his +_peculium_, might soon become a capitalist on his own account, and well +able, if he chose, to purchase his freedom. His _peculium_, like that of +the son _in manu patris_, was of course by law the property of his master. +But the security of the _peculium_ was the security for good service.(716) +Thus a useful and favourite slave often easily became a freedman, +sometimes by purchase, or, as often happened in the case of servants of +the imperial house, by the free gift of the lord. There are even cases on +record where a slave was left heir of his master's property. Trimalchio +boasted that he had been made by his master joint heir with the +Emperor.(717) + +The tie between patron and freedman was very close. The emancipated slave +had often been a trusted favourite, and even a friend of the family, and +his lord was under an obligation to provide for his future. The freedman +frequently remained in the household, with probably little real change in +his position. His patron owed him at least support and shelter. But he +often gave him, besides, the means of an independent life, a farm, a shop, +or capital to start in some trade.(718) In the time of Ovid, a freedman of +M. Aurelius Cotta had more than once received from his patron the fortune +of a knight, besides ample provision for his children.(719) A similar act +of generosity, which was recklessly abused, is recorded by Martial.(720) +By ancient law, as well as by sentiment, senators were forbidden to soil +themselves by trade or usury.(721) But so inconvenient a prohibition was +sure to be evaded. And probably the most frequent means of evasion was by +entrusting senatorial capital to freedmen or clients, or even to the +higher class of slaves.(722) When Trimalchio began to rise in the social +scale, he gave up trade, and employed his capital in financing men of the +freedman class.(723) These people, generally of Levantine origin, had the +aptitude for commerce which has at all times been a characteristic of +their race. And, in the time of the Empire, almost all trade and industry +was in their hands. The tale of Petronius reveals the secret of their +success. They value money beyond anything else; it is the one object of +their lives. They frankly estimate a man's worth and character in terms of +cash.(724) Keen, energetic, and unscrupulous, they will "pick a farthing +out of a dung-heap with their teeth"; "lead turns to gold in their +hands."(725) They are entirely of Vespasian's opinion that gold from any +quarter, however unsavoury, "never smells." Taking the world as it was, in +many respects they deserved to succeed. They were not, indeed, encumbered +with dignity or self-respect. They had one goal, and they worked towards +it with infinite industry and unfailing courage and self-confidence. +Nothing daunts or dismays them. If a fleet of merchantmen, worth a large +fortune, is lost in a storm, the freedman speculator will at once sell his +wife's clothes and jewels, and start cheerfully on a fresh venture.(726) +When his great ambition has been achieved, he enjoys its fruits after his +kind in all ages. Excluded from the great world of hereditary culture, +these people caricature its tastes, and imitate all its vices, without +catching even a reflection of its charm and refinement. The selfish +egotism of the dissipated noble might be bad enough, but it was sometimes +veiled by a careless grace, or an occasional deference to lofty tradition. +The selfishness and grossness of the upstart is naked and not ashamed, or +we might almost say, it glories in its shame. Its luxury is a tasteless +attempt to vie with the splendour of aristocratic banquets. The carver and +the waiter perform their tasks to the beat of a deafening music. Art and +literature are prostituted to the service of this vulgar parade of new +wealth, and the divine Homer is profaned by a man who thinks that Hannibal +fought in the Trojan War.(727) The conversation is of the true bourgeois +tone, with all its emphasis on the obvious, its unctuous moralising, its +platitudes consecrated by their antiquity. + +It is this society which is drawn for us with such a sure, masterly hand, +and with such graceful ease, by Petronius. The _Satiricon_ is well known +to be one of the great puzzles and mysteries in Roman literature. Scholars +have held the most widely different opinions as to its date, its author, +and its purpose. The scene has been laid in the reign of Augustus or of +Tiberius, and, on the strength of a misinterpreted inscription, even as +late as the reign of Alexander Severus.(728) Those who have attributed it +to the friend and victim of Nero have been confronted with the silence of +Quintilian, Juvenal, and Martial, with the silence of Tacitus as to any +literary work by Petronius, whose character and end he has described with +a curious sympathy and care.(729) It is only late critics of the lower +empire, such as Macrobius,(730) and a dilettante aristocrat like Sidonius +Apollinaris,(731) who pay any attention to this remarkable work of genius. +And Sidonius seems to make its author a citizen of Marseilles.(732) Yet +silence in such cases may be very deceptive. Martial and Statius never +mention one another, and both might seem unknown to Tacitus. And Tacitus, +after the fashion of the Roman aristocrat, in painting the character of +Petronius, may not have thought it relevant or important to notice a light +work such as the _Satiricon_, even if he had ever seen it. He does not +think it worth while to mention the histories of the Emperor Claudius, the +tragedies of Seneca, or the _Punica_ of Silius Italicus.(733) Tacitus, +like Thucydides, is too much absorbed in the social tragedy of his time to +have any thought to spare for its artistic efforts. The rather shallow, +easy-going Pliny has told us far more of social life in the reigns of +Domitian and Trajan, its rural pleasures and its futile literary +ambitions, than the great, gloomy historian who was absorbed in the +vicissitudes of the deadly duel between the Senate and the Emperors. One +thing is certain about the author of this famous piece--he was not a +plebeian man about town, although it may be doubted whether M. Boissier is +safe in maintaining that such a writer would not have chosen his own +environment of the Suburra as the field for his imagination.(734) It is +safer to seek for light on the social status of the author in the tone of +his work. The _Satiricon_ is emphatically the production of a cultivated +aristocrat, who looks down with serene and amused scorn on the vulgar +bourgeois world which he is painting. He is interested in it, but it is +the interest of the detached, artistic observer, whose own world is very +far off. Encolpius and Trimalchio and his coarse freedman friends are +people with whom the author would never have dined, but whom, at a safe +social distance, he found infinitely amusing as well as disgusting. He saw +that a great social revolution was going on before his eyes, that the old +slave minion, with estates in three continents, was becoming the rival of +the great noble in wealth, that the new-sprung class were presenting to +the world a vulgar caricature of the luxury in the palaces on the +Esquiline. Probably he thought it all bad,(735) but the bad became worse +when it was coarse and vulgar. The ignorant assumption of literary and +artistic taste in Trimalchio must have been contrasted in the author's +mind with many an evening at the palace, when Nero, in his better moods, +would recite his far from contemptible verses, or his favourite passages +from Euripides, and when the new style of Lucan would be balanced against +that of the great old masters.(736) And the man who had been charmed with +the sprightly grace of the stately and charming Poppaea may be forgiven +for showing his hard contempt for Fortunata, who, in the middle of dinner, +runs off to count the silver and deal out the slaves' share of the +leavings, and returns to get drunk and fight with one of her guests.(737) + +The motive of the work has been much debated. It has been thought a satire +on the Neronian circle, and again an effort to gratify it, by a revelation +of the corruptions of the plebeian world, the same impulse which drove +Messalina to the brothel, and Nero to range the taverns at midnight.(738) +It has been thought a satire on the insolence and grossness of Pallas and +the freedmen of the Claudian regime which Nero detested, to amuse him with +all their vulgar absurdities. Is it not possible that the writer was +merely pleasing himself--that he was simply following the impulse of +genius? Since the seventh century the work has only existed in +fragments.(739) Who can tell how much the lost portions, if we possessed +them, might affect our judgment of the object of the work? One thing is +certain, its author was a very complex character, and would probably have +smiled at some of the lumbering efforts to read his secret. Even though he +may have had no lofty purpose, a weary man of pleasure may have wished to +display, in its grossest, vulgarest form, the life of which he had tasted +the pleasures, and which he had seen turning into Dead Sea fruit. He was +probably a bad man in his conduct, worse perhaps in his imagination; and +yet, by a strange contradiction, which is not unexampled in the history of +character, he may have had dreams of a refined purity and temperance which +tortured and embittered him by their contrast with actual life. + +Out of the smoke of controversy, the conclusion seems to have emerged that +the _Satiricon_ is a work of Nero's reign, and that its author was in all +probability that Caius Petronius who was Nero's close companion, and who +fell a victim to the jealousy of Tigellinus. Not the least cogent proof of +this is the literary criticism of the work. It is well known that Lucan, +belonging to the Spanish family of the Senecas, had thrown off many of the +conventions of Roman literature, and discarded the machinery of epic +mythology in his _Pharsalia_. He had also incurred the literary jealousy +of Nero. The attack in the _Satiricon_ on Lucan's literary aberrations can +hardly be mistaken. The old poet Eumolpus is introduced to defend the +traditions of the past. And he gives a not very successful demonstration, +in 285 verses, of the manner in which the subject should have been +treated, with all the scenery and machinery of orthodox epic.(740) This +specimen of conservative taste is the least happy part of the work. + +Such evidence is reinforced by the harmony of the whole tone of the +_Satiricon_ with the clear-cut character of Petronius in Tacitus. There +was evidently a singular fascination about this man, which, in spite of +his wasted, self-indulgent life, was keenly felt by the severe historian. +Petronius was capable of great things, but in an age of wild licence he +deliberately devoted his brilliant talent to making sensuality a fine art. +Like Otho, who belonged to the same circle, he showed, as consul and in +the government of Bithynia, that a man of pleasure could be equal to great +affairs.(741) After this single digression from the scheme of the +voluptuary, he returned to his pleasures, and became an arbiter in all +questions of sensual taste, from whose decision there was no appeal. His +ascendency over the Emperor drew upon him the fatal enmity of Tigellinus. +Petronius was doomed. It was a time when not even the form of justice was +used to veil the caprices of tyranny, and Petronius determined not to +endure a long suspense when the issue was certain. He had gone as far as +Cumae to attend the Emperor. There he was stopped. He retired to his +chamber and had his veins alternately opened and rebound, meanwhile +conversing with his friends or listening to light verses, not, as the +fashion then was, seeking consolation from a Stoic director on the issues +of life and death. He rewarded some of his slaves; others he had flogged +before his eyes. After a banquet he fell calmly into his last sleep In his +will there was none of the craven adulation by which the victim often +strove to save his heirs from imperial rapacity. He broke his most +precious myrrhine vase, to prevent its being added to Nero's +treasures.(742) His only bequest to the Emperor was a stinging catalogue +of his secret and nameless sins.(743) + +The _Satiricon_, as we have it, is only a fragment, containing parts of +two books, out of a total of sixteen. It is full of humorous exaggeration +and wild Aristophanic fun, along with, here and there, very subtle and +refined delineation of character. But, except in the famous dinner of +Trimalchio, there are few signs of regular construction or closeness of +texture in plot and incident. Even if we had the whole, it might have been +difficult to decipher its motive or to unlock the secret of the author's +character. We can only be sure that he was a man of genius, and that he +was interested in the intellectual pursuits and tendencies of his time, as +well as in its vices and follies. We may perhaps surmise that he was at +once perverted and disillusioned, alternately fascinated and disgusted by +the worship of the flesh and its lusts in that evil time. He is not, as +has been sometimes said, utterly devoid of a moral sense. Occasionally he +shows a gleam of nobler feeling, a sense of the _lacrimae rerum_, as in +that passage where the corpse of the shipwrecked Lichas is washed ashore. +"Somewhere a wife is quietly awaiting him, or a father or a son, with no +thought of storm; some one whom he kissed on leaving.... He had examined +the accounts of his estates, he had pictured to himself the day of his +return to his home. And now he lies, O ye gods, how far from the goal of +his hopes. But the sea is not the only mocker of the hopes of men. If you +reckon well, there is shipwreck everywhere."(744) There is also a curious +note of contempt for his own age in a passage on the decay of the fine +arts. The tone is, for the moment, almost that of Ruskin. The glories of +the golden age of art were the result of simple virtue. An age like the +Neronian, an age abandoned to wine and harlotry, which dreams only of +making money by any sordid means, cannot even appreciate what the great +masters have left behind, much less itself produce anything worthy. Even +the gods of the Capitol are now honoured by an offering of crude bullion, +not by the masterpieces of a Pheidias or an Apelles. And the race which +created them are now for us, forsooth, silly Greeklings!(745) + +Yet side by side with a passage like this, there are descriptions of +abnormal depravity so coarsely realistic that it has often been assumed, +and not unnaturally, that the writer rioted in mere filth. It should be +remembered, however, that there was a tradition of immorality about the +ancient romance,(746) and Petronius, had he cared to do so, might have +made the same apology as Martial, that he provided what his readers +demanded.(747) That Petronius was deeply tainted is only too probable from +his associations, although Tacitus implies that he was rather a fastidious +voluptuary than a gross debauchee. Yet a sensualist of the intellectual +range of Petronius may have occasionally visions of a better world than +that to which he has sunk. Is it not possible that the gay elegant trifler +may sometimes have scorned himself as he scorned his time? Is it not +possible that, along with other illusions, he had parted with the +illusions of vice, and that in the "noctes Neronis" he had seen the adder +among the roses? He has written one of the keenest satires ever penned on +the vulgarity of mere wealth, its absurd affectations, its vanity, its +grossness. May he not also have wished, without moralising in a fashion +which so cultivated a trifler would have scorned, to reveal the abyss +towards which a society lost to all the finer passions of the spirit was +hurrying? In the half comic, half ghastly scene in which Trimalchio, in a +fit of maudlin sentiment, has himself laid out for dead, while the horns +blare out his funeral lament, we seem to hear the knell of a society which +was the slave of gold and gross pleasure, and seemed to be rotting before +its death. + +But it need hardly be said that the prevailing note of the _Satiricon_ is +anything but melancholy. The author is intensely amused with his subject, +and the piece is full of the most riotous fun and humour. It belongs +formally to the medley of prose and verse which Varro introduced into +Roman literature on the model of Menippus of Gadara.(748) It contains +disquisitions on literary tendencies of the day in poetry and oratory, +anecdotes and desultory talk. But Petronius has given a new character to +the old "Satura," more in the manner of the Greek romance. There probably +was no regular plot in the complete work, no central motive, such as the +wrath of Priapus,(749) to bind it together. Yet there is a certain bond of +union in the narrative of lively, and often questionable, adventures +through which Petronius carries his very disreputable characters. In this +life and movement, this human interest, the _Satiricon_ is the distant +ancestor of _Gil Blas_, _Roderick Random_, and _Tom Jones_. + +The scene of the earlier part, long since lost, may have been laid at +Massilia.(750) In the two books partially preserved to us, it lies in +southern Italy, at Cumae or Croton, in those Greek towns which had plenty +of Greek vice, without much Greek refinement.(751) The three strangers, +whose adventures are related, Encolpius, Ascyltus, and Giton, if we may +judge by their names, are also Greek, with the literary culture of their +time, and deeply tainted with its worst vices. At the opening of our +fragment, Encolpius, a beggarly, wandering sophist, is declaiming in a +portico on the decay of oratory.(752) He is expressing what was probably +Petronius's own judgment, as it was that of Tacitus,(753) as to the evil +effects of school declamation on musty or frivolous subjects. He is met by +a rival lecturer, Agamemnon, who urges, on behalf of the unfortunate +teachers of this conventional rhetoric, that the fault lies not with them, +but with the parents and the public, the same excuse, in fact, which Plato +had long before made for the maligned sophist of the fifth century +B.C.(754) But Encolpius and his companions, in spite of these literary +interests, are the most disreputable adventurers, educated yet hopelessly +depraved. They are even more at home in the reeking slums than in the +lecture hall. Encolpius has been guilty of murder, theft, seduction. The +party are alternately plunderers and plundered. They riot for the moment +in foul excesses, and are tortured by jealousy and the miseries of squalid +vice. Only those who have a taste for pornography will care to follow them +in these dark paths. Reduced to the last pinch of poverty, they are +invited to dine at the all-welcoming table of Trimalchio, and this is for +us the most interesting passage in their adventures. But, on leaving the +rich freedman's halls they once more pass into scenes where a modern pen +cannot venture to follow them. Yet soon afterwards, Encolpius is found in +a picture gallery discussing the fate of literature and art with +Eumolpus,(755) an inveterate poet, as vicious as himself. Presently the +party are on shipboard off the south Italian coast. They are shipwrecked +and cast ashore in a storm near the town of Croton.(756) A friendly +peasant informs them that, if they are honest merchants, that is no place +for their craft. But if they belong to the more distinguished world of +intrigue, they may make their fortune. It is a society which has no care +for letters or virtue, which thinks only of unearned gain. There are only +two classes, the deceivers and their victims. Children are an expensive +luxury, for only the childless ever receive an invitation or any social +attention. It is like a city ravaged by the plague; there are only left +the corpses and the vultures.(757) The adventurers resolve to seize the +rare opportunity; they will turn the tables on the social birds of prey. +The pauper poet is easily translated into a millionaire with enormous +estates in Africa.(758) A portion of his wealth has been engulfed in the +storm, but a solid HS.300,000,000, with much besides, still remains. He +has a cough, moreover, with other signs of debility. There is no more +idiotic person, as our Stock Exchange records show, than a man eager for +an unearned fortune. The poor fools flocked around Eumolpus, drinking in +every fresh rumour about his will. He was loaded with gifts;(759) great +ladies made an easy offer of their virtue and even that of their +children.(760) Meanwhile he, or Petronius, plays with their follies or +tortures their avidity. In one of his many wills, the heirs of the +pretended Croesus are required not to touch their booty till they have +devoured his remains before the people!(761) The tales of barbarian tribes +in Herodotus, the memories of the siege of Saguntum and Numantia, are +invoked in brutal irony to justify the reasonableness of the demand. +"Close your eyes," the cynic enjoins, "and fancy that instead of devouring +human flesh, you are swallowing a million of money." Petronius could be +very brutal as well as very refined in his raillery. The combined +stupidity and greed of the fortune-hunter of all ages are perhaps best met +by such brutality of contempt. + +The really interesting part of their adventure is the dinner at the house +of Trimalchio, a rich freedman, to which these rascals were invited. +Trimalchio is probably in many traits drawn from life, but the picture of +himself, of his wife and his associates, is a work of genius worthy of +Fielding or Smollett or Le Sage. Petronius, it is clear, enjoyed his work, +and, in spite of his contempt for the vulgar ambition and the coarseness +and commonness of Trimalchio's class, he has a liking for a certain +simplicity and honest good nature in Trimalchio. The freedman tells the +story of his own career(762) without reserve, and with a certain pride in +the virtue and frugality, according to his standards, which have made him +what he is. He also exults in his shrewdness and business capacity. His +motto has always been, "You are worth just what you have." "Buy cheap and +sell dear." Coming as a little slave boy from Asia, probably in the reign +of Augustus,(763) he became the favourite of his master, and more than the +favourite of his mistress. He found himself in the end the real master of +the household, and, on his patron's death, he was left joint-heir to his +property with the emperor. But he had ambitions beyond even such a +fortune. He became a ship-owner on a great scale. He lost a quarter of a +million in a single storm, and at once proceeded to build more and larger +ships. Money poured in; all his ventures prospered. He bought estates in +Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Some of his purchases he had never seen.(764) +He built himself a stately house, with marble porticoes, four great +banqueting-halls, and twenty sleeping-rooms.(765) Everything to satisfy +human wants was produced upon his lands. He was a man of infinite +enterprise. He had improved the breed of his flocks by importing rams from +Tarentum. He had bees from Hymettus in his hives. He sent to India for +mushroom spawn.(766) A gazette was regularly brought out, full of +statistics, and all the daily incidents on his estates;(767) the number of +slave births and deaths; a slave crucified for blaspheming the genius of +the master; a fire in the bailiff's house; the divorce of a watchman's +wife, who had been caught in adultery with the bathman; a sum of +HS.100,000 paid into the chest, and waiting for investment--these are some +of the items of news. Trimalchio, who bears now, after the fashion of his +class, the good Roman name of Caius Pompeius, has risen to the dignity of +Sevir Augustalis in his municipality;(768) he is one of the foremost +persons in it, with an overwhelming sense of the dignity of wealth, and +with a ridiculous affectation of artistic and literary culture, which he +parades with a delightful unconsciousness of his blunders. + +When the wandering adventurers arrive for dinner,(769) they find a bald +old man in a red tunic playing at ball, with eunuchs in attendance. While +he is afterwards being rubbed down with unguents in the bath, his servants +refresh themselves with old Falernian. Then, with four richly dressed +runners preceding him, and wrapped in a scarlet mantle, he is borne to the +house in his sedan along with his ugly minion. On the wall of the +vestibule, as you entered, there were frescoes, one of which represented +the young Trimalchio, under the leadership of Minerva, making his entry +into Rome, with other striking incidents of his illustrious career, while +Fortune empties her flowing horn, and the Fates spin the golden thread of +his destiny.(770) The banquet begins; Alexandrian boys bring iced water +and delicately attend to the guests' feet, singing all the while.(771) +Indeed, the whole service is accompanied by singing, and the blare of +instruments. To a great, deafening burst of music, the host is at last +borne in buried in cushions, his bare shaven head protruding from a +scarlet cloak, with a stole around his neck, and lappets falling on each +side; his hands and arms loaded with rings.(772) Not being just then quite +ready for dinner, he, with a kindly apology, has a game of draughts, until +he feels inclined to eat, the pieces on the terebinthine board being, +appropriately to such a player, gold and silver coins.(773) The dinner is +a long series of surprises, on the artistic ingenuity of which Trimalchio +plumes himself vastly. One course represents the twelve signs of the +Zodiac, of which the host expounds at length the fateful +significance.(774) Another dish was a large boar, with baskets of +sweetmeats hanging from its tusks. A huge bearded hunter pierced its sides +with a hunting knife, and forthwith from the wound there issued a flight +of thrushes which were dexterously captured in nets as they flew about the +room.(775) Towards the end of the meal the guests were startled by strange +sounds in the ceiling, and a quaking of the whole apartment. As they +raised their eyes, the ceiling suddenly opened, and a great circular tray +descended, with a figure of Priapus, bearing all sorts of fruit and +bon-bons.(776) It may be readily assumed that in such a scene the wine was +not stinted. Huge flagons, coated with gypsum, were brought in shoulder +high, each with a label attesting that it was the great Falernian vintage +of Opimius, one hundred years old.(777) As the wine appeared, the genial +host remarked with admirable frankness, "I did not give as good wine +yesterday, although I had a more distinguished company!" + +The amusements of the banquet were as various, and some of them as coarse +or fantastic, as the dishes. They are gross and tasteless exaggerations of +the prevailing fashion. In a literary age, a man of Trimalchio's position +must affect some knowledge of letters and art. He is a ludicrous example +of the dogmatism of pretentious ignorance in all ages. He has a Greek and +Latin library,(778) and pretends to have once read Homer, although his +recollections are rather confused. He makes, for instance, Daedalus shut +Niobe into the Trojan horse; Iphigenia becomes the wife of Achilles; Helen +is the sister of Diomede and Ganymede.(779) One of the more refined +entertainments which are provided is the performance of scenes from the +Homeric poems, which Trimalchio accompanied by reading in a sonorous voice +from a Latin version.(780) He is himself an author, and has his poems +recited by a boy personating the Bacchic god.(781) As a connoisseur of +plate he will yield to no one,(782) although he slyly confesses that his +"real Corinthian" got their name from the dealer Corinthus. The metal came +from the fused bronze and gold and silver which Hannibal flung into the +flames of captured Troy. But Trimalchio's most genuine taste, as he +naively confesses, is for acrobatic feats and loud horn-blowing. And so, a +company of rope-dancers bore the guests with their monotonous +performances.(783) Blood-curdling tales of the wer-wolf, and corpses +carried off by witches, are provided for another kind of taste.(784) A +base product of Alexandria imitates the notes of the nightingale, and +another, apparently of Jewish race, equally base, in torturing dissonant +tones spouted passages from the _Aeneid_, profaned to scholarly ears by a +mixture of Atellan verses.(785) Trimalchio, who was anxious that his wife +should display her old powers of dancing a _cancan_, is also going to give +an exhibition of his own gifts in the pantomimic line,(786) when the +shrewd lady in a whisper warned him to maintain his dignity. How far she +preserved her own we shall see presently. + +The company at this strange party were worthy of their host. And Petronius +has outdone himself in the description of these brother freedmen, looking +up to Trimalchio as the glory of their order, and giving vent to their +ill-humour, their optimism, or their inane moralities, in conversation +with the sly observer who reports their talk. They are all old slaves like +their host, men who have "made their pile," or lost it. They rate +themselves and their neighbours simply in terms of cash.(787) The only +ability they can understand is that which can "pick money out of the +dung-heap," and "turn lead to gold."(788) These gross and infinitely +stupid fellows have not even the few saving traits in the character of +Trimalchio. He has, after all, an honourable, though futile, ambition to +be a wit, a connoisseur, a patron of learning. His luxury is coarse +enough, but he wishes, however vainly, to redeem it by some ingenuity, by +interspersing the mere animal feeding with some broken gleams, or, as we +may think, faint and distorted reflections, of that great world of which +he had heard, but the portals of which he could never enter. But his +company are of mere clay. Trimalchio is gross enough at times, but, +compared with his guests, he seems almost tolerable. And their dull +baseness is the more torturing to a modern reader because it is an +enduring type. The neighbour of the Greek observer warns him not to +despise his company;(789) they are "warm" men. That one at the end of the +couch, who began as a porter, has his HS.800,000. Another, an undertaker, +has had his glorious days, when the wine flowed in rivers;(790) but he has +been compelled to compound with his creditors, and he has played them a +clever trick. A certain Seleucus, whose name reveals his origin, explains +his objections to the bath, especially on this particular morning, when he +has been at a funeral.(791) The fate of the departed friend unfortunately +leads him to moralise on the weakness of mortal men, mere insects, or +bubbles on the stream. As for medical aid, it is an imaginary comfort; it +oftener kills than cures.(792) The great consolation was that the funeral +was respectably done, although the wife was not effusive in her +grief.(793) Another guest will have none of this affected mourning for one +who lived the life of his choice and left his solid hundred thousand.(794) +He was after all a harsh quarrelsome person, very different from his +brother, a stout, kindly fellow with an open hand, and a sumptuous table. +He had his reverses at first, but he was set up again by a good vintage +and a lucky bequest, which he knew, by a sly stroke, how to increase; a +true son of fortune, who lived his seventy years and more, as black as a +crow, a man who lustily enjoyed all the delights of the flesh to the very +end.(795) + +But the most interesting person for the modern student is the grumbler +about the management of town affairs, and here a page or two of the +_Satiricon_ is worth a dissertation. The price of bread has gone up, and +the bakers must be in league with the aediles. In the good old times, when +the critic first came from Asia, things were very different.(796) "There +were giants in those days. Think of Safinius, who lived by the old arch, a +man with a sharp, biting tongue, but a true friend, a man who, in the town +council, went straight to his point, whose voice in the forum rang out +like a trumpet. Yet he was just like one of us, knew everybody's name, and +returned every salute. Why, in those days corn was as cheap as dirt. You +could buy for an as a loaf big enough for two. But the town has since gone +sadly back.(797) Our aediles now think only how to pocket in a day what +would be to some of us a fortune. I know how a certain person made his +thousand gold pieces. If this goes on, I shall have to sell my cottages. +Neither men nor the gods have any mercy. It all comes from our neglect of +religion. No one now keeps a fast, no one cares a fig for Jove. In old +days when there was a drought, the long-robed matrons with bare feet, +dishevelled hair, and pure hearts, would ascend the hill to entreat +Jupiter for rain, and then it would pour down in buckets."(798) At this +point the maundering, pious pessimist is interrupted by a rag dealer(799) +of a more cheerful temper. "Now this, now that, as the rustic said, when +he lost his speckled pig. What we have not to-day will come to-morrow; so +life rubs along. Why, we are to have a three days' show of gladiators on +the next holiday, not of the common sort, but many freedmen among them. +And our Titus has a high spirit; he will not do things by halves. He will +give us cold steel without any shirking, a good bit of butchery in full +view of the amphitheatre. And he can well afford it. His father died and +left him HS.30,000,000. What is a paltry HS.400,000 to such a +fortune?(800) and it will give him a name for ever. He has some tit-bits, +too, in reserve, the lady chariot-driver, and the steward of Glyco, who +was caught with his master's wife; poor wretch, he was only obeying +orders. And the worthless Glyco has given him to the beasts; the lady +deserved to suffer. And I have an inkling that Mammaea is going to give us +a feast, where we shall get two denarii apiece. If she does the part +expected of her, Norbanus will be nowhere. His gladiators were a wretched, +weedy, twopenny-halfpenny lot, who would go down at a mere breath. They +were all cut to pieces, as the cowards deserved, at the call of the crowd, +'give it them.' A pretty show indeed! When I applauded, I gave far more +than I got. But friend Agamemnon, you are thinking 'what is all this +long-winded chatter.'(801) Well, you, who dote on eloquence, why won't you +talk yourself, instead of laughing at us feeble folk. Some day I may +persuade you to look in at my farm; I daresay, though the times are bad, +we shall find a pullet to eat. And I have a young scholar ripening for +your trade. He has good wits and never raises his head from his task. He +paints with a will. He has begun Greek, and has a real taste for Latin. +But one of his tutors is conceited and idle. The other is very +painstaking, but, in his excess of zeal, he teaches more than he knows. So +I have bought the boy some red-letter volumes, that he may get a tincture +of law for domestic purposes. That is what gives bread and butter. He has +now had enough of literature. If he gives it up, I think I shall teach him +a trade, the barber's or auctioneer's or pleader's,(802) something that +only death can take from him. Every day I din into his ears, Primigenius, +my boy, what you learn you learn for profit. Look at the lawyer Philero. +If he had not learnt his business, he could not keep the wolf from the +door. Why, only a little ago, he was a hawker with a bundle on his back, +and now he can hold his own with Norbanus. Learning is a treasure, and a +trade can never be lost." + +To all this stimulating talk there are lively interludes. A guest thinks +one of the strangers, in a superior way, is making game of the company, +and assails him with a shower of the choicest abuse, in malodorous Latin +of the slums, interlarded with proud references to his own rise from the +slave ranks.(803) Trimalchio orders the house-dog, Scylax, to be brought +in, but the brute falls foul of a pet spaniel, and, in the uproar, a lamp +is overthrown, the vases on the table are all smashed, and some of the +guests are scalded with the hot oil.(804) In the middle of this lively +scene, a lictor announces the approach of Habinnas, a stone-cutter, who is +also a great dignitary of the town. He arrives rather elevated from +another feast of which he has pleasant recollections. He courteously asks +for Fortunata,(805) who happens to be just then looking after the plate +and dividing the remains of the feast among the slaves. That lady, after +many calls, appears in a cherry coloured tunic with a yellow girdle, +wiping her hands with her neckerchief. She has splendid rings on her arms, +legs, and fingers, which she pulls off to show them to the stone-cutter's +lady. Trimalchio is proud of their weight, and orders a balance to be +brought in to confirm his assertions. It is melancholy to relate that, in +the end, the two ladies get hopelessly drunk, and fall to embracing one +another in a rather hysterical fashion. Fortunata even attempts to +dance.(806) In the growing confusion the slaves take their places at +table, and the cook begins to give imitations of a favourite actor,(807) +and lays a wager with his master on the chances of the green at the next +races. Trimalchio, who by this time was becoming very mellow and +sentimental, determines to make his will, and to manumit all his slaves, +with a farm to one, a house to another. He even gives his friend the +stone-cutter full directions about the monument which is to record so +brilliant a career. There is to be ample provision for its due keeping, in +the fashion so well known from the inscriptions, with a fair space of +prescribed measurements, planted with vines and other fruit trees. +Trimalchio wishes to be comfortable in his last home.(808) On the face of +the monument ships under full sail are to figure the sources of his +wealth.(809) He himself is to be sculptured, seated on a tribunal, clothed +with the _praetexta_ of the Augustalis, with five rings on his fingers, +ladling money from a bag, as in the great banquet with which he had once +regaled the people.(810) On his right hand there is to be the figure of +his wife holding a dove and a spaniel on a leash. A boy is to be graved +weeping over a broken urn. And, finally, in the centre of the scene, there +is to be a horologe, that the passer-by, as he looks for the hour, may +have his eyes always drawn to the epitaph which recited the dignities and +virtues of the illustrious freedman. It told posterity that "C. Pompeius +Trimalchio Maecenatianus was pious, stout, and trusty, that he rose from +nothing, left HS.30,000,000, and never heard a philosopher." The whole +company, along with Trimalchio himself, of course wept copiously at the +mere thought of the close of so illustrious a career. After renewing their +gastric energy in the bath, the company fell to another banquet. Presently +a cock crows, and Trimalchio, in a fit of superstition, spills his wine +under the table,(811) passes his rings to the right hand, and offers a +reward to any one who will bring the ominous bird. The disturber was soon +caught and handed over to the cook for execution. Then Trimalchio excites +his wife's natural anger by a piece of amatory grossness, and, in +retaliation for her very vigorous abuse, flings a cup at her head. In the +scene which follows he gives, with the foulest references to his wife's +early history, a sketch of his own career and the eulogy of the virtues +that have made him what he is.(812) Growing more and more sentimental, he +at last has himself laid out for dead;(813) the horn-blowers sound his +last lament, one of them, the undertaker's man, with such a good will, +that the town watch arrived in breathless haste with water and axes to +extinguish a fire. The strangers seized the opportunity to escape from the +nauseous scene. Their taste raised them above Trimalchio's circle, but +they were quite on the level of its morals. Encolpius and his companions +are soon involved in other adventures, in which it is better not to follow +them. + +The lesson of all this purse-proud ostentation and vulgarity, the moral +which Petronius may have intended to point, is one which will be taught +from age to age by descendants of Trimalchio, and which will be never +learnt till a far off future. But we need not moralise, any more than +Petronius. We have merely given some snatches of a work, which is now +seldom read, because it throws a searching light on a class which was +rising to power in Roman society. We have now seen the worst of that +society, whether crushed by the tyranny of the Caesars, or corrupted and +vulgarised by sudden elevation from ignominious poverty to wealth and +luxury. But there were great numbers, both among the nobles and the +masses, who, in that evil time, maintained the traditions of old Roman +soberness and virtue. The three following chapters will reveal a different +life from that which we have hitherto been describing. + + + + + + BOOK II + + + _RARA TEMPORUM FELICITAS_ + + + + + CHAPTER I + + + THE CIRCLE OF THE YOUNGER PLINY + + +It is a great relief to turn from the picture of base and vulgar luxury in +the novel of Petronius to the sobriety and refinement of a class which has +been elaborately painted by a less skilful artist, but a better man. The +contrast between the pictures of Petronius and those of Pliny, of course, +raises no difficulty. The writers belonged indeed to the same order, but +they were describing two different worlds. The difficulty arises when we +compare the high tone of the world which Pliny has immortalised, with the +hideous revelations of contemporary licence in the same class which meet +us in Juvenal, Martial, and Tacitus. And historical charity or optimism +has often turned the contrast to account. But there is no need to pit the +quiet testimony of Pliny against the fierce invective of Juvenal. Indeed +to do so would indicate an imperfect insight into the character of the men +and the associations which moulded their views of the society which +surrounded them. The friends of Pliny were for the most part +contemporaries of the objects of Juvenal's wrath and loathing.(814) But +although the two men lived side by side during the same years, and +probably began to write for the public about the same date,(815) there is +no hint that they ever met. They were socially at opposite poles; they +were also as widely separated by temperament. Pliny was a charitable, +good-natured man, an aristocrat, living among the _elite_, with an assured +position and easy fortune--a man who, as he admits himself, was inclined to +idealise his friends.(816) He probably shut his eyes to their moral +faults, just as he felt bound in honour to extol their third-rate literary +efforts. Juvenal was, as in a former chapter we have seen reason to +believe, a soured and embittered man, who viewed the society of the great +world only from a distance, and caught up the gossip of the servants' +hall. With the heat of an excitable temperament, he probably magnified +what he heard, and he made whole classes responsible for the folly and +intemperance of a few. Martial, the friend of Juvenal, lived in the same +atmosphere, but, while Juvenal was inspired by a moral purpose, Martial +caters, unabashed, for a prurient taste.(817) Both the charitable optimist +and the gloomy, determined pessimist, by limiting their view, can find +ample materials for their respective estimates of pagan society towards +the end of the first century. A judicial criticism will combine or balance +the opposing evidence rather than select the witnesses. + +The truth is that society in every age presents the most startling moral +contrasts, and no single comprehensive description of its moral condition +can ever be true. This has been too often forgotten by those who have +passed judgment on the moral state of Roman society, both in the first age +of the Empire and in the last. That there was stupendous corruption and +abnormal depravity under princes like Caligula, Nero, and Domitian, we +hardly need the testimony of the satirists to induce us to believe. That +there were large classes among whom virtuous instinct, and all the sober +strength and gravity of the old Roman character, were still vigorous and +untainted, is equally attested and equally certain. Ingenious immorality +and the extravagance of luxury were no doubt rampant in the last century +of the Republic and in the first century of the Empire, and their enormity +has been heightened by the perverted and often prurient literary skill +with which the orgies of voluptuous caprice have been painted to the last +loathsome details. Yet even Ovid has a lingering ideal of womanly dignity +which may repel, by refined reserve, the audacity of libertinism.(818) He +was forced, by old-fashioned scruple or imperial displeasure, to make an +elaborate apology for the lubricities of the _Ars Amandi_.(819) The most +wanton writer of the evil days shrinks from justifying adultery, and +hardly ever fails to respect the unconscious innocence of girlhood. In the +days when, according to Juvenal, Roman matrons were eloping with +gladiators, and visiting the slums of Rome, Tacitus and Favorinus were +preaching the duties of a pure motherhood.(820) In the days when crowds +were gloating over the obscenities of pantomime, and aristocratic +dinner-parties were applauding the ribaldry of Alexandrian songs, +Quintilian was denouncing the corruption of youth by the sight of their +fathers toying with mistresses and minions.(821) In an age when matrons of +noble rank were exposing themselves at the pleasure of an emperor, the +philosopher Musonius was teaching that all indulgence, outside the sober +limits of wedlock, was a gross, animal degradation of human dignity.(822) +And it is thus we may balance Juvenal and Martial on the one side and +Pliny on the other. The gloomy or prurient satirist gives us a picture of +ideal baseness; the gentle and charitable aristocrat opens before us a +society in which people are charmingly refined, and perhaps a little too +good. Yet it is said with truth that an age should be judged by its ideals +of goodness rather than by its moral aberrations. And certain it is that +the age of Pliny and Tacitus and Quintilian had a high moral ideal, even +though it was also the age of Domitian. The old Roman character, whatever +pessimists, ancient or modern, may say, was a stubborn type, which +propagated itself over all the West, and survived the Western Empire. It +is safe to believe that there was in Italy and Gaul and Spain many a +_grand seigneur_ of honest, regular life, virtuous according to his +lights, like Pliny's uncle, or his Spurinna, or Verginius Rufus, or +Corellius. There were certainly many wedded lives as pure and +self-sacrificing as those of the elder Arria and Caecina Paetus, or of +Calpurnia and Pliny.(823) There were homes like those at Frejus,(824) or +Como, or Brescia,(825) in which boys and girls were reared in a refined +and severe simplicity, which even improved upon the tradition of the +golden age of Rome. And, as will be seen in a later chapter, many a brief +stone record remains which shows that, even in the world of slaves and +freedmen, there were always in the darkest days crowds of humble people, +with honest, homely ideals, and virtuous family affection, proud of their +industries, and sustaining one another by help and kindness. + +In this sounder class of Roman society, it will be found that the saving +or renovating power was, not so much any religious or philosophic impulse, +as the wholesome influence, which never fails from age to age, of family +duty and affection, reinforced, especially in the higher ranks, by a long +tradition of Roman dignity and self-respect, and by the simple cleanness +and the pieties of country life. The life of the blameless circle of +aristocrats which Pliny determined to preserve for the eyes of posterity, +seems to be sometimes regarded as the result of a sudden transformation, a +rebound from the frantic excesses of the time of the Claudian Caesars to +the simpler and severer mode of life of which Vespasian set a powerful +example. That there was such a change of moral tone, especially in the +class surrounding the court, partly caused by financial exhaustion, partly +by the introduction of new men from the provinces into the ranks of the +Senate, is certified by the supreme authority of Tacitus.(826) Yet we +should remember that men like Agricola, the father-in-law of Tacitus, or +Verginius Rufus, or Fabatus, the grandfather of Pliny's wife, or the elder +Pliny, and many another, were not converted prodigals. They knew how to +reconcile, by quietude or politic deference, the dignity of Roman virtue +with a discreet acquiescence even in the excesses of despotism. The +fortunes of many of them remained unimpaired. The daily life of men like +the elder Pliny and Spurinna, is distinguished by a virtuous calm, an +almost painful monotony of habit, in which there seems to have been +nothing to reform except, perhaps, a certain moral rigidity.(827) Above +all, and surely it is the most certain proof and source of the moral +soundness of any age, the ideal of womanhood was still high, and it was +even then not seldom realised. There may have been many who justified the +complaint of moralists that mothers did not guard with vigilant care the +purity of their children. But there were women of the circle of Tacitus +and Pliny as spotless as the half-legendary Lucretia, as they were far +more accomplished, and probably far more charming. It is often said that +women sink or rise according to the level of the men with whom they are +linked. If that be true, there must have been many good men in the days of +the Flavian dynasty. + +The younger Pliny, whose name, before his adoption, was Publius Caecilius +Secundus,(828) was descended from families which had been settled at Como +since the time of the first Caesar.(829) They belonged to the local +aristocracy, and possessed estates and villas around the lake. Pliny's +father, who had held high municipal office, died early, but the boy had +the great advantage of the guardianship of Verginius Rufus, for whose +character and achievements his ward felt the profoundest reverence.(830) +That great soldier had been governor of Upper Germany at the close of +Nero's reign, and, with a deference to old constitutional principles, +which Pliny must have admired, had twice, at the peril of his life, +refused to receive the imperial place at the hands of his clamorous +legions.(831) Pliny was born in 61 or 62 A.D., the time which saw the +death of Burrus, the retirement of Seneca from public life, and the +marriage of Nero with Poppaea.(832) His infancy therefore coincided with +the last and wildest excesses of the Neronian tyranny. But country places +like Como felt but little of the shock of these moral earthquakes. There +was no school in Como till one was founded by Pliny's own generosity.(833) +But the boy had probably, in his early years, the care of his uncle, the +author of the _Natural History_, who, during the worst years of the +Terror, was living, like many others, in studious retirement on his +estates.(834) The uncle and nephew were men of very different temperament, +but there can be little doubt that the character and habits of the older +man profoundly influenced the ideals of the younger. The elder Pliny would +have been an extraordinary character even in a puritan age; he seems +almost a miracle in the age of the Claudian Caesars. He was born in 23 +A.D., in the reign of Tiberius; and his early youth and manhood cover the +reigns of Caligula and Claudius. He was only 32 when Nero came to the +throne. He returned to Rome in 71 to hold a high place in the councils of +Vespasian.(835) That more than monastic asceticism, that jealous hoarding +of every moment,(836) that complete indifference to ordinary pleasures, in +comparison with the duty, or the ambition, of transmitting to future ages +the accumulations of learned toil, is a curious contrast to the Gargantuan +feasts or histrionic aestheticism which were the fashion in the circle of +the Claudian Emperors. The younger Pliny has left us a minute account of +his uncle's routine of life, and justly adds that the most intense +literary toil might seem mere idleness in comparison.(837) His studies +often began soon after midnight, broken by an official visit to the +emperor before dawn. After administrative work was over, the remainder of +the day was spent in reading or writing. Even in the bath or on a journey, +this literary industry was never interrupted. A reader or amanuensis was +always at hand to save the moments that generally are allowed to slip away +to waste. He tells Titus in his preface that he had consulted 2000 volumes +for his _Natural History_.(838) The 160 volumes of closely written notes, +which the austere enthusiast could have sold once for L3500, might have +challenged the industry of a Casaubon or a Mommsen. + +The laborious intensity of the elder Pliny was probably unrivalled in his +day. But the moral tone, the severe self-restraint, the contempt for the +sensual, or even the comfortable, side of life, the plain unspeculative +stoicism, was a tone which, from many indications in the younger Pliny and +in the other literature of the time, appears to have been not so rare as +the reader of Juvenal or Martial might suspect. A book like the Caesars of +Suetonius, concentrating attention on the life of the emperor and his +immediate circle, is apt to suggest misleading conclusions as to the +condition of society at large. The old Roman character, perhaps the +strongest and toughest national character ever developed, was an enduring +type, and its true home was in the atmosphere of quiet country places in +northern or central Italy, where the round of rural labour and simple +pleasures reproduced the environment in which it first took form. We have +glimpses of many of these nurseries or retreats of old-fashioned virtue in +Pliny's Letters. Brescia and Padua, in the valley of the Po, were +especially noted for frugality and severity.(839) And it was from among +the youth of Brescia that Pliny suggested a husband for the daughter of +the stoic champion, Arulenus Rusticus. There must have been many a home, +like those of Spurinna, or Corellius Rufus, or Fabatus,(840) or the poet +Persius, where, far from the weary conventionality of the capital, the +rage for wealth, the rush of vulgar self-assertion, there reigned the +tranquil and austere ideal of a life dedicated to higher ends than the +lusts of the flesh, or the ghoul-like avarice that haunted death-beds. +There are youths and maidens in the portrait-gallery of Pliny whose +innocence was guarded by good women as pure and strong as those matrons +who nursed the stern, unbending soldiers of the Samnite and Punic +wars.(841) + +The great struggle in which the legions of the East and West met again, +and yet again, in the valley of the Po, probably did not much disturb the +quiet homes on lake Como. The close of that awful conflict gave the world +ten years of quiet and reformation, which were a genial atmosphere for the +formation of many characters like Pliny's. The reign of the Flavians was +ushered in by the mystery and glamour of Eastern superstition, by oracles +on Mount Carmel and miracles at Alexandria.(842) But the plain Sabine +soldier, who was the saviour of the Roman State, brought to his momentous +task a clear unsophisticated good sense, with no trace of that crapulous +excitement which had alternated between the heroics of spurious art and +the lowest bohemianism. Vespasian, although he was not a figure to strike +the imagination, was yet, if we think of the abyss from which, by his +single strength, he rescued the Rome world,(843) undoubtedly one of the +greatest of the emperors. And his biographer, with an unusual tact, +suggests what was probably one secret of his strength. Vespasian regularly +visited the old farmhouse at Reate which was the cradle of his race. +Nothing in the old place was ever changed. And, on holidays and +anniversaries the emperor never failed to drink from the old silver goblet +which his grandmother had used.(844) The strength and virtue of the Latin +race lay, not in religion or philosophy, but in the family pieties and +devotion to the State. Vespasian found it urgent to bring order into the +national finances, which had been reduced to chaos by the wild +extravagance of his predecessors, and to recruit the Senate, which had +been more than decimated by proscription, confiscation, and vicious +self-abandonment.(845) In performing his task, he did not shrink from the +charge of cheese-paring, just as he did not dread the unpopularity of +fresh taxation.(846) But he could be liberal as well as parsimonious. He +restored many of the ancient temples, even in country places.(847) He made +grants to senators whose fortunes had decayed or had been wasted.(848) He +spent great sums on colossal buildings and on amusements for the +people.(849) But the most singular and interesting trait in this +remarkable man is that, with no pretensions to literary or artistic +culture, he was the first Caesar who gave a fixed endowment to professors +of the liberal arts, and that he was the founder of that public system of +education(850) which, for good or evil, produced profound effects on Roman +character and intellect down to the end of the Western Empire. His motive +was not, as some have suggested, to bring literature into thraldom to the +State. He was really making himself the organ of a great intellectual +movement. For, while the vast field of administration absorbed much of the +energy of the cultivated class, the decay of free institutions had left a +great number with only a shadow of political interest, and the mass of +unoccupied talent had to find some other scope for its energies. It found +it for ages, till the end of the Western Empire, in fugitive and ephemeral +composition, or in the more ephemeral displays of the rhetorical +class-room.(851) Vespasian perhaps did a greater service in renovating the +upper class of Rome by the introduction of many new men from the +provinces, to fill the yawning gaps in senatorial and equestrian ranks. +Spain contributed more than its fair share to the literature and +statesmanship of this period.(852) And one of the best and most +distinguished sons of that province who found a career at Rome, was the +rhetor Quintilian. + +The young Pliny, under his uncle's care, probably came to Rome not long +after Quintilian entered on his career of twenty years, as a teacher of +rhetoric.(853) While the elder Pliny was one of Vespasian's trusted +advisers, and regularly visited the emperor on official business before +dawn, his nephew was forming his taste and character under the greatest +and best of Roman teachers. Quintilian left a deep impression on the +younger Pliny.(854) He made him a Ciceronian, and he fortified his +character. The master was one who believed that, in education, moral +influence and environment are even more important than intellectual +stimulus. He deplores the moral risks to which the careless, +self-indulgent parent, or the corrupt tutor, may expose a boy in the years +when the destiny of a life is decided for better or worse. Intellectual +ambition is good. But no brilliancy of intellect will compensate for the +loss of the pure ingenuous peace of boyhood. This is the faith of +Quintilian, and it was also the faith of his pupil.(855) And it may be +that the teaching of Quintilian had a larger share in forming the moral +ideals of the Antonine age in the higher ranks than many more definitely +philosophic guides, whose practice did not always conform to their +doctrine. + +Quintilian's first principle is that the orator must be a good man in the +highest and widest sense, and, although he will not refuse to borrow from +the philosophical schools, he yet boldly asserts the independence of the +oratorical art in moulding the character of the man who, as statesman or +advocate, will have constantly to appeal to moral principles.(856) This +tone, combined with his own high example of seriousness, honour, and the +purest domestic attachment,(857) must have had a powerful effect on the +flower of the Roman youth, who were his pupils for nearly a generation. +There are none of his circle whose virtues Pliny extols more highly than +the men who had sat with him on the same benches, and who accompanied or +followed one another in the career of public office. One of the dearest of +these youthful friends was Voconius Romanus, who, besides being a learned +pleader, with a keen and subtle intellect, was gifted with a singular +social charm and sweetness of manner.(858) Another was Cornutus Tertullus, +who was bound to Pliny by closer ties of sympathy than any of his friends, +and for whose purity of character he had a boundless admiration. They were +also united in the love and friendship of the best people of the +time.(859) They were official colleagues in the consulship, and in the +prefecture of the treasury of Saturn. For another academic friend, Julius +Naso, who had been his loyal supporter in all his work and literary +ambitions, he earnestly begs the aid of Fundanus, to secure him official +advancement.(860) Calestrius Tiro, who rose to be proconsul of the +province of Baetica, must be included in this select company. He had +served with Pliny in the army of Syria, and had been his colleague in the +quaestorship; they constantly visited one another at their country +seats.(861) Such men, linked to one another by memories of boyhood and by +the cares of the same official career, must have been a powerful and +salutary element in social and political life at the opening of the +Antonine age. + +It is a curious thing that, while Pliny lived in the closest friendship +with the Stoic opposition of Domitian's reign, and has unbounded reverence +for its canonised saints, as we may call them, he shows few traces of any +real interest in speculative philosophy. Indeed, in one passage he +confesses that on such subjects he speaks as an amateur.(862) He probably +thought, like his friend Tacitus, that philosophy was a thing to be taken +in moderation by the true Roman. It was when he was serving on the staff +in Asia that he formed a close friendship with Artemidorus, whom Musonius +chose for his daughter's hand.(863) Pliny has not a word to say of his +opinions, but he extols his simplicity and genuineness--qualities, he adds, +which you rarely find in the other philosophers of the day. It was at the +same time that he formed a friendship with the Stoic Euphrates. That +philosopher, who is so studiously maligned by Philostratus, was a heroic +figure in Pliny's eyes.(864) But what Pliny admires in him is not so much +his philosophy, as his grave ornate style, his pure character, which +showed none of that harsh and ostentatious severity which was then so +common in his class. Euphrates is a polished gentleman after Pliny's own +heart, tall and stately, with flowing hair and beard, a man who excites +reverence but not fear, stern to vice, but gentle to the sinner. Pliny +seems to have set little store by the formal preaching of philosophy. In a +letter on the uses of sickness, he maintains that the moral lessons of the +sick-bed are worth many formal disquisitions on virtue.(865) + +Yet this man, apparently without the slightest taste for philosophic +inquiry, or even for the homilies which, in his day, had taken the place +of real speculation, had a profound veneration for the Stoic martyrs, and, +true gentleman as he was, he risked his life in the times of the last +Terror to befriend them. It needed both nerve and dexterity to be the +friend of philosophers in those days. In that perilous year, 93 A.D., when +Pliny was praetor,(866) the philosophers were banished from the city. Yet +the praetor visited Artemidorus in his suburban retreat, and, with his +wonted generosity, he helped the philosopher to wipe out a heavy debt +which he had contracted. One of Pliny's dearest friends was Junius +Mauricus, the brother of Arulenus Rusticus, who had been put to death by +Domitian for writing a eulogy on Thrasea the Stoic saint, the champion of +the higher life in Nero's reign.(867) Junius Mauricus afterwards suffered +exile himself in the same cause. He had charged himself with the care of +his martyred brother's children, and Pliny helped him to find a worthy +husband for the daughter of Rusticus.(868) With Fannia the widow of +Helvidius, and the daughter of Thrasea, Pliny's intimacy seems to have +been of the closest kind. From her he heard the tales, now too well worn, +of the fierce firmness of the elder Arria in nerving her husband Paetus +for death, and of her own determined self-immolation.(869) The mother of +Fannia, the younger Arria, when Thrasea her husband was condemned to die +in the reign of Nero, was only prevented from sharing his fate by the most +earnest entreaties of her friends.(870) Fannia had followed Helvidius into +exile in Nero's reign,(871) and again under Vespasian, when the +philosopher, with a petulance very unlike the reserve of Thrasea, brought +his fate upon himself by an insulting disregard of the emperor's dignity +as first magistrate of the State, if not by revolutionary tendencies.(872) +Fannia seems to have inherited many of the great qualities of her father +Thrasea, the noblest and the wisest member of the Stoic opposition. He +sprang from a district in Lombardy which was noted for its soundness and +gravity of character. Unlike Paetus(873) and Helvidius, he never defied or +intrigued against the emperor, even when the emperor was a Nero. And, +though he belonged to the austere circle of Persius, he did not disdain to +sing in tragic costume, at a festival of immemorial antiquity, in his +native Patavium.(874) He performed his duties as senator with firm +dignity, and yet with cautious tact. His worst political crime, and that +which proved his ruin, was a severe reserve and a refusal to join in the +shameful adulation of the matricide prince. He would not stoop to vote +divine honours to the adulteress Poppaea, and for three years he absented +himself from the Senate-house.(875) Yet, when the end came, he would not +allow the fiery Arulenus Rusticus to imperil his future, by interposing +his veto as tribune.(876) His daughter Fannia was worthy of her +illustrious descent. She showed all the fearless defiance of the elder +Arria, when she boldly admitted that she had asked Senecio to write her +husband's life, and she uttered no word to deprecate her doom. When all +her property was confiscated, she carried the dangerous volume with her to +her place of exile.(877) Yet this stern heroine had also the tenderer +virtues. She nursed her kinswoman Junia, one of the Vestals, through a +dangerous fever, and caught the seeds of her own death from her charge. +With all her masculine firmness and courage, she had a sweetness and charm +which made her not less loved than venerated. With her may be said to have +expired the peculiar tradition of a circle which, for three generations, +and during the reigns of eight emperors, guarded, sometimes with dangerous +defiance, the old ideal of uncompromising virtue in the face of a brutal +and vulgar materialism. It was the tradition which inspired the austere +detachment of the poetry of Persius, with its dim solemnity and obscure +depths, as of a sacred grove. These people were hard and stern to vicious +power,(878) like our own Puritans of the seventeenth century. Like them +too, they were exclusive and defiant, with the cold hauteur of a moral +aristocracy, a company of the elect, who would not even parley with evil, +for whom the issues of life and death were the only realities in a world +hypnotised by the cult of the senses and the spell of tyranny. Their +intense seriousness was a religion, although they had only the vaguest and +most arid conception of God, and the dimmest and least comforting +conception of any future life. They seemed to perish as a little sect of +troublesome visionaries; and yet their spirit lived on, softened and +sweetened, and passed into the great rulers of the Antonine age. + +Before his formal period of military service as tribune of the 3rd Gallic +legion in Syria, Pliny had, in his nineteenth year, entered on that +forensic career which was perhaps the greatest pride of his life.(879) He +practised in the Centumviral court, which was chiefly occupied with +questions of property and succession. Occasionally he speaks with a +certain weariness of the trivial character of the cases in which he was +engaged. But his general estimate is very different. The court is to him +an arena worthy of the greatest talent and industry,(880) and the +successful pleader may win a fame which may entitle him to take rank with +the great orators of the past. Pliny, inspired by memories of Quintilian's +lectures, has always floating before him the glory of Cicero.(881) He will +prepare for publication a speech delivered in an obscure case about a +disputed will.(882) He is immensely proud of its subtlety and point, and +the sweep of its indignant or pathetic declamation, and he is not +unwilling to believe his legal friends who compared it with the _De +Corona_! The suppression of free political life, the absence of public +interests, and the extinction of the trade of the delator, left young men +with a passion for distinction few chances of gratifying it. The law +courts at any rate provided an audience, and the chance of momentary +prominence. In the Letters of Pliny, we can see the young advocate pushing +his way through the dense masses of the crowded court, arriving at his +place with torn tunic, holding the attention of his audience for seven +long hours, and sitting down amid the applause even of the judges +themselves.(883) Calpurnia often arranged relays of messengers to bring +her news of the success, from point to point, of one of her husband's +speeches.(884) Youths of the highest social rank--a Salinator, or a +Ummidius Quadratus--threw themselves eagerly into the drudgery which might +make an ephemeral name.(885) Ambitious pretenders, with no talent or +learning, and arrayed perhaps in hired purple and jewels, like Juvenal's +needy lawyer, forced themselves on to the benches of the advocates, and +engaged a body of claqueurs whose applause was purchased for a few +denarii.(886) Pliny has such a pride in this profession, he so idealises +what must have been often rather humdrum work, that he feels a personal +pain at anything which seems to detract from the old-fashioned, leisurely +dignity of the court. In his day the judges seem to have been becoming +more rapid and business-like in their procedure, and less inclined to +allow the many _clepsydrae_ which men of Pliny's school demanded for the +gradual development of all their rhetorical artifices. He regrets the good +old times, when adjournments were freely granted,(887) and days would be +spent on a case which was now despatched in as many hours. It is for this +reason that he cannot conceal a certain admiration for Regulus, in other +respects, "the most detestable of bipeds" but who redeemed his infamy by +an enthusiasm and energy as an advocate which rivalled even that of Pliny. + +M. Aquilius Regulus, the prince of delators, and one of the great glories +of the Roman bar in Domitian's reign, is a singular figure. His career and +character are a curious illustration of the social history of the times. +Regulus was the son of a man who, in Nero's reign, had been driven into +exile and ruined.(888) Bold, able, recklessly eager for wealth and +notoriety at any cost, as a mere youth he resolved to raise himself from +obscure indigence, and soon became one of the most capable and dreaded +agents of the tyranny. He gained an evil fame by the ruin of the great +houses of the Crassi and Orfiti. Lust of blood and greed of gain drove him +on to the wholesale destruction of innocent boys, noble matrons, and men +of the most illustrious race. The cruelty of Nero was not swift enough to +satisfy him, and he called for the annihilation of the Senate at a stroke. +He rose rapidly to great wealth, honours were showered upon him, and, +after a prudent retirement in the reigns of Vespasian and Titus, he +reached the pinnacle of his depraved ambition under Vespasian's cruel son. +He figures more than once in the poems of Martial, and always in the most +favourable light. His talent and eloquence, according to the poet, were +only equalled by his piety, and the special care of the gods had saved him +from being buried under the ruins of a cloister which had suddenly fallen +in.(889) He had estates at Tusculum, in Umbria and Etruria.(890) The +courts were packed when he rose to plead.(891) Unfortunately, the needy +poet furnishes a certain key to all this flattery, when he thanks Regulus +for his presents, and then begs him to buy them back.(892) It is after +Domitian's death that we meet Regulus in Pliny's pages. The times are +changed, the delator's day is over, and Regulus is a humbler man. But he +is still rich, courted, and feared; he is still a great power in the law +courts. With a weak voice, a bad memory, and hesitating utterance,(893) by +sheer industry and determination he had made himself a powerful speaker, +with a style of his own, sharp, pungent, brutally incisive, ruthlessly +sacrificing elegance to point.(894) He belonged to the new school, and +sometimes sneered at Pliny's affectation of the grand Ciceronian +manner.(895) Yet to Pliny's eyes, his earnest strenuousness in his +profession redeems some of his vices. He insists on having ample time to +develop his case.(896) He appears in the morning pale with study, wearing +a white patch on his forehead. He has consulted the diviners as to the +success of his pleadings.(897) It is a curious sign of the times that this +great advocate, who already possessed an enormous fortune, was a +legacy-hunter of the meanest sort. He actually visited, on her death-bed, +Verania, the widow of that Piso, the adopted son of Galba, over whose +murder Regulus had savagely gloated, and by telling her that the stars +promised a hope of recovery, he obtained a place in her will. His mourning +for his son displayed all the feverish extravagance and grandiose +eccentricity of a true child of the Neronian age.(898) The boy's ponies +and dogs and pet birds were slaughtered over his pyre. Countless pictures +and statues of him were ordered. His memoir was read by the father to a +crowded audience, and a thousand copies of it were sent broadcast over the +provinces.(899) In Regulus we seem to see the type of character which, had +fortune raised him to the throne, would have made perhaps a saner +Caligula, and an even more eccentric Nero. + +The struggles of the law courts were idealised by Pliny, and their +transient triumphs seemed to him to match the glory of the Philippics or +the Verrines. Yet, to do him justice, Pliny had sometimes a truer idea of +the foundations of lasting fame. The secret of immortality, the one chance +of escaping oblivion, is to leave your thought embalmed in choice and +distinguished literary form, which coming ages will not willingly let +die.(900) This, probably the only form of immortality in which Pliny +believed, is the great motive for literary labour. The longing to be +remembered was the most ardent passion of the Roman mind in all ages and +in all ranks, from the author of the _Agricola_ to the petty artisan, who +commemorated the homely virtues of his wife for the eyes of a distant age, +and made provision for the annual feast and the tribute of roses to the +tomb. Of that immense literary ambition which Pliny represented, and which +he considered it a duty to foster, only a small part has reached its goal. +The great mass of these eager litterateurs have altogether vanished, or +remain as mere shadowy names in Martial or Statius or Pliny. + +The poems of Martial and Statius leave the impression that, in the reign +of Domitian, the interest in poetical literature was keen and widely +diffused, and that, besides the poets by profession, there were crowds of +amateurs who dabbled in verse. The _Silvae_ transport us into a charming, +if rather luxurious world, where men like Atedius Melior or Pollius amuse +themselves with dilettante composition among their gardens and marbles on +the bays of Campania.(901) Martial has a host of friends similarly +engaged, and the versatility of some of them is suspiciously wide. An old +Ardelio is twitted by Martial with his showy and superficial displays in +declamation and history, in plays and epigrams, in grammar and +astronomy.(902) Canius Rufus, his countryman from Gades, Varro, Bassus, +Brutianus, Cirinius, have all an extraordinary dexterity in almost every +branch of poetical composition. Martial is too keen a critic not to see +the fugitive character of much of this amateur literature. Like Juvenal, +he scoffs at the thin talent which concealed its feebleness behind the +pomp and faded splendour of epic or tragic tradition.(903) He roughly +tells the whole versifying crowd that genius alone will live in coming +ages. The purchased applause of the recitation hall merely gratifies for +an hour the vanity of the literary trifler. It is a pity for his fame that +Martial did not always maintain this tone of sincerity. He can at times +sell his flattery to the basest and most stupid. He is capable of implying +a comparison of the frigid pedantry of Silius Italicus to the majesty of +Virgil.(904) + +Pliny was a friend and admirer of Martial, and, with his usual generous +hand, he made the poet a present when he left Rome for ever to pass his +last years at Bilbilis.(905) The needy epigrammatist was only a distant +observer, or hanger-on of that world of wealth and refinement in which +Pliny was a conspicuous figure. But from both Pliny and Martial we get +very much the same impression of the literary movement in the reign of +Domitian. Pliny himself is perhaps its best representative. He is a true +son of the Roman schools, as they had been revived and strengthened by +Vespasian, for a life of many generations. Pliny does not think slightly +of the literary efforts of his own day: some of them he even overrates. +But already the Roman mind had bent its neck to that thraldom to the past, +to that routine of rhetorical discipline, which, along with other causes, +produced the combination of ambitious effort and mediocre performance +that, for the last three centuries of the Empire, is the characteristic of +all literary culture. From his great teacher Quintilian Pliny had imbibed +a profound reverence for Cicero.(906) Alike in his career of honours and +his literary pursuits, he loves to think that he is treading in the great +orator's footsteps. In answer to a taunt of Regulus, he once boldly avowed +his preference for the Ciceronian oratory to that of his own day. +Demosthenes is also sometimes his model, though he feels keenly the +difference that separates them.(907) Indeed his reverence for Greece as +the mother of letters, art, and civic life was one of Pliny's sincerest +and most honourable feelings. To a man who had been appointed to high +office in Greece he preaches, in earnest tones, the duty of reverence for +that gifted race whose age was consecrated by the memories of its glorious +prime.(908) Pliny's Greek studies must have begun very early. At the age +of fourteen he had written a Greek tragedy, for which, however, he +modestly does not claim much merit.(909) He had always a certain taste for +poetry, but it seems to have been merely the taste created or enforced by +the constant study of the poets under the grammarian. Once, while detained +by bad weather on his way back from military service in Asia, he amused +himself with composing in elegiac and heroic verse.(910) Later in his +career, he published a volume of poems in hendecasyllabic metre, written +on various occasions. But there was no inspiration behind these +conventional exercises. He was chiefly moved to write in verse, as he +naively confesses, by the example of the great orators who beguiled their +leisure in this way. Among his published poems there were some with a +flavour of Catullan lubricity, which offended or astonished some of his +severer friends, who thought such doubtful lightness unworthy of a grave +character and a great position.(911) No better illustration could be found +of Pliny's incorrigible conventionality in such things than the defence +which he makes of his suspected verses to Titius Ariston.(912) It is to +Pliny not a question of morals or propriety. The ancient models are to be +followed, not only in their elevated, but in their looser moods. The case +seems to be closed when Pliny can point to similar literary aberrations in +a long line of great men from Varro and Virgil and Cicero to Verginius +Rufus and the divine Nerva.(913) + +Pliny, however, though vain of his dexterity in these trifles, probably +did not rate them very highly. It was to oratorical fame that his ambition +was directed. He was dissatisfied with the eloquence of his own day, +which, to use the words of Regulus, sprang at the throat of its subject, +and he avowed himself an imitator of Cicero. His speeches, even for the +centumviral court, were worked up with infinite care, although with too +self-conscious an aim to impress an audience. We can hardly imagine Cicero +or Demosthenes coldly balancing their tropes and figures after the fashion +of Pliny. When the great oratorical effort was over, the labour was +renewed, in order to make the speech worthy of the eyes of posterity. It +was revised and polished, and submitted to the scrutiny of critical +readers for suggestions of emendation.(914) Pliny was probably the first +to give readings of speeches to long-suffering friends. We hear with a +shudder that the recital of the _Panegyric_ was spread over three +days!(915) The other speeches on which Pliny lavished so much labour and +thought, have perished, as they probably deserved to perish. The +_Panegyric_ was preserved, and became the parent and model of the +prostituted rhetoric of the Gallic renaissance in the fourth century.(916) +Pliny was by no means a despicable literary critic, when he was not paying +the tribute of friendly flattery which social tyranny then exacted. He +could sometimes be honestly reserved in his appreciation of a friend's +dull literary efforts.(917) But in his ideals of oratory, he seems to be +hopelessly wrong. There are some terse and epigrammatic sentences in the +_Panegyric_, which redeem it by their strong sincerity. But Pliny's canons +of oratorical style would have excited the ridicule of his great models, +who were thinking of their goal, and not measuring every pace as they +strained towards it. Pliny's theory that the mere length of a speech is a +great element in its excellence, that swift directness is inartistic, that +lingering diffuseness is an oratorical charm, that laboured manufacture of +turgid phrases may produce the effect of the impetuous rush of Demosthenes +and Cicero in their moments of inspiration, makes us rather glad, who love +him, that we have not more of Pliny's oratory.(918) + +It is by his letters that Pliny has lived, and will live on, so long as +men care to know the inner life of the great ages that have gone before. +The criticism, which is so quick to seize the obvious weaknesses of the +author of a priceless picture of ancient society, seems to be a little +ungrateful. We could forgive almost any failing or affectation in one who +had left us a similar revelation of society when M. Aurelius was holding +back the Germans on the Danube, or when Probus was shattering the invaders +of the third century. The letters of Cicero offer an apparently obvious +comparison, which may be used to the detriment of Pliny. Yet the +comparison is rather inept. Cicero was a man of affairs in the thick of a +great revolution, and his letters are invaluable to the student of +politics at a great crisis in history. But in the calm of Trajan's reign, +a letter-writer had to seek other subjects of interest than the fortunes +of the state. Literature, criticism, the beauties of nature, the simple +charm of country life, the thousand trivial incidents and eccentricities +of an over-ripe society in the capital of the world, furnished a ready pen +and a genial imagination, which could idealise its surroundings, with +ample materials. Pliny is by some treated as a mediocrity; but, like our +own Horace Walpole, he had the keen sense to see that social routine could +be made interesting, and that the man who had the skill to do so might +make himself famous. He was genuinely interested in his social +environment. And intense interest in one's subject is one great secret of +literary success. Pliny had also the instinct that, if a work is to live, +it must have a select distinction of style, which may be criticised, but +which cannot be ignored. He had the laudable ambition to put his thoughts +in a form of artistic grace which may make even commonplace attractive. So +good a judge as the late Mr. Paley did not hesitate to put the Latinity of +Pliny on the level of that of Cicero. Pliny's Letters, perhaps even more +than the masterpieces of the Augustine age, fascinated the taste of the +fourth and fifth centuries. They were the models of Symmachus and +Sidonius, who tried, but in very different fashion, to do for their age +what Pliny did for his.(919) + +Like his imitators, Sidonius and Symmachus, Pliny intended his Letters to +go down to the future as a masterpiece of style, and as a picture of his +age. We know that the letters of Symmachus were carefully preserved in +duplicate by his scribes, probably by his own instructions, although they +were edited and published by his son only after his death.(920) Pliny, +like Sidonius, gave his Letters to the public in successive portions +during his life.(921) Like Sidonius too, he felt that he had not the +sustained power to write a consecutive history of his time and the Letters +of both are probably far more valuable. Pliny's first book opens with a +kind of dedication to Septicius Clarus, who was the patron of Suetonius, +and who rose to be praetorian prefect under Hadrian.(922) Pliny appears to +disclaim any order or principle of arrangement in these books, but this is +the device of an artistic negligence. Yet it has been proved by the prince +of European scholars in our day that both as to date and subject matter, +Pliny's Letters reveal signs of the most careful arrangement. The books +were published separately, a common practice down to the end of Roman +literary history. The same subject reappears in the same book or the +next.(923) Groups of letters dealing with the same matter are found in +their natural order in successive books. The proof is made even clearer by +the silence or the express references to Pliny's family relations. +Finally, the older men, who fill the stage in the earlier Letters, +disappear towards the end; while a younger generation, a Salinator or a +Ummidius Quadratus, are only heard of in the later. Men of Pliny's own +age, like Tacitus or Cornutus Tertullus, meet us from first to last. The +dates at which the various books were published have been fixed with +tolerable certainty. It is enough for our present purpose to say that the +earliest letter belongs to the reign of Nerva, and the ninth book was +probably given to the world a year or two before the writer was appointed +by Trajan to the office of imperial legate of Bithynia.(924) + +It is easy, as we have said, and apparently congenial to some writers, to +dwell on the vanity and self-complacency of the writer of these letters. +By some he seems to be regarded chiefly as a _poseur_. To discover the +weaknesses of Pliny is no great feat of criticism: they are on the +surface. But "securus judicat orbis terrarum," and Pliny has borne the +scrutiny of the great judge. Men of his own race and age, who spoke and +wrote the most finished Latin, awarded him the palm of exquisite style. +But Pliny has many qualities of the heart, which should cover a multitude +of sins, even more serious than any with which he is charged. He had the +great gift of loyal friendship, and he had its usual reward in a multitude +of friends. It has been regretted that Pliny does not deal with serious +questions of politics and philosophy, that his Letters rather skim the +surface of social life, and leave its deeper problems untouched. Pliny +himself would probably have accepted this criticism as a compliment. The +mass of men are little occupied with insoluble questions. And Pliny has +probably deserved better of posterity by leaving us a vivid picture of the +ordinary life of his time or of his class, rather than an analysis of its +spiritual distresses and maladies. We have enough of that in Seneca, in M. +Aurelius, and in Lucian. Of the variety and vividness of Pliny's sketches +of social life there can never be any question. But our gratitude will be +increased if we compare his Letters with the collections of his imitators, +Symmachus and Sidonius, whose arid pages are seldom turned by any but a +few curious and weary students. Martial, in his way, is perhaps even more +clear-cut and minute in his portraiture. But Martial is essentially a wit +of the town, viewing its vices, follies, and fashions with the eye of a +keen, but rather detached observer. In reading Pliny's Letters, we feel +ourselves introduced into the heart of that society in its better hours; +and, above all, we seem to be transported to those quiet provincial towns +and secluded country seats where, if life was duller and tamer than it was +in the capital, the days passed in a quiet content, unsolicited by the +stormier passions, in orderly refinement, in kindly relations with country +neighbours, and amid the unfading charm of old-world pieties and the +witchery of nature. + +Pliny has also done a great service in preserving a memorial of the +literary tone and habits of his time. Even in that age of fertile +production and too enthusiastic appreciation, Pliny, like Seneca and +Statius, has a feeling that the love for things of the mind was +waning.(925) And he deemed it an almost religious duty, as Symmachus and +Sidonius did more than three centuries after him, to arouse the flagging +interest in letters, and to reward even third-rate literary effort with +exuberant praise. He avows that it is a matter of duty to admire and +venerate any performance in a field so difficult as that of letters.(926) +Yet Pliny was not by any means devoid of critical honesty and acumen. He +could be a severe judge of his own style. He expects candid criticism from +his friends, and receives it with gratitude and good temper.(927) This is +to him, indeed, the practical purpose of readings before final +publication. He made emendations and excisions in the Histories of +Tacitus, which the great author had submitted for his revision.(928) In +his correspondence with Tacitus, there is a curious mixture of vanity +along with a clear recognition of his friend's immense superiority of +genius, and a sure prescience of his immortal fame. He is proud to hear +their names coupled as chiefs of contemporary literature,(929) and he +cherishes the hope that, united by loyal friendship in life, they will go +down together to a remote future. When, in the year 106, Tacitus had asked +him for an account of the elder Pliny's death, in the great eruption of +Vesuvius, Pliny expressed a firm belief that the book on which Tacitus was +then engaged was destined to an enduring fame.(930) He was not quite so +confident as to the immortality of Martial's work,(931) although he +appreciates to the full Martial's brilliant and pungent wit. On the other +hand, writing to a friend about the death of Silius Italicus, he frankly +recognises that the Epic of the Punic War is a work of industry rather +than of genius.(932) Yet he cannot allow the author of this dull +mechanical poem to pass away without some record of his career.(933) The +death at seventy-five of the last surviving consular of the Neronian age, +of the consul in whose year of office the tyranny of Nero closed, inspired +a feeling of pathos which was probably genuine, in spite of the rather +pompous and pedantic expression of it. And although he wrote the _Punica_, +a work which was almost buried till the fifteenth century,(934) Silius was +probably a not uninteresting person. He had been a delator under Nero, and +had enjoyed the friendship of Vitellius, but he knew how to redeem his +character under the Flavian dynasty, and he had filled the proconsulate of +Asia with some credit.(935) Henceforth he enjoyed the lettered ease and +social deference which were the privilege of his class for centuries. He +retired finally to the shores of Campania, where, moving from one villa to +another, and surrounding himself with books and gems of art, his life +flowed away undisturbed by the agony of Rome in the last terror of the +Caesars. Among his many estates he was the proud owner of one of Cicero's +villas, and of the ground where Virgil sleeps. He used to keep the great +poet's birthday with a scrupulous piety, and he always approached his tomb +as a holy place. This apparently placid and fortunate life was, like so +many in those days, ended by a voluntary death.(936) Silius Italicus, in +his life and in his end, is a true type of a generation which could bend +before the storm of despotism, and save itself often by ignominious arts, +which could recover its dignity and self-respect in the pursuit of +literary ideals, and, at the last, assert the right to shake off the +burden of existence when it became too heavy. + +Pliny's theory of life is clearly stated in the Letters, and it was +evidently acted on by a great number of the class to which he +belonged.(937) The years of vigorous youth should be given to the service +of the state, in pursuing the well-marked and carefully-graduated career +of honours, or in the strenuous oratorical strife of the law courts. The +leisure of later years might be portioned out between social duty, the +pleasures or the cares of a rural estate, and the cultivation of literary +taste by reading and imitation of the great masters. The last was the most +imperious duty of all, for those with any literary gifts, because charm of +style gives the one hope of surviving the wreck of time;(938) for mere +cultivated facility, as the most refined and creditable way of filling up +the vacant spaces of life. Even if lasting fame was beyond one's reach, it +was something to be able to give pleasure to an audience of cultivated +friends at a reading, and to enjoy the triumph of an hour. There must have +been many a literary coterie who, if they fed one another's vanity, also +encouraged literary ideals, and hinted gentle criticism,(939) in that +polite delicacy of phrase in which the Roman was always an adept. One of +these literary circles stands out in Pliny's pages. At least two of its +members had held great office. Arrius Antoninus, the maternal grandfather +of the Emperor Antoninus Pius,(940) had twice borne the consulship with +antique dignity, and shown himself a model governor as proconsul of +Asia.(941) He was devoted to Greek literature, and seems to have preferred +to compose in that language. We need not accept literally Pliny's praises +of his Atticism, and of the grace and sweetness of his Greek epigrams. But +he seems to have had a facility which Pliny tortured his ingenuity in vain +to imitate with the poorer resources of the Latin tongue.(942) Among the +friends of Antoninus was Vestricius Spurinna, who had defended Placentia +for Otho, who was twice consul under Domitian, and was selected by Trajan +to command the troops in a campaign in Germany.(943) This dignified +veteran, who had passed apparently untainted through the reigns of the +worst emperors, varied and lightened the ordinary routine of his old age +by the composition of lyrics, both in Greek and Latin, which seemed to his +admirers to have a singular sweetness. Sentius Augurinus, a familiar +friend of the two consulars, was also a brilliant verse writer,(944) who +could enthral Pliny by a recitation lasting for three days, although the +fact that Pliny was the subject of one of the poems may account for the +patience or the pleasure. One of Pliny's dearest friends was Passennus +Paullus, who claimed kindred with the poet Propertius, and, at any rate, +came from the same town in Umbria. Passennus has been cruelly treated by +Time, if his lyric efforts recalled, as we are asked to believe, the +literary graces of his ancestor, and even those of Horace.(945) Vergilius +Romanus devoted himself to comedy, and was thought to have reproduced not +unworthily the delicate charms of Menander and Terence, as well as the +scathing invective of older Greek masters of the art.(946) But there were +others of Pliny's circle who essayed a loftier and weightier style. +Probably the foremost of these was Titinius Capito, who, as an inscription +records,(947) had held high civil office under Domitian, Nerva, and +Trajan. He was an enthusiastic patron of letters, and readily offered his +halls to literary friends for their recitations, which he attended with +punctilious politeness. Cherishing the memory of the great men of the +Republic, the Cassii, the Bruti, and the Catos, he composed a work on the +death of the noble victims of the Terror.(948) He tried in vain to draw +Pliny into the field of historical composition.(949) But the man who +thought more of style and graceful charity than of truth, was not the man +to write the history of such a time. He has done a much greater service in +providing priceless materials for the reconstruction of its social +history. Caninius Rufus was a neighbour of Pliny at Como.(950) He was one +of those for whom the charms of country life had a dangerous seduction. +His villa, with its colonnades, "where it was always spring," the shining +levels of the lake beneath his verandah, the water course with its emerald +banks, the baths and spacious halls, all these delights seem to have +relaxed the literary energy and ambition of their master. Caninius +meditated the composition of a Greek epic on the Dacian wars of +Trajan.(951) But he was probably one of those lingering, dilatory writers +who meet us in Martial,(952) waiting for the fire from heaven which never +comes. The intractable roughness of barbarian names, which, as Pliny +suggests, might have been eluded by a Homeric licence in quantity, was +probably not the only difficulty of Caninius. + +Among the literary friends of Pliny, a much more important person than +Caninius was Suetonius, but Suetonius was apparently long paralysed by the +same cautious hesitation to challenge the verdict of the public. A younger +man than Pliny,(953) Suetonius was one of his most intimate friends. They +both belonged to that circle which nursed the senatorial tradition and the +hatred of the imperial tyrants.(954) The life of Suetonius was not very +effectual or brilliant, from a worldly point of view. Although born within +the rank to which every distinction was open,(955) he was a man of modest +and retiring tastes, devoted to quiet research, and destitute of the eager +ambition and vigorous self-assertion which are necessary for splendid +success. He was probably for some years a professor of grammar.(956) He +made a half-hearted attempt to gain a footing at the bar. In 101 A.D. he +obtained a military tribunate, through Pliny's influence, but speedily +renounced his command.(957) Henceforth he devoted himself entirely to that +historical research, which, if it has not won for him any dazzling fame, +has made historical students, in spite of some reservations as to his +sources, his debtors for all time. Pliny had the greatest esteem for +Suetonius, and was always ready to befriend him, whether it were in the +purchase of a quiet little retreat near Rome,(958) or in obtaining for the +childless antiquary the _Jus trium liberorum_ from Trajan.(959) The two +men were bound to one another by many tastes and sympathies, not the least +strong being a curious superstition, which infected, as we shall see in a +later chapter, even the most vigorous minds of that age. Suetonius had +once a dream which seemed to portend failure in some legal cause in which +he was engaged. He sought the aid of Pliny to obtain an adjournment. Pliny +does not question the reality of such warnings, but merely suggests a more +cheering interpretation of the vision.(960) Although devoted to research, +and a most laborious student, the biographer of the Caesars was strangely +tardy in letting his productions see the light. In 106, he had been long +engaged on a work, which was probably the _De Viris Illustribus_.(961) +Pliny assailed him with bantering reproaches on his endless use of the +file, and begs him to publish without delay. From several indications, it +appears that the lingering volume did not appear till 113.(962) It was not +till the year 118, when Hadrian arrived from the East after his accession, +that Suetonius attained the rank of one of the imperial +secretaryships.(963) Pliny in all probability had died some years before +the elevation of his friend. + +But although the dawn of a new age of milder and less suspicious +government had, for the first time since Augustus, left men free to +compose a true record of the past, and even to vilify the early +Caesars,(964) the great mass of cultivated men in Pliny's time, as in the +days of Ausonius and Sidonius, were devoted to poetry. The chief cause in +giving this direction to the Roman mind was undoubtedly the system pursued +in the schools. In the first century, as in the fifth, the formative years +of boyhood were devoted almost entirely to the study of the poets. The +subject-matter of their masterpieces was not neglected by the accomplished +grammarian, who was often a man of learning, and sometimes a man of taste; +and the reading of poetry was made the text for disquisitions on geography +and astronomy, on mythology or the antiquities of religious ritual and +constitutional lore.(965) But style and expression were always of foremost +interest in these studies. The ear of the South has always felt the charm +of rhythmical or melodious speech, with a keenness of pleasure generally +denied to our colder temperament. And the Augustan age had, in a single +generation, performed miracles, under Greek inspiration, in moulding the +Latin tongue to be the apt vehicle of every mood of poetic feeling. That +inspired band of writers, whose call it was to glorify the dawn of a +world-wide empire and the ancient achievements of the Latin race,(966) +rose to the full height of their vocation. They were conscious that they +were writing for distant provinces won from barbarism, and for a remote +posterity.(967) They discovered and revealed resources in the language, +hitherto undreamt of. They wedded to its native dignity and strength a +brilliancy, an easy grace and sprightliness, which positively ravished the +ear of the street boys in Pompeii, or of the rude dweller on the Tanais or +the Baetis.(968) In his own lifetime Virgil became a popular hero. His +Eclogues were chanted on the stage; verses of the Aeneid can still be +seen, along with verses of Propertius, scrawled on the walls of Campanian +towns. Virgil, when he visited Rome, was mobbed by admiring crowds. When +his poetry was recited in the theatre, the whole audience rose to their +feet as if to salute the emperor.(969) He had the doubtful but significant +honour of being recited by Alexandrian boys at the coarse orgies of a +Trimalchio.(970) Never was a worthy fame so rapidly and splendidly won: +seldom has literary fame and influence been so lasting. + +The Flavian age succeeded to this great heritage. Already there were +ominous signs of a decay of originality and force, of decadence in the +language itself.(971) The controversy between the lovers of the new and +the lovers of the archaic style was raging in the reign of Vespasian, and +can be still followed in the _De Oratoribus_ of Tacitus, or even in the +verses of Martial.(972) Already the taste for Ennius and the +prae-Ciceronian oratory had set in, for the dialect of the heroes of the +Punic Wars, even for "the Latin of the Twelve Tables,"(973) a taste which +was destined to produce its Dead Sea fruit in the age of the Antonines. +But whoever might cavil at Cicero,(974) no one ever questioned the +pre-eminence of Virgil, and he and his contemporaries were still the +models of a host of imitators. The mass of facile talent, thrown back on +itself by the loss of free republican life and public interests, +fascinated from earliest infancy by the haunting cadences of the grand +style, rushed into verse-writing, to beguile long hours of idleness, or to +woo a shadowy fame at an afternoon recital, with a more shadowy hope of +future fame. The grand style was a charmer and deceiver. It was such a +perfect instrument, it was so protean in its various power, it was so +abundant in its resources, that a man of third-rate powers and thin +commonplace imagination, who had been trained in skilful manipulation of +consecrated phrase, might for the moment delude himself and his friends by +faint echoes of the music of the golden age. + +The brilliancy of inherited phrase concealed the poverty of the literary +amateur's fancy from himself. And, even if he were not deluded about his +own powers, the practice in skilful handling of literary symbols, which +was acquired in the schools, furnished a refined amusement for a too ample +leisure. It is clear from the dialogue _De Oratoribus_, and from Pliny's +Letters, that the meditative life, surrounded by the quiet charm of stream +and woodland, far from the din and strife and social routine of the great +city,(975) attracted many people much more than the greatest oratorical +triumphs in the centumviral court, which, after all, were so pale and +bourgeois beside the glories of the great ages of oratory. And although +Aper, in the Dialogue of Tacitus, sneers at the solitary and unsocial toil +of the poet, rewarded by a short-lived _succes d'estime_,(976) there can +be no doubt that the ambition to cut a figure, even for a day, was a +powerful inspiration at a time when the ancient avenues to fame had been +closed. + +It was to satisfy such ambitions that Domitian founded the quinquennial +competition on the Capitol, in the year 86 A.D.,(977) as well as the +annual festival in honour of Minerva on the Alban Mount. A similar +festival, for the cultivation of Greek poetry, had been established at +Naples in honour of Augustus, at which Statius had won the crown of +corn-ears.(978) And Nero had founded another, apparently only for his own +glorification.(979) The festival established by Domitian was more +important and enduring. The judges were taken from the priestly colleges, +and, amid a concourse of the highest functionaries of the state, the +successful poet received his crown at the hands of the emperor. The +prospect of such a distinction drew competitors from distant provincial +parts. It is a curious illustration of the power and the skill of the +literary discipline of the schools that, twice within a few years, the +crown of oak leaves was won by boys under fourteen years of age. The +verses of one of them may still be read upon his tomb.(980) + +But these infrequent chances of distinction could not suffice for the +crowd of eager composers. In those days, although the bookselling trade +was extensive and vigorous, there was no organised publishing system by +which a new work could be brought to the notice of the public.(981) The +author had to advertise himself by giving readings, to which he invited +his friends, and by distributing copies of his book. The mania for +recitation was the theme of satirists from the days of Horace to the days +of Epictetus.(982) Martial comically describes the frenzied poet torturing +his friends day and night, pursuing them from the bath to the dining-room, +and spreading a solitude around him.(983) Juvenal congratulates his friend +on escaping to the country from the hoarse reciter of a frigid +Theseid.(984) In the bohemian scenes of Petronius, the inveterate +versifier, who will calmly finish a passage, after being cast ashore from +a shipwreck, makes himself a nuisance by his recitations in the baths and +porticoes of Croton, and is very properly stoned by a crowd of street +boys.(985) No aspect of social life is more prominent in the Letters of +Pliny than the reading of new works, epics, or lyrics, histories, or +speeches, before fashionable assemblies. A liberal patron like Titinius +Capito would sometimes lend a hall for the purpose. But the reciter had +many expenses, from the hire of chairs to the fees to freedmen and slaves, +who acted as _claqueurs_. In the circle of a man like Pliny, to attend +these gatherings was a sacred duty both to letters and to friendship. In a +year when there was a more than usually abundant crop of poets, the eager +advocate could boast that he had failed no one, even in the month when the +courts were busiest.(986) Doubtless, many of the fashionable idlers, who +dawdled away their time in the many resorts devoted to gossip and scandal, +were glad to show themselves in the crowd. Old friends would consider it a +duty to support and encourage the budding literary ambition of a young +aspirant of their set. Some sincere lovers of literary art would be drawn +by a genuine interest and a wish to maintain the literary tradition, which +was already betraying signs of weakness and decay. But, to a great many, +this duty, added to the endless round of other social obligations, was +evidently becoming repulsive and wearisome.(987) Pliny could listen with +delight and admiration to Sentius Augurinus reciting his poems for three +long days.(988) He would calmly expect his own friends to listen for as +many days to a whole volume of his poems, or to his _Panegyric_ on +Trajan.(989) Such was his high breeding, his kindliness, and such was his +passion for literature in any form or of any quality, that he could hardly +understand how what to him seemed at once a pleasure and duty should be +regarded by others as an intolerable nuisance. The conduct of such people +is treated with some disdain in one or two of the rare passages in which +he writes of his circle with any severity. Some of these fashionable folk, +after lingering in some place of gossip until the reading was well +advanced, would enter the hall with ostentatious reluctance, and then +leave before the end. Others, with an air of superiority, would sit in +stolid silence and disguise the slightest expression of interest. This +seemed to Pliny, not only grossly bad manners, but also neglect of a +literary duty.(990) The audience should not only encourage honest effort; +they should contribute their judgment to the improvement of style. Pliny, +like Aristotle, has an immense faith in the collective opinion of numbers, +even in matters of artistic taste.(991) He used to read his own pieces to +successively wider circles, each time receiving suggestions for amendment. +Many of Pliny's Letters, like the dialogue _De Oratoribus_, reveal the +keenness with which in those days questions of style were debated. But, as +in the circle of Sidonius, this very energy of criticism was perhaps due +to a dim consciousness of waning force.(992) Pliny, with all his kindly +optimism, lets fall a phrase here and there which betrays an uneasiness +about the future of letters.(993) Enthusiasm is failing. Nay, there is a +hardly veiled contempt for that eager mediocrity which Pliny and Titinius +Capito made it a point of honour to encourage. We feel that we are on the +edge of that arid desert of cultivated impotence in which the freshness +and vigour of Roman literature was soon mysteriously to disappear. + +Great as were the attractions of the capital, its gay social circles with +their multifarious engagements, its games and spectacles, and literary +novelties, yet the most devoted "Ardelio," in the end, felt the strain and +the monotony to be oppressive.(994) Seneca and Pliny, Martial and +Juvenal,(995) from various points of view, lament or ridicule the inanity +and the slavery of city life. Roman etiquette was perhaps the most +imperious and exacting that ever existed. Morning receptions, punctilious +attendance at the assumption of the toga, at betrothals, or the sealing of +wills, or the reading of some tedious epic, advice or support in the law +courts, congratulations to friends on every official success, these +duties, and many others, left men, who had a large circle of acquaintance, +hardly a moment of repose. Hence the rapture with which Pliny escapes to +the stillness of the Laurentine pine woods, or the pure cold breezes that +blew from the Apennines over his Tuscan seat.(996) In these calm solitudes +the weary advocate and man of letters became for a little while his own +master, and forgot the din and crush of the streets, the paltry ambitions, +the malevolent gossip and silly rumours of the great world, in some +long-suspended literary task. There can be no doubt that an intense +enjoyment was becoming more and more felt in country life. Its unbought, +home-grown luxuries, its common sights and sounds, its antique simplicity, +have a strange charm even for a hardened bohemian like Martial.(997) But +Pliny, besides this commoner form of enjoyment, has a keen and exquisite +feeling for beauty of scenery. He loves the amphitheatre of hills, crowned +with immemorial forest that looks down on rich pastoral slope, or vineyard +or meadow, bright with the flowers of spring, and watered by the winding +Tiber; he loves the scenery of Como, where you watch the fishermen at his +toils from some retreat on the terraced banks.(998) Where in ancient +literature can you find a more sharp and clear-cut picture of a romantic +scene than in his description of the Clitumnus?(999) The famous stream +rises under a low hill, shaded by ancient cypresses, and broadens into a +basin in whose glassy ice-cold waters you may count the pebbles. Soon the +current grows broader and swifter, and the barges are swept along under +groves of ash and poplar, which, so vivid is their reflection, seem to be +growing in the river-bed. Hard by, is a temple of the river-god, with many +other chapels, and a seat of ancient augury; the magic charm of antique +religious awe blends with the witchery of nature, and many a villa is +planted on fair spots along the banks. There was plenty of sport to be had +in the Apennines or the Laurentine woods. But Pliny was plainly not a real +sportsman. He once tells his friend Tacitus, who seems to have rallied him +on this failing, that although he has killed three boars, he much prefers +to sit, tablets in hand beside the nets, meditating in the silent +glade.(1000) The country is charming to Pliny, but its greatest charm lies +in the long tranquil hours which can be given to literary musing. Part of +the well-regulated day of Spurinna, a man who had commanded armies and +governed provinces, and who had reached his seventy-seventh year, is +devoted to lyric composition both in Greek and Latin.(1001) Pliny once or +twice laments the mass of literary talent which, from diffidence or love +of ease, was buried in these rural retreats.(1002) There must have been +many a country squire, like that Terentius, who, apparently lost in +bucolic pursuits, surprised his guest by the purity of his taste and his +breadth of culture. We often meet the same buried talent after nearly four +centuries in the pages of Sidonius.(1003) + +The literature of the Flavian age has preserved for us many pictures of +Roman villas. They occupied every variety of site. They were planted on +rocks where the sea-foam flecked their walls,(1004) or on inland lakes and +rivers, embowered in woods, or on the spurs of the Apennines, between the +ancient forest and the wealthy plain.(1005) Some of these mansions were +remote and secluded. But on the Bay of Naples, on the Laurentine shore or +the banks of Lake Como,(1006) they clustered thickly. Building in the days +of Domitian was as much the rage as it was in the days of Horace, and, +just as then, all natural obstacles were defied in preparing a site to the +builder's taste. In the grounds of Pollius Felix in the _Silvae_, whole +hills had been levelled, and rocks had been cleared away to make a space +for the house with its gardens and woodlands.(1007) Manlius Vopiscus had +built two luxurious seats on opposite banks of the Anio, where the stream +glides silently under overarching boughs.(1008) The villas pressed so +close to the water that you could converse, and almost touch hands, across +the interval between them. The love of variety, or the obligation imposed +on senators to invest a third of their fortune in Italian land,(1009) may +account for the number of country seats possessed even by men who were not +of the wealthiest class.(1010) Pliny had villas at Laurentum, at Tifernum +Tiberinum, at Beneventum, and more than two on Lake Como.(1011) The orator +Regulus had at least five country seats.(1012) Silius Italicus had several +stately abodes in the same district of Campania, and, with capricious +facility, transferred his affections to each new acquisition.(1013) + +It is by no means an easy task, and perhaps not a very profitable one, to +trace minutely the arrangement of one of these great houses. Indeed there +seems to have been a good deal of caprice and little care for symmetry in +their architecture. The builder appears to have given no thought to +external effect. To catch a romantic view from the windows, to escape the +sultry heat of midsummer, or woo the brief sunshine of December, above all +to obtain perfect stillness, were the objects which seem to have dictated +the plans of the Roman architect.(1014) The Laurentine villa of Pliny and +the Surrentine of Pollius Felix from their windows or colonnades gave +glimpses of forest or mountain, or sea, or fat herds browsing on the +meadow grass, or a view seaward to the islands off the Campanian +shore.(1015) One room admits the morning sun, another is brightened by the +glow of evening. Here is a colonnade where in winter you can pace up and +down with shutters closed on the weather side, or in spring-time enjoy the +scent of violets and the temperate sunshine.(1016) In the mansions on the +Anio, there is, according to Statius, an air of everlasting quietness, +never broken even by wandering wind, or ripple of the stream.(1017) Pliny +has a distant room at Laurentum, to which even the licensed din of the +Saturnalia never penetrates.(1018) Thus these villas threw out their +chambers far and wide, meandering in all directions, according to the +fancy of the master, or the charms of the neighbouring scenery. + +The luxury of the Roman villa consisted rather in the spaciousness and +variety of building, to suit the changing seasons, than in furniture for +comfort or splendour. There were, indeed, in many houses some costly +articles, tables of citrus and ivory, and antique vases, of priceless +worth.(1019) But the chambers of the most stately houses would probably, +to modern taste, seem scantily furnished. It was on the walls and ceiling +and columns that the Roman of taste lavished his wealth. The houses of +Pliny, indeed, seem to have been little adorned by this sort of costly +display.(1020) But the villa of Pollius Felix, like the baths of Claudius +Etruscus, shone with all the glory of variegated marbles on plaque and +pillar, drawn from the quarries of Phrygia, Laconia, and Syene, Carystus +and Numidia.(1021) Pliny confesses that he is not a connoisseur in art. He +speaks with hesitation of the merit of a Corinthian bronze which he has +acquired.(1022) But he was surrounded in his own class by artistic +enthusiasm, much of it, it is to be feared, pretentious and ignorant. The +dispersion of the artistic wealth of Greek lands had flooded Italy with +the works of the great masters. Collectors of them, like Silius Italicus, +abounded. The fashion became so general and so imperious, that it +penetrated even into the vulgar circle of people like Trimalchio, who, in +interpreting the subject of the chasing on a cup, could confuse the Punic +and the Trojan wars. In the villas described by Statius, it would seem +that the art of Apelles, Pheidias, Myron, and Polycletus adorned the +saloons and colonnades.(1023) It may be doubted, however, whether many of +these works could claim such illustrious parentage. There was plenty of +facile technique in those days which might easily deceive the vulgar +collector by more or less successful reproduction.(1024) The confident +claim to artistic discrimination was not less common in the Flavian age +than in later days, and it was probably as fallible. It is rather +suspicious that, in the attempts at artistic appreciation in this period, +attention seems to be concentrated on the supposed antiquity, rarity, or +costliness of material. There is little in the glowing descriptions in the +_Silvae_ to indicate a genuine appreciation of real art. + +It is possible that the great Roman country seat, in its vast extent, +although not in the stateliness of its exterior, may have surpassed the +corresponding mansions of our time. It was the expression in stone of the +dominant passion of an enormously wealthy class, intoxicated with the +splendour of imperial power, and ambitious to create monuments worthy of +an imperial race. Moreover, the Roman's energy always exulted in +triumphing over natural difficulties. Just as he drove his roads +unswerving over mountain and swamp, so he took a pride in rearing his +piles of masonry on the most obstinate and defiant sites, or even in the +middle of the waves. But, in the extent of their parks, and the variety of +floral display, the Romans of the most luxurious age seldom reached the +modern English standard. The grounds of the villas which, in thick +succession, lined the Laurentine or Campanian shore, cannot have been very +extensive. Pliny has splendid views from his windows of forest, mountain, +and meadow, but the scene lies plainly beyond the bounds of his +demesne.(1025) The gardens and shrubberies are very artificial, arranged +in terraces or labyrinths close to the house, or with hedges of box +clipped into shapes of animals along an open colonnade. The hippodrome at +his Tuscan seat, for riding exercise, is formed by lines of box and laurel +and cypress and plane tree. The fig and mulberry form a garden at the +Laurentine villa.(1026) The cultivated flowers are few, only roses and +violets. But the Romans made up for variety by lavish profusion. In the +Neronian orgies a fortune was sometimes spent on Egyptian roses for a +single banquet.(1027) + +We might almost conjecture how the days passed amid such scenes, even +without any formal diary. But Pliny has left us two descriptions of a +gentleman's day in the country.(1028) Pliny himself, as we might expect, +awoke early, about six o'clock, and in one of those sleeping-rooms, so +carefully shut off from the voices of nature or from household noise, with +shutters still closed, he meditated some literary piece. Then, calling for +his amanuensis, he dictated what he had composed. About ten or eleven, he +passed into a shady cloister, opening on a bed of violets, or a grove of +plane trees, where he continued his literary work. Then followed a drive, +during which, according to his uncle's precept and example, his studies +were still continued.(1029) A short siesta, a walk, declamation in Greek +and Latin, after the habit of Cicero, gymnastic exercise, and the bath, +filled the space till dinner time arrived. During this meal, a book was +read aloud, and the evening hours were enlivened by acting or music and +the society of friends. Occasional hunting and the cares of a rural estate +came in to vary this routine. The round of Spurinna's day, which excited +Pliny's admiration by its rigid regularity, is pretty much the same as his +own, except that Spurinna seems to have talked more and read less.(1030) + +To the ordinary English squire Pliny's studious life in the country would +not seem very attractive. And his pretence of sport was probably ridiculed +even in his own day.(1031) But his Letters give glimpses of a rural +society which, both in its pleasures and its cares, has probably been +always much the same from one age to another in Europe. On his way to +Como, Pliny once turned aside for a couple of days to his Tuscan estate, +to join in the dedication of a temple which he had built for the people of +Tifernum Tiberinum. The consecration was to be followed by a dinner to his +good neighbours, who had elected him patron of their township, who were +very proud of his career, and greeted him warmly whenever he came among +them.(1032) There is also the record of the restoration, in obedience to +the warning of a diviner, of an ancient temple of Ceres on his lands, with +colonnades to shelter the worshippers who frequented the shrine. And the +venerable wooden statue of the goddess, which was much decayed, had to be +replaced by a more artistic image. But the life of a Roman proprietor, of +course, had its prosaic and troublesome side which Pliny does not conceal. +There is an interesting letter in which he consults a friend on the +question of the purchase of an estate.(1033) It adjoined, or rather cut +into his own lands. It could be managed by the same bailiff, and the same +staff of labourers and artisans would serve for both estates. On the other +hand, Pliny thinks, it is better not to put too many eggs into one basket. +It is more prudent to have estates widely dispersed, and thus less exposed +to a single stroke of calamity. Moreover this estate, however tempting, +with its fertile, well-watered meadows, its vineyards and woods, is +burdened by an insolvent tenantry, who, through faulty management, have +been allowed to fall into arrear. Pliny, however, is tempted to buy at a +greatly reduced price,(1034) and, in order to meet the payment, although +his wealth is nearly all in land, he can call in some loans at interest, +and the balance can be borrowed from his father-in-law, whose purse is +always at his disposal. Pliny was sometimes worried by the complaints of +the people on his estates, and finds it very difficult to secure solvent +tenants on a five years lease. He made liberal remissions of rent, but +arrears went on accumulating, until the tenant in despair gave up any +attempt to repay his debt. In this extremity, Pliny resolved to adopt a +different system of letting. He substituted for a fixed rent a certain +proportion of the produce,(1035) in fact the metayer system, and employed +some of his people to see that the returns were not fraudulently +diminished. At another time he is embarrassed by finding that, owing to a +bad vintage, the men who have bought his grapes in advance are going to be +heavy losers. He makes a uniform remission to all of about twelve per +cent. But he gives an additional advantage to the large buyers, and to +those who had been prompt in their payments.(1036) It is characteristic of +the man that he says, quite naturally, that the landlord should share with +his tenant such risks from the fickleness of nature. + +So good a man was sure to be far more afflicted by the troubles of his +dependents than by any pecuniary losses of his own. One year, there were +many deaths among his slaves. Pliny feels this acutely, but he consoles +himself by the reflection that he has been liberal in manumission, and +still more liberal in allowing his slaves to make their wills, the +validity of which he maintains as if they were legal instruments.(1037) If +Pliny shows a little too much self-complacency in this human sympathy, +there can be no doubt that, like Seneca, he felt that slaves were humble +friends, men of the same flesh and blood as the master, and that the +master has a moral duty towards them, quite apart from the legal +conventions of Rome.(1038) When his wife's grandfather proposed to make +numerous manumissions, Pliny rejoiced greatly at the accession of so many +new citizens to the municipality.(1039) When his favourite reader, +Encolpius, was seized with hemorrhage, Pliny displayed a genuine and most +affectionate concern for the humble partner of his studies.(1040) Another +member of his household, a freedman named Zosimus, suffered from the same +malady. Zosimus seems to have been a most excellent, loyal, and +accomplished man. He was very versatile, a comedian, a musician, a +tasteful reader of every kind of literature.(1041) His patron sent him to +Egypt to recruit his health. But, from putting too great a strain upon his +voice, he had a return of his dangerous illness, and once more needed +change of air. Pliny determined to send him to the Riviera, and begs a +friend, Paulinus, to let Zosimus have the use of his villa and all +necessary attention, for which Pliny will bear the cost.(1042) In his +social relations with his freedmen Pliny always shows himself the perfect, +kindly gentleman. Juvenal and Martial poured their scorn on those unequal +dinners, where the guests were graduated, and where poorer wine and +coarser viands were served out to those of humble degree.(1043) Pliny was +present at one of these entertainments, and he expresses his contempt for +the vulgar host in terms of unwonted energy.(1044) His own freedmen, as he +tells a fellow-guest, are entertained as equals at his table. If a man +fears the expense, he can find a remedy by restraining his own luxury, and +sharing the plain fare which he imposes on his company. Pliny's relations +with his slaves and freedmen were very like those which the kindly English +squire cultivates towards his household and dependents. The affectionate +regret for a good master or mistress, recorded on many an inscription of +that age,(1045) shows that Pliny's household was by no means a rare +exception. + +Yet the Letters of Pliny, with all their charity and tranquil optimism, +reveal now and then a darker side of household slavery. A man of +praetorian rank named Largius Macedo, who forgot, or perhaps too vividly +remembered, his own servile origin, was known as a cruel and haughty +master. While he was enjoying the bath in his Formian villa, he was +suddenly surrounded by a throng of angry slaves who, with every expression +of hatred and loathing, inflicted on him such injuries that he was left +for dead on the glowing pavement. He seemed, or pretended for a while, to +be dead. A few who remained faithful took up the apparently lifeless +corpse, amid the shrieks of his concubines, and bore him into the +Frigidarium. The coolness and the clamour recalled him from his swoon. The +would-be murderers meanwhile had fled, but many of them were caught in the +end, and the outrage was sternly avenged.(1046) In another letter, Pliny +tells the tale of the mysterious disappearance of one Metilius Crispus, a +citizen of Como, for whom Pliny had obtained equestrian rank, and made him +a gift of the required HS.400,000. Metilius set out on a journey and was +never heard of again.(1047) It is significant that of the slaves who +attended him no one ever reappeared. Amid such perils, says Pliny, do we +masters live, and no kindness can relieve us from alarm. Seneca remarks +that the master's life is continually at the mercy of his slaves.(1048) +And the cruel stringency of legislation shows how real was the peril. + +Pliny was only an infant in the evil days when suicide was the one refuge +from tyranny, when the lancet so often opened the way to "eternal +freedom." Yet, even in his later years, men not unfrequently escaped from +intolerable calamity or incurable disease by a voluntary death.(1049) The +morality of suicide was long a debated question. There were strict +moralists who maintained that it was never lawful to quit one's post +before the final signal to retreat. Men like Seneca regarded it as a +question to be determined by circumstances and motives.(1050) He would not +palliate wild, impetuous self-murder, without a justifying cause. On the +other hand, there might be, especially under a monster like Nero, cases in +which it were mere folly not to choose an easy emancipation rather than a +certain death of torture and ignominy. Eternal law, which has assigned a +single entrance to this life, has mercifully allowed us many exits. Any +death is preferable to servitude.(1051) So, in the case of disease and old +age, it is merely a question whether the remainder of life is worth +living. If the mental powers are falling into irreparable decay, if the +malady is tormenting and incurable, Seneca would permit the rational soul +to quit abruptly its crumbling tenement, not to escape pain or weakness, +but to shake off the slavery of a worthless life.(1052) + +Pliny was not a philosopher, and had no elaborate theory of suicide or of +anything else. But his opinion on the question may be gathered from his +remarks on the case of Titius Aristo, the learned jurist. To rush on +death, he says, is a vulgar, commonplace act. But to balance the various +motives, and make a deliberate and rational choice may, in certain +circumstances, be the proof of a lofty mind.(1053) The cases of suicide +described in the Letters are nearly always cases of incurable or prolonged +disease. The best known is that of the luxurious Silius Italicus, who +starved himself to death in his seventy-fifth year.(1054) He was afflicted +with an incurable tumour, almost the only trouble in his long and happy +life. Corellius Rufus, who had watched over Pliny's career with almost +parental care,(1055) chose to end his life in a similar manner. Pliny was +immensely saddened by the close of a life which seemed to enjoy so many +blessings, high character, great reputation and influence, family love and +friendship. Yet he does not question the last resolve of Corellius. In his +thirty-third year he had been seized with hereditary gout. During the +period of vigorous manhood, he had warded off its onsets by an extreme +abstinence. But as old age crept on, its tortures, wracking every limb, +became unendurable, and Corellius determined to put an end to the hopeless +struggle. His obstinacy was proof against all the entreaties of his wife +and friends, and Pliny, who was called in as a last resource, came only to +hear the physician repelled for the last time with a single energetic +word.(1056) Sailing once on Lake Como, Pliny heard from an old friend the +tragic tale of a double suicide from a verandah overhanging the lake. The +husband had long suffered from a loathsome and hopeless malady. His wife +insisted on knowing the truth, and, when it was revealed to her, she +nerved him to end the cruel ordeal, and promised to bear him company. +Bound together, the pair took the fatal leap.(1057) + +In spite of his charity and optimism,(1058) it would not be altogether +true to say that Pliny was blind to the faults and vices of his time. He +speaks, with almost Tacitean scorn, of the rewards which awaited a +calculating childlessness, and of the eager servility of the +will-hunter.(1059) In recommending a tutor for the son of Corellia +Hispulla, he regards the teacher's stainless character as of paramount +importance in an age of dangerous licence, when youth was beset with +manifold seductions.(1060) He blushes for the degradation of senatorial +character displayed in the scurrilous or obscene entries which were +sometimes found on the voting tablets of the august body.(1061) The +decline of modesty and courteous deference in the young towards their +elders greatly afflicted so courteous a gentleman. There seemed to be no +respect left for age or authority. With their fancied omniscience and +intuitive wisdom, young men disdain to learn from any one or to imitate +any example; they are their own models.(1062) Among the many spotless and +charming women of Pliny's circle, there is one curious exception, one, we +may venture to surmise, who had been formed in the Neronian age. Ummidia +Quadratilla was a lady of the highest rank, who died at the age of eighty +in the middle of the reign of Trajan.(1063) She preserved to the end an +extraordinary health and vigour, and evidently enjoyed the external side +of life with all the zest of the old days of licence in her youth. Her +grandson, who lived under her roof, was one of Pliny's dearest friends, a +spotless and almost puritanical character. Ummidia, even in her old age, +kept a troop of pantomimic artistes, and continued to enjoy their doubtful +exhibitions. But her grandson would never witness them, and, it must be +said, Ummidia respected and even encouraged a virtue superior to her own. + +It has been remarked that, in nearly all these cases, where Pliny has any +fault to find with his generation, the evil seems to be only a foil for +the virtue of some of his friends. Even in his own day, there were those +who criticised him for his extravagant praise of the people he loved. He +takes the censure as a compliment, preferring the kind-heartedness which +is occasionally deceived, to the cold critical habit which has lost all +illusions.(1064) Pliny belonged to a caste who were linked to one another +by the strongest ties of loyalty and tradition.(1065) The members of it +were bound to support one another by counsel, encouragement, and +influence, they were expected to help a comrade's advancement in the +career of honours, to applaud and stimulate his literary ambition, to be +prodigal of sympathy or congratulation or pecuniary help in all the +vicissitudes of public or private life.(1066) The older men, who had borne +the weight of great affairs, recognised the duty of forming the character +of their juniors by precept and criticism. In this fashion the old soldier +Spurinna, on his morning drive, would pour forth to some young companion +the wealth of his long experience. In this spirit Verginius Rufus and +Corellius stood by Pliny throughout his official career, to guide and +support him.(1067) Pliny, in his turn, was always lavish of this kind of +help, and deemed it a matter of pride and duty to afford it. Sometimes he +solicits office for a friend's son, or commends a man to the emperor for +the _Jus trium liberorum_.(1068) Sometimes he applauds the early efforts +of a young pleader at the bar, or gives him counsel as to the causes which +he should undertake, or the discipline necessary for oratorical +success.(1069) He was often consulted about the choice of a tutor for +boys, and he responded with all the earnestness of a man who believed in +the infinite importance of sound influence in the early years of +life.(1070) To his older friends he would address disquisitions on style, +consolations in bereavement, congratulations on official preferment, +descriptions of some fair scene or picturesque incident in rural life. He +often wrote, like Symmachus, merely to maintain the connection of friendly +sympathy by a chat on paper. His vanity is only too evident in some of +these letters. But it is, after all, an innocent vanity and the consuming +anxiety to cherish the warmth and solidarity of friendship, and a high +tone in the great class to which he belonged, might well cover even graver +faults. If there was too much self-indulgence in that class, if they often +abandoned themselves to the seductions of ease and literary trifling in +luxurious retreats, it is also to be remembered that a man of rank paid +heavily for his place in Roman society, both in money and in the +observance of a very exacting social code. And no one recognised the +obligation with more cheerful alacrity than Pliny. + +Pliny felt a genuine anxiety that young men of birth should aim at +personal distinction. Any gleam of generous ambition, any sign of +strenuous energy, which might save a young aristocrat from the temptations +of ease and wealth, were hailed by him with unaffected delight. He was +evidently very susceptible to the charm of manner which youths of this +class often possess. When to that was added strength of character, his +satisfaction was complete. Hence his delight when Fuscus Salinator and +Ummidius Quadratus, of the very cream of the Roman nobility, entered on +the conflicts of the Centumviral Court.(1071) And indeed these young men +appear to have had many graces and virtues. Salinator, in particular, with +exquisite literary culture, had a mingled charm of boyish simplicity, +gravity, and sweetness.(1072) Asinius Bassus, the son of Asinius Rufus, +was another of this promising band of youth, blameless, learned, and +diligent, whom Pliny commends for the quaestorship to Fundanus, then +apparently designated as consul.(1073) There is no more genuine feeling in +the Letters than the grief of Pliny for the early death of Junius Avitus, +another youth of high promise. Pliny had formed his character, and +supported him in his candidature for office. He had helped him with advice +in his studies, or in his administrative duties. Avitus repaid all this +paternal care by a docility and deference which were becoming rare among +the young men of the day. Winning the affection and confidence of his +elders in the service, Avitus was surely destined to develop into one of +those just and strenuous imperial officers, like Corbulo or Verginius +Rufus, many of whom have left only a name on a brief inscription, but who +were the glory and strength of the Empire in the times of its deepest +degradation. But all such hopes for Avitus were extinguished in a day. + +The upright and virtuous men of Pliny's circle, Corellius Rufus, Titinius +Capito the historian, Pegasus the learned jurist, Trebonius Rufus the +magistrate who suppressed the games at Vienne, Junius Mauricus, who would +have denied them to the capital, and many others of the like stamp, have +often been used to refute the pessimism of Juvenal. We have in a former +chapter seen reason to believe that the satirist's view of female +character needs to be similarly rectified. Even in the worst reigns the +pages of Tacitus reveal to us strong and pure women, both in the palace +and in great senatorial houses. In the wide philosophic class there was +probably many an Arria and Plotina. In the _Agricola_, and in Seneca's +letters to Marcia and Helvia, we can see that, even at the darkest hour, +there were homes with an atmosphere of old Roman self-restraint and +sobriety, where good women wielded a powerful influence over their +husbands and their sons, and where the examples of the old Republic were +used, as Biblical characters with us, to fortify virtue.(1074) Seneca, in +his views about women, as in many other things, is essentially modern. He +admires indeed the antique ideal of self-contained strength and homely +virtue. But he also believes in the equal capacity of women for culture, +even in the field of philosophy, and he half regrets that an old-fashioned +prejudice had debarred Helvia from receiving a philosophic +discipline.(1075) Tacitus and Pliny, who had no great faith in philosophy +as a study for men, would hardly have recommended it for women. But they +lived among women who were cultivated in the best sense. Pliny's third +wife, Calpurnia, was able to give him the fullest sympathy in his literary +efforts.(1076) But her fame, of which she probably little dreamt, is +founded on her purity and sweetness of character. Her ancestors, like +Pliny's, belonged to the aristocracy of Como. Her aunt, Calpurnia +Hispulla, who was a dear friend of Pliny's mother, had watched over her +during the years of girlhood with a sedulous care which made her an ideal +wife. What Calpurnia was like as a girl, we may probably picture to +ourselves from the prose elegy of Pliny on the death of the young daughter +of Minutius Fundanus.(1077) It is the picture of a beautiful character, +and a fair young life cut off too soon. The girl had not yet reached her +fourteenth year. She was already betrothed when she was seized with a +fatal sickness. Her sweet girlish modesty, which was combined with a +matronly gravity, charmed all her father's friends. She had love for all +the household, her tutors and slaves, nurses and maids. A vigorous mind +triumphed over bodily weakness, and she passed through her last illness +with a sweet patience, encouraging her father and sister to bear up, and +showing no shrinking from death. + +Although we know of a good many happy wedded lives in that age,(1078) +there is no picture so full of pure devotion and tenderness as that which +we have in Pliny's letters to Calpurnia. They are love-letters in the best +sense and the most perfect style.(1079) Pliny's youth was long past when +he won the hand of Calpurnia, yet their love for one another is that of +boy and girl. When she has to go into Campania for her health, he is +racked with all sorts of anxiety about her, and entreats her to write +once, or even twice, a day. Pliny reads her letters over and over again, +as if they had just come. He has her image before him by night, and at the +wonted hour by day his feet carry him to her vacant room. His only respite +from these pains of a lover is while he is engaged in court. Pliny had +frequent care about Calpurnia's health. They did not belong to the hideous +class who preferred "the rewards of childlessness," but their hopes of +offspring were dashed again and again. These griefs were imparted to +Calpurnia's aunt, and to her grandfather, Calpurnius Fabatus, a generous +old squire of Como, who was as anxious as Pliny to have descendants of his +race. At the time of the old man's death, Calpurnia was with her husband +in Bithynia, and she wished to hasten home at once to console her aunt. +Pliny, not having time to secure the emperor's sanction, gave her the +official order for the use of the public post on her journey back to +Italy. In answer to his letter of explanation and excuse, Trajan sent his +approval in his usual kind and courteous style. This is the last glimpse +we have of Pliny and Calpurnia.(1080) + +Pliny's character, as displayed in his Letters, is the embodiment of the +finest moral tone of the great age which had opened when he died, in +kindlier or juster treatment of the slave, in high respect for women, in +conscientious care for the education of the young, in beneficent provision +for the helpless and distressed. But it would be a mistaken view to regard +these ideas as an altogether new departure. It is dangerous to assert that +anything is altogether new in Roman social history. The truth is that the +moral sentiment in which these movements took their rise had been for +generations in the air. It was diffused by the Stoic preaching of the +brotherhood and equality of men as fellow-citizens of one great +commonwealth. The duty of redeeming the captive and succouring the poor +had been preached by Cicero a century and a half before Pliny's Letters +appeared.(1081) Horace had, a few years later, asked the searching +question, "Why should the worthy be in want while you have wealth?"(1082) +Seneca preaches, with the unction of an evangelist, all the doctrines on +which the humane legislation of the Antonine age was founded, all the +principles of humanity and charity of every age. He asserts the natural +equality of bond and free, and the claim of the slave to kindness and +consideration.(1083) He brands in many a passage the cruelty and contempt +of the slaveholder. He preaches tolerance of the froward, forgiveness of +insult and injury.(1084) He enforces the duty of universal kindness and +helpfulness by the example of God, who is bounteous and merciful even to +the evildoer.(1085) Juvenal was little of a philosopher, but he had +unconsciously drunk deep of the gospel of philosophy. Behind all his +bitter pessimism there is a pure and lofty moral tone which sometimes +almost approaches the ideal of charity in S. Paul. The slave whom we +torture or insult for some slight negligence is of the same elements as we +are.(1086) The purity of childhood is not to be defiled by the ribaldry of +the banquet and the example of a mother's intrigues or a father's brutal +excesses.(1087) Revenge is the pleasure of a puny soul.(1088) The guilty +may be left to the scourge of the unseen inquisitor. Juvenal regards the +power of sympathy for any human grief or pain as the priceless gift of +Nature, "who has given us tears."(1089) It is by her command that we mourn +the calamity of a friend or the death of the babe "too small for the +funeral pyre." The scenes of suffering and pity which the satirist has +sketched in some tender lines were assuredly not imaginary pictures. We +are apt to forget, in our modern self-complacency, that, at least among +civilised races, human nature in its broad features remains pretty much +the same from age to age. On an obscure epitaph of this period you may +read the words--_Bene fac, hoc tecum feres._(1090) Any one who knows the +inscriptions may be inclined to doubt whether private benefactions under +the Antonines were less frequent and generous than in our own day. + +The duties of wealth, both in Greece and Rome, were at all times +rigorously enforced by public opinion. The rich had to pay heavily for +their honours and social consideration in the days of Cicero, and in the +days of Symmachus, as they had in the days of Pericles.(1091) They had to +contribute to the amusement of the people, and to support a crowd of +clients and freedmen. In the remotest municipality, the same ambitions and +the same social demands, as we shall show in the next chapter, put an +enormous strain on the resources of the upper class. Men must have often +ruined themselves by this profuse liberality. In the reign of Augustus a +great patron had several times given a favourite freedman sums of L3000 or +L4000. The patron's descendant in the reign of Nero had to become a +pensioner of the emperor. Juvenal and Martial reveal the clamorous demands +by which the great patron was assailed.(1092) The motives for this +generosity of the wealthy class were at all times mixed and various. But +in our period, the growth of a pure humane charity is unmistakable, of a +feeling of duty to the helpless, whether young or old. The State had from +the time of the Gracchi taken upon itself the immense burden of providing +food for a quarter of a million of the proletariat of Rome. But in the +days of Pliny it recognised fresh obligations. The importance of education +and the growth of poverty appealed powerfully to a ruling class, which, +under the influence of philosophy, was coming to believe more and more in +the duty of benevolence and of devotion to things of the mind. All the +emperors from Vespasian to M. Aurelius made liberal provision for the +higher studies.(1093) But this endowment of culture, which in the end did +harm as well as good, is not so interesting to us as the charitable +foundations for the children of the poor. It was apparently the emperor +Nerva, the rigid economist who sold the imperial furniture and jewels to +replenish the treasury,(1094) who first made provision for the children of +needy parents throughout Italy. But epigraphy tells us more than literary +history of the charity of the emperors. The tablet of Veleia is a +priceless record of the charitable measures adopted by Trajan. The motive +of the great emperor was probably, as his panegyrist suggests, political +as much as benevolent.(1095) He may have wished to encourage the rearing +of children who should serve in the armies of the State, as well as to +relieve distress. The provision was even more evidently intended to +stimulate agriculture. The landed proprietors of the place, to the number +of forty-six, received on mortgage a loan from the State of about L10,000 +in our money, at an interest of five per cent, which was less than half +the usual rate of that time.(1096) The interest was appropriated to the +maintenance of 300 poor children, at the rate of about L1:11s. a year for +each male child, and L1 for each girl. The illegitimate children, who, it +may be noted, were only two or three out of so many, received a smaller +allowance. The boys were supported till their eighteenth year, the girls +till fourteen. It was a bold and sagacious attempt to encourage Italian +agriculture, to check the ominous depopulation of Italy,(1097) and to +answer the cry of the poor. Hadrian continued and even added to the +benefaction of Trajan.(1098) Antoninus Pius, in honour of his wife +Faustina, established a foundation for young girls who were to be called +by her not altogether unspotted name.(1099) A similar charity was founded +in honour of her daughter by M. Aurelius.(1100) + +But, while the emperors were responding to the call of charity by using +the resources of the State, it is clear, from the Letters of Pliny and +from the inscriptions, that private benevolence was even more active. +Pliny has a conception of the uses and responsibilities of wealth which, +in spite of the teaching of Galilee, is not yet very common. Although he +was not a very wealthy man, he acted up to his principles on a scale and +proportion which only a few of our millionaires have yet reached. The +lavish generosity of Pliny is a commonplace of social history. We have not +the slightest wish to detract from the merited fame of that kindliest of +Roman gentlemen. But a survey of the inscriptions may incline the inquirer +to believe that, according to their means, there were many men and women +in obscure municipalities all over the world, who were as generous and +public-spirited as Pliny.(1101) With Pliny, as with those more obscure +benefactors, the impelling motive was love for the parent city or the +village which was the home of their race, and where the years of youth had +been passed. Pliny, the distinguished advocate, the famous man of letters, +the darling of Roman society, still remained the loyal son of Como, from +which his love never strays.(1102) He followed and improved upon the +example of his father in munificence to his native place.(1103) He had +little liking for games and gladiatorial shows, which were the most +popular objects of liberality in those days. But he gave a sum of nearly +L9000 for the foundation of a town library, with an annual endowment of +more than L800 to maintain it.(1104) Finding that promising youths of Como +had to resort to Milan for their higher education, he offered to +contribute one-third of the expense of a high school at Como, if the +parents would raise the remainder. The letter which records the offer +shows Pliny at his best, wise and thoughtful as well as generous.(1105) He +wishes to keep boys under the protection of home influence, to make them +lovers of their mother city; and he limits his benefaction in order to +stimulate the interest of the parents in the cause of education, and in +the appointment of the teachers. Another sum of between L4000 and L5000 he +gave to Como for the support of boys and girls of the poorer class.(1106) +He also left more than L4000 for public baths, and a sum of nearly L16,000 +to his freedmen, and for communal feasts. On two of his estates he built +or repaired temples at his own expense.(1107) His private benefactions +were on a similar scale. It is not necessary to adopt the cynical +conclusion that Pliny has told us all his liberality. The kindly delicacy +with which Pliny claims the right of a second father to make up the dowry +of the daughter of his friend Quintilian, might surely save him from such +an imputation.(1108) In the same spirit he offers to Romatius Firmus the +L2500 which was needed to raise his fortune to the level of equestrian +rank.(1109) When the philosophers were banished by Domitian, Pliny, who +was then praetor, at the most imminent risk visited his friend +Artemidorus, and lent him, free of interest, a considerable sum of +money.(1110) The daughter of one of his friends was left with an +embarrassed estate; Pliny took up all the debts and left Calvina with an +inheritance free from all burdens.(1111) He gave his old nurse a little +estate which cost him about L800.(1112) But the amount of this good man's +gifts, which might shame a modern testator with ten times his fortune, is +not so striking as the kindness which prompted them, and the modest +delicacy with which they were made. + +Yet Pliny, as we have said, is only a shining example of a numerous class +of more obscure benefactors. For a thousand who know his Letters, there +are few who have read the stone records of similar generosity. Yet these +memorials abound for those who care to read them. And any one who will +spend a few days, or even a few well-directed hours, in examining the +inscriptions of the early Empire, will find many a common, self-complacent +prejudice melting away. He will discover a profusion of generosity to add +to the beauty, dignity, or convenience of the parent city, to lighten the +dulness of ordinary life, to bring all ranks together in common scenes of +enjoyment, to relieve want and suffering among the indigent. The motives +of this extraordinary liberality were indeed often mixed, and it was, from +our point of view, often misdirected. The gifts were sometimes made merely +to win popularity, or to repay civic honours which had been conferred by +the populace. They were too often devoted to gladiatorial shows and other +exhibitions which only debased the spectators. Yet the greatest part of +them were expended on objects of public utility--baths, theatres, markets, +or new roads and aqueducts, or on those public banquets which knitted all +ranks together. There was in those days an immense "civic ardour," an +almost passionate rivalry, to make the mother city a more pleasant and a +more splendid home. The endless foundations for civic feasts to all +orders, in which even children and slaves were not forgotten, with a +distribution of money at the close, softened the sharp distinctions of +rank, and gave an appreciable relief to poverty. Other foundations were +more definitely inspired by charity and pity. In remote country towns, +there were pious founders who, like Pliny and Trajan, and the Antonines, +provided for the nurture of the children of the poor. Bequests were left +to cheapen the main necessaries of life.(1113) Nor were the aged and the +sick forgotten. In Lorium, near the old home of the Antonines, a humble +spice dealer provided in his will for a free distribution of medicines to +the poor people of the town.(1114) The countless gifts and legacies to the +colleges, which were the refuge of the poor in that age, in every region +of the Roman world, are an irresistible proof of an overflowing charity. +Pliny's love of the quiet town where his infancy was passed, and the +record of a like patriotism or benevolence in so many others, draw us on +to the study of that free and generous municipal life which was the great +glory of the Antonine age. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + + MUNICIPAL LIFE + + +Nearly all the intimate friends of Pliny were, like himself, bred in the +country, and, as we have seen, he has left us a priceless picture of that +rural aristocracy in the calm refinement of their country seats. But of +the ordinary life of the provincial town we learn very little from Pliny. +Indeed, the silence of Roman literature generally as to social life +outside the capital is very remarkable.(1115) In the long line of great +Latin authors from Ennius to Juvenal, there is hardly one whose native +place was Rome. The men who are the glory of Roman letters in epic and +lyric poetry, in oratory and history, in comedy and satire, were born in +quiet country towns in Italy or the remoter provinces. But the +reminiscences of the scenes of their infancy will generally be found to be +faint and rare. Horace, indeed, displays a tender piety for that +borderland of Apulia, where, in the glades of Mount Vultur as a child, he +drank inspiration from the witchery of haunted groves.(1116) And Martial, +the hardened man about town, never forgot the oak groves and iron +foundries of Bilbilis.(1117) But for the municipal system and life, the +relations of its various social grades, the humdrum routine of the shops +and forums, the rustic rites and deities,(1118) the lingering echoes of +that dim common life with its vices and honest tenderness, its petty +ambitions or hopeless griefs, we must generally go to the records in +stone, and the remains of buried cities which the spade has given back to +the light. + +This silence of the literary class is not due to any want of love in the +Roman for the calm and freshness and haunting charm of country scenes, +still less to callousness towards old associations. Certainly Virgil +cannot be charged with any such lack of sensibility. In the Eclogues and +the Georgics, the memory of the old farm at Andes breaks through the more +conventional sentiment of Alexandrian tradition. In the scenery of these +poems, there are "mossy fountains and grass softer than sleep," the hues +of violet, poppy, and hyacinth, the shade of ancient ilex, and the yellow +wealth of cornfield. We hear the murmur of bees, "the moan of doves in +immemorial elms," the rush of the river, the whispering of the wind. The +pastoral charm of the midsummer prime is there, from the freshness of +fields under the morning star, through the hours alive with the song of +the cicala and the lowing of the herds around the pool, through the still, +hot, vacant noontide, till the moonbeams are glinting on the dewy grasses +of the glades.(1119) Nor can any lover of Virgil ever forget the fire of +old sentiment in the muster of Italian chivalry in the seventh book of the +Aeneid.(1120) Tibur and Praeneste, Anagnia, Nomentum, and Amiternum, and +many another old Sabine town, which send forth their young warriors to the +fray, are each stamped on the imagination by some grace of natural beauty, +or some glory of ancient legend. In the Flavian period, as we have seen, +the great nobles had their villas on every pleasant site, wherever sea or +hill or woodland offered a fair prospect and genial air. To these scenes +they hastened, like emancipated schoolboys, when the dog-days set in. They +had a genuine love of the unspoilt countryside, with its simple natural +pleasures, its husbandry of the olden time, its joyous plenty, above all +its careless freedom and repose.(1121) The great charm of a rural retreat +was its distance from the "noise and smoke and wealth" of Rome. The escape +from the penalties of fame, from the boredom of interminable dinners, the +intrusive importunity of curious busybodies, the malice of jealous rivals, +gives a fresh zest to the long tranquil days under the ilex shade among +the Sabine hills.(1122) Horace probably felt more keenly than Juvenal the +charm of hill and stream and the scenes of rustic toils and gaiety. Yet +the exquisite good sense of Horace would have recoiled from the +declamatory extravagance with which Juvenal justifies his friend's +retirement from the capital, by a realistic picture of all its sordid +troubles and vices and absurdities.(1123) "To love Rome at Tibur and Tibur +at Rome" was the expression of the educated Roman's feelings in a form +which he would have recognised to be as just as it was happy. In spite of +the charm of the country, to any real man of letters or affairs, the +fascination of Rome was irresistible. Pliny, and no doubt hundreds of his +class, from Augustus to Theodosius, grumbled at the wasteful fashion in +which their lives were frittered away by monotonous social duties, as +imperious as they were generally vain.(1124) Yet to Pliny, as to +Symmachus, the prospect of never again seeing the city, so seductive and +so wearying, would have been absolutely intolerable. Martial, when he +retired to Bilbilis, seems to pity his friend Juvenal, wandering +restlessly through the noisy Suburra, or climbing the Caelian in hot +haste, to hang on the outskirts of a levee.(1125) Yet in the preface to +this last book, Martial seems to feel his banishment as keenly as Ovid +felt his among the frozen rivers of Scythia.(1126) He misses in the +"provincial solitude" the sympathetic public which was eager for his +latest epigram, the fine critical judgment to appreciate, the concourse of +elegant idlers to supply the matter for his verses.(1127) And worst of +all, the most famous wit of Rome is now the mark for the ignorant spite +and envy of a provincial clique. Martial evidently feels very much as Dr. +Johnson would have felt if he had been compelled to live out his days in +Skye. Juvenal may affect to regret the simple ways of those rustic places, +where on festal days in the grass-grown theatre the infant in his mother's +arms shudders at the awful masks of the actors, and the aediles take their +places in white tunics like the humble crowd.(1128) But, in spite of this +sentiment, the true Roman had a certain contempt for municipal life,(1129) +for the narrow range of its interests, the ludicrous assumption of dignity +by its petty magistrates, and its provincialisms.(1130) It was indeed only +natural that the splendour and the vivid energy of life in the capital of +the world should throw provincial life into the shade. Yet we can realise +now, as a Roman wit or man of fashion could hardly do, that the municipal +system, which had overspread the world from the Solway to the edge of the +Sahara, was not the least glory of the Antonine age. And in any attempt to +estimate the moral condition of the masses in that age, the influence of +municipal life should occupy a large place. + +It is beyond the scope of this work to trace provincial towns through all +their various grades, and their evolution in the hands of Roman +statesmanship from the time of Augustus. What we are chiefly concerned +with is the spirit and the rapid development of that brilliant civic life, +which not only covered the worlds both of East and West with material +monuments of Roman energy, but profoundly influenced for good, or +sometimes for evil, the popular character. The magical transformation +wrought by Roman rule in a century and a half seized the imagination of +contemporaries such as the rhetor Aristides. And the mere wreck of that +brilliant civilisation which now meets the traveller's eye, in regions +that have long returned to waste, will not permit us to treat his eulogy +of Rome as only a piece of rhetoric. Regions, once desert solitudes, are +thickly dotted with flourishing cities; the Empire is a realm of cities. +The world has laid the sword aside, and keeps universal festival, with all +pomp and gladness. All other feuds and rivalries are gone, and cities now +vie with one another only in their splendour and their pleasures. Every +space is crowded with porticoes, gymnasia, temple fronts, with studios and +schools.(1131) Sandy wastes, trackless mountains, and broad rivers present +no barriers to the traveller, who finds his home and country everywhere. +The earth has become a vast pleasure garden.(1132) + +This glowing description of the Roman world of the Antonine age is not +perhaps strengthened by the appeal to the doubtful statistics of other +contemporaries, such as Aelian and Josephus. We may hesitate to accept the +statement that Italy had once 1197 cities, or that Gaul possessed +1200.(1133) In these estimates, if they have any solid foundation, the +term "city" must be taken in a very elastic sense. But there are other +more trustworthy reckonings which sufficiently support the glowing +description of Aristides. When the Romans conquered Spain and Gaul, they +found a system of _pagi_ or cantons, with very few considerable towns. The +800 towns which are said to have been taken by Julius Caesar can have been +little more than villages. But the Romanisation of both countries meant +centralisation. Where the Romans did not find towns they created +them.(1134) Gradually, but rapidly, the isolated rural life became more +social and urban. In the north-eastern province of Spain, out of 293 +communities in the time of the elder Pliny, 179 were in some sense urban, +114 were still purely rustic;(1135) and we may be sure that this is an +immense advance on the condition of the country at the time of the +conquest. In the reign of Antoninus Pius, only 27 of these rural districts +remained without an organised civic centre.(1136) In Gaul, Julius Caesar +impressed the stamp of Rome on the province of Narbo, by founding cities +of the Roman type, and his policy was continued by Augustus. The loose +cantonal system almost disappeared from the province in the south, +although it lingered long in the northern regions of Gaul. Yet even in the +north, on the borders of Germany, Cologne, from the reign of Claudius, +became the envy of the barbarians across the Rhine,(1137) and Treves, from +the days of Augustus, already anticipated its glory as a seat of empire +from Diocletian to Gratian and Valentinian.(1138) In the Agri Decumates, +between the Rhine and Neckar, the remains of baths and aqueducts, the +mosaics and bronzes and pottery, which antiquarian industry has collected +and explored, attest the existence of at least 160 flourishing and +civilised communities.(1139) Baden was already a crowded resort for its +healing waters when, in A.D. 69, it was given up to fire and sword by +Caecina in his advance to meet the army of Otho in the valley of the +Po.(1140) The Danube was lined with flourishing communities of Roman +origin. In the 170 years during which Dacia was included in the Empire, +more than 120 towns were organised by the conquering race.(1141) Greek +cities, like Tomi on the Euxine, record their gratitude to their patrons +in the same formal terms as Pompeii or Venusia.(1142) If we may believe +Philostratus, there were 500 flourishing cities in the province of Asia +which more than rivalled the splendour of Ionia before the Lydian and +Persian conquests.(1143) Many of these were of ancient origin, but many +had been founded by Rome.(1144) Laodicea was regarded as an unimportant +place in the reign of Tiberius; yet the wealth of its private citizens was +celebrated.(1145) One of them had attained a fortune which enabled him to +bequeath it a sum of nearly half a million. The elder Pliny could reckon +40 cities of importance in Egypt, which had in his time a population of +over seven millions;(1146) and Alexandria, next after Rome herself, was +regarded as the most dazzling ornament of the Empire.(1147) + +Perhaps nowhere, however, had the "Roman peace" worked greater miracles of +civic prosperity than in North Africa. That the population of Roman Africa +was in the period of the Empire extraordinarily dense, appears from the +number of its episcopal sees, which in the fifth century had reached a +total of 297.(1148) The remains of more than 20 amphitheatres can still be +traced. There is indeed no more startling proof of the range and sweep of +Roman civilisation than the wreck of those capitols, forums, aqueducts, +and temples in what are now sandy solitudes, not even occupied by a native +village. In the province of Numidia, within a few leagues of the Sahara, +the Roman colony of Thamugadi (Timgad) was founded, as an inscription +tells, by Trajan in the year 100.(1149) There, in what is now a scene of +utter loneliness and desolation, the remains of a busy and well-organised +community have been brought to light by French explorers. The town was +built by the third legion, which for generations, almost as a hereditary +caste, protected Roman civilisation against the restless tribes of the +desert. The chief buildings were probably completed in 117. The +preservation of so much, after eighteen centuries, is a proof that the +work was well and thoroughly done. The ruts of carriage wheels can still +be seen in the main street, which is spanned by a triumphal arch, adorned +with marble columns. Porticoes and colonnades gave shelter from the heat +to the passers-by, and two fountains played at the further end. Water, +which is now invisible on the spot, was then brought in channels from the +hills, and distributed at a fixed rate among private houses.(1150) The +forum was in the usual style, with raised side walks and porticoes, a +basilica, a senate-house and rostrum, a shrine of Fortuna Augusta, and a +crowd of statues to the emperors from M. Aurelius to Julian.(1151) This +petty place had its theatre, where the seats can still be seen rising in +their due gradation of rank. An imposing capitol, in which, as at home, +the Roman Trinity, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, were duly worshipped, was +restored in the reign of Valentinian I., and dedicated by that Publius +Caeionius Albinus who was one of the last of the pagan aristocracy, and +who figures in the Letters of Symmachus and the _Saturnalia_ of +Macrobius.(1152) The inscriptions on the site reveal the regular municipal +constitution, with the names of seventy decurions, each of whom probably +paid his honorarium of L13 or more when he entered on his office.(1153) +The honours of the duumvirate and the aedileship cost respectively L32 and +L24.(1154) And here, as elsewhere, the public monuments and buildings were +generally erected by private ambition or munificence. A statue and little +shrine of Fortuna Augusta were given by two ladies, at a cost of over +L200, in the days of Hadrian.(1155) + +The greatest glory of the imperial administration for nearly two centuries +was the skilful and politic tolerance with which it reconciled a central +despotism with a remarkable range of local liberty. It did not attempt to +impose a uniform organisation or a bureaucratic control on the vast mass +of races and peoples whom the fortune of Rome had brought under her sway. +Rather, for ages its guiding principle was, as far as possible, to leave +ancient landmarks undisturbed, and to give as much free play to local +liberties as was compatible with the safety and efficiency of the imperial +guardian of order and peace. Hence those many diversities in the relation +between provincial towns and Rome, represented by the names of free, +federate, or stipendiary cities, municipium and colonia. Many retained +their old laws, constitution, and judicial system.(1156) They retained in +some cases the names of magistracies, which recalled the days of +independence: there were still archons at Athens, suffetes in African +towns, demarchs at Naples. The title of medixtuticus still lingered here +and there in old Oscan communities.(1157) When she had crushed the +national spirit, and averted the danger of armed revolt, Rome tolerated, +and even fostered, municipal freedom, for more than a hundred years after +the last shadowy pretence of popular government had disappeared from her +own forum.(1158) Central control and uniformity were established in those +departments which affected the peace and welfare of the whole vast +commonwealth. Although the interference of the provincial governor in +local administration was theoretically possible in varying degrees, yet it +may well be doubted whether a citizen of Lyons or Marseilles, of Antioch +or Alexandria, was often made conscious of any limitation of his freedom +by imperial power. While delation and confiscation and massacre were +working havoc on the banks of the Tiber, the provinces were generally +tranquil and prosperous. The people elected their magistrates, who +administered municipal affairs with little interference from government. +The provincial administration of a Nero, an Otho, a Vitellius, or a +Domitian was often no less prudent and considerate than that of a +Vespasian or a Trajan.(1159) And the worst of the emperors share with the +best in the universal gratitude of the provinces for the blessings of the +"Roman peace."(1160) + +But although for generations there was a settled abstinence from +centralisation on the part of the imperial government, the many varieties +of civic constitution in the provinces tended by an irresistible drift to +a uniform type of organisation. Free and federate communities voluntarily +sought the position of a colony or a municipium.(1161) Just as the +provincial town must have its capitol, with the cult of Jupiter, Juno, and +Minerva, or imported the street names Velabrum or Vicus Tuscus, so the +little community called itself _respublica_, its commons the _populus_, +its curia the senate or the _amplissimus et splendidissimus ordo_; its +magistrates sometimes bore the majestic names of praetor, dictator, or +censor, in a few cases even of consul.(1162) This almost ludicrous +imitation of the great city is an example of the magical power which Rome +always exercised on her most distant subjects, and even on the outer world +of barbarism, down to the last days when her forces were ebbing away. The +ease and rapidity of communication along the great routes, the frequent +visits of proconsuls and procurators and generals, with the numerous train +which attended them, the presence of the ubiquitous Roman merchant and +traveller, kept even remote places in touch with the capital. The _acta +diurna_, with official news and bits of scandal and gossip, regularly +arrived in distant provincial towns and frontier camps.(1163) The last +speech of Pliny, or the freshest epigrams of Martial, were within a short +time selling on the bookstalls of Lyons or Vienne.(1164) Until the +appearance of railways and steamboats, it may be doubted whether there was +any age in history in which travelling was easier or more general. + +Apart from the immense stimulus which was given to trade and commerce by +the pacification of the world, liberal curiosity, or restless ennui, or +the passion to preach and propagate ideas, carried immense numbers to the +most distant lands.(1165) The travelling sophist found his way to towns on +the edge of the Scythian steppes, to the home of the Brahmans, or to the +depths of the Soudan.(1166) The tour up the Nile was part of a liberal +culture in the days of Lucian as it was in the days of Herodotus. The +romantic charm of travel in Greece was probably heightened for many by the +tales of Thessalian brigands and sorceresses which meet us in the novel of +Apuleius. The Emperor Hadrian, who visited almost every interesting scene +in his dominions, from the Solway to the Euphrates, often trudging for +days at the head of his soldiers, is a true representative of the +migratory tastes of his time. Seneca, indeed, finds in this rage for +change of scene only a symptom of the universal unrest. Epictetus, on the +other hand, and Aristides expatiate with rapture on the universal security +and wellbeing, due to the disappearance of brigandage, piracy, and war. +The seas are alive with merchantmen; deserts have become populous scenes +of industry; the great roads are carried over the broadest rivers and the +most defiant mountain barriers. The earth has become the common possession +of all. Nor is this mere rhetoric. Travelling to all parts of the known +world had become expeditious, and even luxurious. From the Second Punic +War, traders, couriers, and travellers had moved freely along the great +roads.(1167) The government post, which was first organised by Augustus on +the model of the Persian, provided at regular intervals the means of +conveyance for officials, or for those furnished with the requisite +diploma. Private enterprise had also organised facilities of travel, and +at the gates of country towns such as Pompeii, Praeneste, or Tibur, there +were stations of the posting corporations (the _cisiarii_ or _jumentarii_) +where carriages could be hired, with change of horses at each stage.(1168) +The speed with which great distances were traversed in those days is at +first sight rather startling. Caesar once travelled 100 miles a day in a +journey from Rome to the Rhone.(1169) The freedman Icelus in seven days +carried the news of Nero's death to Galba in Spain,(1170) the journey of +332 miles from Tarraco to Clunia having been made at the rate of nearly +ten miles an hour. This of course was express speed. The ordinary rate of +travelling is probably better represented by the leisurely journey of +Horace and Maecenas to Brundisium, or that of Martial's book from Tarraco +to Bilbilis.(1171) About 130 miles a day was the average distance +accomplished by sea. Vessels put out from Ostia or Puteoli for every port +in the Mediterranean. From Puteoli to Corinth was a voyage of five days. +About the same time was needed to reach Tarraco from Ostia. A ship might +arrive at Alexandria from the Palus Maeotis in a fortnight.(1172) Many a +wandering sophist, like Dion Chrysostom or Apollonius of Tyana, traversed +great distances on foot, or with a modest wallet on a mule. The rhetor +Aristides once spent a hundred days in a journey at mid-winter from Mysia +to Rome.(1173) But there was hardly any limit to the luxury and +ostentatious splendour with which the great and opulent made their +progresses, attended or preceded by troops of footmen and runners, and +carrying with them costly plate and myrrhine vases.(1174) The thousand +carriages which Nero took with him on a progress, the silver-shod mules of +Poppaea, the paraphernalia of luxury described by Seneca, if they are not +mythical, were probably the exceptional displays of a self-indulgence +bordering on lunacy.(1175) But practical and sensible comfort in +travelling was perhaps then commoner than it was, until quite recently, +among ourselves. The carriages in which the two indefatigable Plinies used +to ride, enabled them to read at their ease, or dictate to an +amanuensis.(1176) The inns, from the time of Horace to the time of +Sidonius, were as a rule bad, and frequently disreputable, and even +dangerous, places of resort.(1177) And vehicles were often arranged for +sleeping on a journey. We may be sure that many an imperial officer after +the time of Julius Caesar passed nights in his carriage, while hurrying to +join the forces on the Rhine or the Danube. With all this rapid +circulation of officials and travellers, the far-stretching limits of the +Roman world must, to the general eye, have contracted, the remotest places +were drawn more and more towards the centre, and the inexhaustible +vitality of the imperial city diffused itself with a magical power of +silent transformation. + +The modes in which the fully developed municipalities of the Antonine age +had originated and were organised were very various. Wherever, as in the +Greek East or Carthaginian Africa, towns already existed, the Romans, of +course, used them in their organisation of a province, although they added +liberally to the number, as in Syria, Pontus, and Cappadocia.(1178) Where +a country was still in the cantonal state, the villages or markets were +grouped around a civic centre, and a municipal town, such as Nimes or +Lyons, would thus become the metropolis of a considerable tract of +territory. The colony of Vienne was the civic centre of the +Allobroges.(1179) In the settlement of the Alps many of the remote +mountain cantons were attached to towns such as Tridentum, Verona, or +Brixia.(1180) Sometimes, as in Dacia, the civic organisation was created +at a stroke.(1181) But it is well known that, especially towards the +frontiers of the Empire, in Britain, on the Rhine, and in North Africa, +the towns of the second century had often grown out of the _castra +stativa_ of the legions. + +The great reorganisation of Augustus had made each legion a permanent +corps, with a history and identity of its own. To ensure the tranquillity +of the Empire the legions were distributed in permanent camps along the +frontier, the only inland cities with a regular military garrison being +Lyons and Carthage.(1182) Many legions never changed their quarters for +generations. The Tertia Augusta, which has left so many memorials of +itself in the inscriptions of Lambaesis, remained, with only a single +break, in the same district from the time of Augustus to that of +Diocletian.(1183) There, for two generations, it kept sleepless watch +against the robber tribes of the Sahara. The legion was also peacefully +employed in erecting fortifications and making roads and bridges, when the +camp was visited by Hadrian in the year 130.(1184) Gradually soldiers were +allowed to form family relations, more or less regular, until, under +Septimius Severus, the legionary was permitted to live in his household +like any other citizen.(1185) From the remains at Lambaesis, it is now +considered certain that, in the third century, the camp had ceased to be +the soldier's home. The suttlers and camp-followers had long gathered in +the neighbourhood of the camp, in huts which were called _Canabae +legionis_. There, for a long time, the soldier, when off duty, sought his +pleasures and amusements, and there, after the changes of Septimius +Severus, he took up his abode. At first the Canabae of Lambaesis was only +a _vicus_; it became, under Marcus Aurelius, a _municipium_--the +_Respublica Lambaesitanorum_, with the civic constitution which is +rendered familiar to us by so many inscriptions.(1186) The Legionaries +seem to have been happy and contented at Lambaesis; their sons were +trained to arms and followed their fathers in the ranks;(1187) the legion +became to some extent a hereditary caste. Old veterans remained on the +scene of their service, after receiving their discharge with a pension +from the chest.(1188) The town developed in the regular fashion, and +dignified itself by a capitol, an amphitheatre, two forums, a triumphal +arch; and the many monuments of public and private life found on the site +reveal a highly organised society, moulded out of barbarous and alien +elements, and stamped with the inimitable and enduring impress of Rome. +Out of such casual and unpromising materials sprang numbers of urban +communities, which reproduced, in their outline and in their social tone, +the forms and spirit of the free Republic of Rome. The capitol and the +forum are merely the external symbols of a closer bond of parentage. The +Roman military discipline did not more completely master and transform the +Numidian or Celtic recruit, than the inspiration of her civil polity +diffused among races imbruted by servitude, or instinct with the love of a +lawless, nomadic freedom, the sober attachment to an ordered civic life +which was obedient to a long tradition, yet vividly interested in its own +affairs. + +On hardly any side of ancient life is the information furnished by the +inscriptions so rich as on the spirit and organisation of municipalities. +Here one may learn details of communal life which are never alluded to in +Roman literature. From this source, also, we must seek the only authentic +materials for the reconstruction of a municipality of the first century. +The _Album Canusii_ and the tablets containing the laws of Malaga and +Salpensa have not only settled more than one question as to the municipal +organisation of the early Empire, but have enabled us to form almost as +clear-cut a conception of it as we have of the corporate organisation of +our own great towns. + +But, unlike our civic republics, the Roman municipal town was distinctly +aristocratic, or rather timocratic, in its constitution. A man's place in +the community, as a rule, was fixed by his ancestry, his official grade, +or his capacity to spend. The dictum of Trimalchio was too literally true +in the municipal life of that age--"a man is what he is worth." Provincial +society was already parted and graduated, though less decidedly, by those +rigid lines of materialistic demarcation which became gaping fissures in +the society of the Theodosian code. The Curia or Senate was open only to +the possessor of a certain fortune; at Como, for instance, HS.100,000, +elsewhere perhaps even more. On the other hand, the richest freedman could +not become a member of the Curia or hold any civic magistracy,(1189) +although he might be decorated with their insignia. His ambition had to be +satisfied with admission to the order of the Augustales, which ranked +socially after the members of the Curia. In the list of the Curia, which +was revised every five years, the order of official and social precedence +was most scrupulously observed. In the Album Canusii of the year A.D. +223,(1190) the first rank is assigned to thirty-nine patrons, who have +held imperial office, or who are senators or knights. Next come the local +magnates who have been dignified by election to any of the four great +municipal magistracies. Last in order are the _pedani_, that is, the +citizens possessing the requisite qualification, who have not yet held any +municipal office. At the bottom of the list stand twenty-five +_praetextati_, who were probably the sons of the more distinguished +citizens, and who, like the sons of senators of the Republic, were silent +witnesses of the proceedings in the Curia. From this body, and from all +the magistracies, all persons engaged in certain mean or disgraceful +occupations were expressly excluded, along with the great mass of the +poorer citizens, the _tenuiores_. The taint of servile birth, the +possession of _libertinae opes_, was an indelible blot. In countless +inscriptions this gradation of rank is sharply accentuated. If a man +leaves a bequest for an annual feast, with a distribution of money, the +rich patron or the decurio will receive perhaps five times the amount +which is doled out to the simple plebeian.(1191) The distinction of rank, +even in punishment for crime, which meets us everywhere in the Theodosian +Code, has already appeared. The _honestior_ is not to be degraded by the +punishment of crucifixion or by the stroke of the rod.(1192) But it is on +their tombs that the passion of the Romans for some sort of distinction, +however shadowy, shows itself most strikingly. On these slabs every grade +of dignity in a long career is enumerated with minute care. The exact +value of a man's public benefactions or his official salary will be +recorded with pride.(1193) Even the dealer in aromatics or in rags will +make a boast of some petty office in the college of his trade.(1194) But, +although rank and office were extravagantly valued in these societies, +wealth was after all the great distinction. The cities were in the hands +of the rich, and, in return for social deference and official power, the +rich were expected to give lavishly to all public objects. The worship of +wealth, the monumental flattery of rich patrons and benefactors, was very +interested and servile. On the other hand, there probably never was a time +when the duties of wealth were so powerfully enforced by opinion, or so +cheerfully, and even recklessly, performed. + +Yet, although these communities were essentially aristocratic in tone and +constitution, the commonalty still retained some power in the Antonine +age. On many inscriptions they appear side by side with the Curial "ordo" +and the Augustales.(1195) They had still in the reign of Domitian the +right to elect their magistrates. It was long believed that, with the +suppression of popular elections at Rome in the reign of Tiberius, the +popular choice of their great magistrates must also have been withdrawn +from municipal towns.(1196) This has now been disproved by the discovery +of the laws of Malaga and Salpensa, in which the most elaborate provisions +are made for a free and uncontaminated election by the whole people.(1197) +And we can still almost hear the noise of election days among the ruins of +Pompeii.(1198) Many of the inscriptions of Pompeii are election placards, +recommending particular candidates. There, in red letters painted on the +walls, we can read that "the barbers wish to have Trebius as aedile," or +that "the fruit-sellers, with one accord, support the candidature of +Holconius Priscus for the duumvirate." The porters, muleteers, and garlic +dealers have each their favourite. The master fuller, Vesonius Primus, +backs Cn. Helvius as a worthy man. Even ladies took part in the contest +and made their separate appeals. "His little sweetheart" records that she +is working for Claudius.(1199) Personal popularity no doubt then, as +always, attracted such electoral support. But the student of the +inscriptions may be inclined to think that the free and independent +electors had also a keen eye for the man who was likely to build a new +colonnade for the forum, or a new _schola_ for the guild, or, best of all, +to send down thirty pairs of gladiators into the arena "with plenty of +blood."(1200) + +The laws of Malaga and Salpensa prescribe, in the fullest detail, all the +forms to be observed in the election of magistrates. These were generally +six in number--two duumvirs,(1201) who were the highest officers, two +aediles, and two quaestors, for each year. Every fifth year, instead of +the duumvirs, two _quinquennales_ were elected, with the extraordinary +duty of conducting the municipal census.(1202) The candidates for all +these offices were required to be free born, of the age of twenty-five at +least, of irreproachable character, and the possessors of a certain +fortune. The qualifications were the same as those prescribed by the _lex +Julia_ for admission to the municipal Senate, which expressly excluded +persons engaged in certain disreputable callings--gladiators, actors, +pimps, auctioneers, and undertakers.(1203) In the best days the +competition for office was undoubtedly keen, and the candidates were +numerous. In the year A.D. 4, the year of the death of C. Caesar, the +grandson of Augustus, so hot was the rivalry that the town of Pisa was +left without magistrates owing to serious disturbances at the +elections.(1204) But it is an ominous fact that the law of Malaga, in the +reign of Domitian, makes provision for the contingency of a failure of +candidates. In such a case the presiding duumvir was to nominate the +required number, they in turn an equal number, and the combined nominees +had to designate a third set equal in number to themselves. The choice of +the people was then restricted to these involuntary candidates. The city +has evidently advanced a stage towards the times of the Lower Empire, when +the magistrates were appointed by the Curia from among themselves, with no +reference to the people.(1205) A man might, indeed, well hesitate before +offering himself for an office which imposed a heavy expenditure on the +holder of it. The honorarium payable on admission amounted, in an obscure +place like Thamugadi, to about L32 for the duumvirate, and L24 for the +aedileship.(1206) In the greater Italian cities it probably would be much +more; at Pompeii the newly elected duumvir paid more than L80.(1207) But +the man chosen by the people often felt bound to outstrip the bare demands +of law or custom by a prodigal liberality. He must build or repair some +public work, to signalise his year of office, and, at the dedication of +it, good taste required him to exhibit costly games, or to give a banquet +to the citizens, with a largess to all of every rank small or great.(1208) + +But in return for its liabilities, the position of a duumvir gave +undoubted power and distinction. The office was the image or shadow of the +ancient consulship, and occasionally, as the inscriptions attest, a +Hadrian or an Antoninus Pius did not disdain to accept it.(1209) The +duumvirs commanded the local militia, when it was, on emergency, called +out.(1210) They presided at meetings of the people and the Curia, they +proposed questions for their deliberation, and carried the decrees into +effect. They had civil jurisdiction up to a certain amount, and their +criminal jurisdiction, which, in the third century, had been transferred +to imperial functionaries, was, according to the most probable opinion, +undiminished at least down to the end of the first century.(1211) This +judicial power, however, was limited by the _intercessio_ of colleagues +and the right of appeal. They had extensive responsibilities in finance, +for the collection of dues and taxes, and the recovery of all moneys owing +to the municipality.(1212) After the fall of the free Republic, when so +many avenues of ambition were closed, many an able man might well satisfy +his desire for power and distinction by the duumvirate of a provincial +town. + +The Curia, or local senate, is peculiarly interesting to the historical +student, because it was to the conversion of the curiales into a +hereditary caste, loaded with incalculable liabilities, that the decay of +the Western Empire was to a large extent due.(1213) But, in the reign of +Domitian, the Curia is still erect and dignified. Although the individual +decurio seldom or never assumes the title senator in the +inscriptions,(1214) the Curia as a whole often bears the august name and +titles of the majestic Roman Senate.(1215) And assuredly down to the +middle of the second century there was no lack of candidates for +admission. Every five years the roll of the Curia was revised and drawn up +afresh by the quinquennales. The conditions were those for holding a +magistracy, including a property qualification, which varied in different +places.(1216) The number of ordinary members was generally 100.(1217) But +it was swelled by patrons and other extraordinary members. The +quinquennales, in framing the list, took first the members on the roll of +the previous term, and then those who had been elected to magistracies +since the last census. If any vacancies were still left, they were filled +up from the ranks of those who, not having yet held any municipal office, +were otherwise qualified by the possession of a sufficient fortune.(1218) +In the _Album Canusii_, the men who had held official rank constitute at +least two-thirds of the Curia. In the composition of such a body there +would appear to be ample security for administrative skill and experience. +And yet we shall find that it was precisely through want of prudence or +skill that the door was opened for that bureaucratic interference which, +in the second century, began, with momentous results, to sap the freedom +and independence of municipal life. + +The honours and powers of the provincial council were long sufficient to +compensate the decurio for the heavy demands made upon his generosity. To +all but comparatively few the career of imperial office and distinction +was closed. His own town became each man's "patria," as Como was even to a +man like Pliny, who played so great a part in the life of the +capital.(1219) There is the ring of a very genuine public spirit and a +love for the local commonwealth in a host of the inscriptions of that +age.(1220) The vastness and overwhelming grandeur of a world-wide Empire, +in which the individual citizen was a mere atom, made men crave for any +distinction which seemed to raise them above the grey flat level which +surrounds a democratic despotism. And even the ordinary decurio had some +badges to mark him off from the crowd. The pompous honorific titles of the +Lower Empire, indeed, had not come into vogue. But the Curial had a place +of honour at games and festivals, a claim to a larger share in the +distributions of money by private benefactors, exemption, as one of the +_honestiores_, from the more degrading forms of punishment, the free +supply of water from the public sources,(1221) and other perquisites and +honours, which varied in different localities. The powers of the Curia +were also very considerable. The duumvirs indeed possessed extensive +prerogatives which strong men may have sometimes strained.(1222) But there +was a right of appeal to the Curia from judicial decisions of the duumvirs +in certain cases. And their control of games and festivals, and of the +finances of the community, was limited by the necessity of consulting the +Curia and of carrying out its orders.(1223) In the _lex Ursonensis_ we +find a long list of matters on which the duumvirs were obliged to take +their instructions from the Curia.(1224) The quorum needed for a valid +decision varied in different places. In the election of a patron a quorum +of two-thirds of the decurions was legally required.(1225) The names of +the duoviri appeared at the head of every curial decree, as those of the +consuls in every senatusconsultum. + +After the local aristocracy of curial rank came, in order of social +precedence, members of the knightly class and the order of the Augustales. +In the latter half of the first century equestrian rank had been conferred +with perhaps too lavish a hand. And satire was never tired of ridiculing +these sham aristocrats, Bithynian knights as they were called, often of +the lowest origin, who on public occasions vulgarly asserted their +mushroom rank.(1226) In particular, the army contributed many new knights +to the society of the provincial towns. A veteran, often of humble birth, +who had risen to the first place among the sixty centurions of a legion, +was, on his discharge with a good pension, sometimes raised to equestrian +rank. He frequently returned to his native place, where he became a +personage of some mark. Such men, along with old officers of higher grade, +frequently appear in the inscriptions invested with priesthoods and high +magistracies,(1227) and were sometimes chosen as patrons of the +community.(1228) Many of them were undoubtedly good and public-spirited +men, with the peculiar virtues which the life of the Roman camp +engendered. But some of their class also displayed that coarse and brutal +self-assertion, and that ignorant contempt for the refinement of culture, +on which Persius and Juvenal poured their scorn.(1229) + +The Augustales, ranking next to the curial order, are peculiarly +interesting, both as representing the wide diffusion of the cult of the +emperors, and as a class composed of men of low, or even servile origin, +who had made their fortunes in trade, yet whose ambition society found the +means of satisfying, without breaking down the barriers of aristocratic +exclusiveness.(1230) The origin of the order of the Augustales was long a +subject of debate. But it has now been placed beyond doubt that in the +provincial towns it was a plebeian institution for the cult of Augustus, +and succeeding emperors, modelled on the aristocratic order of the Sodales +Augustales, which was established by Tiberius in the capital.(1231) The +Augustales were elected by vote of the local curia, without regard to +social rank, although probably with due respect to wealth, and they +included the leaders of the great freedman class, whose emergence is one +of the most striking facts in the social history of the time. Figuring on +scores of inscriptions, the Augustales are mentioned only once in extant +Roman literature, in the novel of Petronius, where the class has been +immortalised, and probably caricatured.(1232) The inscription, for which +Trimalchio gives an order to his brother Augustal, the stone-cutter, is to +record his election in absence to the Sevirate, his many virtues and his +millions. Actual monuments at Assisi and Brescia show that Trimalchio was +not an altogether imaginary person.(1233) + +Yet the Augustales, in spite of the vulgar ostentation and self-assertion, +which have characterised similar classes of the _nouveaux riches_ in all +ages, were a very important and useful order. They overspread the whole +Roman world in the West. Their monuments have been traced, not only in +almost every town in Italy, and in great provincial capitals, like Lyons +or Tarraco, but in Alpine valleys and lonely outposts of civilisation on +the edge of the Sahara.(1234) Their special religious duties involved +considerable expense, from which no doubt the more aristocratic class were +glad to be relieved. They had to bear the cost of sacrifices and +festivities on certain days in honour of dead emperors. They had to pay an +entrance fee on admission to the college, which the ambitious among them +would often lavishly exceed.(1235) They were organised on the lines of +other colleges, with patrons, quinquennales, and other officials. They had +their club-houses where their banquets were regularly held, they possessed +landed property, and had their common places of burial.(1236) But their +expenditure and their interests were by no means limited to their own +immediate society. They regarded themselves, and were generally treated as +public officials, ranking next to the magistrates of the Curia. They had +the right to wear the purple-bordered toga, and to have lictors attending +them in the streets.(1237) Places of honour were reserved for them at the +games and festivals. Although as a class they were not eligible for a seat +in the Curia, or for the municipal magistracies, yet the _ornamenta_, the +external badges and honours attached to these offices, were sometimes +granted even to freedmen who had done service to the community. Thus an +Augustal who had paved a road at Cales received the _ornamenta_ of a +decurio.(1238) And another, for his munificence to Pompeii, by a decree of +the Curia, was awarded the use of the _bisellium_, a seat of honour which +was usually reserved for the highest dignitaries.(1239) But the ornaments +and dignities of their own particular college became objects of pride and +ambition. Thus a man boasts of having been made _primus Augustalis +perpetuus_, by a decree of the Curia.(1240) A worthy of Brundisium +received from the Curia a public funeral, with the ornaments and insignia +of an Augustal.(1241) In this way, in a society highly conventional, and +dominated by caste feeling, the order of the Augustales provided both a +stimulus and a reward for the public spirit of a new class, powerful in +its wealth and numbers, but generally encumbered by the heritage of a +doubtful origin. It was a great elevation for a man, who, perhaps, had +been sold as a boy in some Syrian slave market into the degradation of a +minion, and who had emerged, by petty savings or base services, into the +comparative freedom of a tainted or despised trade, to find himself at +last holding a conspicuous rank in his municipality, and able to purchase +honour and deference from those who had trampled on him in his youth. + +The Augustales shared with the members of the Curia the heavy burdens +which public sentiment then imposed upon the rich. Direct taxation for +municipal purposes was in the first century almost unknown. The +municipalities often possessed landed property, mines, or quarries. Capua +is said to have had distant possessions in the island of Crete.(1242) The +towns also derived an income from the public baths,(1243) from the rent of +shops and stalls in the public places, from the supply of water to private +houses or estates, and from port dues and tolls. A very considerable item +of revenue must have been found in the fee which all decurions, +Augustales, and magistrates paid on entering on their office or dignity. +Since the reign of Nerva, the towns had the right of receiving legacies +and bequests.(1244) And, on the occurrence of any desolating calamity, an +earthquake or a fire, the emperor was never slow or niggardly in giving +relief. In the year 53 A.D. the town of Bologna received an imperial +subsidy of about L83,000.(1245) The cities of Asia were again and again +relieved after desolating earthquakes.(1246) + +With regard to municipal expenditure, the budget was free from many public +charges which burden our modern towns. The higher offices were unpaid, and +in fact demanded large generosity from their holders. The lower functions +were discharged, to a great extent, by communal slaves. The care or +construction of streets, markets, and public buildings, although +theoretically devolving on the community through their aediles, was, as a +matter of fact, to an enormous extent undertaken by private persons. The +city treasury must have often incurred a loss in striving to provide corn +and oil for the citizens at a limited price, and the authorities were +often reviled, as at Trimalchio's banquet, for not doing more to cheapen +the necessaries of life.(1247) Although our information as to municipal +expenditure on education and medical treatment is scanty, it is pretty +clear that the community was, in the Antonine age, beginning to recognise +a duty in making provision for both. Vespasian first gave a public +endowment to professors of rhetoric in the capital.(1248) The case of +Como, described in Pliny's Letters, was probably not an isolated one. +Finding that the youth of that town were compelled to resort to Milan for +higher instruction, Pliny, as we have seen, proposed to the parents to +establish by general subscription a public school, and he offered himself +to contribute one-third of the sum required for the foundation, the rest +to be provided by the townsfolk, who were to have the management and +selection of teachers in their hands.(1249) The Greek cities had public +physicians 500 years before Christ,(1250) and Marseilles and some of the +Gallic towns in Strabo's day employed both teachers and doctors at the +public expense.(1251) The regular organisation of public medical +attendance in the provinces dates from Antoninus Pius, who required the +towns of Asia to have a certain number of physicians among their salaried +officers.(1252) The title _Archiater_, which in the Theodosian Code +designates an official class in the provinces as well as at Rome, is found +in inscriptions of Beneventum and Pisaurum belonging to an earlier +date.(1253) But these departments of municipal expenditure were hardly yet +fully organised in the age of the Antonines, and were probably not +burdensome. The great field of expenditure lay in the basilicas, temples, +amphitheatres, baths, and pavements, whose vanishing remains give us a +glimpse of one of the most brilliant ages in history. + +The municipal towns relied largely on the voluntary munificence of their +wealthy members for great works of public utility or splendour. But we +have many records of such enterprises carried out at the common expense, +and the name of a special magistracy (_curator operum publicorum_) to +superintend them meets us often in the inscriptions.(1254) These +undertakings were frequently on a great scale. The famous bridge of +Alcantara was erected in the reign of Trajan by the combined efforts of +eleven municipalities in Portugal.(1255) In Bithynia the finances of some +of the great towns had been so seriously disorganised by expensive and +ill-managed undertakings that the younger Pliny was in the year 111 A.D. +sent as imperial legate by Trajan to repair the misgovernment of the +province.(1256) Pliny's correspondence throws a flood of light on many +points of municipal administration, and foreshadows its coming decay. The +cities appear to have ample funds, but they are grossly mismanaged. There +is plenty of public money seeking investment, but borrowers cannot be +found at the current rate of 12 per cent. Pliny would have been inclined +to compel the decurions to become debtors of the state, but Trajan orders +the rate of interest to be put low enough to attract voluntary +borrowers.(1257) Apamea, although it had the ancient privilege of managing +its own affairs, requested Pliny to examine the public accounts.(1258) He +did the same for Prusa, and found many signs of loose and reckless +finance, and probable malversation.(1259) Nicaea had spent L80,000 on a +theatre, which, from some faults either in the materials or the +foundation, was settling, with great fissures in the walls.(1260) The city +had also expended a large sum in rebuilding its gymnasium on a sumptuous +scale, but the fabric had been condemned by a new architect for radical +defects of structure. Nicomedia has squandered L40,000 on two aqueducts +which have either fallen or been abandoned.(1261) In authorising the +construction of a third the emperor might well emphatically order the +responsibility for such blunders to be fastened on the proper +persons.(1262) In the same city, when a fire of a most devastating kind +had recently occurred, there was no engine, not even a bucket ready, and +the inhabitants stood idly by as spectators.(1263) Pliny was most +assiduous in devising or promoting engineering improvements for the health +and convenience of the province, and often called for expert assistance +from Rome. Irregularities in the working of the civic constitutions also +gave him much trouble. The _ecdicus_ or _defensor_ has demanded repayment +of a largess made to one Julius Piso from the treasury of Amisus, which +the decrees of Trajan now forbade.(1264) Just as Pliny had suggested that +members of a curia should be forced to accept loans from the State, so we +can see ominous signs of a wish to compel men to accept the curial dignity +beyond the legal number, in order to secure the honorarium of from L35 to +L70 on their admission.(1265) The _Lex Pompeia_, which forbade a Bithynian +municipality to admit to citizenship men from other Bithynian states, had +long been ignored, and in numbers of cities there were many sitting in the +senate in violation of the law. The Pompeian law also required that a man +should be thirty years of age when he was elected to a magistracy or took +his place in the Curia, but a law of Augustus had reduced the limit for +the minor magistracies to twenty-two. Here was a chance of adding to the +strength of the Curia which was seized by the municipal censors. And if a +minor magistrate might enter the Curia as a matter of course at +twenty-two, why not others equally fit?(1266) In another typical case the +legate was disturbed by the lavish hospitality of leading citizens. On the +assumption of the toga, at a wedding, or an election to civic office, or +the dedication of a public work, not only the whole of the Curia, but a +large number of the common people, were often invited to a banquet and +received from their host one or two denarii apiece.(1267) Pliny was +probably unnecessarily alarmed. The inscriptions show us the same scenes +all over the Empire,(1268) and the emperor with calm dignity leaves the +question of such entertainments to the prudence of his lieutenant. + +There are many religious questions submitted to the emperor in these +celebrated despatches, especially those relating to the toleration of +Christians.(1269) But, however profoundly interesting, they lie beyond the +scope of this chapter. We are occupied with the secular life of the +provincial town. And the Letters of Pliny place some things in a clear +light. In the first place, the state has begun in the reign of Trajan to +control the municipality, especially in the management of its finances; +but the control is rather invited than imposed. At any rate, it has become +necessary, owing to malversation or incompetence.(1270) Nothing could be +more striking than the contrast between the civic bungling exposed by +Pliny, and the clear, patient wisdom of the distant emperor. And in +another point we can see that the municipalities have entered on that +disastrous decline which was to end in the ruin of the fifth century. +Wasteful finance is already making its pressure felt on the members of the +Curia, and membership is beginning to be thought a burden rather than an +honour. From the reign of Trajan we begin to hear of the _Curatores_, who +were imperial officers, appointed at first to meet a special emergency, +but who became permanent magistrates, with immense powers, especially over +finance.(1271) The free civic life of the first century is being quietly +drawn under the fatal spell of a bureaucratic despotism. + +The cities did much for themselves out of the public revenues.(1272) But +there are many signs that private ambition or munificence did even more. +The stone records of Pompeii confirm these indications in a remarkable +way. Pompeii, in spite of the prominence given to it by its tragic fate, +was only a third-rate town, with a population probably of not more than +20,000.(1273) Its remains, indeed, leave the impression that a +considerable class were in easy circumstances; but it may be doubted +whether Pompeii could boast of any great capitalists among its citizens. +Its harbour, at the mouth of the Sarno, was the outlet for the trade of +Nola and Nuceria. There were salt works in a suburb near the sea. The fish +sauces of Umbricius Scaurus had a great celebrity.(1274) The vine and the +olive were cultivated on the volcanic offshoot from Vesuvius; but the wine +of Pompeii was said by the elder Pliny to leave a lingering headache. +Mill-stones were made from the lava of the volcano. The market gardeners +drove a flourishing trade, and the cabbage of Pompeii was celebrated. On +the high ground towards Vesuvius many wealthy Romans, Cicero, and Drusus, +the son of Claudius, built country seats, in that delicious climate where +the winters are so short, and the summer heats are tempered by unfailing +breezes from the mountains or the western sea. All these things made +Pompeii a thriving and attractive place; yet its trade hardly offered the +chance of the huge fortunes which could be accumulated in those days at +Puteoli or Ostia.(1275) + +Nevertheless, a large number of the public buildings of Pompeii were the +gift of private citizens. The Holconii were a great family of the place in +the reign of Augustus. M. Holconius Rufus had been ordinary duumvir five +times, and twice quinquennial duumvir; he was priest of Augustus, and +finally was elected patron of the town.(1276) Such dignities in those days +imposed a corresponding burden. And an inscription tells that, on the +rebuilding of the great theatre, probably about 3 B.C., Holconius Rufus +and Holconius Celer defrayed the expense of the crypt, the tribunals, and +the whole space for the spectators. Women did not fall behind men in their +public benefactions. On the eastern side of the forum of Pompeii there is +a building and enclosure, with the remains of porticoes, colonnades, and +fountains, which are supposed to have been a cloth market. In a niche +stood a marble statue, dedicated by the fullers of Pompeii to Eumachia, a +priestess of the city. And Eumachia herself has left a record that she and +her son had erected the building at their own expense.(1277) The +dedication probably belongs to the reign of Tiberius. The visitor who +leaves the forum by the arch, at the north-east corner, and turns into the +broadest thoroughfare of the town, soon reaches the small temple of +Fortuna Augusta, erected in the reign of Augustus. Both the site and the +building were the gift of one M. Tullius, who had, like M. Holconius, +borne all the honours which the city could bestow.(1278) The amphitheatre +in the south-east corner of the town, the scene of so many gladiatorial +combats recorded in the inscriptions, was erected by two men of the +highest official rank, C. Quinctius Valgus and M. Porcius, probably the +same men who bore at least part of the cost of the smaller theatre of +Pompeii.(1279) The last instance of this generous public spirit which we +shall mention is of interest in many ways. It is well known that in the +year 63 A.D. an earthquake overthrew many buildings, and wrought great +havoc in Pompeii. Among other edifices, the temple of Isis was thrown +down. The temple, of which we can now study the remains, had been built by +a boy of six years of age, Numerius Popidius Celsinus, who, in +acknowledgment of his own, or rather of his father's liberality, was at +that unripe age co-opted a member of "the splendid order."(1280) This mode +of rewarding a father by advancing his infant son to premature honours is +not unknown in other inscriptions.(1281) + +The literature of the age contains many records of profuse private +liberality of the same kind. The circle and family of Pliny were, as we +have seen in this, as in other respects, models of the best sentiment of +the time. Pliny was not a very rich man, according to the standard of an +age of colossal fortunes; yet his benefactions, both to private friends +and to the communities in which he was interested, were on the scale of +the largest wealth. It has been calculated that he must have altogether +given to his early home and fatherland, as he calls it, a sum of more than +L80,000; and the gifts were of a thoroughly practical kind--a library, a +school endowment, a foundation for the nurture of poor children, a temple +of Ceres, with spacious colonnades to shelter the traders who came for the +great fair.(1282) A great lady, Ummidia Quadratilla, known to us not +altogether favourably in Pliny's letters, built a temple and amphitheatre +for Casinum.(1283) From the elder Pliny we learn that the distinguished +court physicians, the two Stertinii, whose professional income is said to +have ranged from L2000 to L5000 a year, exhausted their ample fortune in +their benefactions to the city of Naples.(1284) A private citizen bore the +cost of an aqueduct for Bordeaux, at an expenditure of L160,000.(1285) +Another benefactor, one Crinas, spent perhaps L80,000 on the walls of +Marseilles.(1286) The grandfather of Dion Chrysostom devoted his entire +ancestral fortune to public objects.(1287) Dion, himself, according to his +means, followed the example of his ancestor. The site alone of a +colonnade, with shops and booths, which he presented to Prusa, cost about +L1800. When Cremona was destroyed by the troops of Vespasian in A.D. 69, +its temples and forums were restored by the generous zeal of private +citizens, after all the horror and exhaustion of that awful +conflict.(1288) + +But the prince of public benefactors in the Antonine age was the great +sophist Herodes Atticus, the tutor of M. Aurelius, who died in the same +year as his pupil, 180 A.D. He acted up to his theory of the uses of +wealth on a scale of unexampled munificence.(1289) His family was of high +rank, and claimed descent from the Aeacidae of Aegina. They had also +apparently inexhaustible resources. His father spent a sum of nearly +L40,000 in supplementing an imperial grant for the supply of water to the +Troad. The munificence of the son was extended to cities in Italy, as well +as to Corinth, Thessaly, Euboea, Boeotia, Elis, and pre-eminently to +Athens. He gave an aqueduct to Canusium and Olympia, a racecourse to +Delphi, a roofed theatre to Corinth.(1290) He provided sulphur baths at +Thermopylae for the visitors from Thessaly and the shores of the Maliac +gulf. He aided in the restoration of Oricum in Epirus, and liberally +recruited the resources of many another decaying town in Greece. He was +certainly benevolent, but he had also a passion for splendid fame, and +cherished an ambition to realise the dream of Nero, by cutting a canal +across the Corinthian Isthmus.(1291) But Attica, where he was born, and +where he had a princely house on the Ilissus, was the supreme object of +his bounty. In his will he left each Athenian citizen an annual gift of a +mina. He would offer to the Virgin Goddess a sacrifice of a hundred oxen +on a single day; and, when the great festivals came round, he used to +feast the people by their tribes, as well as the resident strangers, on +couches in the Ceramicus. He restored the ancient shrines and stadia with +costly marbles. And, in memory of Rhegilla, his wife, he built at the foot +of the acropolis a theatre for 6000 spectators, roofed in with cedar wood, +which, to the eye of Pausanias, surpassed all similar structures in its +splendour.(1292) + +The liberality of Herodes Atticus, however astonishing it may seem, was +only exceptional in its scale. The same spirit prevailed among the leading +citizens or the great _patroni_ of hundreds of communities, many of them +only known to us from a brief inscription or two; and we have great reason +to be grateful on this score to the imperial legislation of later days, +which did its best to preserve these stone records for the eyes of +posterity.(1293) But in forming an estimate of the splendid public spirit +evoked by municipal life, it is well to remind ourselves that much has +necessarily been lost in the wreck of time, and also that what we have +left represents the civic life of a comparatively brief period. Yet the +remains are so numerous that it is almost impossible to give any adequate +idea of their profusion to those who are unacquainted with the +inscriptions. The objects of this liberality are as various as the needs +of the community--temples, theatres, bridges, markets, a portico or a +colonnade, the relaying of a road or pavement from the forum to the port, +the repair of an aqueduct, above all the erection of new baths or the +restoration of old ones, with perhaps a permanent foundation to provide +for the free enjoyment of this greatest luxury of the south. The boon was +extended to all citizens of both sexes, and in some cases, even to +strangers and to slaves.(1294) There is an almost monotonous sameness in +the stiff, conventional record of this vast mass of lavish generosity. It +all seems a spontaneous growth of the social system. One monument is +erected by the senate and people of Tibur to a man who had borne all its +honours, and had left the town his sole heir.(1295) On another, an +Augustal of Cales, who had received the insignia of the duumvirate, tells +posterity that he had laid down a broad road through the town.(1296) +Another benefactor bore the chief cost of a new meat market at Aesernia, +the authorities of the town supplying the pillars and the tiles.(1297) A +priestess of Calama in Numidia expended a sum of L3400 on a new +theatre.(1298) Perhaps the commonest object of private liberality was the +erection or maintenance of public baths. An old officer of the fourth +legion provided free bathing at Suessa Senonum for every one, even down to +the slave girls.(1299) At Bononia, a sum of L4350 was bequeathed for the +same liberal purpose.(1300) A magnate of Misenum bequeathed 400 loads of +hard wood annually for the furnaces of the baths, but with the stipulation +that his son should be made patron of the town, and that his successors +should receive all the magistracies.(1301) + +These are only a few specimens taken at random from the countless records +of similar liberality to the parent city. The example of the emperors must +have stimulated the creation of splendid public works in the provinces. It +has been remarked by M. Boissier that the imperial government at all times +displayed the politic or instinctive love of monarchy for splendour and +magnificence.(1302) The Roman Code, down to the end of the Western Empire, +gives evidence of a jealous care for the preservation of the monuments and +historic buildings of the past, and denounces with very unconventional +energy the "foul and shameful" traffic in the relics of ancient glory +which prevailed in the last age of the Empire.(1303) After great fires and +desolating wars, the first thought of the most frugal or the most lavish +prince was to restore in greater grandeur what had been destroyed. After +the great conflagration of A.D. 64, which laid in ashes ten out of the +fourteen regions of Rome, Nero immediately set to work to rebuild the city +in a more orderly fashion, with broader streets and open spaces.(1304) +Vespasian, on his accession, found the treasury loaded with a debt of +L320,000,000. Yet the frugal emperor did not hesitate to begin at once the +restoration of the Capitol, and all the other ruins left by the great +struggle of A.D. 69 from which his dynasty arose.(1305) He even undertook +some new works on a great scale, the temple of Peace and the amphitheatre, +on the plans projected by Augustus. Titus completed the Colosseum, and +erected the famous baths.(1306) Domitian once more restored the Capitol, +and added many new buildings, temples to his "divine" father and brother, +with many shrines of his special patroness Minerva; a stone stadium for +30,000 people, and an Odeum for an audience of 10,000.(1307) Trajan was +lauded by Pliny for his frugal administration of the treasury, combined +with magnificence in his public works.(1308) Nor was the encomium +undeserved. He made docks and erected warehouses at Ostia; he ran a new +road through the Pomptine marshes; he lavished money on aqueducts and +baths.(1309) His most imposing construction was a new forum between the +Capitoline and the Quirinal, with stately memorials of the achievements of +his reign. But the prince of imperial builders and engineers was Hadrian. +Wherever he went he took with him in his journeys a troop of architects to +add something to the splendour or convenience of the cities through which +he passed. "In almost every city," says his biographer, "he erected some +building."(1310) But the capital was not neglected by Hadrian. He restored +historic structures such as the Pantheon and the temple of Neptune, the +forum of Augustus, and Agrippa's baths, with no ostentatious intrusion of +his own name.(1311) In his own name he built the temples of Venus and +Roma, the bridge across the Tiber, and that stately mausoleum, which, as +the castle of S. Angelo, links the memory of the pagan Empire with the +mediaeval Papacy and the modern world. The example of the imperial masters +of the world undoubtedly reinforced the various impulses which inspired +the dedication of so much wealth to the public service or enjoyment +through all the cities of the Empire. + +But the wealthy and public-spirited citizen was also expected to cater for +the immediate pleasure or amusement of his neighbours in games and feasts. +We have seen that Pliny, during his administration of Bithynia, seems to +have regarded the public feasts given to a whole commune on occasions of +private rejoicing, as dangerous to the general tranquillity. Yet the usage +meets us everywhere in the inscriptions, and even in the literary history +of the time. This spacious hospitality was long demanded from the rich and +powerful, from the general at his triumph, from the great noble on his +birthday or his daughter's marriage, from the rich burgher at the +dedication of a temple or a forum which he had given to the city, from the +man who had been chosen patron of a town in expectation of such largesses, +not to speak of the many private patrons whose morning receptions were +thronged by a hungry crowd, eager for an invitation to dinner, or its +equivalent in the sportula.(1312) Julius Caesar on his triumph in 46 B.C. +had feasted the people at 22,000 tables.(1313) Great houses, like the +sumptuous seat of Caninius Rufus at Como, had enormous banquet halls for +such popular repasts.(1314) The Trimalchio of Petronius desires himself to +be sculptured on his tomb in the character of such a lavish host.(1315) +There was in that age no more popular and effective way of testifying +gratitude for the honours bestowed by the popular voice, or of winning +them, than by a great feast to the whole commune, generally accompanied by +a distribution of money, according to social or official grade. It was +also the most popular means of prolonging one's memory to bequeath a +foundation for the perpetual maintenance of such repasts in honour of the +dead.(1316) One P. Lucilius of Ostia had held all the great offices of his +town, and had rewarded his admirers with a munificence apparently more +than equivalent to the official honours they had bestowed. He had paved a +long road from the forum to the arch, restored a temple of Vulcan, of +which he was the curator, and the temples of Venus, Spes, and Fortuna; he +had provided standard weights for the meat market, and a tribunal of +marble for the forum. But probably his most popular benefaction was a +great banquet to the citizens, where 217 couches were arrayed for +them.(1317) The same munificent person had twice entertained the whole of +the citizens at luncheon. Elsewhere a veteran, with a long and varied +service, had settled at Auximum where he had been elected patron of the +community. His old comrades, the centurions of the Second Legion (Traj. +Fortis) erected a monument to his virtues, and, at the dedication, he gave +a banquet to the townsfolk.(1318) One other example, out of the many which +crowd the inscriptions, may serve to complete the picture of civic +hospitality. Lucius Cornelius of Surrentum received on his death the +honour of a public funeral by a vote of the Curia. The inscription on his +statue records that, on assuming the garb of manhood, he had provided a +meal of pastry and mead for the populace; when he became aedile, he +exhibited a contest of gladiators; and, twice reaching the honours of the +duumvirate, he repaid the compliment by splendid games and a stately +banquet.(1319) + +At these entertainments a gift of money, always graduated according to the +social rank of the guests, decurio, augustal, or plebeian, was generally +added to the fare.(1320) Sometimes the distribution took the form of a +lottery. A high official of Beneventum, who had probably inherited a +fortune from his father, a leading physician of the capital, once +scattered tickets among the crowd, which gave the finder the right to a +present of gold, silver, dress, or other smaller prizes.(1321) Women +appeared sometimes both as hostesses and guests on these occasions. Caesia +Sabina of Veii, on the day on which her husband was entertaining all the +citizens, invited the female relatives of the decurions to dinner, with +the additional luxury of a gratuitous bath.(1322) It is curious to observe +that at the festivities in which women are entertained, the sharp +demarcation of ranks is maintained as strictly as it is among their male +relations. Thus, in a distribution at Volceii, the decurions, augustales, +and vicani, receive respectively thirty, twenty, and twelve sesterces +apiece; while the proportion observed among the ladies of the three social +grades is sixteen, eight, and four. Nor were children, even those of the +slave class, forgotten on these festive occasions. One kindly magnate of +Ferentinum left a fund of about L750 to give an annual feast of pastry and +mead upon his birthday for all the inhabitants with their wives, and at +the same time, 300 pecks of nuts were provided for the children, bond and +free.(1323) + +These provincial societies, as we have already seen, were organised on +aristocratic or plutocratic principles. The distinction between +_honestior_ and _humilior_, which becomes so cruel in the Theodosian Code, +was, even in the Antonine age, more sharply drawn and more enduring than +is agreeable to our modern notions of social justice. The rich have a +monopoly of all official power and social precedence; they have even the +largest share in gifts and paltry distributions of money which wealth +might be expected to resign and to despise. Their sons have secured to +them by social convention, or by popular gratitude and expectancy, a +position equal to that of their ancestors. The dim plebeian crowd, save +for the right of an annual vote at the elections, which was in a few +generations to be withdrawn, seem to be of little more consequence than +the slaves; they were of far less consequence than those freedmen who had +the luck or the dexterity to build up a rapid fortune, and force their way +into the chasm between the privileged and the disinherited. Yet this would +hardly be a complete and penetrating view of the inner working and the +spirit of that municipal society. The apparent rigidity and harshness of +the lines of demarcation were often relieved by a social sentiment which, +on the one hand, made heavy demands on rank and wealth, and on the other, +drew all classes together by the strong bond of fellowship in a common +social life. There has probably seldom been a time when wealth was more +generally regarded as a trust, a possession in which the community at +large has a right to share. There never was an age in which the wealthy +more frankly, and even recklessly, recognised this imperious claim. It +would indeed be difficult to resolve into its elements the complicated +mass of motives which impelled the rich burgher to undertake such +enormous, and often ruinous, expenditure for the common good or pleasure. +There was of course much of mere selfish ambition and love of popularity. +The passion for prominence was probably never stronger. Direct or even +veiled corruption of the electors was, indeed, strictly prohibited by +law.(1324) But it was a recognised principle of public life that the city +should honour its benefactors, and that those whom she had raised to her +highest distinctions should manifest their gratitude by some contribution +to the comfort or the enjoyments of the people. But, when we have admitted +all vulgar motives of munificence, a man would show himself a very +unobservant, or else a very cynical student of the time, if he failed to +recognise that, among these countless benefactors, there were many +animated, not only by a sense of duty, but by a real ardour of public +spirit, men who wished to live in the love and memory of their fellows, +and who had a rare perception of the duties of wealth. Philostratus has +left us in his own words a record of the principles which inspired Herodes +Atticus in his almost fabulous donations to many cities in Asia, Greece, +and Italy. Herodes used to say that the true use of money was to succour +the needs of others; riches which were guarded with a niggard hand were +only a "dead wealth"; the coffers in which they were stowed away were +merely a prison; and the worship of money resembled the sacrifice which +the fabled Aloidae offered to a god after putting him in chains.(1325) The +main characteristics of human nature are singularly fixed from age to age, +although the objects of its love and devotion may endlessly vary. The +higher unselfish impulses must assert themselves in any society which is +not plunging into the abyss. The choicer spirits will be always ready to +lavish effort or material wealth on objects which are sacred to their own +age, although they may seen chimerical or unworthy to the next. And we may +well believe that the man who in the second century built a bath or a +theatre for fellow townsmen, might possibly, had he lived in the fifth, +have dedicated a church to a patron saint, or bequeathed his lands to a +monastery. + +The Antonine age was on one side perhaps rather coarse in its ideals, +passionately fond of splendour and brilliant display, proud of civic +dignity, and keenly alive to the ease and comfort and brightness which +common effort or individual generosity might add to the enjoyment of life. +It was also an intensely sociable age. Men looked for their happiness to +their city rather than to the family or the state. If their city could not +play a great part as an independent commonwealth, it might, by the +self-sacrifice of its sons, assert its dignity among its rivals. It could +make itself a society which men would proudly or affectionately claim as +their "patria" and their parent, and on which they would vie with one +another in lavishing their time and their gold. And the buildings and +banquets and bright festivals, on which so much was lavished, were enjoyed +by all citizens alike, the lowest and the highest, although high and low +had sometimes by prescriptive usage an unequal share in the largesses. The +free enjoyment of sumptuous baths, of good water from the Atlas, the +Apennines, or the Alban Hills, the right to sit at ease with one's fellows +when the _Pseudolus_ or the _Adelphi_ was put upon the boards, the +pleasure of strolling in the shady colonnades of the forum or the market, +surrounded by brilliant marbles and frescoes, with fountains shedding +their coolness around; the good fellowship which, for the time, levelled +all ranks, in many a simple communal feast, with a coin or two distributed +at the end to recall or heighten the pleasure--all these things tended to +make the city a true home, to some extent almost a great family circle. +There was much selfishness and grossness, no doubt, in all this civic +life. Which later age can cast the first stone? Yet a study of the +inscriptions of the Antonine age leaves the impression that, amid all the +sharply drawn distinctions of rank, with all the petty ambition and +self-assertion, or the fawning and expectant servility, there was also a +genuine patriotic benevolence on the one hand, and a grateful recognition +of it on the other. The citizens record on many a tablet their gratitude +to patron or duumvir or augustal, or to some simple old centurion, +returned from far frontier camps, who had paved their promenade, or +restored their baths, or given them a shrine of Neptune or Silvanus. They +also preserved the memory of many a kindly benefactor who left, as he +fondly thought for ever, the funds for an annual feast, with all the +graduated shares scrupulously prescribed, to save an obscure tomb from the +general oblivion. Thus, although that ancient city life had its sordid +side, which is laid bare with such pitiless Rabelaisian realism by +Petronius, it had its nobler aspect also. Notwithstanding the aristocratic +tone of municipal society in the age of the Antonines, it is possible that +the separation of classes in our great centres of population is morally +more sharp and decided than it was in the days when the gulf between +social ranks was in theory impassable. + +There is however another side to this picture of fraternal civic life. If +some of its pleasures were innocent and even softening and elevating, +there were others which pandered to the most brutal and cruel passions. +The love of amusement grew upon the Roman character as civilisation +developed in organisation and splendour, and unfortunately the favourite +amusements were often obscene and cruel. The calendar of the time is +sufficiently ominous. The number of days which were annually given up to +games and spectacles at Rome rose from 66 in the reign of Augustus, to 135 +in the reign of M. Aurelius, and to 175, or more, in the fourth century. +In this reckoning no account is taken of extraordinary festivals on +special occasions.(1326) The Flavian amphitheatre was inaugurated by Titus +with lavish exhibitions extending over 100 days.(1327) The Dacian triumphs +of Trajan were celebrated by similar rejoicings for 123 days, and 10,000 +gladiators were sent down into the arena.(1328) The rage of all classes of +the Roman populace for these sights of suffering and shame continued +unabated to the very end of the Western Empire. The lubricity of pantomime +and the slaughter of the arena were never more fiercely and keenly enjoyed +than when the Germans were thundering at the gates of Treves and +Carthage.(1329) + +It is difficult for us now to understand this lust of cruelty among a +people otherwise highly civilised, a passion which was felt not merely by +the base rabble, but even by the cultivated and humane.(1330) There was +undoubtedly at all times a coarse insensibility to suffering in the Roman +character. The institution of slavery, which involves the denial of +ordinary human rights to masses of fellow-creatures, had its usual effect +in rendering men contemptuously callous to the fate of all who did not +belong to the privileged class. Even a man of high moral tone like +Tacitus, while he condemns Drusus for gloating over his gladiatorial +shows, has only a word of scorn for the victims of the butchery.(1331) And +the appetite grew with what it fed on. From father to son, for nearly +seven centuries, the Roman character became more and more indurated under +the influence of licensed cruelty. The spectacle was also surrounded by +the emperors, even the greatest and best, for politic reasons, with ever +growing splendour. The Flavian amphitheatre, which remains as a monument +of the glory of the Empire and of its shame, must have been a powerful +corruptor. There, tier above tier, was gathered the concentrated +excitability and contagious enthusiasm of 87,000 spectators. The imperial +circle and the emperor himself, members of high senatorial houses, the +great officers of state, the priests, the vestal virgins, gave an +impressive national dignity to the inhuman spectacle. And now and then an +Eastern prince or ambassador, or the chief of some half-savage tribe in +Germany or Numidia,(1332) amused the eyes of the rabble who swarmed on the +upper benches. Every device of luxurious art was employed to heighten the +baser attractions of the scene. The magnificent pile was brightened with +gems of artistic skill.(1333) The arena was tesselated with rich colouring +from the sunlight which streamed through the awnings. The waters of +perfumed fountains shot high into the air, spreading their fragrant +coolness; and music filled the pauses in the ghastly conflict. From scenes +like these was probably drawn the picture in the Apocalypse: _Mulier +circumdata purpura et coccino--mater fornicationum--ebria de sanguine +sanctorum._ + +In the first and second centuries the passion for cruel excitement was as +strong in the provincial towns as it was even at Rome. This may have been +partly due to the monotony of provincial life. It was also stimulated by +the ease with which public sentiment extorted the means for these +gratifications from the richer citizens. The opinion of the powerful and +enlightened class, with rare exceptions, made no effort to purify and +humanise the grossness of the masses. Seneca and Demonax indeed display a +modern humanity in their view of the degrading influence of these +displays.(1334) A humane magistrate of Vienne, one Trebonius Rufinus, in +the reign of Trajan, having autocratically abolished them in his city, was +called upon to defend his conduct before the emperor, and Junius Mauricus +had the courage to express before the council a wish that they could be +abolished also at Rome.(1335) Augustus had, by an imperial edict, +restrained the cruel exhibitions of the father of Nero.(1336) Vespasian, +according to Dion Cassius,(1337) had little pleasure in the shows of the +arena. But the emperors generally, and not least Vespasian's sons, +encouraged and pandered to the lust for blood.(1338) The imperial +gladiators were organised elaborately in four great schools by +Domitian,(1339) with a regular administration, presided over by officers +of high rank. The gentle Pliny, who had personally no liking for such +spectacles, applauded his friend Maximus for giving a gladiatorial show to +the people of Verona, to do honour to his dead wife, in the true spirit of +the old Bruti and Lepidi of the age of the Punic Wars.(1340) He found in +the shows of Trajan a splendid incentive of contempt for death. + +It is little wonder that, with such examples and such approval, the masses +gloated unrestrained over these inhuman sports. The rag-dealer at +Trimalchio's dinner is certainly drawn to the life.(1341) They are going +to have a three days' carnival of blood. There is to be no escape; the +butcher is to do his work thoroughly in full view of the crowded tiers of +the amphitheatre. It was in Etruria, and in Campania, where Trimalchio had +his home, that the gladiatorial combats took their rise. Campanian hosts +used to entertain their guests at dinner with them in the days before the +second Punic War.(1342) And it was in Campanian towns that in the first +century was displayed most glaringly the not unusual combination of +cruelty and voluptuousness. The remains of Pompeii furnish us with the +most vivid and authentic materials for a study of the sporting tastes of a +provincial town. It is significant that the amphitheatre of Pompeii, which +was capable of holding 20,000 people, was built fifty years before the +first stone amphitheatre erected by Statilius Taurus at Rome.(1343) It is +also remarkable that, although Pompeii is mentioned only twice by Tacitus, +one of the references is to a bloody riot arising out of the games of the +amphitheatre.(1344) In the year 59 A.D. a Roman senator in disgrace, named +Livineius Regulus, gave a great gladiatorial show at Pompeii, which +attracted many spectators from the neighbouring town of Nuceria. The +scenes of the arena were soon reproduced in a fierce street fight between +the people of the two towns, in which many Nucerians were left dead or +wounded. The catastrophe was brought before the emperor, and referred by +him to the Senate, with the result that Pompeii was sternly deprived of +its favourite amusement for a period of ten years. But when the interdict +was removed, the Pompeians had the enjoyment of their accustomed pleasure +for ten years more, till it was finally interrupted by the ashes of +Vesuvius. + +A building at Pompeii, which was originally a colonnade connected with the +theatre,(1345) had been converted into barracks for a school of gladiators +in the time of the early Empire.(1346) Behind the colonnade of more than +seventy Doric columns had been built a long row of small cells, with no +opening except on the central enclosure. There was a mess room, and the +_exedra_ on the southern side served as a retiring room for the trainers +and the men in the intervals of exercise. The open area was used for +practice. These buildings have yielded many specimens of gladiators' arms, +helmets, and greaves richly embossed in relief, scores of mail-coats, +shields, and horse-trappings. In one room there were found the stocks, and +four skeletons with irons on their legs. In another, eighteen persons had +taken refuge in the last catastrophe, and, among them, a woman wearing +costly jewels. The walls and columns were covered with inscriptions and +rude sketches of gladiatorial life. Indeed the graffiti relating to it are +perhaps the most interesting in Pompeii. On some of the tombs outside the +city we can still read the notices of coming games, painted on the walls +by a professional advertiser, one Aemilius Celer, "by the light of the +moon."(1347) They announce that a duumvir or aedile or flamen will exhibit +twenty or thirty pairs of combatants on the calends of May or the ides of +April. There will also be a hunt, athletic games, a distribution of gifts, +and awnings will be provided. Programmes were for sale in advance, with a +list of the events. The contents of one can still be read scratched on a +wall, with marginal notes of the results of the competition. In one +conflict, Pugnax, in the Thracian arms, had beaten Murranus the Myrmillo, +fighting in the arms of Gaul, with the fish upon his helmet; and the fate +of Murranus is chronicled in one tragic letter p. (_periit_). Two others +fought in chariots in old British fashion. And the Publius Ostorius who +won was, as his name may suggest, a freedman, now fighting as a voluntary +combatant, according to the inscription, in his fifty-first +conflict.(1348) The tomb of Umbricius Scaurus, on the highway outside the +Herculaneum gate, was adorned in stucco relief with animated scenes from +the arena of hunting and battle. Hunters with sword and cloak, like a +modern toreador, are engaging lions or tigers. Two gladiators are charging +one another on horseback. Here, a vanquished combatant, with upturned +hand, is imploring the pity of the spectators, while another is sinking in +the agony of death upon the sand. The name, the school, and the fighting +history of each combatant are painted beside the figure.(1349) The +universal enthusiasm for the shows is expressed in many a rude sketch +which has been traced by boyish hands upon the walls. The record of the +heroes of the arena was evidently then as familiar as that of a champion +footballer or cricketer is now to our own sporting youth. In the peristyle +of a house in Nola Street, the names of some thirty gladiators can be +read, with the character of their arms and the number of their conflicts. +Portraits of gladiators are figured on lamps and rings and vases of the +period. The charm of their manly strength, according to Juvenal, was fatal +to the peace of many a Roman matron of the great world. And the humbler +girls of Pompeii have left the memorial of their weakness in more than one +frank outburst of rather unmaidenly admiration.(1350) + +It is a grave deduction from the admiring judgment of the glory of the +Antonine age, that its most splendid remains are the stately buildings +within whose enclosure, for centuries, the populace were regaled with the +sufferings and the blood of the noblest creatures of the wild animal world +and of gallant men. The deserts and forests of Africa and the remotest +East contributed their elephants and panthers and lions to these scenes. +And every province of the Empire sent its contingent of recruits for the +arena, Gaul, Germany, and Thrace, Britain and Dacia, the villages of the +Atlas, and the deserts of the Soudan.(1351) Just in proportion to the +depth of the impress made by Roman civilisation, was the amphitheatre more +or less popular in the provinces. In Italy itself the passion was +naturally strongest. Quiet little places, buried in the Apennines, or in +the mountains of Samnium, had their regular spectacles, and record their +gratitude for the pleasure to some magistrate or patron.(1352) The little +town of Fidenae, in the reign of Tiberius, gained for a moment a sinister +fame by the collapse of its amphitheatre, involving the death or +mutilation of 50,000 spectators.(1353) An augustal of Praeneste endowed +his town with a school of gladiators, and received a statue for this +contribution to the pleasures of the populace.(1354) A. Clodius Flaccus of +Pompeii, in his first duumvirate, on the Apollinaria, gave an exhibition +in the forum of bull-fighting, pugilism, and pantomime. He signalised his +second tenure of the office by a show of thirty-five pairs of gladiators, +with a hunting scene of bulls, boars, and bears.(1355) At Minturnae, a +monument reminds "the excellent citizens" that, in a show lasting for four +days, eleven of the foremost of Campanian gladiators had died before their +eyes, along with ten ferocious bears.(1356) At Compsa in Samnium, a place +hardly ever heard of, the common people erected a statue to a priest of +Magna Mater, who had given them a splendid show, and he in turn rewarded +their gratitude by a feast to both sexes, which lasted over two +days.(1357) Similar records of misplaced munificence might be produced +from Bovianum and Beneventum, from Tibur and Perusia, and many another +obscure Italian town. But the brutal insensibility of the age is perhaps +nowhere so glaringly paraded as in the days following the short-lived +victory of the Vitellian arms at Bedriacum. There, on that ghastly plain, +on which his rival had been crushed and had closed a tainted life by a not +inglorious death, Vitellius gloated over the wreck of the great struggle. +The trees were cut down, the crops trampled into mire; the soil was soaked +and festering with blood, while mangled forms of men and horses still lay +rotting till the vultures should complete their obsequies. Within forty +days of the battle, the emperor attended great gladiatorial combats given +by his generals at Cremona and Bononia, as if to revive the memory of the +carnage by a cruel mimicry.(1358) The grim literary avenger of that +carnival of blood has pictured the imperial monster's end, within a short +space, in colours that will never fade, deserted by his meanest servants, +shuddering at the ghastly terrors of the vast, silent solitudes of the +palace, dragged forth from his hiding, and flung with insults and +execrations down the Gemonian Stairs. The dying gladiator of Cremona was +more than avenged.(1359) + +The western provinces bordering on the Mediterranean, Gaul, Spain, and +Africa, drank deepest of the spirit which created the great amphitheatres +of Arles, Treves, and Carthage, Placentia and Verona, of Puteoli, Pompeii, +and Capua. But the East caught the infection, and gladiatorial combats +were held at Antioch in Pisidia, at Nysa in Caria, and at Laodicea; +Alexandria had its amphitheatre from the days of Augustus, and a school of +gladiators, presided over by a high imperial officer.(1360) The Teutonic +regions of the north and Greece were almost the only provinces in which +the bloody games were not popular. The one Greek town where the taste for +them was fully developed was the mongrel city of Corinth, which was a +Roman colony. In the novel of Apuleius we meet a high Corinthian +magistrate travelling through Thessaly to collect the most famous +gladiators for his shows.(1361) Yet even in Greece, even at Athens, which +had been the home of kindly pity from the days of Theseus, the cruel +passion was spreading in the days of the Antonines. Plutarch urges public +men to banish or to restrain these exhibitions in their cities.(1362) When +the Athenians, from an ambition to rival the splendour of Corinth, were +meditating the establishment of a gladiatorial show, the gentle Demonax +bade them first to overturn their altar of Pity.(1363) The apostles of +Hellenism, Dion, Plutarch, and Lucian, were unanimous in condemning an +institution which sacrificed the bravest men to the brutal passions of the +mob. + +The games of the arena were sometimes held at the expense of the +municipality on great festivals, with a public officer, bearing the title +of _curator_,(1364) to direct them. But, perhaps more frequently, they +were given by great magistrates or priests at their own expense; or some +rich _parvenu_, like the cobbler of Bologna or the fuller of Modena, who +have been ridiculed by Martial, would try by such a display to force an +entrance into the guarded enclosure of Roman rank.(1365) There were also +frequent bequests to create a permanent agonistic foundation. The most +striking example of such a legacy is to be found on an inscription in +honour of a munificent duumvir of Pisaurum. He left a capital sum of more +than L10,000 to the community. The interest on two-fifths of this bequest, +perhaps amounting to L500, was to be spent in giving a general feast on +the birthday of the founder's son. The accumulated interest of the +remaining three-fifths, amounting, perhaps, to L4000, was to be devoted to +a quinquennial exhibition of gladiators.(1366) An aedile in Petronius is +going to spend between L3000 and L4000 on a three days' show.(1367) The +cost of these exhibitions, however, must have widely varied. We hear of +one in the second century B.C. which cost over L7000.(1368) The number of +pairs engaged appears from the inscriptions to have ranged from five to +thirty. The shows lasted from one to as many as eight days.(1369) And the +quality of the combatants was also very various. Tiberius once recalled +some finished veterans from their retirement at a fee of about L800 +each.(1370) On the other hand, a grumbler at Trimalchio's dinner sneers at +a stingy aedile, whose gladiators were "two-penny men," whom you might +knock over with a breath.(1371) Besides the great imperial schools at +Praeneste, Capua, or Alexandria, and the "families" maintained at all +times by some of the great nobles, there were vagrant troops, kept up by +speculative trainers for hire, such as that gang into which Vitellius sold +his troublesome minion Asiaticus.(1372) + +The profession of gladiator was long regarded as a tainted one, on which +social sentiment and law alike placed their ban. It was a calling which +included the vilest or the most unfortunate of mankind. Slaves, captives +in war, or criminals condemned for serious offences, recruited its +ranks.(1373) The death in the arena was thus often, really, a deferred +punishment for crime. But even from the later days of the Republic, men of +free birth were sometimes attracted by the false glory or the solid +rewards of the profession. Freedmen sometimes fought at the call of their +patrons.(1374) And, when Septimius Severus began to recruit the Pretorian +guard from the provinces, the youth of Italy, who had long enjoyed the +monopoly of that pampered corps, satisfied their combative or predatory +instincts by joining the ranks either of the gladiators or of the +brigands.(1375) The gladiator had, indeed, to submit to fearful perils and +a cruel discipline. His oath bound him to endure unflinchingly scourging, +burning, or death.(1376) His barracks were a closely guarded prison, and, +although his fare was necessarily good, his training was entirely directed +to the production of a fine fighting animal, who would give good sport in +the arena. Yet the profession must have had some powerful attractions. +Some of the emperors,(1377) Titus and Hadrian, themselves took a pleasure +in the gladiatorial exercises. Commodus, as if to confirm the scandal +about his parentage, actually descended into the arena,(1378) and imperial +example was followed by men of high rank, and even, according to the +satirist, by matronly viragoes.(1379) The splendour of the arms, the +ostentatious pomp of the scene of combat, the applause of thousands of +spectators on the crowded benches, the fascination of danger, all this +invested the cruel craft with a false glory.(1380) The mob of all ages are +ready to make a hero of the man who can perform rare feats of physical +strength or agility. And the skilful gladiator evidently became a hero +under the early Empire, like his colleague of the red or green. His +professional record was of public interest; the number of his combats and +his victories was inscribed upon his tomb.(1381) His name and his features +were scratched by boys on the street walls. He attracted the unconcealed, +and not always discreet, admiration of women,(1382) and his praise was +sung in classic verse, as his pathetic dignity in death has been +immortalised in marble. The memories of a nobler life of freedom sometimes +drove the slave of the arena to suicide or mutiny.(1383) But he was +oftener proud of his skill and courage, and eager to display them. When +shows were rare in the reign of Tiberius, a Myrmillo was heard to lament +that the years of his glorious prime were running to waste.(1384) +Epictetus says that the imperial gladiators were often heard praying for +the hour of conflict.(1385) + +Great imperial schools were organised on the strictest military +principles, and were under the command of a procurator who had often held +high office in the provinces or the army.(1386) Each school had attached +to it a staff of masseurs, surgeon-dressers, and physicians to attend to +the general health of the members. There were various grades according to +skill or length of service, and a man might rise in the end to be trainer +of a troop. Gladiators, like all other callings in the second century, had +their colleges. We have the roll of one of these, in the year 177 A.D., a +college of Silvanus.(1387) The members are divided into three decuries, +evidently according to professional rank, and their names and arms are +also given. Their comrades often erected monuments to them with a list of +their achievements. Thus a dear companion-in-arms commemorates a young +Secutor at Panormus, who died in his thirtieth year, who had fought in +thirty-four combats, and in twenty-one came off victorious.(1388) + +Our authorities do not often permit us to follow the gladiator into +retirement. The stern discipline of the _Ludus_ no doubt made better men +even of those condemned to it for grievous crimes. The inscriptions +contain a few brief records of their family life, which seems to have been +as natural and affectionate as that of any other class; wives and +daughters lamenting good husbands and fathers in the usual phrases, and +fathers in turn mourning innocent young lives, cut short by the cruelty of +the gods.(1389) Sometimes the veteran gladiator might be tempted to return +to the old scenes for a high fee, or he might become a trainer in one of +the schools.(1390) His son might rise even to knightly rank;(1391) but the +career of ambition was closed to himself by the taint of a profession +which the people found indispensable to their pleasures, and which they +loaded with contempt. + +The inscriptions pay all honour to the voluntary, single-minded generosity +with which men bore costly charges, and gave time and effort to the +business of the city. But there was a tendency to treat public +benefactions as the acknowledgment of a debt, a return for civic honours. +We can sometimes even see that the gift was extorted by the urgency of the +people, in some cases even by menaces and force.(1392) The cities took +advantage of the general passion for place and social precedence, and, +often from sordid motives, crowded their curial lists with _patroni_ and +persons decorated with other honorary distinctions. On the famous roll of +the council of Canusium, out of a total of 164 members, there are 39 +_patroni_ of senatorial or knightly rank, and 25 _praetextati_, mere boys, +who were almost certainly of the same aristocratic class, and were +probably destined to be future patrons of the town.(1393) In the desire to +secure the support of wealth and social prestige, the municipal law as to +the age for magisterial office was frequently disregarded, and even mere +infants were sometimes raised to the highest civic honours.(1394) The +position of patron seems to have been greatly prized, as it was heavily +paid for. A great man with a liberal soul might be patron of several +towns,(1395) and sometimes women of rank had the honour conferred on +them.(1396) The _ornamenta_ or external badges of official rank were +frequently bestowed on people who were not eligible by law for the +magistracy. A resident alien (_incola_), or an augustal, might be co-opted +into the "splendid order" of the Curia, or he might be allowed to wear its +badges, or those of some office which he could not actually hold.(1397) +But it is plain that such distinctions had to be purchased or repaid. The +city seldom made any other return for generous devotion, unless it were +the space for a grave or the pageant of a public funeral. It is true that +a generous benefactor or magistrate is frequently honoured with a statue +and memorial tablet. Indeed, the honour is so frequently bestowed that it +seems to dwindle to an infinitesimal value.(1398) And it is to our eyes +still further reduced by the agreeable convention which seems to have made +it a matter of good taste that the person so distinguished by his +fellow-citizens should bear the expense of the record himself!(1399) Nor +did the expectations of the grateful public end even there; for, at the +dedication of the monument, it was seemingly imperative to give a feast to +the generous community which allowed or required its benefactor to bear +the cost of the memorial of his own munificence.(1400) It is only fair, +however, to say that this civic meanness was not universal, and that there +are records to show that even the poorest class sometimes subscribed among +themselves to pay for the honour which they proposed to confer.(1401) + +The Antonine age was an age of splendid public spirit and great material +achievement. But truth compels us to recognise that even in the age of the +Antonines, there were ominous signs of moral and administrative decay. +Municipal benefactors were rewarded with local fame and lavish flattery; +but the demands of the populace, together with the force of example and +emulation, contributed to make the load which the rich had to bear more +and more heavy. Many must have ruined themselves in their effort to hold +their place, and to satisfy an exacting public sentiment. Men actually +went into debt to do so;(1402) and as municipal life became less +attractive or more burdensome, the career of imperial office opened out +and offered far higher distinction. The reorganisation of the imperial +service by Hadrian had immense effects in diverting ambition from old +channels. It created a great hierarchy of office, which absorbed the best +ability from the provinces. Provincials of means and position were +constantly visiting the capital for purposes of private business or +pleasure, or to represent their city as envoys to the emperor. They often +made powerful friends during their stay, and their sons, if not they +themselves, were easily tempted to abandon a municipal career for the +prospect of a high place in the imperial army or the civil service.(1403) +It is true that the local tie often remained unbroken. The country town, +of course, was proud of the distinction to which its sons rose in the +great world; and many a one who had gained a knighthood or some military +rank, returned to his birthplace in later years, and was enrolled among +its patrons. We may be sure that many a successful man, like the Stertinii +of Naples, paid "nurture fees" in the most generous way. But already in +the reign of Domitian, as we have seen, legal provision had to be made for +the contingency of an insufficient number of candidates for the municipal +magistracies. Already, in the reign of Trajan, the cities of Bithynia are +compelling men to become members of the Curia, and lowering the age of +admission to official rank.(1404) Plutarch laments that many provincials +are turning their backs on their native cities and suing for lucrative +offices at the doors of great Roman patrons.(1405) Apollonius of Tyana was +indignant to find citizens of Ionia, at one of their great festivals, +masquerading in Roman names.(1406) The illustrious son of Chaeronea, with +a wistful backward glance at the freedom and the glories of the Periclean +age, frankly recognises that, under the shadow of the Roman power, the +civic horizon has drawn in.(1407) It is a very different thing to hold +even the highest magistracy at Thebes or Athens from what it was in the +great days of Salamis or Leuctra. But Plutarch accepts the Empire as +inevitable. He appreciates its blessings as much as Aristides or Dion +Chrysostom. He has none of the revolutionary rage which led Apollonius to +cast reproaches at Vespasian, or to boast of his complicity in the +overthrow of Nero.(1408) He has little sympathy with philosophers like +Epictetus, who would sink the interests of everyday politics in the larger +life of the universal commonwealth of humanity. The Empire has +extinguished much of civic glory and freedom, but let us recognise its +compensating blessings of an ordered peace. _Spartam nactus es, hanc +exorna_, might be the motto of Plutarch's political counsels. He himself, +with a range of gifts and culture, which has made his name immortal, did +not disdain to hold a humble office in the poor little place which was his +home. And he appeals to the example of Epameinondas, who gave dignity to +the magistracy which was concerned with the duty of the cleansing of the +sewers and streets of Thebes.(1409) He tells his young pupil that, +although we have now no wars to wage, no alliances to conclude, we may +wage war on some evil custom, revive some charitable institution, repair +an aqueduct, or preside at a sacrifice. Yet Plutarch has a keen insight +into the municipal vices of his age, the passion for place and office, the +hot unscrupulous rivalry which will stoop to any demagogic arts, the +venality of the crowd, and the readiness of the rich to pamper them with +largesses and shows, the insane passion for pompous decrees of thanks and +memorial statues; above all, the eager servility which abandoned even the +poor remnant of municipal liberty, and was always inviting the +interference of the prince on the most trivial occasions.(1410) Such +appeals paralyse civic energy and hasten the inevitable drift of +despotism. He exhorts men to strive by every means to raise the tone of +their own community, instead of forsaking it in fastidious scorn, or +ambition for a more spacious and splendid life. + +The growing distaste for municipal honours was to some extent caused by +bureaucratic encroachments on the independence of the Curia. As early as +the reign of Trajan there are unmistakable signs, as we have seen, of +financial mismanagement and decay. The case of Bithynia, in Trajan's +reign, is sometimes treated as an exceptional one. It may be doubted +whether it is not a conspicuous example of general disorganisation. The +Bithynian towns were probably not alone in their ill-considered +expenditure on faultily planned aqueducts and theatres. Apamea was +certainly not the only city which called for an imperial auditor of its +accounts. Inscriptions of the reign of Trajan show that many towns in +Italy, Como, Canusium, Praeneste, Pisa, Bergamum, and Caere, had curators +of their administration appointed, some as early as the reigns of Hadrian +or Trajan.(1411) These officers, who were always unconnected with the +municipality, took over the financial control, which had previously +belonged to the duumvirs and quaestors. They were often senators or +equites of high rank, and a single curator sometimes had the supervision +of several municipalities. The case of Caere is peculiarly instructive and +interesting.(1412) There, an imperial freedman, named Vesbinus, proposed +to erect at his own cost a club-house (_phretrium_), for the augustales, +and asked the municipal authorities for a site close to the basilica. At a +formal meeting of the Curia, the ground was granted to him, subject to the +approval of Curiatius Cosanus, the curator, with a vote of thanks for his +liberality. A letter to that official was drawn up, stating the whole +case, and asking for his sanction. The curator, writing from Ameria, +granted it in the most cordial terms. It is noteworthy that at the very +time when Caere was consulting its curator about the proposal of +Vesbinus,(1413) the Bithynian cities were laying bare their financial and +engineering difficulties to Pliny and Trajan. The glory of free civic life +is already on the wane. The municipality has invited or submitted to +imperial control. The burdens of office have begun to outweigh its glory +and distinction. In a generation or two the people will have lost their +elective power, and the Curia will appoint the municipal officers from its +own ranks. It will end by becoming a mere administrative machine for +levying the imperial taxes; men will fly from its crushing obligations to +any refuge; and the flight of the curiales will be as momentous as the +coming of the Goths.(1414) + +The judgment on that externally splendid city life of the Antonine age +will be determined by the ideals of the inquirer. There was a genuine love +of the common home, a general pride in its splendour and distinction. And +the duty, firmly imposed by public sentiment on the well-endowed to +contribute out of their abundance to its material comfort and its glory, +was freely accepted and lavishly performed. Nor was this expenditure all +devoted to mere selfish gratification. The helplessness of orphanhood and +age, the penury and monotonous dulness of the lives of great sunken +classes, the education of the young, were drawing forth the pity of the +charitable. Munificence was often indeed, in obedience to the sentiment of +the time, wasted on objects which were unworthy, or even to our minds base +and corrupting. Men seemed to think too much of feasting and the cruel +amusement of an hour. Yet when a whole commune was regaled at the +dedication of a bath or a temple, there was a healthy social sympathy +diffused for the moment through all ranks, which softened the hard lines +by which that ancient society was parted. + +Yet, in looking back, we cannot help feeling that over all this scene of +kindliness and generosity and social good-will, there broods a shadow. It +is not merely the doom of free civic life, which is so clearly written on +the walls of every curial hall of assembly from the days of Trajan, to be +fulfilled in the long-drawn tragedy of the fourth and fifth centuries; +three hundred years have still to run before the inevitable catastrophe. +It is rather the feeling which seems to lurk under many a sentence, half +pitiful, half contemptuous, of M. Aurelius, penned, perhaps, as he looked +down on some gorgeous show in the amphitheatre, when the Numidian lion was +laid low by a deft stroke of the hunting-spear, or a gallant Myrmillo from +the Thames or the Danube sank upon the sand in his last conflict.(1415) It +is the feeling of Dion, when he watched the Alexandrians palpitating with +excitement over a race in the circus, or the cities of Bithynia convulsed +by some question of shadowy precedence or the claim to a line of +sandhills. It is the swiftly stealing shadow of that mysterious eclipse +which was to rest on intellect and literature till the end of the Western +Empire. It is the burden of all religious philosophy from Seneca to +Epictetus, which was one long warning against the perils of a materialised +civilisation. The warning of the pagan preacher was little heeded; the +lesson was not learnt in time. Is it possible that a loftier spiritual +force may find itself equally helpless to arrest a strangely similar +decline? + + + + + CHAPTER III + + + THE COLLEGES AND PLEBEIAN LIFE + + +The _Populus_ or _Plebs_ of a municipal town of the early Empire is often +mentioned in the inscriptions along with the _Ordo_ and the Augustales, +generally in demanding some benefaction, or in doing honour to some +benevolent patron.(1416) They also appear as recipients of a smaller share +at public feasts and distributions. They occasionally engage in a fierce +conflict with the higher orders, as at Puteoli in the reign of Nero, when +the discord was so menacing as to call for the presence of a praetorian +cohort.(1417) The election placards of Pompeii also disclose a keen +popular interest in the municipal elections.(1418) But the common people +are now as a rule chiefly known to us from the inscriptions on their +tombs. Fortunately there is an immense profusion, in all the provinces as +well as in Italy, of these brief memorials of obscure lives. And although +Roman literature, which was the product of the aristocratic class or of +their dependents, generally pays but little attention to the despised mass +engaged in menial services or petty trades, we have seen that the novel of +Petronius flashes a brilliant light upon it in the reign of Nero. + +The immense development of the free proletariat, in the time of the early +Empire, is one of the most striking social phenomena which the study of +the inscriptions has brought to light. It has sometimes been the custom to +speak of that society as depending for the supply of its wants entirely on +slave labour. And undoubtedly at one time slave labour occupied the +largest part of the field of industry. A household in the time of the +Republic, of even moderate wealth, might have 400 slaves, while a Crassus +would have as many as 20,000, whom he hired out in various +industries.(1419) But several causes conspired gradually to work a great +industrial revolution. From the days of Augustus, the wars beyond the +frontier, which added fresh territory and yielded crowds of captives to +the slave-markets, had become less frequent. And it is probable that +births among the slave class hardly sufficed to maintain its numbers +against the depletion caused by mortality and manumission. The practice of +emancipating slaves of the more intelligent class went on so rapidly that +it had even to be restrained by law.(1420) Masters found it economically +profitable to give skilful slaves an interest in the profits of their +industry, and the _peculium_, which was thus accumulated, soon provided +the means of purchasing emancipation. At the same time, the dispersion of +colossal fortunes, gained in the age of rapine and conquest, and +squandered in luxury and excess, together with the exploitation of the +resources of favoured regions, which were now enjoying the blessings of +unimpeded commerce, rapid intercommunication, and perfect security, must +have given an immense stimulus to free industry. A very casual glance at +the inscriptions, under the heading _Artes et Opificia_,(1421) will show +the enormous and flourishing development of skilled handicrafts, with all +the minutest specialisation of the arts that wait on a highly-organised +and luxurious society. The epitaphs of these obscure toilers have been +brought to light in every part of the Roman world, in remote towns in +Spain, Gaul, Noricum, Dacia, and North Africa, as well as in the ancient +centres of refinement in Italy or the Greek East. On a single page or two +you can read the simple record of the bridle-maker or flask-maker of +Narbonne, the cabriolet-driver of Senegallia, the cooper of Treves, the +stone-cutter of Nimes, the purple-dealer of Augsburg, beside those of the +wool-comber of Brescia, the oculist of Bologna, the plumber of Naples, or +the vendors of unguents in the Via Sacra, and the humble fruiterer of the +Circus Maximus.(1422) Many of these people had risen from slavery into the +freedman class. Most of them are evidently humble folk, although, like a +certain female pearl-dealer of the Via Sacra, they may have freedmen and +freedwomen of their own, for whom they provide a last resting-place beside +themselves.(1423) The barber, or auctioneer, or leather-seller, who had +become the owner of lands and houses, and who could even give gladiatorial +shows, excited the contempt of Juvenal and Martial.(1424) But these +insignificant people, although despised by the old world of aristocratic +tradition, were proud of their crafts. They tell posterity who and what +they were, without any vulgar concealment; nay, they have left expensive +tombs, with the emblems or instruments of their petty trades proudly +blazoned upon them like the armorial devices of our families of gentle +birth. In the museum of S. Germain may be seen the effigy of the +apple-seller commending his fruit to the attention of the ladies of the +quarter; the cooper, with a cask upon his shoulder; the smith, hammer in +hand, at the forge; the fuller, treading out and dressing the cloth.(1425) +This pride in honest industry is a new and healthy sign, as a reaction +from the contempt for it which was engrained in old Roman society, and +which is always congenial to an aristocratic caste supported by slave +labour. In spite of the grossness and base vulgarity of sudden wealth, +portrayed by Petronius and Juvenal, the new class of free artisans and +traders had often, so far as we can judge by stone records, a sound and +healthy life, sobered and dignified by honest toil, and the pride of skill +and independence. Individually weak and despised, they were finding the +means of developing an organisation, which at once cultivated social +feeling, heightened their self-respect, and guarded their collective +interests. While the old aristocracy were being rapidly thinned by vice +and extravagance, or by confiscation, the leaders of the new industrial +movement probably founded many a senatorial house, which, in the fourth +and fifth centuries, in an ever-recurring fashion, came to regard manual +industry with sublime contempt, and traced themselves to Aemilius Paullus +or Scipio, or even to Aeneas or Agamemnon.(1426) + +The organisation of industry through the colleges attained an immense +development in the Antonine age, and still more in the third century, +after the definite sanction and encouragement given to these societies by +Alexander Severus. The records of the movement are numerous, and we can, +after the scholarly sifting of recent years, now form a tolerably complete +and vivid conception of these corporations which, springing up at first +spontaneously, in defiance of government, or with its reluctant +connivance, were destined, under imperial control, to petrify into an +intolerable system of caste servitude in the last century of the Empire of +the West.(1427) + +The sodalitia and collegia were of immemorial antiquity. Certain +industrial colleges and sacred sodalities were traced back to Numa, and +even to the foundation of Rome.(1428) In the flourishing days of the +Republic they multiplied without restraint or suspicion, the only +associations at which the law looked askance being those which met +secretly or by night. It was only in the last century of the Republic that +the colleges came to be regarded as dangerous to the public peace, and +they were, with some necessary exceptions, suppressed by a decree of the +Senate in 64 B.C. They were revived again for factious or revolutionary +purposes in 58 B.C. by Clodius.(1429) The emperors Julius and Augustus +abolished the free right of association, except in the case of a few +consecrated by their antiquity or their religious character.(1430) And it +was enacted that new colleges could not be created without special +authorisation. In the middle of the second century, the jurist Gaius lays +it down that the formation of new colleges was restrained by laws, decrees +of the Senate, and imperial constitutions, although a certain number of +societies, both in Rome and the provinces, such as those of the miners, +salt workers, bakers, and boatmen, were authorised.(1431) And down to the +time of Justinian, the right of free association was jealously watched as +a possible menace to the public peace. The refusal of Trajan to sanction +the formation of a company of firemen in Nicomedia, with the reasons which +he gave to Pliny for his decision, furnishes the best concrete +illustration of the imperial policy towards the colleges.(1432) That the +danger from the colleges to the public order was not an imaginary one, is +clear from the passage in Tacitus describing the bloody riots between the +people of Nuceria and Pompeii in the reign of Nero, which had evidently +been fomented by "illicit" clubs.(1433) It is seen even more strikingly in +the serious troubles of the reign of Aurelian, when 7000 people were +killed in the organised outbreak of the workmen of the mint.(1434) Yet it +is pretty clear that, in spite of legislation, and imperial distrust, the +colleges were multiplying, not only in Rome, but in remote, insignificant +places, and even in the camps, from which the legislator was specially +determined to avert their temptations. In the blank wilderness, created by +a universal despotism, the craving for sympathy and mutual succour +inspired a great social movement, which legislation was powerless to +check. Just as in the reigns of Theodosius and Honorius, imperial edicts +and rescripts were paralysed by the impalpable, quietly irresistible force +of a universal social need or sentiment. One simple means of evasion was +provided by the government itself, probably as early as the first century. +In an inscription of Lanuvium, of the year 136 A.D., there is a recital of +a decree of the Senate according the right of association to those who +wish to form a funerary college, provided the members did not meet more +than once a month to make their contributions.(1435) It appears from +Marcian's reference to this law that other meetings for purposes of +religious observance might be held, the provisions of the +_senatusconsultum_ against illicit colleges being carefully +observed.(1436) Mommsen has shown that many other pious and charitable +purposes could be easily brought within the scope of the funerary +association. And it was not difficult for a society which desired to make +a monthly contribution for any purpose to take the particular form +recognised by the law. In the reign of M. Aurelius, although membership of +two colleges is still prohibited, the colleges obtained the legal right to +receive bequests, and to emancipate their slaves. And finally, Alexander +Severus organised all the industrial colleges and assigned them +_defensores_.(1437) + +The law against illicit associations, with all its serious penalties, +remained in the imperial armoury. But the Empire, which had striven to +prevent combination, really furnished the greatest incentive to combine. +In the face of that world-wide and all-powerful system, the individual +subject felt, ever more and more, his loneliness and helplessness. The +imperial power might be well-meaning and beneficent, but it was so +terrible and levelling in the immense sweep of its forces, that the +isolated man seemed, in its presence, reduced to the insignificance of an +insect or a grain of sand. Moreover, the aristocratic constitution of +municipal society became steadily more and more exclusive. If the rich +decurions catered for the pleasures of the people, it was on the condition +that they retained their monopoly of political power and social +precedence. The plebeian crowd, recruited from the ranks of slavery, and +ever growing in numbers and, in their higher ranks, in wealth, did not +indeed dream of breaking down these barriers of exclusiveness; but they +claimed, and quietly asserted, the right to organise a society of their +own, for protection against oppression, for mutual sympathy and support, +for relief from the deadly dulness of an obscure and sordid life. +Individually weak and despised, they might, by union, gain a sense of +collective dignity and strength. To our eyes, as perhaps to the eyes of +the Roman aristocrat, the dignity might seem far from imposing. But these +things are greatly a matter of imagination, and depend on the breadth of +the mental horizon. When the brotherhood, many of them of servile grade, +met in full conclave, in the temple of their patron deity, to pass a +formal decree of thanks to a benefactor, and regale themselves with a +modest repast, or when they passed through the streets and the forum with +banners flying, and all the emblems of their guild, the meanest member +felt himself lifted for the moment above the dim, hopeless obscurity of +plebeian life. + +No small part of old Roman piety consisted in a scrupulous reverence for +the dead, and a care to prolong their memory by solid memorial and solemn +ritual, it might be to maintain some faint tie of sympathy with the shade +which had passed into a dim and rather cheerless world. The conception of +that other state was always vague, often purely negative. It is not often +that a spirit is sped on its way to join a loved one in the Elysian +fields, and we may fear that such phrases, when they do occur, are rather +literary and conventional.(1438) The hope of blessed reunion after death +seldom meets us till we come to some monument of a Christian +freedman.(1439) But two of the deepest feelings in the Roman mind did duty +for a clear faith in the life beyond the tomb: one was family piety, the +other the passionate desire of the parting spirit to escape neglect and +oblivion. Whoever will cast his eyes over some pages of the sepulchral +inscriptions will be struck with the intensity and warmth of affection, +the bitterness of loss and grief, which have been committed to the stone. +The expressions, of course, are often conventional, like obituary +memorials in every age. The model wife appears again and again, loving, +chaste, pious, a woman of the antique model, a keeper at home, who spun +among her maids and suckled her own children, who never gave her husband a +moment's vexation, except when she died.(1440) Good husbands seem to have +been not less common. And the wife's grief sometimes far outruns the +regular forms of eulogy or regret. In one pathetic memorial of a union +formed in earliest youth, the lonely wife begs the unseen Powers to let +her have the vision of her spouse in the hours of night, and bring her +quickly to his side.(1441) There is just the same pure affection in the +less regular, but often as stable, unions of the slaves and soldiers, and +the _contubernalis_ is lamented with the same honourable affection as the +great lady, although the faulty Latin sometimes betrays the class to which +the author belongs. The slave world must always have its shame and +tragedy; yet many an inscription shows, by a welcome gleam of light, that +even there human love and ties of family were not always desecrated.(1442) +The slave nurse erects a monument to her little foster child; or a master +and mistress raise an affectionate memorial to two young _vernae_ who died +on one day. A freedman bewails, with warm sincerity, a friendship begun in +the slave market, and never interrupted till the last fatal hour.(1443) +The common tragedies of affection meet us on these slabs, as they are +reproduced from age to age with little variation. The prevalent note is, +_Vale vale in aeternum_, with thoughts of the ghostly ferryman and the +infernal stream and hopeless separation. Now and then, but seldom, a soul +passes cheerfully from the light which it has loved, happy to escape the +burden of old age.(1444) And sometimes, too, but seldom, we meet with a +cold, hard grossness, which looks back with perfect content upon a full +life of the flesh and takes the prospect of nothingness with a cheerful +acquiescence.(1445) + +The true Roman had a horror of the loneliness of death, of the day when no +kindly eye would read his name and style upon the slab, when no hand for +evermore would bring the annual offering of wine and flowers. It is +pathetic to see how universal is the craving to be remembered felt even by +slaves, by men plying the most despised or unsavoury crafts. The infant +Julius Diadumenus, who has only drawn breath for four hours, receives an +enduring memorial. A wife consoles her grief with the thought that her +husband's name and fame will be forever prolonged by the slab which she +dedicates.(1446) On another monument the traveller along the Flaminian Way +is begged to stop and read again the epitaph on a boy of nine.(1447) Many +are tortured by the fear of the desertion or the violation of their +"eternal home." An old veteran bequeaths from his savings a sum of about +L80, to provide a supply of oil for the lamp above his tomb.(1448) An +unguent seller of Montferrat leaves a fine garden to afford to the +guardians of his grave an annual feast upon his birthday, and the roses +which are to be laid upon it for ever.(1449) Many a prayer, by the gods of +the upper and the lower worlds, appeals to the passing wayfarer not to +disturb the eternal rest.(1450) The alienation or desecration of a tomb is +forbidden with curses or the threat of heavy penalties.(1451) A place of +burial was a coveted possession, which was not easily attainable by the +poor and friendless, and practical persons guarded their repose against +lawless intrusion by requiring the delinquent to pay a heavy fine to the +municipal or to the imperial treasury, or to the pontifical college. It +was the most effectual way of securing the peace of the dead. For the +public authorities had a direct pecuniary interest in enforcing the +penalty for the desecration. But it would be interesting to know how long +these provisions to protect for ever the peace of the departed fulfilled +the hopes of the testator. + +The primary object of a multitude of colleges, like that of the +worshippers of Diana and Antinous at Lanuvium, was undoubtedly, after the +reign of Nerva, the care of the memory of their members after death. In +the remarkable inscription of Lanuvium, as we have seen, the formal +permission by decree of the Senate, to meet once a month for the purpose +of a funerary contribution is recorded.(1452) It was a momentous +concession, and carried consequences which the legislator may or may not +have intended.(1453) The jurist Marcian, who gives an imperfect citation +of this part of the decree, goes on to add, that meetings for a religious +purpose were not prohibited, provided that the previous legislation +against illicit societies was observed.(1454) And the law of the Lanuvian +College shows how often such meetings might take place. It did not need +much ingenuity to multiply occasions for reunion. The anniversary of the +foundation, the birthday of founders or benefactors, the feast of the +patron deity, the birthday of the emperor, these and the like occasions +furnished legal pretexts for meetings of the society, when the members +might have a meal together, and when the conversation would not always be +confined to the funerary business of the college. At a time when, +according to juristic theory, a special permission was needed for each new +foundation, and when the authority was grudgingly accorded, the whole vast +plebeian mass of petty traders, artisans, freedmen, and slaves were at one +stroke allowed to organise their societies for burial. We may fairly +assume that, liberally interpreted, the new law was allowed to cover with +its sanction many a college of which funeral rites were not the sole, or +even the primary object. And this would be made all the easier because +many of the industrial colleges, and perhaps still more of the strictly +religious colleges, had a common burial-place, and often received bequests +for funerary purposes. This is the case, for example, with a college of +worshippers of Hercules at Interamna, and a similar college at +Reate.(1455) A young Belgian, belonging to the guild of armourers of the +20th legion, was buried by his college at Bath.(1456) One C. Valgius +Fuscus gave a burial-ground at Forum Sempronii, in Umbria, to a college of +muleteers of the Porta Gallica, for their wives or concubines, and their +posterity.(1457) There is even a burial-place, duly defined by exact +measurement, for those "who are in the habit of dining together," a +description which, as time went on, would have applied as accurately as +any other to many of these clubs.(1458) + +We are, by a rare piece of good fortune, admitted to the interior of one +of the purely funerary colleges. In the reign of Hadrian there was at +Lanuvium a college which, by a curious fancy, combined the worship of the +pure Diana with that of the deified minion of the emperor. It was founded +in A.D. 133, three years after the tragic death of the young favourite. +And in 136, the patron of the society, who was also a magnate of the town, +caused it to be convened in the temple of Antinous. There he announced the +gift of a sum of money, the interest of which was to be spent at the +festivals of the patron deities; and he directed that the deed of +foundation should be inscribed on the inner walls of the portico of the +temple, so that newly admitted members might be informed of their rights +and their obligations. This document, discovered among the ruins of the +ancient Lanuvium in 1816, reveals many important facts in the constitution +and working of funerary colleges.(1459) It recites, as we have seen, a +part of the _senatusconsultum_, which authorised the existence of such +colleges, and after loyal wishes for the prosperity of the emperor and his +house, it prays for an honest energy in contributing to the due interment +of the dead, that by regular payments the society may prolong its +existence. + +The entrance fee of the college is to be 100 sesterces (16s. 8d.), +together with a flagon of good wine. A monthly subscription of five asses +is appointed. It is evident that the members are of the humblest class, +and one clause shows that they have even a sprinkling of slaves among +them, who, with the permission of their masters, might connect themselves +with these burial clubs.(1460) The brethren could not aspire to the +erection even of a _columbarium_, still less to the possession of a common +burial-ground. They confined themselves to making a funeral grant of +HS.300 to the appointed heir of each member who had not intermitted his +payments to the common fund.(1461) Out of this sum, HS.50 are to be paid +to members present at the funeral. The member dying intestate will be +buried by the society, and no claim upon his remaining interest in it will +be recognised. The slave, whose body was retained by his master after +death, was to have a _funus imaginarium_, and probably a cenotaph. In the +case of a member dying within a radius of twenty miles from Lanuvium, +three members, on timely notice, were deputed to arrange for the funeral, +and required to render an account of the expenses so incurred. A fee of +HS.20 was granted to each. But if any fraud were discovered in their +accounts, a fine of quadruple the amount was imposed. Lastly, when a +member died beyond the prescribed limit, the person who had arranged his +funeral, on due attestation by seven Roman citizens, and security given +against any further claims, received the burial grant, with certain +deductions.(1462) In such precise and orderly fashion, with all the +cautious forms of Roman law, did this poor little society order its +performance of duty to the dead. + +Our knowledge of the funerary colleges is still further amplified by an +inscription of a date twenty years later than that of Lanuvium.(1463) In +the reign of Antoninus Pius a lady named Salvia Marcellina resolved to +commemorate her husband by a gift to the college of Aesculapius and Hygia. +She presented to it the site for a shrine close to the Appian Way, a +marble statue of Aesculapius, and a hall opening on a terrace, where the +banquets of the brotherhood should be held. To this benefaction +Marcellina, along with one P. Aelius Zeno, who apparently was her brother, +added two donations of HS.15,000 and HS.10,000 respectively, the interest +of which was to be distributed in money, or food and wine, at six +different festivals. The proportions assignable to each rank in the +college were determined at a full meeting, held in the shrine of the +"Divine Titus." Marcellina attaches certain conditions to her gift. The +society is to be limited to sixty members, and the place of each member, +on his decease, is to be filled by the co-optation of his son. If any +member chooses to bequeath his place and interest, his choice is confined +to his son, his brother, or his freedman, and he is required to pay for +this limited freedom of selection by refunding one-half of his burial +grant to the chest of the college.(1464) The college of Aesculapius is +nominally a religious and funerary corporation, yet there is only a single +reference, in a long document, to the subject of burial. No information is +given as to the amount of the _funeraticium_ or burial grant, the sources +from which it is derived, or the conditions on which it is to be paid. The +chief object of Marcellina seems to have been to connect the memory of her +husband with a number of festivals, for the perpetuity of which she makes +provision, to promote social intercourse, and to prevent the intrusion of +strangers by making membership practically hereditary. + +The colleges, of whose inner working we have tried to give a picture, are +classed as religious corporations in the collections of the inscriptions. +They bear the name of a god, and they provide a solemn interment for their +members. But in these respects they do not differ from many other colleges +which are regarded as purely secular. The truth is, that any attempt to +make a sharp division of these societies on such lines seems futile. +Sepulture and religion being admitted by the government as legitimate +objects for association, any college, however secular in its tone, might, +and probably would, screen itself under sacred names. Nor would this be +merely a hypocritical pretence. It is clear that many of the purely +industrial colleges, composed as they were of poor people who found it +impossible to purchase a separate burial-place, and not easy, unaided, to +bear the expense of the last rites, at once consulted their convenience, +and gratified the sentiment of fraternity, by arranging for a common place +of interment. And with regard to religion, it is a commonplace to point +out that all Graeco-Roman societies, great or small, rested on religion. +The state, the clan, the family, found their ideal and firmest bond in +reverence for divine or heroic ancestors, a reverent piety towards the +spirits who had passed into the unseen world. The colleges, as we shall +see presently, were formed on the lines of the city which they almost +slavishly imitated.(1465) It would be strange and anomalous if they should +desert their model in that which was its most original and striking +characteristic. And just as Cleisthenes found divine and heroic patrons +for his new tribes and demes,(1466) so would a Roman college naturally +place itself under the protection of one of the great names of the Roman +pantheon. Sometimes, no doubt, there may not have been much sincerity in +this conformity to ancient pieties. But do we need to remind ourselves how +long a life the form of ancient pieties may have, even when the faith +which gave birth to them has become dim and faint? + +The usual fashion of writing Roman history has concentrated attention on +the doings of the emperor, the life of the noble class in the capital, or +on the stations of the legions and the political organisation of the +provinces. It is a stately and magnificent panorama. But it is apt to +throw the life of the masses into even deeper shadow than that in which +time has generally enwrapped them. We are prone to forget that, behind all +this stately life, there was a quiet yet extraordinarily busy industrial +activity which was its necessary basis and which catered for all its +caprices. In the most cursory way Tacitus tells us that a great part of +Italy was gathered for the great fair at Cremona, on the fateful days when +the town was stormed by the army of Vespasian.(1467) Yet what a gathering +it must have been! There were laid out in the booths the fine woollens of +Parma and Mutina, the mantles of Canusium, the purples of Tarentum, the +carpets of Patavium. Traders from Ilva brought their iron wares, Pompeii +sent its fish sauces, and Lucania its famous sausages. Nor would there be +missing in the display the oil of Venafrum, and the famous Setine and +Falernian vintages.(1468) The improvement of the great roads in the reign +of Trajan must have given a vast stimulus to inland commerce. And we may +be sure that many a petty merchant with his pack was to be seen along the +Aemilian or Flaminian ways, like the travelling vendor of honey and +cheese, whom Lucius, in the tale of Apuleius, meets hurrying to +Hypata.(1469) The great roads of Spain, since the days of Augustus, +carried an immense traffic, which made even the distant Gades a +magnificent emporium and one of the richest places in the Roman +world.(1470) + +The wandering traders in Germany, Spain, or Syria, by a natural instinct +drew together in their exile. In the revolt of Julius Civilis, they are +found settled among the Batavians, and a _collegium peregrinorum_ has left +its memorial on the lower Rhine.(1471) The _sodalicium urbanum_ at Bracara +Augusta is a similar society.(1472) Another mercantile college meets us at +Apulum in Dacia.(1473) The Syrians of Berytus had a club at Puteoli, and +there were at least two clubs of Syrian traders at Malaga.(1474) The +graves of Syrian traders have been found at Sirmium in Pannonia, and, on +the other hand, there are memorials of Roman merchants at Apamea and +Tralles, at Salamis and Mitylene.(1475) Immense stimulus to this +transmarine trade must have been given by the Emperor Claudius, who +provided insurance against loss by storms, and a liberal system of +bounties and rewards for shipping enterprise.(1476) Apollonius of Tyana +once expostulated with a young Spartan, who claimed descent from +Callicratidas, for having forsaken the true career of a man of his race, +to soil himself with the trade of Carthage and Sicily. It is the sentiment +of Juvenal who treats as a lunatic the man who will venture his life with +a cargo on the wintry Aegean.(1477) But the antiquarian rhetoric +attributed to Apollonius embalms the fact that at the opening of a +springtime in the reign of Domitian, a great merchant fleet was lying at +Malea, ready to sail to the western seas.(1478) These wandering merchants, +wherever they went, banded themselves in colleges for mutual protection +and for society. In the same way, old soldiers, on their return from long +service on the frontiers, gathered in military brotherhoods at such places +as Ostia or Misenum.(1479) The veterans of Augustus seem to have become a +distinct and recognised class, like the Augustales.(1480) Colleges of +youth sprang up everywhere from the days of Nero, at Beneventum, Cremona, +and Ameria, or at Moguntiacum, Lauriacum, and Poetovio.(1481) They were +formed, like our own sporting clubs, for exercise and healthy rivalry, +often under the patronage of the divine hero who, to all the moralists of +that age, had become the mythic type of the continent vigour of early +manhood. There is one sodality at least devoted to the preservation of +chastity.(1482) But it is balanced by the clubs of the "late sleepers" and +"late drinkers" of Pompeii.(1483) + +The colleges in which the artisans and traders of the Antonine age grouped +themselves are almost innumerable, even in the records which time has +spared. They represent almost every conceivable branch of industry or +special skill or social service, from the men who laid the fine sand in +the arena, to the rich wine merchants of Lyons or Ostia.(1484) The mere +catalogue of these associations in an index will give an enlarged +conception of the immense range and minute specialisation of Roman +industry. It may be doubted whether a similar enumeration of our English +crafts would be longer or more varied. The great trades, which minister to +the first necessities of human life, occupy of course the largest space, +the bakers, the cloth-makers, the smiths, carpenters, and wood-merchants, +trades often grouped together, the shoemakers and fullers and carders of +wool. The mechanics, who made the arms and engines for the legions, +naturally hold a prominent place. Nor less prominent are the boatmen of +Ostia, and of the Rhone and the Saone.(1485) The sailors of these great +rivers had several powerful corporations at Lyons, and, on many an +inscription,(1486) claim the wealthiest citizens, men who have gained the +whole series of municipal honours, as their chiefs and patrons. Arles, +which was then a great sea-port, had its five corporations of sailor-folk, +and Ostia an equal number, charged with the momentous task of taking up +the cargoes of the African corn-ships for the bakeries of Rome.(1487) +Transport by land is represented by colleges of muleteers and ass drivers +in the Alps and Apennines.(1488) All the many trades and services which +ministered to the wants or pleasures of the capital were similarly banded +together, the actors and horn-blowers, the porters and paviors, down to +the humble dealers in pastils and salt fish.(1489) We have seen that even +the gladiators, in their barrack-prisons, were allowed to form their +clubs. Although traces of these combinations are found in remote and +obscure places all over the Roman world, it is at great commercial +centres, at Ostia, Puteoli, Lyons, and Rome itself, that they have left +the most numerous remains. They had probably for one of their objects the +protection of their members against encroachments or fiscal oppression. +Strabo once came across a deputation of fishermen on their way to plead +with the Emperor for a reduction of their dues.(1490) Yet it would be a +mistake to suppose that these trades unions were always organised for +trade objects, or that the separate colleges were composed of people +engaged in the same occupation. They had many honorary members from among +the richer classes, and, even in the lower ranks, in defiance of the +law,(1491) a dealer in salt might be enrolled among the boatmen of the +Rhone, and member of a college of builders.(1492) In truth, the great +object of association among these humble people appears to have been not +so much the protection of their trade, as the cheerfulness of intercourse, +the promotion of fellowship and good-will, the relief of the dulness of +humdrum lives. + +Probably no age, not even our own, ever felt a greater craving for some +form of social life, wider than the family, and narrower than the State. +It was a movement at which, as we have seen, even the greatest and +strongest of the emperors had to connive. It penetrated society down to +its lowest layers. Even the slaves and freedmen of great houses organised +themselves in colleges. There were colleges in the imperial +household.(1493) T. Aelius Primitivus, chief of the imperial kitchen, +being a man of great posthumous ambition, left the care of his own and his +wife's monument to the college of the palatine cooks.(1494) In the +inscriptions of Moesia there is the album of a Bacchic club of household +slaves containing 80 names, with apparently different grades among them, +designated by such titles as _archimysta_, _bouleuta_, _frater_ and +_filius_.(1495) A similar club of the servile class, devoted to the +worship of Isis, existed at Tarraco.(1496) The officers of another bear +the pompous titles of tribune, quaestor, and triumvir, and the slab +records the thanks of one Hilara, that her ashes have been allowed to +mingle in the same urn with those of Mida the chamberlain.(1497) A +provincial treasurer at Ephesus, who was a _verna Augusti_, commits the +custody of his wife's monument to five colleges of slaves and freedmen in +the emperor's household. One of the colleges bears the name of Faustina. +Another college is devoted to the cult of the Lares and images of +Antoninus Pius.(1498) Private masters seem to have encouraged the +formation of such associations among their dependents, and sometimes to +have endowed them with a perpetual foundation.(1499) It was probably +politic, as well as kind, to provide for slaves social pleasures within +the circle of the household, and thus to forestall the attractions of the +numerous clubs outside, which freely offered their hospitality.(1500) We +may be sure that the college "which was in the house of Sergia Paulina" +was not encouraged by the mistress without good reason. + +Thus it appears that in every part of the Roman world, in the decaying +little country town, and in the great trading centres, the same great +movement of association, is going on apace. It swept into its current +almost every social grade, and every trade, handicraft or profession, the +pastil-makers, the green-grocers and unguent sellers of Rome, the +muleteers of the Alps, the fullers of Pompeii, the doctors at Beneventum, +the boatmen of the Seine, the wine merchants of Lyons. Men formed +themselves into these groups for the most trivial or whimsical reasons, or +for no reason at all, except that they lived in the same quarter, and +often met.(1501) From the view which the inscriptions give us of the +interior of some of these clubs, it is clear that their main purpose was +social pleasure. And this is especially true of the clubs of the humblest +class. M. Boissier has well remarked that the poor workman, the poor +freedman, with the brand of recent slavery upon him, who was often engaged +in some mean or disgusting occupation, amidst a society which from +tradition regarded any industry soiled by servile touch with distant +scorn, must have felt themselves solitary exiles in the desert of a great +town, the most awful desert in the world. The remote splendour of the +court and aristocratic life must have deepened the gloom of isolation and +helplessness. Shut out for ever from that brilliant world of fashion and +pleasure and power, whose social life seemed so charming and gay and +friendly, the despised and lonely toiler sought a refuge in little +gatherings of people as lonely as himself. At some chance meeting, some +one, more energetic than the rest, would throw out the suggestion to form +a club, on the model of some of the old trade societies which had always +been authorised by the State from the days of Numa, or of those newer +associations which were now tacitly permitted under the guise of religion. +A small entrance fee would meet, for the time, their modest expenses. In +that age of generous or ambitious profusion, it was not hard to find some +influential patron, a kindly gracious noble, or an aspiring or generous +_parvenu_, to give the infant society his countenance, along with a +substantial donation for the building of a club-house, and for simple +convivial pleasures on his birthday, and other festivals which could +easily be multiplied. Then the brethren met in solemn form to frame their +constitution and commemorate their benefactor, on one of those many +monuments which illuminate a social life on which the literature of the +age is generally silent. + +The continuity and repetition of proved political organisation is a +notable characteristic of the great races which have left, or are destined +to leave, their mark on history. The British settlers on the prairies of +Oregon or Manitoba immediately order themselves into communities, which +are modelled on a social system as old as the Heptarchy. The Latin race +had perhaps an even more stubborn conservatism than the English. Under the +most various circumstances, the Roman instinctively clung to forms and +institutions of tested strength and elasticity, and consecrated by the +immemorial usage of his race. The most distant and most humble +municipality was fashioned after the pattern of the great "city which had +become a world."(1502) It had its senate, the _ordo splendidissimus et +amplissimus_, and the popular assembly which elected the magistrates. The +municipal magistrates, if they do not always bear the ancient names, +reproduce in shadowy form the dictators, the praetors, the aediles, +quaestors, and censors of the old republic.(1503) The same continuity of +form is seen in the colleges. As the municipal town was modelled on the +constitution of the State, so we may say that the college was modelled on +the municipal town. The college, indeed, became a city for the +brotherhood, at once a city and a home. They apply to it such terms as +_respublica collegii_.(1504) The meetings often took place in a temple, +whether of a patron deity or of an emperor, as those of the Roman Senate +were held in the temple of Concord or of Bellona. There they elected their +administrative officers, generally for a period of one year; in some +cases, by way of special distinction, for life. The heads of these little +societies bear various names, _magistri_, _curatores_, _quinquennales_, +_praefecti_, or _praesides_.(1505) They have also quaestors,(1506) who +managed their financial affairs, which, although perhaps on no great +scale, still involved the investment of trust moneys to yield the +prescribed amounts which had to be distributed either as burial payments, +or in food and money on the high festivals. The number of the members was +generally limited, either by the government in the interests of public +order, or by the will of a benefactor, to prevent the progressive +diminution in the value of the divisible shares of the income.(1507) A +periodical revision of the roll of members was therefore conducted every +five years, as it was in the municipality, by the chief officers, +exercising for the time censorial powers in miniature. Fortunately the +albums of three or four colleges have been preserved. The lists throw a +vivid light on their constitution and social tone. We have drawn attention +in a former chapter to the strict gradation of social rank in the city +polity. The same characteristic is repeated in the collegiate +organisation. In these humble plebeian coteries, composed of "men without +a grandfather," of men, perhaps, whose father was a slave, or of men who +were slaves themselves, there emerges, to our astonishment, a punctilious +observance of shadowy social distinctions, which is an inheritance from +the exclusive aristocratic pride of the old republic. This characteristic +has excited in some French critics and historians a certain +admiration,(1508) in which it is not altogether easy to join. Gradation of +rank to ensure devotion and order in public service is a precious and +admirable thing. But artificial and unreal distinctions, invented and +conferred to flatter wealth, to stimulate or reward the largesses of the +rich patron, to gratify the vulgar self-complacency of the _parvenu_, are +only a degrading form of mendicancy. Some indulgence is no doubt due to +men who were still under the yoke of slavery, or only just released from +it; the iron had entered into their souls. But both the college and the +municipality of the Antonine age cannot be relieved of the charge of +purchased or expectant deference to mere wealth. Hence we cannot +altogether share the pleasure of M. Boissier in these pale and vulgar +reproductions of the hierarchy of a real aristocracy. But the image of the +hierarchy is there, and it is very instructive. In a college of smiths in +Tarraconensis, there were fifteen patrons at the head of the roll, +followed by twelve decurions, including two doctors and a soothsayer, one +man isolated by the honours of the _bisellium_, two honorary members, +twenty-eight plain plebeians. There were also several "mothers" and +"daughters" of the society.(1509) The album of another club at Ostia shows +a list of nine patrons, two holders of quinquennial rank, and one hundred +and twenty-three plebeians.(1510) The plebs of many colleges included +slaves, and in more than one inscription the men of ingenuous and those of +servile birth are carefully distinguished, the slaves being sometimes +placed at the bottom of the roll.(1511) Yet it was surely a great advance +when slaves and freemen could meet together for the time, on a certain +footing of equality, for business or convivial intercourse. The rigid +lines of old pagan society are indeed still marked on the face of these +clubs. And yet many an inscription leaves the impression that these little +societies of the old pagan world are nurseries, in an imperfect way, of +the gentle charities and brotherliness which, in shy retirement, the young +Church was cultivating in her disciples to be the ideal of the world. + +These colleges became homes for the homeless, a little fatherland, or +_patria_, for those without a country. Sometimes they may have met in low +taverns, which were on that account jealously watched by some of the +emperors.(1512) But they generally attained to the possession of a +club-room or _schola_, a name which had been previously given to the +lounging-room of the public baths. Sometimes the _schola_ was erected at +their own cost, the site being perhaps granted by some rich patron, or by +the town council, on a vacant spot close to the basilica or the +theatre.(1513) But frequently a hall was built for them by some generous +friend. A like generosity often provided for them a little chapel of their +patron deity, with a shaded court, or a balcony open to the air and sun, +where the brethren took their common meals.(1514) Or a rich patron, +anxious to secure some care and religious observance of his last +resting-place, would bequeath to a college a pleasant garden adjoining the +tomb, with a house in which to hold their meetings.(1515) And, as a +further security against neglect and oblivion, a sum of 10,000 or 15,000 +sesterces would be invested to provide a dinner for the college on their +benefactor's birthday.(1516) As years went on, the scene of many a +pleasant gathering became a centre round which clustered a great deal of +sentiment, and even pride. We may imagine that, allowing for differences +of time and faith, the little school or shrine would, in the course of +years, attract something of the feeling which consecrates an ancient +village church in England, or a little Bethel which was built in the year +of the visit of John Wesley. It became a point of honour to make gifts to +the schola, to add to its comfort or beauty. One benefactor would redeem a +right of ancient lights, or build a boundary wall.(1517) Another would +make a present of bronze candelabra on a marble stand, with the device of +a Cupid holding baskets in his hands.(1518) Or a college would receive +from its curator a gift of some silver statues of the gods, on the +dedication of the _schola_, with a brass tablet, no doubt recording the +event.(1519) The gift of a place where the brethren of the club might be +buried beside their wives or concubines, was probably, to these poor +people, not the least valued benefaction.(1520) Many a humble donation was +probably made, which was too slight for a memorial. But it happens that we +have one record of gifts evidently offered by poor, insignificant people. +It is contained in a very interesting inscription found upon a rock near +the theatre at Philippi in Macedonia.(1521) It records that P. Hostilius +Philadelphus, in recognition of the aedileship of the college, which had +been conferred upon him, bore the expense of polishing the rock, and +inscribing upon it the names of the members of a college of Silvanus, +sixty-nine in number, together with a list of those who had presented +gifts to their temple. The college was a religious one, with a priest who +is named in the first place. It is also a funerary society, and seems to +be composed of freedmen and of slaves, either belonging to the colony or +private masters. They had just erected a temple of their patron god, to +which some had given subscriptions in money, while others made various +offerings for its adornment. One brother presents an image of the god in a +little shrine, another statuettes of Hercules and Mercury. There is +another donation of some stone-work in front of the temple, and Hostilius, +at his own expense, cut away the rock to smooth the approach to the +shrine. Most of the gifts are of trifling value, a poor little picture +worth 15 _denarii_, a marble image of Bacchus costing not much more. But +they were the offerings of an enthusiastic brotherhood, and the good +Hostilius has given them an immortality of which they never dreamed. + +The contributions of the members would generally have been but a sorry +provision for the social and religious life of a college. Reproducing, as +it did, the constitution and the tone of the city in so many traits, the +college in nothing follows its model so closely as in its reliance on the +generosity of patronage. At the head of the album of the society there is +a list, sometimes disproportionately long, of its _patroni_. Countless +inscriptions leave us in no doubt as to the reason why the patron was +elected. His _raison d'etre_ in the club is the same as in the city; it is +to provide luxuries or amusements for the society, which the society could +not generally obtain for itself. The relation of patron and client is, of +all the features of ancient life, the one which, being so remote from the +spirit of our democratic society, is perhaps most difficult for us to +understand. The mutual obligations, enforced by a powerful traditional +sentiment, were of the most binding, and sometimes burdensome character. +And in that form of relation, between former master and freedman, which +became so common in the first age of the Empire, the old master was bound +to continue his support and protection to the emancipated slave.(1522) +Although there was much that was sordid and repulsive in the position of +the client in Juvenal's and Martial's days, we must still recognise the +fact that the fortune of the rich patron had to pay a heavy price for +social deference. Not less heavy was the demand made on the patrons of +municipalities and colleges. + +There must have been wide distinctions of dignity and importance among the +industrial colleges of the Empire. The _centonarii_, the _fabri_, and +_dendrophori_ of the more important centres, such as Aquileia, Lyons and +Milan, the boatmen of Arles or Ostia, would probably have looked down with +scorn on the flute-players of the Via Sacra, the hunters of Corfinium, or +the muleteers of the Porta Gallica.(1523) And there was a corresponding +variety in the rank of the patrons. Some are high officials of the Empire, +procurators of provinces, curators of great public works, or distinguished +officers of the legions. Or they are men evidently of high position and +commanding influence in their province, priests of the altar of Augustus, +augurs of the colony, magistrates or decurions of two or three +cities.(1524) Sometimes the patron is a great merchant, with warehouses of +oil or wine at Lyons or Tarragona or Ostia.(1525) Yet in spite of his +wealth, the patron's social position in those days might be rather +uncertain, and we may without difficulty, from modern analogies, believe +that a new man might find his vanity soothed, or his position made less +obscure, by being known as the titular head of an ancient corporation of +the clothworkers, or _dendrophori_, or of the boatmen on the Saone. +Probably in obscure country towns, remote from the seat of Empire, these +bourgeois dignities were even more valued.(1526) The humbler colleges +would have to be content with one of the new freedmen, such as the vulgar +friends of Trimalchio, who, after a youth of shameful servitude, had leapt +into fortune by some happy chance or stroke of shrewdness, and who sought +a compensation for the contempt of the great world in the deference and +adulation of those who waited for their largesses. + +The election of a patron was an event of great moment, especially to a +poor college. And it was conducted with a formal preciseness, and an +assumption of dignity, which, at this distance of time, are sometimes +rather ludicrous. In a little town of Cisalpine Gaul in the year 190, the +college of smiths and clothworkers met in solemn session in their temple. +Their quaestors, who may have had the financial condition of the college +in view, made a formal proposal that the college should set an example of +the judicious reward of merit, by electing one Tutilius Julianus, a man +distinguished by his modesty and liberality, as the patron of their +society. The meeting commended the sage proposal of the quaestors, and +formally resolved that the honourable Julianus should be requested to +accept the distinction, with an apology for so tardy a recognition of his +merits, and that a brass plate, containing a copy of this decree, should +be placed above his door.(1527) + +It is significant that the patrons were, in very many cases, Seviri and +Augustales, a body which in the provinces, as we have seen, was generally +composed of new men of the freedman class. Although they were steadily +rising in importance and in strength of organisation, the provincial +Augustales always ranked after the decurions of a town. They often +displayed boundless liberality to their city and to their own order.(1528) +But the leading Augustales seem to have been quite as generous to the +other corporations who placed themselves under their patronage. And they +were not unfrequently patrons of several colleges.(1529) It is no long +task to find men who were the titular protectors of two or three, of +eight, or even of as many as twelve or fifteen colleges. One inscription +to Cn. Sentius of Ostia would seem to include among his dependents almost +every industrial college in that busy port.(1530) Sentius must have been a +very wealthy and a very generous man to accept the patronage of so many +societies, which in those days expected or demanded that their honours +should be paid for in solid cash. The crowning distinction of a statue, or +a durable inscription, was often solemnly decreed with all seemly forms of +deference or unstinted flattery in a full meeting of the society. But in a +great majority of cases we are amused or disgusted to read that, after all +his other liberalities, the benefactor or his heir is permitted to pay for +the record of popular gratitude.(1531) This fact may explain the +extraordinary abundance of these honours, if it somewhat lowers their +value in the eyes of posterity. + +But, besides the benefactions which sprang either from ambition or real +generosity, a vast number were inspired by the Roman passion for long +remembrance, and for the continuity of funerary ritual. The very position +of so many tombs by the side of the great roads beyond the city gates, was +a silent appeal to the passing traveller not to forget the departed. The +appeal is also often expressly made on the stone by those who had no other +means of prolonging their own memory or that of some one they loved. It is +impossible to read without some emotion the prayer of an old Spanish +soldier, that his brethren of the college may never suffer grief like his, +if they will only keep the lamp burning for ever over the tomb of his +child.(1532) The more opulent took more elaborate measures to provide for +the guardianship of their "last home."(1533) They often attached to the +tomb a field or gardens of considerable extent, to be cultivated for +profit, or to bear the roses for the annual offering. The whole area, the +dimensions of which, in many inscriptions, are defined with mathematical +precision, would be surrounded by a wall. Within the enclosure there would +be a little shrine containing statues of the dead, an arbour and a well, +and a hall in which the kindred of coming generations might hold their +annual banquet, till the tie was dissolved by the cruel oblivion of +time.(1534) There will be a cottage (_taberna_) in which a freedman or +dependent of the house may be lodged, to watch over the repose of the +dead.(1535) But all these precautions, as the testator feels, were likely +to be defeated in the end by the vicissitudes of human fortunes.(1536) He +had, indeed, before his eyes the fate of many a forsaken and forgotten +tomb of old worthies of the Republic. Families die out; faithful freedmen +and their children cannot keep their watch for ever. The garden will grow +wild, a time may come when no kindly hand will pour the libation or +scatter the roses on the natal day. Families will die out, but a college +may go on for ever by the perpetual renewal of its members. Inspired with +this idea, a worthy of Nimes created a funerary college to dine regularly +in his honour.(1537) It was to consist of thirty persons, and the number +was to be maintained by co-optation into the places of deceased members. +Members of the college who were obliged to be absent might send one of +their friends to join in the repast. Thus the dead man, who had taken such +care to prolong his memory, would at no distant date be festively +celebrated by people who barely knew his name. Many another left a bequest +to a college to be spent in a feast on the testator's memorial day.(1538) +A freedman of Mevania leaves a tiny legacy of HS.1000 to the guild of +clothworkers, of whom he is patron, with the condition that not less than +twelve of their number shall feast once a year in memory of him.(1539) A +more liberal provision for convivial enjoyment was left to a college of +Silvanus in honour of Domitian. It consisted of the rents of four estates, +with their appurtenances, which were to be spent on the birthdays of the +emperor and his wife, "for all time to come," with the sacrifices proper +to such a holy season.(1540) Due provision is often made for the seemly +and impressive performance of a rite which was at once a religious duty +and a convivial pleasure. There is a curious letter of the time of +Antoninus Pius containing a deed of gift to the college of the _fabri_ at +Narbo, in return for their constant favours to the donor. One Sextus +Fadius presents them with the sum of 16,000 sesterces, the interest of +which is to be divided every year at the end of April for ever, at a +banquet on his birthday; the guests on this festive occasion are to be +habited in their handsomest attire.(1541) + +But the fullest and minutest arrangements for these modest meals are to be +found in the document relating to the foundation of the poor college of +Diana and Antinous, to which reference has already been made. The master +of the feast was taken in regular order from the roll of the society. Each +brother had to accept this office in his turn, or pay a fine of five +shillings of our money. The regular festivals of the club were six in the +year, on the natal days of Diana and Antinous, and those of the founder +and some of his relatives. There is some obscurity in the regulations for +these common feasts, and at first sight they are a ludicrous contrast to +the pontiff's famous banquet in the days of Julius Caesar, described by +Macrobius.(1542) M. Boissier naturally refuses to imagine that even the +poor brethren of the club of Diana and Antinous would be contented with +bread, four sardines, a bottle of good wine, with hot water and the proper +table service. The slave steward of Horace probably found much better fare +in his _popina_.(1543) Dr. Mommsen has resolved the mystery. It is +evident, from several inscriptions, that _sportulae_ were sharply +distinguished from distributions of bread and wine.(1544) The _sportula_ +was a gift of richer food or dainties, which in public distributions might +be carried home; it was sometimes an equivalent in money. If those who +received the _sportula_ preferred to enjoy it at a common table, an +appointed member of the college would have the food prepared, or convert +the money into dishes for the feast. The bread and wine he might add from +his own pocket, if they were not provided by the foundation. How much for +these meals came from the club funds, and how much out of the pocket of +the _magister coenae_, is not always clearly stated. But we may be sure, +from the tone of the times, that additions to a modest _menu_ were often +made by the generosity of patrons and officers of the club. + +It would be futile and uninteresting to pursue into all its minute details +throughout the inscriptions, the system of _sportulae_ founded by so many +patrons and benefactors. Any one who wishes can temperately regale himself +for hours at these shadowy club-feasts of the second century. Perhaps the +clearest example of such distributions is the donation of Marcellina and +Aelius Zeno to the little college of Aesculapius, to which reference has +been made for another purpose.(1545) On seven different anniversaries and +festivals, sums of money, with bread and wine, were distributed to the +brethren of the college in due proportions, according to their official +dignity and social rank. Thus, in the division on the 4th of November, the +fete-day of the society, the shares in money, according to the various +grades, from the father of the college downwards, are six, four, and two. +The division of the wine, according to social rank, follows the proportion +of nine, six, and three. A slightly different scale is followed on the +birthday of the Emperor Antoninus Pius in September, and on the day for +New Year's gifts in January. But in these benefactions the difference of +grade is always observed, the patron and the chief magistrates and +magnates of the society always receiving a larger share than the obscure +brethren at the bottom of the list. In the college of Aesculapius, +Marcellina herself, and Aelius Zeno, the two great benefactors of the +society, along with the highest of its dignitaries, are allotted three +times as much as the plebeian brother. The excellent Marcellina, who, in +the fourth century might perhaps have followed S. Jerome and Paula to +Bethlehem, was the widow of a good and tender husband, who had been +curator of the imperial picture galleries.(1546) Had she been drawn into +the ranks of that hidden society, who were beginning to lay their dead in +the winding vaults beneath the Appian Way, she would certainly have dealt +out her bounty on a different scale and on different principles. Her +bequest to the college of Aesculapius reveals how deep in the soul of a +charitable pagan woman, who was probably sprung from servile stock, lay +that aristocratic instinct of the Roman world which survived the advent of +the Divine Peasant and the preaching of the fishermen of Galilee, for far +more than four hundred years. + +The most curious and interesting among the regulations for these club +entertainments are those relating to order and decorum. The club of Diana +and Antinous was not very select, being probably composed of poor freedmen +and slaves.(1547) The manners of this class, if we may judge by the +picture given by Petronius, were, to say the least, wanting in reserve and +self-restraint. The great object of such reunions was, as the founder +tells us, that the brethren might dine together cheerfully and +quietly.(1548) Hence he most wisely orders that all serious proposals and +complaints shall be reserved for business meetings. If any member quits +his place or makes a disturbance, he is to pay a fine of four sesterces. +Twelve sesterces is the penalty for insulting a fellow-guest. The man who, +under the influence of good wine, so far forgot himself as to insult the +chief officer of the society, was to be punished by a forfeit of twenty +sesterces, which would probably be a powerful discouragement of bad +manners to most of the brotherhood of Antinous. + +Many another gift or bequest, of the same character as Marcellina's, meets +the eye of the student of the inscriptions The motives are singularly +uniform--to repay the honours conferred by a college, to celebrate the +dedication of a statue, to save from forgetfulness a name which to us is +only a bit of the wreckage of time. Everything is conventional about these +bequests. The money is nearly always left for the same purpose, an +anniversary repast in honour of the humble dead, of the emperor, or of the +patron gods. Sometimes the burial fee is refunded to the college, with the +prayer that on the natal day the poor pittance derived from the gift be +spent on pious rites, with roses strewn upon the grave.(1549) Another will +beg only that the lamp in the humble vault may be kept for ever burning. +These pieties and longings, which have their roots in a rude pagan past +before the dawn of history, were destined to prolong their existence far +into Christian times. The lamp will be kept burning over many a tomb of +saint or martyr in the fourth or fifth century. And the simple feasts +which the clothworkers of Brescia, or the boatmen of Ostia or Lyons, +observed to do honour to some departed patron, will be celebrated, often +in riotous fashion, over the Christian dead in the days of S. Augustine +and S. Paulinus of Nola.(1550) + +Dr. Mommsen believes that the collegiate life which blossomed forth so +luxuriantly in the early Empire, was modelled on the sacred union of the +Roman family.(1551) And the instinct of the Roman nature for continuity in +institutions prepossesses us in favour of the theory. In the college +endowed by Marcellina and Zeno, there are a father and a mother, and +elsewhere we read of daughters of a college. The members sometimes call +themselves brethren and sisters.(1552) One of the feasts of the +brotherhood is on the day sacred to "dear kinship," when relations +gathered round a common table, to forget in kindly intercourse any +disturbance of affection.(1553) They also met in the early days of +January, when presents were exchanged. Above all, like the primal society, +they gathered on the birthdays of the revered dead to whom they owed duty +and remembrance. And in many cases the members of the society reposed +beside one another in death.(1554) The college was a home of fraternal +equality in one sense. As M. Boissier has pointed out, the members had +equal rights in the full assembly of the club. A quorum was needed to pass +decrees and to elect the officers. And, in the full conclave, the slave +member had an equal voice with the freeman, and might, perchance, himself +even be elected to a place of dignity.(1555) He might thus, in a very +humble realm, wield authority for the time over those who were accustomed +to despise him. It is true that he needed his master's leave to join a +college, and his master had the legal power to deny to him the last boon +of burial by the hands of his collegiate brethren.(1556) Yet it was +undoubtedly a great stride in advance when a slave could sit at table or +in council on equal terms with free-born men, and might receive pious +Roman burial, instead of being tossed like a piece of carrion into a +nameless grave. The society of one of these humble colleges must have +often for the moment relieved the weariness and misery of the servile +life, and awakened, or kept alive, some sense of self-respect and dignity. +The slave may have now and then felt himself even on the edge of political +influence, as when his college placarded its sympathies in an election +contest on the walls of Pompeii. Yet we must not allow ourselves to be +deceived by words and appearances. In spite of legislative reform, in +spite of a growing humane sentiment, whether in the Porch or the Christian +Church, the lot of the slave and of the poor plebeian will be in many +respects as hopeless and degraded in the reign of Honorius as it was in +the reign of Trajan.(1557) Even in the reign of Trajan, it is true, +perhaps even in the reign of Nero, there were great houses like the +younger Pliny's, where the slaves were treated as humble friends, where +their weddings were honoured by the presence of the master, where, in +spite of legal disabilities, they were allowed to dispose of their savings +by will.(1558) And the inscriptions record the gratitude and affection to +their masters and mistresses of many who were in actual slavery, or who +had but just emerged from it. But these instances cannot make us forget +the cruel contempt and barbarity of which the slave was still the victim, +and which was to be his lot for many generations yet to run. And therefore +the improvement in the condition of the slave or of his poor plebeian +brother by the theoretical equality in the colleges, may be easily +exaggerated. In the humblest of these clubs, the distribution of good fare +and money is not according to the needs of the members, but regulated by +their social and official rank. We cannot feel confident that in social +intercourse the same distinction may not have been coldly observed. In +modern times we often see a readiness to accord an equality of material +enjoyment, along with a stiff guardianship of social distinctions which +are often microscopic to the detached observer. And it would not be +surprising to discover that the "master" or the "mother" of the college of +Antinous protected their dignity by an icy reserve at its festive +meetings. + +The question has been raised whether the ordinary colleges were in any +sense charitable institutions for mutual help. And certainly the +inscriptions are singularly wanting in records of bequests made directly +for the relief of poverty, for widows and orphans or the sick. The +donations or bequests of rich patrons seem to have had chiefly two objects +in view, the commemoration of the dead and the provision for social and +convivial enjoyment. It is true that, just as in municipal feasts, there +is often a distribution of money among the members of colleges. But this +appears to be deprived of an eleemosynary character by the fact that by +far the largest shares are assigned to those who were presumably the least +in need of them. Yet it is to be recollected that we probably have left to +us the memorial of only a small proportion of these gifts, and that, if we +had a full list of all the benefactions bequeathed to some of the +colleges, the total amount received by each member in the year might be +very considerable, if judged by the standard of ordinary plebeian incomes. +To the ambitious slave any addition, however small, to his growing +_peculium_, which might enable him to buy his freedom, would certainly be +grateful. + +There is one class of colleges, however, which were undoubtedly formed to +meet various exigencies in the course of life, as well as to make a +provision for decent burial. These are the military clubs, on the objects +and constitution of which a flood of light has been thrown by the study of +the inscriptions in the great legionary camps of North Africa.(1559) A +passage of Vegetius shows us the provident arrangement made by government +for the future of the ordinary legionary.(1560) It is well known that, on +the accession of each new emperor, or on the occurrence of some +interesting event in the history of the prince's family, or of some great +military success, and often without any particular justification, a +donative was distributed throughout the army. It sometimes reached a +considerable amount, ranging from the 25 _denarii_ granted by Vespasian, +to the 5000 of M. Aurelius.(1561) One half of this largess was by orders +set aside, and retained under the custody of the standard-bearers, to +provide a pension on the soldier's retirement from the service. Another +fund, entirely different, was formed by the soldiers' own contributions, +to furnish a decent burial for those who died on service. But the law +against the formation of colleges fell with peculiar severity on the +soldier.(1562) Not even for a religious purpose was he permitted to join +such a society. This prohibition, however, seems to have been relaxed in +the case of the officers, and some of the more highly skilled corps.(1563) +And we have among the inscriptions of Lambaesis a few instructive records +of these military colleges.(1564) + +Lambaesis, as we have seen, was one of those camps which developed into a +regular municipality, after the recognition of soldiers' marriages by +Septimius Severus. Henceforth the camp became only a place of drill and +exercise, and ceased to be the soldier's home. And on the ground where the +soldiers' huts used to stand, there are left the remains of a number of +buildings of the basilica shape, erected probably in the third century, +which were the club-houses of the officers of the Tertia Augusta. The +interior was adorned with statues of imperial personages, and on the wall +was inscribed the law of the college, commencing with an expression of +gratitude for the very liberal pay which enabled the college to make +provision for the future of its members.(1565) The provision was made in +various ways. An ambitious young officer was allowed a liberal viaticum +for a journey across the sea to seek promotion. If promotion came, he +received another grant to equip him. One half the amount granted in these +cases was mercifully paid to him in the unpleasant contingency of his +losing his grade. If he died on active service, his heir received a +payment on the larger scale. And, when a man, in due course, retired from +the army, he received the same sum under the name of _anularium_, which +has puzzled the antiquary.(1566) + +It has been maintained that these military clubs were really and primarily +funerary societies.(1567) And provision for burial was certainly one of +their objects. Yet, on a reading of the law of the society of the +_Cornicines_, it may be doubted whether the subject of burial is more +prominent than the other contingencies of the officer's life, and in some +of the inscriptions, burial is not even alluded to. The grant on +retirement or promotion, and the grant to his heir on the death of a +member, are the same. But probably the majority of officers had the good +fortune to carry the money with them into peaceful retirement, if not into +higher rank in another corps. In this case they would probably join +another college, whether of soldiers or veterans, and secure once more the +all-important object of a decent and pious interment. The military clubs +seem rather intended to furnish an insurance against the principal risks +and occasions of expenditure in a soldier's career. A calculation shows +that, after providing for all these liabilities, the military college must +have had a considerable surplus.(1568) How it was spent, it is not +hazardous to conjecture. If the poor freedmen and slaves at Ostia or +Lanuvium could afford their modest meals, with a fair allowance of good +wine, drunk to the memory of a generous benefactor, we may be sure that +the college of the _Cornicines_ at Lambesi would relieve the tedium of the +camp by many a pleasant mess dinner, and that they would have been +astonished and amused on such occasions to hear themselves described +merely as a burial society. + +The foundation law of the college of Diana and Antinous betrays some +anxiety lest the continuity of the society should be broken. And in many a +bequest, the greatest care is taken to prevent malversation or the +diversion of the funds from their original purpose.(1569) We feel a +certain pathetic curiosity, in reading these records of a futile effort to +prolong the memory of obscure lives, to know how long the brotherhoods +continued their meetings, or when the stated offerings of wine and flowers +ceased to be made. In one case the curiosity is satisfied and we have +before our eyes the formal record of the extinction of a college. It is +contained in a pair of wooden tablets found in some quarry pits near +Alburnus, a remote village of Dacia. The document was drawn up, as the +names of the consuls show, in the year 167, the year following the fierce +irruption of the Quadi and Marcomanni into Dacia, Pannonia, and Noricum, +in which Alburnus was given to the flames.(1570) Artemidorus the slave of +Apollonius, and Master of the college of Jupiter Cernenius, along with the +two quaestors, places it on record, with the attestation of seven +witnesses, that the college has ceased to exist. Out of a membership of +fifty-four, only seventeen remain. The colleague of Artemidorus in the +mastership has never set foot in Alburnus since his election. The accounts +have been wound up, and no balance is left in the chest. For a long time +no member has attended on the days fixed for meetings, and, as a matter of +course, no subscriptions have been paid. All this is expressed in the +rudest, most ungrammatical Latin, and Artemidorus quaintly concludes by +saying, that, if a member has just died, he must not imagine that he has +any longer a college or any claim to funeral payments! The humble brothers +of the society, whom Artemidorus reproaches for their faithless +negligence, may probably have fled to some refuge when their masters' +lands were devastated by the Marcomanni, or been swept on in the fierce +torrent of invaders which finally broke upon the walls of Aquileia. + + + + + + BOOK III. + + + _NEC PHILOSOPHIA SINE VIRTUTE EST NEC SINE PHILOSOPHIA VIRTUS_ + + + + + CHAPTER I + + + THE PHILOSOPHIC DIRECTOR + + +Philosophy in the time of Seneca was a very different thing from the great +cosmic systems of Ionia and Magna Graecia, or even from the system of the +older Stoicism. Speculative interest had long before his time given way to +the study of moral problems with a definite practical aim. If the stimulus +of the searching method of Socrates gave an impetus for a century to +abstract speculation, it had an even more decided and long-lived influence +in diverting thought to moral questions from the old ambitious paths. His +disciples Antisthenes and Aristippus prepared the way for the Stoic and +Epicurean schools which dominated the Roman world in the last century of +the Republic and the first of the Empire. And even Plato and Aristotle +indirectly helped forward the movement. It is not merely that, for both +these great spirits, the cultivation of character and the reform of +society have a profound interest. But even in their metaphysics, they were +paving the way for the more introspective and practical turn which was +taken by post-Aristotelian philosophy, by giving to what were mere +conceptions of the mind a more real existence than to the things of +sense.(1571) The "ideas" or "forms" which they contrast with the world of +concrete things, are really creations of the individual mind of which the +reality must be sought in the depths of consciousness, however they may be +divinised and elevated to some transcendental region beyond the limits of +sense and time. With Aristotle, as with Plato, in the last resort, the +higher reason is the true essence of man, coming into the body from a +diviner world, and capable of lifting itself to the ideal from the +cramping limitations of sensuous life. The philosopher in the _Phaedo_ who +turns his gaze persistently from the confusing phantasmagoria of the +senses to that realm of real existence, eternal and immutable, of which he +has once had a vision, is really the distant progenitor of the sage of +Stoicism, who cuts himself off from the external objects of desire, to +find within a higher law, and the peace which springs from a life in +harmony with the Reason of the world. + +The ancient schools, if they maintained a formal individuality even to the +days of Justinian,(1572) had worked themselves out. A host of scholarchs, +from all the cities of the Greek East, failed to break fresh ground, and +were content to guard the most precious or the least vulnerable parts of +an ancient tradition. Moreover, the scrutiny of the long course of +speculation, issuing in such various conclusions, with no criterion to +decide between their claims, gave birth to a scepticism which sheltered +itself even under the great name of the Academy. And as the faith in the +truth of systems dwindled, the marks of demarcation between them faded; +men were less inclined to dogmatise, and began to select and combine +elements from long discordant schools. In this movement the eclectic and +the sceptic had very much the same object in view--the support and culture +of the individual moral life.(1573) The sceptic sought his ideal in +restrained suspense of judgment and in moral calm. The eclectic, without +regard to speculative consistency, and with only a secondary interest in +speculation, sought for doctrines from any quarter which provided a basis +for the moral life, and, in the conflict of systems on the deeper +questions, would fall back, like Cicero, on intuition and the consent of +consciousness.(1574) Creative power in philosophy was no more. Speculative +curiosity, as pictured in the _Phaedo_ or the _Theaetetus_, had lost its +keenness. The imperious craving was for some guide of life, some medicine +for the deeply-felt maladies of the soul. + +The extinction of the free civic life of Greece, the conquests of Macedon, +the foundation of the world-wide empire of Rome, had wrought a momentous +moral change. In the old city-state, religion, morals, and political duty +were linked in a gracious unity and harmony. The citizen drew moral +support and inspiration from ancestral laws and institutions clothed with +almost divine authority. Even Plato does not break away from the old +trammels, but requires the elders of his Utopia as a duty, after they have +seen the vision of God, to descend again to the ordinary tasks of +government. But when the corporate life which supplied such vivid +interests and moral support was wrecked, the individual was thrown back +upon himself. Morals were finally separated from politics. Henceforth the +great problem of philosophy was how to make character self-sufficing and +independent; how to find the beatitude of man in the autonomous will, +fenced against all assaults of chance and change.(1575) At the same time, +the foundation of great monarchies, Macedonian or Roman, embracing many +tribes and races and submerging old civic or national barriers, brought +into clearer light the idea of a universal commonwealth, and placed morals +on the broad foundation of a common human nature and universal +brotherhood. The mundane city of old days, which absorbed, perhaps too +completely, the moral life and conscience of her sons, has vanished for +ever. And in its place and over its ruins has risen an all-embracing power +which seems to have all the sweep of an impersonal force of nature, though +it is sometimes impelled by one wild, lawless will. If, in return for the +loss of civic freedom, ambitious and patriotic energy, or pride of civic +life, it has given to its subjects a marvellous peace and order and +culture, have not the mass of men become grosser and more materialised? If +there is greater material well-being and better administration, have not +the moral tone and ideal, in the lack of stimulus, been lowered? Has not +vice become more shameless, and the greed for all things pleasant grown +harder and more cruel? Are not the mass of men hopelessly and wearily +wandering in a tangled maze without a clue?(1576) + +With such questionings ringing in his inner ear, the man with some +lingering instinct of goodness might well crave, beyond anything else, for +an inner law of life which should bring order into the chaos of his +conduct and desires.(1577) And philosophy, having in magnificent effort +failed to scale the virgin heights, fell back on conduct, which seemed +then, even more than to a lost teacher of our youth, "three-fourths of +life." The great science which, in the glory and fresh vigour of the +Hellenic prime, aspired to embrace all existence and all knowledge, to +penetrate the secret of the universe and God, by general consent narrowed +its efforts to relieve the struggles of this transient life set "between +two eternities." The human spirit, weary of the fruitless quest of an +ever-vanishing ideal of knowledge, took up the humbler task of solving the +ever-recurring problem of human happiness and conduct. Henceforth, in +spite of traditional dialectic discordance, all the schools, Stoic or +Epicurean, Sceptic or Eclectic, are seeking for the secret of inner peace, +and are singularly unanimous in their report of the discovery.(1578) The +inner life of the spirit becomes all in all. Speculation and political +activity are equally unimportant to the true life of the soul. Calm +equipoise of the inner nature, undisturbed by the changes of fortunes or +the solicitations of desire, is the ideal of all, under whatever +difference of phrase. What has he to do with any single state who realises +his citizenship in the great commonwealth of man? If the secret of peace +cannot be won by launching in adventurous thought into the Infinite, +perchance it may be found in discipline of the rebellious will. +Philosophy, then, must become the guide of life, the healer of spiritual +maladies.(1579) It must teach the whole duty of man, to the gods, to the +state, to parents and elders, to women and to slaves. It must attempt the +harder task of bringing some principle of order into the turmoil of +emotion and passion: it must teach us, amid the keen claims of competing +objects of desire, to distinguish the true from the false, the permanent +from the fleeting. + +The moral reformer cannot indeed dispense with theory and a ground of +general principles,(1580) but he will not forget that his main business is +to impart the _ars vivendi_; he will be more occupied with rules which may +be immediately applied in practice, than with the theory of morals. A +profound acquaintance with the pathology of the soul, minute study of the +weaknesses of character, long experience of the devices for counteracting +them, will be worth far more than an encyclopaedic knowledge of centuries +of speculation.(1581) He will not undervalue the moral discourse, with the +practical object of turning souls from their evil ways; but he has only +contempt for the rhetoric of the class-room which desecrates solemn themes +by the vanities of phrase-making.(1582) The best and most fruitful work of +practical philosophy is done by private counsel, adapted to the special +needs of the spiritual patient. He must be encouraged to make a full +confession of the diseases of his soul.(1583) He must be trained in daily +self-examination, to observe any signs of moral growth or of backsliding. +He must be checked when over confident, and cheered in discouragement. He +must have his enthusiasm kindled by appropriate examples of those who have +trodden the same path and reached the heights.(1584) + +This serious aim of philosophy commended itself to the intensely practical +and strenuous spirit of the Romans. And although there were plenty of +showy lecturers or preachers in the first century who could draw +fashionable audiences, the private philosophic director was a far more +real power. The triumph of Aemilius Paulus brought numbers of Greek exiles +to Italy, many of whom found a home as teachers in Roman families.(1585) +Panaetius, who revolutionised Stoicism, and made it a working system, +profoundly influenced the circle of Scipio Aemilianus, in whose house he +lived. Great generals and leaders of the last age of the Republic, a +Lucullus or a Pompey, often carried philosophers in their train. From +Augustus to Elagabalus we hear of their presence at the imperial court. +The wife of Augustus sought consolation on the death of Drusus from Areus, +her husband's philosophic director.(1586) Many of these men indeed did not +take their profession very seriously, and in too many cases they were mere +flatterers and parasites whom the rich patron hired from ostentation and +treated with contumely.(1587) Both Nero and Hadrian used to amuse +themselves with the quarrels and vanity of their philosophers.(1588) But +in the terror of the Claudian Caesars, the Stoic director is often seen +performing his proper part. Julius Canus, when ordered to execution by +Caligula, had his philosopher by his side, with whom he discussed till the +last fatal moment the future of the soul.(1589) The officer who brought +the sentence of death to Thrasea found him absorbed in conversation with +the Cynic Demetrius on the mystery which the lancet was in a few moments +to resolve.(1590) + +Of this great movement to cultivate a moral life in paganism L. Annaeus +Seneca was not the least illustrious representative. Musonius, his younger +contemporary, and Epictetus, the pupil of Musonius, were engaged in the +same cure of souls, and taught practically the same philosophic gospel. +They equally paid but slight attention to the logic and physics of the +older schools.(1591) Virtue, to all of them, is the one great end of +philosophic effort. They were all deeply impressed by the spiritual wants +of the time,(1592) and they all felt that men needed not subtleties of +disquisition or rhetorical display, but direct, personal teaching which +appealed to the conscience. To all of them the philosopher is a physician +of souls. Musonius and Epictetus were probably loftier and more blameless +characters than Seneca. Epictetus especially, from the range and simple +attractiveness of his teaching, might seem to many a better representative +of the philosophic director than Seneca. Seneca, as the wealthy minister +of Nero, excites a repugnance in some minds, which prevents them doing +justice to his unquestionable power and fascination. His apparent +inconsistency has condemned him in the eyes of an age which professes to +believe in the teaching of the Mount, and idolises grandiose wealth and +power. His rhetoric offends a taste that can tolerate and applaud verbose +banalities, with little trace of redeeming art. He cannot always win the +hearing accorded to the repentant sinner, whose dark experience may make +his message more real and pungent. The historian, however, must put aside +these rather pharisaic prejudices, and give Seneca the position as a moral +teacher which his writings have won in ages not less earnest than ours. +Nor need we fear to recognise a power which led the early Fathers to trace +the spiritual vision of Seneca to an intercourse with S. Paul,(1593) +supported by a feigned correspondence which imposed on S. Augustine and S. +Jerome.(1594) The man who approaches Seneca thinking only of scandals +gleaned from Tacitus and Dion Cassius,(1595) and frozen by a criticism +which cannot feel the power of genius, spiritual imagination, and a +profound moral experience, behind a rhetoric sometimes forced and +extravagant, had better leave him alone. The Christianity of the twentieth +century might well hail with delight the advent of such a preacher, and +would certainly forget all the accusations of prurient gossip in the +accession of an immense and fascinating spiritual force. The man with any +historical imagination must be struck with amazement that such spiritual +detachment, such lofty moral ideals, so pure an enthusiasm for the +salvation of souls, should emerge from a palace reeking with all the +crimes of the haunted races of Greek legend. That the courtier of the +reigns of Caligula and Claudius, the tutor and minister of Nero, should +not have escaped some stains may be probable: that such a man should have +composed the Letters and the _De Ira_ of Seneca is almost a miracle. Yet +the glow of earnestness and conviction, the intimate knowledge of the last +secrets of guilty souls, may well have been the reward of such an ordeal. + +Seneca's career, given a latent fund of moral enthusiasm, was really a +splendid preparation for his mission, as an analyst of a corrupt society +and a guide to moral reform. He lived through the gloomiest years of the +imperial tyranny; he had been in the thick of its intrigues, and privy to +its darkest secrets; he had enjoyed its favour, and knew the perils of its +jealousy and suspicion. He came as an infant from Cordova to Rome in the +last years of Augustus.(1596) In spite of weak health, he was an ardent +student of all the science and philosophy of the time, and he fell under +the influence of Sotion, a member of the Sextian School, which combined a +rigorous Stoicism with Pythagorean rules of life.(1597) As a young +advocate and prosperous official, he passed unharmed through the terror +and ghastly rumours of the closing years of Tiberius.(1598) His eloquence +in the Senate excited the jealousy of Caligula, and he narrowly escaped +the penalty.(1599) In the reign of Claudius he must have been one of the +inner circle of the court, for his banishment, at the instance of +Messalina, for eight years to Corsica was the penalty of a supposed +intrigue with Julia, the niece of the emperor.(1600) Seneca knew how to +bend to the storm, and, by the influence of Agrippina, he was recalled to +be the tutor of the young Nero, and on his accession four years +afterwards, became his first minister by the side of Burrus.(1601) The +famous _quinquennium_, an oasis in the desert of despotism, was probably +the happiest period of Seneca's life. In spite of some misgivings, the +dream of an earthly Providence, as merciful as it was strong, seemed to be +realised.(1602) But it was, after all, a giddy and anxious elevation, and +the influence of Seneca was only maintained by politic concessions, and +was constantly threatened by the daemonic ambition of Agrippina.(1603) And +Seneca had enemies like P. Suillius, jealous of his power and his +millions, and eagerly pointing to the hypocrisy of the Stoic preacher, +whom gossip branded as an adulterer and a usurer.(1604) The death of +Burrus gave the last shock to his power.(1605) His enemies poured in to +the assault. The emperor had long wished to shake off the incubus of a +superior spirit; and the riches, the pointed eloquence, and more pointed +sarcasms, the gardens and villas and lordly state of the great minister, +suggested a possible aspirant to the principate. Seneca acted on his +principles and offered to give up everything.(1606) But his torture was to +be prolonged, and his doom deferred for about two years. His release came +in the fierce vengeance for the Pisonian conspiracy.(1607) + +Seneca was an ideal director for the upper class of such an age. He had +risen to the highest office in a world-wide monarchy, and he had spent +years in hourly fear of death. He had enjoyed the society of the most +brilliant circles, and exchanged epigrams and repartees with the best; he +had also seen them steeped in debauchery and treachery, and +terror-stricken in base compliance. He had witnessed their fantastic +efforts of luxury and self-indulgence, and heard the tale of wearied +sensualism and disordered ambition and ineffectual lives.(1608) His +disciples were drawn, if not from the noblest class, at any rate from the +class which had felt the disillusionment of wealth and fashion and power. +And the vicissitudes in his own fate and character made him a powerful and +sympathetic adviser. He had long to endure the torturing contrast of +splendid rank and wealth, with the brooding terror of a doom which might +sweep down at any moment. He was also tortured by other contrasts, some +drawn by the fierceness of envious hatred, others perhaps acknowledged by +conscience. Steeped in the doctrines of Chrysippus and Pythagoras, he had +subdued the ebullient passions of youth by a more than monastic +asceticism.(1609) He had passionately adopted an ethical creed which aimed +at a radical reform of human nature, at the triumph of cultivated and +moralised reason and social sympathy over the brutal materialism and +selfishness of the age. He had pondered on its doctrines of the higher +life, of the nothingness of the things of sense, on death, and the +indwelling God assisting the struggling soul, on the final happy release +from all the sordid misery and terror, until every earthly pleasure and +ambition faded away in the presence of a glorious moral ideal.(1610) And +yet this pagan monk, this idealist, who would have been at home with S. +Jerome or Thomas a Kempis, had accumulated a vast fortune, and lived in a +palace which excited the envy of a Nero. He was suspected of having been +the lover of two princesses of the imperial house.(1611) He was charged +with having connived at, or encouraged the excesses of Nero, and even of +having been an accomplice in the murder of Agrippina, or its +apologist.(1612) Some of these rumours are probably false, the work of +prurient imaginations in the most abandoned age in history. Yet there are +traces in Seneca's writings that he had not passed unscathed through the +terrible ordeal to which character was exposed in that age. There are +pictures of voluptuous ease and jaded satiety which may be the work of a +keen sympathetic observation, but which may also be the expression of +repentant memory.(1613) In any case, he had sounded the very depths of the +moral abysses of his time. He had no illusions about the actual condition +of human nature. The mass of men, all but a few naturally saintly souls, +were abandoned to lust or greed or selfish ambition. Human life was an +obscene and cruel struggle of wild beasts for the doles flung by fortune +into the arena.(1614) The peace and happiness of the early Eden have +departed for ever, leaving men to the restlessness of exhausted appetite, +or to the half-repentant sense of impotent lives, spent in pursuing the +phantoms of imaginary pleasure, with broken glimpses now and then of a +world for ever lost.(1615) With such a scene about him in his declining +years, whatever his own practice may have been, Seneca came to feel an +evangelistic passion, almost approaching S. Paul's, to open to these sick +perishing souls the vision of a higher life through the practical +discipline of philosophy. + +The tendency to regard the true function of philosophy as purely ethical, +reforming, guiding and sustaining character and conduct, finds its most +emphatic expression in Seneca. He is far more a preacher, a spiritual +director, than a thinker, and he would have proudly owned it. His highest, +nay, one may almost say his only aim, is, in our modern phrase, to which +his own sometimes approaches, to save souls. Philosophy in its highest and +best sense is not the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, nor the +disinterested play of intellect, regardless of intellectual consequences, +as in a Platonic dialogue.(1616) It is pre-eminently the science or the +art of right living, that is of a life conformed to right reason.(1617) +Its great end is the production of the _sapiens_, the man who sees, in the +light of Eternal Reason, the true proportions of things, whose affections +have been trained to obey the higher law, whose will has hardened into an +unswerving conformity to it, in all the difficulties of conduct.(1618) And +the true philosopher is no longer the cold, detached student of +intellectual problems, far removed from the struggles and the miseries of +human life. He has become the _generis humani paedagogus_,(1619) the +schoolmaster to bring men to the Ideal Man. In comparison with that +mission, all the sublimity or subtlety of the great masters of dialectic +becomes mere contemptible trifling, as if a man should lose himself in +some game, or in the rapture of sweet music, with a great conflagration +raging before his eyes. In the universal moral shipwreck, how can one toy +with these old world trifles, while the perishing are stretching out their +hands for help?(1620) Not that Seneca despises the inheritance of ancient +wisdom, so far as it has any gospel for humanity.(1621) He will accept +good moral teaching from any quarter, from Plato or Epicurus, as readily +as from Chrysippus or Panaetius.(1622) He is ready to give almost divine +honours to the great teachers of the human race. But he also feels that no +moral teaching can be final. After a thousand ages, there will still be +room for making some addition to the message of the past. There will +always be a need for fresh adjustments and applications of the remedies +which past wisdom has handed down.(1623) + +It is almost needless to say that Seneca has almost a contempt for the +so-called liberal studies of his day.(1624) There is only one truly +liberal study, that which aims at liberating the will from the bondage of +desire. Granted that it is necessary as a mental discipline to submit to +the grammarian in youth; yet experience shows that this training does +nothing to form the virtuous character.(1625) Who can respect a man who +wastes his mature years, like Didymus, in inquiries as to the relative +ages of Hecuba or Helen, or the name of the mother of Aeneas, or the +character of Anacreon or Sappho?(1626) The man of serious purpose will +rather try to forget these trifles than continue the study of them. And +Seneca treats in the same fashion the hair-splitting and verbal subtleties +of some of the older Stoics. He acquiesces indeed, in their threefold +division of Philosophy into Logic, Physics, and Ethics; but for the first +department he seems to have but scant respect, though once or twice he +amuses his pupil Lucilius by a disquisition on Genus and Species, or the +Platonic and Aristotelian "Causes," in the style of the Stoic +scholasticism.(1627) Seneca was writing for posterity; he has his +intellectual vanity; and he probably wished to show that, while he set but +little store by such studies, this was not due to an imperfect knowledge +of them. It is because life is too short, and its great problems are too +urgent, to permit a serious man to spend his precious years in fruitless +intellectual play. He calls on Lucilius to leave such barren subtleties, +which bring the greatest of all themes down to the level of intellectual +jugglery.(1628) + +For the department of Physics Seneca has much more respect, and he +evidently devoted much attention to it. We have traces of some lost works +of his on scientific subjects, and there is still extant a treatise in +seven books on _Natural Questions_, which became a handbook of science in +the Middle Ages.(1629) It deals with such subjects as we meet with in the +poem of Lucretius, thunder and lightning, winds and earthquakes, and +rising and failing springs. But it has perhaps less of the scientific +spirit than Lucretius, according to our modern standards. We have abundant +reference to old physical authorities, to Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander, +Diogenes of Apollonia, to Caecina and Attalus. But the conception of any +scientific method beyond more or less ingenious hypothesis, or of any +scientific verification of hypothesis, is utterly absent. This is of +course a general characteristic of most of the scientific effort of +antiquity. The truth is that, although Seneca probably had some interest +in natural phenomena, he had a far more profound interest in human nature +and human destiny. The older Stoics, with some variations, subordinated +Physics to Ethics, as of inferior and only subsidiary importance.(1630) +Seneca carries this subordination almost to extremes, although he also is +sometimes inconsistent.(1631) He thinks it significant that while the +World-Spirit has hidden gold, the great tempter and corruptor, far beneath +our feet, it has displayed, in mysterious yet pompous splendour, in the +azure canopy above us, the heavenly orbs which are popularly believed to +control our destiny in the material sense, and which may really govern it, +by raising our minds to the contemplation of an infinite mystery and a +marvellous order.(1632) To Seneca, as to Kant, there seems a mystic tie +between the starry heavens above and the moral law within. In the prologue +to the _Natural Questions_, indeed, carried away for the moment by the +grandeur of his theme, Seneca seems to exalt the contemplation of the +infinite distances and mysterious depths and majestic order of the stellar +world far above the moral struggles of our mundane life. The earth shrinks +to a mere point in infinitude, an ant-hill where the human insects mark +out their Lilliputian territories and make their wars and voyages for +their lifetime of an hour.(1633) This, however, is rather a piece of +rhetoric than a careful statement of Seneca's real view. In the Letters, +again and again, we are told that virtue is the one important thing, that +the conquest of passion raises man to be equal to God,(1634) and that in +the release of the rational or divine part of us from bondage to the +flesh, man recovers a lost liberty, a primeval dignity. But in this +struggle the spirit may refresh and elevate itself by looking up to the +divine world from which it draws its origin, and to which it may, +perchance, return. To Seneca's mind the so-called physics really involve +theology and metaphysics. In the contemplation of the vastness of the +material universe, the mind may be aroused to the urgency and interest of +the great questions touching God, His relation to fate, to the world, and +man.(1635) The scientific interest in Seneca is evidently not the +strongest. There are still indeed the echoes of the old philosophies which +sought man's true greatness and final beatitude in the clear vision of +abstract truth. But Seneca is travelling rapidly on the way which leads to +another vision of the celestial city, in which emotion, the passionate +yearning for holiness as well as truth, blends with and tends to overpower +the ideal of a passionless eternity of intellectual intuition. In Seneca's +rapturous outburst on the gate of deliverance opened by death, making +allowance for difference of associations and beliefs, there is surely a +strange note of kindred sympathy, across the gulf of thirteen centuries, +with Thomas a Kempis.(1636) + +The _Natural Questions_ were, as he tells us, the work of his old +age.(1637) He has a lofty conception of his task, of the importance of the +subject to the right culture of the spirit, and he summons up all his +remaining energy to do it justice. But the work falls far short, in +interest and executive skill, of a treatise like the _De Beneficiis_, and +the principle of edification--_omnibus sermonibus aliquid salutare +miscendum_(1638)--is too obtrusive, and sometimes leads to incongruous and +almost ludicrous effects. A reference to the mullet launches him on a +discourse on luxury.(1639) A discourse on mirrors would hardly seem to +lend itself to moralising. Yet the invention furnishes to Seneca +impressive lessons on self-knowledge, and a chance of glorifying the +simple age when the unkempt daughter of a Scipio, who received her scanty +dowry in uncoined metal, had never had her vanity aroused by the reflected +image of her charms.(1640) The subject of lightning naturally gives +occasion to a homily against the fear of death.(1641) A prologue, on the +conflict to be waged with passion and luxury and chance and change, winds +up abruptly with the invitation--_quaeramus ergo de aquis_ ... _qua ratione +fiant_.(1642) The investigation closes with an imaginative description of +the great cataclysm which is destined to overwhelm in ruin the present +order. The earthquakes in Campania in 66 A.D. naturally furnish many moral +lessons.(1643) The closing passage of the _Natural Questions_ is perhaps +the best, and the most worthy of Seneca. In all these inquiries, he says, +into the secrets of nature, we should proceed with reverent caution and +self-distrust, as men veil their faces and bend in humbleness before a +sacrifice.(1644) How many an orb, moving in the depths of space, has never +yet risen upon the eyes of man.(1645) The Great Author Himself is only +dimly visible to the inner eye, and there are vast regions of His universe +which are still beyond our ken, which dazzle us by their effulgence, or +elude our gross senses by their subtle secrecy. We are halting on the +threshold of the great mysteries. There are many things destined to be +revealed to far-distant ages, when our memory shall have passed +away,(1646) of which our time does not deserve the revelation. Our +energies are spent in discovering fresh ingenuities of luxury and +monstrous vice. No one gives a thought to philosophy; the schools of +ancient wisdom are deserted and left without a head.(1647) It is in this +spirit that Seneca undertook his mission as a saviour of souls. + +Seneca, in the epilogue to the _Natural Questions_, remarks sarcastically +that, as all human progress is slow, so, even with all our efforts of +self-indulgence, we have not yet reached the finished perfection of +depravity; we are still making discoveries in vice. In another passage he +maintains that his own age is no worse than others.(1648) But this is only +because at all times the mass of men are bad. Such pessimism in the first +and second centuries was a prevalent tone. We meet it alike in Persius, +Petronius, Martial, and Juvenal, and in Seneca, Tacitus, Pliny, Epictetus, +and Marcus Aurelius.(1649) The rage for wealth and luxury, the frenzy of +vice which perverted natural healthy instincts and violated the last +retreats of modesty, the combination of ostentation and meanness in social +life, the cowardice and the cruelty which are twin offspring of pampered +self-indulgence, the vanity of culture and the vanishing of ideals, the +vague restless ennui, hovering between satiety and passion, between faint +glimpses of goodness and ignominious failure, between fits of ambition and +self-abandoned languor, all these and more had come under the eye of +Seneca as an observer or a director of souls.(1650) It is a lost world +that he has before him, trying fruitless anodynes for its misery, holding +out its hands for help from any quarter.(1651) The consuming earnestness +of Seneca, about which, in spite of his rhetoric, there can be no mistake, +and his endless iteration are the measure of his feeling as to the gravity +of the case. Seneca is the earliest and most powerful apostle of a great +moral revival. His studied phrase, his epigrammatic point seem often out +of place; his occasionally tinsel rhetoric sometimes offends a modern +taste. We often miss the austere and simple seriousness of Epictetus, the +cultivated serenity and the calm clear-sighted resignation of Marcus +Aurelius. Still let us admit that here is a man, with all his moral faults +which he freely confesses, with all his rhetoric which was a part of his +very nature, who felt he had a mission, and meant to fulfil it with all +the resources of his mind. He is one of the few heathen moralists who warm +moral teaching with the emotion of modern religion, and touch it with the +sadness and the yearning which spring from a consciousness of man's +infinite capacities and his actual degradation; one in whose eyes can be +seen the _amor ulterioris ripae_, in whose teaching there are searching +precepts which go to the roots of conduct, and are true for all ages of +our race. He adheres formally to the lines of the old Stoic system in his +moments of calm logical consistency. But when the enthusiasm of humanity, +the passion to win souls to goodness and moral truth is upon him, all the +old philosophical differences fade, the new wine bursts the old bottles; +the Platonic dualism, the eternal conflict of flesh and spirit,(1652) the +Platonic vision of God, nay, a higher vision of the Creator, the pitiful +and loving Guardian, the Giver of all good, the Power which draws us to +Himself, who receives us at death, and in whom is our eternal beatitude, +these ideas, so alien to the older Stoicism, transfigure its hardness, and +its cold, repellent moral idealism becomes a religion.(1653) Seneca's +system is really a religion; it is morality inspired by belief in a +spiritual world and "touched by emotion." In a remarkable letter, he +discusses the question whether, for the conduct of life, precept is +sufficient without dogma, whether a man can govern his life by empirical +rules, without a foundation of general principles. Can a religion dispense +with dogma?(1654) Seneca, as a casuist and spiritual director, was not +likely to undervalue the importance of definite precept, adapted to the +circumstances of the case. The philosopher, who was a regular official in +great families, probably dealt chiefly in precept, on a basis of authority +concealed and rarely scrutinised. But Seneca is not an ordinary +professional director. He has a serious purpose; he feels that he is +dealing with the most momentous of all problems--how to form or reform a +life, with a view to its true end, how the final good of man is to be +realised only in virtuous action. But action will not be right and +virtuous unless the will be also right, and rightness of will depends on +ordered habit of the soul,(1655) and that again springs from right general +principles or dogmas. In other words, a true theory of conduct is +necessary to virtue in the highest sense. Mere imperative precept and rule +cannot give steadiness and continuity to conduct. The motive, the clear +perception of the guiding principle, can alone dignify an act with a +peculiar moral distinction. In order to possess that character, the +external act must be rooted in a faith in the rational law of conduct. +Particular precepts may produce an external obedience to that law, but +they cannot give the uniformity and certainty of the inner light and the +regulated will. + +Seneca is not a sectarian dogmatist, although he lays so much stress on +the necessity of dogma to virtuous conduct. He boldly declares that he +does not follow absolutely any of the Stoic doctors. He defends Epicurus +against the vulgar misunderstanding of his theory of pleasure, and the +more vulgar practical deductions from it. He often quotes his maxims with +admiration to Lucilius.(1656) In his views of the nature of God and His +relation to the external world and to the human soul, Seneca often seems +to follow the old Stoic tradition. There are other passages where he seems +to waver between different conceptions of God, the Creator of the +universe, the incorporeal Reason, the divine breath diffused through all +things, great and small, Fate, or the immutable chain of interlinked +causation.(1657) It is also clear that, from the tone of his mind, and the +fact that the centre of philosophical interest for him is the moral life +of man, he tends towards a more ethical conception of the Deity, as the +Being who loves and cares for man. All this may be admitted and will be +further noticed on a later page. Yet Seneca, in strict theory, probably +never became a dissenter from the physical or ontological creed of his +school. He adhered, in the last resort, to the Stoic pantheism, which +represented God and the universe, force and formless matter, as ultimately +issuing from the one substratum of the ethereal fire of Heraclitus, and in +the great cataclysm, returning again to their source.(1658) He also held +theoretically the Stoic materialism, and the Stoic principle, that only +corporeal natures can act on one another.(1659) The force which moulds +indeterminate matter into concrete form is spirit, breath, in the literal +sense, interfused in rude matter, and by its tension, outward and again +inward upon itself, producing form and quality and energy. Mere matter +could never mould itself, or develop from within a power of movement and +action. But this material force which shapes the universe from within is +also rational, and the universe is a rational being, guided by the +indwelling reason to predestined ends, and obedient to a universal law. +The God of the Stoics is thus a very elastic or comprehensive conception. +He may be viewed as the ubiquitous, impalpable force, which may, in the +lack of more accurate expression, be called air, ether, fire. He is the +soul, the breath, the Anima Mundi. He is also the universal law, the +rational principle, underlying all the apparently casual and fitful +phenomena of physical nature and human life. God may also surely be +regarded as the eternal Fate, the power in the ruthless, yet merciful +sequence of inevitable causation.(1660) And, in milder and more optimistic +moods, we may view Him as a watchful Providence, caring for men more than +they seem to care for themselves, saving them from the consequences of +their own errors and misdeeds. In Seneca, He develops into a moral and +spiritual Being, the source of all spiritual intuition and virtuous +emotion, the secret power within us making for righteousness, as He is the +secret force in all nature making for order.(1661) + +It seems a little crude and superficial to contrast the materialist and +idealist conceptions of God in the later Stoic creed. What human +conception of Him is free from similar contradictions? How can any +conception of Him, expressed in human language, avoid them? And in +Seneca's conception of soul, even as material, there is something so thin, +so subtle, and elusive, that the bounds of matter and spirit seem to melt +away and disappear.(1662) However loyal he may be in form to Stoic +materialism, Seneca in the end regards God as no mere material force, +however refined and etherealised, but a spiritual power; not perhaps +limited by the bounds of personality, but instinct with moral tendencies, +nay, a moral impetus, which no mere physical force could ever +develop.(1663) The growing dualism in Seneca's metaphysics is the result +of the growing dualism of his psychology. In accord with the old Stoic +doctors, he sometimes formulates the material nature of the soul, and its +essential unity. It is, like the Anima Mundi, warm breath or subtle fire, +penetrating all parts of the body, discharging currents from the central +heart to the several organs. It is primarily rational, and all the lower +powers of passion are derived from the controlling and unifying reason. It +is a spark of the universal Spirit, holding the same place in the human +organism as the Divine Spirit does in the universe.(1664) But experience +and reflection drove Seneca more and more into an acceptance of the +Platonic opposition of reason and passion, an unceasing struggle of the +flesh and spirit, in which the old Stoic theory of the oneness of the +rational soul tended to disappear.(1665) This is only one, but it is the +most important, modification of ancient theory forced on Seneca by a +closer application of theory to the facts of human life, and a completer +analysis of them. The individual consciousness, and the spectacle of human +life, alike witness to the inevitable tendency of human nature to +corruption. Even after the great cataclysm, when a new earth shall arise +from the waters of the deluge, and a new man, in perfect innocence, shall +enter on this fair inheritance, the clouds will soon gather again, and +darken the fair deceitful dawn.(1666) The weary struggle of flesh and +spirit will begin once more, in which the flesh is so often the victor. +For to Seneca, as to the Orphic mystics and to Plato, the body is a +prison, and life one long punishment.(1667) Such is the misery of this +mortal life, such the danger of hopeless corruption, that no one would +accept the gift of existence if he could foresee the evil in store for +him.(1668) And death, the object of dread to the blind masses, is really +the one compensation for the calamity of birth, either as a happy return +to antenatal tranquillity, or as the gateway to a glorious freedom and +vision of the Divine.(1669) Seneca, indeed, does not always express +himself in this strain. He is often the consistent, orthodox Stoic, who +glories in the rounded perfection of the _sapiens_, triumphing, even in +this life, over all the seductions of sense and the fallacies of perverted +reason, and, in virtue of the divine strength within him, making himself, +even here below, equal with God in moral purity and freedom.(1670) In such +moods, he will adhere to the Stoic psychology: reason will be all in all; +virtue will be uniform, complete, attained by one supreme victorious +effort. But the vision is constantly crossed and darkened by doubts which +are raised by the terrible facts of life. The moral problem becomes more +difficult and complicated; the vision of perfection recedes to an infinite +distance, and the glorious deliverance is reserved for an immortal life of +which the older Stoics did not often dream. + +Still, we can find in Seneca all the Stoic gospel, and moral idealism. +"Nil bonum nisi verum" is the fundamental principle. The failures, +aberrations, and sins of men arise from a false conception of what is +good, produced by the warping effect of external things upon the higher +principle. The avaricious, the ambitious, the sensual, live in a vain +show. They are pursuing unreal objects of desire, which cheat and befool +the reason, and turn to ashes when they are won. The "kingdom of Heaven is +within." It is the freedom, the peace, the tranquil sense of power over +all that is fortuitous and external and fleeting, which alone can realise +the highest good of man.(1671) It is attained only by virtue, that is, by +living in obedience to the law of reason, which has its voice and +representative in each human soul. The summons to yield ourselves to the +law of nature and reason simply calls us to obey our highest part (_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_), which is a steadfast witness to the eternal truth of things, +and, if unbribed and unperverted, will discern infallibly the right line +of conduct amid all the clamorous or seductive temptations of the flesh or +of the world. Nothing is a real good which has not the stamp and hall-mark +of reason, which is not within the soul itself, that is within our own +power. Everything worth having or wishing for is within. External things, +wealth, power, high place, the pleasures of sense, are transitory, +deceptive, unstable, the gifts of Fortune, and equally at her mercy. In +the mad struggle for these ephemeral pleasures, the wise man retires +unobserved from the scene of cruel and sordid rapacity, having secretly +within him the greatest prize of all, which Fortune cannot give or take +away.(1672) If these things were really good, then God would be less happy +than the slave of lust and ambition, than the sensualist who is fascinated +by a mistress or a minion, the trader who may be ruined by a storm, the +wealthy minister who may at any moment be ordered to death by a +Nero.(1673) The only real liberty and human dignity are to be found in +renunciation. If we jealously guard and reverence the divine reason within +us, and obey its monitions, which are in truth the voice of God, the +Universal Reason, then we have an impregnable fortress which cannot be +stormed by any adverse fortune. The peace and freedom so won may be +called, although Seneca does not so call it, the "peace of God." For it is +in fact the restored harmony between the human spirit and the Reason of +the world, and the cessation of the weary conflict between the "law in the +members" and "the law of the mind," which ends so often in that other +peace of a "mare mortuum," a stillness of moral death.(1674) + +The gospel of Seneca, with all its searching power, seems wanting in some +of the essentials of an effective religion which can work on character. +Where, it may be asked, is the force to come from which shall nerve the +repentant one to essay the steep ascent to the calm of indefectible +virtue? And what is the reward which can more than compensate for the +great renunciation? With regard to the first question, the Stoic answer is +clear. The reforming force is the divine reason, indwelling in every human +soul,(1675) which, if it is able, or is permitted, to emancipate itself +from bondage to the things of sense, will inevitably gravitate to the +divine world, from which it sprang. The question of necessity and freedom +of the will has not much interest for Seneca, as a practical moralist. He +believes theoretically in the old Stoic dogmas on the subject. From one +point of view, God may be regarded as the eternal Fate, the inevitable law +of causation. And as the Universal Reason, He cannot act otherwise than He +does, without violating His very nature. But His action is self-determined +and therefore free and spontaneous.(1676) This freedom man only attains by +breaking away from the cruel servitude to passion and external +circumstance. As a practical moral teacher, Seneca is bound to say that we +can take the higher road if we will. The first step towards freedom is to +grasp firmly the fundamental law of the moral life--that the only good lies +in conformity to reason, to the higher part of our being. If we yield to +its bidding, we can at once cut ourselves off from the deceitful life of +the senses, and the vision of the true beatitude in virtue at once opens +on the inner eye. When that vision has been seen, we must then seek to +form a habit of the soul which shall steadily conform to the universal +law, and finally give birth to a settled purpose, issuing inevitably in +virtuous act.(1677) It is this fixed and stable resolution which is the +Stoic ideal, although experience showed that it was rarely attained. The +great renunciation is thus the entrance on a state of true freedom, which +is realised only by submitting ourselves to the law of reason, that is of +God. By obedience to rational law man is raised to a level far +transcending the transient and shadowy dignities of the world. His +rational and divine part is reunited to the Divine Spirit which "makes for +righteousness"; he places himself in the sweep and freedom of a movement +which finds its image and counterpart in the majestic and ordered +movements of the heavenly spheres. If we ask, how can poor humanity, so +abject, so brutalised, so deadened by the downward pressure of the flesh +and the world, ever release itself and rise to those empyrean heights, the +answer is, through the original strength of the rational, which is the +divine element in the human soul. It may be, and actually is, in the mass +of men, drugged and silenced by the seductions of sense and the deceptions +of the world. But if, in some moment of detachment and elation, when its +captors and jailors relax their guard, it can escape their clutches, it +will at once seek the region of its birth, and its true home. It is in the +kindred of the human reason with the Divine, the Reason of the world, that +we must seek the reconciliation of two apparently opposite points of view. +At one time the Stoic doctor tells us that we must trust to our own +strength in the moral struggle. And again Seneca, in almost Christian +phrase, comforts his disciple with the vision of God holding out a +succouring hand to struggling virtue, just as he warns the backslider of +an eye "that seeth in secret." Woe to him who despises that Witness.(1678) + +With such a conception of the relation of the human reason to the Divine, +Seneca was bound to believe that human nature, as it is, had fallen away +from original and spontaneous innocence. In the equal enjoyment of the +unforced gifts of nature, in the absence of the avarice and luxury which +the development of the arts, the exploitation of the earth's hidden +wealth, and the competitive struggle, born of a social life growing more +and more complicated, have generated, the primeval man was unsolicited by +the passions which have made life a hell.(1679) Yet this blissful state +was one of innocence rather than of virtue; it was the result of ignorance +of evil rather than determined choice of good.(1680) And the man who, in +the midst of a corrupt society, fights his way to virtue, will take far +higher moral rank than our simple ancestors, who wandered in the unravaged +garden of the Golden Age. For the man born in a time when the nobler +instincts have been deadened by the lust of gold and power and sensual +excess, the virtuous will can only be won by a hard struggle. + +Confronted with the facts of life, and fired with a passion to win men to +a higher law, the later Stoicism had in some points to soften the rigid +lines of earlier theory. The severe idealism of the great doctors was a +mere dream of an impossible detachment, the inexorable demand of a +pitiless logic. Virtue, being conformity to the immutable law of reason, +was conceived as a rounded, flawless whole, to which nothing could be +added, and to which nothing must be wanting. It presupposes, or is +identical with, a settled intellectual clearness, an unclouded knowledge +of the truly good, which must inevitably issue in perfect act. It is a +single, uniform mental state from which all the separate virtues spring as +from a single root.(1681) The moral value of an act depends entirely on +will, intention, that is, on the intellectual perception. And as there are +no gradations in the mental state, so there are no gradations in moral +conduct which issues from it. There are no distinctions between things +morally good, between "divine" things; and so, just as in the older +Calvinistic system, there is no class intermediate between the wise and +the foolish, the saved and the lost. And conversion, "transfiguration," +the change from folly to wisdom, is regarded as instantaneous and +complete.(1682) Even those who are struggling upward, but have not yet +reached the top, are still to be reckoned among the foolish, just as the +man a few inches below the waves will be drowned as certainly as if he +were sunk fathoms deep. And, as there is no mean state in morals, so the +extremes are necessarily finished and perfect types of virtue and +reprobacy. The ideal _sapiens_, who combines in himself all the moral and +intellectual attributes that go to make up the ideal of serene, flawless +virtue, has been the mark for ridicule from the days of Horace.(1683) Such +an ideal, soaring into the pure cold regions of virgin snow, left the +great mass of men grovelling in filth and darkness. And it was in this +light that the severe Stoic regarded the condition of the multitude. They +are all equally bad, and they will always be bad, from age to age. Every +generation mourns over its degeneracy, but it is no worse than its +ancestors, and its posterity will be no better. The only variation is in +the various fashion of the vices.(1684) In any crowded scene, says Seneca, +in the forum or the circus, you have a mere gathering of savage beasts, a +spectacle of vice incarnate.(1685) In the garb of peace, they are engaged +in a truceless war, hating the fortunate, trampling on the fallen. Viewing +this scene of shameless lust and cupidity where every tie of duty or +friendship is violated, if the wise man were to measure his indignation by +the atrocity of the offenders, his anger must end in madness. But we are +all bad men living among the bad, and we should be gentle to one another. + +The idealism and the pessimism of the earlier Stoics were alike fatal to +any effort of moral reform. The cold, flawless perfection of the man of +triumphant reason was an impossible model which could only discourage and +repel aspirants to the higher life. The ghastly moral wreck of ordinary +human nature, in which not a single germ of virtuous impulse seemed to +have survived the ruin, left apparently no hope of rescue or escape. If +morals were to be anything but an abstract theory, if they were to have +any bearing on the actual character and destiny of man, their demand must +be modified. And so in many essential points it was, even before +Seneca.(1686) The ideal contempt for all external things had to give way +to an Aristotelian recognition of the value of some of them for a virtuous +life. And Seneca is sometimes a follower of Aristotle, as in the +admission, so convenient to the millionaire, that wealth may be used by +the wise man for higher moral ends.(1687) He will not be the slave of +money; he will be its master. He will admit it to his home, but not to his +heart, as a thing which may take to itself wings at any moment, but which +may meanwhile be used to cheer and warm him in his struggles, and may be +dispensed in beneficent help to dependents. In the same way, beside the +ideal of perfect conformity to the law of reason, there appeared a class +of conditional duties. To conform absolutely to the law of reason, to +realise the highest good through virtue, remains the highest Stoic ideal. +But if, beside the highest good, it is permitted to attach a certain value +to some among the external objects of desire, manifestly a whole class of +varying duties arises in the field of choice and avoidance.(1688) And +again the ideal of imperturbable calm, which approached the apathy of the +Cynics, was softened by the admission of rational dispositions of +feeling.(1689) These concessions to imperious facts of human life, of +course, modified the awful moral antithesis of wise and foolish, good and +reprobate. Where is the perfectly wise man, with his single moral purpose, +his unruffled serenity, his full assurance of his own impregnable +strength, actually to be found?(1690) He is not to be discovered among the +most devoted adherents of the true philosophic creed. Even a Socrates +falls short of the sublime standard. If we seek for the wise man in the +fabulous past, we shall find only heroic force, or a blissful, untempted +ignorance, which are alike wanting in the first essential of virtue.(1691) +As the perfect ideal of moral wisdom, imperturbable, assured, and +indefectible, receded to remote ideal distances, so the condemnation of +all moral states below an impossible perfection to indiscriminate +reprobacy(1692) had to be revoked. Seneca maintains that men are all bad, +but he is forced to admit that they are not all equally bad, nay, that +there are men who, although not quite emancipated from the snares of the +world and the flesh, have reached various stages on the upward way. He +even distinguishes three classes of _proficientes_, of persons on the path +of moral progress.(1693) There is the man who has conquered many serious +vices, but is still captive to others. Again, there is the man who has got +rid of the worst faults and passions, but who is not secure against a +relapse. There is a third class who have almost reached the goal. They +have achieved the great moral victory; they have embraced the one true +object of desire; they are safe from any chance of falling away; but they +want the final gift of full assurance reserved for the truly wise.(1694) +They have not attained to the crowning glory of conscious strength. Seneca +is still in bondage to the hard Stoic tradition, in spite of his +aberrations from it. The great Catholic virtue of humility is to him +still, theoretically at least, a disqualification for the highest +spiritual rank. + +And yet Seneca is far from wanting in humility. In giving counsels of +perfection, he candidly confesses that he is himself far from the +ideal.(1695) Indeed, his _Letters_ reveal a character which, with lofty +ideals, and energetic aspiration, is very far removed from the serene joy +and peace of the true Stoic sage. He has not got the invulnerable panoply +from which all the shafts of fortune glance aside. He shows again and +again how deep a shadow the terror of his capricious master could cast +over his life, how he can be disturbed even by the smaller troubles of +existence, by the slights of great society, by the miseries of a sea +voyage, or the noises of a bath.(1696) In the counsels addressed to +Lucilius, Seneca is probably quite as often preaching to himself. The +ennui, the unsteadiness of moral purpose, the clinging to wealth and +power, the haunting fears or timid anticipations of coming evil, for which +he is constantly suggesting spiritual remedies, are diagnosed with such +searching skill and vividness that we can hardly doubt that the physician +has first practised his art upon himself.(1697) Nor has he entire faith in +his own insight or in the potency of the remedies which ancient wisdom has +accumulated. The great difficulty is, that the moral patient, in +proportion to the inveteracy of his disease, is unconscious of it.(1698) +Society, with its manifold temptations of wealth and luxury and +irresponsible ease, can so overwhelm the congenital tendency to +virtue,(1699) that the inner monitor may be silenced, and a man may come +to love his depravity.(1700) If men are not getting better, they are +inevitably getting worse. There is such a state, in the end, as hopeless, +irreclaimable reprobacy. Yet even for the hoary sinner Seneca will not +altogether despair, so long as there lingers in him some divine +discontent, however faint, some lingering regret for a lost purity. He +will not lose hope of converting even a mocker like Marcellinus, who +amuses himself with jeers at the vices and inconsistencies of professing +philosophers, and does not spare himself. Seneca may, perchance, give him +a pause in his downward course.(1701) + +Seneca's gospel, as he preaches it, is for a limited class. With all his +professed belief in the equality and brotherhood of men, Seneca addresses +himself, through the aristocratic Epicurean Lucilius, to the slaves of +wealth and the vices which it breeds. The men whom he wishes to save are +masters of great households, living in stately palaces, and striving to +escape from the weariness of satiety by visits to Baiae or +Praeneste.(1702) They are men who have awful secrets, and whose apparent +tranquillity is constantly disturbed by vague terrors,(1703) whose +intellects are wasted on the vanities of a conventional culture or the +logomachies of a barren dialectic.(1704) They are people whose lives are a +record of weak purpose and conflicting aims, and who are surprised by old +age while they are still barely on the threshold of real moral life.(1705) +With no religious or philosophic faith, death is to such men the great +terror, as closing for ever that life of the flesh which has been at once +so pleasant and so tormenting.(1706) In dealing with such people, Seneca +recognises the need both of the great principles of right living and of +particular precepts, adapted to varieties of character and circumstance. +The true and solid foundation of conduct must always be the clear +perception of moral truth, giving birth to rightly-directed purpose and +supplying the right motive. For example, without a true conception of God +as a spirit, worship will be gross and anthropomorphic.(1707) The doctrine +of the brotherhood of all men in the universal commonwealth is the only +solid ground of the social charities and of humanity to slaves. Yet dogma +is not enough; discipline must be added. The moral director has to deal +with very imperfect moral states, some of quite rudimentary growth, and +his disciples may have to be treated as boys learning to write, whose +fingers the master must guide mechanically across the tablet.(1708) The +latent goodness of humanity must be disencumbered of the load which, +through untold ages, corrupt society has heaped upon it. The delusions of +the world and the senses must be exposed, the judgment, confused and +dazzled by their glamour, must be cleared and steadied, the weak must be +encouraged, the slothful and backsliding must be aroused to continuous +effort in habitual converse with some good man who has trodden the same +paths before.(1709) Thus the great "Ars Vitae," founded on a few simple +principles of reason, developed into a most complicated system of +casuistry and spiritual direction. How far it was successful we cannot +pretend to say. But the thoughtful reader of Seneca's _Letters_ cannot +help coming to the conclusion that, even in the reign of Nero, there must +have been many of the _proficientes_, of candidates for the full Stoic +faith. If Seneca reveals the depths of depravity in his age, we are +equally bound to believe that he represents, and is trying to stimulate, a +great moral movement, a deep seated discontent with the hard, gross +materialism, thinly veiled under dilettantism and spurious artistic +sensibility, of which Nero was the type. Everything that we have of +Seneca's, except the _Tragedies_, deals with the problems or troubles of +this moral life, and the demand for advice or consolation appears to have +been urgent. Lucilius, the young Epicurean procurator, who has been +immortalised by the _Letters_, is only one of a large class of spiritual +inquirers. He not only lays his own moral difficulties before the master, +but he brings other spiritual patients for advice.(1710) There were +evidently many trying to withdraw from the tyranny or temptations of high +life, with a more or less stable resolution to devote themselves to +reflection and amendment. It is a curious pagan counterpart to the +Christian ascetic movement of the fourth and fifth centuries.(1711) And, +just as in the days of S. Jerome and S. Paulinus, the deserter from the +ranks of fashion and pleasure in Nero's time had to encounter a storm of +ridicule and misrepresentation. Philosophic retreat was derided as mere +languid self-indulgence, an unmanly shrinking from social duty, nay, even +a mere mask for the secret vices which were, too often with truth, charged +against the _soi-disant_ philosopher.(1712) Sometimes the wish to lead a +higher life was openly assailed by a cynical Epicureanism. Virtue and +philosophy were mere idle babble. The only happiness is to make the most +of the senses while the senses still keep their fresh lust for pleasure. +The days are fleeting away never to return in which we can drink with keen +zest the joys of the flesh. What folly to spare a patrimony for a +thankless heir!(1713) Seneca had to deal with many souls wavering between +the two ideals. One of his treatises is addressed to a kinsman, Annaeus +Serenus, who had made a full confession of a vague unrest, an impotence of +will, the conflict of moral torpor with high resolve.(1714) In his better +moments, Annaeus inclines to simplicity of life and self-restraint. Yet a +visit to a great house dazzles him and disturbs his balance, with the +sight of its troops of elegant slaves, its costly furniture and luxurious +feasting. He is at one time drawn to philosophic quietude; at another he +becomes the strenuous ambitious Roman of the old days, eager for the +conflicts of the forum. He is always wavering between a conviction of the +vanity of literary trifling and the passion for literary fame.(1715) +Cannot Seneca, to whom he owes his ideal, furnish some remedy for this +constant tendency to relapse and indecision? + +It is in the sympathetic handling of such cases, not in broad philosophic +theory, that the peculiar strength of Seneca lies. His counsels were +adapted to the particular difficulties presented to him. But many of them +have a universal validity. He encourages the wish to retire into +meditative quietude, but only as a means to moral cure.(1716) Retreat +should not be an ostentatious defiance of the opinion of the world.(1717) +Nor is it to be a mere cloak for timid or lazy shrinking from the burdens +of life. You should withdraw from the strife and temptations of the +mundane city, only to devote yourself to the business of the spiritual +city, to cultivate self-knowledge and self-government, to inspire the soul +with the contemplation of the Eternal and the Divine. Solitude may be a +danger, unless a man lives in the presence of "One who seeth in +secret,"(1718) from whom no evil thought is hidden, to whom no prayer for +evil things must be addressed.(1719) And, lest the thought of God's +presence may not come home with sufficient urgency, Seneca recommends his +disciples to call up the image of some good man or ancient sage, and live +as if under his eye.(1720) The first step in moral progress is +self-knowledge and confession of one's faults.(1721) Ignorance of our +spiritual disease, the doom of the indurated conscience, is the great +danger, and may be the mark of a hopeless moral state. Hence the necessity +for constant daily self-examination. In the quiet of each night we should +review our conduct and feeling during the day, marking carefully where we +have fallen short of the higher law, and strengthening ourselves with any +signs of self-conquest. Seneca tells us that this was his own constant +practice.(1722) For progress is only slow and difficult. It requires +watchful and unremitting effort to reach that assured and settled purpose +which issues spontaneously in purity of thought and deed, and which raises +man to the level of the Divine freedom. There must be no pauses of +self-complacency until the work is done. There is no mediocrity in morals. +There must be no halting and unsteadiness of purpose, no looking back to +the deceitful things of the world. Inconstancy of the wavering will only +shortens the span of this short life. How many there are who, even when +treading the last stage to death, are only beginning to live, in the true +sense, and who miss the beatitude of the man who, having mastered the +great secret, can have no addition to his happiness from lengthened years. +In the long tract of time any life is but a moment, and of that the least +part by most men is really lived.(1723) And this unsettled aim is liable +to constant temptation from without. We are continually within sight and +earshot of the isles of the Sirens, and only the resolution of a Ulysses +will carry us past in safety.(1724) In fact no isle of the Sirens can have +been more dangerous than the life of a great household in the Neronian +age, when the dainties and the vices of every land assailed the senses +with multiplied seductions, and men craved in vain for a heightened and +keener sensibility. Perpetual change of scene to the shores of Baiae, to +Apulia, to some glen in the Apennines, or to the northern lakes, or even +further, to the Rhone, the Nile, the Atlas, was sought by the jaded man of +pleasure or the man struggling in vain to reform. But Seneca warns his +disciple that wherever he may go he will take his vices and his weakness +with him.(1725) Let him try to work out his salvation within his great +palace on the Esquiline. Surrounded by splendour and luxury, let him, for +a time, isolate himself from them; let him lie on a hard bed, and live on +scanty fare, and fancy himself reduced to that poverty which he dreads so +much and so foolishly.(1726) The change will be good for body and soul; +and the temporary ascetic may return to his old life, at least released +from one of his bugbears, and refreshed with a new sense of freedom. + +Such were some of the precepts by which Seneca strove to fortify the +struggling virtue of his disciples. But he never concealed from them that +it is only by struggle that the remote ideal can be attained. "Vivere +militare est." And almost in the words of S. Paul, he uses the example of +the gladiator or the athlete, to arouse the energy of the aspirant after +moral perfection.(1727) "They do it for a corruptible crown."(1728) The +reward of the Stoic disciple is vain and poor to the gross materialist. +But, from the serene heights, where ideal Reason watches the struggle, the +only victor is the man who has adopted the watchwords--self-knowledge, +renunciation, resignation. Only by following that steep path can any one +ever reach the goal of assured peace within, and be delivered from the +turmoil of chance and change. The misery of the sensual, the worldly, and +the ambitious lies in the fact that they have staked their happiness on +things which are beyond their own power, which are the casual gifts of +fortune, and may be as capriciously withdrawn. This state is one of +slavery to external things, and the pleasure, after all, which can be +drawn from them is fleeting. Hence it is that the sensualist is equally +miserable when his pleasures are denied, and when they are +exhausted.(1729) He places his happiness in one brief moment, with the +danger or the certainty either of privation or satiety. The wise man of +the Stoics, on the other hand, has built his house upon the rock. He +shuns, according to the Pythagorean maxim, the ways of the multitude, and +trusting to the illumination of divine Reason, he takes the narrow +path.(1730) His guiding light is the principle that the "kingdom of heaven +is within," that man's supreme good depends only on himself, that is, on +the unfettered choice of reason. To such a man "all things are his," for +all worth having is within him. His mind creates its own world, or rather +it rediscovers a lost world which was once his. He can, if he will, +annihilate the seductions of the flesh and the world, which cease to +disturb when they are contemned. He may equally extinguish the griefs and +external pains of life, for each man is miserable just as he thinks +himself.(1731) Human nature, even unfortified by philosophic teaching, has +been found capable of bearing the extremity of torture with a smile. The +man who has mastered the great secret that mind may, by its latent forces, +create its own environment, should be able to show the endurance of a +Scaevola or a Regulus.(1732) All he needs to do is to unmask the objects +of his dread.(1733) For just as men are deluded by the show of material +pleasure, so are they unmanned by visionary fears. Even the last event of +life should have no terror for the wise man, on any rational theory of the +future of the soul. The old mythical hell, the stone of Sisyphus, the +wheel of Ixion, Cerberus, and the ghostly ferryman, may be dismissed to +the limbo of fable.(1734) For the man who has followed the inner light, +death must either be a return to that antenatal calm of nothingness which +has left no memory, or the entrance to a blissful vision of the +Divine.(1735) Even in this luxurious and effeminate time, men and women of +all ranks and ages have shown themselves ready to escape from calamity or +danger by a voluntary death.(1736) And what after all is death? It is not +the terminus of life, a single catastrophe of a moment. In the very hour +of birth we enter on the first stage in the journey to the grave. We are +dying daily, and our last day only completes the process of a life-long +death.(1737) And as to the shortness of our days, no life is short if it +has been full.(1738) The mass of men are only living in an ambiguous +sense; they linger or vegetate in life, they do not really live. Nay, many +are long since dead when the hour of so-called death arrives. And the men +who mourn over the shortness of their days are the greatest prodigals of +the one thing that can never be replaced.(1739) In the longest life, on a +rational estimate, how small a fraction is ever really lived! The whole +past, which might be a sure and precious possession, is flung away by the +eager, worldly man.(1740) The fleeting present is lost in unrest or +reckless procrastination, or in projecting ourselves into a future that +may never come. Thus old age surprises us while we are mere children in +moral growth.(1741) + +At certain moments, the Stoic ideal might seem to be in danger of merging +itself in the self-centred isolation of the Cynic, asserting the defiant +independence of individual virtue, the nothingness of all external goods, +the omnipotence of the solitary will. And undoubtedly, in the last resort, +Seneca has pictured the wise man thus driven to bay, and calmly defying +the rage of the tyrant, the caprices of fortune, the loss of health and +wealth, nay the last extremity of torture and ignominious death. His own +perilous position, and the prospect of society in the reign of Nero, might +well lead a man of meditative turn so to prepare himself for a fate which +was always imminent. But the Stoic doctor could never acquiesce in a mere +negative ideal, the self-centred independence of the individual soul. He +was too cultivated, he had drunk too deep of the science and philosophy of +the past, he had too wide an outlook over the facts of human life and +society, to relegate himself to a moral isolation which was apt to become +a state of brutal disregard of the claims of social duty, and even of +personal self-respect.(1742) Such a position was absolutely impossible to +a man like Seneca. Whatever his practice may have been, it is clear that +in temperament he was almost too soft and emotional. He was a man with an +intense craving for sympathy, and lavish of it to others; he was the last +man in the world who could enjoy a solitary paradise of self-satisfied +perfection. It is true the Roman world to the eyes of Seneca lay in the +shadow of death, crushed under a treacherous despotism, and enervated by +gross indulgence. Yet, although he sees men in this lurid light, he does +not scorn or hate them. It was not for nothing that Seneca had been for +five years the first minister of the Roman Empire. To have stood so near +the master of the world, and felt the pulse of humanity from Britain to +the Euphrates, to have listened to their complaints and tried to minister +to their needs, was a rare education in social sympathy. It had a profound +effect on M. Aurelius, and it had left its mark on Seneca.(1743) + +Two competing tendencies may be traced in Stoicism, and in Seneca's +exposition of it. On the one hand, man must seek the harmony of his nature +by submitting his passions and emotions to his own higher nature, and +shaking himself free from all bondage to the flesh or the world. On the +other hand, man is regarded as the subject of the universal Reason, a +member of the universal commonwealth, whose maker and ruler is God.(1744) +The one view might make a man aim merely at isolated perfection; it might +produce the philosophic monk. The other and broader conception of humanity +would make man seek his perfection, not only in personal virtue, but in +active sympathy with the movement of the world. The one impulse would end +in a kind of spiritual selfishness. The other would seek for the full +development of spiritual strength in the mutual aid and sympathy of +struggling humanity, in friendship,(1745) in the sense of a universal +brotherhood and the fatherhood of God. There are two cities, says Seneca, +in which a man may be enrolled--the great society of gods and men, wide as +the courses of the sun; the other, the Athens or the Carthage to which we +are assigned by the accident of birth.(1746) A man may give himself to the +service of both societies, or he may serve the one and neglect the other. +The wise man alone realises to the full his citizenship in the spiritual +commonwealth, in pondering on the problems of human conduct, the nature of +the soul, of the universe and God, and conforming his moral being to the +eternal law of Nature. The sage, a Zeno or a Chrysippus, may rightly +devote himself exclusively to contemplation and moral self-culture.(1747) +He may not, by wealth and station, have access to the arena of active +life. And, although a seeming recluse, he may really be a far greater +benefactor of his kind than if he led the Senate, or commanded armies. +There may be cases in which a man may be right in turning his back on +public life, in order to concentrate all his energies on self-improvement. +And Seneca does not hesitate to counsel Lucilius to withdraw himself from +the thraldom of office.(1748) Yet Zeno's precept was that the wise man +will serve the State unless there be some grave impediment in his +way.(1749) For, on Stoic principles, we are all members one of another, +and bound to charity and mutual help. And all speculation and +contemplation are vain and frivolous unless they issue in right action. +Yet the practical difficulty for the _sapiens_ was great, if not +insuperable. What earthly commonwealth could he serve with consistency; is +it an Athens, which condemned a Socrates to death, and drove an Aristotle +into exile?(1750) How please the vulgar sensual crowd without displeasing +God and conscience? It might seem that the true disciple of Stoicism could +not take a part in public life save under some ideal polity, such as Plato +or Chrysippus dreamed of.(1751) Here, as elsewhere, the problem was solved +with varying degrees of consistency. The problem is stated by Seneca--"Se +contentus est sapiens ad beate vivendum, non ad vivendum."(1752) It is the +ever-recurring conflict between lofty idealism and the facts of human +life, which is softened, if not solved, from age to age by casuistry. The +wise and good man should have the springs of his happiness in himself. Yet +a wise friend may call forth his powers, and furnish an object of +self-sacrifice.(1753) The wise man will not entangle himself in the cares +of family life.(1754) Yet wife and child are needed to give completeness +to the life of the citizen. Since man exists for the general order, how +can he avoid lending his services to the State, unless there be some +insuperable bar? The controversy between the dream of solitary perfection +and altruism was variously solved, and the particular solution could +always be defended in the light of the great law of life. Epictetus, cut +off from the great world by servile birth and poverty, could make light of +marriage, of the begetting of future citizens, and the duties of political +life.(1755) On the other hand, M. Aurelius, by nature as detached as +Epictetus, might refuse to follow the transcendental counsels of +Chrysippus and Seneca. He might strive painfully to reconcile devotion to +an irksome political charge with a dream of that unseen commonwealth "in +which the cities of men are as it were houses."(1756) + +Yet in spite of these difficulties about public duty, no one outside the +pale of Christianity has perhaps ever insisted so powerfully on the +obligation to live for others, on the duty of love and forgiveness, as +Seneca has done. We are all, bond or free, ruler or subject, members one +of another, citizens of a universal commonwealth.(1757) We have all within +us a portion of the Divine spirit. No man can live entirely to +himself.(1758) If we are not doing good to others we are doing harm. The +nature of man and the constitution of the universe make it a positive +obligation to seek the welfare of our fellows.(1759) The social instinct +is innate and original in us. As man is flung upon the world at birth, or +in the natural state, with all his immense possibilities as yet +undeveloped, no creature is so helpless.(1760) It was only by combination +and mutual good offices that men were able to repel the dangers which +surrounded the infancy of the race, and to conquer the forces of nature. +Man is born for social union, which is cemented by concord, kindness, and +love,(1761) and he who shows anger, selfishness, perfidy, or cruelty to +his fellows strikes at the roots of social life. Nor should the spectacle +of universal depravity cause us to hate or despise our kind.(1762) It is +quite true that the mass of men are bad, and always will be bad, with only +rare exceptions. If society is the source of many blessings, it is also a +great corruptor, and the conquest of nature and the development of the +arts have aroused insatiable passions which have darkened the eye of +reason.(1763) Yet this crowd of sinners are our brothers, with the germs +of virtue in their grain. They have taken the broad way almost +necessarily, because it is broad. A general may punish individual +soldiers, but you must pardon an army when it deserts the standards. The +truly wise, not knowing whether to laugh or weep, will look kindly on the +erring masses, as sick men who need a physician.(1764) And beside the few +truly wise, who can cast the first stone? We are all more or less bad, we +have all gone astray.(1765) And yet we constantly show the utmost severity +to the faults of others, while we forget or ignore our own.(1766) Even as +God is long-suffering to transgressors, and sends His rain upon the evil +and good alike, so should we be merciful in judgment and lavish in +beneficence.(1767) The spectacle of universal greed and selfishness and +ingratitude should not harden us against our fellows, but rather make us +turn our eyes to our own faults.(1768) Sometimes, indeed, the note of +humility is absent, and Seneca is the serene _sapiens contra mundum_, or +the proud Roman gentleman who will not demean himself to resent or even +notice the insults or injuries of the spiteful crowd.(1769) They will pass +him by as the licensed jests of the slaves on the Saturnalia. He reminds +himself that it is the lower air which is turbid with storm and thunder; +the ether which spreads around the stars is never vexed and darkened by +the tempest.(1770) This is one of the recurring contrasts in Seneca +between the moral tone of the old world and that of the great movement +which was setting in. But the new prevails in the end. The conception of +God as cold reason or impersonal law or fate gives way to the thought of a +God who guides by His providence, who embraces all by His love, whose +goodness is as boundless as His power, who is best worshipped by the +imitation of His goodness.(1771) As the vision grows, the pride of the +invulnerable _sapiens_, who might make himself the equal or more than the +equal of God,(1772) shrinks and is abased. We are all more or less bad, +and we should be gentle to one another.(1773) Do we complain of coldness +and ingratitude? Let us think how many a kindness done to us in early +days, the tenderness of a nurse, a friend's wise counsel or help in +critical times, we have carelessly let slip from memory.(1774) The faults +which irritate us in another are often lurking in ourselves. Forgive if +you wish for forgiveness; conquer evil with good; do good even to those +who have wrought you evil.(1775) Let us copy the serene example of those +Eternal Powers who constantly load with their benefits even those who +doubt of their existence, and bear with unruffled kindness the errors of +frail souls that stumble by the way. + +And as we shall not be harsh to those of our own external rank, so shall +we soften the lot of those whom fortune has condemned to slavery. Even the +slave is admitted to that great city of gods and men, which has no +frontiers, which embraces all races and ranks, where all ranks should be +levelled by the consciousness of a common Divine descent and a universal +brotherhood of men.(1776) The conquests of Macedon and Rome, overthrowing +all old-world national barriers, had prepared the way for the greatest and +most fruitful triumph of ancient philosophy. And the Stoic school has the +glory of anticipating the diviner dream, yet far from realised, of a human +brotherhood under the light from the Cross. Seneca has never risen higher, +or swept farther into the future than in his treatment of slavery. He is +far in advance of many a bishop or abbot or Christian baron of the middle +age. Can a slave confer a benefit? he asks.(1777) Is his service, however +lavish, not merely a duty to his lord, which, as it springs from +constraint, is undeserving of gratitude? Seneca repudiates the base +suggestion with genuine warmth. On the same principle a subject cannot +confer a benefit on his monarch, a simple soldier on his general. There is +a limit beyond which power cannot command obedience. There is a line +between cringing compliance and generous self-sacrifice. And the slave has +often passed that limit. He has often borne wounds and death to save his +master's life in battle. He has often, in the years of the terror, endured +the last extremity of torture, rather than betray his secrets.(1778) The +body of the slave is his master's; his mind is his own.(1779) It cannot be +bought and sold. And in his inner soul, the slave is his master's equal. +He is capable of equal virtue and equal culture; nay, in both he may be +his master's superior. He can confer a benefit if he can suffer injury in +the outrages which cruelty and lust inflict upon him. When he confers a +benefit, he confers it as man upon man, as an equal in the great family +whose Father is God. + +Seneca gives a lurid picture of the corruption of women in the general +licence of his age.(1780) Yet he has a lofty ideal of what women might +become. Like other Stoic preachers, it was his good fortune to be +surrounded by good women from his infancy. He remembers the tenderness of +his aunt, in whose arms he first entered Rome as a child, who nursed him +through long sickness, and broke through her reserve to help him in his +early career of ambition. Her blameless character escaped even the +petulance of Alexandrian gossip.(1781) His letters to his mother, Helvia, +reveal a matron of the best Roman type--strong, self-denying, proud of her +motherhood, and despising the extravagance and ostentation of her class. +In spite of her father's limited idea of female culture, she had educated +herself in liberal studies, and found them a refuge in affliction.(1782) +Marcia was of a softer type, and gave way to excessive grief for a lost +child. Yet it is to her that Seneca unfolds most fully his ideal of +feminine character. He will not admit the inferior aptitude of women for +virtue and culture.(1783) Women have the same inner force, the same +capacity for nobleness as men. The husband of Paulina who surrounded him +with affectionate sympathy, and was prepared to die along with him, the +man who had witnessed the stern courage and loving devotion of the wives +of the Stoic martyrs, might well have a lofty ideal of woman's +character.(1784) But to any true disciple of the Porch that ideal had a +surer ground than any personal experience, however happy. The creed which +Seneca held was at once a levelling and an elevating creed. It found the +only nobility or claim to rank in higher capacity for virtue.(1785) It +embraced in the arms of its equal charity all human souls, bond or free, +male or female, however they might be graded by convention or accident, +who have a divine parentage, and may, if they will, have a lofty, perhaps +an eternal future. + +And now, in taking leave of Seneca, let us forget the fawning exile in +Corsica, the possible lover of Julia or Agrippina, the millionaire +minister of Nero, who was surrounded by a luxury and state which moved the +envy of the tyrant.(1786) Rather let us think of the ascetic from his +early youth, who, raised by his talents to the highest place, had to +reconcile an impossible ideal with the sordid or terrible realities of +that rank which was at once a "pinnacle and a precipice."(1787) He was +continually torn by the contrast between the ideal of a lofty Stoic creed +and the facts of human life around him, between his own spiritual cravings +and the temptations or the necessities of the opportunist statesman. He +was imbued with principles of life which could be fully realised only in +some Platonic Utopia; he had to deal with men as they were in the reign of +Nero, as they are painted by Tacitus and Petronius. If he failed in the +impossible task of such a reconciliation, let us do him the justice of +recognising that he kept his vision clear, and that he has expounded a +gospel of the higher life, which, with all its limitations from +temperament or tradition, will be true for our remotest posterity, that he +had a vision of the City of God.(1788) He was not personally perhaps so +pure and clear a soul as Plutarch or Aristides or Dion Chrysostom. But he +had utterly cast off that heathen anthropomorphism which crossed and +disturbed their highest visions of the Divine.(1789) Seneca is far more +modern and advanced than even the greatest of the Neo-Platonic school, +just because he saw that the old theology was hopelessly effete. He could +never have joined in the last struggle of philosophic paganism with the +Church. And so the Church almost claimed him as her son, while it never +dreamt of an affinity with Plutarch or Plotinus. + +Indeed, there needed only the change of some phrases to reconcile the +teaching of Seneca with that of the great ascetic Christian doctors. Many +of the headings of the _Imitation_ might be attached to paragraphs of +Seneca--"of bearing with the faults of others"; "of inordinate affections"; +"of the love of solitude and silence"; "of meditation on death"; "of +humble submission"; "that to despise the world and serve God is sweet"; +"of the acknowledgment of our own infirmities, and the remembrance of +God's benefits"; "of the contempt of temporal honour and vain secular +knowledge"; "of the day of eternity and this life's straitness." In truth, +the great spirits of all ages who have had a genius for religion, after +due allowance for difference of association and difference of phrase, are +strangely akin and harmonious. And Seneca had one great superiority over +other equally religious souls of his time, which enables him to approach +mediaeval and modern religious thought--he had broken absolutely with +paganism. He started with belief in the God of the Stoic creed; he never +mentions the Stoic theology which attempted to reconcile Him with the gods +of the Pantheon. In spite of all his rhetoric, he tries to see the facts +of human life and the relation of the human spirit to the Divine in the +light of reason, with no intervening veil of legend. God is to Seneca the +great Reality, however halting human speech may describe Him, as Fate, or +Law, or Eternal Reason, or watchful loving Providence. God is within us, +in whatever mysterious way, inspiring good resolves, giving strength in +temptation, with all-seeing eye watching the issue of the struggle. God is +without us, loading us with kindness even when we offend, chastising us in +mercy, the goal of all speculation, He from whom we proceed, to whom we go +at death. The true worship of Him is not in formal prayer and sacrifice, +but in striving to know and imitate His infinite goodness. We mortal men +in our brief life on earth may be citizens of two commonwealths, one the +Rome or Corinth of our birth, the other that great city of gods and men, +in which all are equally united, male and female, bond and free, as +children of a common Father. In this ideal citizenship, in obedience to +the law of the spiritual city, the eternal law which makes for +righteousness, man attains his true freedom and final beatitude in +communion with kindred souls. + +Yet, as in mediaeval and puritan religious theory, there is in Seneca a +strange conflict between pessimism and idealism. To the doomed philosophic +statesman of the reign of Nero, the days of man's life are few and evil. +Life is but a moment in the tract of infinite age, and so darkened by +manifold sins and sorrows that it seems, as it did to Sophocles, a +sinister gift.(1790) On the other hand, its shortness is a matter of no +importance; the shortest life may be full and glad if it be dignified by +effort and resignation and conformity to the great law of the universe. +The wise and pious man, ever conscious of his brief time of probation, may +brighten each passing day into a festival and lengthen it into a life. The +shortness of a life is only an illusion, for long or short have no meaning +when measured by the days of eternity. And the philosopher may unite many +lives in one brief span. He may join himself to a company of sages who add +their years to his, who counsel without bitterness, and praise without +flattery; he may be adopted into a family whose wealth increases the more +it is divided; in him all the ages may be combined in a single life.(1791) +To such a spirit death loses all its terrors. The eternal mystery indeed +can be pierced only by imaginative hope. Death, we may be sure, however, +can only be a change. It may be a passage into calm unconsciousness, as +before our birth, which will release us from all the griefs and tumults of +the life here below. It may, on the other hand, prove to be the morning of +an eternal day, the entrance to a radiant and untroubled world of infinite +possibilities. In any case, the spirit which has trained itself in +obedience to eternal law, will not tremble at a fate which is surely +reserved for the universe, by fire or flood or other cataclysmal change. +The future in store for the soul is either to dwell for ever among things +divine, or to sink back again into the general soul, and God shall be all +in all. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + + THE PHILOSOPHIC MISSIONARY + + +The gospel of philosophy expounded by Seneca was rather an esoteric or +aristocratic creed. With all his liberal sentiment, his cosmopolitanism, +his clear conception of human equality and brotherhood, Seneca always +remains the director of souls like his own, enervated by wealth, tortured +with the ennui of jaded sensibility, haunted by the terror of the +Caesars.(1792) Indeed Stoicism was always rather a creed for the +cultivated upper class than for the crowd. In its prime, its apparatus of +logical formulae, its elaborate physics and metaphysics, its essentially +intellectual solution of the problems both of the universe and human life, +necessarily disabled it from ever developing into a popular system. And in +the later days of the Republic, theory became more important than +practice, and logic passed into casuistry.(1793) But in the first century, +Stoicism came to be much more a religion than a philosophy, or even a +theology. Its main business, as conceived by men like Seneca, is to save +souls from the universal shipwreck of character(1794) caused by the +capricious excesses of luxury, the idolatry of the world and the flesh, +which sprang from a riotous pride in the material advantages of imperial +power, without a sobering sense of duty or a moral ideal. But, in the +nature of things, this wreck of character was most glaringly seen among +the men who were in close contact with the half insane masters of the +world in the first century, and who possessed the resources to exhaust the +possibilities of pleasure or the capacities of the senses to enjoy. It is +to people of this class, who still retained some lingering instincts of +goodness, weary with indulgence, bewildered and tortured by the conflict +of the lower nature with the weak, but still disturbing, protests of the +higher, that Seneca addresses his counsels. + +But what of the great masses lying outside the circle of cultivated and +exhausted self-indulgence, that plebeian world of which we have seen the +picture in their municipalities and colleges? It is clear from the records +of their daily life, their ambitions, their tasks and amusements, that, +although perhaps not generally tainted with such deep corruption as the +nobles of the Neronian age, their moral tone and aspirations hardly +correspond to the material splendour of the Empire. Even apart from the +glimpses of low life in Petronius, Martial, and Apuleius, apart from the +revelations of Pompeii, and the ghastly traditions which haunt the ruins +of countless theatres and amphitheatres, the warnings of preachers of that +age, such as Dion Chrysostom, and the reflections of the infinitely +charitable M. Aurelius, leave no very favourable impression of the moral +condition of the masses.(1795) How could it be otherwise? The old paganism +of Rome did indeed foster certain ancestral pieties which were the salt of +the Roman character. But it unfortunately also gave its sanction to scenes +of lust and cruelty which went far to counteract in later times any good +it did. Nor had the old religion any means for edification and the culture +of character. It had no organisation for the care and direction of souls +in moral doubt and peril. If its oracles might, from a few old-world +examples, seem to supply such a spiritual want, the appearance is delusive +even according to pagan testimony. Poets and moralists alike thundered +against the shameless impiety which often begged the sanction of a +prophetic shrine for some meditated sin,(1796) and the charge has been +confirmed by the resurrection of these old profanities from the ruins of +Dodona.(1797) But even without direct testimony, we might fairly conclude +that the Antonine Age was, by reason of its material development, in +special need of spiritual teaching and evangelism. The whole stress of +public and private effort was towards the provision of comfort or +splendour or amusement for the masses. And, within the range of its +ambition, it succeeded marvellously. Nor should an impartial inquirer +refuse to admit that such an immense energy has its good moral side. The +rich were rigorously taught their duty to society, and they improved upon +the lesson. The masses responded to their generous public spirit with +gratitude and affection; and the universal kindliness and fraternity +diffused through all ranks on days of high religious festival or civic +interest, afforded a very wholesome and gratifying spectacle.(1798) There +was an undoubted softening of the Roman character. And the labours of the +great Stoic lawyers were giving expression to cultivated moral feeling, in +a more liberal recognition of the natural rights of the weak and +oppressed, of women and of slaves. Yet a society may be humane and kindly +while it is also worldly and materialised. To us at least, the forces of +the Antonine age seem to have expended themselves chiefly on the popular +pleasures and external adornments of life, or a revival, often in the +grossest and most absurd forms, as we shall see in a later chapter, of the +superstitions of the past. With all its humanitarian sentiment and all its +material glories, the Roman world had entered on that fatal incline, +which, by an unperceived yet irresistible movement, led on to the +sterilisation of the higher intellect, and the petrifaction of Roman +society which ended in the catastrophe of the fifth century. + +The triumphs and splendour of corporate life in the age of the Antonines +are certainly a dazzling spectacle. Yet to the student who is more +occupied with the painful moral education of the race, the interest lies +in a different direction. It was a worldly age, but it was also an age +ennobled by a powerful protest against worldliness. And in this chapter we +shall study a great movement, which, under the name of philosophy or +culture, called the masses of men to a higher standard of life. This +movement, like all others of the same kind, had its impostors who +disgraced it. Yet the man who has pursued them with such mordant ridicule +and pitiless scorn, the man who was utterly sceptical as to the value of +all philosophic effort, in the last resort approaches very near to the +view of human life which was preached by the men whom he derides.(1799) +Lucian belonged to no philosophic school; he would himself have repudiated +adhesion to any system. The advice of Teiresias to Menippus, when he +sought him in the shades, would certainly have been Lucian's to any young +disciple who consulted him. Have done with all these verbal subtleties and +chimeras; swear allegiance to no sect; make the best of the present; and +take things generally with a smile.(1800) Yet who can read the _Dialogues +of the Dead_ without feeling that there is a deeper and more serious vein +in Lucian than he would confess? Although he poured his contempt upon the +Cynic street preachers, although in the _Auction of Lives_ the Cynic's +sells for the most paltry price, the Cynic alone is allowed to carry with +him across the river of death his characteristic qualities, his boldness +and freedom of speech, his bitter laughter at the follies and illusions of +mankind.(1801) There are many indications in these dialogues that, if +Lucian had turned Cynic preacher, he would have waged the same war on the +pleasures and illusory ambitions of man, he would have outdone the Cynics +in brutal frankness of exposure and denunciation, as he would have +surpassed them in rhetorical and imaginative charm of style.(1802) He has +a vivid and awful conception of Death, the great leveller, and sees all +earthly wealth and glory in the grey light of the land where all things +are forgotten. Rank and riches, beauty and strength, the lust of the eye +and the pride of life, are all left behind on the borders of the realm of +"sapless heads."(1803) If Lucian has any gospel it is that the kingdom of +heaven belongs to the poor. He is as ready as some of the Christian +Fathers to condemn the rich eternally.(1804) And therefore we are not +surprised that Lucian has little eye for the splendour of his age, unless +indeed in the phrase, "Great cities die as well as men."(1805) He seems to +have little appreciation for its real services to humanity. Its vain, +pretentious philosophy, its selfishness of wealth, its vices hidden under +the guise of virtue, drew down his hatred and scorn. Yet one cannot help +feeling, in reading some of Lucian's pieces, that, man of genius as he +was, a man of no age, or a man of all ages, he is looking at human life +from far above, with no limitations of time, and passing a judgment which +may be repeated in the thirtieth century.(1806) + +This lofty or airy detachment in regarding the toils and ambitions of men +is perhaps best seen in the _Charon_. In this piece Lucian shows us the +ideal spectator taking an outlook over the scene of human life. The +ferryman of the dead, who has heard so many laments from his passengers +for the joys they have lost, wishes to have a glance at this upper world +which it seems so hard to leave behind. He joins the company of Hermes, +and, by an old-world miracle, they gain an observatory on high-piled +Thessalian mountains from which to watch for a while the comedy or the +tragedy of human life.(1807) A magic verse of Homer gives the spectral +visitor the power to observe the scene so far below. And what a sight it +is! It is a confused spectacle of various effort and passion--men sailing, +fighting, ploughing, lending at usury, suing in the law-courts. It is also +a human swarm stinging and being stung. And over all the scene flits a +confused cloud of hopes and fears and follies and hatreds, the love of +pleasure and the love of gold. Higher still, you may see the eternal Fates +spinning for each one of the motley crowd his several thread. One man, +raised high for the moment, has a resounding fall; another, mounting but a +little way, sinks unperceived. And amidst all the tumult and excitement of +their hopes and alarms, death kindly snatches them away by one of his many +messengers. Yet they weep and lament, forgetting that they have been mere +sojourners for a brief space upon earth and are only losing the pleasures +of a dream.(1808) To Charon the bubbles in a fountain are the truest image +of their phantom life--some forming and bursting speedily, others swelling +out for a little longer and more showy life, but all bursting at the last. +Charon is so moved by the pathos of it all, that, from his mountain peaks, +he would fain preach a sermon to the silly crowd and warn them of the doom +which is in store for all. But the wiser or more cynical Hermes tells him +that all except a few have their ears more closely stopped than the crew +of Odysseus when they passed the Siren isles. + +This view of human life, half-contemptuous, half-pathetic, which the great +iconoclast of all the dreams of religion or philosophy in his time has +sketched with his own graphic power, was the view of the very philosophy +which he derided. Philosophy had a second time turned from heaven to +earth. The effort to solve the riddle of the universe by a single formula, +or by the fine-drawn subtleties of dialectic, has been abandoned. In +Lucian's _Auction of Lives_, in which the merits of the various schools +are balanced and estimated in terms of cash, it is significant that only a +slight and perfunctory reference is made to the great cosmic or +metaphysical theories of Elea or Ionia, to the Pythagorean doctrine of +numbers, to the Ephesian doctrine of the eternal flow, or the ideal system +of Plato.(1809) We have seen that, although Seneca has a certain interest +in the logic and physics of the older Stoicism, he makes all purely +speculative inquiry ancillary to moral progress. The same diversion of +interest from the field of speculation to that of conduct is seen even +more decidedly in Epictetus and M. Aurelius.(1810) The philosophic Emperor +had, of course, studied the great cosmic systems of Heraclitus and +Epicurus, Plato and Aristotle.(1811) They furnish a scenery or background, +sometimes, especially that of Heraclitus, a dimly-seen foundation, for his +theory of conduct. But, in spite of his sad, weary view of the pettiness +and sameness of the brief space of consciousness between "the two +eternities," the whole thought of M. Aurelius is concentrated on the +manner in which that brief moment may be worthily spent. So, Epictetus +asks, What do I care whether all things are composed of atoms or similar +parts or of fire or earth? Is it not enough to know the nature of good and +evil?(1812) Just as in the days of Socrates the whole stress of philosophy +is directed towards the discovery of a rule of life, a source of moral +clearness and guidance, with a view to the formation or reformation of +character. + +Seneca and Epictetus and Lucian and M. Aurelius all alike give a gloomy +picture of the moral condition of the masses. And we may well believe +that, in spite of the splendour of that age, in spite of a great moral +movement which was stirring among the leaders of society, the mass of men, +as in every age, had little taste for idealist views of life. Yet Seneca, +notwithstanding his pessimism, speaks of the multitudes who were +stretching out their hands for moral help. There must have been some +demand for that popular moral teaching which is a striking feature of the +time. Men might jeer at the philosophic missionary, but they seem to have +crowded to listen to him--on the temple steps of Rome or Ephesus, in the +great squares of Alexandria,(1813) or in the colonnades at Olympia, or +under the half-ruined walls of an old Milesian colony on the Euxine.(1814) +The rush of the porters and smiths and carpenters to join the ranks of the +Cynic friars, which moved the scorn of Lucian,(1815) must have +corresponded to some general demand, even if the motive of the vagrant +missionary was not of the purest kind. There must have been many an +example of moral earnestness like that of Hermotimus, who had laboured +hard for twenty years to find the true way of life, and had only obtained +a distant glimpse of the celestial city.(1816) After Dion's conversion, as +we may fairly call it, he deems it a sacred duty to call men to the way of +wisdom by persuasion or reproach, and to appeal even to the turbulent +masses.(1817) We shall see how well he fulfilled the duty. For nearly a +century at Athens, the gentle Demonax embodied the ideal which his friend +Epictetus had formed of the Cynic father of all men in God; and his +immense ascendency testifies at least to a widespread respect and +admiration for such teaching and example.(1818) It is not necessary to +suppose that the people who thought it an honour if Demonax invited +himself to their tables, the magistrates who rose up to do him reverence +as he passed, or the riotous assembly which was awed into stillness by his +mere presence, were people generally who had caught his moral +enthusiasm.(1819) They were at the very time eager to have gladiatorial +shows established under the shadow of the Acropolis. But it is something +when men begin to revere a character inspired by moral forces of which +they have only a dim conjecture. And amid all the material splendour and +apparent content of the Antonine age, there were signs that men were +becoming conscious of a great spiritual need, which they often tried to +satisfy by accumulated superstitions. The ancient routine was broken up; +the forms of ancestral piety no longer satisfied even the vulgar; the +forms of ancient scholastic speculation had become stale and frigid to the +cultivated; the old philosophies had left men bewildered. Henceforth, +philosophy must make itself a religion; the philosopher must become an +"ambassador of God." + +"There is no philosophy without virtue; there is no virtue without +philosophy," said Seneca,(1820) and herein he expressed truly the most +earnest thought of his own age and the next. Lucian, in the dialogue which +is perhaps his most powerful exposure of the failure of philosophy, bears +testimony to the boundless expectations which it aroused in its votaries. +Hermotimus, the elderly enthusiast, whom the mocker meets hurrying with +his books to the philosophic school, has been an ardent student for twenty +years; he has grown pale and withered with eager thought. Yet he admits +that he has only taken a single step on the steep upward road. Few and +faint and weary are they who ever reach the summit.(1821) Yet Hermotimus +is content if, at the close of the efforts of a lifetime, he should, if +but for a moment, breathe the air of the far-off heights and look down on +the human ant-hill below. Such spirits dream of an apotheosis like that +which crowned the hero on Mount Oeta, when the soul shall be purged of its +earthly passions as by fire, and hardly a memory of the illusions of the +past will remain.(1822) Lycinus, his friend, has once himself had a vision +of a celestial city, from which ambition and the greed of gold are +banished, where there is no discord or strife, but the citizens live in a +deep peace of sober virtue. He had once heard from an aged man how any one +might share its citizenship, rich or poor, bond or free, Greek or +barbarian, if only he had the passion for nobleness and were not overcome +by the hardness of the journey. And the sceptic avows that long since he +would have enrolled himself among its citizens, but the city is far off, +and only dimly visible. The paths which are said to lead to it run in the +most various directions, through soft meadows and cool shaded slopes, or +mounting over bare rough crags under a pitiless blaze. And at the entrance +to each avenue there is a clamorous crowd of guides, each vaunting his +peculiar skill, abusing his rivals, and pointing to the one sure access of +which he alone has the secret key. A similar scene, equally illustrative +of the moral ferment of the time, is sketched in another charming +piece.(1823) It is that in which the rustic Pan, with his memories of the +shepherd's pipe and the peace of Arcadian pastures, describes the strange +turmoil of contending sects which rings around his cave on the edge of the +Acropolis. There, in the Agora below, rival teachers, with dripping brow +and distended veins, are shouting one another down before an admiring +crowd. And the simple old deity, to whom the language of their dialectic +is strange, seems to think that the victory rests with the loudest voice +and the most blatant self-assertion. + +The sly ridicule of Lucian, so often crossed by a touch of pathos, is +perhaps the best testimony to the overpowering interest which his age felt +in the philosophy of conduct. And it was no longer the pursuit merely of +an intellectual aristocracy. Common, ignorant folk have caught the passion +for apostleship. Everywhere might be met the familiar figure, with long +cloak and staff and scrip, haranguing in the squares or lanes to +unlettered crowds.(1824) And the preacher is often as unlearned as they, +having left the forge or the carpenter's bench or the slave prison,(1825) +to proclaim his simple gospel of renunciation, with more or less +sincerity. Lucian makes sport of the quarrels and contradictions of the +schools. And it is true that the old names still marked men off in +different camps, or rather churches. But their quarrels in Lucian and in +Philostratus(1826) seem to be personal, the offspring of very +unphilosophic ambition and jealousy, or greed or petty vanity, rather than +the wholesome and stimulating collision of earnest minds contending for +what they think a great system of truth. The rival Sophists under the +Acropolis were quarrelling for an audience and not for a dogma. Scientific +interest in philosophy was to a great extent dead. For centuries no great +original thinker had arisen to rekindle it. And in the purely moral sphere +to which philosophy was now confined, the natural tendency of the +different schools, not even excluding the Epicurean, was to assimilation +and eclecticism.(1827) They were all impartially endowed at the university +of Athens, and a youth of enthusiasm would attend the professors of all +the schools. Apollonius, although he finally adopted the Pythagorean +discipline, pursued his studies at Aegae under Platonists and +Stoics,(1828) and even under Epicureans. Seneca came under Pythagorean +influences in his youth, and he constantly rounds off a letter to Lucilius +with a quotation from Epicurus. Among the tutors of M. Aurelius were the +Peripatetic Claudius Severus, and Sextus the Platonist of Chaeronea.(1829) +Hence, although a man in the second century might be labelled Platonist or +Stoic, Cynic or Pythagorean, it would often be difficult from his moral +teaching to discover his philosophic ancestry and affinities. And, just as +in modern Christendom, although sectarian landmarks and designations are +kept up, the popular preaching of nearly all the sects tends to a certain +uniformity of emphasis on a limited number of momentous moral truths, so +the preaching of pagan philosophy dwells, almost to weariness, on the same +eternal principles of true gain and loss, of the illusions of passion, of +freedom through renunciation. + +The moral teaching or preaching of the Antonine age naturally adapted its +tone to the tastes of its audience; there was the discourse of the +lecture-room, and the ruder and more boisterous appeal to the crowd. Both +passed under the name of philosophy, and both often degraded that great +name by an affectation and insincerity which cast discredit on a great and +beneficent movement of reform. The philosophic lecturer who has a serious +moral purpose is in theory distinguished from the rhetorical sophist, who +trades in startling effects, who rejoices in displaying his skill on any +subject however trivial or grotesque, who will expatiate on the gnat or +the parrot, or debate the propriety of a Vestal's marriage.(1830) The +exercises of the rhetorical school had gone on for five hundred years, +and, with momentous effects on Roman culture, they were destined to +continue with little change till the Goths were masters of Rome.(1831) The +greed, the frivolity, and the overweening vanity of these intellectual +acrobats are a commonplace of literary history.(1832) The sophist and the +lecturing philosopher were theoretically distinct. But unfortunately a +mass of evidence goes to show that in many cases the lecturing philosopher +became a mere showy rhetorician. A similar desecration of a serious +mission is not unknown in modern times. The fault is often not with the +preacher, but with his audience. If people come not to be made better, but +to be amused, to have their ears soothed by flowing declamation, to have a +shallow intellectual curiosity titillated by cheap displays of verbal +subtlety or novelty, the unfortunate preacher will often descend to the +level of his audience. And in that ancient world, according to the +testimony of Seneca, Musonius, Plutarch, and Epictetus, the philosophic +preacher too often was tempted to win a vulgar applause by vulgar +rhetorical arts.(1833) He was sometimes a man of no very serious purpose, +with little real science or originality. He had been trained in the school +of rhetoric, which abhorred all serious thought, and deified the master of +luscious periods and ingenious turns of phrase. He was, besides, too often +a mere vain and mercenary adventurer, trading on an attenuated stock of +philosophic tradition, and a boundless command of a versatile rhetoric, +cultivating intellectual insolence as a fine art, yet with a servile +craving for the applause of his audience.(1834) Many a scene in the now +faded history of their failures or futile triumphs comes down to us from +Plutarch and Epictetus and Philostratus.(1835) Sometimes the gaps upon the +benches, the listless, inattentive air, the slow feeble applause, sent the +vain preacher home with gloomy fears for his popularity. On other days, he +was lifted to the seventh heaven by an enthusiastic genteel mob, who +followed every deft turn of expression with shouts and gestures of +delight, and far-fetched preciosities of approbation. At the close, the +philosophic performer goes about among his admirers to receive their +renewed tribute. "Well, what did you think of me?"--"Quite marvellous, I +swear by all that is dear to me."--"But how did you like the passage about +Pan and the nymphs?"--"Oh, superlative!" It is thus that a real winner of +souls describes the impostor.(1836) Even estimable teachers did not +disdain to add to the effect of their lectures by carefully polished +eloquence, an exquisite toilet, and a cultivated dignity. Such a courtly +philosopher was Euphrates, the Syrian Stoic, whose acquaintance Pliny had +made during his term of service in the East. Euphrates was stately and +handsome, with flowing hair and beard, and a demeanour which excited +reverence without overawing the hearer.(1837) Irreproachable in his own +life, he condemned sin, but was merciful to the sinner. Pliny, the amiable +man of the world, who had no serious vices to reform, found Euphrates a +charming lecturer, with a subtle and ornate style which was entirely to +his taste. He treats Euphrates as a rhetorician rather than as a +philosopher with a solemn message to deliver. To serious moralists like +Seneca, Musonius, Plutarch, and Epictetus the showy professor of the art +of arts was an offence. With their lofty conception of the task of +practical philosophy, they could only feel contempt or indignation for the +polished exquisite who trimmed or inflated his periods to please the ears +of fashionable audiences. They all condemn such performances in almost +identical terms. The mission of true philosophy is to make men examine +themselves, to excite shame and pain and penitence, to reveal a law of +life and moral freedom which may lead to amendment and peace.(1838) "There +is no good in a bath or in a discourse which does not cleanse." The true +disciple and the true teacher will be too much absorbed in the gravity of +the business to think of the pleasure of mere style. To make aesthetic +effect the object of such discourses, when the fate of character is at +stake, is to turn the school into a theatre or a music-hall, the +philosopher into a flute-player.(1839) + +The volume and unanimity of these criticisms of the rhetorical philosopher +show that such men abounded; but they also show that there must have been +a great mass of serious teachers whom they travestied. It has perhaps been +too little recognised that in the first and second centuries there was a +great propaganda of pagan morality running parallel to the evangelism of +the Church.(1840) The preaching was of very different kinds, according to +the character of the audiences. The preachers, as we have said, belonged +to all the different schools, Stoic or Platonist, Cynic or Pythagorean; +sometimes, like Dion, they owed little academic allegiance at all. +Sometimes the preaching approached to modern conceptions of its +office;(1841) at others, it dealt with subjects and used a style unknown +to our pulpits.(1842) The life of Apollonius of Tyana may be a romance; it +certainly contains many narratives of miracles and wonders which cast a +suspicion upon its historical value. Yet even a romance must have real +facts behind to give it probability, and the preaching, at least, of +Apollonius seems to belong to the world of reality. Apollonius was +probably much nearer to the true ecclesiastic and priest of modern times +than any ancient preacher. He had been trained in all the philosophies; he +had drunk inspiration from the fountain of all spiritual religion, the +East. He was both a mystic and a ritualist. He rejoiced in converse with +the Brahmans, and he occupied himself with the revival or reform of the +ritual in countless Greek and Italian temples.(1843) He had an immense and +curious faith in ancient legend.(1844) The man who could busy himself with +the restoration of the true antique form of an obsolete rite at Eleusis or +Athens or Dodona, also held conceptions of prayer and sacrifice and mystic +communion with God, which might seem irreconcilable with any rigidly +formal worship.(1845) The ritualist was also the preacher of a higher +morality. From the steps of the temples he used to address great audiences +on their conspicuous faults, as Dion did after him. In the parable of the +sparrow who by his twitter called his brethren to a heap of spilt grain, +he taught the people of Ephesus the duty of brotherly helpfulness.(1846) +He found Smyrna torn by factious strife, and he preached a rivalry of +public spirit.(1847) Even at Olympia, before a crowd intent on the strife +of racers and boxers and athletes, he discoursed on wisdom and courage and +temperance.(1848) At Rome, under the tyranny of Nero, he moved from temple +to temple exciting a religious revival by his preaching.(1849) One text, +perhaps, contains a truth for all generations--"My prayer before the altars +is--Grant me, ye Gods, what is my due."(1850) What effect on the masses +such preaching had we cannot tell--who can tell at any time? But there are +well-attested cases of individual conversion under pagan preaching. +Polemon, the son of a rich Athenian, was a very dissolute youth who +squandered his wealth on low pleasure. Once, coming from some revel, he +burst with his companions into the lecture room of Xenocrates, who +happened to be discoursing on temperance. Xenocrates calmly continued his +remarks. The tipsy youth listened for a while, then flung away his +garland, and with it also his evil ways;(1851) he became the head of the +Academy. A similar change was wrought by the teaching of Apollonius on a +debauched youth of Corcyra, which we need not doubt although it was +accompanied by a miracle.(1852) + +Musonius, another preacher, was a younger contemporary of Apollonius. His +fame as an apostle of the philosophic life aroused the suspicions of Nero, +and he was exiled to Gyarus.(1853) The suspicion may have been confirmed +by his intimacy with Rubellius Plautus and great Stoics like +Thrasea.(1854) He met with gentler treatment under the Flavians,(1855) and +he probably saw the reign of Trajan. He is not known to have written +anything. The fragments of his teaching in Stobaeus are probably drawn +from notes of his lectures, as the teaching of Epictetus has been +preserved by Arrian. Musonius is not a speculative philosopher but a +physician of souls. Philosophy is the way to goodness: goodness is the +goal of philosophy. And philosophy is not the monopoly of an intellectual +caste; it is a matter of precept and practice, not of theory. The true +moral teacher, working on the germ of virtue which there is in each human +soul, thinking only of reforming his disciples, and nothing of applause, +may win them to his ideal. Musonius fortified the austere Stoic and Cynic +precepts by the ascetic discipline of the Pythagorean school. He taught +the forgiveness of injuries and gentleness to wrongdoers. He is one of the +few in the ancient world who have a glimpse of a remote ideal of sexual +virtue. While his ascetic principles do not lead him to look askance at +honourable marriage, he denounces all unchastity, and demands equal virtue +in man and woman.(1856) He was, according to Epictetus, a searching +preacher. He spoke to the conscience, so that each hearer felt as if his +own faults were set before his eyes. His name will go down for ever in the +pages of Tacitus. When the troops of Vespasian and Vitellius were fighting +in the lanes and gardens under the walls of Rome, Musonius joined the +envoys of the Senate, and at the risk of his life harangued the infuriated +soldiery on the blessings of peace and the horrors of civil war.(1857) +Many of the moral treatises of Plutarch are probably redacted from notes +of lectures delivered in Rome. As we shall see in a later chapter, +Plutarch is rather a moral director and theologian than a preacher. But +his wide knowledge of human nature, his keen analysis of character and +motive and human weakness, his spiritual discernment in discovering +remedies and sources of strength, above all his lofty moral ideal, would +have made him a powerful preacher in any age of the world. But it is in +the discourses of Maximus of Tyre that we have perhaps the nearest +approach in antiquity to our conception of the sermon. Probably if any of +us were asked to explain that conception, he might say that a sermon was +founded on some definite idea of the relation of man to the Infinite +Spirit, that its object was, on the one hand, to bring man into communion +with God, and, on the other, to teach him his duty to his fellowmen and to +himself. The discourses of Maximus have all these characteristics. Maximus +of Tyre is little known now, and although to the historian of thought and +moral life he is attractive, he has not the strength of a great +personality. Yet, along with Plutarch, he shows us paganism at its best, +striving to reform itself, groping after new sources of spiritual +strength, trying to wed new and purer spiritual ideals to the worn-out +mythology of the past. Maximus is very much in the position of one of our +divines who finds himself bound in duty to edify the spiritual life of his +flock, without disowning the religious traditions of the past, and without +refusing to accept the ever-broadening revelation of God. Some of his +discourses may seem to us frigid and scholastic, with a literary rather +than a religious interest. But in others, there is a combination of a +systematic theology with a mystic fervour and a moral purpose, which seems +hardly to belong to the ancient world.(1858) + +In his oration to the Alexandrians,(1859) Dion Chrysostom speaks with +unwonted asperity of the Cynics, haranguing with coarse buffoonery a +gaping crowd in the squares and alleys or in the porches of the temples. +He thinks that these men are doing no good, but rather bringing the name +of philosophy into contempt. It is hardly necessary to remind the reader +that this view of the Cynic profession was very general in that age. The +vulgar Cynic, with his unkempt beard, his mantle, wallet, and staff, his +filth and rudeness and obscenity, insulting every passer-by with insolent +questions, exchanging coarse jests and jeers with the vagabond mob which +gathers at his approach, is the commonest figure in Greek and Roman +literature of the time. The "mendicant monks" of paganism have been +painted with all the vices of the dog and ape by Martial and Petronius and +Seneca, by Dion and Athenaeus and Alciphron and Epictetus, above all by +Lucian.(1860) The great foe of all extravagance or enthusiasm in religion +and philosophy fastened on the later followers of Diogenes with peculiar +bitterness. His hostility, we may surmise, is directed not against their +tenets, but their want of decent culture. In the _Banquet_, the Cynic +Alcidamas is drawn with a coarse vigour of touch which is intended to +match the coarseness of the subject. He bursts into the dinner-party of +Aristaenetus uninvited, to the terror of the company, ranges about the +room, snatching tit-bits from the dishes as they pass him, and finally +sinks down upon the floor beside a mighty flagon of strong wine. He drinks +to the bride in no elegant fashion, challenges the jester to fight, and, +when the lamp is extinguished in the obscene tumult, is finally found +trying to embrace the dancing girl.(1861) But Lucian's bitterest attack on +the class is perhaps delivered in the dialogue entitled the _Fugitives_. +Philosophy, in the form of a woman bathed in tears, appears before the +Father of the gods. That kindly potentate is affected by her grief, and +inquires the cause of it. Philosophy, who had been commissioned by Zeus to +bring healing and peace to human life in all its confusion and ignorance +and violence, then unfolds the tale of her wrongs.(1862) It is a picture +of vulgar pretence, by which her fair name has been besmirched and +disgraced. Observing the love and reverence which her true servants may +win from men, a base crew of ignorant fellows, trained in the lowest +handicrafts, have forsaken them, to assume the garb and name of her real +followers.(1863) It is a pleasant change from a life of toil and danger +and hardship, to an easy vagabond existence, nor is the transformation +difficult. A cloak and a club, a loud voice and a brazen face and a +copious vocabulary of scurrilous abuse, these are all the necessary +equipment. Impudent assurance has its usual success with the crowd, who +are unable to see through the disguise. If any one attempts to challenge +the claims of the impostors, he is answered with a blow or a taunt. And +thus by terrorism or deceit, they usurp the respect which is due to the +real philosopher, and manage to live in plenty and even in luxury. Nor is +this the worst. For these pretended ascetics, who profess to scorn +delights, and to endure all manner of hardness, are really coarse common +sensualists, who go about corrupting and seducing. Many of them heap up a +fortune in their wanderings, and then bid farewell to scrip and cloak and +the tub of Diogenes. And so plain unlearned men come to regard the very +name of philosophy with hatred and contempt, and all her work is undone, +like another Penelope's web.(1864) + +Even the stoutest defender of the Cynic movement, as a whole, feels +constrained to admit that the charges against the Cynics were, perhaps, in +many cases, true.(1865) It was a movement peculiarly attractive to the +lawless, restless hangers-on of society, who found in an open defiance of +social restraints and a wandering existence, a field of licence and a +chance of gain. Some of the great Cynics, indeed, were interested in +physical speculation, and were widely cultivated men.(1866) But the Cynic +movement, as a whole, rested on no scientific tradition, and the most +serious and effective preacher of its doctrine needed only a firm hold of +a few simple truths, with a command of seizing and incisive phrase.(1867) +There was no professional barrier to exclude the ignorant and corrupt +pretender. For the Cynics, from the very nature of their mission and their +aims, never formed an organised school or society. Each went his own way +in complete detachment. To the superficial observer, the only common bond +and characteristic were the purely external marks of dress and rough +bearing and ostentatious contempt for the most ordinary comforts and +decencies of life, which could easily be assumed by the knave and the +libertine. Hence, as time went on, although good Cynics, like Demonax or +Demetrius, acquired a deserved influence, yet the greed, licentiousness, +and brutal violence of others brought great discredit on the name. +Epictetus, who had a lofty ideal of the Cynic preacher as an ambassador of +God, lays bare the coarse vices of the pretender to that high service with +an unsparing hand.(1868) It is evident, however, that certain of the +gravest imputations, which had been developed by prurient imaginations, +were, by an unwholesome tradition, levelled at even the greatest and best +of the Cynics.(1869) And S. Augustine, in referring to these foul charges, +affirms, with an honourable candour, that they could not be truly made +against the Cynics of his own day.(1870) Moreover, the Roman nature never +took very kindly, even in some of the cultivated circles, to anything +under the name of philosophy.(1871) Even M. Aurelius could not altogether +disarm the suspicion with which it was regarded. And the revolt of Avidius +Cassius was to some extent an outburst of impatience with the doctrinaire +spirit of the _philosopha anicula_, as Cassius dared to call him.(1872) +And there were many things in the Cynic movement which specially tended to +provoke the ordinary man. It threw down the gauntlet to a materialised +age. It preached absolute renunciation of all social ties and duties, and +of all the pleasures and refinements with which that society had +surrounded itself. In an age which, even on its tomb-stones, bears the +stamp of a starched conventionality and adherence to use and wont, the +Cynic was a defiant rebel against all social restraints. In an age which +was becoming ever more superstitious, he did not shrink from attacking the +faith in the gods, the efficacy of the mysteries, the credit of the most +ancient oracles.(1873) And, finally, while philosophy in general after +Domitian found support and patronage at the imperial court, no emperor +gave his countenance to the Cynics till the Syrian dynasty of the third +century.(1874) We have here surely a sufficient accumulation of reasons +for hesitating to accept the wholesale condemnation of a class of men who, +instead of disarming opposition, rather plumed themselves on provoking it. + +A good example of the merciless, and not altogether scrupulous fashion in +which the Cynics were handled by contemporaries is to be found in Lucian's +piece on the death of Peregrinus.(1875) Peregrinus was a native of Parium +on the Propontis, and a man of fortune. He loved to call himself Proteus, +and, indeed, the strange vicissitudes of his career justified his +assumption of the name.(1876) On reaching manhood, he wandered from land +to land, and in Palestine he joined a Christian brotherhood, in which he +rose to a commanding influence, which drew down the suspicion of the +government, and he was thrown for a time into prison.(1877) His +persecution called forth, as Lucian ungrudgingly admits, all the fearless +love and charity of the worshippers of "the crucified Sophist." Released +by a philosophic governor of the type of Gallio, he gave up the remnant of +his paternal property, amounting to fifteen talents, to his native +city.(1878) Peregrinus had already assumed the peculiar dress of the +Cynic, and set out on fresh wanderings, having, from some difference on a +point of ritual, severed his connection with the Christian brotherhood. He +then came under the influence of an Egyptian ascetic and of the mysticism +of the East. In a visit to Italy he acquired celebrity by his fierce +invectives, which did not spare even the blameless and gentle Antoninus +Pius.(1879) The Emperor himself paid little heed to him, but the prefect +of the city thought that Rome could well spare such a philosopher, and +Peregrinus was obliged to return to the East. Henceforth Greece, and +especially Elis, was the scene of his labours. He abated none of his +energy, dealing out his denunciations impartially, and not sparing even +the philosophic millionaire Herodes Atticus for providing the visitors to +Olympia with the luxury of pure water.(1880) He even tried to stir up +Greece to armed revolt. His fame and power among the Cynic brotherhood +were at their height, or perhaps beginning to wane, when he conceived the +idea of electrifying the world and giving a demonstration of the triumph +of philosophy even over death by a self-immolation at Olympia. There, +before the eyes of men gathered from all quarters, like Heracles, the +great Cynic exemplar, on Mount Oeta, he resolved to depart in the blaze +and glory of the funeral pyre kindled by his own hand. And perhaps some +rare lettered Cynic brother set afloat a Sibylline verse, such as abounded +in those days, bidding men prepare to revere another hero, soon to be +enthroned along with Heracles in the broad Olympus. + +Such a career, ambiguous, perhaps, on the most charitable construction, +attracted the eye of the man who sincerely believed, under all his +persiflage, that both the religion and the philosophy of the past were +worn out, and were now being merely exploited by coarse adventurers for +gain or ambition. Moreover, the Philoctetes of the Cynic Heracles, his +pupil Theagenes, was attracting great audiences in the Gymnasium of Trajan +at Rome.(1881) The self-martyrdom of their chief had given a fresh +inspiration to the Cynic brotherhood. Who knows but a legend may gather +round his name, altars may be raised to him, and the ancient glamour of +the "flashing Olympus" will lend itself to glorify the uncultivated crew +who profane the name of philosophy, and are an offence to culture? + +There is no mistaking the cold merciless spirit in which Lucian, by his +own avowal, addressed himself to the task of exposing what he genuinely +believed to be a feigned enthusiasm. Even the lover of Lucian receives a +kind of shock from the occasional tone of almost cruel hardness in his +treatment of the Cynic apostle. When Lucian's narrative of the youthful +enormities of Peregrinus is analysed, it is perceived that the accuser is +anonymous, and that other names and particulars are carefully +suppressed.(1882) For the gravest charges of youthful depravity no proof +or authority is given; they seem to be the offspring of that prurient +gossip which can assail any character. They are the charges which were +freely bandied about in the age of Pericles and M. Aurelius, in the age of +Erasmus and the age of Milton. There must have been something at least +remarkable and fascinating, although marred by extravagance,(1883) about +the man who became a great leader and prophet among the Christians of +Palestine, and who was almost worshipped as a god. When he was thrown into +jail, their widows and orphans watched by the gates; his jailers were +bribed to admit some of the brethren to console his solitude; large sums +were collected from the cities of Asia for his support and defence.(1884) +The surrender of his paternal property to his native city, an act of +generosity which had many parallels in that age, is attributed to no +higher motive than the wish to hush up a rumour that Peregrinus had +murdered his father. The charge apparently rested on nothing more +substantial than malignant gossip.(1885) The migration of Peregrinus from +the Christian to the Cynic brotherhood was not so startling in that age as +it may appear to us. Transitions to and fro were not uncommon between +societies which had the common bond of asceticism and contempt for the +world.(1886) Moreover, Lucian, with all his delicate genius, had little +power of understanding the force of religious enthusiasm. It is pretty +clear that Peregrinus was not an ordinary Cynic; he had felt the spell of +Oriental and Pythagorean mysticism. His Cynicism was probably tinctured +with a religion of the same type as that of Apollonius of Tyana.(1887) And +it is his failure to appreciate the fervour of this mystical elation in +Peregrinus and his disciples which misled Lucian, and makes his narrative +misleading. + +Lucian suggests that, when he visited Olympia for the fourth time, he +found that the influence of Peregrinus was on the wane.(1888) Yet even +from Lucian's own narrative it is clear that Peregrinus and his doings +were attracting almost as much attention as the games. On Lucian's +arrival, the first thing he heard was a rumour that the great Cynic had +resolved to die upon a flaming pyre, like the hero who was the mythic +patron of the school. Peregrinus professed that by his self-immolation he +was going to teach men, in the most impressive way, to make light of +death. And many a Cynic sermon was evidently delivered on the subject, the +greatest preacher being Theagenes, for whom Lucian displays a particular +aversion. There were, of course, many sceptics like Lucian himself. And it +is in the mouth of one of these enemies of the sect, in reply to +Theagenes, that Lucian has put the defamatory version of the life of +Peregrinus,(1889) to which we have referred. + +Lucian assumes from the first that the self-martyrdom of Peregrinus was +prompted by mere vulgar love of notoriety.(1890) Yet it is quite possible +that this is an unfair judgment. The Stoic school, with which the Cynics +had such a close affinity, allowed that, in certain circumstances, suicide +might be not only a permissible, but a meritorious, nay, even a glorious +act of self-liberation.(1891) Seneca had often looked gladly to it as the +ever open door of escape from ignominy or torture. The brilliant Stoic +Euphrates, the darling of Roman society, weary of age and disease, sought +and obtained the permission of Hadrian to drink the hemlock.(1892) And +that emperor himself, in his last sickness, begged the drug from his +physician who killed himself to escape compliance.(1893) Diogenes had +handed the dagger to his favourite pupil, Antisthenes, when tortured by +disease.(1894) The burden of the Cynic preaching was the nothingness of +the things of sense and contempt for death. Is it not possible that what +Lucian heard from the lips of Peregrinus himself was true, and that he +wished, it may be with mingled motives, by his own act to show men how to +treat with indifference the last terror of humanity? + +That the end of Peregrinus was surrounded by superstition and magnified by +grandiose effects is more than probable. Such things belonged to the +spirit of the age. And the calm, critical good sense of Lucian, which had +no sympathy with these weaknesses, saw nothing in the scene but +calculating imposture. Already oracles were circulating in which +Peregrinus appears as the phoenix, rising unscathed and rejuvenescent from +the pyre, predicting that he is to be a guardian spirit of the night, that +altars will rise in his honour, and that he will perform miracles of +healing. Theagenes blazed abroad a Sibylline verse which bade men, "when +the greatest of the Cynics has come to lofty Olympus, to honour the +night-roaming hero who is enthroned beside Hephaestus and the princely +Hector."(1895) Lucian found himself wedged in a dense crowd who came to +hear the last apology of the Cynic apostle. Some were applauding, and some +denouncing him as an impostor. Lucian could hear little in the melee. But +now and then, above the roar, he could hear the pale, tremulous old man +tell the surging crowd that, having lived like Heracles, he must die like +Heracles, and mingle with the ether, "bringing a golden life to a golden +close."(1896) Lucian thought his paleness was due to terror at the +nearness of his self-imposed death. It was more probably the result of +ascetic fervour and overstrained excitement. The spectacle sent Lucian +away in a fit of rather cruel laughter.(1897) + +The closing scene, which took place two or three miles from Olympia, was +ordered with solemn religious effect. It evidently impressed even the +sceptic's imagination. A high pyre had been prepared, with torches and +faggots ready. As the moon rose, the voluntary victim appeared in the garb +of his sect, surrounded by his leading disciples. He then disrobed +himself, flung incense on the flame, and, turning to the south, cried +aloud--"Daemons of my father and my mother graciously receive me." After +these words, he leapt into the blaze which at once enveloped him, and he +was seen no more.(1898) The Cynic brothers stood long gazing into the pyre +in silent grief, until Lucian aroused their anger by some jeers, not, +perhaps, in the best taste. On his way back to Olympia, he pondered on the +follies of men, and the craving for empty fame.(1899) To Lucian there was +nothing more in the tragic scene than that. And he amused himself by the +way with the creation of a myth, and watching how it would grow. To some +who met him on the road, too late for the spectacle, he told how, as the +pyre burst into flame, there was a great earthquake accompanied by +subterranean thunder, and a vulture rose from the fire, proclaiming in a +high human voice, as it winged its way heavenwards, "I have left earth +behind, and I go to Olympus."(1900) The poor fools, on whose credulity +Lucian was rather heartlessly playing, with a shudder of awe fell to +questioning him whether the bird flew to the east or the west. And, on his +return to Olympia, he was rewarded in the way he liked best, by finding +the tale which he had cradled already full grown. A venerable man, whom he +encountered, related that with his own eyes he had seen the vulture rising +from the pyre, and added that he had just met Peregrinus himself walking +in the "seven-voiced cloister," clothed in white raiment, and with a +chaplet of olive on his head.(1901) + +Lucian's picture of the death of Peregrinus, whatever we may think of its +fairness and discernment, is immensely valuable for many things besides +the light which it casts on Lucian's attitude to all forms of extravagance +and superstition. In spite of his contempt for them, he himself reveals +that the Cynics were a great popular force. We see also that Cynicism was, +in spite of its generally deistic spirit, sometimes leagued with real or +affected religious sentiment. As to the real character of Peregrinus, +there is reason to believe that Lucian did not read it aright. The +impression which the Cynic made on Aulus Gellius was very different. When +Gellius was at Athens in his student days, he used often to visit +Peregrinus, who was then living in a little hut in the suburbs, and he +found the Cynic's discourses profitable and high-toned. In particular, +Peregrinus used to tell his hearers that the chance of apparent evasion or +concealment would never tempt the wise man to sin. Concealment was really +impossible, for, in the words of Sophocles, "Time, the all-seeing, the +all-hearing, lays bare all secrets." Evidently Peregrinus had other +admirers besides the Cynic brethren who hailed his apotheosis at +Olympia.(1902) Who can draw the line, in such an age, between the fanatic +and the impostor? + +The bitterness with which Lucian assails the Cynics of his day, while it +was justified by the scandalous morals of a certain number, is also a +testimony to the world-wide influence of the sect. The ranks of these rude +field-preachers would not have attracted so many impostors if the +profession had not commanded great power and influence over the masses. +The older Cynicism, which sprang from the simpler and more popular aspect +of the Socratic teaching, had long disappeared. Its place was taken by the +Stoic system, which gave a broad and highly elaborated scientific basis to +the doctrine of the freedom and independence of the virtuous will. The +rules of conduct were deduced from a well-articulated theory of the +universe and human nature, and they were expounded with all the dexterity +of a finished dialectic. The later Stoicism, as we have seen, like the +other schools, tended to neglect theory, in the effort to form the +virtuous character--a tendency which is seen at its height in Musonius and +Epictetus. But, as Stoicism became less scientific, it inclined to return +more and more to the spirit and method of the older Cynicism. The true, +earnest Cynic seems to be almost the philosophic ideal of Epictetus. Thus +it was that, in the first century after Christ, Cynicism emerged from its +long obscurity to take up the part of a rather one-sided popular Stoicism. +It was really pointed or sensational preaching of a few great moral +truths, common to all the schools, which the condition of society urgently +called for.(1903) + +The ideal of the Cynic life has been painted with gentle enthusiasm by +Epictetus.(1904) The true Cynic is a messenger from Zeus, to tell men that +they have wandered far from the right way, that they are seeking happiness +in regions where happiness is not to be found. It is not to be found in +the glory of consulships, or in the Golden House of Nero.(1905) It lies +close to us, yet in the last place where we ever seek it, in ourselves, in +the clear vision of the ruling faculty, in freedom from the bondage to +imagined good, to the things of sense.(1906) This preaching was also to be +preaching by example. The gospel of renunciation has been discredited from +age to age when it has come from the lips of a man lapped in downy +comfort, who never gave up anything in his life, and who indolently points +his flock to the steep road which he never means to tread with his own +feet. But the Cynic of Epictetus, with a true vocation, could point to +himself, without home or wife or children, without a city, without +possessions, having forsaken all for moral freedom.(1907) He has done it +at the call of God, not from mere caprice, or a fancy to wander lawlessly +on the outskirts of society.(1908) He has done it because the condition of +the world demands such stern self-restraint in the chief who would save +the discipline of an army engaged in desperate battle. It is a combat like +the Olympian strife which he has to face, and woe to him who enters the +lists untrained and unprepared.(1909) The care of wife and children is not +for one who has laid upon him the care of the family of man, who has to +console and admonish, and guide them into the right way.(1910) All worldly +loves and entanglements must be put aside by one who claims to be the "spy +and herald of God." The Cynic is the father of all men; the men are his +sons, the women his daughters.(1911) When he rebukes them, it is as a +father in God, a minister of Zeus. Nor may he take a part in the +government of any earthly state, which is a petty affair in comparison +with the ministry with which he is charged. How should he meddle with the +administration of Athens or Corinth, who has to deal with the moral +fortunes of the whole commonwealth of man.(1912) Possessing in himself the +secret of happiness and woe, he never descends into the vulgar contest, +where he may be overcome by the vilest and poorest spirits, for objects +which he has trained himself to regard as absolutely indifferent or +worthless. And so, he is proof against the spitefulness of fortune and the +baseness or violence of man. He will calmly suffer blows or insults as +sent by Zeus, just as Heracles bore cheerfully and triumphantly the toils +which were laid on him by Eurystheus. The true Cynic will even love those +who buffet and insult him.(1913) He will also resemble his patron hero in +the fresh comely strength of his body, which is the gift of temperance and +long days passed under the open sky.(1914) Above all, he will have a +conscience clearer than the sun, so that, at peace with himself and having +assurance of the friendship of the gods, he may be able to speak with all +boldness to his brothers and his children.(1915) This was the kind of +moral ministry which was needed by the age, and, in spite of both +undeserved calumny, and the real shame of many corrupt impostors in its +ranks, the missionary movement of Cynicism was one of undoubted power and +range. The resemblance, in many points, of the Cynics to the early +Christian monks and ascetics has been often noticed, and men sometimes +passed from the one camp to the other without any violent wrench.(1916) +The rhetor Aristides, in a fierce attack on the Cynic sect, makes it a +reproach that they have much in common with "the impious in Palestine." +Tatian, and others of the Gnostic ascetics, were in close connection with +leading Cynics.(1917) How easily they were absorbed into the bosom of the +Church we can see from the tale of Maximus, an Egyptian Cynic of the +fourth century, who continued to wear the distinctive marks of the +philosophic brotherhood, till he was installed as bishop of +Constantinople.(1918) And the contemporary eulogies of Cynic virtue by +John Chrysostom and Themistius testify at once to the importance of a +movement the strength of which was not spent till after the fall of the +Western Empire, and to its affinities for the kindred movement of +Christian asceticism. + +These "ambassadors of God," as they claimed to be, cared little, like S. +Paul, for "the wisdom of the world," or for the figments of the poets, and +those great cosmic theories which enabled Seneca to sustain or rekindle +his moral faith. With rare exceptions, such as Oenomaus of Gadara, they +seldom committed their ideas to writing.(1919) For the serried dialectic +of the Stoics they substituted the sharp biting epigram and lively +repartee, in which even the gentle Demonax indulged.(1920) Demetrius, who +saw the reigns of both Caligula and Domitian,(1921) was a man of real +power and distinction. He was revered by Seneca as a moral teacher of +remarkable influence, "a great man even if compared with the +greatest,"(1922) who lived up to the severest counsels which he addressed +to others. He would bear cold and nakedness and hard lodging with cheerful +fortitude, he was a man whom not even the age of Nero could corrupt. His +poverty was genuine, and he would never beg.(1923) He set little store by +philosophical theory, in comparison with diligent application of a few +tried and well-conned precepts.(1924) Yet he had the brand of culture, and +once, when his taste was offended by a bad, tactless reader, who was +ruining a passage in the _Bacchae_, he snatched the book from his hands +and tore it in pieces.(1925) Although he disdained the trimmed, artificial +eloquence of the schools, he had the fire and impetus of the true +orator.(1926) With little taste for abstract musings, he consoled the last +hours of Thrasea in prison with a discourse on the nature of the soul and +the mystery of its severance from the body at death.(1927) He formed a +close alliance for a time with that roaming hierophant of philosophy, +Apollonius of Tyana, the bond between them being probably a common +asceticism and a common hatred of the imperial tyranny.(1928) For +Demetrius, if not a revolutionary, was a leader of the philosophic +opposition, which assailed the emperors, not so much in their political +capacity, as because they too often represented and stimulated the moral +lawlessness and materialism of the age. Our sympathies must be with +Demetrius when he boldly faced the dangerous scowl of Nero with the _mot_, +"You threaten me with death, but nature threatens you."(1929) But our +sympathies will be rather with Vespasian, the plain old soldier, who, when +Demetrius openly insulted him, treated the "Cynic bark" with quiet +contempt.(1930) In truth, the Flavian emperors, till the expulsion of the +philosophers by Domitian, seem to have been on the whole indulgent to the +outspoken freedom of the Cynics.(1931) Occasionally, however, the daring +censor had, in the interests of authority, to be restrained. Once, when +Titus was in the theatre, with the Jewess Berenice by his side, a Cynic, +bearing the name of the founder of the sect, gave voice in a long bitter +oration to popular feeling against what was regarded as a shameful union. +This Cynic John the Baptist, got off with a scourging.(1932) A comrade +named Heros, however, repeated the offensive expostulation, and lost his +head. Peregrinus, for a similar attack on Antoninus Pius, was quietly +warned by the prefect to leave the precincts of Rome. In the third century +there was a great change in the political fortunes and attitude of the +sect; Cynics are even found basking in imperial favour, and lending their +support to the imperial power.(1933) + +The Cynics, from the days of Antisthenes, had poured contempt on the +popular religion and the worship of material images of the Divine. They +were probably the purest monotheists that classical antiquity +produced.(1934) Demetrius is almost Epicurean in his belief in eternal +Fate, and his contempt for the wavering wills and caprices which +mythological fancy ascribed to the Olympian gods.(1935) Demonax, the +mildest and most humane member of the school in imperial times, refused to +offer sacrifices or even to seek initiation in the Mysteries of +Eleusis.(1936) When he was impeached for impiety before the Athenian +courts, he replied that, as for sacrifices, the Deity had no need of them, +and that touching the Mysteries, he was in this dilemma: if they contained +a revelation of what was good for men, he must in duty publish it; if they +were bad and worthless, he would feel equally bound to warn the people +against the deception. But the most fearless and trenchant assailant of +the popular theology among the Cynics was Oenomaus of Gadara, in the reign +of Hadrian.(1937) Oenomaus rejected, with the frankest scorn, the +anthropomorphic fables of heathenism. In particular, he directed his +fiercest attacks against the revival of that faith in oracles and +divination which was a marked characteristic of the Antonine age. +Plutarch, in a charming walk round the sights of Delphi, in which he acts +as cicerone, describes a Cynic named Didymus as assailing the influence of +oracles on human character.(1938) But Oenomaus, as we know him from +Eusebius, was a far more formidable and more pitiless iconoclast than +Didymus. He constructed an elaborate historical demonstration to show that +the oracles were inspired neither by the gods nor by daemons, but were a +very human contrivance to dupe the credulous. And in connection with the +subject of oracles, he dealt with the question of free-will, and asserted +man's inalienable liberty, and the responsibility for all his actions +which is the necessary concomitant of freedom. Oenomaus treated Dodona and +Delphi with such jaunty disrespect that, at the distance of a century and +a half, his memory aroused the anger of Julian to such a degree, that the +imperial champion of paganism could hardly find words strong enough to +express his feelings.(1939) Oenomaus is a wretch who is cutting at the +roots, not only of all reverence for divine things, but of all those moral +instincts implanted in our souls by God, which are the foundation of all +right conduct and justice. For such fellows no punishment could be too +severe; they are worse than brigands and wreckers.(1940) + +The resolute rejection of the forms of popular worship, and of the claims +of divination, is hardly less marked in the mild and tolerant +Demonax.(1941) Demonax, whose life extended probably from 50 to 150 +A.D.,(1942) sprang from a family in Cyprus of some wealth and distinction, +and had a finished literary culture.(1943) But he had conceived from +childhood a passion for the philosophic life, according to the ideal of +that age. His teachers were Cynics or Stoics, but in speculative opinion +he was broadly Eclectic. In his long life he had associated with Demetrius +and Epictetus, Apollonius and Herodes Atticus.(1944) When asked once who +was his favourite philosopher, he replied that he reverenced Socrates, +admired Diogenes, and loved Aristippus.(1945) His tone had perhaps the +greatest affinity for the simplicity of the Socratic teaching. But he did +not adopt the irony of the master, which, if it was a potent arm of +dialectic, often left the subject of it in an irritated and humiliated +mood. Demonax was a true Cynic in his contempt for ordinary objects of +greed and ambition,(1946) in the simple, austere fashion of his daily +life, and in the keen epigrammatic point, often, to our taste, verging on +rudeness, with which he would expose pretence and rebuke any kind of +extravagance.(1947) But although he cultivated a severe bodily discipline, +so as to limit to the utmost his external wants, he carefully avoided any +ostentatious singularity of manner to win a vulgar notoriety. He had an +infinite charity for all sorts of men, excepting only those who seemed +beyond the hope of amendment.(1948) His counsels were given with an Attic +grace and brightness which sent people away from his company cheered and +improved, and hopeful for the future. Treating error as a disease incident +to human nature, he attacked the sin, but was gentle to the sinner.(1949) +He made it his task to compose the feuds of cities and to stimulate +unselfish patriotism; he reconciled the quarrels of kinsmen; he would, on +occasion, chasten the prosperous, and comfort the failing and unfortunate, +by reminding both alike of the brief span allotted to either joy or +sorrow, and the long repose of oblivion which would soon set a term to all +the agitations of sorrow or of joy.(1950) + +But there was another side to his teaching. Demonax was no supple, +easy-going conformist to usages which his reason rejected. Early in his +career, as has been said, he had to face a prosecution before the +tribunals of Athens, because he was never seen to sacrifice to the gods, +and declined initiation at Eleusis. In each case, he defended his +nonconformity in the boldest tone.(1951) To a prophet whom he saw plying +his trade for hire, he put the dilemma: "If you can alter the course of +destiny, why do you not demand higher fees? If everything happens by the +decree of God, where is the value of your art?"(1952) When asked if he +believed the soul to be immortal, he answered, "It is as immortal as +everything else."(1953) He derided, in almost brutal style, the effeminacy +of the sophist Favorinus, and the extravagant grief of Herodes Atticus for +his son.(1954) He ruthlessly exposed the pretences of sham philosophy +wherever he met it. When a youthful Eclectic professed his readiness to +obey any philosophic call, from the Academy, the Porch, or the Pythagorean +discipline of silence, Demonax cried out, "Pythagoras calls you."(1955) He +rebuked the pedantic archaism of his day by telling an affected stylist +that he spoke in the fashion of Agamemnon's time.(1956) When Epictetus +advised him to marry and become the father of a line of philosophers, he +asked the celibate preacher to give him one of his daughters.(1957) The +Athenians, from a vulgar jealousy of Corinth, proposed to defile their +ancient memories by establishing gladiatorial shows under the shadow of +the Acropolis. Demonax, in the true spirit of Athens from the time of +Theseus, advised them first to sweep away the altar of Pity.(1958) + +Demonax lived to nearly a hundred years. He is said never to have had an +enemy. He was the object of universal deference whenever he appeared in +public. In his old age he might enter any Athenian house uninvited, and +they welcomed him as their good genius. The children brought him their +little presents of fruit and called him father, and as he passed through +the market, the baker-women contended for the honour of giving him their +loaves. He died a voluntary death, and wished for no tomb save what nature +would give him. But the Athenians were aware that they had seen in him a +rare apparition of goodness; they honoured him with a splendid and +imposing burial and mourned long for him. And the bench on which he used +to sit when he was weary they deemed a sacred stone, and decked it with +garlands long after his death.(1959) + +Demonax, by a strange personal charm, attained to an extraordinary +popularity and reverence. But the great mass of philosophic preachers had +to face a great deal of obloquy and vulgar contempt. Apart from the +coarseness, arrogance, and inconsistency of many of them, which gave just +offence, their very profession was an irritating challenge to a +pleasure-loving and worldly age. Men who gloried in the splendour of their +civic life, and were completely absorbed in it, who were flattered and +cajoled by their magistrates and popular leaders, could hardly like to be +told by the vagrant, homeless teacher, in beggar's garb, that they were +ignorant and perverted and lost in a maze of deception. They would hardly +be pleased to hear that their civilisation was an empty show, without a +solid core of character, that their hopes of happiness from a round of +games and festivals, from the splendour of art in temples and statues, +were the merest mirage. The message _Beati pauperes spiritu--Beati qui +lugent_, will never be a popular one. That was the message to his age of +the itinerant Cynic preacher, and his unkempt beard and ragged cloak and +the fashion of his life made him the mark of cheap and abundant ridicule. +Sometimes the contempt was deserved; no great movement for the elevation +of humanity has been free from impostors. Yet the severe judgment of the +Cynic missionaries on their age is that of the polished orator, who had as +great a scorn as Lucian for the sensual or mercenary Cynic, and yet took +up the scrip and staff himself, to propagate the same gospel as the +Cynics.(1960) + +Dion Chrysostom was certainly not a Cynic in the academic sense, but he +belonged to the same great movement. He sprang from a good family at Prusa +in Bithynia.(1961) He was trained in all the arts of rhetoric, and taught +and practised them in the early part of his life. A suspected friendship +led to his banishment in the reign of Domitian, and in his exile, with the +_Phaedo_ and the _De Falsa Legatione_ as his companions, he wandered over +many lands, supporting himself often by menial service.(1962) He at last +found himself in his wanderings in regions where wild tribes of the Getae +for a century and a half had been harrying the distant outposts of +Hellenic civilisation on the northern shores of the Euxine.(1963) The news +of the death of Domitian reached a camp on the Danube when Dion was there. +The soldiery, faithful to their emperor, were excited and indignant, but, +under the spell of Dion's eloquence, they were brought to acquiesce in the +accession of the blameless Nerva. Dion at length returned to Rome, and +rose to high favour at court. Trajan often invited him to his table, and +used to take him as companion in his state carriage, although the honest +soldier did not pretend to appreciate Dion's rhetoric.(1964) + +During his exile, as he tells us, Dion had been converted to more serious +views of life. The triumphs of conventional declamation before fashionable +audiences lost their glamour. Dion became conscious of a loftier mission +to the dim masses of that far-spreading empire through whose cities and +wildernesses he was wandering.(1965) As to the eyes of Seneca, men seemed +to Dion, amid all their fair, cheerful life, to be holding out their hands +for help. Wherever he went, he found that, in his beggar's dress, he was +surrounded by crowds of people eager to hear any word of comfort or +counsel in the doubts and troubles of their lives. They assumed that the +poor wanderer was a philosopher. They plied him with questions on the +great problem, How to live; and the elegant sophist was thus compelled to +find an answer for them and for himself.(1966) + +Dion never quite shook off the traditions and tone of the rhetorical +school. The ambition to say things in the most elegant and attractive +style, the love of amplifying, in leisurely and elaborate development, a +commonplace and hackneyed theme still clings to him. His eighty orations +are many of them rather essays than popular harangues. They range over all +sorts of subjects, literary, mythological, and artistic, political and +social, as well as purely ethical or religious. But, after all, Dion is +unmistakably the preacher of a great moral revival and reform. He cannot +be classed definitely with any particular school of philosophy. He is the +apostle of Greek culture, yet he admires Diogenes, the founder of the +Cynics.(1967) If he had any philosophic ancestry, he would probably have +traced himself to the Xenophontic Socrates.(1968) But he is really the +rhetorical apostle of the few great moral principles which were in the +air, the common stock of Platonist, Stoic, Cynic, even the Epicurean. +Philosophy to him is really a religion, the science of right living in +conformity to the will of the Heavenly Power. But it is also the practice +of right living. No Christian preacher has probably ever insisted more +strongly on the gulf which separates the commonplace life of the senses +from the life devoted to a moral ideal.(1969) The only philosophy worth +the name is the earnest quest of the path to true nobility and virtue, in +obedience to the good genius, the unerring monitor within the breast of +each of us, in whose counsels lies the secret of happiness properly so +called.(1970) Hence Dion speaks with the utmost scorn alike of the coarse +Cynic impostor, who disgraces his calling by buffoonery and +debauchery,(1971) and the philosophic exquisite who tickles the ears of a +fashionable audience with delicacies of phrase, but never thinks of trying +to make them better men. He feels a sincere indignation at this dilettante +trifling, in view of a world which is in urgent need of practical +guidance.(1972) For Dion, after all his wanderings through the Roman +world, has no illusions as to its moral condition. He is almost as great a +pessimist as Seneca or Juvenal. In spite of all its splendour and outward +prosperity, society in the reign of Trajan seemed to Dion to be in a +perilous state. Along with his own conversion came the revelation of the +hopeless bewilderment of men in the search for happiness. Dimly conscious +of their evil plight, they are yet utterly ignorant of the way to escape +from it. They are swept hither and thither in a vortex of confused +passions and longings for material pleasures.(1973) Material civilisation, +without any accompanying moral discipline, has produced the familiar and +inevitable result, in an ever-increasing appetite for wealth and enjoyment +and showy distinction, which ends in perpetual disillusionment. Dion warns +the people of Tarsus that they are all sunk in a deep sensual slumber, and +living in a world of mere dreams, in which the reality of things is +absolutely inverted. Their famous river, their stately buildings, their +wealth, even their religious festivals, on which they plume themselves, +are the merest show of happiness.(1974) Its real secret, which lies in +temperance, justice, and true piety, is quite hidden from their eyes. When +that secret is learnt, their buildings may be less stately, gold and +silver will perhaps not be so abundant, there will be less soft and +delicate living, there may be even fewer costly sacrifices as piety +increases; but there will be a clearer perception of the true values of +things, and a chastened temperance of spirit, which are the only security +for the permanence of society. And the moralist points his audience to the +splendid civilisations of the past that have perished because they were +without a soul. Assyria and Lydia, the great cities of Magna Graecia which +lived in a dream of luxury, what are they now? And, latest example of all, +Macedon, who pushed her conquests to the gates of India, and came into +possession of the hoarded treasures of the great Eastern Empires, is gone, +and royal Pella, the home of the race, is now a heap of bricks.(1975) + +It needed a courage springing from enthusiasm and conviction to preach +such unpalatable truths to an age which gloried in its material splendour. +Dion is often conscious of the difficulty of his task; and he exerts all +his trained dexterity to appease opposition, and gain a hearing for his +message.(1976) As regards the reform of character, Dion has no new message +to deliver. His is the old gospel of renunciation for the sake of freedom, +the doctrine of a right estimate of competing objects of desire and of the +true ends of life. Dion, like nearly all Greek moralists from Socrates +downwards, treats moral error and reform as rather a matter of the +intellect than of emotional impulse. Vice is the condition of a besotted +mind, which has lost the power of seeing things as they really are;(1977) +conversion must be effected, not by appeals to the feelings, but by +clarifying the mental vision. There is but little reference to religion as +a means of reform, although Dion speaks of the love of God as a support of +the virtuous character. As an experienced moral director, Dion knew well +the necessity of constant iteration of the old truths. Just as the sick +man will violate his doctor's orders, well knowing that he does so to his +hurt, so the moral patient may long refuse to follow a principle of life +which his reason has accepted.(1978) And so the preacher, instead of +apologising for repeating himself, will regard it as a duty and a +necessity to do so. + +But Dion did not aim at the formation of any cloistered virtue, +concentrated on personal salvation. He has a fine passage in which he +shows that retreat, (_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_) detachment of spirit, is quite possible +without withdrawing from the noises of the world.(1979) And he felt +himself charged with a mission to bring the higher principles of conduct +into the civic life of the time. We know from Pliny's correspondence with +Trajan, that the great cities of Bithynia, and not least Dion's +birthplace,(1980) were then suffering from unskilful administration and +wasteful finance. Dion completes the picture by showing us their miserable +bickerings and jealousies about the most trivial things. He denounces the +unscrupulous flattery of the masses by men whose only object was the +transient distinction of municipal office, the passion for place and +power, without any sober wish to serve or elevate the community. He also +exposes the caprice, the lazy selfishness, and the petulant ingratitude of +the crowd.(1981) Dion, it is true, is an idealist, and his ideals of +society are perhaps not much nearer realisation in some of our great +cities than they were then. He often delivered his message to the most +unpromising audiences. Some of his finest conceptions of social +reorganisation were expounded before rude gatherings on the very verge of +civilisation.(1982) Once, in his wanderings, he found himself under the +walls of a half-ruined Greek town, which had been attacked, the day +before, by a horde of Scythian barbarians. There, on the steps of the +temple of Zeus, he expounded to an eager throng of mean Greek traders, +with all the worst vices, and only some faded traces of the culture of +their race, the true meaning of city life.(1983) It is a society of men +under the kingship of law, from which all greed, intemperance, and +violence have been banished; a little world which, in its peaceful order +and linked harmonies, should be modelled on the more majestic order of the +great city of the universe, the city of gods and men. + +How far from their ideal were the cities of his native land, Dion saw only +too well. The urban life of Asia, as the result of the Greek conquests, +has perhaps never been surpassed in external splendour and prosperity, and +even in a diffusion of intellectual culture. The palmy days of the +glorious spring-time of Hellenic vigour and genius in Miletus, Phocaea, +and Rhodes, seemed to be reproduced even in inland places, which for 1500 +years have returned to waste.(1984) Agriculture and trade combined to +produce an extraordinary and prosperous activity. Education was endowed +and organised, and literary culture became almost universal.(1985) Nowhere +did the wandering sophist find more eager audiences, and no part of the +Roman world in that age contributed so great a number of teachers, +physicians, and philosophers. The single province of Bithynia, within half +a century, could boast of such names as Arrian, Dion Cassius, and Dion +Chrysostom himself. But moral and political improvement did not keep pace +with an immense material and intellectual progress. The life of the cities +indeed was very intense; but, in the absence of the wider interests of the +great days of freedom, they wasted their energies in futile contests for +visionary distinctions and advantages. A continual struggle was going on +for the "primacy" of the province, and the name of metropolis. Ephesus, +the real capital, was challenged by Smyrna, which on its coins describes +itself as "first in greatness and beauty."(1986) The feuds between +Nicomedia and its near neighbour Nicaea caused Dion particular anxiety, +and his speech to the people of Nicomedia is the best picture of the evils +which we are describing.(1987) + +The two cities have much in common. Their families have intermarried; they +are constantly meeting in their markets and great religious festivals. +They are bound together by innumerable ties of private friendship.(1988) +The primacy for which they contend is the merest figment; there are no +material advantages at stake. Rather, these dissensions give a corrupt +Roman governor, who trades upon them, the power to injure both the rival +claimants.(1989) The same is true of other cities. Tarsus is engaged in +bitter contention with Mallus for a mere line of sandhills on their +frontiers.(1990) Dion's native Prusa has an exasperated quarrel with +Apamea for no solid reason whatever, although the two towns are closely +linked by nature to one another, and mutually dependent through their +trade and manufactures. All this miserable and foolish jealousy Dion +exposes with excellent skill and sense; and he employs an abundant wealth +of illustration in painting the happiness which attends harmony and +good-will. It is the law of the universe, from the tiny gregarious insect +whose life is but for a day, to the eternal procession of the starry +spheres. The ant, in the common industry of the Lilliputian commonwealth, +yields to his brother toiler, or helps him on his way.(1991) The primal +elements of the Cosmos are tempered to a due observance of their several +bounds and laws. The sun himself hides his splendour each night to give +place to the lesser radiance of the stars. This is rhetoric, of course, +but it is rhetoric with a moral burden. And it is impossible not to admire +the lofty tone of this heathen sophist, preaching the duty of forgiveness, +of mutual love and deference, the blessing of the quiet spirit "which +seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil."(1992) +There is a certain pathos in remembering that, within the very walls where +these elevated orations were delivered, there were shy companies of men +and women meeting in the early dawn to sing hymns to One who, three +generations before in Galilee, had taught a similar gospel of love and +self-suppression, but with a strange mystic charm, denied to the pagan +eloquence, and that Dion seems never to have known those with whom he had +so close a kindred.(1993) + +In many another oration Dion strove to raise the moral tone of his age. +His speech to the Alexandrians is probably his most gallant protest +against the besetting sins of a great population. Alexandria was a +congeries of many races, in which probably the Hellenic type of the +Ptolemies had succumbed to the enduring Egyptian _morale_.(1994) It was a +populace at once sensual and superstitious, passionately devoted to all +excitement, whether of games or orgiastic religious festival, with a +jeering irreverent vein, which did not spare even the greatest Emperors. +It was a curious medley--the seat of the most renowned university of the +ancient world, the gathering-place and seed-ground of ideas which united +the immemorial mysticism of the East with the clear, cold reason of +Hellas--and yet a seething hot-bed of obscenity, which infected the Roman +world, a mob who gave way to lunatic excitement over the triumph of an +actor, or a singer, or the victor in a chariot-race.(1995) It required no +ordinary courage to address such a crowd, and to charge them with their +glaring faults. The people of Alexandria are literally intoxicated with a +song. The music which, according to old Greek theory, should regulate the +passions, here only maddens them.(1996) And in the races all human dignity +seems to be utterly lost in the futile excitement of the spectators over +some low fellow contending for a prize in solid cash.(1997) Such a mob +earns only the contempt of its rulers, and men say that the Alexandrians +care for nothing but the "big loaf" and the sight of a race.(1998) All the +dignity which should surround a great people is forgotten in the theatre. +It is useless to boast of the majestic and bounteous river, the harbours +and markets crowded with the merchandise of Western or Indian seas, of the +visitors from every land, from Italy, Greece, and Syria, from the +Borysthenes, the Oxus, and the Ganges.(1999) They come to witness the +shame of the second city in the world, which, in the wantonness of +prosperity, has lost the temperate dignity and orderly calm that are the +real glory of a great people. + +As a foil to the feverish life of luxury, quarrelsome rivalry, and vulgar +excitement which prevailed in the great towns, Dion has left a prose idyll +to idealise the simple pleasures and virtues of the country.(2000) It is +also a dirge over the decay of Greece, when crops were being reaped in the +agora of historic cities, and the tall grasses grew around the statues of +gods and heroes of the olden time.(2001) A traveller, cast ashore in the +wreck of his vessel on the dreaded Hollows of Euboea, was sheltered, in a +rude, warm-hearted fashion, by some peasants. Their fathers had been +turned adrift in the confiscation of the estate of a great noble in some +trouble with the emperor, and they had made themselves a lonely home on a +pastoral slope, close to a stream, with the neighbouring shade of trees. +They had taken into tillage a few fields around their huts; they drove +their cattle to the high mountain pastures in summer time, and in the +winter they turned to hunting the game along the snowy tracks. Of city +life they know hardly anything. One of them, indeed, had been twice in the +neighbouring town, and he tells what he saw there in a lively way. It is +all a mere shadow or caricature of the old civic life of Greece. There are +the rival orators, patriot or demagogue, the frivolous and capricious +crowd, the vote of the privilege of dining in the town-hall. The serious +purpose of the piece, however, is to idealise the simple virtue and +happiness of the country folk, and to discuss the disheartening problem of +the poor in great cities.(2002) It is in the main the problem of our +modern urban life, and Dion had evidently thought deeply about it, and was +an acute observer of the social misery which is the same from age to age. +Fortified by the divine Homer and ordinary experience, he points out that +the poor are more generous and helpful to the needy than are the rich out +of their ample store. Too often the seeming bounty of the wealthy +benefactor is of the nature of a loan, which is to be returned with due +interest.(2003) The struggles and temptations of the poor in great cities +suggest a discussion of the perpetual problem of prostitution, which +probably no ancient writer ever faced so boldly. The double degradation of +humanity, which it involved in the ancient world, is powerfully +painted;(2004) and the plea that the indulgence in venal immorality is the +only alternative to insidious attacks on family virtue is discussed with +singular firmness and yet delicacy of touch.(2005) The same detachment +from contemporary prejudice is shown in Dion's treatment of slavery. He +sees its fell effects on the masters, in producing sensuality, languor, +and helpless dependence on others for the slightest services. He points +out that there is no criterion afforded by nature to distinguish slave and +free. The so-called free man of the highest rank may be the offspring of a +servile amour, and the so-called slave may be ingenuous in every sense, +condemned to bondage by an accident of fortune.(2006) Just as external +freedom does not imply moral worth, so legal enslavement does not imply +moral degradation.(2007) If moral justice always fixed the position of men +in society by their deserts, master and slave would often have to change +places.(2008) In Dion's judgment as to the enervating effects of slavery +on the slave-owning class, and the absence of any moral or mental +distinction to justify the institution, he is in singular harmony with +Seneca. + +The similarity of tone between Seneca and Dion is perhaps even more marked +in their treatment of monarchy. Inherited, like so much else, from the +great Greek thinkers of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., the ideal of +a beneficent and unselfish prince, the true "shepherd of the people," the +antithesis of the lawless and sensual tyrant, had become, partly, no +doubt, through the influence of the schools of rhetoric, a common +possession of cultivated minds. Vespasian gave it a certain reality, if +his son Domitian showed how easily the king might pass into the tyrant. +The dream of an earthly providence, presiding over the Roman world, dawned +in more durable splendour with the accession of Trajan, and Pliny, his +panegyrist, has left us a sketch of the patriot prince, which is almost +identical with the lines of Dion's ideal.(2009) Both Dion and Pliny were +favourites of Trajan, and some of Dion's orations were delivered before +his court. As a court preacher, he justly boasts that he is no mere +flatterer, although we may suspect that his picture of the ideal monarch +might have been interpreted as drawn from the character of Trajan, just as +his picture of the tyrant was probably suggested by Domitian.(2010) Still, +we may well believe the orator when he says that the man who had bearded +the one at the cost of long exile and penury, was not likely to flatter +the other for the gold or honours which he despised. And in these +discourses, Dion seems full of the sense of a divine mission. Once, on his +wanderings, he lost his way somewhere on the boundaries of Arcadia, and, +ascending a knoll to recover the track, he found himself before a rude, +ruined shrine of Heracles, hung with votive offerings of the chase.(2011) +An aged woman sat by them who told him that she had a spirit of divination +from the gods. The shepherds and peasants used to come to her with +questions about the fate of their flocks and crops. And she now entrusted +Dion with a message to the great ruler of many men whom she prophesied +Dion was soon to meet.(2012) It was a tale of Heracles, the great +benefactor of men from the rising to the setting sun, who, by his simple +strength, crushed all lawless monsters and gave the world an ordered +peace. His father inspired him with noble impulse for his task by oracle +and omen, and sent Hermes once, when Heracles was still a boy at Thebes, +to show him the vision of the Two Peaks, and strengthen him in his +virtue.(2013) They rose from the same rocky roots, amid precipitous crags +and deep ravines, and the noise of many waters. At first they seemed to be +one mountain mass, but they soon parted wide asunder, the one being sacred +to Zeus, the other to the lawless Typhon. On the one crest, rising into +the cloudless ether, Kingship sits enthroned, in the likeness of a fair, +stately woman, clad in robes of glistening white, and wielding a sceptre +of brighter and purer metal than any silver or gold. Under her steady gaze +of radiant dignity, the good felt a cheerful confidence, the bad quailed +and shrank away. She was surrounded by handmaidens of a beauty like her +own, Justice and Peace and Order. The paths to the other peak were many +and secret, and skirted an abyss, streaming with blood or choked with +corpses. Its top was wrapped in mist and cloud, and there sat Tyranny on a +far higher and more pompous throne, adorned with gold and ivory and many a +gorgeous colour, but a throne rocking and unstable. She strove to make +herself like to Kingship, but it was all mere hollow pretence. Instead of +the gracious smile, there was a servile, hypocritical leer; instead of the +glance of dignity, there was a savage scowl. And around her sat a throng +bearing ill-omened names, Cruelty and Lust, Lawlessness and Flattery and +Sedition. On a question from Hermes, the youthful Heracles made his +choice, and his father gave him his commission to be the saviour of men. + +In this fashion Dion, like Aeschylus, recasts old myth to make it the +vehicle of moral instruction, just as he finds in Homer the true teacher +of kings.(2014) The theory of ideal monarchy is developed at such length +as may have somewhat wearied the emperor. But it really is based on a few +great principles. True kings, in Homer's phrase, are sons of Zeus, and +they are shepherds of the people. All genuine political power rests on +virtue, and ultimately on the favour of Heaven. A king is appointed by God +to work the good of his subjects. And, as his authority is divine, an +image on earth of the sovereignty of Zeus, the monarch will be a +scrupulously religious man in the highest sense,(2015) not merely by +offering costly sacrifices, but by righteousness, diligence, and +self-sacrifice in performing the duties of his solemn charge. The many +titles addressed to Father Zeus represent so many aspects of royal +activity and virtue. The true prince will be the father of his people, +surrounded and guarded by a loving reverence, which never degenerates into +fear. His only aim will be their good. He will keep sleepless watch over +the weak, the careless, those who are heedless for themselves. Commanding +infinite resources, he will know less of mere pleasure than any man within +his realm. With such immense responsibilities, he will be the most +laborious of all. His only advantage over the private citizen is in his +boundless command of friendship; for all men must be well-wishers to one +wielding such a beneficent power, with whom, from his conception of his +mission, they must feel an absolute identity of interest. And the king's +greatest need is friendship, to provide him with myriads of hands and eyes +in the vast work of government.(2016) Herein lies the sharpest contrast +between the true king and the tyrant, a contrast which was a commonplace +in antiquity, but which was stamped afresh by the juxtaposition of the +reign of Domitian and the reign of Trajan. The universal hatred which +pursued a bad Caesar even beyond the grave, which erased his name from +monuments and closed its eyes even to intervals of serious purpose for the +general weal, was a terrible illustration of the lonely friendlessness of +selfish power.(2017) Instead of loyal and grateful friendship, the despot +was mocked by a venal flattery which was only its mimicry. The good +monarch will treat flatterers as false coiners who cause the genuine +currency to be suspected. This counsel and others of Dion were often +little regarded by succeeding emperors. Yet even the last shadowy princes +of the fifth century professed themselves the guardians of the human race, +and are oppressed by an ideal of universal beneficence which they are +impotent to realise.(2018) + +Hitherto we have been occupied with the preaching of Dion on personal +conduct, the reform of civic life, or the duties of imperial power. It +cannot be said that he discusses these subjects without reference to +religious beliefs and aspirations.(2019) But religion is rather in the +background; the reverence for the Heavenly Powers is rather assumed as a +necessary basis for human life rightly ordered. There is one oration, +however, of supreme interest to the modern mind, in which Dion goes to the +root of all religion, and examines the sources of belief in God and the +justification of anthropomorphic imagery in representing Him. This +utterance was called forth by a visit to Olympia when Dion was advanced in +years.(2020) The games of Olympia were a dazzling and inspiring spectacle, +and the multitude which gathered there from all parts of the world was a +splendid audience. But, with the sound of the sacred trumpet, and the +herald's voice, proclaiming the victor, in his ears, Dion turns away from +all the glory of youthful strength and grace, even from the legendary +splendour of the great festival,(2021) to the majestic figure of the +Olympian Zeus, which had been graved by the hand of Pheidias more than 500 +years before, and to the thoughts of the divine world which it suggested. +That greatest triumph of idealism in plastic art, inspired by famous lines +in the _Iliad_, was, by the consent of all antiquity, the masterpiece of +Pheidias. Ancient writers of many ages are lost in admiration of the +mingled majesty and benignity which the divine effigy expressed. To the +eyes of Lucian it seemed "the very son of Kronos brought down to earth, +and set to watch over the lonely plain of Elis."(2022) There it sat +watching for more than 800 years, till it was swept away in the fierce, +final effort to dethrone the religion of the past. Yet the majestic image, +which attracted the fury of the iconoclasts of the reign of Theodosius, +inspired Dion with thoughts of the Divine nature which travelled far +beyond the paganism either of poetry or of the crowd. It was not merely +the masterpiece of artistic and constructive skill which had fascinated +the gaze, and borne the vicissitudes, of so many centuries, that moved his +admiration; it was also, and more, the moral effect of that miracle of art +on the spectator. The wildest and fiercest of the brute creation might be +calmed and softened by the air of majestic peace and kindness which +floated around the gold and ivory. "Whosoever among mortal men is most +utterly toil-worn in spirit, having drunk the cup of many sorrows and +calamities, when he stands before this image, methinks, must utterly +forget all the terrors and woes of this mortal life."(2023) + +But the thoughts of Dion, in presence of the majestic figure at Olympia, +take a wider range. His theme is nothing less than the sources of our idea +of God, and the place of art in religion. He pours his scorn upon +hedonistic atheism. Our conception of God is innate, original, universal +among all the races of men.(2024) It is the product of the higher reason, +contemplating the majestic order, minute adaptation, and beneficent +provision for human wants in the natural world. In that great temple, with +its alternations of gloom and splendour, its many voices of joy or of +terror, man is being perpetually initiated in the Great Mysteries, on a +grander scale than at Eleusis, with God Himself to preside over the rites. +The belief in God depends in the first instance on no human teaching, any +more than does the love of child to parent. But this original intuition +and belief in divine powers finds expression through the genius of +inspired poets; it is reinforced by the imperative prescriptions of the +founders and lawgivers of states; it takes external form in bronze or gold +and ivory or marble, under the cunning hand of the great artist; it is +developed and expounded by philosophy.(2025) Like all the deepest thinkers +of his time, Dion is persuaded of the certainty of God's existence, but he +is equally conscious of the remoteness of the Infinite Spirit, and of the +weakness of all human effort to approach, or to picture it to the mind of +man. We are to Dion like "children crying in the night, and with no +language but a cry."(2026) Yet the child will strive to image forth the +face of the Father, although it is hidden behind a veil which will never +be withdrawn in this world. The genius of poetry, commanding the most +versatile power of giving utterance to the religious imagination, is first +in order and in power. Law and institution follow in its wake. The plastic +arts, under cramping limitations, come later still to body forth the +divine dreams of the elder bards. Dion had thought much on the relative +power of poetry and the sculptor's art to give expression to the thoughts +and feelings of man about the Divine nature. The boundless power or +licence of language to find a symbol for every thought or image on the +phantasy is seen at its height in Homer, who riots in an almost lawless +exercise of his gifts.(2027) But the chief importance of the discussion +lies in an arraignment of Pheidias for attempting to image in visible form +the great Soul and Ruler of the universe, Whom mortal eye has never seen +and can never see. His defence is very interesting, both as a clear +statement of the limitations of the plastic arts, and as a justification +of material images of the Divine. + +Pheidias pleads in his defence that the artist could not, if he would, +desert the ancient religious tradition, which was consecrated in popular +imagination by the romance of poetry;(2028) that is fixed for ever. +Granted that the Divine nature is far removed from us, and far beyond our +ken; yet, as little children separated from their parents, feel a strong +yearning for them and stretch out their hands vainly in their dreams, so +the race of man, from love and kindred, longs ever to draw nigh to the +unseen God by prayer and sacrifice and visible symbol. The ruder races +will image their god in trees or shapeless stones, or may seek a strange +symbol in some of the lower forms of animal life.(2029) The higher may +find sublime expression of His essence in the sun and starry spheres. For +the pure and infinite mind which has engendered and which sustains the +universe of life, no sculptor or painter of Hellas has ever found, or can +ever find, full and adequate expression.(2030) Hence men take refuge in +the vehicle and receptacle of the noblest spirit known to them, the form +of man. And the Infinite Spirit, of which the human is an effluence, may +perhaps best be embodied in the form of His child.(2031) But no effort or +ecstasy of artistic fancy, in form or colour, can ever follow the track of +the Homeric imagination in its majesty and infinite variety of expression. +The sculptor and painter have fixed limits set to their skill, beyond +which they cannot pass. They can appeal only to the eye; their material +has not the infinite ductility and elasticity of the poetic dialect of +many tribes and many generations. They can seize only a single moment of +action or passion, and fix it for ever in bronze or stone. Yet Pheidias, +with a certain modest self-assertion, pleads that his conception of the +Olympian Zeus, although less various and seductive than Homer's, although +he cannot present to the gazer the crashing thunderbolt or the baleful +star, or the heaving of Olympus, is perhaps more elevating and +inspiring.(2032) The Zeus of Pheidias is the peace-loving and gentle +providence of an undisturbed and harmonious Greece, the august giver of +all good gifts, the father and saviour and guardian of men. The many names +by which men call him may each find some answering trait in the laborious +work of the chisel. In the lines of that majestic and benign image are +shadowed forth the mild king and father, the hearer of prayer, the +guardian of civic order and family love, the protector of the stranger, +and the power who gives fertile increase to flock and field. The Zeus of +Pheidias and of Dion is a God of mercy and peace, with no memory of the +wars of the Giants.(2033) + +Dion is a popular teacher of morality, not a thinker or theologian. But +this excursion into the field of theology shows him at his best. And it +prepares us for the study of some more formal efforts to find a theology +in the poetry of legend. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + + THE PHILOSOPHIC THEOLOGIAN + + +The times were ripe for a theodicy. Religion of every mood and tone, of +every age and clime, was in the air, and philosophy had abandoned +speculation and turned to the direction of conduct and spiritual life. The +mission of philosophy is to find the one in the many, and never did the +religious life of men offer a more bewildering multiplicity and variety, +not to say chaos, to the ordering power of philosophy. The scepticism of +the Neronian age had almost disappeared. The only rationalists of any +distinction in the second century were Lucian and Galen.(2034) It was an +age of imperious spiritual cravings, alike among the cultivated and the +vulgar. But the thin abstractions of the old Latin faith and the brilliant +anthropomorphism of Greece had ceased to satisfy even the crowd. It was an +age with a longing for a religious system less formal and coldly external, +for a religion more satisfying to the deeper emotions, a religion which +should offer divine help to human need and misery, divine guidance amid +the darkness of time; above all, a divine light in the mystery of death. +The glory of classic art had mysteriously closed. It was an age rather of +material splendour, and, at first sight, an age of bourgeois ideals of +parochial fame and mere enjoyment of the hour. Yet the Antonine age has +some claim to spiritual distinction. In the dim, sub-conscious feelings of +the masses, as well as in the definite spiritual effort of the higher +minds, there was really a great movement towards a ruling principle of +conduct and a spiritual vision. Men often, indeed, followed the +marsh-light through strange devious paths into wildernesses peopled with +the spectres of old-world superstition. But the light of the Holy Grail +had at last flashed on the eyes of some loftier minds. From the early +years of the second century we can trace that great combined movement of +the new Platonism and the revived paganism,(2035) which so long retarded +the triumph of the Church, and yet, in the Divinely-guided evolution, was +destined to prepare men for it. + +The old religion had not lost all hold on men's minds, as it is sometimes +said to have done, in rather too sweeping language. The punctilious ritual +with which, in the stately narrative of Tacitus, the Capitol was restored +by Vespasian, the pious care with which the young Aurelius recited the +Salian litany in words no longer understood, the countless victims which +he offered to the guardian gods of Rome in evil days of pestilence and +doubtful war, these things reveal the strength of the religion of Numa. +Two centuries after M. Aurelius was in his grave, the deities which had +cradled the Roman state, and watched over its career, were still objects +of reverence to the conservative circle of Symmachus. A religion which was +intertwined with the whole fabric of government and society, which gave +its sanction or benediction to every act and incident in the individual +life, which was omnipresent in game and festival, in temple and votive +monument, was placed far beyond the influence of changing fashions of +devotion. It was a powerful stay of patriotism, a powerful bond of civic +and family life; it threw a charm of awe and old-world sanctity around +everything it touched. But for the deeper spiritual wants and emotions it +furnished little nutriment. To find relief and cleansing from the sense of +guilt, cheer and glad exaltation of pious emotion, consolation in the +common miseries of life, and hope in the shadow of death, men had to +betake themselves to other systems. The oriental religions were pouring in +like a flood, and spreading over all the West. One Antonine built a shrine +of Mithra,(2036) another took the tonsure of Isis.(2037) The priests and +acolytes of the Egyptian goddess were everywhere, chanting their litanies +in solemn processions along the streets, instructing and baptizing their +catechumens, and, in the alternating gloom and splendour of their +mysteries, bearing the entranced soul to the boundaries of life and +death.(2038) Mithra, "the Unconquered," was justifying his name. In every +district from the Euxine to the Solway he brought a new message to +heathendom. Pure from all grossness of myth, the Persian god of light came +as the mediator and comforter, to soothe the poor and broken-hearted, and +give the cleansing of the mystic blood. His hierarchy of the initiated, +his soothing symbolic sacraments, his gorgeous ritual, and his promise of +immortality to those who drank the mystic Haoma, gratified and stimulated +religious longings which were to find their full satisfaction in the +ministry of the Church. + +But the religious imagination was not satisfied with historic and +accredited systems. Travel and conquest were adding to the spiritual +wealth or burden of the Roman race. In lonely Alpine passes, in the +deserts of Africa, or the Yorkshire dales, in every ancient wood or secret +spring which he passed in his wanderings or campaigns, the Roman found +hosts of new divinities, possible helpers or possible enemies, whose +favour it was expedient to win.(2039) And, where he knew not their strange +outlandish names, he would try to propitiate them all together under no +name, or any name that pleased them.(2040) And, as if this vague multitude +of ghostly powers were not large enough for devotion, the fecundity of +imagination created a host of genii, of haunting or guarding spirits, +attached to every place or scene, to every group or corporation of men +which had a place in Roman life. There were genii of the secret spring or +grove, of the camp, the legion, the cohort, of the Roman people, above +all, there was the genius of the emperor.(2041) Apotheosis went on +apace--apotheosis not merely of the emperors, but of a theurgic philosopher +like Apollonius, of a minion like Antinous, of a mere impostor like +Alexander of Abonoteichos.(2042) Old oracles, which had been suppressed or +decadent in the reign of Nero, sprang into fresh life and popularity in +the reign of Trajan. New sources of oracular inspiration were opened, some +of them challenging for the time the ancient fame of Delphi or +Dodona.(2043) According to Lucian, oracles were pealing from every rock +and every altar.(2044) Every form of revelation or divination, every +avenue of access to the Divine, was eagerly sought for, or welcomed with +pious credulity. The study of omens and dreams was reduced to the form of +a pseudo-science by a host of writers like Artemidorus. The sacred art of +healing through visions of the night found a home in those charming +temples of Asclepius, which rose beside so many hallowed springs, with +fair prospect and genial air, where the god revealed his remedy in dreams, +and a lore half hieratic, half medical, was applied to relieve the +sufferer.(2045) Miracles and special providences, the most marvellous or +the most grotesque, were chronicled with unquestioning faith, not only by +fanatics like Aelian, but by learned historians like Tacitus and +Suetonius. Tales of witchcraft and weird sorcery are as eagerly believed +at Trimalchio's dinner-table(2046) as in lonely villages of Thessaly. On +the higher level of the new Pythagorean faith, everything is possible to +the pure spirit. To such a soul God will reveal Himself by many voices to +which gross human clay is deaf; the future lays bare its secrets; nature +yields up her hidden powers. Spiritual detachment triumphs over matter and +time; and the Pythagorean apostle predicts a plague at Ephesus, casts out +demons, raises the dead, vanishes like a phantom from the clutches of +Domitian.(2047) + +At a superficial glance, a state of religion such as has been sketched +might seem to be a mere bewildering chaos of infinitely divided spiritual +interest. Men seem to have adopted the mythologies of every race, and to +have superadded a new mythology of positively boundless fecundity. A +single votive tablet will contain the names of the great gods of Latium +and Greece, of Persia, Commagene, and Egypt, and beside them, strange +names of British or Swiss, Celtic, Spanish, or Moorish gods, and the +vaguely-designated spirits who now seemed to float in myriads around the +scenes of human life.(2048) Yet, unperceived by the ordinary devotee, amid +all this confused ferment, a certain principle of unity or comprehension +was asserting its power. Although the old gods in Lucian's piece might +comically complain that they were being crowded out of Olympus by Mithra +and Anubis and their barbarous company,(2049) there was really little +jealousy or repulsion among the pagan cults. Ancient ritual was losing its +precision of outline; the venerable deities of classical myth were putting +off the decided individuality which had so long distinguished them in the +popular imagination.(2050) The provinces and attributes of kindred deities +melted into one another and were finally identified; syncretism was in the +air. Without the unifying aid of philosophy, ordinary piety was effecting +unconsciously a vast process of simplification which tended to ideal +unity. In the Sacred Orations of Aristides, Poseidon, Athene, Serapis, +Asclepius, are dropping the peculiar powers by which they were so long +known, and rising, without any danger of collision, to all-embracing sway. +So, the Isis of Apuleius, the "goddess of myriad names," in her vision to +Lucius, boldly claims to be "Queen of the world of shades, first of the +inhabitants of Heaven, in whom all gods find their unchanging type."(2051) +Of course, to the very end, the common superstitious devotion of the +masses was probably little influenced by the great spiritual movement +which, in the higher strata, was moulding heathen faith into an approach +to monotheism. The simple peasant still clung to his favourite deity, as +his Catholic descendant has to-day his favourite saint. But it is in the +higher minds that the onward sweep of great spiritual movements can really +be discerned. The initiation of Apuleius in all the mysteries, the +reverent visits of Apollonius to every temple and oracle from the Ganges +to the Guadalquivir, the matins of Alexander Severus in a chapel which +enshrined the images of Abraham and Orpheus, of Apollonius and +Christ;(2052) these, and many other instances of all-embracing devotion, +point forward to the goal of that Platonist theodicee which it is the +purpose of this chapter to expound. + +The spectacle of an immense efflorescence of pure paganism, most of it +born of very mundane fears and hopes and desires, to men like Lucian was a +sight which might, according to the mood, move to tears or laughter. But +the same great impulse which drove the multitude into such wild curiosity +of superstition, was awaking loftier conceptions of the Divine, and +feelings of purer devotion in the educated. And sometimes the very highest +and the very lowest developments of the protean religious instinct may be +seen in a single mind. Was there ever such a combination of the sensualist +imagination with the ideal of ascetic purity, of the terrors and dark arts +of anile superstition with the mystic vision of God, as in the soul of +Apuleius? The painter of the foulest scenes in ancient literature seems to +have cherished the faith in a heavenly King, First Cause of all nature, +Father of all living things,(2053) Saviour of spirits, beyond the range of +time and change, remote, ineffable. The prayer of thanksgiving to Isis +might, _mutatis mutandis_, be almost offered in a Christian church. The +conception of the unity and purity of the Divine One was the priceless +conquest of Greek philosophy, and pre-eminently of Plato. It had been +brought home to the Roman world by the teaching of Stoicism. But there is +a new note in the monotheism of the first and second centuries of the +Empire. God is no longer a mere intellectual postulate, the necessary +crown and lord of a great cosmic system. He has become a moral necessity. +His existence is demanded by the heart as well as by the intellect. Men +craved no longer for a God to explain the universe, but to resolve the +enigma of their own lives; not a blind force, moving on majestically and +mercilessly to "some far-off event," but an Infinite Father guiding in +wisdom, cherishing in mercy, and finally receiving His children to +Himself. This is the conception of God which, from Seneca to M. Aurelius, +is mastering the best minds, both Stoic and Platonist.(2054) Seneca, as we +have seen in a former chapter, often speaks in the hard tones of the older +Stoicism. Sometimes God, Nature, Fate, Jupiter, are identical terms(2055). +But the cold, materialistic conception of God is irreconcilable with many +passages in his writings. Like Epictetus and M. Aurelius, Seneca is often +far more emotional, we may say, far more modern, than his professed creed. +The materialistic _Anima Mundi_, interfused with the universe and the +nature of man, becomes the infinitely benign Creator, Providence, and +Guardian, the Father, and almost the Friend of men. He is the Author of +all good, never of evil: He is gentle and pitiful, and to attribute to Him +storm or pestilence or earthquake or the various plagues of human life is +an impiety. These things are the result of physical law. To such a God +boundless gratitude is due for His goodness, resignation in the wise +chastenings of His hand. He chastises whom he loves. In bereavement, He +takes only what He has given. He is our ready helper in every moral +effort; no goodness is possible without His succour. In return for all His +benefits, He asks for no costly material offerings, no blood of victims, +no steaming incense, no adulation in prayer. Faith in God is the true +worship of Him. If you wish to propitiate Him, imitate His goodness. And +for the elect soul the day of death is a birthday of eternity, when the +load of corporeal things is shaken off, and the infinite splendour of the +immortal life spreads out with no troubling shadow.(2056) + +Hardly less striking is the warmth of devout feeling which suffuses the +moral teaching of Epictetus and M. Aurelius. They have not indeed +abandoned the old Stoic principle that man's final good depends on the +rectitude of the will. But the Stoic sage is no longer a solitary athlete, +conquering by his proud unaided strength, and in his victory rising almost +superior to Zeus. Growing moral experience had taught humility, and +inspired the sense of dependence on a Higher Power in sympathy with +man.(2057) No true Stoic, of course, could ever forget the Divine element +within each human soul which linked it with the cosmic soul, and through +which man might bring himself into harmony with the great polity of gods +and men. But, somehow, the Divine Power immanent in the world, from a dim, +cold, impalpable law or fate or impersonal force, slowly rounds itself off +into a Being, if not apart from man, at any rate his superior, his Creator +and Guardian, nay, in the end, his Father, from whom he comes, to whom he +returns at death. Some may think this a decline from the lofty plane of +the older school. The answer is that the earlier effort to find salvation +through pure reason in obedience to the law of the whole, although it may +have been magnificent, was not a working religion for man as he is +constituted. The eternal involution of spirit and matter in the old Stoic +creed, the cold, impersonal, unknowable power, which, under whatever name, +Law, Reason, Fate, Necessity, permeates the universe, necessarily exclude +the idea of design, of providence, of moral care for humanity. The unknown +Power which claims an absolute obedience, has no aid or recognition for +his worshipper. The monism of the old Stoics breaks down. The human +spirit, in striving to realise its unity with the Universal Spirit, +realises with more and more intensity the perpetual opposition of matter +and spirit, while it receives no aid in the conflict from the power which +ordains it; it "finds itself alone in an alien world." The true Stoic has +no real object of worship. If he addresses the impassive centre and soul +of his universe, sometimes in the rapturous tones of loving devotion, it +is only a pathetic illusion born of the faiths of the past, or inspired by +a dim forecast of the faiths of the coming time. How could the complex of +blind forces arouse any devotion? It demanded implicit submission and +self-sacrifice, but it gave no help, save the name of a Divine element in +the human soul; it furnished no inspiring example to the sage in the +conflicts of passion, under obloquy, obstruction, and persecution. +Meanwhile, in this forlorn struggle, the human character was through +stress and storm developing new powers and virtues, lofty courage in the +face of lawless power, pious resignation to the blows of fortune, gentle +consideration and mercy even for slaves and the outcasts of society, +ideals of purity unknown to the ancient world in its prime. The sage +might, according to orthodox theory, rest in a placid content of rounded +perfection. But human nature is not so constituted. In proportion to +spiritual progress is the force of spiritual longings; _beati __mundo +corde, ipsi Deum videbunt_. The fruitful part of Stoicism as a religion +was the doctrine that the human reason is a part of the soul of the world, +a spark of the Divine mind. At first this was only conceived in the +fashion of a materialistic pantheism.(2058) The kindred between the +individual and the general soul was little more than a physical doctrine. +But it developed in minds like Epictetus and Seneca a profound spiritual +meaning; it tapped the source of all real religion. Pure reason can never +solve the religious problem. The history of religions shows that a +conception of God which is to act effectually on composite human nature is +never reached by the speculative intellect. What reason cannot do is +effected by the "sub-conscious self,"(2059) which is the dim seat of the +deeper intuitions, haunted by vague memories, hereditary pieties, and +emotional associations, the spring of strange genius, of heroic sacrifice, +of infinite aspiration. There throbs the tide "which drew from out the +boundless deep." Thus the Stoic of the later time became a mystic, in the +sense that "by love and emotion he solved the dualism of the world."(2060) +God is no longer a mere physical law or force, however subtilised, +sweeping on in pitiless impetus or monotony of cyclic change. God is +within the human soul, not as a spark of empyreal fire, but as the voice +of conscience, the spiritual monitor and comforter, the "Holy +Spirit,"(2061) prompting, guarding, consoling in life and death. God is no +longer found so much in the ordered movement of the spheres and the +recurring processes or the cataclysms of the material universe. He is +heard in the still small voice. It is thus that the later Stoicism melts +into the revived Platonism. + +Probably Seneca and Epictetus, had they been interrogated, would have +loyally resolved their most rapturous and devout language into the cold +terms of Stoic orthodoxy. But the emotional tone is a really new element +in their teaching, and the language of spiritual abandonment, joyful +resignation to a Higher Will, free and cheerful obedience to it in the +confidence of love, would be absurdly incongruous if addressed to an +abstract law or physical necessity.(2062) The fatherhood of God and the +kinship of all men as His sons is the fundamental principle of the new +creed, binding us to do nothing unworthy of such an ancestry.(2063) At +other times we are soldiers of God in a war with evil, bound to military +obedience, awaiting calmly the last signal to retreat from the scene of +struggle.(2064) The infinite benevolence of God is asserted in the face of +all appearances to the contrary. This of course is all the easier to one +trained in the doctrine that the external fortune of life has nothing to +do with man's real happiness. The fear of God is banished by the sense of +His perfect love. The all-seeing eye, the all-embracing providence, leave +no room for care or foreboding. The Stoic optimism is now grounded on a +personal trust in a loving and righteous will: "I am Thine, do with me +what Thou wilt." "For all things work together for good to them who love +Him." The external sufferings and apparent wrongs of the obedient sons of +God are no stumbling-blocks to faith.(2065) The great heroic example, +Heracles, the son of Zeus, was sorely tried by superhuman tasks, and won +his crown of immortality through toil and battle. "Whom He loves He +chastens." Even apparent injustice is only an education through suffering. +These things are "only light afflictions" to him who sees the due +proportions of things and knows Zeus as his father. Even to the poor, the +lame, the blind, if they have the divine love, the universe is a great +temple, full of mystery and joy, and each passing day a festival. In the +common things of life, in ploughing, digging, eating, we should sing hymns +to God. "What else can I do," says Epictetus, "a lame old man, than sing +His praise, and exhort all men to join in the same song?"(2066) Who shall +say what depth of religious emotion, veiled under old-world phrase, there +was in that outburst of M. Aurelius: "All harmonises with me which is in +harmony with thee, O Universe. Nothing for me is too early nor too late +which is in due season for thee.... For thee are all things, in thee are +all things, to thee all things return. The poet says, Dear City of +Cecrops; and wilt not thou say, Dear City of Zeus?"(2067) + +The attitude of such souls to external worship in every age may be easily +divined without the evidence of their words. If God is good and wishes +only the good of His creatures, then to seek to appease His wrath and +avert His capricious judgments becomes an impiety. If men's final good +lies in the moral sphere, in justice, gentleness, temperance, obedience to +the higher order, then prayer for external goods, for mere indulgences of +sense or ambition, shows a hopeless misconception as to the nature of God +and the supreme destiny of man.(2068) On the other hand, without giving up +the doctrine that the highest good depends on the virtuous will, the later +Stoics and Platonists have begun to feel that man needs support and +inspiration in his moral struggles from a higher Power, a Power without +him and beyond him, yet who is allied to him in nature and sympathy. +Prayer is no longer a means of winning temporal good things "for which the +worthy need not pray, and which the unworthy will not obtain." It is a +fortifying communion with the Highest, an act of thanksgiving for +blessings already received, an inspiration for a fuller and diviner +life.(2069) It is an effort of gratitude and adoration to draw from the +Divine source of all moral strength. + +It must always remain to moderns an enigma how souls living in such a +spiritual world refused to break with heathen idolatry. Seneca, indeed, +poured contempt on the grossness of myth in a lost treatise on +superstition;(2070) and he had no liking for the external rites of +worship. But in some strange way M. Aurelius reconciled punctilious +devotion to the popular gods with an austere pantheism or monotheism. It +is in Platonists such as Dion or Maximus of Tyre that we meet with an +attempted apology for anthropomorphic symbolism of the Divine.(2071) The +justification lies in the vast gulf which separates the remote, ineffable, +and inconceivable purity of God from the feebleness and grossness of man. +Few are they who can gaze in unaided thought on the Divine splendour +unveiled. Images, rites, and sacred myth have been invented by the wisdom +of the past, to aid the memory and the imagination of weak ordinary souls. +The symbols have varied with the endless variety of races. Animals or +trees, mountain or river, rude unhewn stones, or the miracles of Pheidias +in gold and ivory, are simply the sign or picture by which the soul is +pointed to the Infinite Essence which has never been seen by mortal eye or +imaged in human phantasy. The symbol which appeals to one race may be poor +and contemptible in the eyes of another. The animal worship of Egypt gave +a shock to minds which were lifted heavenwards by the winning majesty of +the Virgin Goddess or of the Zeus of Olympia. The human form, as the +chosen tabernacle of an effluence of the Divine Spirit, might well seem to +Dion and Maximus the noblest and most fitting symbol of religious worship. +Yet, in the end, they are all ready to tolerate any aberration of +religious fancy which is justified by its use.(2072) The most perfect +symbol is only a faint adumbration of "the Father and Creator of all, Who +is older than the sun and heavens, stronger than time and the ages and the +fleeting world of change, unnamed by any lawgiver, Whom tongue cannot +express nor eye see. Helpless to grasp His real essence, we seek a stay in +names or images, in beast or plant, in river or mountain, in lustrous +forms of gold and silver and ivory. Whatever we have of fairest we call by +His name. And for love of Him, we cling, as lovers are wont, to anything +which recalls Him. I quarrel not with divers imagery, if we seek to know, +to love, to remember Him."(2073) This is the outburst of a tolerant and +eclectic Platonism, ready to condone everything in the crudest religious +imagery. But a more conscientious scrutiny even of Grecian legend +demanded, as we shall see, a deeper solution to account for dark rites and +legends which cast a shadow on the Infinite Purity. + +The Stoic theology, which resolved the gods of legend into thin +abstractions, various potencies of the Infinite Spirit interfused with the +universe,(2074) was in some respects congenial to the Roman mind, and +reflected the spirit of old Roman religion. That religion of arid +abstractions, to which no myth, no haunting charm of poetic imagination +attached,(2075) easily lent itself to a system which explained the gods by +allegory or physical rationalism. That was not an eirenicon for the second +century, at least among thoughtful, pious men. The philosophic effort of +so many centuries had ended in an eclecticism for purely moral culture, +and a profound scepticism as to the attainment of higher truth by unaided +reason.(2076) Mere intellectual curiosity, the desire of knowledge for its +own sake, and the hope of attaining it, are strangely absent from the +loftiest minds, from Seneca, Epictetus, and M. Aurelius.(2077) Men like +Lucian, sometimes in half melancholy, half scornful derision, amused +themselves with ridiculing the chaotic results of the intellectual +ambition of the past.(2078) They equally recognised the immense force of +that spiritual movement which was trying every avenue of accredited +religious system or novel superstition, that might perchance lead the +devotee to some glimpse of the divine world. And side by side with the +recrudescence of old-world superstitions, there were spreading, from +whatever source, loftier and more ethical conceptions of God, a dim sense +of sin and human weakness, a need of cleansing and support from a Divine +hand. Stoicism, with all its austere grandeur, had failed in its +interpretation both of man and of God. Popular theology, however soothing +to old associations and unregenerate feelings, often gave a shock to the +quickened moral sense and the higher spiritual intuitions. Yet the +venerable charm of time-honoured ritual, glad or stately, the emotional +effects and dim promise of revelation in the mysteries of many shrines, +the seductive allurements of new cults, with a strange blending of the +sensuous and the mystic, all wove around the human soul such an enchanted +maze of spiritual fascination that escape was impossible, even if it were +desired. But it was no longer desired even by the highest intellects. The +efforts of pure reason to solve the mystery of God and of man's destiny +had failed. Yet men were ever "feeling after God, if haply they might find +Him." And the God whom they sought for was one on whom they might hang, in +whom they might have rest. Where was the revelation to come from? Where +was the mediator to be sought to reconcile the ancient faiths or fables +with a purified conception of the Deity and the aspiration for a higher +moral life? + +The revived Pythagorean and Platonist philosophy which girded itself to +attempt the solution was really part of a great spiritual movement, with +its focus at Alexandria.(2079) In that meeting-point of the East and West, +of all systems of thought and worship, syncretism blended all faiths. +Hadrian, in his letter to Servianus, cynically observes that the same men +were ready to worship impartially Serapis or Christ.(2080) Philosophy +became more and more a religion; its first and highest aim is a right +knowledge of God. And philosophy, having failed to find help in the life +according to nature, or the divine element in individual consciousness, +had now to seek support in a God transcending nature and consciousness, a +God such as the mysticism of the East or the systems of Pythagoras and +Plato had foreshadowed. But such a God, transcending nature and +consciousness, remote, ineffable, only, in some rare moment of supreme +exaltation, dimly apprehensible by the human spirit,(2081) could not call +forth fully the loving trust and fervent reverence which men longed to +offer. Heaven being so far from earth, and earth so darkened by the mists +of sense, any gleam of revelation must be welcomed from whatever quarter +it might break. And thus an all-embracing syncretism, while it gratified +ancestral piety, and the natural instinct of all religion to root itself +in the past, offered the hope of illumination from converging lights. Or +rather, any religion which has won the reverence of men may transmit a ray +from the central Sun. The believer in God, who longs for communion with +Him, for help at His hands, might by reverent selection win from all +religions something to satisfy his needs. A revelation was the imperious +demand. Where should men be so likely to find it as in the reverent study +of great historic efforts of humanity to pierce the veil? + +The philosophy which was to attempt the revival of paganism in the second +century, and which was to fight its last battles in the fourth and fifth, +traced itself to Pythagoras and Plato. Plato's affinity with the older +mystic is well known. And the reader of the _Phaedo_ or the _Republic_ +will not be surprised to find the followers of the two masters of Greek +thought who believed most in a spiritual vision and in an ordered moral +life, united in an effort which extended to the close of the Western +Empire,(2082) to combine a lofty mysticism with ancestral faith. The two +systems had much in common, and yet each contributed a peculiar element to +the great movement. Pythagoreanism, although its origin is veiled in +mystery, was always full of the mysticism of the East. Platonism was +essentially the philosophy of Greek culture. The movement in which their +forces were combined was one in which the new Hellenism of Hadrian's reign +reinforced itself for the reconstruction of western paganism with those +purer and loftier ideas of God of which the East is the original home. The +effort of paganism to rehabilitate itself in the second century drew no +small part of its inspiration from the regions which were the cradle of +the Christian faith.(2083) + +Seneca seems to regard Pythagoreanism as extinct.(2084) Yet one of his own +teachers, Sotion, practised its asceticism,(2085) and in the first century +B.C., the traces of at least ninety treatises by members of the school +have been recovered by antiquarian care, many of them forgeries foisted on +ancient names.(2086) As a didactic system, indeed, the school had long +disappeared, but the Pythagorean _askesis_ seems never to have lost its +continuity. It drew down the ridicule of the New Comedy. It may have had a +share in forming the Essene and Therapeutic discipline.(2087) In the first +century B.C. it had a distinguished adherent in P. Nigidius Figulus, and a +learned expositor in Alexander Polyhistor. Its enduring power as a +spiritual creed congenial to paganism is shown by the fact that +Iamblichus, one of the latest Neo-Platonists, and one of the ardent +devotees of superstition, expounded the Pythagorean system in many +treatises and composed an imaginative biography of the great +founder.(2088) To the modern it is best known through the romantic life of +Apollonius of Tyana, by Philostratus, which was composed at the instance +of Julia Domna, the wife of Septimius Severus, who combined with a +doubtful virtue a love for the mysticism of her native East.(2089) +Apollonius is surrounded by his biographer with an atmosphere of mystery +and miracle. But although the critical historian must reject much of the +narrative, the faith of the Pythagorean missionary of the reign of +Domitian stands out in clear outline. Apollonius is a true representative +of the new spiritual movement. His mother had a vision before his birth. +His early training at Aegae was eclectic, like the spirit of the age, and +he heard the teaching of doctors of all the schools, not even excluding +the Epicurean.(2090) But he early devoted himself to the severe asceticism +of the Pythagorean sect, wore pure linen, abstained from wine and flesh, +observed the five years of silence, and made the temple his home. The +worship of Asclepius, which was then gaining an extraordinary vogue, had a +special attraction for him, with its atmosphere of serenity and ritual +purity and its dream oracles of beneficent healing. Apollonius combines in +a strange fashion, like Plutarch and the eclectic Platonists, a decided +monotheism with a conservative devotion to the ancient gods. He looks to +the East, to the sages of the Ganges, for the highest inspiration. He +worships the sun every day.(2091) Yet he has a profound interest in the +popular religion of the many lands through which he travelled. He +frequented the temples of all the gods, discoursed with the priests on the +ancient lore of their shrines, and corrected or restored, with an +authority which seems to have never been challenged, their ritual where it +had been forgotten or mutilated in the lapse of ages.(2092) He sought +initiation in all the mysteries. He wrote a book on Sacrifices which dealt +with the most minute details of worship.(2093) He had a profound interest +in ancient legend, and the fame of the great Hellenic heroes, and, having +spent a weird night with the shade of Achilles in the Troad, he +constrained the Thessalians to restore his fallen honours.(2094) The +temples recognised in him at once a champion and a reformer. The oracular +seats of Ionia showed an unenvious admiration of his gift of prophecy, and +hailed him as a true son of Apollo.(2095) His visit to Rome in the darkest +hour of the Neronian terror seems to have aroused a strange religious +fervour; the temples were thronged with worshippers; it was a heathen +revival.(2096) + +Yet this strange missionary held principles which ought to have been fatal +to heathen worship. He drew his central principle from Eastern pantheism, +which might seem irreconcilable with the anthropomorphism of the West. It +is true that under the Infinite Spirit, as in the Platonist theodicee, the +gods of heathen devotion find a place as His ministers and viceroys.(2097) +But the eternal antithesis of spirit and matter, and the contempt for the +body as a degrading prison of the divine element in man,(2098) the ascetic +theory that by crucifying the flesh and attenuating its powers, the spirit +might lay itself open to heavenly influences, these are doctrines which +might appear utterly hostile to a gross materialist ritual. And as a +matter of fact, Apollonius to some extent obeyed his principles. He +scorned the popular conception of divination and magic.(2099) The only +legitimate power of foreseeing the future or influencing the material +world is given to the soul which is pure from all fleshly taint and +therefore near to God. He feels profoundly that the myths propagated by +the poets have lowered the ideal of God and the character of man, and he +greatly prefers the fables of Aesop, which use the falsehoods of the fancy +for a definite moral end.(2100) The mutilation of a father, the storming +of Olympus by the Giants, incest and adultery among the gods, must be +reprobated, however they have been glorified by poetry. Apollonius poured +contempt on the animal worship of Egypt, even when defended by the +dialectic subtlety of Greece.(2101) He was repelled by the grossness of +bloody sacrifices, however consecrated by immemorial use. For the nobler +symbolism of Hellenic art he had a certain sympathy, like Dion, but only +as symbolism. Any sensible image of the Supreme, which does not carry the +soul beyond the bounds of sense, defeats its purpose and is degrading to +pure religion. Pictured or sculptured forms are only aids to that mystic +imagination through which alone we can see God. Finally, his idea of +prayer is intensely spiritual or ethical. "Grant me, ye gods, what is my +due" is the highest prayer of Apollonius.(2102) Yet, as we have already +seen, the religion of Apollonius is thoroughly practical. He was a great +preacher. He addressed vast crowds from the temple steps at Ephesus or +Olympia, rebuking their luxury and effeminacy, their feuds and mean civic +ambition, their love of frivolous sports or the bloody strife of the +arena.(2103) Next to the knowledge of God, he preached the importance of +self-knowledge, and of lending an attentive ear to the voice of +conscience. He crowned his life by asserting fearlessly the cause of +righteousness in the awful presence-chamber of Domitian. + +About the very time when Apollonius was bearding the last of the Flavians, +and preaching a pagan revival in the porticoes of the Roman temples, it is +probable that Plutarch, in some respects a kindred spirit, was making his +appearance as a lecturer at Rome.(2104) The greatest of biographers has +had no authentic biography himself.(2105) The few certain facts about his +life must be gleaned from his own writings. He was the descendant of an +ancient family of Chaeronea, famous as the scene of three historic +battles, "the War-God's dancing-place," and his great-grandfather had +tales of the great conflict at Actium.(2106) In the year 66 A.D., when +Nero was distinguishing or disgracing himself as a competitor at the Greek +festivals, Plutarch was a young student at the university of Athens, under +Ammonius,(2107) who, if he inspired him with admiration for Plato, also +taught him to draw freely from all the treasures of Greek thought. +Plutarch, before he finally settled down at Chaeronea, saw something of +the great Roman world. He had visited Alexandria and some part of Asia +Minor.(2108) He was at an early age employed to represent his native town +on public business,(2109) and he had thus visited Rome, probably in the +reign of Vespasian, and again, in the reign of Domitian.(2110) It was a +time when original genius in Roman literature was showing signs of +failure, but when minute antiquarian learning was becoming a +passion.(2111) It was also the age of the new sophist. Hellenism was in +the air, and the lecture theatres were thronged to hear the philosophic +orator or the professional artist in words.(2112) Although Plutarch is +never mentioned beside men like Euphrates, in Pliny's letters, he found an +audience at Rome, and the famous Arulenus Rusticus was once among his +hearers.(2113) While he was ransacking the imperial libraries, he also +formed the acquaintance, at pleasant social parties, of many men of +academic and official fame, some of whom belonged to the circle of Pliny +and Tacitus.(2114) + +But his native Greece, with its great memories, and his native Chaeronea, +to which he was linked by ancestral piety, had for a man like Plutarch far +stronger charms than the capital of the world. With our love of excitement +and personal prominence, it is hard to conceive how a man of immense +culture and brilliant literary power could endure the monotony of +bourgeois society in depopulated and decaying Greece.(2115) Yet Plutarch +seems to have found it easy, and even pleasant. He was too great to allow +his own scheme of life to be crossed and disturbed by vulgar opinion or +ephemeral ambition. His family relations were sweet and happy. His married +life realised the highest ideals of happy wedlock.(2116) He had the +respectful affection of his brothers and older kinsmen. The petty +magistracies, in which he made it a duty to serve his native town, were +dignified in his eyes by the thought that Epameinondas had once been +charged with the cleansing of the streets of Thebes.(2117) His priesthood +of Apollo at Delphi was probably far more attractive than the imperial +honours which, according to legend, were offered to him by Trajan and +Hadrian.(2118) To his historic and religious imagination the ancient +shrine which looked down on the gulf from the foot of the "Shining Rocks," +was sacred as no other spot on earth. Although in Plutarch's day Delphi +had declined in splendour and fame,(2119) it was still surrounded with the +glamour of immemorial sanctity and power. It was still the spot from which +divine voices of warning or counsel had issued to the kings of Lydia, to +chiefs of wild hordes upon the Strymon, to the envoys of the Roman +Tarquins, to every city of Hellenic name from the Euxine to the Atlantic. +We can still almost make the round of its antiquarian treasures under his +genial guidance. Probably Plutarch's happiest hours were spent in +accompanying a party of visitors,--a professor on his way home from Britain +to Tarsus, a Spartan traveller just returned from far Indian seas,--around +those sacred scenes; we can hear the debate on the doubtful quality of +Delphic verse or the sources of its inspiration: we can watch them pause +to recall the story of mouldering bronze or marble, and wake the echoes of +a thousand years.(2120) + +Plutarch must have been a swift and indefatigable worker, for his +production is almost on the scale of Varro, Cicero, or the elder Pliny. +Yet he found time for pleasant visits to every part of Greece which had +tales or treasures for the antiquary. He enjoyed the friendship of the +brightest intellects of the day, of Herodes Atticus, the millionaire +rhetorician,(2121) of Favorinus, the great sophist of Gaul, the intimate +friend of Herodes and the counsellor of the Emperor Hadrian, of Ammonius, +who was Plutarch's tutor; of many others, noted in their time, but who are +mere shadows to us. They met in a convivial way in many places, at +Chaeronea, at Hyampolis, at Eleusis after the Mysteries, at Patrae, at +Corinth during the Isthmian games, at Thermopylae, and Athens in the house +of Ammonius, or at Aedepsus, the Baden of Euboea, where in the springtime +people found pleasant lodgings and brisk intercourse to relieve the +monotony of attendance at the baths.(2122) Plutarch had a large circle of +relatives,--his grandfather Lamprias, who had tales from an actual witness +of the revels of Antony at Alexandria;(2123) Lamprias his elder brother, a +true Boeotian in his love of good fare, a war-dance, and a jest;(2124) his +younger brother Timon, to whom Plutarch was devotedly attached.(2125) His +ordinary society, not very distinguished socially, was composed of +grammarians, rhetoricians, country doctors, the best that the district +could afford.(2126) The talk is often on the most trivial or absurd +subjects, though not more absurdly trivial than those on which the +polished sophist displayed his graces in the lecture-hall.(2127) Yet +graver and more serious themes are not excluded,(2128) and the table-talk +of Greece in the end of the first century is invaluable to the student of +society. In such scenes Plutarch not only cultivated friendship, the great +art of life, not only watched the play of intellect and character; he also +found relief from the austere labours which have made his fame. It is +surely not the least of his titles to greatness that, in an environment +which to most men of talent would have been infinitely depressing, with +the irrepressible vitality of genius he contrived to idealise the society +of decaying Greece by linking it with the past. + +And, with such a power of reviving the past, even the dulness of the +little Boeotian town was easily tolerable. We can imagine Plutarch looking +down the quiet street in the still vacant noontide, as he sat trying to +revive the ancient glories of his race, and to match them with their +conquerors, while he reminded the lords of the world, who, in Plutarch's +early youth, seemed to be wildly squandering their heritage, of the stern, +simple virtue by which it had been won. For in the Lives of great Greeks +and Romans, the moral interest is the most prominent. It is biography, not +history, which Plutarch is writing.(2129) Setting and scenery of course +there must be; but Plutarch's chief object is to paint the character of +the great actors on the stage. Hence he may slur over or omit historic +facts of wider interest, while he records apparently trivial incidents or +sayings which light up a character. But Plutarch has a fine eye both for +lively social scenes and the great crises of history. The description of +the feverish activity of swarming industry in the great days of Pheidias +at Athens, once read, can never be forgotten.(2130) Equally indelible are +the pictures of the younger Cato's last morning, as he finished the +_Phaedo_, and the birds began to twitter,(2131) of the flight and murder +of Pompey, of the suicide of Otho on the ghastly field of Bedriacum, which +seemed to atone for an evil life. Nor can we forget his description of one +of the saddest of all scenes in Greek history, which moved even Thucydides +to a restrained pathos,--the retreat of the Athenians from the walls of +Syracuse. + +Plutarch was before all else a moralist, with a genius for religion. His +ethical treatises deserve to be thoroughly explored, and as +sympathetically expounded, for the light which they throw on the moral +aspirations of the age, as Dr. Mahaffy has skilfully used them for +pictures of its social life. He must be a very unimaginative person who +cannot feel the charm of their revelation. But the man of purely +speculative interest will probably be disappointed. Plutarch is not an +original thinker in morals or religion. He has no new gospel to expound. +He does not go to the roots of conduct or faith. Possessing a very wide +knowledge of past speculation, he might have written an invaluable history +of ancient philosophy. But he has not done it. And, as a man of genius, +with a strong practical purpose to do moral good to his fellows, his +choice of his vocation must be accepted without cavil. He was the greatest +Hellenist of his day, when Hellenism was capturing the Roman world. He was +also a man of high moral ideals, sincere piety, and absorbing interest in +the fate of human character. With all that wealth of learning, philosophic +or historical, with all that knowledge of human nature, what nobler task +could a man set himself than to attempt to give some practical guidance to +a generation conscious of moral weakness, and distracted between new +spiritual ideals and the mythologies of the past? The urgent need for +moral culture and reform of character, for a guiding force in conduct, was +profoundly felt by all the great serious minds of the Flavian age, by +Pliny and Tacitus, by Juvenal and Quintilian. But Plutarch probably felt +it more acutely than any, and took endless pains to satisfy it. It was an +age when the philosophic director and the philosophic preacher were, as we +have seen, to be met with everywhere. And Plutarch took his full share in +the movement, and influenced a wide circle.(2132) If he did not elaborate +an original ethical system, he had studied closely the art of moral +reform, and Christian homilists, from Basil to Jeremy Taylor, have drawn +freely from the storehouse of his precept and observation. In many tracts +he has analysed prevailing vices and faults of his time,--flattery, vain +curiosity, irritable temper, or false modesty,--and given rules for curing +or avoiding them. In these homilies, the fundamental principle is that of +Musonius, perhaps adapted from an oracle to the people of Cirrha "to wage +war with vice day and night, and never to relax your guard."(2133) The +call to reform sounded all the louder in Plutarch's ears because of the +high ideal which he had conceived of what life might be made if, no longer +left to the play of passion and random influences, character were moulded +from early youth to a temperate harmony. To such a soul each passing day +might be a glad festival, the universe an august temple full of its +Maker's glories, and life an initiation into the joy of its holy +mysteries.(2134) + +In the work of moral and religious reconstruction Plutarch and his +contemporaries could only rely on philosophy as their guide. Philosophy to +Plutarch, Apollonius, or M. Aurelius, had a very different meaning from +what it bore to the great thinkers of Ionia and Magna Graecia. Not only +had it deserted the field of metaphysical speculation; it had lost +interest even in the mere theory of morals. It had become the art rather +than the science of life. The teacher of an art cannot indeed entirely +divorce it from all scientific theory. The relative importance of +practical precept and ethical theory was often debated in that age. But +the tendency was undoubtedly to subordinate dogma to edification.(2135) +And where dogma was needed for practical effect, it might be drawn from +the most opposite quarters. Seneca delights in rounding off a letter by a +quotation from Epicurus. M. Aurelius appeals both to the example of +Epicurus and the teaching of Plato.(2136) Man might toy with cosmic +speculation; the Timaeus had many commentators in the first and second +centuries.(2137) But, for Plutarch and his contemporaries, the great task +of philosophy was to bring some sort of order into the moral and religious +chaos. It was not original thought or discovery which was needed, but the +application of reason, cultivated by the study of the past, to the moral +and religious problems of the present. The philosopher sometimes, to our +eyes, seems to trifle with the smallest details of exterior deportment or +idiom or dress; he gives precepts about the rearing of children; he +occupies himself with curious questions of ritual and antiquarian +interest.(2138) These seeming degradations of a great mission, after all, +only emphasise the fact that philosophy was now concerned with human life +rather than with the problems of speculation. It had in fact become an +all-embracing religion. It supplied the medicine for moral disease; it +furnished the rational criterion by which all myth and ritual must be +judged or explained.(2139) + +Plutarch was an eclectic in the sense that, knowing all the moral systems +of the past, he was ready to borrow from any of these principles which +might give support to character. Whether, if he had been born four or five +hundred years earlier, he might have created or developed an original +theory himself, is a question which may be variously answered. One may +reasonably hesitate to assent to the common opinion that Plutarch had no +genius for original speculation. Had he come under the influence of +Socrates, it is not so certain that he might not have composed dialogues +with a certain charm of fresh dialectic and picturesque dramatic power. It +is a little unhistorical to decry a man of genius as wanting in +speculative originality, who was born into an age when speculation had run +dry, and thought was only subsidiary to conduct. When the dissonant +schools forsook the heights of metaphysic and cosmology to devote +themselves to moral culture, an inevitable tendency to eclecticism, to a +harmony of moral theory, set in. The practical interest prevailed over the +infinitely divisive forces of the speculative reason. Antiochus, the +teacher of Cicero,(2140) while he strove to re-establish Platonism, +maintained the essential agreement of the great schools on the +all-important questions, and freely adopted the doctrines of Zeno and +Aristotle.(2141) Panaetius, the chief representative of Roman Stoicism in +the second century B.C., had a warm admiration for Plato and Aristotle, +and in some essential points forsook the older teaching of the +Porch.(2142) Seneca, as we have seen, often seems to cling to the most +hard and repellent tenets of the ancient creed. Yet a sense of practical +difficulties has led him to soften and modify many of them--the identity of +reason and passion, the indifference of so-called "goods," the necessity +of instantaneous conversion, the unapproachable and unassailable +perfection of the wise man. Plutarch's own ethical system, so far as he +has a system, is a compound of Platonic and Aristotelian ideas, with a +certain tincture of Stoicism.(2143) Platonism, which had shaken off its +sceptical tendencies in the first century B.C., had few adherents at Rome +in the first century of the Empire.(2144) The Stoic and Epicurean systems +divided the allegiance of thinking people till the energetic revival of +Hellenism set in. Epictetus indeed speaks of women who were attracted by +the supposed freedom of sexual relations in Plato's Utopia.(2145) Seneca +often refers to Plato, and was undoubtedly influenced by his spirit. But +in the second century, the sympathetic union of Platonic and Pythagorean +ideas with a vigorous religious revival became a real power, with +momentous effects on the future of philosophy and religion for three +centuries. Plutarch's reverence for the founder of the Academy, even in +little things, was unbounded.(2146) It became with him almost a kind of +cult. And he paid the most sincere reverence to his idol by imitating, in +some of his treatises, the mythical colouring by which the author of the +_Phaedo_ and the _Republic_ had sought to give body and reality to the +unseen world.(2147) Plutarch condemned in very strong language the coarse +and sophistical modes of controversy with which the rival schools assailed +one another's tenets.(2148) Yet he can hardly be acquitted of some +harshness in his polemic against the Stoics and Epicureans. Archbishop +Trench, in his fascinating and sympathetic treatment of Plutarch, laments +that he did not give a more generous recognition to that noblest and most +truly Roman school which was the last refuge and citadel of freedom.(2149) +We may join the archbishop in wishing that Plutarch, without compromising +principle, had been more tolerant to a system with which he had so much in +common, and which, in his day, had put off much of its old hardness. But +he was essentially a practical man, with a definite moral aim. He took +from any quarter principles which seemed to him to be true to human +nature, and which furnished a hopeful basis for the efforts of the moral +teacher. But he felt equally bound to reject a system which absorbed and +annihilated the emotional nature in the reason,(2150) which cut at the +roots of moral freedom, which recognised no degrees in virtue or in vice, +which discouraged and contemned the first faint struggles of weak humanity +after a higher life, and froze it into hopeless impotence by the remote +ideal of a cold, flawless perfection, suddenly and miraculously raised to +a divine independence of all the minor blessings and helps to +virtue.(2151) Such an ideal may be magnificent, but it is not life. For +man, constituted as he is, and placed in such an environment, it is a +dangerous mental habit to train the soul to regard all things as a +fleeting and monotonous show, to cultivate the _taedium vitae_, or a calm +resignation to the littleness of man placed for a brief space between the +two eternities.(2152) The philosophic sufferer may brace himself to endure +the round of human duties, and to live for the commonwealth of man; he may +he generous to the ungrateful and tolerant to the vulgar and the +frivolous; he may make his life a perpetual sacrifice to duty and the +higher law, but it is all the while really a pathetic protest against the +pitiless Power which has made man so little and so great, doomed to the +life of the leaves and the insects, yet tortured with the longing for an +infinite future. + +On some great central truths, such as the inwardness of happiness and the +brotherhood of man, Plutarch and the Stoics were at one. And the general +tone of his moral teaching bears many marks of Stoic influence.(2153) But +the Stoic psychology, the Stoic fatalism and pantheism aroused all the +controversial vehemence of Plutarch.(2154) The Stoic held the essential +unity of the soul, that reason and passion are not two distinct +principles, but that passion is reason depraved and diverted to wrong +objects. It is the same simple, indivisible power which shifts and changes +and submits itself to opposing influences. Passion, in fact, is an +impetuous and erring motion of the reason, and vice, in the old Socratic +phrase, is an error of judgment, a fit of ignorance of the true ends of +action. But as, according to Stoic theory, the human reason is a portion +of the Divine, depravity becomes thus a corruption of the Divine element, +and the guarantee for any hope of reform is lost. For himself, Plutarch +adopts the Platonic division of the soul into the rational, spirited, and +concupiscent elements, with some Aristotelian modifications.(2155) The +great fact of man's moral nature is the natural opposition between the +passions and the rational element of the soul; it corresponds to a similar +division in the mundane soul.(2156) All experience attests a constant, +natural, and sustained rebellion of the lower against the higher. +Principles so alien and disparate cannot be identified, any more than you +can identify the hunter and his quarry.(2157) But, although in the +unregulated character, they are in violent opposition, they may, by proper +culture, be brought at last into a harmony. The function of the higher +element is not to extinguish the lower, but to guide and control and +elevate it.(2158) Passion is a force which may be wasted in vagrant, wild +excess, but which may also be used to give force and energy to virtue. To +avoid drunkenness, a man need not spill the wine; he may temper its +strength. A controlled anger is the spur of courage. Passion in effect is +the raw material which is moulded by reason into the forms of practical +virtue, and the guiding principle in the process is the law of the mean +between excess and defect of passion.(2159) This is, of course, borrowed +from Aristotle, and along with it the theory of education by habit, which +to Plato had seemed a popular and inferior conception of the formation of +the virtuous character.(2160) By the strong pressure of an enlightened +will, the wild insurgent forces of the lower nature are brought into +conformity to a higher law. It is a slow, laborious process, demanding +infinite patience, daily and hourly watchfulness, self-examination, frank +confession of faults to some friend or wise director of souls.(2161) It +needs the minutest attention to the details of conduct and circumstance, +and a steady front against discouragement from the backsliding of the +wavering will.(2162) In such a system the hope of reform lies not in any +sudden revolution. Plutarch has no faith in instant conversion, reversing +in a moment the ingrained tendencies of years, and setting a man on a +lofty height of perfection, with no fear of falling away. That vain dream +of the older Stoicism, which recognised no degrees in virtuous progress, +made virtue an unapproachable ideal, and paralysed struggling effort. It +was not for an age stricken or blest with a growing sense of moral +weakness, and clutching eagerly at any spiritual stay. Plutarch loves +rather to think of character under the image of a holy and royal building +whose foundations are laid in gold, and each stone has to be chosen and +carefully fitted to the line of reason.(2163) + +Plutarch also accepted from the Peripatetic school the principle, which +Seneca was in the end compelled to admit, that the finest paragon of +wisdom and virtue is not quite self-sufficing, that virtuous activity +needs material to work upon,(2164) and that the good things of the world, +in their proper place, are as necessary to the moral musician as the flute +to the flute-player. Above all, Plutarch, with such a theory of character, +was bound to assert the cardinal doctrine of human freedom. He had a +profound faith in a threefold Providence, exercised by the remote Supreme +Deity, by the inferior heavenly powers, and by the daemons.(2165) But +Providence is a beneficent influence, not a crushing force of necessity. +To Plutarch fatalism is the blight of moral effort. Foreknowledge and Fate +are not conterminous and coextensive. Although everything is foreseen by +heavenly powers, not everything is foreordained.(2166) The law of Fate, +like the laws of earthly jurisprudence, deals with the universal, and only +consequentially with the particular case. Certain consequences follow +necessarily from certain acts, but the acts are not inevitably +determined.(2167) Man, by nature the most helpless and defenceless of +animals, becomes lord of creation by his superior reason, and appropriates +all its forces and its wealth by his laborious arts.(2168) And the art of +arts, the art of life, neither trusting to chance nor cowed by any fancied +omnipotence of destiny, uses the will and reason to master the materials +out of which happiness is forged. Thus the hope of a noble life is +securely fenced in the fortress of the autonomous will. To the Stoic the +vicious man was a fool, whose reason was hopelessly besotted. The +Platonist cherished the better hope, that reason, though darkened for a +time and vanquished by the forces of sense, could never assent to sin, +that there still remained in every human soul a witness to the eternal law +of conduct. + +With such a faith as this, an earnest man like Plutarch was bound to +become a preacher of righteousness and a spiritual director. Many of his +moral treatises are the expanded record of private counsel or the more +formal instruction of the lecture-hall. He had disciples all over the +Roman world, at Rome, Chaeronea, Ephesus, and Athens.(2169) His conception +of the philosophic gathering, in which these serious things were +discussed, is perhaps the nearest approach which a heathen ever made to +the conception of the Christian church.(2170) In theory, the philosopher's +discourse on high moral themes was a more solemn affair than the showy +declamation of the sophist, whose chief object was to dazzle and astonish +his audience by a display of rhetorical legerdemain on the most trivial or +out-worn themes. But the moral preacher in those days, it is to be feared, +often forgot the seriousness of his mission, and degraded it by personal +vanity and a tinsel rhetoric to win a cheap applause.(2171) The sophist +and the philosopher were in fact too often undistinguishable, and the +philosophic class-room often resounded with new-fangled expressions of +admiration. For all this Plutarch has an indignant contempt. It is the +prostitution of a noble mission. It is turning the school into a theatre, +and the reformer of souls into a flatterer of the ear. To ask rhetoric +from the true philosopher is as if one should require a medicine to be +served in the finest Attic ware.(2172) The profession of philosophy +becomes in Plutarch's eyes a real priesthood for the salvation of souls. +He disapproves of the habit, which prevailed in the sophist's lecture +theatre, of proposing subtle or frivolous questions to the lecturer in +order to make a display of cleverness. But he would have those in moral +difficulty to remain after the sermon, for such it was, and lay bare their +faults and spiritual troubles.(2173) He watched the moral progress of his +disciples, as when Fundanus is congratulated on his growing mildness of +temper.(2174) The philosopher was in those days, and often too truly, +charged with gross inconsistency in his private conduct. Plutarch believed +emphatically in teaching by example. The preacher of the higher life +should inspire such respect that his frown or smile shall at once affect +the disciple.(2175) Plutarch evidently practised his remedies on himself. +His great gallery of the heroes of the past was primarily intended to +profit others. But he found, as the work went on, that he was himself +"much profited by looking into these histories, as if he looked into a +glass, to frame and fashion his life to the mould and pattern of these +virtuous noblemen."(2176) + +Plutarch, as we have seen, waged determined war with the older Stoic and +Epicurean systems; yet his practical teaching is coloured by the spirit of +both. This is perhaps best seen in the tract on Tranquillity, which might +almost have been written by Seneca. Although Plutarch elsewhere holds the +Peripatetic doctrine that the full life of virtue cannot dispense with the +external gifts of fortune, he asserts as powerfully as any Stoic that life +takes its predominant colour from the character, that "the kingdom of +Heaven is within," that no change of external fortune can calm the tumults +of the soul. You seem to be listening to a Stoic doctor when you hear that +most calamities draw their weight and bitterness from imagination, that +excessive desire for a thing engenders the fear of losing it, and makes +enjoyment feeble and uncertain, that men, by forgetting the past in the +vanishing present, lose the continuity of their lives.(2177) Is it +Plutarch himself, or some Christian preacher, who tells us that seeming +calamity may be the greatest blessing, that the greatest folly is +unthankfulness and discontent with the daily lot, that no wealth or rank +can give such enchanted calm of spirit as a conscience unstained by evil +deed or thought, and the power of facing fortune with steady open +eye?(2178) It is surely the greatest literary genius of his age, buried in +a dull Boeotian town, who bids us think of the good things we have, +instead of envying a life whose inner griefs we know not, who ever looks +on the brighter side of things and dignifies an obscure lot by grateful +content, who is not vexed by another's splendid fortune, because he knows +that seeming success is often a miserable failure, and that each one has +within him the springs of happiness or misery.(2179) + +The discipline by which this wise mood, which contains the wisdom of all +the ages, is to be attained is expounded by Plutarch in many tracts, which +are the record of much spiritual counsel. The great secret is a lover's +passion for the ideal and a scorn for the vulgar objects of desire.(2180) +Yet moral growth must be slow, though steady and unpausing, not the rush +of feverish excitement, which may be soon spent and exhausted.(2181) The +true aspirant to moral perfection will not allow himself to be cast down +by the obstacles that meet him at the entrance to the narrow way, nor will +he be beguiled by pomp of style or subtlety of rhetoric to forget the true +inwardness of philosophy. He will not ask for any witness of his good +deeds or his growth in virtue; he will shrink from the arrogance of the +mere pretender. Rather will he be humble and modest, harsh to his own +faults, gentle to those of others. Like the neophyte in the mysteries, he +will be awed into reverent silence, when the light bursts from the inner +shrine.(2182) This humility will be cultivated by daily self-scrutiny, and +in this self-examination no sins will seem little, and no addition to the +growing moral wealth, however slight, will be despised.(2183) To stimulate +effort, we must set the great historic examples of achievement or +self-conquest before our eyes, and in doubt or difficulty, we must ask +what would Plato or Socrates have done in such a case?(2184) Where they +have suffered, we shall love and honour them all the more. Their memory +will work as a sacred spell. + +Plutarch expounded the gospel of a cheerful and contented life, and he +evidently practised what he preached. Yet, like all finely strung spirits, +he had his hours when the pathos of life was heavy upon him, and death +seemed the sovereign remedy for it all. Any one who shares the vulgar +notion that the Greeks, even of the great age, were a race living in +perpetual sunshine and careless enjoyment of the hour, should read the +Consolation to Apollonius on the death of his son. He will there find all +the great poets, from Homer downwards, cited in support of the most +pessimist view of human life.(2185) In the field of philosophy, it finds +the most withering expression in the doctrine of Heraclitus, which did so +much to mould the thought of Plutarch's great master, and which coloured +so many of the meditations of M. Aurelius.(2186) Our life is but in +miniature a counterpart of the universal flux, and each moment is the +meeting place of life and death. Years, many or few, are but a point, a +moment in the tract of infinite age.(2187) The noble fulness of a life +must be sought not in a sum of years, but in a rounded completeness of +virtue. When we look at the chance and change and sorrow of life, death +seems really the great deliverer, and in certain moments, it may be hailed +as Heaven's last, best gift.(2188) Whether it be an unawaking sleep or the +entrance to another scene of being, it cannot be an evil; it may perchance +be a blessing. If there is nothing after it, we only return to our calm +antenatal unconsciousness.(2189) Or if there be another life, then for the +good and noble there is a place assuredly prepared in some happy island of +the West, or other mystic region, which we may picture to ourselves, if we +please, in the Orphic visions glorified by Pindar.(2190) + +We are now on the threshold of another world, from which many voices were +coming to the age of Plutarch. After philosophy has done its utmost to +mould the life of sixty or seventy years into a moral harmony, with its +music in itself,(2191) the effort ends in a melancholy doubt. The precept +of Seneca and Plutarch, that you should live under the tutelary eye of +some patron sage of the past, revealed a need of exterior help for the +virtuous will. The passion for continued existence was sobered by the +sense of continued moral responsibility and the shadow of a judgment to +come. Vistas of a supernatural world opened above the struggling human +life on earth and in far mysterious distances beyond. When philosophy had +done its utmost to heal the diseases of humanity, it was confronted with +another task, to give man a true knowledge of God and assurance of His +help in this world and the next. Philosophy had for ages held before the +eyes of men a dim vision of Him, sublime, remote, ineffable. But it was a +vision for the few, not for the many. It was rather metaphysical than +moral and spiritual. It paid little heed to the myths and mysteries by +which humanity had been seeking to solve its spiritual enigmas. This long +travail of humanity could not be ignored by a true religious philosophy. +Some means must be found to reconcile ancient religious imagination with +the best conception of the Divine. + +The problem indeed was not a new one, except in the sense that an intense +revival of religious faith or superstition demanded a fresh theodicee. As +early as the sixth century B.C., the simple faith in legend had been +shaken among the higher minds in a great philosophic movement which +extended over many ages. Some had rejected the myths with scorn. Others +had proceeded by the method of more or less critical selection. Others, +again, strove to find in them a historical kernel, or an esoteric meaning +veiled in allegory. The same methods reappeared in the age of Varro and +Scaevola,(2192) and, five centuries later, in the theology of +Macrobius.(2193) The effort, however, of the Platonists of the second +century has a peculiar interest, because some fresh elements have been +added to the great problem since the days of Xenophanes and Euhemerus and +Varro. + +To Plutarch, theology is the crown of all philosophy.(2194) To form true +and worthy conceptions of the Divine Being is not less important than to +pay Him pious worship. Plutarch's lofty conception of the Infinite and +Supreme, like that of Maximus of Tyre, dominates all his system. In a +curious treatise on Isis and Osiris, he reviews many a device of +scholastic subtlety, many a crude guess of embryonic science, many a dream +of Pythagorean mysticism, to find an inner meaning in the Egyptian myth. +Yet it embalms, in all this frigid scholasticism, the highest and purest +expression of Plutarch's idea of the Supreme. In the end he breaks away +from all lower mundane conceptions of the Divine, and reveals a glimpse of +the beatific vision. "While we are here below," he says, "encumbered by +bodily affections, we can have no intercourse with God, save as in +philosophic thought we may faintly touch Him, as in a dream. But when our +souls are released, and have passed into the region of the pure, +invisible, and changeless, this God will be their guide and king who +depend on Him and gaze with insatiable longing on the beauty which may not +be spoken of by the lips of man."(2195) To Plutarch God is the One, +Supreme, Eternal Being, removed to an infinite distance from the mutable +and mortal--the Being of whom we can only predicate that "He is," who lives +in an everlasting "now," of whom it would be irrational and impious to +speak in the terms of the future or the past.(2196) He is the One, the +Absolute of Eleatic or Pythagorean philosophy, the Demiurgus of Plato, the +primal motive power of Aristotle, the World-Soul of the Stoics. Yet +Plutarch is as far removed from the Epicureanism which banishes God from +the universe as he is from the pantheism of east or west, which interfuses +the world and God.(2197) Plutarch never abandons the Divine personality, +in whatever sense he may hold it. God is the highest perfection of +goodness and intelligence, the Creator, the watchful and benevolent +Providence of the world, the Author of all good. His power, indeed, is not +unlimited. There is a power of evil in the world which must be recognised. +And, as good cannot be the author of evil, the origin of evil must be +sought in a separate and original principle, distinct from, but not +co-equal with, God: a principle recognised in many a theology and +philosophy of east and west, and called by many names--Ahriman or Hades, +the "dyad" of Pythagoras, the "strife" of Empedocles, the "other" of +Plato.(2198) Its seat is the World-Soul, which has a place alongside of +God and Matter, causing all that is deadly in nature, all moral disorder +in the soul of man. Matter is the seat both of evil and good.(2199) In its +lower regions it may seem to be wholly mastered by the evil principle; yet +in its essence it is really struggling towards the good, and, as a female +principle, susceptible to the formative influence of the Divine, as well +as exposed to the incursions of evil. Plutarch's theory of creation is, in +the main, that of the Timaeus, with mingled elements of Stoic cosmogony. +Through number and harmony the Divine Mind introduces order into the mass +of lawless chaos. But while God stands outside the cosmos as its creator, +He is not merely the divine craftsman, but a penetrating power. For from +Him proceeds the soul which is interfused with the world and which +sustains it. Through the World-Soul, God is in touch with all powers and +provinces of the universe. Yet throughout the universe, as in the human +soul, there are always present the two elements side by side, the +principles of reason and unreason, of evil and of good.(2200) + +The vision of the one eternal, passionless Spirit, far removed from the +world of chance and change and earthly soilure, was the conquest of Greek +philosophy, travailing for 800 years. But it was a vision far withdrawn; +it was separated by an apparently impassable gulf alike from the dreams of +Hellenic legend and from the struggling life of humanity. The poets, and +even the poet of divinest inspiration, had bequeathed a mass of legend, +often shocking to the later moral sense, yet always seductive by its +imaginative charm. How to reconcile the fictions of poetry, which had so +long enthralled all imaginations, with higher spiritual intuitions, that +was the problem. It was not indeed a new problem. It had driven Xenophanes +into open revolt, it had exercised the mind of the reverent Pindar and the +sceptical Euripides. It had suggested to Plato the necessity of recasting +myth in the light of the Divine purity.(2201) But the new Hellenism of the +second century was a great literary, even more than a theological or +philosophic, movement; and the glory of Greek literature was inseparably +linked with the glory and the shame of Greek mythology. To discard and +repudiate the myths was to give the lie to the divine poets. To explain +them away by physical allegory, in the fashion of the Stoic theology, or +to lower the "blessed ones" of Olympus to the stature of earthly kings and +warriors, after the manner of Euhemerus, was to break the charm of poetic +legend, and violate the instincts of ancestral piety.(2202) And there were +many other claimants for devotion beside the ancient gods of Rome and +Greece. Persia and Phrygia, Commagene and Egypt, every region from the +Sahara to Cumberland, were adding to the pantheon. Soldiers and travellers +were bringing their tales of genii and daemons from islands in the British +seas and the shores of the Indian Ocean.(2203) How could a man trained in +the mystic monotheism of 800 years reconcile himself to this immense +accretion of alien superstition? + +On the other hand, from whatever quarter, a new spiritual vision had +opened, strange to the ancient world. It is not merely that the conception +of God has become more pure and lofty; the whole attitude of the higher +minds to the Eternal had altered. A great spiritual revolution had +concurred with a great political revolution. The vision of the divine +world which satisfied men in the age of Pericles or in the Punic wars, +when religion, politics, and morality were linked in unbroken harmony, +when, if spiritual vision was bounded, spiritual needs were less +clamorous, and the moral life less troubled and self-conscious, could no +longer appease the yearnings of the higher minds. Both morality and +religion had become less formal and external, more penetrating and +exigent. Prayer was no longer a formal litany for worldly blessings or +sinful indulgence, but a colloquy with God, in a moment of spiritual +exaltation.(2204) The true sacrifice was no longer "the blood of bulls," +but a quiet spirit. Along with a sense of frailty and bewilderment, men +felt the need of purification and spiritual support. The old mysteries and +the new cults from the East had fostered a longing for sacramental peace +and assurance of another life, in which the crooked should be made +straight and the perverted be restored. + +In Maximus of Tyre,(2205) although he has no claim to the reputation of a +strong and original thinker, we see this new religious spirit of the +second century perhaps in its purest form. Man is an enigma, a +contradiction, a being placed on the confines of two worlds. A beast in +his fleshly nature, he is akin to God in his higher part, nay, the son of +God.(2206) Even the noblest spirits here below live in a sort of twilight, +or in a heady excitement, an intoxication of the senses. Yet, cramped as +it is in the prison of the flesh, the soul may raise itself above the +misty region of perpetual change towards the light of the Eternal. For, in +the slumber of this mortal life, the pure spirit is sometimes visited by +visions coming through the gate of horn,(2207) visions of another world +seen in some former time. And, following them, the moral hero, like +Heracles, the model of strenuous virtue, through toil and tribulation may +gain the crown. On this stormy sea of time, philosophy gives us the veil +of Leucothea to charm the troubled waters. It is true that only when +release comes at death, does the soul attain to the full vision of God. +For the Highest is separated from us by a great gulf. Yet the analysis of +the soul which Maximus partly borrows from Aristotle, discovers His seat +in us, the highest reason, that power of intuitive, all-embracing, +instantaneous vision, which is distinct from the slower and tentative +operations of the understanding. It is by this higher faculty that God is +seen, so far as He may be, in this mixed and imperfect state.(2208) For +the vision of God can only in any degree be won by abstraction from sense +and passion and everything earthly, in a struggle ever upwards, beyond the +paths of the heavenly orbs, to the region of eternal calm "where falls not +rain or hail or any snow, but a white cloudless radiance spreads over +all."(2209) And when may we see God? "Thou shalt see Him fully," Maximus +says, "only when He calls thee, in age or death, but meantime glimpses of +the Beauty which eye hath not seen nor can tongue speak of, may be won, if +the veils and wrappings which hide His splendour be torn away.(2210) But +do not thou profane Him by offering vain prayers for earthly things which +belong to the world of chance or which may be obtained by human effort, +things for which the worthy need not pray, and which the unworthy will not +obtain. The only prayer which is answered, is the prayer for goodness, +peace, and hope in death."(2211) + +How could a Platonist of the second century, we may ask, holding such a +spiritual creed, reconcile himself to Greek mythology, nay, to all the +mythologies, with all the selfish grossness of their ritual? Plutarch and +Maximus of Tyre answer the question by a piously ingenious interpretation +of ancient legend, and partly by a system of daemons, of mediating and +ministering spirits, who fill the interval between the changeless Infinite +and the region of sin and change. + +In religion, they say, in effect, we must take human nature as we find it. +We are not legislating for a young race, just springing from the earth, +but for races with conceptions of the Divine which run back through +countless ages. There may be, here and there, an elect few who can raise +their minds, in rare moments, to the pure vision of the Eternal. But +heaven is so far from earth, and earth is so darkened by the mists of +sense, that temple and image and sacred litany, and the myths created by +the genius of poets, or imposed by lawgivers, are needed to sustain and +give expression to the vague impotent yearnings of the mass of men.(2212) +The higher intuitions of religion must be translated into material +symbolism; "here we see, as through a glass darkly." And the symbols of +sacred truth are as various as the many tribes of men. Some, like the +Egyptian worship of animals, are of a degraded type. The Greek +anthropomorphism, although falling far short of the grandeur and purity of +the Infinite, yet furnishes its noblest image, because it has glorified by +artistic genius the human body, which has been chosen as the earthly home +of the rational soul.(2213) And the cause of myth and plastic art are +really one; nay, there is no opposition or contrast, in fact, between +poetic mythology and religious philosophy. They are different methods of +teaching religious truth, adapted to different stages of intellectual +development. Myth is the poetic philosophy of a simple age, for whose ears +the mystic truth must be sweetened by music, an age whose eyes cannot bear +to gaze on the Divine splendour unveiled.(2214) Philosophic theology is +for an age of rationalism and inquiry; it would have been unintelligible +to the simple imaginative childhood of the race. Maximus has the same +faith as Plutarch that the mythopoeic age possessed, along with an +enthralling artistic skill, all the speculative depth and subtlety of +later ages. It is almost a profanity to imagine that Homer or Hesiod or +Pindar were less of philosophers than Aristotle or Chrysippus.(2215) It +was assumed that the early myth-makers and lawgivers possessed a sacred +lore of immense value and undoubted truth, which they dimly shadowed forth +in symbolism of fanciful tale or allegory.(2216) The myth at once hides +and reveals the mystery of the Divine. If a man comes to its +interpretation with the proper discipline and acumen, the kernel of +spiritual or physical meaning which is reverently veiled from the profane +eye will disclose itself. And thus the later philosophic theologian is not +reading his own higher thoughts of God into the grotesque fancies of a +remote antiquity; he is evolving and interpreting a wisdom more original +than his own. In this process of rediscovering a lost tradition, he pushes +aside the mass of erroneous interpretations which have perverted the +original doctrine, by literal acceptance of what is really figurative, by +abuse of names and neglect of realities, by stopping at the symbol instead +of rising to the divine fact.(2217) + +The treatise of Plutarch on Isis and Osiris is the best illustration of +this attitude to myth. Plutarch's theology, though primarily Hellenic, +does not confine its gaze to the Greek Olympus; it is intended to be the +science of human religion in general. It gives formal expression to the +growing tendency to syncretism. The central truth of it is, that as the +sun and moon, under many different names, shed their light on all, so the +gods are variously invoked and honoured by various tribes of men.(2218) +But there is one supreme Ruler and Providence common to all. And the lower +deities of different countries may often be identified by the theologian, +under all varieties of title and attribute. So, to Plutarch as to +Herodotus, the immemorial worships of Egypt were the prototypes or the +counterparts of the cults of Greece.(2219) There was a temple of Osiris at +Delphi, and Clea, to whom Plutarch's treatise is addressed, was not only a +hereditary priestess of the Egyptian god, but held a leading place among +the female ministers of Dionysus.(2220) It was fitting that a person so +catholic in her sympathies should have dedicated to her the treatise in +which Plutarch expounds his all-embracing theology. + +In this treatise we see the new theology wrestling in a hopeless struggle +to unite the thought of Pythagoras and Plato with the grossness of +Egyptian myth. It is a striking, but not a solitary, example of the +misapplication of dialectic skill and learning, to find the thoughts of +the present in the fancies of the past, and from a mistaken piety, to +ignore the onward march of humanity. Arbitrary interpretations of myth, +alike unhistorical and unscientific, make us wonder how they could ever +have occurred to men of intellect and learning. Yet the explanation is not +far to seek. More elevated conceptions of God, the purged and clarified +religious intuition, do not readily find a substitute for the old +symbolism to express their visions. Religion, beyond any other +institution, depends for its power on antiquity, on the charm of ancestral +pieties. A religious symbol is doubly sacred when it has ministered to the +devotion of many generations. + +In interpreting the powerful cult of Isis, which was spreading rapidly +over the western world, Plutarch had two objects in view. By reverent +explanation of its legends and ritual, he desired to counteract its +immoral and superstitious tendencies;(2221) he also wished, in discussing +a worship so multiform as that of Isis, to develop his attitude to myth in +general. We cannot follow him minutely in his survey of the various +attempts of philosophy to find the basis of truth in Egyptian legend. Some +of these explanations, such as the Euhemerist, he would dismiss at once as +atheistic.(2222) On others, which founded themselves on physical allegory, +he would not be so dogmatic, although he might reject as impious any +tendency to identify the gods with natural powers and products.(2223) As a +positive contribution to religious philosophy, the treatise is chiefly +valuable for its theory of Evil and of daemonic powers, and above all for +the doctrine of the unity of God, the central truth of all religions. + +The daemonology of the Platonists of the second century had its roots deep +in the Hellenic past, as it was destined to have a long future. But it was +specially evoked by the needs of the pagan revival of the Antonine age. +The doctrine had assumed many forms in previous Greek thought from the +days of Hesiod, and it has various aspects, and serves various purposes, +in the hands of Plutarch, Apuleius, and Maximus of Tyre. It was in the +first place an apologetic for heathenism in an age distracted between a +lofty conception of one infinite Father and legends of many lands and many +ages, which were consecrated by long tradition, yet often shocking to the +spiritual sense. As the conception of God became purer and seemed to +withdraw into remoter distances, souls like Apuleius, wedded to the +ancient rites, found in the daemons, ranging between earth and ether, the +means of conveying answers to prayer, of inspiring dreams and prophecy, of +ordering all the machinery of divination.(2224) To others, such as Maximus +of Tyre, the doctrine seemed to discover a spiritual support for human +frailty, guardians in temptation and the crises of life, mediators between +the human spirit, immured for a time in the prison of the flesh, and the +remote purity of the Supreme.(2225) To other minds the daemon is no +external power, but dwelling within each soul, as its divine part, a kind +of ideal personality,(2226) in following whose ghostly promptings lies the +secret of happiness. Finally, the doctrine created an eschatology by which +vistas of moral perfection were opened before purer spirits in worlds to +come, and the infinite responsibilities of this life were terribly +enforced by threats of endless degradation.(2227) + +The daemons who came to the aid of mythology in the Antonine age, were +composite beings, with a double nature corresponding to the two worlds of +the Divine and human which they linked together. They are at once divine +in power and knowledge, and akin to humanity in feeling and passion.(2228) +They are even liable to mortality, as was proved by the famous tale of the +voice which floated to the Egyptian pilot from the Echinad isles, +announcing that the great Pan was dead.(2229) Their sphere is the middle +space between the lofty ether and the mists of earth. This spiritual +mediation, as Maximus points out, is not an exceptional principle. There +is a chain of being in the universe, as it had been developed in the +cosmic theory of Aristotle, by which the remote extremes are linked in +successive stages, and may be blended or reconciled, in a mean or +compound, as in a musical harmony. The principle is seen operating in the +relation of the great physical elements. Thus, for example, fire and water +are at opposite poles: they cannot pass immediately into one another, but +air furnishes a medium between the two, and reconciles their opposition by +participating in the warmth of the one element and in the moisture of the +other.(2230) The suggestions of cosmic theory seemed to receive support +from many tales which, in that age of luxuriant superstition, were +accepted even in educated circles. Travellers, returning from Britain, +told weird stories of desolate islands in the northern seas which were the +haunts of genii.(2231) A Spartan visitor to Delphi related how, on the +shores of the Indian Ocean, he had met with a hermit of a beautiful +countenance and proof against all disease, who spoke with many tongues, +and derived his mystic powers from intercourse with the spirits which +haunted those distant solitudes.(2232) + +Plutarch also justifies his theory of daemons by an appeal to the +authority of Hesiod, of Pythagoras and Plato, Xenocrates and +Chrysippus.(2233) He might have added others to the list. For, indeed, the +conception of these mediators between the ethereal world and the world of +sense has a long history--too long to be developed within our present +limits. Its earliest appearance in Greece was in the _Works and Days_ of +Hesiod, who first definitely sketched a great scale of being--gods, heroes, +daemons, and mortal men. Hesiod's daemons are the men of the golden age, +translated to a blissful and immortal life, yet linked in sympathy with +those still on earth--"Ministers of good and guardians of men."(2234) The +conception was introduced at a time when new moral and spiritual forces +were at work, which were destined to have a profound and lasting influence +on paganism for a thousand years. The glamour of the radiant Olympus and +the glory of heroic battle were fading. Men were settling down to humdrum +toil, and becoming acutely conscious of the troubles and sadness of life. +With a craving for support and comfort which the religion of Homer could +not give, the pessimist view of life, which colours Hesiod's poetry, +sought consolation in a mysticism altogether strange to Homer, and even to +Hesiod. The feeling that humanity had declined from a glorious prime and, +in its weakness and terror at death, needed some new consolations, was met +by a system which, although Orpheus may never have existed, will always be +called by his name.(2235) The Chthonian deities, Dionysus and Demeter, +sprang into a prominence which they had not in Homer. The immortal life +began to overshadow the present, and in the mysteries men found some +assurance of immortality, and preparation for it by cleansing from the +stains of time. That idea, which was to have such profound influence upon +later thought, that there is a divine element in man, which is emancipated +from the prison of the flesh at death, became an accepted doctrine. At the +same time, the faith in helpers and mediators, half human, half divine, +lent itself to the support of human weakness. The heroic soul who passed +victoriously through the ordeal of this life, might in another world +become the guardian and exemplar of those who were still on earth. + +In the Ionian and Eleatic schools the doctrine was held in some sense by +all the great thinkers, by Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Xenophanes. To +Thales the world was full of daemons.(2236) In the mystic teaching of +Heraclitus the universe teems with such spirits, for in the perpetual flux +and change, the divine is constantly passing into the death of mortal life +and the mortal into the divine.(2237) Empedocles, in conformity with his +cosmic dualism, first made the distinction between good and bad daemons, +and followed Pythagoras in connecting daemonic theory with the doctrine of +a fall from divine estate, and long exile and incarnation in animal +forms.(2238) It was in the dim system of Pythagoras that the doctrine +became a really religious tenet, as it was to the Platonists of the +Antonine age. Pythagoras was more priest and mystic than philosopher. He +had far more in common with the Orphici, with Abaris and Epimenides, than +with Thales or Anaximander. His school, for we can hardly speak of +himself, connected the doctrine of daemons with the doctrines of +metempsychosis and purification and atonement in another world. Souls +released from the prison-house of the flesh are submitted to a purgatorial +cleansing of a thousand years. Some pass the ordeal victoriously, and +ascend to higher spheres. Others are kept in chains by the Erinnyes. The +beatified souls become daemons or good spirits, ranging over the universe, +and manifesting themselves in dreams and omens and ghostly monitions, +sometimes becoming even visible to the eye.(2239) But their highest +function is to guide men in the path of virtue during life, and after +death to purify the disembodied spirit, which may become a daemon in its +turn. This is the theory, which, with some modifications, was adopted by +the later Platonists. It was popularised by Pindar, "the Homer of the +Pythagorean school." He was captivated by its doctrine of the migrations +of the soul, of its ordeal in a future life, and its chastisement or +elevation to lofty spiritual rank as daemon or hero. In the second +Olympian ode, the punishment of the wicked and the beatitude of noble +spirits, in the company of Peleus and Achilles in the happy isles, are +painted in all the glowing imagery of the Apocalypse.(2240) + +The daemonology of Pythagoras, along with the doctrine of metempsychosis +in its moral aspect, was adopted by Plato, whether as a serious theory or +as a philosophic myth. The chief passages in Plato where the daemons are +mentioned are suffused with such mythic colour that it would perhaps be +rash to extract from them any sharp dogmatic theory.(2241) But Plato, +holding firmly the remote purity of God, strove to fill the interval +between the mortal and the Infinite by a graded scheme of superhuman +beings. The daemon is a compound of the mortal and the divine, spanning +the chasm between them. This is the power which conveys to God the prayers +and sacrifices of men, and brings to men the commands and rewards of the +gods, which operates in prophecy, sacrifice, and mystery. And again the +daemon is a power which is assigned to each soul at birth, and which at +death conducts it to the eternal world, to receive judgment for its deeds, +and perhaps to be condemned to return once more to earth. The reason in +man, his truly divine part, is also called his daemon, his good genius. It +is the power whose kindred is with the world of the unseen, which is +immortal, and capable of a lofty destiny. + +Like his master Plato, Maximus of Tyre seems to know nothing of the evil +daemons, who, as we shall presently see, were used by Plutarch to account +for the immorality of myth. To Maximus the daemons are rather angelic +ministers, sent forth to advise and succour weak mortal men.(2242) They +are the necessary mediators between the one Supreme and our frail mortal +life. Dwelling in a region between earth and ether, they are of mingled +mortal and divine nature, weaker than the gods, stronger than men, +servants of God and overseers of men, by kinship with either linking the +weakness of the mortal with the Divine. Great is the multitude of this +heavenly host, interpreters between God and man: "thrice ten thousand are +they upon the fruitful earth, immortal, ministers of Zeus," healers of the +sick, revealers of what is dark, aiding the craftsman, companions of the +wayfarer. On land and sea, in the city and the field, they are ever with +us. They inspired a Socrates, a Pythagoras, a Diogenes, or a Zeno; they +are present in all human spirits. Only the lost and hopeless soul is +without the guardianship of such an unearthly friend. + +The earlier Platonist or Pythagorean daemonology was not employed to +explain or rehabilitate polytheism. Although Plato would not banish myth +from his Utopia, he placed his ban on the mythopoeic poets who had lent +their authority to tales and crimes and passions of the gods. Myth could +only be tolerated in the education of the young if it conformed to the +standard of Divine perfection.(2243) God cannot be the author of evil, +evil is the offspring of matter; it is a limitation or an incident of the +fleeting world of sense. It is only relative and transitory, and can never +penetrate the realm of the ideal. But to Plutarch evil was an ultimate +principle in the universe, ever present along with the good, although not +perhaps of equal range and power.(2244) And Plutarch would not banish and +disown the poets for attributing to the gods passions and crimes which +would have been dishonouring to humanity. He would not abandon the ancient +ritual because it contained elements of gloom and impurity which shocked a +refined moral sense. Mythology and ritual, as they had been moulded by +poets or imposed by lawgivers, were intertwined with the whole life of the +people and formed an essential element in the glory of Hellenic genius. +The piety and aesthetic feeling of the priest of Delphi still clung to +ancient ritual and legend, even when the lofty morality of the Platonist +was offended by the grossness which mingled with their artistic charm. +Might it not be possible to moralise the pagan system without discrediting +its authors, to reconcile the claims of reason and conservative religious +feeling? Might it not be possible to save at once the purity and majesty +of God and the inspiration of the poets? + +To Plutarch the doctrine of daemons seemed to furnish an answer to this +question; it also satisfied other spiritual cravings which were equally +urgent. The need of some mixed nature to mediate between the ethereal +world and the region of sense became all the more imperious as the +philosophic conception of God receded into a more remote and majestic +purity. The gradation of spiritual powers, which had been accepted by so +many great minds from the time of Hesiod, at once guarded the aloofness of +the Supreme and satisfied the craving of the religious instinct for some +means of contact with it, for divine help in the trials of time. These +mediating spirits were also made in Plutarch's theology to furnish an +explanation of oracles and all forms of prophecy, of the inspired +enthusiasm of artist, sage, and poet. Finally, the theory, with the aid of +mythic fancy, cast a light on the fate of souls beyond the grave, and +vindicated the Divine justice by a vision of a judgment to come. + +Plutarch's daemonology, as he admits himself, is an inheritance from the +past. The daemons are beings half divine, half human; they are godlike in +power and intelligence, they are human in liability to the passions +engendered by the flesh. This host of spirits dwell in the borderland +below the moon, between the pure changeless region of the celestial powers +and the region of the mutable and the mortal. Linking the two worlds +together by their composite nature, the daemons differ in degrees of +virtue; some are more akin to the Divine perfection, others more tainted +by the evil of the lower world.(2245) The good spirits, as they are +described by Maximus of Tyre, are true servants of God and faithful +guardians of human virtue. But the bad daemons assume a special prominence +in the theology of Plutarch. Nor was the development unnatural. His +conception of immortality, and the necessity of purification in another +world, raised the question as to the destiny of souls whose stains were +indelible. If purified souls are charged as daemons with offices of mercy, +may not the impure prolong their guilt in plaguing and corrupting mankind? +May not the existence of such sombre spirits account for the evil in the +world, the existence of which cannot be blinked? Although there are traces +of this moral dualism long before Plutarch's time, both in Greek poetry +and speculation, it was Xenocrates who first formulated the doctrine of +evil daemons in relation to mythology.(2246) "It cannot be," he taught, +"that unlucky days and festivals, conducted with scourgings and fasts, +lamentations and lacerations and impure words and deeds, are celebrated in +honour of the blessed gods or good daemons. They are rather offered to +those powerful and terrible spirits of evil in the air whose sombre +character is propitiated by such gloomy rites." These sinister spirits +assert their vast power, and display their malevolence, not only in +plague, pestilence, and dearth, and all the desolating convulsions of the +physical world, but in the moral perversion and deception of the human +race. They are accountable for all that shocks the moral sense in the +impure or ghastly tales which the poets have told of the gods, and in the +gloomy or obscene rites which are celebrated in their honour. The poets +and early myth-makers have not invented the evil in myth and rite; they +have been deceived as to the authors of the evil. Each of the blessed gods +has attached to him a daemon who is in some respects his counterpart, +wielding his power, but who may perpetrate every kind of moral enormity in +his name, and who demands to be honoured and propitiated after his own +evil nature. The bad daemons, in fact, masquerade as gods and bring +disgrace upon them. It was not the Blessed Ones who mutilated a father, +who raised rebellion in Olympus and were driven into exile, who stooped to +be the lovers of mortal women. These are the works of spirits of evil, +using their fiendish cunning to deceive a simple age. Its poetry was +seduced to cast a magical charm over their lusts and crimes; its +superstition was terrified into appeasing the fiends by shameful orgies or +dark bloody rites. Poets and founders of ritual have been faithful to +supernatural fact, but they did not see that in the supernatural order +there are evil powers as well as good. They are sound in their record but +wrong in their interpretation. In this fashion Plutarch and his school +strove to reconcile a rational faith with the grossness of superstition, +to save the holiness of God and the glory of Homer. + +But the bad daemons who were called in to save the ancient cults proved +dangerous allies in the end. Few who really know him will be inclined to +question the sincere monotheistic piety of Plutarch. And a sympathetic +critic will even not withhold from him a certain respect for his old-world +attachment to the forms of his ancestral worship. He knew no other avenue +of approaching the Divine. Yet only the imperious religious cravings and +the spiritual contradictions of that age could excuse or account for a +system which was disastrous both to paganism and philosophy. The union of +gross superstition with ingenious theology, the licence of subtlety +applied to the ancient legends, demanded too much credulity from the +cultivated and too much subtlety from the vulgar. It undermined the +already crumbling polytheism; it made philosophy the apostle of a belief +in a baleful daemonic agency. If a malign genius was seated beside every +god to account for the evil in nature or myth, might not a day come when +both friends and enemies would confound the daemon and the god?(2247) +Might not philosophy be led on in a disastrous decline to the +justification of magic, incantations, and all theurgic extravagance? That +day did come in the fourth century when Platonism and polytheism in close +league were making a last stand against the victorious Church. Even then +indeed a purer Platonism still survived, as well as a purer paganism +sustained by the mysteries of Mithra or Demeter. But the paganism which +the Christian empire found it hardest to conquer, and which propagated +itself far into the Christian ages, was the belief in magic and occult +powers founded on the doctrine of daemons. And the Christian +controversialist, with as firm a faith in daemons as the pagan, turned +that doctrine against the faith which it was invented to support. The +distinction of good and bad daemons, first drawn by Xenocrates and +Chrysippus, and developed by Plutarch, was eagerly seized upon by Tatian +and S. Clement of Alexandria, by Minucius Felix and S. Cyprian.(2248) But +the good became the heavenly host of Christ and His angels; the bad were +identified with the pagan gods. What would have been the anguish of +Plutarch could he have foreseen that his theology, elaborated with such +pious subtlety and care, would one day be used against the gracious powers +of Olympus, and that the spirits he had conjured up to defend them would +be exorcised as maleficent fiends by the triumphant dialectic of S. +Augustine.(2249) + +The daemonology of Plutarch also furnished a theory of prophetic powers, +and especially of the inspiration of Delphi. It was in the porticoes of +the shrine of Apollo, or among the monuments of ancient glory and +devotion, that the most interesting of Plutarch's religious essays were +inspired. He probably bore the honours of the Delphic priesthood down to +the last days of his long life. But in the years when Plutarch was +ordering a sacrifice or a procession, or discussing antiquarian and +philosophic questions with travellers from Britain or the eastern seas, +Delphi had lost much of its ancient power and renown. Great political and +great economic changes had reduced the functions of the oracle to a +comparatively humble sphere. It was no longer consulted on affairs of +state by great potentates of the East and West. The farmers of Boeotia or +the Arcadian shepherds now came to seek the causes of failure in their +crops or of a murrain among their herds, to ask advice about the purchase +of a piece of land or the marriage of a child. So far back as the days of +Cicero the faith in oracles had been greatly shaken,(2250) and even the +most venerable shrines were no longer resorted to as of old. Powerful +philosophic schools, the Cynic and the Epicurean, poured contempt on all +the arts of divination. Many of the ancient oracles had long been silent. +In Boeotia, where, in the days of Herodotus, the air was full of +inspiration,(2251) the ancient magic only lingered around Lebadea. Sheep +grazed around the fanes of Tegyra and the Ptoan Apollo. While in old days +at Delphi, the services of two, and even three, Pythian priestesses were +demanded by the concourse of votaries, in Plutarch's time one priestess +sufficed.(2252) But the second century brought, along with a general +religious revival, a restoration of the ancient faith in oracles. The +voice of Delphi had been silenced for a time by Nero, and the sacred chasm +had been choked with corpses because the priestess had branded the emperor +as another Orestes.(2253) But the oracle, although shorn of much of its +glory, recovered some of its popularity in the second century. It received +offerings once more from wealthy votaries. The emperor Hadrian +characteristically tested its omniscience by a question as to the +birthplace of Homer. Curious travellers from distant lands, even +philosophers of the Cynic and Epicurean schools, came to visit the ancient +shrine, to make the round of its antiquarian treasures, and to discuss the +secret of its inspiration.(2254) A new town sprang up at the gates of the +sanctuary; sumptuous temples, baths, and halls of assembly replaced the +solitude and ruins of many generations. The god himself seemed to the +pious Plutarch to have returned in power to his ancient seat.(2255) + +The revival of Delphi gladdened the heart of Plutarch as a sign of +reviving religion and Hellenism. And although the oracle no longer wielded +an oecumenical primacy, its antiquities and its claims to inspiration +evidently attracted many curious inquirers. We are admitted to their +conversations in the Delphic treatises of Plutarch. His characters bear +the names of the old-world schools, but there is a strangely modern tone +in their discussions. Sometimes we might fancy ourselves listening to a +debate on the inspiration of Scripture between an agnostic, a Catholic, +and an accommodating broad Churchman. Plutarch himself, or his +representative, generally holds the balance between the extreme views, and +tries to reconcile the claims of reason and of faith. It is clear that +even in that age of religious revival there was no lack of a scepticism +like that of Lucian. Even in the sacred courts of Delphi the Epicurean +might be heard suggesting that, because, among a thousand random +prophecies of natural events, one here and there may seem to tally with +the fact, it does not follow that the prediction was sure and true at the +moment of deliverance;(2256) the wandering word may sometimes hit the +mark. The fulfilment is a mere coincidence, a happy chance. Boethus, the +sceptic, is easily refuted by the orthodox Serapion, who makes an appeal +to well-known oracles which have been actually fulfilled, not merely in a +loose, apparent fashion, but down to the minutest details of time, place, +and manner.(2257) In these discussions, although the caviller is heard +with a tolerant courtesy, it is clear that faith is always in the +ascendant. Yet even faith has to face and account for an apparent +degeneracy which might well cause some uneasiness. For instance, is it not +startling that, in the name of the god of music, many oracles should be +delivered in trivial, badly-fashioned verses?(2258) Can it be that Apollo +is a meaner artist than Hesiod or Homer? On the other side, it may be said +that the god is too lofty to care to deck his utterances in the graces of +literary form, or, by a more probable theory, he inspires the vision but +not the verse. But what of the oracles of later days, which are delivered +in the baldest prose? Is this not a disturbing sign of degeneracy? Can +this be worthy of the god? The defender of the faith has no difficulty in +quieting the suspicion. Even in the great ages we know that oracles were +sometimes delivered in prose,(2259) and in ancient times excited feeling +ran naturally into verse.(2260) The stately hexameter was the appropriate +form of utterance when the oracle had to deal with great events affecting +the fate of cities and of nations. Inspiration is not independent of +surrounding circumstances, and the functions of the oracle have changed +since the days of Croesus and Themistocles. The whole style of human life +and the taste of men are less imposing and stately. The change in the +style of the oracle is only part of a general movement.(2261) For ages +simple prose has taken the place of artistic rhythm in other departments +besides the sphere of prophecy. We do not despise the philosophy of +Socrates and Plato, because it does not come to us clothed in verse, like +the speculations of Thales, Parmenides, and Empedocles. And who can expect +the simple peasant girl, who now occupies the tripod, to speak in the +tones of Homer?(2262) The dim grandeur of the old poetic oracles had +indeed some advantages, in aiding the memory by the use of measured and +musical expression, and in veiling the full meaning of the God from +irreverent or hostile eyes. But their pompous ambiguity, providing +apparently so many loopholes for evasion, brought discredit on the sacred +art, and encouraged the imitative ingenuity of a host of venal impostors +who, around the great temples, cheated the ears of slaves and silly women +with a mockery of the mysterious solemnity of the Pythian verse.(2263) + +The more serious question as to the cause of the extinction of oracles +brings the discussion nearer to the great problem of the sources of +inspiration. It is true that the fact may be accounted for to some extent +by natural causes. Oracles have never ceased, but the number has been +diminished. God measures His help to men by their needs, and as they grow +more enlightened they feel less need for supernatural guidance. This, +however, is evidently dangerous ground. But surely the poverty and +depopulation of Greece are enough to account for the disappearance of +oracles. A country which can hardly put three thousand hoplites in the +field--as many as Megara alone sent forth to fight at Plataea--cannot need +the many shrines which flourished when Greece was in its glory.(2264) But +it may be admitted that oracles can and do disappear. And this is in no +way derogatory to the power of God. For it is not the great God Himself +who utters the warning or the prophecy by the voice of the priestess. Such +a doctrine is lowering to His greatness and majesty. In prophecy and +divination, as in other fields, God operates, through instruments and +agents, on a given matter, and in concurrence with physical causes. The +matter in this case is the human soul, which, in greater or less degrees, +can be acted on by supernatural influences.(2265) The exciting cause of +the "enthusiasm" or inspiration, applying a sudden stimulus to the soul, +may be some vapour or exhalation from the earth, such as that which rose +from the cleft beneath the Delphic tripod.(2266) Lastly, there is the +daemon, a supernatural being, who, by his composite nature, as we have +seen, is the channel of sympathy between the human and the Divine.(2267) +But among the causes of afflatus or inspiration, some may, in cases, +disappear and cease to operate. The intoxicating fume or vapour is a force +of varying intensity and may exhaust itself and be spent, as a spring may +fail, or a mine may be worked out.(2268) The daemon may migrate from one +place to another, and with its disappearance, the oracle will become +silent, as that of Teiresias at Orchomenus has long been, just as the lyre +becomes silent when the musician ceases to strike the strings.(2269) + +In all this theory Plutarch is careful to guard himself against a purely +materialistic theory of the facts of inspiration.(2270) Physical causes +may assist and predispose, but physical causes alone will not account for +the facts of inspiration. The daemon is a necessary mediator between the +human soul and God, a messenger of the divine purpose. But the real +problem of inspiration is in the soul of man himself, in the possibility +of contact between the soul and a supernatural power. This question is +illuminated in Apuleius and Plutarch and Maximus of Tyre by a discussion +of the daemon of Socrates. It was by a natural instinct that the Antonine +Platonists went back to the great teacher of Plato for support of the +system which was to link religion with philosophy by the daemonic theory. +In Plutarch's dialogue on the Genius of Socrates, the various theories of +that mysterious influence current in antiquity are discussed at length. +The language in which Socrates or his disciples spoke of its monitions +lent itself to different interpretations. Was his daemon an external sign, +as in augury, an audible voice, or an inner, perhaps supernatural light, a +voice of reason, speaking to the soul's highest faculty, through no +uttered word or symbol?(2271) The grosser conceptions of it may be +dismissed at once. The daemon of Socrates does not belong to the crude +materialism of divination, although the philosopher could forecast the +disaster of Syracuse.(2272) Nor was it any ordinary faculty of keen +intellectual shrewdness, strengthened and sharpened by the cultivation of +experience. Still less was it any hallucination, bordering on insanity, +which is merely a perversion of the senses and reason. It was rather a +spiritual intuition, an immediate vision, not darkened or weakened by +passing through any symbolic medium of the senses, a flash of sudden +insight such as is vouchsafed only to the select order of pure and lofty +spirits, in whom from the beginning the higher portion of the soul has +always risen high above the turbid and darkening influence of the +senses.(2273) That such a faculty exists is certain to the Platonist and +the Pythagorean. But in the mass of men it is struggling against fleshly +powers, sometimes defeated, sometimes victorious, inspiring ideals, or +stinging with remorse, until perchance, late and slowly, after +chastisement and struggle, it emerges into a certain calm. Pythagoreans, +such as Apollonius, taught that the diviner, the mantic, faculty in man +was more open to higher influences when emancipated from the body in +sleep, and that it could be set free in waking hours by abstinence and +ascetic discipline.(2274) Plutarch laid stress on the latter part of this +theory, but ridiculed the notion that the soul could be most clear and +receptive when its powers were relaxed. But the capacity of the higher +reason in the loftier souls is almost without limit. The reason, which is +the daemon in each, when unimpeded by bodily obstruction, is open to the +lightest, most ethereal touch. Spirit can act directly by immediate +influence upon spirit, without any sensuous aid of word or sign.(2275) The +influence is a "wind blowing where it listeth," or a strange sudden +illumination, revealing truth as by a flash. The disembodied spirit, +cleansed and freed from the servitude of the body, and now a real daemon, +possesses all these powers and receptivities in the fullest measure. But +it gains no new power when it quits the body, although its spiritual +faculties may have been dulled and obstructed by the flesh. The sun does +not lose its native radiance when for a moment it is obscured by +clouds.(2276) And thus a Socrates may even here below have a spiritual +vision denied to us; a Pythia may be inspired by the daemon of the shrine +to read the future of a campaign. Nor is there anything more wonderful in +prediction than in memory.(2277) In this unresting flux of existence, the +present of brief sensation is a mere moment between the past which has +ceased to be and the future which is to be born. If we can still grasp the +one, may we not anticipate the other? + +It is thus that, by a far-reaching theory of inspiration, Plutarch strove +to rehabilitate the faith in oracular lore. The loftier philosophic +conception of the Supreme is saved from contamination with anything +earthly by the doctrine of daemons themselves released from the body, yet, +through the higher faculty in all souls, able to act directly upon those +still in the flesh. The influence is direct and immediate, yet not +independent of purely physical causes or temperament. "The treasure is in +earthen vessels." But the full vision is only reserved for the spirit +unpolluted and untroubled by sense and passion. Plutarch is preparing the +way for the "ecstasy" of later Neo-Platonism. All this speculation of +course lent itself to a revival of heathen superstition. Yet it is +interesting to see how, in many a flash of insight, Plutarch reveals a +truth for all generations. We, in our time, are perhaps too much inclined +to limit the powers of the human spirit to the field of sense and +observation. The slackening hold on faith in a spiritual world and a +higher intuition may well be visited by the proper Nemesis, in the +darkening of the divine vision, whether as religious faith or artistic +inspiration. The dream of an earthly paradise enriched with every sensuous +gratification by a science working in bondage to mere utility may have +serious results for the spiritual future of humanity. It may need a bitter +experience to dispel the gross illusion; yet men may once more come to +believe with Plutarch that, as it were, at the back of every soul there is +an opening to the divine world from which yet may come, as of old, the +touch of an unseen hand. + + + + + + BOOK IV. + + + _ADSCENDENTIBUS DI MANUM PORRIGUNT_ + + + + + CHAPTER I + + + SUPERSTITION + + +Superstition in all ages is a term of unstable meaning. Men even of the +same time will apply it or deny its application to the same belief. The +devout beliefs of one period may become mere superstitions to the next. +And, conversely, what for a time may be regarded as alien superstition, +may in course of time become an accepted portion of the native creed. This +was the history of those Eastern cults which will be described in coming +chapters. At first, they fell under Cicero's definition of superstition, +viz. any religious belief or practice going beyond the prescription of +ancestral usage.(2278) But a day came when they were the most popular +worships of the Roman world, when great nobles, and even the prince +himself, were enthusiastic votaries of them.(2279) The religion of Mithra, +when it was confined to an obscure circle of slaves or freedmen at Ostia, +was a superstition to the pontifical college. It took its place with the +cult of the Roman Trinity when Aurelian built his temple to the Sun and +endowed his priesthood.(2280) + +Plutarch devoted a treatise to the subject of superstition. And his +conception of it is more like our own, less formal and external, than that +of Cicero. He develops his view of the degradation of the religious sense +by contrasting it with atheism. Atheism is a great calamity, a blindness +of the reason to the goodness and love which govern the universe. It is +the extinction of a faculty rather than the perversion of one.(2281) But +superstition both believes and trembles. It acknowledges the existence of +supernatural powers, but they are to it powers of evil who are ready to +afflict and injure, to be approached only in terror and with servile +prostration. This craven fear of God fills the whole universe with +spectres. It leaves no refuge whither the devil-worshipper can escape from +the horrors which haunt him night and day. Whither can he flee from that +awful presence? Sleep, which should give a respite from the cares of life, +to his fevered mind, swarms with ghostly terrors.(2282) And death, the +last sleep, which should put a term to the ills of life, only unrolls +before the superstitious votary an awful scene of rivers of fire and +blackness of darkness, and sounds of punishment and unutterable woe.(2283) +To such a soul the festivals of ancestral religion lose all their solemn +gladness and cheering comfort. The shrines which should offer a refuge to +the troubled heart, even to the hunted criminal, become to him places of +torture. And the believer in a God of malignant cruelty betakes himself in +despair to dark rites from foreign lands, and spends his substance on +impostors who trade upon his fears. Better, says the pious Plutarch, not +believe in God at all, than cringe before a God worse than the worst of +men. Unbelief, calamity though it be, at least does not dishonour a Deity +whose existence it denies. The true impiety is to believe that God can be +wantonly faithless and revengeful, fickle and cruel.(2284) + +The earnestness, and even bitterness, with which Plutarch assails the +degrading fear of the supernal Powers have caused some rather shallow +critics to imagine that he had a sympathy with scepticism.(2285) How such +an idea could arise in the mind of any one who had read his treatise on +the Genius of Socrates or on Isis and Osiris, or on the Delays of Divine +Justice, it is difficult to imagine. Plutarch's hatred of superstition is +that of a genuinely pious man, with a lofty conception of the Divine love +and pity, who is revolted by the travesty of pure religion, which is +repeated from age to age. It is the feeling of a man to whom religion is +one of the most elevating joys of life, when he sees it turned into an +instrument of torture. But the force of the protest shows how rampant was +the evil in that age. Lucretius felt with the intensity of genius all the +misery which perverted conceptions of the Divine nature had inflicted on +human life.(2286) But the force of Roman superstition had endlessly +multiplied since the days of Lucretius. It was no longer the exaggeration +of Roman awe at the lightning, the flight of birds, the entrails of a +sacrificial victim, or anxious observance of the solemn words of ancestral +formulae, every syllable of which had to be guarded from mutilation or +omission. All the lands which had fallen to her sword were, in Plutarch's +day, adding to the spiritual burden of Rome. If in some cases they +enriched her rather slender spiritual heritage, they also multiplied the +sources of supernatural terror. If in the mysteries of Isis and Mithra +they exalted the soul in spiritual reverie and gave a promise of a coming +life,(2287) they sent the Roman matron to bathe in the freezing Tiber at +early dawn and crawl on bleeding knees over the Campus Martius, or +purchase the interpretation of a dream from some diviner of Palestine or a +horoscope from some trader in astral lore.(2288) The Platonist, nourished +on the pure theism of the _Phaedo_ and the _Republic_, and the priest of +that cheerful shrine, which the young Ion had each bright morning swept +with myrtle boughs and sprinkled with the water of the Castalian +spring,(2289) whose holy ministry gladdened even the years of boyhood--a +man with such experience had a natural horror of the dark terrors which +threatened to obscure the radiant visions of Delphi and Olympus. + +Livy complained of the neglect in his day of signs and omens which +formerly were deemed worthy of historical record.(2290) The contempt for +augury in the time of Cicero was hardly concealed among the +cultivated.(2291) The details of parts of the ancient bird-lore eluded the +researches of the elder Pliny. The emperor Claudius, lamenting the neglect +of the ancient science, demanded a decree of the Senate to restore it to +its former efficiency.(2292) These are some signs of that general decay of +old Roman religion in the last century of the Republic, which was partly +due to philosophic enlightenment partly to the confusion and +demoralisation of civil strife, but perhaps even more to the dangerous +seductions of foreign superstitions.(2293) Among the counsels of Maecenas +to Augustus none is more earnest and weighty than the warning against +these occult arts.(2294) Augustus is advised to observe, and enforce the +observance of the time-honoured ancestral forms, but he must banish +sorcerers and diviners, who may sow the seeds of conspiracy against the +prince. The advice was acted on. While the emperor rebuilt the fallen +temples and revived the ancient Latin rites, 2000 books of unlicensed +divination were in one day given to the flames.(2295) The old religion, +which had absorbed so much from the augural lore of Etruria,(2296) was +itself certainly not free from superstition. The wrath of the +Lemures,(2297) the darkness of the inner forest, the flash of lightning, +the flight of birds, the entrails of a sacrifice, excited many a fear, and +might cause a man to suspend a journey, or break up an assembly of the +people. But the Romans had, in the early ages, after their orderly legal +fashion, reduced the force of these terrors by an elaborate art which +provided a convenient resource of statecraft, and a means of soothing the +alarms of the crowd. + +But foreign and unregulated superstitions, from the second century B.C., +were pouring in from the East to put a fresh load on the human spirit or +to replace the waning faith in Italian augury. In 139 B.C. Cornelius +Scipio Hispalus vainly strove by an edict to stop the inroads of the star +readers.(2298) But treatises on this pretended science were in vogue in +Varro's time, and are quoted by the great savant with approval.(2299) +These impostors were swarming in Rome at the time of Catiline's +conspiracy,(2300) inflating the hopes of the plotters. Suetonius has +surpassed himself in the collection, from many sources, of the signs and +wonders which foreshadowed the great destiny, and also the death of +Augustus. And it is noteworthy that, among these predictions, are some +founded on astrology.(2301) On the day of the emperor's birth, P. +Nigidius, a learned astrologer, found that the position of the stars +foretold a coming master of the world. Augustus himself received a similar +forecast from Theagenes, a star-reader of Apollonia. He had his horoscope +drawn out, and a silver coin was struck with the stamp of Capricorn. + +This fatalist superstition infected nearly all the successors of Augustus +in the first and second centuries. Astrology is essentially a fatalist +creed, and the heir to the great prize of the principate, with the +absolute control of the civilised world, was generally designated by that +blind impersonal power whose decrees might be read in the positions of the +eternal spheres, or by signs and omens upon earth. Suetonius, Tacitus, +Dion Cassius, have chronicled, with apparent faith, the predictions of +future power which gathered round the popular candidate for the +succession, or the dark warnings of coming disaster which excited the +prince's fears and gave courage to enemies and rivals. It is not hard to +see why the emperors at once believed in these black arts and profoundly +distrusted their professors. They wished to keep a monopoly of that awful +lore, lest it might excite dangerous hopes in possible pretenders.(2302) +To consult a Chaldaean seer on the fate of the prince, or to possess his +horoscope, was always suspicious, and might often be fatal.(2303) The +astonishing thing is, that men had such implicit faith in the skill of +these Eastern impostors, along with such distrust of their honesty. They +were banished again and again in the first century, but persecution only +increased their power, and they always returned to exercise greater +influence than ever.(2304) Never was there a clearer proof of the +impotence of government in the face of a deep-seated popular belief. + +Tiberius, who had probably no real religious faith, was, from his youth, +the slave of astrology.(2305) An adept had, at his birth, predicted his +lofty destiny.(2306) He had in his train one Thrasyllus, a noted professor +of the science, who had often to read the stars in the face of death, and +he was surrounded in his gloomy retirement at Capreae by a "Chaldaean +herd."(2307) Claudius was pedantic and antiquarian in his religious +tastes, and, while he tried to revive old Roman augury, he banished the +astrologers.(2308) A great noble who had the temerity to consult them as +to the time of the emperor's death shared the same fate. Nero, who +despised all regular religion, except that of the Syrian goddess, was the +prey of superstitious terror. The Furies of the murdered Agrippina, as in +Aeschylean tragedy, haunted him in dreams, and he used the aid of magic to +evoke and propitiate the awful shade.(2309) When, towards the end of his +reign, his prospects grew more threatening, the appearance of a comet +drove him to consult Balbillus, his astrologer, who advised that the +portended danger should be diverted from the emperor by the destruction of +the great nobles. Some of the craft had predicted that Nero should one day +be deserted and betrayed, while others consoled him with the promise of a +great monarchy of the East with its seat at Jerusalem.(2310) The terrible +year which followed Nero's death was crowded with portents, and all the +rivals for the succession were equally slaves of the adepts, who exploited +their ambitions or their fears. The end of Galba was foreshadowed, from +the opening of his reign, by ominous dreams and signs.(2311) The hopes of +Otho had long been inflamed by the diviner Seleucus,(2312) and by +Ptolemaeus, who was his companion during his command in Spain.(2313) When +he had won the dangerous prize, Otho was tortured by nightly visions of +the spirit of Galba, which he used every art to lay. Yet this same man set +out for the conflict on the Po in defiant disregard of omens warranted by +the ancient religion.(2314) His end, which, by a certain calm nobility, +seemed to redeem his life, was portended by a sign which Tacitus records +as a fact. At the very hour when Otho was falling on his dagger, a bird of +strange form settled in a much frequented grove, and sat there undisturbed +by the passers-by, or by the flocks of other fowls around.(2315) The +horoscope of Otho's rival Vitellius had been cast by the astrologers, and +their reading of his fate gave his parents acute anxiety. He used to +follow the monitions of a German sorceress. Yet, like so many of his class +in that age, he had but scant respect for accredited beliefs. It was noted +with alarm that he entered on his pontificate on the black day of the +Allia.(2316) The astrologers he probably found more dangerous than +helpful, and he ordered them to be expelled from Italy.(2317) But it is a +curious sign of their conscious power and their audacity, that a mocking +counter edict to that of Vitellius was immediately published by unknown +hands, ordaining the death of the persecutor within a certain day.(2318) + +The emperors of the Flavian dynasty, although their power was stable and +the world was settling down, were not less devoted to Eastern +superstitions than any of their predecessors. Vespasian indeed once more +exiled the astrologers, but he still kept the best of them in his +train.(2319) He had consulted the oracle on Mount Carmel, and obeyed the +vision vouchsafed in the temple of Serapis.(2320) His son Titus, who may +have had romantic dreams of an Eastern monarchy, consulted foreign +oracles, worshipped in Egyptian temples, and was a firm believer in the +science of the stars.(2321) Domitian was perhaps the most superstitious of +all his race. The rebuilder of Roman temples and the restorer of Roman +orthodoxy had also a firm faith in planetary lore. He lived in perpetual +fear of his sudden end, the precise hour and manner of which the +Chaldaeans had foretold in his early youth.(2322) Among the many reasons +for his savage proscription of the leading nobles, one of the most deadly +was the possession of an imperial horoscope. On his side too, the haunted +tyrant diligently studied the birth-hour of suspected or possible +pretenders to the throne. In the last months of his reign his terror +became more and more and more intense; never in the same space of time had +the lightning been so busy. The Capitol, the temple of the Flavians, the +palace, even Domitian's own sleeping chamber, were all struck from heaven. +In a dream, the haunted emperor beheld Minerva, the goddess whom he +specially adored, quitting her chapel, with a warning that she could no +longer save him from his doom. On the day before his death, the emperor +predicted that, on the next, the moon would appear blood red in the sign +of Aquarius. On his last morning, a seer, who had been summoned from +Germany to interpret the menacing omens and who had foretold a coming +change, was condemned to death.(2323) + +Hadrian, that lover of the exotic and the curious, was particularly +fascinated by the East. He had probably no settled faith of any kind, but +he dabbled in astrology, as he dabbled in all other arts.(2324) It was a +study which had been cultivated in his family. His great-uncle, Aelius +Hadrianus, was an adept in the science of the stars, and had read the +prediction of his nephew's future greatness.(2325) When the future emperor +was a young military tribune in lower Moesia, he found the forecast +confirmed by a local astrologer. He consulted the _sortes Virgilianae_ +about his prospects, with not less hopeful results. He practised with +intense curiosity other dark magical arts, and the mysterious death of +Antinous on the Nile was by many believed to have been an immolation for +the Emperor's safety.(2326) Hadrian was glad to think that the spirit of +his minion had passed into a new star which had then for the first time +appeared. On every 1st of January, Hadrian predicted, with perfect +assurance, the events of the year, down to his own last hour.(2327) Even +the last great imperial figure in our period is not free from the +suspicion of having tampered with the dark arts. Julius Capitolinus +reports a rumour that M. Aurelius consulted the Chaldaeans about the +infatuated passion of Faustina for a gladiator.(2328) In his account of +the famous rainfall that miraculously refreshed the Roman troops in the +Marcomannic war, D. Cassius ascribes the miracle to the magic arts of an +Egyptian sorcerer whom M. Aurelius kept in his train.(2329) Xiphilinus, +however, who attributes the marvel to the prayers of the Thundering +Legion, expressly denies that the emperor gave his countenance to these +impostors. Another suspicious incident comes to us on the authority of +Lucian. When the war on the Danube was at its height, the new oracle of +Alexander of Abonoteichos had, by mingled audacity and skill, rapidly +gained an extraordinary influence even among the greatest nobles in Italy. +Rutilianus, one of the foremost among them, was its special patron and +devotee, and actually married the daughter of Alexander by an amour with +Selene! Probably through his influence, an oracle, in verse of the old +Delphic pattern, was despatched to the headquarters of the emperor, +ordering that a pair of lions should be flung into the Danube, with costly +sacrifices and all the fragrant odours of the East.(2330) The oracle was +obeyed, but the rite was followed by an appalling disaster to the Roman +arms. The impostor was equal to the occasion, and defended himself by the +example of the ambiguity of the Delphic oracle to Croesus, before the +victory of Cyrus. What part M. Aurelius had in this scene we cannot +pretend to tell, but the ceremony could hardly have been performed +without, at least, his connivance. Nor does his philosophic attitude +exclude the possibility of a certain faith in oracular foresight and +divination. He believed that everything in our earthly lot was ordained +from eternity, and, with the Stoic fatalism, he may have held the almost +universal Stoic faith in the power to discover the decrees of fate.(2331) + +Nearly all the writers from whom we derive our impressions of that age +were more or less tinged with its superstitions. Even the elder Pliny, who +rejected almost with scorn the popular religion, was led by a dream to +undertake his history of the wars in Germany.(2332) His nephew, although +he rejoiced at being raised to the augurate, and restored a temple of +Ceres on his lands, seems to have clung to the old religion rather as a +matter of sentiment than from any real faith. But he had a genuine belief +in dreams and apparitions, and he sends his friend Sura an elaborate +account of the romance of a haunted house at Athens.(2333) His friend +Suetonius had been disturbed by a dream as to the success of a cause in +which he was to appear. Pliny consoled him with the hackneyed +interpretation of dreams by contraries.(2334) The biographer of the +Caesars may contend with Dion Cassius for the honour of being probably the +most superstitious chronicler who ever dealt with great events. Suetonius +is shocked by the arrogance of Julius Caesar when he treated with disdain +the warning of a diviner from the inspection of a victim's entrails.(2335) +He glorifies the pious Augustus by a long catalogue of signs and celestial +omens which foretold the events of his career.(2336) Suetonius must have +been as keen in collecting these old wives' tales as the more sober facts +of history,(2337) and, if we may believe him, the palace of the Caesars +for a hundred years was as full of supernatural wonders and the terrors of +magic and dark prophecy as the Thessalian villages of Apuleius.(2338) The +superstitions of the Claudian and Flavian Caesars could nowhere have found +a more sympathetic chronicler. + +Immensely superior in genius as Tacitus is to Suetonius, even he is not +emancipated from the superstition of the age. But he wavers in his +superstition, just as he wavers in his conception of the Divine government +of the world.(2339) Although he occasionally mentions, and briefly +discusses, the tenets of the Epicurean and the Stoic schools, it does not +seem probable that Tacitus had much taste for philosophy. Full of the old +senatorial ideals, he considered such a study, if carried to any depth, or +pursued with absorbing earnestness, to be unbecoming the gravity and +dignity of a man of rank and affairs.(2340) Moreover, his views of human +destiny and the Divine government were coloured and saddened by the +Terror. Having lived himself through the reign of Domitian, and seen all +the horrors of its close, having witnessed, in humiliating silence, the +excesses of frenzied power and the servility of cringing compliance, +Tacitus had little faith either in Divine benevolence or in tempted human +virtue.(2341) Even the quiet and security of Trajan's reign seemed to him +but a precarious interval, not to be too eagerly or confidently enjoyed, +between the terror of the past and the probable dangers of a coming +age.(2342) The corruption of Roman virtue has justly earned the anger of +gods, who no longer visit to protect, but only to avenge.(2343) And, in +the chaos of human affairs, the Divine justice is confused; the good +suffer equally with the guilty.(2344) Amid obscure and guarded utterances, +we can divine that, to Tacitus, the ruling force in human fortunes is a +destiny which is blind to the deserts of those who are its sport.(2345) He +probably held the widespread belief that the fate of each man was fixed +for him at his birth, and, although he has a profound scorn for the +venality and falsehood of the Chaldaean tribe, he probably had a wavering +faith in the efficacy of their lore.(2346) Nor did he reject miracle and +supernatural portent on any ground of a scientific conception of the +universe.(2347) His language on such subjects is often perhaps studiously +ambiguous. Sometimes he appears to report the tale of a portent, as a mere +piece of vulgar superstition. But at other times, he records the marvel +with no expression of scepticism.(2348) And in his narrative of Otho's +death and the miracles of Vespasian, the threats of heaven which ushered +in Galba's brief reign in darkness broken by lurid lightnings, the +neglected signs of the coming doom of Jerusalem, the glare of arms from +contending armies in the sky, the ghostly voices, as of gods departing +from the Holy of Holies, as in the tale of many another omen, dream, or +oracle, the historian gives an awe and grandeur to a superstition which he +does not explicitly reject.(2349) + +Nor need we be superciliously surprised that the greatest master of +historic tragedy, born into such an age, should have had the balance of +his faith disturbed. His infancy and boyhood coincided with the last years +of Nero.(2350) His youthful imagination must have been disordered and +inflamed by the tales, circulating in grave old Senatorial houses, of wild +excess or mysterious crime on the Palatine, the daring caprice of imperial +harlots, the regal power and fabulous wealth and luxury of the imperial +freedmen, the lunacy of the great line which had founded the Empire, and +which seemed destined to end it in shame and universal ruin. That the +destinies of the world should be at the mercy of a Pallas, a Caligula, or +an Agrippina was a cruel trial to any faith. The carnival of lust and +carnage in which the dynasty disappeared,(2351) the shock of the fierce +struggle on the Po, in which the legions of the East and the West fought +with demoniac force for the great prize, deepened the horrors of the +tragedy and the gloomy doubts of its future historian. The dawn of a +timorous hope, which broke under the calm, strong rule of Vespasian, was +overcast, during the early manhood of Tacitus, by the old insanity of +power which seemed to revive in the last of the Flavians. Such an +experience and such an atmosphere were enough to disorder any imagination. +The wild Titanic ambition in the Claudian Caesars, a strange mixture of +vicious, hereditary insanity,(2352) with a fevered imagination which, +intoxicated with almost superhuman power, dreamt of unheard of conquests +over nature, made the Julio-Claudian emperors, in the eyes of men, a race +half-fiend, half-god. Men hated and loathed them, yet were ready to deify +them. It did not seem unnatural that Caligula should throw a gigantic arch +over the Forum, to link the imperial palace with the temple of Jupiter on +the Capitol.(2353) Men long refused to believe in the death of Nero, and +his reappearance was expected for generations.(2354) In spite of the +Augustan revival, the calm, if rather formal, sanity of old Roman religion +had lost its power over cultivated minds. The East, with its fatalist +superstitions, its apotheosis of lofty earthly sovereignty, its +enthronement of an evil power beside the good, was completing the +overthrow of the national faith. The air was full of the lawless and the +supernatural. Science, in the modern sense, was yet unborn; it was a mere +rudimentary mass of random guesses, with as little right to command the +reason as the legends which sprang from the same lawless imagination. +Philosophic speculation in any high sense had almost disappeared. The most +powerful system which still lingered, resolved the gods into mere names +for the various potencies of that dim and awful Power which thrills +through the universe, which fixes from the beginning the destinies of men +and nations, and which deigns to shadow forth its decrees in omen or +oracle. Awestruck and helpless in the face of a cruel and omnipresent +despotism, with little light from accredited systems of philosophy or +religion, what wonder that even the highest and most cultivated minds were +darkened and bewildered, and were even ready to lend an ear to the sorcery +of the mysterious East? The hesitating acceptance of the popular belief in +clairvoyance hardly surprises us in a man like Tacitus, bewildered by the +chaos of the Empire, and possessing few reasoned convictions in religion +or philosophy. It is more surprising to find so detached a mind as +Epictetus recognising in some sort the power of divination. He admits that +men are driven to practise it by cowardice or selfish greed.(2355) He +agrees that the diviner can only predict the external changes of fortune, +and that on their moral bearing, on the question whether they are really +good or evil, he can throw no light. Yet even this preacher of a universal +Providence, of the doctrine that our true good and happiness are in our +own hands, will not altogether deny that the augur can forecast the +future. We should, indeed, Epictetus says, come to consult him, without +any selfish passion, as a wayfarer asks of a man whom he meets which of +two roads leads to his journey's end.(2356) But the field for such +guidance is limited, Where the light of reason or conscience is a +sufficient guide, the diviner's art is either useless or corrupting. Nor +should any ominous signs deter a man from sharing a friend's peril, even +though the diviner may give warning of exile or death. + +Next to Aristides, there is probably no writer who reveals so strikingly +the mingled pietism and superstition of the time as Aelian. Although he +preferred to compose his works in Greek, he was a native of the Latian +Praeneste, that cool retreat of the wearied Roman, and the seat of the +famous shrine of Fortuna Primigenia.(2357) It is a disputed point whether +Aelian belongs to the second century or the third. But the more probable +conclusion, favoured by the authority of Suidas, is that he lived shortly +after the time of Hadrian.(2358) His historical Miscellanies are a good +example of that uncritical treatment of history and love of the +sensational which were held up to scorn by Lucian.(2359) But it is in the +fragments of his work on Providence, that we have the best illustration of +his religious attitude. The immediate interference of the Heavenly Powers, +to reward the pious believer, or to punish the defiant sceptic, is +triumphantly proclaimed. Miracles, oracles, presages, and warning dreams +startle the reader on every page. Aelian wages war _a outrance_ with the +effeminate and profane crew of the Epicureans, whom he would certainly +have handed over pitilessly to the secular arm, if he had had the +power.(2360) He records with delight the physical maladies which are said +to have afflicted Epicurus and his brothers, and the persecution of their +sect at Messene and in Crete.(2361) After the tale of some specially +impressive interference of Providence, he launches ferocious anathemas at +the most famous sceptics, Xenophanes, Diagoras, and Epicurus.(2362) He +pursues Epicurus even to the tomb, and pours all his scorn on the +unbelieving voluptuary's arrangements for biennial banquets to his +shade.(2363) He exults in the fate of one who, without initiation, tried +to get a sight of the holy spectacle at Eleusis, and perished by falling +from his secret point of observation.(2364) It is needless to say that +miraculous cures by Asclepius are related with the most exuberant faith. +Aristarchus the tragic poet, and Theopompus the comedian, were restored +from wasting and hopeless sickness by the god.(2365) Another patient of +the shrine had the vision, which was probably often a real fact, of a +priest standing beside his bed in the night, bringing counsels of +healing.(2366) But the climax of ludicrous credulity is reached in the +tale of the pious cock of Tanagra.(2367) This favoured bird, being maimed +in one leg, appeared before the shrine of Asclepius, holding out the +injured limb, and, taking his place in the choir that sung the morning +paean, begged the god for relief and healing. It came before the evening, +and the grateful bird, with crest erect, with stately tread, and flapping +wings, gave voice to his deliverance in his own peculiar notes of praise! +The Divine vengeance is also displayed asserting itself in dreams. A +traveller, stopping for the night at Megara, had been murdered for his +purse of gold by the keeper of his inn, and his corpse, hidden in a +dung-cart, was carried through the gates before dawn. At that very hour +his wraith appeared to a citizen of the place, and told him the tale of +the tragedy. The treacherous assassin was caught at the very point +indicated by the ghost.(2368) The last dream of Philemon is of a more +pleasing kind.(2369) The poet, being then in his full vigour, and in +possession of all his powers, once had a vision in his home at Peiraeus. +He thought he saw nine maidens leaving the house, and heard them bidding +him adieu. When he awoke, he told the tale to his boy, and finished the +play on which he was at work; then, wrapping himself in his cloak, he lay +down to sleep, and when they came to wake him, he was dead. Aelian +challenges Epicurus to deny that the maidens of the vision were the nine +Muses, quitting an abode which was soon to be polluted by death. + +Publius Aelius Aristides is one of the best representatives of the union +of high culture with the forces of the religious revival. He saw the +beginning and the end of the Antonine age. He was born in 117 A.D. at +Adriani, in Mysia, where his family held a high position, his father being +priest of Zeus. He received the most complete rhetorical training, and had +been a pupil of Herodes Atticus. Travelling through Greece, Italy, and +Egypt, and giving exhibitions of his skill in the fashion of the +day,(2370) Aristides won a splendid reputation, which swelled his vanity +to proportions rare even in a class whose vanity was proverbial. He won +the restoration of the ruined Smyrna from M. Aurelius, by an oration which +moved the Emperor to tears.(2371) With a naturally feeble constitution and +epileptic tendencies, the excitement of the sophist's life brought on an +illness which lasted thirteen years. During that long ordeal, he developed +a mystic superstition which, along with an ever-growing +self-consciousness, inspired the _Sacred Orations_, which appeared in 177, +long after his health had been restored. He visited many seats of sacred +healing--Smyrna, Pergamum, Cyzicus, Epidaurus--and, often in a cataleptic +state, between sleep and waking, he had visitations of the Higher Powers +in dreams. They gave him prescriptions of the strangest remedies, along +with eulogies on his unrivalled talent, which he was solemnly enjoined to +devote to the celebration of his deliverance by the Divine favour.(2372) + +Aristides zealously obeyed the Divine command. But whether his sole +inspiration was simple gratitude and unsophisticated piety, crossed by +superstition, as has generally been assumed, may well be doubted.(2373) +The truth is, that in Aristides met all the complex influences of his age, +both intellectual and spiritual. He was the most elaborate product of the +rhetorical school, with its cultivated mastery of phrase, its exuberant +pride in the power of words, its indifference to truth, in comparison with +rhetorical effect. The whole force of revived Hellenism was concentrated +in this declamatory skill.(2374) At the same time, the religious revival +was very far from being a return to the old religion, in its clear firm +outlines and simple wholeness.(2375) The Zeus and Athene and Poseidon of +the age of Aristides were not the divinities of the great age. Many +influences had been at work to blur the clean-cut outlines of Hellenic +imagination, and to sophisticate the ancestral faith both of Greece and +Rome. Men wished to believe in the ancient gods, but they were no longer +the gods of Homer or of Aeschylus, the gods worshipped by the men who +fought in the Samnite or the Punic wars. Greek philosophy for eight +centuries had been teaching a doctrine of one Divine force or essence, +transcending the powers and limitations of sense, or immanent in the +fleeting world of chance and change. Pagan theology had elaborated a +celestial hierarchy, in which the Deity, removed to an infinite distance, +was remotely linked to humanity by a graduated scale of inferior spiritual +beings, daemons, and heroes.(2376) Then came the religions of the East, +with their doctrines of expiation for sin and ascetic preparation for +communion, and visions of immortality. And, alongside of all these +developments, there was a portentous growth of vulgar superstition, belief +in dreams, omens, and oracles, in any avenue to the "Great Mystery." +Sophistic rhetoric, from its very nature and function, was bound to +reflect the religious spirit of the age, in all its confusion. The ancient +myths, indeed, were revived and decked out with rich poetic colouring. Yet +it is not the simple, naive, old pagan faith which inspires the rhetorical +artist. The pantheistic or theosophist doctrines, which were in the air, +disturbed the antique character of the piece.(2377) But the sophist, if he +occasionally catches the tone of new mysticism, or even of rationalist +interpretation, is nothing if not orthodox on the whole, and he +anathematises the impiety of free-thinking philosophy, with the same +energy as Aelian. Above all, Aristides is in harmony with the infinite +faith in miracle and heavenly vision which was rife. + +From whatever cause, the worship of Asclepius had attained an +extraordinary popularity in the age of the Antonines.(2378) The conditions +of health and disease are so obscure, the influences of will and +imagination on our bodily states are so marked, that, in all ages, the +boundaries between the natural and the unknowable are blurred and may be +easily crossed. The science of medicine, even down to the age of +Hippocrates, or the age of Galen, had not abandoned all faith in the +magical and mysterious.(2379) Incantations long held their ground beside +more scientific remedies. Health being the most precious and the most +precarious of earthly blessings, it is not strange that, in an age of +revived belief in the supernatural, the god of health should attain a rank +even on level with the great Olympian gods. His temples rose in every land +where Greek or Roman culture prevailed. They were generally built with an +eye to beauty of scenery, or the virtues of some clear, cold, ancient +spring, or other health-giving powers in the site, which might reinforce +the more mysterious influences of religion. And in every temple there was +a hierarchy of sacred servants, who guarded a tradition of hieratic +ceremonial and of medical science.(2380) There was the chief priest, who +may or may not have been a trained physician. There were the _daduchi_ and +_pyrophori_, who attended to the punctual service of the altars. There +were the _neocori_, who were probably physicians, and who waited on the +patients, interpreting their visions, and often supplementing them by +other visions of their own.(2381) There were also, in a lower rank, +nurses, male and female, who, if we may judge from Aristides, performed +the sympathetic part of our own hospital-nurses.(2382) The patients came +from all parts of the Graeco-Roman world. After certain offerings and +rites, the sufferer took his place in the long dormitory, which often +contained beds for 200 or 300, with windows open all night long to the +winds of the south. The sick man brought his bed-coverings, and made his +gift on the altar. The lamps were lighted in the long gallery, a priest +recited the vesper prayers. At a later hour, the lights were extinguished, +strict silence was enjoined, and a hope for some soothing vision from +above was left as a parting gift or salutation by the minister as he +retired.(2383) + +Divination by dreams was one of the most ancient and universal of +superstitions in the pagan world.(2384) It was also one of the most +persistent to the last days of paganism in the West. The god of Epidaurus +was still visiting his votaries by night, when S. Jerome was composing his +commentary on Isaiah.(2385) Nor is the superstition unnatural. Sleep, the +most mysterious of physical phenomena, gives birth to mental states which +are a constant surprise. Thoughts and powers which are latent in the +waking hours, then start into life with a strange vividness and energy. +Memory and imagination operate with a force which may well, in an age of +faith, be taken for inspiration. The illusion of a double personality, +which results from the helplessness of the mind to react on the +impressions of sense, also easily passes into the illusion of messages and +promptings from powers beyond ourselves. Religious hopes and cravings may +thus easily and honestly seem to be fulfilled. + +But external causes also reinforced in the ancient world the deceptions of +the inner spirit. The dream-oracle was generally on a site where nature +might touch the awe and imagination of the votary. Few could have +descended into the gloom of the cave of Trophonius without having their +fancy prepared for visions.(2386) Exhalations from secret chasms, as at +Delphi and Lebadea, aided by the weird spells of the Nymphs who haunted +such scenes, often produced a physical excitement akin to madness. Opiates +and potions administered by the priests, with the effect of solemn +religious rites, prepared the votary for voices from another world.(2387) +Soul and body were still further prepared for the touch of a Divine hand +by rigorous fasting, which was enjoined as a preparatory discipline in so +many mysteries of the renascent paganism.(2388) The heavenly vision could +only come to the clear spirit, purged as far as might be from the +grossness of the flesh.(2389) _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_ for the sake of healing became +a great, and probably in the main, a beneficent institution in the temples +of many deities,(2390) pre-eminently in those of Isis, Serapis, and +Asclepius. The temple of Serapis at Canopus in Strabo's time was thronged +by patients of the noblest rank, and was famous for its miraculous +cures.(2391) Among the many attributes of Queen Isis, none made a deeper +impression than her benignant power of healing even the most desperate +cases.(2392) Her temples rose everywhere. Her dream interpreters were +famous from the days of Cicero.(2393) In her shrine at Smyrna Aristides +had many of his most startling experiences. According to Diodorus, her +priests could point to numberless proofs of the power of the great goddess +to cure the most inveterate disease. But the great healer was, of course, +Asclepius. The remains of his splendid shrine at Epidaurus are a +revelation at once of his fame and power, and of the scenes and +occupations in which the devout health-seekers passed their days and +nights. In his temple on the island in the Tiber, dreams of healing were +still sought in the time of Iamblichus. His shrine at Pergamum, which was +the scene of so many of the strange visions of Aristides, in his many +years of struggle with disease, was one of the most famous, and its +inspired dreams were sought long afterwards by the emperor +Caracalla.(2394) + +It would be idle to speculate on the relative effects of sound medical +treatment and of superstition, stimulated by more or less pious arts, upon +the constitution of the sufferer. The virtues of herb or mineral drug, of +regulated food and abstinence, of bathing in naturally medicated waters, +above all of a continual freshness in the air, must have become a +tradition in these sacred homes of the god of health. Physical disease is +often rooted in moral disorder, and for such troubled, tainted souls, with +hereditary poison in vein and nerve, the bright cheerfulness, the orderly +calm and confidence of the ritual, which had such a charm for the soul of +Plutarch, may have exorcised, for the time, many an evil spirit, and wiped +out the memory of old sins. Soothed and relieved in mind and body, the +sufferer lay in the dimly lighted corridor, sinking to sleep, with a +confidence that the god would somehow make his power felt in visions of +the night.(2395) Through a sliding panel, hidden in the wall, a dim figure +of gracious aspect might glide to the side of his couch, and whisper +strange sweet words of comfort. But in many cases, there is no need to +assume the existence of sanctified imposture.(2396) A debilitated frame, +nerves shattered by prolonged suffering, an imagination excited by sacred +litany, ghostly counsels and tales of miracle, the all-pervading +atmosphere of an immemorial faith, may easily have engendered visions +which seemed to come from another world.(2397) + +But from whatever source the visions came, they had a powerful effect on +the imagination, and, through that, on the bodily health. Some of the +prescriptions indeed given by these voices of the night may seem to us +ludicrous or positively dangerous.(2398) But the tone and surroundings of +these shrines, and the sense of being encompassed by Divine as well as +human sympathy, probably counteracted any ill effects of quackery. The +calm, serene order, which the hieratic spirit cultivates at its best, the +cheerful routine of the sacred service, blending indistinguishably with +the ministry to suffering, and consecrating and ennobling it, the +confidence inspired by the sedate cheerfulness of the priests and +attendants, reinforced by the countless cases of miraculous cures recorded +on the walls,(2399)--all this must have had a powerful and beneficent +influence. And the visitors were not all invalids. The games and festivals +drew together many merely for society and amusement. The theatre at +Epidaurus must have provided constant entertainment for a far larger +concourse than the patients of the temple.(2400) A healthy regimen, which +is abundantly attested,(2401) with the charms of art and surrounding +beauties of hill and woodland, tended of themselves to restore peace and +balance to disordered nerves. And the social life, especially to Greeks, +was probably the most potent influence of all. We can see from Aristides +that troublesome cases were watched by a circle of curious +sympathisers.(2402) In those marble seats, which can still be seen on the +site, many a group, through many generations, must have sat listening to +music or recitation, or discussing high themes of life and death, or +amused with the more trivial gossip of all gatherings of men. + +Amid such scenes Aristides spent thirteen years of the prime of his +manhood. With all the egotism of the self-pitying invalid, he has recorded +the minutest details of his ailments. He seems to have been disordered in +every organ, dropsical, asthmatic, dyspeptic, with a tumour of portentous +size, and agonising pains which reduced him to the extremity of +weakness.(2403) But the extraordinary toughness and vitality of the man is +even more striking than his sufferings. Aristides regarded health as the +greatest of all blessings, the condition on which the value of all other +blessings depends. And he acted on the belief. His hundred days journey to +Rome is a miracle of endurance.(2404) Racked with fever and asthma, unable +to take any food except milk, he struggled along, alternately through +plains turned into lakes, or across the frozen Hebrus, amid storm or rain +or freezing cold. + +The effects of this journey in aggravated suffering from asthma, dropsy, +nervous agony, are described with painful vividness. They were dealt with +by the Roman surgeons in a fashion which makes one wonder how the patient +survived such laceration.(2405) The invalid hastened home to Asia by sea. +The voyage was long and weary, a very Odyssey of storm and wandering. +Aristides reached Smyrna in mid-winter, and all the physicians were +puzzled to find any alleviation for his troubles.(2406) Henceforth he +passed, for thirteen years, from one temple to another, at the bidding of +the gods--from Smyrna to Pergamum, or Chios, or Cyzicus, or +Epidaurus--enduring often frightful hardships by land or sea. The +description of his sufferings sometimes excites the suspicion that a warm +imagination and the vanity of the literary artist have heightened the +effect. A tumour of monstrous size,(2407) agonies of palpitation and +breathlessness, the torture of dyspepsia, vertigo, and neuralgia which +doubled up his limbs, and seemed to bend the spine outward like a +bow(2408)--these are only a few of the morbid horrors which afflicted him. + +The divine prescriptions were often as astounding as the malady was +severe. Fresh air, exercise, bathing in the sacred wells, fasting and +abstinence, indeed, may often have been sound treatment. But to these were +added astonishing prescriptions of food or drugs, purgings and +blood-letting which drained the body of its slight remaining strength, and +which horrified the attendant physicians.(2409) But these were not the +worst. Again and again, Aristides was enjoined, when in a high fever, to +bathe two or three times in an ice-cold river running in full flood, and +then race a mile at full speed in the face of a northerly gale. He obeyed +in spite of all remonstrance, and the doctors and his anxious friends +could only follow him to await the result of such extraordinary remedies. +Strange to relate, their fears and forebodings proved groundless. +Religious excitement, combined with immense vanity and a strange vitality, +carried Aristides victoriously through these ordeals,(2410) and his +friends received him at their close, with an indescribable genial warmth +spreading through his whole body, and a lightness and cheerfulness of +spirit which more than rewarded him for these strange hardships of +superstition. + +The faith of Aristides must have been very robust. His tortures lasted for +nearly thirteen years, during which the divine prescriptions only seemed +to add to their poignancy. But he was upheld by the belief that he was a +special object of the Divine favour, and he persistently followed Divine +recipes, which ordinary human skill and prudence would have rejected. No +doubts, such as troubled his attendants, ever crossed his mind. How far +his illness was prolonged by this obstinate adherence to the illusions of +sleep and superstition,(2411) in the face of expert advice, is a matter on +which it would be useless to speculate. It is probable that the +imagination and exuberant vanity of Aristides made him a more difficult +patient than the ordinary people who frequented these shrines of healing. +It is also evident that there was a body of more or less skilled medical +opinion connected with the cult of Asclepius. Practical physicians came to +the temples,(2412) with the benevolence and the curiosity of their craft +in all ages, to observe and study, or to advise a cautious interpretation +of the revelations of the night. Aristides has preserved the names of +some--Theodotus, Asclepiacus, and Satyrus. Long observation of the freaks +of individual temperament and constitution must have suggested to +thoughtful minds, with some instincts of scientific method, that the +supernatural vision should be interpreted in the light of experience. An +awful dream of Aristides that all his bones and sinews must be excised, +turned, in the hands of a faithful attendant, into a prediction of renewed +vitality.(2413) And although some of the nurses, to whom he is so +grateful, confirmed his visions by precisely similar revelations of their +own,(2414) others, of the more skilled physicians, openly blamed his too +confident reliance on his dreams, and his unwillingness to try the effect +of more scientific treatment.(2415) Their proposals, however, were +sometimes so severe and heroic that we may excuse him for preferring on +the whole the more patient and gentle methods of the god. The sufferer was +sometimes favoured with epiphanies of Athene, Apollo, Serapis, and other +great divinities, exalting him far above the rank of common +votaries.(2416) And Asclepius himself, to whom his special devotion was +given, not only lightened his physical tortures, although after long +years, but endowed him with hitherto unknown powers of rhetorical skill +and readiness. The god became the patron of his whole professional +life.(2417) And Aristides regarded him as the source of fresh inspiration, +in the exercise of that wordcraft of which he was the greatest master in +his time. It is not hard to discern the meaning of this self-deception. +Before Aristides began to visit the temples of the god, he was already a +finished rhetor, possessed of all the skill which the Greek schools could +impart.(2418) Prostrated by bodily suffering for years, cut off from that +life of brilliant display, which was so lavishly rewarded by applauding +crowds, the vain and ambitious declaimer had lost not only his bodily +health, but all the joy and excitement of rhetorical triumph. Suddenly he +found his balance restored; the tide of energy returned to its old +channels. He could once more draw music from the almost forgotten +instrument. He had once more the full lecture-hall under his spell. What +wonder that he should feel his powers redoubled when they were recovered, +and that he should regard the god who had healed his bodily ailments as +the author of a fresh literary inspiration? + +The debt was repaid in these Sacred Orations.(2419) Some treat them as the +expression of a genuine mystical piety, others are inclined to think that +the incorrigible rhetorician is quite as evident as the pious +votary.(2420) It would be an excess of scepticism to doubt that Aristides +believed in his visions, and in the beneficent power of the god, for which +he was full of pious gratitude. Yet the rhetorical spirit of that age was +an influence of singular intensity. It mastered not only the faculty of +utterance, but the whole mind and life of the rhetorician. The passion to +produce a startling or seductive effect on the audience had become a +second nature. Truth was a secondary matter, not from any moral obliquity, +but from the influence of prolonged training. And so, we may retain a +belief in the genuine piety or superstition of Aristides, while we may +distrust his narrative. The piety or the mystic superstition may not have +been less sincere, although it was mingled with egregious vanity, and +expressed itself in the carefully moulded and highly coloured phrases of +the schools. Nor should we doubt the piety of Aristides because he deemed +himself the special object of Divine favour. On such a principle all +prayer for personal benefits would become profane egotism. And although +Aristides was profoundly conscious that he was the first of Greek +orators,(2421) he was also profoundly grateful for the Divine grace which +had renewed his powers for the glory of God and the delight and profit of +mankind. Whether he would have been content to enjoy his mystic raptures +without publishing them to the world, is a question which will be +variously answered according to the charity and spiritual experience of +the inquirer. + +Many another less famous shrine than that of Epidaurus offered this kind +of revelation. The gods were liberal in their prophetic gifts in that age, +and dreams were as freely sent as they were generally expected. There is +no more striking example of the superstition of the age than the treatise +of Artemidorus on the interpretation of dreams. Artemidorus lived towards +the end of the second century. He was a native of Ephesus, but he called +himself Daldianus, in order to share his distinction with an obscure +little town in Lydia, which was the birthplace of his mother.(2422) The +treatise is in five books, three of which are dedicated to Cassius +Maximus, a Roman of rank, who was an adept in this pretended science; the +others are inscribed to the son of the author. In spite of absurd +credulity, wild and perverted ingenuity and a cold, quasi-scientific +tolerance of some of the worst moral enormities of antiquity, Artemidorus +seems to have been an earnest and industrious man, who wrote with the +mistaken object of doing a service both to his own age and to +posterity.(2423) Like other pious men of the time, he was afflicted by the +profane attitude of the sceptics,(2424) and determined to refute them by +the solid proofs of a sifted experience. He also wished to furnish +guidance to the crowd, who believed in their visions, but were bewildered +from the want of clear canons of interpretation. There was evidently +afloat a voluminous oneirocritic literature. But it was, according to +Artemidorus, frequently wanting in depth and system,(2425) and random +guesses had too often been the substitute for minute, exhaustive +observation and a clear scientific method. Artemidorus was inspired to +supply the want by a vision from Apollo, his ancestral patron.(2426) He +procured every known treatise on dreams.(2427) He travelled all over Asia, +Greece, and Italy, and the larger islands, visiting the great festivals +and centres of population, and consulting with all the seers and diviners, +even those of the lowest repute. He took the greatest pains to ascertain +the facts of the reported fulfilment of dreams, and to compare and sift +the facts of his own observation. No austere scientific student of nature +in our day ever took himself more seriously than this collector of the +wildest and foulest hallucinations of pagan imagination. Artemidorus +really believed that he was founding an enduring science for the guidance +of all coming generations. + +Yet the foundation of it all is essentially unscientific. To Artemidorus +dreams are not the result of natural causes, of physical states, or of the +suggestions of memory and association. They are sent directly by some god, +as a promise or warning of the future. Nor should any apparent failure of +the prediction tempt us to impeach the truthfulness of the Divine author. +Artemidorus affirms as emphatically as Plato, that the gods can never +lie.(2428) But although they sometimes express themselves plainly, they +also frequently veil their meaning in shadowy, enigmatic form, in order to +test men's faith and patience.(2429) Hence there is need of skilled +interpretation, which demands the widest observation, acute criticism +combined with reverent faith, and deference to ancient custom and +traditional lore. It is curious to see how this apostle of what, to our +minds, is a pestilent superstition, pours his scorn on the newer or lower +forms of divination.(2430) The Pythagorean dream-readers, the interpreters +from hand and face and form, the interpreters of sieve and dish and dice, +are all deceivers and charlatans. The old formulated and accredited lore +of birds and sacrificial entrails, of dreams and stars and heavenly +portents, should alone be accepted by an orthodox faith. It is needless to +say that Artemidorus believed in astrology as he believed in oneiromancy. +Both beliefs go back to the infancy of the race, and both extended their +dominion far into the Middle Ages.(2431) + +It would be impossible, in our space, to give any detailed conception of +the treatment of dreams by Artemidorus. Nor would the attempt reward the +pains; the curious specialist must read the treatise for himself. He will +find in it one of the most astonishing efforts of besotted credulity to +disguise itself under the forms of scientific inquiry. He will find an +apparently genuine piety united with an unprotesting record of the most +revolting prurience of the lawless fancy. He will find a subtlety and +formalism of system and distinction worthy of a finished schoolman of the +fourteenth century, and all employed to give order and meaning to the +wildest vagaries of vulgar fancy. The classification of dreams by +Artemidorus is a great effort, and is followed out in an exhaustive order. +Every possible subject, and many that seem to a modern almost +inconceivable, are catalogued, each in its proper place, with the +appropriate principles of explanation. The hierarchy of gods and heroes in +their various grades, the orbs of the sky, the various parts of the bodily +frame, from the hair of the head to the toes and nails, the various +occupations and multiform incidents in the life of man from the cradle to +the grave,(2432) the whole list of animals, plants, and drugs which serve +his uses,--all these things, and many others which might conceivably, or +inconceivably, enter into the fabric of a dream, are painfully collected +and arranged for the guidance of the future inquirer. And this demands not +only an effort of logical classification, but also an immense knowledge of +the customs and peculiarities of different races,(2433) the special +attributes of each of the gods, and a minute acquaintance with the natural +history of the time. For, special circumstances and details cannot be +safely neglected in the interpretation of dreams. It may make the greatest +difference whether the same dream comes to a rich man or a poor man,(2434) +to a man or a woman, to a married woman or a virgin, to old or young, to +king or subject. To one it may mean the greatest of blessings, to another +calamity or death. For instance, for a priest of Isis to dream of a shaven +head is of good omen; to any other person it is ominous of evil.(2435) To +dream that you have the head of a lion or elephant is a prediction of a +rise above your natural estate; but to dream that you have the horns of an +ox portends violent death.(2436) To dream of shoemaking and carpentry +foretells happy marriage and friendship, but the vision of a tanner's +yard, from its connection with foul odours and death, may foreshadow +disgrace and disaster.(2437) To dream of drinking cold water is a +wholesome sign; but a fancied draught of hot fluid, as being unnatural, +may forbode disease or failure.(2438) A man dreamt that his mother was +bearing him a second time; the issue was that he returned from exile to +his motherland, found his mother ill, and inherited her property. Another +had a vision of an olive shooting from his head; he developed a vigour and +clearness of thought and language worthy of the goddess to whom the olive +is sacred.(2439) It would be wearisome, and even disgusting, to give other +examples of this futile and almost idiotic superstition, masquerading as a +science. A painstaking student might easily classify the modes of +interpretation. They are tolerably uniform, and rest on fanciful but +obvious conceits, superficial analogies, mere play upon words and +impossible etymologies. The interpretations are as dull and monotonous as +the dreams are various and fantastic. Many of these visions seem like the +wildest hallucinations of prurient lunacy. It is difficult to conceive +what was the ordinary state of mind and the habits of a people whose sleep +was haunted by visions so lawless. It is perhaps even harder to imagine a +father, with the infinite industry of which he is so proud, compiling such +a catalogue for the study of his son.(2440) + +Lucian, through the mouth of Momus, pours his scorn on the new oracles +which were chanting from every rock, vending their lies at two obols +apiece, and overshadowing the ancient glories of the more ancient +shrines.(2441) In the last century of the Republic, and in the first +century of the Empire, the faith in oracles had suffered a portentous +decay. The exultation of the Christian Fathers at the desertion of the +ancient seats of prophecy seems to find an echo in the record of heathen +authors. Cicero speaks as if Delphi were almost silent.(2442) Strabo tells +us that Delphi, Dodona, and Ammon had shared in the general contempt which +had fallen on oracular divination.(2443) From Plutarch we have seen that +in Boeotia, the most famous home of the art, all the oracular shrines were +silent and deserted, except that of Trophonius at Lebadea.(2444) And +curious inquirers gave various explanations of this waning faith. Strabo +thought that, with the spread of Roman power, the Sibylline prophecies and +the Etruscan augury eclipsed the Greek and Eastern oracles. The +explanation in Plutarch, as we have seen, is involved in an interesting +discussion of the various sources of inspiration, and, in particular, of +the office of daemons. One theorist of the positive type attributes the +failure of the Greek oracles to the growing depopulation of Greece. It is +a question of demand and supply. Others find the explanation in physical +changes, which have extinguished or diverted the exhalation that used to +excite the prophetic powers of the Pythia. Another falls back on the +theory of daemonic inspiration, which, mysteriously vouchsafed, may be as +mysteriously withdrawn.(2445) + +The eclipse of the oracles was really a phase of that pagan unbelief or +indifference which tended to disappear towards the end of the first +century A.D. And the eclipse perhaps was not so complete as it is +represented. Cicero himself consulted the Pythia about his future fame, +and received an answer which revealed insight into his character.(2446) +Germanicus in the reign of Tiberius visited the shrine of the Clarian +Apollo, and that of Apis at Memphis;(2447) Tiberius tried the sacred +lottery at Padua,(2448) Caligula that of Fortune at Antium.(2449) Nero, +although he is said to have choked the sacred chasm at Delphi with +corpses, had previously sought light from the god on his perilous +future.(2450) Before the altar of the unseen God on Mount Carmel, +Vespasian received an impressive prophecy of his coming greatness.(2451) +Titus had his hopes confirmed in the shrine of the Paphian Venus.(2452) +When these lords of the world, some of whom were notorious sceptics, thus +paid deference to the ancient homes of prophecy, it may be doubted whether +their prestige had been seriously shaken. + +Although Delphi had not for many ages wielded the enormous political, and +even international, power which it enjoyed before the Persian wars, still, +even in the days of its greatest obscurity, it was the resort of many who +came to consult it in the ordinary cares of life. Apollonius of Tyana, in +the reign of Nero, visited the old oracular centres, Delphi, Dodona, Abae, +and the shrines of Amphiaraus and Trophonius.(2453) They seem to be still +active, although the sage had, in fulfilment of his mission, to correct +their ritual. The newer foundations, like that at Abonoteichos, found it +politic to defer to the authority of oracles, such as those of Clarus and +Didyma, with a great past.(2454) If the conquests of Rome for a time +obscured their fame, the ease and rapidity of communication along the +Roman roads, and the safety of the seas, must have swelled the number of +their votaries from all parts of the world. It is a revelation to find a +Tungrian cohort at a remote station in Britain setting up a votive +inscription in obedience to the voice of the Clarian Apollo.(2455) If new +oracles were springing up in the Antonine age, the old were certainly not +quite neglected. In the reign of Trajan the shrine of Delphi recovered +from its degradation by the violence of Nero.(2456) And Hadrian, as we +have seen, tested the inspiration of the Pythia by a question as to the +birthplace of Homer, which was answered by a verse tracing his ancestry to +Pylos and Ithaca.(2457) The ancient oracles were in full vigour under the +emperors of the third century. Some of the greatest and most +venerable--Delphi, Didyma, Mallus, and Dodona--were not reduced to silence +till the reign of Constantine.(2458) + +But the old oracles could not satisfy the omnivorous superstition of the +time. The outburst of new oracles may be compared, perhaps, to the +fissiparous tendencies of Protestantism in some countries, at each fresh +revival of religious excitement. Any fresh avenue to the "Great Mystery" +was at once eagerly crowded. And the most recent claimant to inspiration +sometimes threatened to overshadow the tradition of a thousand years, and +to assert an oecumenical power. + +One such case has been recorded and exposed with the graphic skill and +penetrating observation of the greatest genius of the age. Lucian's +description of the foundation of the new oracle of Asclepius at +Abonoteichos in Paphlagonia, if it is wanting in the sympathetic handling +which modern criticism has attained or can affect, is an unrivalled +revelation of the superstition of the time. And a brief narrative of the +imposture will probably give a more vivid idea of it than any abstract +dissertation. + +Alexander, the founder, was a man of mean parentage, but of remarkable +natural gifts. Tall and handsome in no ordinary degree, he had eyes with a +searching keenness, a look of inspiration, and a voice most clear and +sweet.(2459) His mental gifts were equal to his physical charm. In memory, +quick perception, shrewdness, and subtlety, he had few equals. But from +his early youth, with the affectation of Pythagorean asceticism, he had +all the vices which go to make the finished reprobate.(2460) After a youth +of abandoned sensuality, in concert with a confederate of no better +character, he determined to found an oracle. The times were favourable for +such a venture. Never had selfish desire and terror, twin roots of +superstition, such a hold on mankind.(2461) The problem was, where to +establish the new shrine. It must be founded among a crassly stupid +population, ready to accept any tale of the marvellous with the most +abandoned credulity.(2462) Paphlagonia seemed to the shrewd observers the +readiest prey. Tablets were dug up, which predicted an epiphany of +Asclepius at Abonoteichos. A Sibylline oracle, in enigmatic verse, +heralded the coming of the god. Alexander, magnificently attired, appeared +upon the scene, with all the signs of mysterious insanity, and the +Paphlagonians were thrown into hysterical excitement.(2463) Their last new +god was fished up from a lake in the form of a young serpent, which had +been artfully sealed up in a goose's egg. When the broken shell revealed +the nascent deity, the multitude were in an ecstasy of excitement at the +honour vouchsafed to their city. The infant reptile was soon replaced by +one full grown, to which a very elementary art had attached a human head. +It was displayed to the crowds who trooped through the reception-room of +the impostor, and they went away to spread throughout all Asia the tidings +of the unheard-of miracle.(2464) Alexander had carefully studied the +system of the older oracles, and he proceeded to imitate it. He received +inquiries on sealed tablets, and, with all ancient pomp and ceremony of +attendance, returned them, apparently untouched, with the proper answer. +But Lucian minutely explains the art with which the seal of the missive +was dexterously broken and restored.(2465) A hot needle and a delicate +hand could easily reveal the secret of the question, and hide the trick. +The oracle was primarily medical. Prescriptions were given in more or less +ambiguous phrases. The charge for each consultation was, in our money, the +small fee of a shilling.(2466) Alexander was evidently a shrewd business +man, and his moderate charges attracting a crowd of inquirers, the income +of the oracle rose, according to Lucian, to the then enormous sum of +nearly L7000 a year.(2467) But the manager was liberal to his numerous +staff of secretaries, interpreters, and versifiers.(2468) He had, +moreover, missionaries who spread his fame in foreign lands, and who +offered the service of the oracle in recovering runaway slaves, +discovering buried treasure, healing sickness, and raising the dead.(2469) +Even the barbarians on the outskirts of civilisation were attracted by his +fame, and, after an interval required to find a translator among the +motley crowd who thronged from all lands, an answer would be returned even +in the Celtic or Syrian tongue.(2470) The fame of the oracle, of course, +soon spread to Italy, where the highest nobles, eager for any novelty in +religion, were carried away by the pretensions of Alexander. None among +them stood higher than Rutilianus, either in character or official rank. +But he was the slave of every kind of extravagant superstition.(2471) He +would fall down and grovel along the way before any stone which was +shining with oil or decked with garlands. He sent one emissary after +another to Abonoteichos to consult the new god. They returned, some full +of genuine enthusiasm, some hiding their doubts by interested exaggeration +of what they had seen. Soon society and the court circle felt all the +delight of a new religious sensation. Great nobles hurried away to +Paphlagonia, and fell an easy prey to the gracious charm and the ingenious +charlatanry of Alexander.(2472) Some, who had consulted the oracle by +questions which might have a sinister meaning, and suggest dangerous +ambitions, he knew how to terrify into his service by the hint of possible +disclosure.(2473) All came back to swell the fame of the Paphlagonian +oracle and to make it fashionable in Italy. But none were so besotted as +Rutilianus. This great Roman noble, who had been proved in a long career +of office,(2474) at the mature age of sixty, stooped to wed the supposed +daughter of the vulgar charlatan by Selene, who had honoured him with the +love which she gave of old to Endymion!(2475) And Rutilianus henceforth +became the stoutest champion of Alexander against all assaults of +scepticism. For, in spite of the credulity of the crowd and of the +visitors from Rome, there was evidently a strong body of sturdy dissent. +There were, in those days, followers of Epicurus even in Paphlagonia, and, +by a strange freak of fortune, the followers of Christ found themselves +making common cause against a new outbreak of heathenism with the +atheistic philosophy of the Garden.(2476) An honest Epicurean once +convicted Alexander of a flagrant deception, and narrowly escaped being +stoned to death by the fanatics of Paphlagonia.(2477) One of the books of +Epicurus was publicly burnt in the agora by order of Alexander, and the +ashes cast into the sea. Lucian himself, with his sly, amused scepticism, +tested and exposed the skill of the oracle at the most imminent risk to +his life.(2478) + +But in spite of all exposure and opposition, the oracle, managed with such +art and supported with such blind enthusiasm, conquered for a time the +Roman world. It was a period of calamity and gloom. Plague and earthquake +added their horrors to the brooding uncertainty of the dim conflict on the +Danube.(2479) The emissaries of Alexander went everywhere, exploiting the +general terror. Prediction of coming evil was safe at such a time; any +shred of comfort or hope was eagerly sought for. A hexameter verse, +promising the help of Apollo, was inscribed over every doorway as an +amulet against the awful pestilence of 166 A.D. Another ordered two lion's +cubs to be flung into the Danube, to check the advance of the +Marcomanni.(2480) Both proved dismal failures, but without shaking the +authority of the impostor, who found an easy apology in the darkness of +old Delphic utterances. He established mysteries after the model of +Eleusis, from which Christians and Epicureans were excluded under a solemn +ban. Scenes of old and new mythologies were presented with brilliant +effects--the labour of Leto, the birth of Apollo, the birth of Asclepius, +the epiphany of Glycon, the new wondrous serpent-deity of Abonoteichos, +the loves of Alexander and Selene. The second Endymion lay sleeping, as on +Latmus in the ancient story, and the moon goddess, in the person of a +great Roman dame, descended from above to woo a too real earthly +lover.(2481) + +Lucian's history of the rise of the new oracle in Paphlagonia is not, +perhaps, free from some suspicion of personal antipathy to the founder of +it. He attributes to Alexander not only the most daring deceit and +calculating quackery, but also the foulest vices known to the ancient +world. These latter charges may or may not be true. Theological or +anti-theological hatred has in all ages too often used the poisoned arrow. +And the moral character of Alexander has less interest for us than the +spiritual condition of his many admirers and votaries. He can hardly be +acquitted of some form of more or less pious imposture. How far it was +accompanied by real religious enthusiasm is a problem which will be +variously solved, and which is hardly worth the trouble of investigation, +even if the materials existed for a certain answer. But the eager +readiness of a whole population to hail the appearance of a new god, and +the acceptance of his claims by men the most cultivated and highly placed +in the Roman Empire, are facts on which Lucian's testimony, addressed to +contemporaries, cannot be rejected. Nor is there anything in our knowledge +of the period from other sources which renders the thing doubtful. +Creative mythology had revived its activity. Not long before the epiphany +of Glycon, in a neighbouring part of Asia Minor the Apostles Paul and +Barnabas, after the miraculous cure of the impotent man, had difficulty in +escaping divine honours. The Carpocratians, a Gnostic sect, about the same +time built a temple in honour of the youthful son of their founder.(2482) +The corn-goddess Annona first appears in the first century, and +inscriptions, both in Italy and Africa, were set up in honour of the power +who presided over the commissariat of the Roman mob.(2483) The youthful +favourite of Hadrian, after his mysterious death in the waters of the +Nile, was glorified by instant apotheosis. His statues rose in every +market-place and temple court; his soul was supposed to have found a home +in a new star in the region of the milky way; temples were built in his +honour, and the strange cult was maintained for at least a hundred years +after any motive could be found for adulation.(2484) The Cynic brothers, +and the gaping crowd who stood around the pyre of Peregrinus at Olympia +were eager, as we have seen, to hail the flight of a great soul to join +the heroes and demigods in Olympus.(2485) The cult of M. Aurelius was +maintained by an enthusiasm very different from the conventional +apotheosis of the head of the Roman State. We are told that he was adored, +by every age and sex and class, long after his death. His sacred image +found a place among the _penates_ of every household, and the home where +it was not honoured was of more than suspected piety. Down to the time of +Diocletian, the saintly and philosophic emperor, who had preached an +imperturbable indifference to the chances and changes of life, was +believed to visit his anxious votaries with dreams of promise or +warning.(2486) + +Maximus of Tyre may have been guilty of no exaggeration when he reckoned +the heavenly host as thrice ten thousand.(2487) The cynical voluptuary of +Nero's reign, who said that a town of Magna Graecia was inhabited by more +gods than men, only used a comic hyperbole to enforce a striking +fact.(2488) The anthropomorphic conceptions of Deity, which were +prevalent, easily overleapt the interval between the human and Divine. The +crowds of the Antonine age were as ready to recognise the god in human +form as the Athenians of the days of Pisistratus, who believed that they +saw in the gigantic Phye an epiphany of the great goddess of their +Acropolis, leading the tyrant home.(2489) In the minds of a philosophic +minority, nurtured on the theology of Plato, there might be the dim +conception of one awful and remote Power, far removed from the grossness +of earth, far above the dreams of mythologic poetry and the materialist +imagination of the masses. Yet even philosophy, as we have already seen, +had succumbed to the craving for immediate contact, or for some means of +communication, with the Infinite Spirit. The daemons of Plutarch and +Maximus of Tyre were really a new philosophic mythology, created to give +meaning and morality to the old gods. These hosts of baleful or +ministering spirits, with which the Platonist surrounded the life of man, +divine in the sweep of their power, human in their passions or sympathies, +belong really to the same order as the Poseidon who pursued Odysseus with +tempest, or the Moon goddess who descended on Latmus to kiss the sleeping +Endymion. Anthropomorphic paganism was far from dead; it was destined to +live openly for more than three hundred years, and to prolong a secret +life of subtle influence under altered forms, the term of which who shall +venture to fix? + +The daemons of the Platonic philosophers find their counterpart in the +popular cult of _genii_. If there was a visible tendency to syncretism and +monotheistic faith in the second century, there was a no less manifest +drift to the endless multiplication of spiritual powers. The tendency, +indeed, to create divine representatives of physical forces and dim +abstract qualities was from early ages congenial to the Roman mind. All +the phenomena of nature--every act, pursuit, or vicissitude in human +life--found a spiritual patron in the Roman imagination.(2490) But the +tendency received an immense impulse in the age with which we are dealing, +and the inscriptions of the imperial period reveal an almost inexhaustible +fertility of religious fancy. Every locality, every society and occupation +of men, has its patron genius, to whom divine honours are paid or +recorded,--the canton, the municipality, the curia; the spring or grove; +the legion or cohort or troop; the college of the paviors or smiths or +actors; the emperors, or even the great gods themselves.(2491) + +The old gods of Latium still retained a firm hold on the devotion of the +simple masses, as crowds of inscriptions record. But ancient religion, in +its cruder forms, divided and localised the Divine power by endless +demarcations of place and function. Although the Roman centurion or +merchant might believe in the power of his familiar gods to follow him +with their protection, and never forgot them, still each region, to which +his wanderings carried him, had its peculiar spirits, who wielded a +special potency within their own domain, and whom it was necessary to +propitiate. On hundreds of provincial inscriptions we can read the +catholic superstition of the Roman legionary. The mystery of desert or +forest, the dangers of march and bivouack, stimulated his devotion. If he +does not know the names of the strange deities, he will invoke them +collectively side by side with the gods whom he has been taught to +venerate. He will adore the "genius loci,"(2492) or all the gods of +Mauritania or of Britain. And so the deities of Alsace and Dacia and +Lusitania, of the Sahara and Cumberland, easily took their place in his +growing pantheon.(2493) They were constantly identified with the great +figures of Greek or Roman mythology. Many an inscription is dedicated to +Apollo Grannus of Alsace, whom Caracalla invoked for the recovery of his +health, along with Serapis and Aesculapius.(2494) Apollo Belenus, a +favourite deity in Southern Gaul, was the special patron of +Aquileia.(2495) Batucardus and Cocideus received vows and dedications in +Cumberland and Westmorland, Arardus and Agho in the Pyrenees, Abnoba in +the Black Forest;(2496) and many another deity with strange, outlandish +name, like their provincial votaries, were honoured with sacred Roman +citizenship, and took their places, although in a lower grade, with +Serapis of Alexandria or Asclepius of Epidaurus. The local heroes were +also adored at wayside shrines or altars, which met the traveller in +lonely passes. In the heart of the Nubian desert, inscriptions, scratched +on obelisk or temple porch, attest the all-embracing faith of the Roman +legionary.(2497) At Carlsbourg in Transylvania, a legate of the 5th Legion +records his own gratitude to Aesculapius and all the gods and goddesses of +the place, and that of his wife and daughter, for the recovery of his +sight.(2498) A praetorian prefect, visiting the hot springs of Vif left a +graceful inscription to the gods of the eternal fire.(2499) A legate of +the 5th Legion returns pious thanks to Hercules and the _genius loci_, at +the baths in Dacia sacred to the hero.(2500) Many a slab pays honour to +the nymphs who guarded the secret spring, especially where a source, long +since forgotten, had resumed its flow.(2501) A chief magistrate of Lambesi +is specially grateful that the town has been refreshed by a new fountain +during his year of office.(2502) The heroes of poetic legend were still +believed to haunt the scene of their struggles. Apollonius once spent a +night in ghostly converse with the shade of Achilles beside his tomb in +the Troad, and was charged by the divine warrior to convey his reproaches +for the neglect of his worship in the old Thessalian home of the +Myrmidons.(2503) The Troad had a hero of much later date, the proconsul +Neryllinus, who was believed to deliver oracles and to heal the +sick.(2504) + +In a time of such vivid belief in the universal presence of divine beings, +faith in miracle was a matter of course. Christian and pagan were here at +least on common ground. Nay, the Christian apologists did not dispute the +possibility of pagan miracles, or even of pagan oracular inspiration. It +is curious to see that Origen and Celsus, as regards the probability of +recurring miracle, are on very much the same plane of spiritual belief, +and that the Christian apologist is fighting with one arm tied. He is +disabled from delivering his assaults at the heart of the enemy's +position. The gods of heathenism are still to him living and potent +spirits, although they are spirits of evil.(2505) The pagan daemonology, +on its worse side, had been accepted by the champion of the Church. Yet it +is hard to see how, on such principles, he could deal with the daemon of +the Apolline shrine at Delphi, when he denounced the Spartan Glaucus for +the mere thought of a breach of faith to his friend,(2506) or the daemon +who lurked under the pure stately form of Athene Polissouchos, when she +threw a maiden goddess's protection around the Antigones of Athens. In the +field of miracle in the second century the heathen could easily match the +Christian. With gods in every grove and fountain, and on every mountain +summit; with gods breathing in the winds and flashing in the lightning, or +the ray of sun and star, heaving in the earthquake or the November storm +in the Aegean, watching over every society of men congregated for any +purpose, guarding the solitary hunter or traveller in the Alps or the +Sahara, what is called miracle became as natural to the heathen as the +rising of the sun. In fact, if the gods had not displayed their power in +some startling way, their worshippers would have been shocked and forlorn. +But the gods did not fail their votaries. Unquestioning and imperious +faith in this kind is always rewarded, or can always explain its +disappointments. The Epicurean, the Cynic, or the Aristotelian, might pour +their cold scorn on tales of wonder. An _illumine_ like Lucian, attached +to no school, and living merely in the light of clear cultivated sense, +might shake his sides with laughter at the tales which were vouched for by +a spiritualist philosophy. But the drift of the time was against all such +protests. The Divine power was everywhere, and miracle was in the air. + +Enough has been said of the dreams and signs and omens which in the first +and second century heralded every accession to the throne and every death +of a prince, and which even Tacitus records with more or less vacillating +faith. Enough, too, has been said of the miracles of healing which were +wrought by the sons of Asclepius in his many shrines from Pergamum to the +island in the Tiber. The miracles wrought by Vespasian at Alexandria are +the most hackneyed example of belief in miracle, because the tale is told +by the greatest master of vivid narrative in a book which every educated +man has read. The sensible Vespasian was not confident of his power to +give energy to the impotent, even on the strength of a dream sent by +Serapis, just as he jested on his deathbed about his approaching +apotheosis. But the efficiency of the imperial touch was vouched for by +eye-witnesses, to whom Tacitus would not refuse his credence. The +chronicler of the age of Diocletian has surrounded the death-bed of +Hadrian with similar wonders. A blind man from Pannonia came and touched +the fever-wracked emperor, and immediately regained his sight. The legend +of the Thundering Legion was long the battle-ground of opposing faiths +equally credulous, and equally bent on securing the credit of supernatural +powers. The timely rainfall was attributed with equal assurance to the +incantations of an Egyptian sorcerer, to the prayers of the believers in +Jupiter, or the prayers of the believers in Christ. Apuleius, who was +himself prosecuted for practising the black art, has filled his Thessalian +romance with the most astounding tales of fantastic sorcery. He may have +copied other lawless romances, but he would hardly have given such space +to these weird arts if his public had not had an uneasy belief in them. +The home of Medea in the days of M. Aurelius was a veritable witch's cave: +the air is tremulous with superstitious fear: everything seems possible in +the field of miraculous metamorphosis or monstrous vice. If Apuleius had +meant to discredit superstition by wedding it to disgusting sensuality, he +could hardly have succeeded better. But he was more probably bent, with +perverted skill, on producing a work which might allure imaginations +haunted by the ghosts of hereditary sensuality and a spiritual terror +revived in redoubled force. An Egyptian priest with tonsure and linen +robes raises a dead man to life who has been "floating on the Stygian +streams." Or you are admitted to a witch's laboratory, open to all the +winds and stored with all the wreckage of human life--timbers of ships +splintered on cruel rocks, the curdled blood and mangled flesh of murdered +men, toothless skulls gnawed by beasts of prey. You see the transformation +going on before your eyes under the magic of mysterious unguents, the +feathers springing from the flesh, or the human sinking into the ass's +form. Tales like these, which to us are old wives' tales, may have had a +strange charm for an age when human life was regarded as the slave of +fate, or the sport of the inscrutable powers of the unseen universe. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + + BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY + + +A great part of the charm of those oriental religions, on the study of +which we are about to enter, lay in the assurance which they seemed to +give of an immortal life. It would, therefore, appear a necessary preface +to such a review to examine some of the conceptions of the state of the +departed which the missionaries of Isis and Mithra found prevalent in the +minds of their future votaries. Immortality, in any worthy sense, is +inseparable from the idea of God. And the conception of continued life +must always be shaped by the character of a people's beliefs as to the +powers of the unseen world. A pantheon of dim phantasms or abstractions +will not promise more than a numb spectral future to the human shade. The +nectar and ambrosia of Olympian feasts may have their human counterpart in +an "eternal debauch." The Platonist will find his eternal hope in +emancipation from the prison of the flesh, and in the immediate vision of +that Unity of all beauty, truth, and goodness, which is his highest +conception of God. But not only does religion necessarily colour the +conception of the eternal state: it may also furnish the warrant for a +belief in it. And a religion which can give men a firm ground for that +faith will have an immense advantage over others which are less clear and +confident as to another world. It is generally admitted that the long +array of philosophic arguments for immortality have by themselves little +convincing power. They are not stronger, nor perhaps so strong as the +argument from the wish for continued life, inveterate in the human spirit, +on which Plutarch laid so much stress.(2507) Even amid the triumphant +dialectic of the _Phaedo_, an undertone of doubt in any human proof of +immortality is sometimes heard, along with the call for some "divine +doctrine" as a bark of safety on perilous seas.(2508) The inextinguishable +instinct of humanity craves for a voice of revelation to solve the mystery +of life and death. + +The Roman spirit, down to the Antonine age, had been the subject of many +influences which had inspired widely various ideas of the future state. +And the literary and funerary remains from Nero to M. Aurelius are full of +contradictions on the subject. Nor, in the absence of authoritative +revelation on a field so dark to reason, is this surprising. Even +Christian teaching, while it offers a sure promise of a life to come, has +not lifted the veil of the great mystery, and the material imagery of the +Apocalypse, or the shadowed hints of Jesus or S. Paul, have left the +believer of the twentieth century with no clearer vision of the life +beyond the tomb than that which was vouchsafed to Plato, Cicero, Virgil, +or Plutarch. "We know not what we shall be," is the answer of every seer +of every age. Something will always "seal the lips of the Evangelist," as +the key of the Eumolpidae closed the lips of those who had seen the vision +of Eleusis.(2509) The pagans of the early Empire were thus, in the absence +of dogma and ecclesiastical teaching, free to express, with perfect +frankness, their unbelief or their varying conceptions of immortality, +according to the many influences that had moulded them. Nor could these +influences be kept apart even in the same mind. Even the poet seer, who +was to be the guide of Dante in the shades, has failed to blend the +immemorial faith of the Latin race with the dreams of future beatitude or +anguish which came to him from Pythagorean or Platonic teaching.(2510) In +the sixth book of the _Aeneid_ the eschatologies of old Rome and Greece +are combined, but not blended, with the doctrines of transmigration and +purgatorial expiation descending from Pythagoras or the Orphic mystics. +Virgil, in fact, mirrors the confusion of beliefs which prevailed in his +own age, and which pre-eminently characterised the age of the Antonines. + +Along with other archaic elements of the Latin faith, the cult of the +Manes held its ground, especially in secluded homes of old Italian piety. +The most ancient Indo-European conception of the state after death was +that of a continuance or faint, shadowy reproduction of the life on earth; +it was not that of a vast and mysterious change to a supernatural order. +The departed spirit was believed to linger in a dim existence in the vault +or grave near the familiar homestead.(2511) The tomb is not a temporary +prison, but an everlasting home,(2512) and often provides a chamber where +the living members of the family or clan may gather on solemn days around +the ashes of the dead.(2513) Provision is made for the sustenance of this +spectral life. Vessels for food and drink, the warrior's arms, the +workman's tools, the cosmetics of the lady, the child's playthings, are +buried with them.(2514) Or they are figured on their tombs cheerfully +engaged in their familiar crafts,(2515) not with folded hands, and calm, +expectant faces, like the marble forms which lie in our cathedral aisles +awaiting the Resurrection. + +With such views of the tomb, the perpetual guardianship of it became to +the Roman a matter of supreme moment. It is a chapel or an altar, as well +as a last home.(2516) It is the meeting-place, in faint ghostly communion, +of the society which embraced, by its solemn rites, the members of the +household church in the light or in the shades. All the cautious forms of +Roman law are invoked to keep the sepulchre, with its garden and +enclosure, from passing into alien hands. Its site is exactly described, +with the minutest measurements, and the intruder or the alienator is +threatened with curses or with fines, to be paid into the public +treasury.(2517) Here, among his children and remotest descendants, among +his freedmen and freedwomen, the Roman dreamed of resting for ever +undisturbed.(2518) And many an appeal comes to us from the original slab +not to violate the eternal peace.(2519) What that dim life beneath the +marble or the sod, at least in the later times, was conceived to be, how +far it involved a more or less vivid consciousness of what was passing in +the world above, how far it was a numb repose, almost passing into "the +eternal sleep," seems to be uncertain. The phrases on the tomb in all ages +are apt to pass into conventional forms, and personal temperament and +imagination must always give varying colour to the picture. Such phrases +as "eternal sleep," however, did not probably at any time imply complete +unconsciousness. The old Latin faith that the Manes had a real life and +some link of sympathy with the living was still strong and vivid in an age +which was eager to receive or answer voices from the world beyond the +senses. The wish to maintain, in spite of the severance and shock of +death, a bond of communion between the living and the departed was one of +the most imperious instincts of the Latin race. It was not a mere +imagination, projected on far distant years, which craved for the yearly +offering of violets and roses, or the pious _ave_ of the passing +traveller.(2520) The dwellers in the vault still remained members of the +family, to which they are linked for ever by a dim sympathy expressed in +ritual communion. Every year, on the _dies parentales_ in February, there +was a general holiday, cheerfully kept in honour of all those whose +spirits were at peace.(2521) On the eighth day, the festival of _cara +cognatio_, there was a family love-feast, in which quarrels were +forgotten, and the members in the spirit-world joined in the sacred meal. +But besides this public and national commemoration, the birthday of each +departed member was observed with offerings of wine and oil and milk. The +tomb was visited in solemn procession; dead and living shared the sacred +fare; flowers were scattered, and with an _ave_ or a prayer for help and +good fortune, the shade was left to its renewed repose.(2522) Many a slab +makes anxious provision for these communions, and the offering of violets +and roses in their season.(2523) + +But the Roman in his tomb longed to be near the sound of busy human life, +and to feel the tread of pious feet, which might turn aside for a moment +to salute even a stranger's memory. This feeling is expressed in the long +rows of vaults which line so many of the great roads, the Via Appia, or +the way from Pompeii to Nola.(2524) There were many like that Titus +Lollius who had himself laid close to the road into Aquae Sextiae, that +the passers might for ever greet his spirit with an _ave_.(2525) Others +leave a prayer for all good things to those who will stop an instant and +read the legend; "may the earth lie light upon them when they too +depart."(2526) The horror of the lonely soul, cut off from the kindly +fellowship of the living, and lingering on in a forgotten grave, to which +no loving hand should ever more bring the libation or the violets in +spring, which should one day awake no memory or sympathy in any human +heart, was to the old Roman the worst terror in death. This passion for +continued memory, especially in great benefactors of their kind, is used +by Cicero as an argument for immortality,(2527) and the passion for +enduring life blends indistinguishably with the wish to be long +remembered. Even Epicurus, the apostle of annihilation, made provision in +his last testament for yearly offerings in honour of himself and +Metrodorus his disciple--a curious instance of agnostic conformity.(2528) +The passion for remembrance was responded to by the dutiful devotion of +many generations. The cult of the dead long survived in the cult of +martyrs, and the pagan feasting at their tombs disturbed and perplexed S. +Augustine and S. Paulinus of Nola.(2529) + +The old Roman thought of his departed friends as a company of good and +kindly spirits, who watched over the family on earth. But there was +another conception of spirits in the other world, whether derived from the +gloomy superstition of Etruria, or descending from days anterior to +orderly devotion to the dead.(2530) The Lemures were a name of fear. They +were dark, malevolent spirits who craved for blood, as they had departed +this life by a violent end. Their festival, the Lemuria in May, was quite +distinct from the festival of the Manes, and the household ritual for +laying the ghosts by the spitting of black beans and a ninefold form of +exorcism savours of a far-gone age. These maleficent powers were +propitiated by blood--especially by the blood of men in the combats of the +arena. + +The visitations of these beings, whether as guardian, ministering spirits +or as evil powers, were expected and believed in for many ages by all +classes of Roman minds. The ancient Latin faith as to the state of the +dead was, according to Cicero, confirmed by many tales of spiritual +apparition. There are pathetic memorials which end with an appeal in which +the lonely wife entreats the lost one sometimes to return in dream or +vision.(2531) One vivacious inscription challenges the sceptic to lay his +wager and make the experiment of a summons from the unseen world.(2532) +The spread of cremation instead of burial gradually led to a new +conception of the spirit as having a separate existence from the body, now +reduced to a handful of grey ashes.(2533) And spirits no longer clung to +the body in the family vault, but were gathered in a dim region near the +centre of the earth, where, according to gloomy Etrurian fancy, they were +under the cruel care of the conductor of the dead, a brutal figure, with +wings and long, matted beard, and armed with a hammer, who for ages +appeared in human form to close the last ghastly scene in the gladiatorial +combats.(2534) From this limbo of the departed a sort of gateway was +provided in every Latin town in the _Mundus_, a deep trench intended to +represent an inverted heaven, which was dug before the _pomoerium_ was +traced. Its lower aperture was closed by the stone of the Manes, which on +three solemn days, in August, October, and November, was lifted to permit +the spirits from the deep to pass for a time into the upper world. Thus a +public sanction was given to the belief in the commerce between this life +and the next.(2535) + +Cicero had said that the faith in immortality was sustained by the fact of +spirits returning to the world of sense. In the first and second centuries +there was no lack of such aids to faith. Apparitions became the commonest +facts of life, and only the hardiest minds remained incredulous about +them. Philosophers of all schools, except the Epicurean, were swept into +the current. The _Philopseudes_ of Lucian is a brilliant effort to +ridicule the superstition of the age, but the attack would have been +discredited if it had not had a foundation of fact. There, around the +sick-bed of Eucrates, himself saturated with philosophy, are gathered a +Stoic, a Peripatetic, a Pythagorean, a Platonist, and a trained +physician.(2536) And they regale one another with the most weird and +exciting tales of the marvellous. Ion, the Platonic student, has seen the +exorcism of a black and smoky daemon.(2537) Eucrates has seen such spirits +a thousand times, and, from long habit, has lost all fear of them. At +vintage time, he once saw a gigantic Gorgon figure in the woods in broad +daylight, and by the turning of a magic ring had revealed to him the gulf +of Tartarus, the infernal rivers, and been even able to recognise some of +the ghosts below.(2538) On another day, as he lay upon his bed reading the +_Phaedo_, his "sainted wife," who had recently died, appeared and +reproached him because, among all the finery which had been burnt upon her +pyre, a single gold-spangled shoe, which slipped under the wardrobe, had +been forgotten.(2539) Plutarch reports, apparently with perfect faith, the +appearance of such spectral visitors at Chaeronea.(2540) The younger Pliny +consulted his friend Sura as to the reality of such apparitions, and +reveals his faith in the gruesome tale of a haunted house at Athens, where +a restless ghost, who had often disturbed the quiet of night with the +clank of chains, was tracked to the mystery of a hidden grave.(2541) +Suetonius, of course, welcomes tales of this kind from every quarter. +Before Caligula's half-burnt remains were borne stealthily to a +dishonoured burial, the keepers of the Lamian Gardens had been disturbed +each night by ghostly terrors.(2542) The pages of Dion Cassius abound in +similar wonders. When Nero attempted to cut through the Isthmus of +Corinth, the dead arose in numbers from their graves.(2543) In such an age +the baleful art of "evocation" acquired a weird attraction and importance. +By spells and incantations Hecate was invoked to send up spirits, often +for evil ends.(2544) And there were dark rumours of the spell being +fortified by the blood of children. Many of the emperors from Tiberius to +Caracalla had dabbled in this witchcraft.(2545) When Nero was haunted by +the Furies of his murdered mother, he is said to have offered a magic +sacrifice to evoke and appease her spirit.(2546) The early Neo-Platonists +were, of course, eager to admit the reality of such visits from the unseen +world. In anxious quest of any link of sympathy between this world and the +next, Maximus tries to fortify his doctrine of daemons by stories of +apparitions.(2547) Hector has been often seen darting across the Troad in +shining armour. At the mouth of the Borysthenes, Achilles has been espied +by mariners, who were sailing past his isle, careering along with his +yellow locks and arms of gold, and singing his paean of battle. + +In enlarging its rather blank and poor conception of the future state, the +Latin race, as in other fields, was content to borrow rather than invent. +The Sixth Book of the Aeneid was an effort not only to glorify the +legendary heroes of Rome, but to appease a new or revived longing for the +hope of immortality, after the desolating nihilism of the Epicurean +philosophy had run its course.(2548) Virgil has some touches of old Roman +faith about the dead, but the scenery of his Inferno is mainly derived +from Greek poetry inspired by Orphism, and the vision is moralised, and +also confused, by elements drawn from Pythagoras or Plato.(2549) The scene +of Aeneas's descent to the underworld is laid by the lake of Avernus, +where, buried amid gloomy woods, was the cave of the Cumaean Sibyl. Cumae +was the oldest Greek colony in the West. Its foundation was placed long +before the days of Romulus. Rich, prosperous, and cultivated, at a time +when the Romans were a band of rude warriors, it must have early +transmitted Greek ideas of religion to the rising power on the +Tiber.(2550) The Etrurians also, who affected so profoundly the tone of +Roman religion, had come under Greek influences. The spectral ferryman of +the dead was a familiar figure in Etruscan art. Thus, both on the south +and north, Latium had points of contact with the world of Hellenic legend. +And from the early days of the Republic, the worship of Greek gods--Apollo, +Asclepius, or the Dioscuri--became naturalised at Rome. Probably of even +earlier date was the influence of the oracular lore of Greece through +Delphi and the oracle of Cumae.(2551) + +On the threshold of the underworld Aeneas and the Sibyl are confronted by +the monstrous forms of Hellenic legend--Centaurs and Scyllas, Harpies and +Gorgons, the fire-armed Chimaera, and the hissing hydra of Lerna.(2552) +They have to pass the ninefold barrier of the Styx in Charon's steel-grey +bark. The grisly ferryman of the infernal stream, foul and unkempt, with +fixed eyes of flame, is surrounded by a motley crowd, thick as autumnal +leaves, all straining and eager for the further shore. Landed on a waste +expanse of mud and sedge,(2553) they pass the kennel of triple-headed +Cerberus, and on to the judgment seat, where Minos assigns to each soul +its several doom, according to the deeds done in the body. Thence they +traverse the "mourning fields,"(2554) where are those sad queens of +Grecian tragedy whose wild loves have been their undoing, and among them +Phoenician Dido, who, with stony silence and averted gaze, plunges into +the darkness of the wood.(2555) As the dawn is breaking, they find +themselves before the prison-house of the damned, rising amid the folds of +the river of fire, with walls of iron and adamant, its portals watched by +a sleepless Fury in blood-red robe.(2556) From within are heard the cries +of anguish and the clank of chains, as the great rebels and malefactors of +old-world story--Ixion, Salmoneus, and the Titans--are tortured by lash and +wheel and vulture.(2557) And with them, sharing the same agony, are those +who have violated the great laws on which the Roman character was +built.(2558) Through other dusky ways and Cyclopean portals they at last +reach the home of the blessed, as it was pictured long before in the +apocalypse of Pindar--the meads and happy groves of Elysium, under another +sun and other stars than ours, and bathed in the splendour of an ampler +air.(2559) Here is the eternal home of the heroic souls of a nobler age, +men who have died for fatherland, holy priests and bards and founders of +the arts which soften and embellish the life of men. But though their home +is radiant with a splendour not of earth, they are, in old Roman and Greek +fashion, occupied with the toils or pleasures of their earthly life. +Youthful forms are straining their sinews in the wrestling-ground as of +old. The ancient warriors of Troy have their shadowy chariots beside them, +their lances planted in the sward, their chargers grazing in the meadow. +Others are singing old lays or dancing, and the bard of Thrace himself is +sweeping the lyre, as in the days when he sped the Argo through the +"Clashing Rocks" in the quest of the fleece of gold.(2560) + +The vision closes with a scene which criticism has long recognised as +irreconcilable with the eschatology of Greek legend hitherto followed by +the poet, but which is drawn from a philosophy destined to govern men's +thoughts of immortality for many ages. In a wooded vale, far withdrawn, +through which Lethe glided peacefully, countless multitudes are gathered +drinking the "water of carelessness and oblivion." These are they, as +Anchises expounds to his son, who, having passed the thousand purgatorial +years, to cleanse away the stains of flesh in a former life, and, having +effaced the memory of it, now await the call of Destiny to a new life on +earth.(2561) This theory of life and death, coming down from Pythagoras, +and popularised by Platonism, with some Stoic elements, had gained immense +vogue among educated men of the last period of the Republic. Varro had +adopted it as a fundamental tenet of his theology, and Cicero had embalmed +it in his dream of Scipio, which furnished a text for Neo-Platonist +homilies in the last days of the Western Empire.(2562) A fiery spirit +animates the material universe, from the farthest star in ether down to +the lowest form of animal life. The souls of men are sparks or emanations +from this general soul which have descended into the prison of the body, +and during the period of their bondage have suffered contamination.(2563) +And the prison walls hide from their eyes for a time the heaven from which +they come. Nor when death releases them do they shake off the engrained +corruption. For a thousand years they must suffer cleansing by punishment +till the stains are washed away, the deeply festering taint burnt out as +by fire. Then only may the pure residue of ethereal spirit seek to enter +on another life on earth. + +Virgil, in his Nekuia, mirrored the confusion of beliefs as to the future +state prevailing in his time. For his poetic sensibility, the old Roman +faith of the Manes, the Greek legends of Tartarus and Elysium, the +Pythagorean or Orphic doctrine of successive lives and purgatorial +atonement, had each their charm, and a certain truth. On a subject so dim +and uncertain as the future life, the keenest minds may have wavering +conceptions, and in different moods may clothe them in various guise. This +is the field of the protean poetic imagination inspired by religious +intuition, not of the rigorous dogmatist. But a great poet like Virgil not +only expresses an age to itself: he elevates and glorifies what he +expresses. He gives clear-cut form to what is vague, he spreads the warmth +and richness of colour over what is dim and blank, and he imparts to the +abstract teaching of philosophy a glow and penetrating power which may +touch even the unthinking mass of men. The vision of the Sixth Book, +moreover, like the Aeneid as a whole, has a high note of patriotism. +Beside the water of Lethe are gathered, waiting for their call to earthly +life, all the great souls from the Alban Silvius to the great Julius, all +the Scipios, Gracchi, Decii, and Fabricii, who were destined through storm +and stress to give the world the calm of the Roman peace.(2564) The poet +of Roman destiny had a marvellous fame among his countrymen. Men rose up +to do him honour when he entered the theatre; the street boys of Pompeii +scratched his verses on the walls.(2565) Can we doubt that the grandest +part of his great poem, which lifts for a moment the veil of the unseen +world, had a profound effect on the religious imagination of the future? + +The opinion long prevailed that the period of the early Empire was one of +unbelief or scepticism as to the future life. The opinion was founded on +literary evidence accepted without much critical care. Cicero and Seneca, +Juvenal and Plutarch,(2566) had spoken of the Inferno of Greek legend, its +Cerberus and Chimaera, its gloom of Tartarus, as mere old wives' fables, +in which even children had ceased to believe. But such testimony should +always be taken with a good deal of reserve. The member of a comparatively +small literary and thoughtful circle is apt to imagine that its ideas are +more widely diffused than they really are. It may well have been that +thoughtful men, steeped in Platonic or Pythagorean faith as to the coming +life, rejected as anthropomorphic dreams the infernal scenery of Greek +legend, just as a thoughtful Christian of our day will hardly picture his +coming beatitude in the gorgeous colouring of the Book of Revelation. Yet +the mass of men will always seek for concrete imagery to body forth their +dim spiritual cravings. They always live in that uncertain twilight in +which the boundaries of pictured symbolism and spiritual reality are +blurred and effaced. Lucian was a pessimist as to spiritual progress, and +he may have exaggerated the materialistic superstition of his time; he had +ample excuse for doing so. Yet, artist as he was, his art would have been +futile and discredited in his own time, if it had not had a solid +background in widely accepted beliefs. And we cannot refuse to admit his +testimony that the visions of the grim ferryman over the waters of Styx, +the awful judge, the tortures of Tartarus, the asphodel meads, and the +water of Lethe, the pale neutral shades who wandered expectant of the +libation on the grave, filled a large space in the imagination of the +crowd.(2567) Plutarch, who sometimes agrees with Juvenal and Seneca as to +the general incredulity, at others holds that a large class of remorseful +sinners have a wholesome fear of the legendary tortures of lost souls, and +that they are eager to purge their guilt before the awful ordeal of the +Eternal Judgment.(2568) And, however pure and etherealised his own views +may have been as to the life to come, no one has left a more lurid picture +of the flames, the gloom, the sounds of excruciating anguish from the +prison-house of the damned, which oppressed the imagination of the +multitude in his time. One part of that vision had a peculiarly tenacious +hold.(2569) The belief in the gruff ferryman of the dead, who sternly +exacted his fare, and drove from the banks of Styx those who had no right +to cross the awful stream, was widely diffused and survived far into the +medieval times. For many centuries, long before and long after the coming +of Christ, the coin which was to secure the passage of the shade into the +world below was placed in the mouth of the corpse.(2570) + +The inscriptions might be supposed to give authoritative evidence as to +the belief of ordinary men about the future state. The funerary monuments +from every part of the Roman world are almost countless for the period of +the early Empire. Yet such records, however abundant, are not so clear and +satisfactory as they are by some taken to be. The words of a tombstone are +sometimes a sincere utterance of real affection and faith. They are also +not unfrequently purely conventional, representing a respectable, historic +creed, which may not be that of the man who erects the slab. Just as a +Frenchman, who has never from infancy entered a church, may have his wife +interred with all the solemn forms with which the Catholic Church makes +the peace of the passing soul, so the Roman pagan may have often inscribed +on his family tomb words which expressed the ancient creed of his race +rather than his personal belief. Heredity in religion is a potent +influence, and may be misleading to the inquirer of a later age. An +epitaph should not be construed as a confession of faith. + +The great mass of these inscriptions are couched in the same phrases, with +only slight variations. The dedication Dis Manibus, representing the old +Roman faith, is the heading of the majority of them. The vault is an +"eternal home," whose peace is guarded by prayers or threats and +entreaties. There is a rare dedication to the "ashes" of the dead. There +are many to their "eternal repose."(2571) But it is surely rather absurd +to find in expressions which occur almost in the same form in the niches +of the Catacombs a tinge of Epicureanism. The poor grammarian of Como, who +left all his substance to his town, may be permitted to enjoy "the calm +peace" he claims after all the troubles of his life, without a suspicion +that he meant the peace of nothingness.(2572) A pious Christian may +rejoice at escaping the miseries of old age, and even hail death as the +last cure of all mortal ills.(2573) Death and sleep have always seemed +near akin, and when the Roman spoke of the sleep of death, he probably did +not often mean that it had no awaking. The morning indeed, as we have +seen, to old imaginations was not very bright. "The day of eternity" was +not irradiated with the golden splendour of Pindar's Happy Isles; it was +grey and sad and calm. But that it was felt to be a real existence is +shown by the insistent demand on scores of monuments for the regular +service of the living. Every possible precaution is taken by the testator +that his family or his club shall maintain this sympathetic observance for +ever.(2574) With the idea of prolonged existence, of course, is blended +the imaginative hope of having a continued memory among men. And probably +the majority of the funerary inscriptions express this feeling chiefly. +But the same is true of the monuments of every age, and warrants no +conclusion as to the opinions about immortality held by those who raised +them. There is abundance of the purest affection expressed on these +memorials, and sometimes, although not very often, there is the hope of +reunion after death. The wife of a _philologus_ at Narbonne confidently +expects to meet him, or a mother prays her son to take her to +himself.(2575) Such expressions of a natural feeling, the same from age to +age, have really little value as indications of religious belief. But +there are not wanting in the inscriptions references to Tartarus and the +Elysian fields, to Pluto and Proserpine, to Orcus who has snatched away +some one in his bloom. "One little soul has been received among the number +of the gods."(2576) There are others, impregnated with the prevalent +philosophy, which speak of the soul returning to its source, or of being +dissolved into the infinite ether, or of passing to a distant home in the +stars.(2577) This, however, as M. Boissier says,(2578) must have been the +dream of a small minority. The funerary inscriptions leave the impression +that, down to the final triumph of the Church, the feeling of the Romans +about death was still in the main the feeling of their remote ancestors of +the Samnite and Punic wars. It was a social feeling, in the prospect of a +dim life dependent on the memory of the living, a horror of loneliness and +desertion, the longing for a passing prayer even from a stranger. +Blessings are heaped on him who will not forget the pious duty to the +shade. On him who refuses it is invoked the bitterest curse to Roman +imagination--"May he die the last of his race." + +But no dogmatic ecclesiastical system deterred the Roman from expressing +frankly his unbelief in any future state. And the rejection of all hope +for the future, sometimes coupled with a coarse satisfaction with a +sensual past, is the note of not a few epitaphs of this period. Matrinia, +the wife of one C. Matrinius Valentius, an Epicurean philosopher, +dedicates a tablet to his "eternal sleep," which in this case is no +conventional phrase.(2579) And others, in even more decided language, +parade their withering faith that this brief life is only a moment of +consciousness between the blank of the past and the blank of the future, +and record their indifference at passing again into the nothingness from +which they came. The formula is frequent--"Non fueram, non sum, nescio"; or +"Non fui, fui; non sum, non curo." Another adds "non mihi dolet."(2580) +The subjects of some of these epitaphs seem to have obeyed literally the +counsel of their master Lucretius, though in a sense different from his, +and to have risen up sated with the banquet of life. They express, with +cynical grossness, their only faith in the joys of the flesh, and their +perfect content at having made the most of them. "Balnea, Vina, Venus," +sums up the tale.(2581) "What I have eaten, what I have drunk, is my own. +I have had my life."(2582) And the departing voluptuary exhorts his +friends to follow his example: "My friends, while we live, let us live"; +"Eat, drink, disport thyself, and then join us."(2583) A veteran of the +fifth legion records, probably with much truth, that "while he lived he +drank with a good will,"(2584) and he exhorts his surviving friends to +drink while they live. Under the confessional of St. Peter's at Rome, in +the year 1626, was found a monument of one Agricola of Tibur and his wife. +There was a figure holding a wine-cup, and an inscription so frankly +sensual that the whole was destroyed by order of the Pope. From the copy +which was kept, it appears that Agricola was perfectly satisfied with his +life, and recommended his example to others, "since it all ends in the +grave or the funeral fire."(2585) But inscriptions such as these are the +exception. The funerary records, as a whole, give a picture of a society +very like our own, with warm affections of kindred or friendship, clinging +to ancestral pieties, ready to hope, if sometimes not clear and confident +in faith. + +There was probably a much more settled faith in immortality among the +ordinary masses than among the highly educated. The philosophy of Greece +came to the cultivated Roman world with many different voices on the +greatest problem of human destiny. And the greatest minds, from Cicero to +M. Aurelius, reflect the discordance of philosophy. Nay, some of those +who, in more exalted moods, have left glowing pictures of the future +beatitude, have also at times revealed a mood of melancholy doubt as to +any conscious future life. The prevailing philosophy in the last +generation of the Republic, demoralised by an internecine strife, was that +of Epicurus.(2586) It harmonised with the decay of old Roman religion, and +with the more disastrous moral deterioration in the upper cultivated +class. The cultivated patrician, enervated by vice and luxury, or +intoxicated with the excitement of civil war and the dreams of disordered +ambition, flung off all spiritual idealism, and accepted frankly a lawless +universe and a life of pleasure or power, to be ended by death. The great +poem of Lucretius, the greatest _tour de force_ in Latin, if not in any +literature, braving not only the deepest beliefs of the Latin race, but +the instinctive longings of humanity, was a herculean attempt to relieve +men from the horrors of Graeco-Etruscan superstition. Even the gay +frivolity of the comic stage reveals the terror which the path to Acheron +inspired in the thoughtless crowd(2587)--the terror from which, with all +the fervid zeal of an evangelist, Lucretius sought to relieve his +countrymen.(2588) The pictures of Tartarus had burnt themselves into the +popular imagination. And no message of Epicurus seems to his Roman +interpreter so full of peace and blessing as the gospel of nothingness +after death, the "morningless and unawakening sleep" which ends the +fretful fever of life. As we felt no trouble when the storm of Punic +invasion burst on Italy, we shall be equally unconscious when the +partnership of soul and body is dissolved, even in the clash and fusion of +all the elements in some great cosmic change.(2589) The older Stoicism +permitted the hope of a limited immortality until the next great +cataclysm, in which, after many ages, all things will be swallowed +up.(2590) But Chrysippus admitted this prolonged existence only for the +greater souls. And Panaetius, in the second century B.C., among other +aberrations from the old creed of his school, abandoned even this not very +satisfactory hope of immortality.(2591) Aristotle, while he held the +permanence of the pure thinking principle after death, had given little +countenance to the hope of a separate conscious personality. And the later +Peripatetics, like Alexander Aphrodisias, had gone farther even than their +master in dogmatic denial of immortality.(2592) Whatever support the +instinctive craving of humanity for prolonged existence could obtain from +philosophy was offered by the Platonic and Neo-Pythagorean schools. And +their influence grew with the growing tendency to a revival of faith in +the supernatural. For Plato, with his intense belief in the divine +affinity of the human spirit, must always be the great leader of those who +seek in philosophy an interpreter and a champion of religious intuition. +The Phaedo was the last consolation of many a victim of conscription or +imperial tyranny. Its fine-spun arguments may not have been altogether +convincing, as they hardly seem to be even to the Platonic Socrates. But +Plato was not merely a dialectician, he was also a seer and a poet. And, +on a subject so dim as immortality, where mere intellectual proof, it is +generally recognised, can be no more than tentative and precarious, men +with a deep spiritual instinct have always felt the magnetism of the poet +who could clothe his intuitions in the forms of imagination, who, from a +keener sensibility and a larger vision, could give authority and clearness +to the spiritual intuitions of the race.(2593) The philosophy of the Porch +gave to the Antonine age some of its loftiest characters. But it was not +the philosophy of the future. It was too cold, and too self-centred. It +had too little warmth of sympathy with religious instincts which were +becoming more and more imperious. Although, as we have seen in Seneca, it +was softened by elements borrowed from Platonic sources, in Epictetus and +M. Aurelius, in spite of a rare spiritual elevation, it displays the old +aloofness from the mass of men, and a cold temperance of reserve on the +great question of the future of the soul. + +There can be little doubt that in the last age of the Republic a negative +philosophy conspired with a decaying religious sense to stifle the hope of +immortality among the cultivated class. Lucretius was certainly not a +solitary member of his order. His great poem, by its combination of +dialectic subtlety, poetic charm, and lofty moral earnestness, may have +made many converts to its withering creed. In the debate on the fate of +the Catilinarian conspirators, Julius Caesar could assert, without fear of +contradiction or disapproval, that death was the final term alike of joy +and sorrow in human life.(2594) This philosophy, indeed, was waning in +force in the time of Augustus, and its forces were spent before the close +of the first century. Yet the elder Pliny, who saw the reign of Vespasian, +inveighs almost fiercely against the vanity or madness which dreams of a +phantom life beyond the tomb, and robs of its great charm the last kindly +boon of nature.(2595) Seneca on this, as on many other questions of high +moment, is not steady and consistent. In moments of spiritual exaltation +he is filled with apocalyptic rapture at the vision of an eternal world. +At other times he speaks with a cold resignation, which seems to have been +the fashion with men of his class and time, at the possibility of +extinction in death. To the toil-worn spirit, weary of the travail and +disappointments of life, death will be a quiet haven of rest.(2596) The +old terrors of Charon and Cerberus, of the awful Judge and the tortures of +Tartarus, are no longer believed in even by children.(2597) And stripped +of its mythic horrors, death, being the loss of consciousness, must be the +negation of pain and desire and fear. It is, in fact, a return to the +nothingness from which we come, which has left no memory. _Non miser +potest esse qui nullus est._(2598) The literary men and men of the world +in the age of the Flavians, like their successors ever since, probably +occupied themselves little with a problem so long debated and so variously +solved. Quintilian treats the question of the existence of the disembodied +spirit as an open one for dialectical debate.(2599) Tacitus, at once +credulous and sceptical, is no clearer on the subject of immortality than +he is on the subject of miracles, or omens, or Providence. In his eulogy +on Agricola he expresses a faint, pious hope of eternal peace for his +hero, if there is a place in some other world for pious shades, and the +sages are right in thinking that great souls do not perish with the +body.(2600) This is a very guarded and hypothetical hope; and, probably, +the only immortality for his friend in which Tacitus had much confidence +was the undying fame with which the pen of genius can invest its subject. +Tacitus, like so many of his class, had the old Roman distrust of +philosophy, and the philosophies of which men of his generation had a +tincture had no very confident or comforting message about the soul's +eternal destiny. + +Hadrian, the most interesting of the emperors, was probably a sceptic on +this as on all kindred subjects. The greatest practical genius in the +imperial line had, in the field of religion and speculation, an infinite +passion for all that was curious and exotic.(2601) Tramping at the head of +his legions through his world-wide domains, he relieved the tedium of +practical administration by visiting the scenes of historic fame or the +homes of ancient religion both in the East and West. The East particularly +attracted him by its infinite fecundity of superstition. He came to see +whether there was anything in these revelations of the unseen world; he +went away to mock at them. His insatiable curiosity had an endless variety +of moods, and offered an open door to all the influences from many creeds. +The restorer of ancient shrines, the admirer of Epictetus, the dabbler in +astrology, the votary of Eleusis(2602) and all the mysteries of the East, +the munificent patron of all professors of philosophy and the arts, the +man who delighted also to puzzle and ridicule them,(2603) had probably few +settled convictions of his own. His last words to his soul, in their +mingled lightness and pathos, seem to express rather regret for the +sunlight left behind than any hope in entering on a dim journey into the +unknown. + +The Antonine age was for the masses an age of growing faith, and yet three +or four of its greatest minds, men who had drunk deep of philosophy, or +who had a rare spiritual vision, either denied or doubted the last hope of +humanity. Epictetus came from Phrygia as the slave of a freedman of +Nero.(2604) Even in his days of slavery, he had absorbed the teaching of +Musonius.(2605) He received his freedom, but lived in poverty and physical +infirmity till, in the persecution of Domitian's reign he was, with the +whole tribe of philosophic preachers, driven from Rome,(2606) and he +settled at Nicopolis in Epirus, where Arrian heard his discourses on the +higher life. According to Hadrian's biographer, he lived in the greatest +intimacy with that emperor.(2607) He refers more than once to the reign of +Trajan,(2608) but it is hardly possible that the tradition is true which +carries his life into the reign of M. Aurelius, although the great +philosophic emperor owed much to his teaching.(2609) + +Epictetus is an example of a profoundly religious mind, to whom personal +immortality is not a necessity of his religion. The great law of life is +glad submission to the will of God, to the universal order. Death, as an +event which is bound to come soon or late, should be regarded without +fear. The tremors it excites are like the shuddering of children at a +tragic mask of Gorgon or Fury. Turn the mask, and the terror is +gone.(2610) For what is death? A separation of soul and body, a +dissolution of our frame into the kindred elements.(2611) The door is +opened, God calls you to come, and to no terrible future. Hades, Acheron, +and Cocytus are mere childish fancies.(2612) You will pass into the wind +or earth or fire from which you come. You will not exist, but you will be +something else of which the world now has need, just as you came into your +present existence when the world had need of you. God sent you here +subject to death, to live on earth a little while in the flesh, to do His +will and serve His purpose, and join in the spectacle and festival. But +the spectacle for you is ended; go hence whither He leads, with adoration +and gratitude for all that you have seen and heard. Make room for others +who have yet to be born in accordance with His will.(2613) Language like +this seems to give slight hope of any personal, conscious life beyond the +grave. Epictetus, like the pious Hebrew of many of the Psalms, seems to be +satisfied with the present vision of God, whether or not there be any +fuller vision beyond the veil. Yet he elsewhere uses almost Platonic +language, which seems to imply that the soul has a separate life, that it +is a prisoner for a time in the bonds of the flesh, and that it passes at +death to the kindred source from which it sprang.(2614) Yet even here the +hope of an individual immortality, of any future reproduction on a higher +scale of the life on earth, need not be implied; it is indeed probably +absent. It is enough for the profoundly religious spirit of Epictetus that +God calls us; whither He calls us must be left to His will. + +Galen the physician shows a similar detachment from the ordinary hopes of +humanity as to a future life, although it springs from a very different +environment and training from those of Epictetus. Born in the reign of +Hadrian, and dying in the reign of Septimius Severus, Galen represents the +religious spirit of the Antonine age in his firm belief in a spiritual +Power and Providence.(2615) But in philosophy he was an eclectic of the +eclectics. His medical studies began at the age of seventeen. The +influence of the Platonist, Albinus of Smyrna, above all his stay at +Alexandria, while they gave him a wide range of sympathy, account for the +mingled and heterogeneous character of his philosophic creed, which +contains elements from every system except that of Epicurus.(2616) The +result is a curious hesitation and equipoise between conflicting opinions +on the greatest questions. He is particularly uncertain as to the nature +of the soul and its relation to the body. The Platonic doctrine that the +soul is an immaterial essence, independent of corporeal support, seems to +Galen very disputable. How can immaterial essences have any separate +individuality? How can they diffuse themselves over a corporeal frame and +alter and excite it, as in lunacy or drunkenness? And again, if the +Peripatetic doctrine be true, that the soul is the "form" of the body, we +are soon landed in the Stoic materialism from which Galen shrank. The soul +will become, as in the well-known theory refuted in the Phaedo,(2617) a +"temperament" of bodily states, and its superior endurance, its +immortality, will become a baseless dream. On these great questions the +cautious man of science will not venture to come to any dogmatic +conclusion.(2618) + +Galen came to Rome in the year 164, at the beginning of the reign of M. +Aurelius. He soon rose to great fame in his profession, and when, in 168, +he had returned to his native Pergamum, he was recalled by the emperors to +meet them at Aquileia. It was an anxious time. It was the second year of +the campaign against the Marcomanni, and the legions, returning with Verus +from the East, had brought with them the taint of a pestilence which +spread a desolation throughout Italy from which it did not recover for +ages. The slaves were called to arms as in the Punic invasion, along with +the gladiators, and even the brigands of Dalmatia, and the massing of the +forces on the Adriatic only concentrated the malignity of the +plague.(2619) Galen remained with the army for some time, lending his +skill to mitigate the horrors of the disease. He returned to Rome in 170, +and was left there in charge of the youthful Commodus. The philosophic +Emperor and his philosophic physician must have often met in those +dreadful years. And we may be sure, from the detachment of M. Aurelius, +that their conversations would take a wider range than the sanitary +arrangements of the camp. With death in the air, how could two such men, +trained under such masters, fail to question one another as to the sequel +of death? At any rate the fact remains that M. Aurelius on this question +is as submissive as Epictetus, as hesitating as Galen. + +M. Aurelius is commonly spoken of as realising Plato's dream of the +philosopher on the throne. And yet the description is, without some +additions and explanations, somewhat misleading. Philosopher, in the large +speculative sense, he certainly is not in his Meditations. For the +infinite curiosity of intellect, the passion to pierce the veil of the +unknown, to build a great cosmic system, he seems to have had but little +sympathy.(2620) His is the crowning instance of philosophy leaving the +heights and concentrating itself on conduct, which becomes not merely +"three-fourths of life," but the whole, and his philosophy is really a +religion. It is a religion because it is founded on the great principle of +unquestioning, uncomplaining submission to the will of God, the law of the +whole universe. It is a religion because the repellent and rigorous +teaching of the older Stoicism is, as it is in Epictetus, suffused with a +glow of emotion.(2621) And yet this religion, which makes such immense +demands on human nature, cuts itself off from any support in the hope of a +future life. + +On the subject of immortality, indeed, M. Aurelius sometimes seems to +waver. He puts the question hypothetically, or he suggests immortality as +an alternative to extinction at death. "If thou goest indeed to another +life, there is no want of gods, not even there. But if to a state without +sensation, thou wilt cease to be held by pains and pleasures, and to be a +slave to the vessel."(2622) In one doubtful passage he speaks of "the time +when the soul shall fall out of this envelop, like the child from the +womb."(2623) He does not dogmatise on a subject so dark. But his favourite +conception of death is that of change, of transformation, of dissolution +into the original elements. An Infinite Spirit, of which the individual +soul is an emanation, pervades the universe, and at death the finite +spirit is reabsorbed by the Infinite.(2624) With this is coupled the +doctrine of the dark Ephesian philosophy, which through Platonism had a +profound influence on later thought. Life is but a moment of consciousness +in the unresting flow of infinite mutation;(2625) it is a dream, a mere +vapour, the sojourn of a passing stranger. And the last thought of +Aurelius probably was that there was no place for a hope of separate +conscious existence after the last mortal change. Soul and body alike are +swept along the stream of perpetual transformation, and this particular +"ego," with all its dreams and memories, will never re-emerge in a +separate personality. + +M. Aurelius, from the frequency with which he returns to the subject, +seems fully conscious of the instinctive passion for continued life. But +he refuses to recognise it as original and legitimate, and therefore +demanding some account to be given of it.(2626) Still less would he ever +dream of erecting it, as Cicero and Plutarch did, into a powerful argument +for some corresponding satisfaction in another world. It is simply one of +the irrational appetites, a form of rebellion against the universal order, +which must be crushed and brought into submission to inexorable law. +Neither do we find in M. Aurelius any feeling of the need for a +rectification of the injustices of time, for any sphere for the completion +of ineffectual lives, where the crooked may be made straight and the +perverted be restored. He has, apparently, no sympathy with the sadness so +often felt by the noblest minds, at having to go hence with so little +done, so little known. The philosopher seems to have no wish to explore in +some coming life the secrets of the universe, to prolong under happier +conditions the endless quest of the ideal in art and knowledge and +thought, which seems so cruelly baffled by the shortness of the life here +below. The affectionate father and husband and friend seems to have no +dream of any reunion with kindred souls. Above all, this intensely +religious and devout spirit seems to have no conception, such as sometimes +flashes on the mind of Seneca and of Plutarch, of a future beatitude in +the full vision of God. This austere renunciation, if it was deliberate, +of feelings and hopes so dear to humanity, excites a certain admiration, +as the result of a stern self-discipline. It is the resignation of what +are thought to be mere fond, self-flattering fancies in the cold light of +truth, and, as such, it must ever command a reverent respect. Yet how +completely the renunciation cuts off M. Aurelius from the spiritual +movement of his time, from the great onward sweep of humanity to a +spiritual reconstruction! + +The attitude of M. Aurelius to the instinctive longing for immortality is +partly dictated by logical loyalty to the fundamental principles of his +theory of life, partly by personal temperament and sad experience. The +cosmic theory of Heraclitus, the infinite flux of cyclic change, left +little ground for faith in the permanence of consciousness. The Stoic +principle of submission to the law of the whole made it a duty to +acquiesce calmly, or even cheerfully, in what has been ordained for us. +The whole duty, the sole blessedness of man, lie in bringing his will into +conformity with the Eternal Reason, and in moulding this brief mundane +life into a slight counterpart of the order of the mighty world. From one +point of view the single human life is infinitely small, a mere point in +infinite age,(2627) agitated by hopes and fears which are mere flitting +dreams of a momentary consciousness. Nay, the grandest features of its +earthly home shrink to mean proportions before the eye of reason. Asia is +a mere corner, the sea a drop, Athos a tiny clod in the universe.(2628) +Life is so little a thing that death is no evil.(2629) Yet, looked at on +another side, the daemon, the divine spark within each of us, may, by its +irresistible power, create a moral whole in each human spirit which, +during its short space of separate being, may have the rounded harmony and +perfectness of the whole vast order--it may become a perfect miniature of +the universe of God.(2630) This consummate result, attainable, though so +rarely attained, is the ideal which alone gives dignity to human life. The +ideal of humanity lies not in any future life or coming age; it may be, +were the will properly aroused to its divine strength, realised here and +now in our short span of forty years of maturity.(2631) Get rid of gross +fears and hopes, aim only at the moral ends which the will, aided by the +daemon within, can surely reach, dismiss the fear of censure from the +ephemeral crowd around us, the craving for fame among ephemeral +generations whom we shall not see,(2632) let the divine impulse within us +gravitate to its proper orbit, and this poor human life is swept into the +eternal movement of the great whole, and, from a moment of troubled +consciousness, becomes a true life in God. Such a life, having fulfilled +the true law of its being, is in itself rounded and complete: it needs no +dreams of future beatitude to rectify its failures or reward its eager +effort. Death to such a soul becomes an unimportant incident, fixed, like +all other changes, in the general order. And the length or shortness of +life is not worth reckoning. The longest life is hardly a moment in +eternity: the shortest is long enough if it be lived well. This life, as +fixed by eternal law, is a whole, a thing by itself, a thing with +innumerable counterparts in the infinite past, destined to be endlessly +reproduced in the years of the limitless future.(2633) To repine at its +shortness is no more rational than to mourn the swift passing of a +springtime, whose glorious promise, yet ever-withering charm, have come +and gone in the self-same way through myriads of forgotten years. + +This is the ideal view of an austere creed, with a grandeur of its own +which all generations of the West have agreed to venerate. But the +temperament and the history of M. Aurelius had also their share in shaping +his views of life and death. With infinite charity, indulgence, and even +love for his fellows, he was a pessimist about human life.(2634) He had +good excuse for being so. In the words of one who knew that age as only +genius combined with learning can, _le monde s'attristait_; and with good +cause. The horizon was darkened with ominous thunder-clouds. The internal +forces of the Empire were becoming paralysed by a mysterious weakness. The +dim hordes beyond the Danube had descended with a force only to be +repelled in many weary campaigns. Famine and pestilence were inflicting +worse horrors than the Marcomanni. It was the beginning of the end, +although the end was long deferred. The world was growing sad; but there +was no sadder man than the saintly Stoic on the throne, who had not only +to face the Germans on the Danube, and bear the anxieties of solitary +power, but who had to endure the keener anguish of a soul which saw the +spiritual possibilities of human nature, but also all its littleness and +baseness. The Emperor needed all the lessons of self-discipline and +close-lipped resignation which he had painfully learnt for himself, and +which he has taught to so many generations. There have been few nobler +souls, yet few more hopeless. Like the arch mocker of the time, although +from a very different point of view, he sees this ephemeral life, with its +transient pleasures and triumphs, ending in dust and oblivion.(2635) And +its fragility is only matched by its weary sameness from age to age. The +wintry torrent of endless mutation sweeps all round in an eternal +vortex.(2636) This restless change is a movement of cyclic monotony.(2637) +Go back to Vespasian or Trajan: you will find the same recurring +spectacle, men plotting and fighting, marrying and dying.(2638) The +daughter who watches by her mother's death-bed soon passes away under +other eyes. The soul can in vision travel far, and survey the infinity of +ages.(2639) It can stretch forward into the endless ages to come, as it +can go back in historic imagination through the limitless past. Yet it +finds nothing strange in the experience of the past, as there will be +nothing new in the experience of our remotest posterity. The man whose +course has run for forty years, if he has any powers of perception, has +concentrated in his brief span the image of all that has been, all that +ever will be in human thought or fate. The future is not gilded by any +dream of progress: it is not to be imaged in any magic light of a Platonic +Utopia, or City of God descending from heaven like a bride.(2640) From +this "terrene filth," from these poor frivolous souls, what celestial +commonwealth could ever emerge?(2641) The moral is, both on the ground of +high philosophy and sad experience--"be content, thou hast made thy voyage, +thou hast come to shore, quit the ship." + +But even in heathendom, long before M. Aurelius was born, the drift of +thought towards the goal of a personal immortality was strong and intense. +And this was only one consequence of a movement which had profoundly +affected human thought, and had compelled Stoicism to recast itself, as in +the teaching of Seneca. Pure reason could not explain the relation of man +to the universe, it could not satisfy the deepest human instincts. The +maxim, "live according to Nature," was interpreted by the Stoic to mean a +life in accordance with our own higher nature, the Divine element within +us. Yet this interpretation only brought out the irreconcilable +discordance between the two conceptions of Nature in the physical universe +and in the human spirit. There are depths and mysteries in the one which +have no answering correspondence in the other. Something more than reason +is needed to solve the problems of human destiny, the mysterious range of +human aspiration. Nature, as a system of cold impersonal processes, has no +sympathy with man, she may be icily indifferent or actively hostile. To +conform one's life to the supposed dictates of an abstract Reason, +asserting itself in physical laws, which seem often to make a mockery of +the noblest effort and aspiration of man, demanded a servility of +submission in human nature, and called upon it to disown a large part of +its native powers and instincts. Man, a mere ghost of himself, attenuated +to a bloodless shade, finds himself in presence of a power cold, +relentless, unmoral, according to human standards, a power which makes +holocausts of individual lives to serve some abstract and visionary ideal +of the whole. The older Stoicism provided no object of worship. For +worship cannot be paid to an impersonal law without moral attributes. You +may in abject quietism submit to it, but you cannot revere or adore it. It +is little wonder that the Stoic sage, who could triumph over all material +obstructions by moral enthusiasm, was sometimes exalted above the Zeus who +represented mere passionless physical law. Such an idea--for it cannot be +called a Being--has no moral import, it supplies no example, succour, or +inspiration. The sage may for a moment have a superhuman triumph, in his +defiance of the temptations or calamities with which Nature has surrounded +him, but it is a lonely triumph of inhuman pride.(2642) It may be the +divine element within him which has given him the victory, but this is +conceived as the mere effluence of that subtle material force which moves +under all the phenomena of physical Nature. In surrendering yourself to +the impulse of such a power you are merely putting yourself in line with +the other irrational subjects of impersonal law. There is here, it need +not be said, no stimulus to moral life, there is the absolute negation of +it. The affinity of the human soul with the soul of the world is a mere +physical doctrine, however refined and subtle be the "fiery breath" which +is the common element of both. But prolonged ethical study and analysis +combined with the infiltration of Platonism by degrees to modify +profoundly the Stoic conception of the nature of God, and of the relation +of man to Him. God tended to become more and more a person, a moral power, +a father. And the indwelling God became the voice of conscience, +consoling, prompting, supporting, inspiring an ideal of fuller communion +in another sphere. Was the longing for continued life, in communion with +kindred souls, with a Divine Spirit, which has made us what we are, to be +relegated to the limbo of anthropomorphic dreams? + +Seneca, as we have seen in a former chapter, still retains some of the +hard orthodoxy of the older Stoicism. In his letters to Lucilius he +occasionally uses the language of the old Stoic materialism.(2643) But +there can be little doubt that Seneca had assimilated other conceptions +antagonistic to it. God becomes more a Person, distinct from the world, +which He has created, which He governs, which He directs to moral +ends.(2644) He is not merely the highest reason, He is also the perfect +wisdom, holiness, and love. He is no longer a mere blind force or fate; He +is the loving, watchful Father, and good men are His sons. The apparent +calamities which they have to suffer are only a necessary discipline, for, +"whom He loves He tries and hardens by chastisement."(2645) God can never +really injure, for His nature is love, and we are continually loaded with +His benefits.(2646) In his view of the constitution of man, Seneca has +deviated even further from the creed of his school. He appears indeed to +assert sometimes that the soul is material, but it is matter so fine and +subtle as to be indistinguishable from what we call spirit. And the +ethical studies of Seneca compelled him to abandon the Stoic doctrine of +the simple unity of the soul for the Platonic dualism, with the opposition +of reason and animal impulse. The latter has its seat in the body, or the +flesh, as he often calls it. And of the flesh he speaks with all the +contempt of the _Phaedo_. It is a mere shell, a fetter, a prison; or a +humble hostelry which the soul occupies only for a brief space.(2647) With +the flesh the spirit must wage perpetual war, as the alien power which +cramps its native energies, darkens its vision, and perverts its judgment +of the truth. The true life of the spirit will, as in the theology of +Plato, only begin when the unequal partnership is dissolved.(2648) + +The orthodox Stoic doctrine allowed a limited immortality, till the next +great cosmic conflagration. But it was doubtful whether even this +continued existence was real personal life, and with some Stoic doctors it +was a privilege confined to the greater souls.(2649) Like nearly all +philosophers of this age, Seneca occasionally seems to admit the +possibility of a return to antenatal nothingness at death. "Non potest +miser esse qui nullus est" is a consolation often administered even by +those who have the hope of something better than the peace of +annihilation.(2650) It was a consolation which might be a very real one to +men living in the reign of Nero. Taken at the worst, death can only be +dissolution, for the rivers of fire and the tortures of Tartarus are mere +figments of poetic fancy. The mind trained in submission to universal law +will not shrink from a fate which awaits the universe by fire or +cataclysmal change. Its future fate can only be either to dwell calmly for +ever among kindred souls, or to be reabsorbed into the general +whole.(2651) But in moments of spiritual exaltation, such an alternative +does not satisfy Seneca. He has got far beyond the grim submission, or +graceful contempt, of aristocratic suicide, or even the faith in a bounded +immortality. He has a hope at times apparently more clear than any felt by +the Platonic Socrates on the last evening in prison. Death is no longer a +sleep, a blank peace following the futile agitations of life: it is the +gateway to eternal peace. The brief sojourn in the body is the prelude to +a longer and nobler life.(2652) The hour, at which you shudder as the +last, is really the birthday of eternity, when the mind, bursting from its +fetters, will expatiate in all the joy of its freedom in the light, and +have unrolled before it all the secrets and splendour of starry worlds, +without a haunting shadow.(2653) Nay, the vision is moralised almost in +Christian fashion. The thought of eternity compels us to think of God as +witness of every act, to remember that "decisive hour" when, with all +veils and disguises removed, the verdict on our life will be pronounced. +It also gives the hope of purging away for ever the taint of the flesh and +entering on communion with the spirits of the blessed.(2654) Thus as +though with the Eternal eyes upon him, a man should shrink from all the +baser and meaner side of his corporeal life, and so prepare himself for +the great ordeal, and the beatitude of the life to come. + +In the apocalypse of Seneca a new note is struck in pagan meditation on +the immortality. We have left far behind the thought of the Manes haunting +the ancestral tomb, and soothed in returning years by the jet of wine or +the bunch of violets. We are no longer watching, with Pindar or Virgil, +the spirits basking in Elysian meads and fanned by ocean breezes. We are +far on the way to the City of God, _cujus fundamenta in montibus sanctis_. +And indeed Seneca has probably travelled as far towards it as any one born +in heathendom ever did. It is not wonderful that, in the fierce religious +struggle of the fourth century, his moral enthusiasm, his view of this +life as a probation for the next, his glowing vision of an almost +Christian heaven, should have suggested an imaginary intercourse with St +Paul.(2655) + +What were the influences which really moulded his highest conception of +the future state, how much was due to a pure and vigorous spiritual +intuition, how much to Platonic and Pythagorean sources, we cannot pretend +to say. In Seneca's most enraptured previsions of immortality, the very +exuberance of the rhetoric seems to be the expression of intense personal +feeling. But Seneca's was a very open and sensitive mind. One of his +teachers was Sotion, who, like his master Sextius, was called a +Pythagorean, and who, on true Pythagorean principles, taught Seneca to +abstain from animal food.(2656) We may be sure that no Pythagorean teacher +of that age would fail to discuss with his pupil the problem of the future +life. It is true that Seneca only once or twice alludes to the doctrine of +a previous life, and he only mentions the Pythagorean school to record the +fact that in his day it was without a head.(2657) But that does not +preclude the supposition that he may have felt its influence in the +formative years of youth. And the Pythagoreans of the early empire were a +highly eclectic school. They still reproduced the spirit of their founder +in mathematical symbolism, in the ideal of asceticism, in a pronounced +religious tendency.(2658) But they had absorbed much from Platonism, as +well as from the Lyceum and the Porch. These mingled influences also +account for the profound alterations which Stoicism had undergone in the +mind of Seneca. And his contempt for the body or the flesh, and many of +the phrases in which its cramping, lowering influences are described, +savour of the Pythagorean and Platonist schools. + +But Seneca is an inconsistent, though eloquent and powerful, expounder of +that faith in personal immortality, with its moral consequences, which +goes back through many ages to Plato, to Pythagoras, to the obscure +apostles of the Orphic revelation, perhaps to Egypt.(2659) The mythical +Orpheus represents, in the field of religion and in the theory of life and +death, an immense revolution in Greek thought and an enduring spirit which +produced a profound effect down to the last years of paganism in the +West.(2660) With the names of Orpheus and Pythagoras are connected the +assured faith in immortality, the conception of this life as only +preparatory and secondary to the next, the need for purgation and +expiation for deeds done in the body, the doctrine of transmigration and +successive lives, possibly in animal forms. Orpheus was also the mythical +founder of mysteries in whose secret lore the initiated were always +supposed to receive some comforting assurance of a life to come.(2661) A +spokesman in one of Cicero's dialogues recalls with intense gratitude the +light of hope and cheerfulness which the holy rites had shed for him both +on life and death.(2662) And Plutarch, on the death of their daughter, +reminded his wife of the soothing words which they had together heard from +the hierophant in the Dionysiac mysteries.(2663) Long before their day +Plato had often, on these high themes, sought a kind of high +ecclesiastical sanction or suggestion for the tentative conclusions of +dialectic.(2664) The great name of Orpheus, and the mystic lore of this +esoteric faith, had indeed in Plato's day been sadly cheapened and +degraded by a crowd of mercenary impostors.(2665) And even the venerable +rites of Eleusis may have contained an element of coarseness, descending +from times when the processes of nature were regarded unveiled.(2666) But +philosophy and reason, which purged and elevated religion as a whole, did +the same service for the mysteries, and Orphic and Pythagorean became +almost convertible.(2667) The systems represent a converging effort to +solve those great questions which lie on the borderland of religion and +philosophy, questions on which the speculative intellect is so often +foiled, and has to fall back on the support of faith and religious +intuition.(2668) In an age which had forsaken curious speculation, whose +whole interest was concentrated on the moral life, an age which longed for +spiritual vision and supernatural support, an essentially religious +philosophy like the new Pythagoreanism was sure to be a great power. +Gathering up impartially whatever suited its main end from the ancient +schools, maintaining a scrupulous reverence for all the devotion of the +past, it shed over all a higher light, issuing, as its votaries believed, +from the lands of the dawn.(2669) Keeping a consecrated place for all the +gods of popular tradition, linking men to the Infinite by a graduated +hierarchy of spirits with their home in the stars, it rose to the +conception of the One, pure, passionless Being to whom no bloody sacrifice +is to be offered, who is to be worshipped best by silent adoration and a +life of purity. And in cultivating this purity, the grossness of the body +must be attenuated by a strict rule of life.(2670) And though the Highest +be so remote and so ethereal, He has not left us without messengers and +interpreters to bridge the vast interval between us and the Infinite, by +means of dream and vision and oracle. A world of strange daemonic life +surrounds us, a world of spirits and heroic souls akin to ours.(2671) For +though we are immersed in the alien element of the flesh, yet our complex +soul has a divine part, which may even here below have converse with the +Divine. During its period of duress and probation, it may indeed become +irremediably tainted by contact with matter. It may also, hearkening to +the voice of philosophy, hold itself clear and pure from such defilement. +When the mortal severance of the two natures comes, the divine part does +not perish with its mouldering prison, but it may have a very different +destiny in the ages to come, according to the manner of its earthly life. +This life and the eternal state are linked in an inevitable moral +sequence; as we sow, so shall we reap in successive lives. There is a +Great Judgment in the unseen world, with momentous, age-long effects. The +spirit which has refused to yield to the seductions of the flesh may, in +the coming life, rise to empyrean heights beyond human imagination to +picture. The soul which has been imbruted by its environment may have to +pass a long ordeal of three thousand years, and then return to another +sojourn in human form, or it may sink hopelessly to ever lower depths of +degradation. + +The biography of Apollonius of Tyana is, of course, in one sense a +romance.(2672) Yet its tales of miracle should hardly be allowed to +obscure its value as a picture of the beliefs of that age. We cannot doubt +that the Pythagorean apostle of the time of the Flavians went all over the +Roman world, preaching his gospel of moral and ritual purity, kindling or +satisfying the faith in the world of spirit, striving in a strange fashion +to reconcile a mystic monotheism and devotion to a pure life of the soul +with a scrupulous reverence for all the mythologies. It may, at first +sight, appear strange that a mystic like Apollonius, of the Pythagorean +school, should so seldom allude to the subject of immortality. The truth +is that Apollonius was not a dogmatic preacher; he dealt little in +theories. His chief business, as he conceived it, was with practical +morality, and the reform or restoration of ritual where it had fallen into +desuetude and decay.(2673) Penetrated as he was with the faith in a +spiritual world, he seems to assume as a postulate the eternity of the +soul, and its incarnation for a brief space on earth. During its sojourn +in the flesh, it is visited by visions from on high, and such revelations +are vouchsafed in proportion to its ascetic purity.(2674) What conception +of the life to come Apollonius entertained we cannot say; but its reality +to him was a self-evident truth. We are surrounded by the spirits of the +departed, although we know it not. Sailing among the islands of the +Aegean, he once gratified his disciples by the tale of his having met the +shade of Achilles at his tomb in the Troad.(2675) Men said that the hero +was really dead, and in the old home of the Myrmidons, his worship was +forgotten. But Apollonius, in a prayer which he had learnt from the sages +on the Ganges, called upon the heroic shade to dispel all doubts by +appearing at his call. At once an earthquake shook the tomb, and a fair +youthful form was by his side of wondrous beauty and superhuman stature, +clothed in a Thessalian mantle. His stature grew more majestic, and his +beauty more glorious as Apollonius gazed. But the sage had no weak fears +in the presence even of so august a spirit, and pressed him with questions +which savour far more of antiquarian than spiritual interest. Was Helen +really in Troy? Why does not Homer mention Palamedes? The hero resolved +his doubts, sent a warning message to the Thessalians to restore his +forgotten honours, and in a soft splendour vanished at the first +cock-crow.(2676) + +The biography of Apollonius closes with a tale which throws a strong light +on the spiritual cravings of that age. The sage firmly believed in +transmigration and immortality, although he discouraged debate on these +high themes.(2677) After his death, the youth of Tyana were much occupied +with solemn thoughts. But there was a sceptic among them who had vainly +besought the departed philosopher to return from spiritland and dispel his +doubts as to the future life. At last one day he fell asleep among his +companions, and then suddenly started up as one demented, with the cry--"I +believe thee." Then he told his friends that he had seen the spirit of the +sage, that he had been actually among them, though they knew it not, +chanting a marvellous song of life and death. It told of the escape of the +soul from the mouldering frame and of its swift flight to ethereal worlds. +"Thou shalt know all when thou art no more; but while thou art yet among +the living, why seek to pierce the mystery?"(2678) + +The new Platonist school, with Plutarch and Maximus at their head, were, +in this age, the great apostles of the hope of immortality. Platonists in +their theory of mind and God, Neo-Pythagorean in their faith in the +openness of the human spirit at its best to supernatural influences, they +felt the doctrine of the coming life to be axiomatic. It is true that the +author of the _Consolation to Apollonius_, seems at times to waver, as +Seneca did, between the idea of extinction at death and the hope of +eternal beatitude.(2679) This piece is full of pessimist thoughts of life, +and embalms many a sad saying of the Greek poets on its shortness and its +misery.(2680) Bringing far more sorrow than joy, life may well be regarded +as a mysterious punishment. That Thracian tribe which mourned at each +birth as others do at death, had a true philosophy of man's estate. The +great consolation is that, in the phrase of Heraclitus, death and life are +one, we are dying every moment from our birth. Death is the great healer, +in the words of Aeschylus, the deliverer from the curse of existence, +whether it be an eternal sleep or a far journey into an unknown land. The +prospect of blank nothingness offers no terrors; for the soul only returns +to its original unconsciousness. But this was hardly a congenial mood to +the author, and before the close, he falls back on the solace of mystic +tradition or poetic vision, that, for the nobler sort, there is a place +prepared in the ages to come, after the Great Judgment, when all souls, +naked and stripped of all trappings and disguises, shall have to answer +for the deeds done in the body.(2681) The same faith is professed by +Plutarch to his wife in the Consolation on the death of their little +daughter, which took place while Plutarch was from home. The loss of a +pure bright young soul, full of love and kindness to all, even to her +lifeless toys, was evidently a heavy blow.(2682) But Plutarch praises his +wife's simple restraint and abstinence from the effusive parade of +conventional mourning. All such displays seemed to him a rather vulgar +intemperance and self-indulgence.(2683) And why grieve for one who is +spared all grief? She had her little joys, and, knowing no other, she +suffers no pain of loss. Yet Plutarch would not have his wife accept the +cold consolation that death brings unconsciousness. He reminds her of the +brighter, more cheering vision which they have enjoyed together as +communicants in the Dionysiac mysteries. If the soul is undying, if it is +of divine parentage and has a divine destiny, then the shortness of its +imprisonment and exile is a blessing. The captive bird may come by use and +wont actually to love its cage. And the worst misery of old age is not +grey hairs and weakness, but a dull absorption in the carnal and +forgetfulness of divine things. "Whom the gods love die young." By calling +them back early, they save them from long wanderings.(2684) + +Plutarch's belief in immortality is a religious faith, a practical +postulate. He nowhere discusses the bases of the belief in an exhaustive +way. It is rather inseparable from his conception of God and His justice, +and the relation of the human soul to God.(2685) He admits that the +prospect of reward or punishment in another world has but little influence +on men's conduct.(2686) Few believe in the tales of tortures of the +damned. And those who do can soothe their fears, and purchase a gross +immortality, by initiations and indulgences.(2687) Yet it is impossible to +doubt that to Plutarch the hope of the eternal life was a precious +possession. He assails with force, and even asperity, the Epicurean school +for their attempt to rob humanity of it, on the pretext of relieving men +of a load of superstitious fears. They are like men on board a ship who, +letting the passengers know that they have no pilot, console them with the +further information that it does not matter, as they are bound to drive +upon the rocks.(2688) The great promise of Epicurus was to free men from +the spectral terrors with which poetic fancy had filled the scenery of the +under world. But in doing so, he invested death with a new horror +infinitely worse than the fabled tortures of the damned. It was a subtle +fallacy which taught that, as annihilation involves the extinction of +consciousness, the lamented loss of the joys and vivid energy of life was +a mere imagination projected on a blank future where no regret could ever +disturb the tranquillity of nothingness(2689). Plutarch took his stand on +psychology. The passion for continued existence is, as a matter of fact, +the most imperious in our nature. With the belief in immortality, Epicurus +sweeps away the strongest and dearest hopes of the mass of men. This life +is indeed full of pain and sorrow; yet men cling to it passionately, +merely as life, in the darkest hours. And they are ready to brave the +worst horrors of Cerberus and Chimaera for the chance of continued +existence.(2690) The privation of a dream of happiness in another world is +a real loss, even though, when the grey day of nothingness dawns, the +consciousness of loss be gone. Is it a light thing to tell the nobler +spirits, the moral athletes, who have battled with evil all life long, +that they have been contending for a visionary crown?(2691) Is it nothing +to the idealist who, amid all the obstructions of the life in the flesh, +has been fostering his nobler powers, in the hope of eternal freedom and +the full vision of truth, that that real life to which he fancied death +was only the gateway is, after all, a mere illusion? Nor does Plutarch +disdain to take account of that vivacity of love which in all ages has +sought to soften the bitterness of parting by the hope of reunion and +recognition in other worlds.(2692) + +The Consolation to Apollonius only refers briefly to the punishment of +lawless wealth and power, as the complement to the reward of virtue.(2693) +But this aspect of immortality is dwelt on at length in the remarkable +treatise on the Delays of the Divine Vengeance. The problem of hereditary +guilt, and the punishment of the children for the sins of the fathers in +this world, in view of the justice and benevolence of God, leads on to the +thought of another tribunal which may terribly correct the injustices of +time.(2694) The doctrine of Divine providence and the doctrine of +immortality stand or fall together.(2695) God could not take so much care +for ephemeral souls, blooming for a brief space and then withering away, +as in the women's soon-fading gardens of Adonis.(2696) Above all, Apollo +would be the greatest deceiver, the god who has so often solemnly from the +tripod ordered rites of expiation and posthumous honours to be paid to +lofty souls departed.(2697) Yet, like his great master Plato, Plutarch +felt that the full assurance of the long dream of humanity lies beyond the +veil--that we know not what we shall be. And, like the master, he invoked +the apocalyptic power of the religious and poetic imagination to fortify +the hesitating conclusions of the reason. + +The visionary power and charm of the great master, whose reign was to be +prolonged for ages after Plutarch's time, is seen, perhaps in a faint +reflection, in Plutarch's mythical forecast of the future of the soul. +Plato's psychology, his sharp opposition of the reason to the lower nature +rooted in the flesh, his vision of the Eternal Goodness, his intensely +moral conception of the responsibility of life on earth, its boundless +possibilities of future unimpeded intuition, its possible eternal +degradation through ages of cyclic change, all this, together with kindred +elements, perhaps from the Semitic east, had left a profound effect on +religious minds. The greatness of S. Augustine is nowhere more apparent +than in his frank recognition of the spiritual grandeur of Plato. And that +great spirit, so agile in dialectic subtlety, so sublime in its power of +rising above the cramping limitations of our mortal life, is also, from +its vivid poetic sympathy, most ready to aid weak ordinary souls to climb +"the altar stairs." Never was pure detached intelligence wedded so +harmoniously to glowing imagination, never was ethereal truth so clothed +in the warm colouring and splendour of the world of sense. Where reason +has strained its utmost strength to solve the eternal riddle, ecstatic +vision and religious myth, transcending the limits of space and time, must +be called in to lend their aid. + +Plato and the Platonic Socrates are fully conscious that the conclusions +of philosophic reason on a future state can be only tentative. And they +often fall back on a divine doctrine, or tradition, or a mythopoeic power +by which poetic imagination peoples the dim regions of a world beyond the +senses. The visions of Timarchus and Thespesius in Plutarch are, like the +Nekuia of the _Phaedo_ and of the _Republic_, an effort of the religious +imagination to penetrate the darkness from which reason recoils. Nor is +the effort strange in one who, along with the purest conception of an +immaterial spirit, still believed in the efficacy of legend and material +symbol to reveal the truth which they veiled.(2698) + +Thespesius of Soli, a man of evil life, once fell from a height, was taken +up for dead, but revived again on the third day, on the eve of his +funeral. He came back to the living an altered man, after a marvellous +experience. His soul, on escaping from the body, was swept along a sea of +light among the stars.(2699) He saw other souls emerging in the form of +fiery bubbles, which burst and gave forth a subtle form in the likeness of +man.(2700) Three or four he recognised, and would have spoken to them, but +they seemed delirious or senseless, and shrank away from him, forming in +the end little companies of their own, who swept along in wild disordered +movements, uttering strange cries of wailing or terror. The soul of an old +acquaintance then hailed him and became his guide, pointing out that the +souls of the really dead cast no shadow, being perfectly pellucid, +surrounded by light. Yet some of them are marked with scales and weals and +blotches. Adrasteia is the inevitable judge of all, and, through three +ministers, three great classes of criminals receive their proper doom. +Some are punished swiftly on earth, another class meet with heavier +judgment in the shades. The utterly incurable are ruthlessly pursued by +the Erinnys, and finally plunged in a dark abyss, of which the horrors +might not be told. The second class undergo a fierce purgatorial +cleansing, in which some spirits have all their stains wiped out and +become clear and lustrous. But where evil is more obstinate, and passion +again and again asserts its power, the soul long retains a colour +appropriate to its peculiar vice. The mean avaricious soul is dark and +squalid; the cruel is blood-red; the envious violet and livid. Short of +the worst eternal torture, souls with insatiable craving for fleshly +delights, gravitate to a birth into low animal forms.(2701) + +Thespesius and his guide are then swept on wings of light to other and +less gloomy scenes. Over the chasm of Forgetfulness, clothed in its +recesses with flowers and herbs which exhale a fragrant odour, the opening +through which Dionysus had passed to his place among the gods, floated a +cloud of spirits like birds, drinking in the fragrance with mirth and +gladness. On again they passed, till they came to a crater which received +the flow of many-coloured streams, snow-white or rainbow-hued,(2702) and +hard by was the oracle of Night and Selene, from which issue dreams and +phantoms to wander among men. Then Thespesius was dazzled with the +radiance which shot from the Delphic tripod upwards to the peaks of +Parnassus; and, blinded by the radiance, he could only hear the shrill +voice of a woman chanting a song which seemed to tell of the hour of his +own death. The woman, his guide explained, was the Sibyl who dwells on the +face of the moon. The sweep of the moon's onward course prevented him +catching the Sibyl's words to the full, but he heard a prophecy of the +desolation of Campania by the fires of Vesuvius, and the death of the +emperor. + +Other scenes of punishment follow, among which Thespesius saw his own +father rising from the abyss, covered with weals and marks of torture +which had been inflicted for a long-buried crime. Finally, the friendly +guide vanished, and Thespesius was forced onwards by dread spectral forms +to witness fresh scenes of torment. The hypocrite who had hidden his vices +under a veil of decorum was forced, with infinite pain of contortion, to +turn out his inmost soul. The avaricious were plunged by daemons by turns +in three lakes, one of boiling gold, one of freezing lead, and one of +hardest iron. But the worst fate of all was reserved for those whose sins +had been visited on their innocent descendants upon earth, who pursued +them with curses, or clung around them in clouds like bees or bats, +keeping ever poignant the memory of transmitted guilt and suffering.(2703) + +The vision of Timarchus, in the piece on the Genius of Socrates, has a +rather different motive from that which inspired the vision of Thespesius. +Thespesius came back with a message as to the endless consequences of sin +in worlds beyond the senses, and the far-reaching responsibilities of the +life on earth. The experiences of Timarchus in the cave of Trophonius were +intended to teach the doctrine of the existence, apart from the lower +powers akin to fleshly nature, of the pure intelligence or daemon, which, +coming from the Divine world, can catch its voices and transmit them to +the mortal life here below. Timarchus made the descent into the cave of +Trophonius and spent in its weird darkness two nights and a day, during +which he saw a wondrous revelation of the spirit-world.(2704) His higher +part, escaping from the sutures of the head, emerged in pellucid ether. +There was no trace of earthly scenery, but countless islands swept around +him, gleaming with the shifting colours of lambent fire, amid tones coming +from ethereal distances.(2705) From a yawning abyss of surging darkness +arose endless wailings and moans. An unseen guide explained to him the +fourfold division of the universe and the boundaries of its provinces. +High above all is the sphere of the One and the Invisible. Next in order +is the region of pure mind, of which the Sun is lord. The third is the +debatable land between pure intelligence and the sensible and mortal--the +region of soul, whose mistress is the moon. Styx is the boundary between +this lunar kingdom and the low world of matter, sin, and death. The three +realms beneath the highest correspond to the three elements of our +composite nature,--mind, soul, and body.(2706) This mortal life is a +temporary and unequal partnership of the Divine reason with the lower +appetites, which have their roots in the flesh. It is an exile, an +imprisonment; it is also a probation of the higher part of human nature, +and its escape comes to it by a twofold death. The first, imperfect and +incomplete, is the severance of soul from body in what men call death, the +falling away of the gross wrappings of matter. This death is under the +sway of Demeter. The second, under the care of Persephone, is a slower +process, in which the ethereal reason, the true eternal personality of +man, is finally released from association with the passionate and +sensitive nature, which is akin to the bodily organism. After the first +corporeal death, all souls wander for a time in the space between the moon +and earth. In the vision of Timarchus, he saw over the chasm of darkness a +host of stars with a curious variety of motion. Some shot up from the gulf +with a straight decided impetus. Others wavered in deflexions to right or +left, or, after an upward movement, plunged again into the abyss. These +motions, as the invisible guide expounded, represent the various +tendencies of souls, corresponding to the strength or weakness of the +spiritual force within them. All souls have an element of the Divine +reason, but it is variously blended with the baser elements in different +natures. In some it becomes completely sunk and absorbed in the life of +the senses. In others, the rational part holds itself above the lower +bodily life, and maintains an almost separate existence. And yet there are +natures in which the rational and irrational elements wage a long and +indecisive conflict until, slowly, at last, the passions recognise their +rightful master, and become obedient to the heavenly voice within. The +debased and hopeless souls, rising for a moment after death, are repelled +with fierce angry flashes by the moon, and fall back again to the world of +sense and corruption, to undergo a second birth. The purer souls are +received by her for a loftier destiny. In some, the pure spiritual part is +finally released by the love of the Sun from the lower powers of the soul, +which wither and fade away as the body does on earth. Others, still +retaining the composite nature, though no longer tainted by the flesh, +dwell in the moon as daemons, but often revisit the earth on various +missions, to furnish inspiration to oracles and mysteries, to save men +from crime or to punish, to help the struggling by land or sea. But even +the daemons may fall from their high estate. If, in their duties of +providence and succour, they show anger or favour or envy, they may be +thrust down once more into the purgatory of material form.(2707) + +It may well be that the unsympathetic critic will regard such an +imaginative invasion of the unseen as a freak of lawless fancy, hardly +worth chronicling. And like all similar attempts, the apocalypse of +Plutarch may easily be treated with an airy ridicule. To a more serious +criticism, it seems vitiated by a radical inconsistency. Starting with the +principle of the absolutely immaterial nature of the immortal part of man, +it yet depicts its future existence in the warmest colours of the world of +sense. Its struggles, its tortures, its beatitude are described in terms +which might seem fitting only to a corporeal nature. All this is true; and +yet the answer which Plutarch would probably have made to any such cavils +is very simple. How can you speak of pure disembodied spirit at all, how +can you imagine it, save in the symbolism of ordinary speech? Refine and +subtilise your language to the very uttermost, and it will still retain +associations and reminiscences, however faint and distant, of the material +world. Myth and symbol are necessary to any expression of human thought +alike about God and the future of the soul. The Infinite Spirit and the +future destiny of the finite, which is His child, are equally beyond the +range of human sense and speech. When the human spirit has exhausted all +its efforts of imagination to pierce the darkness of the world beyond the +grave, it takes refuge in some religious system which claims to have a +divine message and speaks in the tones of another world. The voice from +eternity came to troubled heathendom from Egypt and the East. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + + THE OLD ROMAN RELIGION + + +It is well known that, from the second Punic War to the revival of +Augustus, old Roman religion was falling into decay. Yet sweeping +assertions about the religious condition of any age must he taken with +some reserve. They are often unsafe about a contemporary society; they +must be still more so with regard to a society which is known to us almost +entirely through the literary remains of a comparatively small cultivated +class. Even among that limited circle, we can know only the opinions of a +few, and hardly anything of its silent members, still less of the feelings +of its women and dependents. A deep shadow rests on those remote granges +and quiet country towns in Samnium or Lombardy where character remained +untainted in the days of Nero or Domitian, and where the religion of Numa +long defied the penal edicts of Theodosius and Honorius. Lucretius, whose +mission it was to liberate men from the terrors of old Latin and Etrurian +superstition, was not contending against an imaginary foe. The sombre +enthusiasm which he throws into the conflict reveals the strength of the +enemy. The grandmother of Atticus and Terentia, the wife of Cicero, were +timorous devotees. Among the aristocratic augurs of Cicero's day there +were firm believers in the sacred birds; and Lentulus, a confederate of +Catiline, trusted implicitly in the oracles of the Sibyl.(2708) + +Still there can be no doubt that in the governing and thinking class of +the last century of the Republic, scepticism and even open contempt for +the old religion were rampant. Many causes were at work to produce this +decadence of old Roman faith. It was hardly possible for the cultivated +Roman of the days of Scipio Aemilianus, or of Cicero and Caesar, who had +fought and travelled in many lands, and studied their mythologies and +philosophies, to acquiesce in the faith of the simple farmers of Latium, +who founded the Ambarvalia and Lupercalia, who offered the entrails of a +dog to Robigus(2709) and milk to Pales and Silvanus, who worshipped +Jupiter Feretrius under the mountain oak.(2710) Since those far-off days, +Latium had come under many influences, and added many new deities to her +pantheon. The gods of Hellas had come to be identified with the gods of +Rome, or to share their honours. Syncretism had been at work in Italy +centuries before the days of Plutarch and Aristides. And the old Italian +deities, who had only a shadowy personality, with no poetry of legend to +invest them with human interest, melted into one another or into forms of +alien mythology. Greek literature became familiar to the educated from the +Hannibalic war, and a writer like Euripides, who had a great popularity, +must have influenced many by the audacious skill with which he lowered the +dignity and dimmed the radiance of the great figures of Greek legend. The +comic stage improved upon the lesson. Early in the second century Ennius +translated the Sacred Histories of Euhemerus, and familiarised his +countrymen with a theory which reduced Jupiter and Saturn, Faunus and +Hercules, to the stature of earthly kings and warriors. But Greek +philosophy was the great solvent of faith. The systems of the New Academy +and Epicurus were openly or insidiously hostile to religious belief. But +they had not so long and powerful a reign over the Roman mind as Stoicism, +and, although the earlier Stoicism extended a philosophic patronage to +popular religion, it may be doubted whether it stimulated faith. There was +indeed a certain affinity between Stoical doctrine and old Roman religion, +as there was between Stoic morals and old Roman character. In resolving +the gods by allegory and pseudo-scientific theory into various potencies +of the great World-Soul, the follower of Zeno did not seem to do much +violence to the vaguely personified abstractions of the old Latin creed. +Above all, with the exception of Panaetius, the Stoic doctors did not +throw doubt on the powers of divination and augury, so essential an +element in the religion of Rome. The power to read the future was a +natural corollary to the providence and benevolence of the gods.(2711) +Yet, although the Stoic might strive to discover the germ of truth, he did +not conceal his contempt for the husk of mythology in which it was hidden, +and for many of the practices of worship.(2712) + +Quintus Scaevola and Varro applied all the forces of subtle antiquarianism +and reverence to sustain the ancestral faith. But they also drew the line +sharply between the religion of philosophy and the religion of the State. +And Varro went so far as to say that the popular religion was the creation +of early statesmen,(2713) and that if the work had to be done again, it +might be done better in the light of philosophy. The Stoic in Cicero, as +Seneca did after him, treated the tales of the gods as mere anile +superstition.(2714) It is probable that such was the tone, in their +retired debates, of the remarkable circle which surrounded Scipio and +Laelius. Panaetius, their philosophic guide, had less sympathy than any +great Stoic with popular theology.(2715) Polybius gave small place to +Providence in human affairs, and regarded Roman religion as the device of +statesmen to control the masses by mystery and terror.(2716) Yet these men +were enthusiastic champions of a system which they regarded as irrational, +but which was consecrated by immemorial antiquity. Laelius defended the +institutions of Numa in a speech of golden eloquence which moved the +admiration of Cicero, just as Symmachus defended them five centuries later +before the council of Valentinian.(2717) The divorce between esoteric +belief and official profession must have insidiously lowered the moral +tone of those who were at once thinkers and statesmen. Such a false +position struck some of the speakers in Cicero's theological dialogues, +and it makes his own opinions an enigma.(2718) The external and +utilitarian attitude to the State religion hardly secured even punctual or +reverent conformity in the last age of the Republic. Divination and augury +had become mere engines of political intrigue, and the aristocratic +magistrate could hardly take the omens without a smile. Varro could not +repress the fear that the old religion, on which he expended such a wealth +of learning, might perish from mere negligence.(2719) The knowledge of +liturgical usage began to fade, and Varro had to recall the very names of +forgotten gods. An ancient priesthood of the highest rank remained +unfilled for seventy years.(2720) Scores of the most venerable temples +were allowed to fall into ruin,(2721) and ancient brotherhoods like the +Titii and Fratres Arvales are hardly heard of for generations before the +reforms of the Augustan age. + +It is not within the scope of this work to enter minutely into the subject +of that great effort of reform or reaction. It is commonly said that the +cool imperial statesman had chiefly political ends in view, and especially +the aggrandisement and security of the principate. And certainly Ovid, who +strove to interest his countrymen in the revival of their religion, does +not display much seriousness in religion or morals. He treats as lightly +the amours of Olympus as the intrigues of the Campus Martius and the +Circus. Yet it may well have been that after the terrible orgies of civil +strife through which the Roman world had passed, Augustus was the +convinced representative of a repentant wish to return to the old paths. +The Roman character, through all wild aberrations of a trying destiny, was +an enduring type. And Augustus, if he may have indulged in impious revels +in his youth, which recall the wanton freaks of Alcibiades,(2722) had two +great characteristics of the old Roman mind, formalism and superstition. +He had an infinite faith in dreams and omens. He would begin no serious +business on the Nones.(2723) When he had to pronounce a funeral oration +over his sister, Octavia, he had a curtain drawn before the corpse, lest +the eyes of the pontiff might be polluted by the sight of death.(2724) We +may think that his religious revival was not inspired by real religious +sentiment. Yet it is well to remind ourselves that old Roman religion, +while it consecrated and solemnised the scenes and acts of human life, was +essentially a formal religion; the _opus operatum_ was the important +thing. Its business was to avert the anger or win the favour of dim +unearthly powers; it was not primarily to purify or elevate the soul. +Above all, it was interwoven from the beginning with the whole fabric of +society and the State. Four centuries after Augustus was in his grave, it +was only by a violent wrench, which inflicted infinite torture even on +pagan mystics of the Neoplatonist school, that Rome was severed from the +gods who had been the guardians and partners of her career for twelve +hundred years. The altar of Victory which Augustus had placed in the +Senate-house, and before which twelve generations of senators after him +offered their prayers for the chief of the State, the most sacred symbol +of the pagan Empire, was only removed after a fierce, obstinate struggle. + +The religious revival of Augustus may not have aroused any deep religious +sentiment; that, as we shall see, was to come from a different source. But +it gave a fresh life to the formal religion of the State, which maintained +itself till within a few years before the invasion of Alaric. The title +Augustus which the new emperor assumed was one which, to the Roman mind, +associated him with the majesty of Jupiter and the sanctity of all holy +places and solemn rites.(2725) It was the beginning of that theocratic +theory of monarchy which was to culminate, under the influence of +Sun-worship, in the third century, and to propagate itself into ages far +removed from the worship of Jupiter or the Sun. Although the counsels of +Maecenas, recorded by Dion Cassius, may be apocryphal, Augustus acted in +their spirit.(2726) As triumvir he had raised a shrine to Isis,(2727) as +emperor he frowned on alien worships.(2728) His mission was to restore the +ancient religion of Latium. He burnt two thousand books of spurious +augury, retaining only the Sibylline oracles.(2729) He restored the +ancient temples, some of them, like those of Jupiter Feretrius and Juno +Sospita, coeval with the Roman State, and encouraged his friends to do the +same for other venerable monuments of devotion. The most lavish gifts of +gold and jewels were dedicated in the Capitoline temples. The precision of +ancient augury was restored. Ancient priesthoods which had been long +vacant were filled up, and the sacred colleges were raised in dignity and +wealth.(2730) Special care was taken to recall the vestals to the chaste +dignity from which they had fallen for a hundred years. Before taking his +seat, each senator was required to make a prayer, with an offering of +incense and wine before the altar. Three worships, specially connected +with the fortunes of Augustus or his race,--those of Venus Genetrix, Mars +Ultor, and the Palatine Apollo,--were revived with added splendour.(2731) +The emperor paid special attention to the ancient sacred colleges, such as +the Salii and Arvales, which went back to days far earlier than the +Republic. Amid all the cares of State, he attended their meetings +punctually. The dangerous right of co-optation was quietly withdrawn, till +the members in the end owed their appointment to the sacerdotal chief of +the State.(2732) The colleges became the most courtly and deferential +supports of the prince's power. Prayers for his safety soon found a place +in their antique litanies. It has been said with some truth that the Salii +and Arvales seem to be thinking more of the emperors than of the gods. The +colleges had a courtly memory for all anniversaries in the imperial +family. The Arval brothers achieved the infamy of complimenting Nero on +his return after the murder of Agrippina,(2733) and made vows of equal +fervour for all the emperors of the year 69.(2734) + +But it was through the chief pontificate that the emperors did most at +once to fortify and dignify their secular power, and to prolong the reign +of the old Latin religion. It was the highest religious dignity of ancient +Rome. The college of which the emperor, as Pontifex Maximus, was head +exercised a supreme and comprehensive control over the whole field of +religion.(2735) It was charged with the duty of maintaining the ancestral +purity and exactness of the national worship, and of repressing tendencies +to innovation and the adoption of alien rites. It selected the virgins who +guarded the eternal fire, and sat in judgment on erring vestals and their +betrayers. It had special jurisdiction in questions of adoption, burial, +and sacred sites.(2736) From Augustus every emperor was also chief +pontiff;(2737) even the Christian princes from Constantine to Valentinian +and Valens bear the honoured title in the inscriptions, and accepted the +pontifical robes.(2738) Thus the emperors strove in their religious +attributes to connect themselves with the sacred tradition of Numa and the +Roman kings. And, as time went on, the imperial house claimed a growing +share in the pontifical honours. Nero, indeed, had been a member of all +the sacred colleges as well as chief pontiff.(2739) But down to the reign +of Vespasian only one of the "Caesares" could belong to the sacred +college. But his sons Titus and Domitian were co-opted to the pontificate +and all the priestly colleges before his death.(2740) From Hadrian the +pontificate and all the highest sacerdotal honours were held by all +designated successors of the emperor.(2741) Antoninus Pius has the +insignia of four priestly colleges on his coins.(2742) M. Aurelius was one +of the Salian brotherhood in his eighth year,(2743) and was received into +all the colleges at nineteen.(2744) Commodus had reached the same sacred +honours before he assumed the toga,(2745) and in five years more was +Pontifex Maximus. Thus deeply had the policy of Augustus sunk into the +minds of his successors. It is little wonder that never in the great days +of the Republic were the forms of ancient religion more scrupulously +observed than in the reign of M. Aurelius.(2746) + +Private opinion after the Augustan revival greatly varied as to matters of +faith. Men like the elder Pliny and Seneca scoffed at anthropomorphic +religion. Men like Juvenal and Tacitus maintained a wavering attitude, +with probably a receding faith. Others like Suetonius were rapacious +collectors of every scrap of the miraculous. The emperors who succeeded +Augustus were, with the exception of Nero, loyal supporters and protectors +of the religion of the State. Tiberius, although personally careless of +religion, displayed a scrupulous respect for ancient usage in filling up +the ancient priesthoods, and in guarding the Sibylline verses from +interpolations.(2747) He also frowned on the imported rites of +Egypt.(2748) Claudius, at once pedantic and superstitious, revived +venerable rites of the days of Tullus Hostilius, and, when an ill-omened +bird alighted on the temple of Jupiter, as supreme pontiff, the emperor +pronounced the solemn form of expiation before the assembled people.(2749) +Nero, and the Neronian competitors for the Empire, in the fierce conflict +which followed his death, were, indeed, often, though not always, careless +of ancient rite, but they were all the slaves of superstition.(2750) The +Flavians and Antonines were religious conservatives of the spirit of +Augustus. There is a monument to Vespasian of the year 78 A.D. as "the +restorer of temples and public ceremonies."(2751) The restoration of the +Capitol, which had been burned down in the civil war, was one of the first +tasks of his reign. And the ceremony made such an impression on the +imagination of the youthful Tacitus, that he has recorded with studied +care the stately and accurate ritual of olden time which was observed by +the emperor.(2752) Domitian carried on the restoration on even a more +splendid scale; he was a devotee of Minerva, and a rigorous vindicator of +old ascetic religious law.(2753) The emperor Hadrian, whose character is +an enigma of contrasts, to judge by his last famous _jeu d'esprit_ on his +death-bed, probably died a sceptic. Yet his biographer tells us that he +was a careful guardian of the ancient ritual.(2754) The archaistic fashion +in literary taste, which had begun in the first century, and which +culminated in Hadrian's reign, favoured and harmonised with a scrupulous +observance of ancient forms in religion.(2755) The genius of one too early +taken away has done more than a legion of historic critics to picture for +us the sad, dutiful piety of a spirit of the Antonine age, steeped in +philosophies which made the passing moment of vivid artistic perception +the great end of life, yet still instinct with the old Roman love of +immemorial forms at the harvest gathering or the yearly offering to the +dead members of the household.(2756) The cheerless negation of Epicurus, +and the equally withering theology of the Stoics, could not weaken in +Roman hearts the spell of ancestral pieties which clustered round the +vault near the grey old country house of the race, looking down on the +Tyrrhene sea, or the awe of ancient grove or spring sacred to Silvanus and +the Nymphs, or the calm, chastened joy in a ritual in which every act was +dictated by a love of ceremonial cleanness and exactness, and redolent of +an immemorial past. In such a household, and in such an atmosphere, the +two great Antonines were reared. The first, who was before all else an +honest country gentleman, fond of hunting, fishing, and the gladness of +the vintage at Lorium, never failed to perform all due sacrifices unless +he was ill. His coins bear the pictured legends of the infancy of +Rome.(2757) M. Aurelius was famous as a boy for his knowledge of Roman +ritual. Enrolled in the college of the Salii in his eighth year, he +performed all its sacred offices with perfect composure, reciting from +memory, with no one to dictate the form, every word of the ancient liturgy +which had in his generation become almost unintelligible.(2758) In the +terror of the Marcomannic invasion he delayed his departure for the seat +of war to summon around him all the priests; he had the city purified in +solemn, decorous fashion, not excluding even the rites of alien lands; and +for seven days the images of the gods were feasted on their couches along +all the streets.(2759) + +The emperors from Augustus found religion a potent ally of sovereignty, +and the example of the master of the world was a great force. Yet it may +well be doubted whether, in the matter of religious conservatism, the +emperors were not rather following than leading public opinion. Gods were +in those times being created by the score; apotheosis was in the air from +the days of Nero to the days of the Severi. Petronius, with an +exaggeration which has a certain foundation in fact, affirms that in +Croton you could more readily light upon a god than on a man.(2760) The +elder Pliny uses almost the same strength of language. The grumbler in +Lucian indignantly complains of the fashion in which the ancient gods of +Olympus are being overshadowed by the divine _parvenus_ of every clime. +And, as we shall presently see, the inscriptions reveal an immense +propaganda of worships in tone and spirit apparently hostile to the old +religion of the Latin race. Yet the inscriptions also show that the old +gods had really little to fear from the new. A survey of the index to +almost any volume of the Corpus will convince the student that the Trinity +of the Capitol,--Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva,--that Hercules and Silvanus, +the Nymphs, Semo Sancus and Dea Dia, Mars and Fortuna, so far from being +neglected, were apparently more popular than ever.(2761) In an age of +growing monotheism the King of the gods was, of course, still supreme in +his old ascendency. Jupiter is worshipped under many titles; he is often +coupled or identified with some provincial deity of ancient fame.(2762) +But Jupiter is everywhere. The Lord of the thunder and the tempest has +shrines on the high passes of the Apennines or the Alps,(2763) and +soldiers or travellers leave the memorials of their gratitude for his +protection on perilous journeys.(2764) The women of Campanian towns go in +procession to implore him to send rain.(2765) Antoninus Pius built a +temple to Juno Sospita of Lanuvium, where the goddess had a sacred grove, +and a worship of great antiquity.(2766) The Quinquatria of Minerva were +not only celebrated with special honour by Domitian, but by large and +powerful classes who owned her divine patronage, physicians and artists, +orators and poets.(2767) Some of the old Latin deities seem to have even +grown in popularity under the early Empire. Hercules, the god of plenty, +strong truth, and good faith, whose legend is intertwined with the most +venerable names in Roman story, has his altars and monuments +everywhere.(2768) Combining with his own native Latin character the poetic +prestige of his brother of Greek legend, he became the symbol of +world-wide conquest, and was associated in the end with the triumph of the +"unconquered" Mithra. His image is stamped upon the coins of some of the +emperors. Septimius Severus, Caracalla, and Diocletian took him for their +great divine patron and ensample.(2769) Silvanus, too, the god of the +primeval forest, and, when the forest had receded, the god of the shepherd +and the farmer, the guardian of boundaries, acquired a strange vogue in +what was eminently an age of cities. One is apt, however, to forget +sometimes that it was an age which had also a charming country life. A +Roman cavalry officer in Britain has left a memorial of his gratitude to +Silvanus for the capture of a wild boar of surpassing size and +strength,(2770) which had long defied the hunter. In one of the forest +cantons of the Alps a procurator of the imperial estates inscribed his +gratitude in a pretty set of verses to the god of the wilds, whose image +was enshrined in the fork of a sacred ash.(2771) It is the record of many +a day passed in lonely forest tracks, coupled with a prayer to be restored +safely to Italian fields and the gardens of Rome. The nymphs and river +gods had all their old honours. Chapels and hostelries, in the days of +Pliny, rose on the banks of the Clitumnus, where the votaries easily +combined pleasure with religious duty. The nymphs receive votive thanks +for the discovery of hidden springs, or for the reappearance of some +fountain long dried up.(2772) Aesculapius, who had been naturalised in +Italy since the beginning of the third century B.C., sprang to a foremost +place in the age of the Antonines. Whether it was "an age of +valetudinarians," as has been said, may be doubtful; but it was an age +eagerly in quest of the health which so often comes from the quiet mind. +Whatever we may think of the powers of the old Olympians, there can be no +doubt about the beneficent influence of the god of Epidaurus. He was +summoned to Rome 300 years before Christ, and obtained a home in the +island in the Tiber, where for ages he gave his succour in dreams. His +worship spread far and wide, and was one of the last to succumb to the +advance of the Church.(2773) + +The unassailable permanence of the old religion may perhaps be still more +vividly realised in the long unbroken life of sacred colleges, such as the +Salii and the Fratres Arvales. The Arval brotherhood was probably the +oldest sacred corporation of Latium, as its liturgy, preserved in the Acta +from the reign of Augustus to that of Gordian, is the oldest specimen of +the Latin language.(2774) According to the legend, the first members were +the twelve sons of Acca Larentia, the foster-mother of Romulus, and +Romulus himself first held the dignity of master of the brotherhood.(2775) +Its patron goddess, Dea Dia,(2776) was, as her very name suggests, one of +those dim shadowy conceptions dear to old Roman awe, who was worshipped in +the still solitude of ancient groves, on whose trunks no axe of iron might +ever ring,(2777) a power as elusive and multiform to picturing fancy as +the secret forces which shot up the corn ear from the furrow. The whole +tone of the antique ritual savours of a time when the Latin race was a +tribe of farmers, believing with a simple faith that the yearly increase +of their fields depended on the favour of secret unearthly powers. The +meetings of the college took place on three days in May, the precise dates +being fixed and solemnly announced by their master on the 3rd of +January.(2778) The festival began and ended in the master's house at Rome, +the intermediate day being spent in a sacred grove on the right bank of +the Tiber, about four miles from the city. There was much feasting, at +which the brethren were attended by the Camilli, four sons of high-born +senators. Corn of the new and the preceding year was touched and blessed; +libations and incense were offered to the goddess, and all the rites were +performed with many changes of costume, which were rigidly observed.(2779) +In the ceremonies which took place in the grove, an expiatory sacrifice of +two porkers and a white cow was always offered, to atone for the use of +any iron implement, or other infringement of the ancient rubric.(2780) Fat +lambs were offered in sacrifice to Dea Dia, and ancient earthen vessels of +rude make, resembling those of the age of Numa, were adored upon the +altar.(2781) Ears of corn, plucked in some neighbouring field, were +blessed and passed from the hand of one member to another, and back again +in reverse order, and, at last, in the closed temple, along with solemn +dancing, the famous chant was intoned from ancient scrolls, the words of +which had long become strange even to the antiquary. After another meal in +the hall of the brotherhood, the members passed on to the circus and gave +the signal for the races to begin.(2782) + +This ritual, so little heard of before the time of Augustus, is chiefly +known to us from the Acta which have been recovered from the site of the +ancient grove. The monuments of it extend from the reign of Augustus to +the year 241 A.D.(2783) Members of the highest aristocracy and princes of +the imperial house appear on its lists. Its membership was a high +distinction, and was sometimes conferred by the potent recommendation of +the emperor.(2784) The college evidently became a great support of the +imperial power. + +The emperors were elected _magistri_ of the College, and we can read that +Caligula, Nero, Vespasian, and Titus were present at its meetings. In the +opening days of January the most solemn vows are made in old Roman fashion +for the emperor's safety, to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, to Salus and Dea +Dia, and they are duly paid by offerings of oxen with gilded horns.(2785) +So servile or so devoted to the throne was the brotherhood, that their +prayers were offered with equal fervour for three emperors in the awful +year 69 A.D.(2786) The vows made for Galba in the first week of January +were alertly transferred to the cause of Otho the day after Galba's +murder.(2787) The college met to sacrifice in honour of Otho's pontificate +on the day (March 14) on which he set out to meet his doom in the battle +on the Po. Thirteen days after his death, while the spring air was still +tainted with the rotting heaps on the plain of Bedriacum, vows as fervent +or as politic were registered for Vitellius. In the summer of the +following year, the arrival of Vespasian in the capital was celebrated by +the Arval brothers with sacrifices to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva and Fortuna +Redux.(2788) + +The college, as a matter of course, paid due honour to the emperor's +birthday and all important anniversaries in his family. It is interesting +to see how for years the Neronian circle, the Othos and Vitellii, along +with Valerii and Cornelii, appear in all the records of the college.(2789) +It was apparently devoted to Nero. The brothers celebrate his birthday and +all the civic and sacerdotal honours heaped upon him.(2790) They make vows +for his wife Octavia, and soon after, for the safety of Poppaea in +childbirth. The matricide dreaded to return from Campania after his +unnatural crime, but his admirers knew well the abasement of the Roman +aristocracy, and promised him an enthusiastic reception. The Arval +brotherhood, which then included a Regulus and a Memmius, redeemed the +promise, and voted costly sacrifices for his safe restoration to the +capital.(2791) They execrate the secret plots against his sacred person, +and offer thanksgiving for the detection of the Pisonian conspiracy.(2792) + +The extant prayers and congratulations for the safety of Vespasian are +much more quiet and restrained than those for his cruel son +Domitian.(2793) The public joy at Domitian's safe return from ambiguous +victories in Germany or Dacia is faithfully re-echoed, and effusive +supplications are recorded for his safety from all peril and for the +eternity of the Empire whose bounds he has enlarged. There is a sincerer +tone in the prayers, in the spring of 101, for the safe return of Trajan, +when he was setting out for his first campaign on the Danube, and on his +home-coming four years later.(2794) The Arval records of Hadrian's reign +are chiefly noteworthy for his letters to the college, recommending his +friends for election.(2795) In the reign of Antoninus Pius the Acta +register those perfervid acclamations which meet us in the later Augustan +histories:(2796)--"O nos felices qui te Imperatorem videmus; Di te servent +in perpetuo; juvenis triumphis, senex Imperator!" The young M. Aurelius is +first mentioned in 155 A.D. Probably the sincerest utterance in the Arval +liturgies is the petition for his safety, and that of L. Verus, from peril +in the years when the Quadi and Marcomanni swept down through Rhaetia and +the Julian Alps to the shores of the Adriatic.(2797) + +It was thus that the antique ritual of a rustic brotherhood was converted +into a potent support of the imperial power. No part of the Augustan +revival was perhaps so successful. Probably few of the emperors, or of the +aristocratic brothers who intoned the litany for the safety of the +imperial house, had much faith in its efficacy. But the ceremony linked +the principate with the most venerable traditions of Latium, and with +Romulus the first master of the college. When we read the minute and +formal record of these coarse sacrifices and rude, fantastic rites, with +the chanting of prayers no longer understood, we are amazed at the +prolongation for so many ages of religious ideas which the Roman mind +might appear to have outgrown. Yet in such inquiries there is often a +danger of treating society as a uniform mass, moving together along the +same lines, and permeated through all its strata by the same influences. +In another chapter we have shown that the masses were probably never so +superstitious as in the second century. And the singular thing is that the +influx of foreign religions, due to the wide conquests of Rome, never to +the end seems to have shaken the supreme attachment of the people to their +ancient gods. It is true that the drift towards monotheism was felt even +among the crowd. But while the educated might find expression for that +tendency in the adoration of Isis or the Sun, the dim monotheism of the +people turned to the glorification of Jupiter. Dedications to him are the +most numerous in all lands. He is often linked with other gods or all the +gods,(2798) but he is always supreme. And, while he is the lord of tempest +and thunder,(2799) he is also addressed by epithets which show that he is +becoming a moral and spiritual power. On many a stone he appears as the +governor and preserver of all things, monitor, guardian, and heavenly +patron, highest and best of the heavenly hierarchy.(2800) Yet it is +equally clear that other gods are worshipped in the same spirit as of old. +Roman religion was essentially practical. Prayer and vow were the means to +win temporal blessings. The gods were expected, in return for worship, to +be of use to the devotee. It is evident from the inscriptions that this +conception of religion was as prevalent in the age of the Antonines, or of +the oriental princes, as it was under the Republic. The sailor still +offers thanks for his preservation to Neptune and the gods of the +sea.(2801) The successful merchant still honours Mercury.(2802) Minerva +Memor receives thanks for succour in sickness. A lady of Placentia even +pays her vows for the recovery of her hair.(2803) The reappearance of a +hidden spring is still attributed to the grace of the Nymphs.(2804) And in +many a temple the healing power of Aesculapius is acknowledged by grateful +devotees.(2805) + +A more difficult problem is presented by the attitude of the cultivated +class to the old mythologies. Since the days of Xenophanes and of Plato, +philosophy had revolted against the degradation of the Divine character by +ancient legend. It had taught for ages the unity of the mysterious Power +or Goodness which lies behind the shifting scene of sense. Moreover, +philosophy for generations had deserted the heights of speculative +inquiry, and addressed itself to the task of applying the spiritual truth +which the schools had won to the problems of practical religion and human +life. Alike in Cicero, in Seneca, in Plutarch, and M. Aurelius, there are +conceptions of God and the worship due to Him, of prayer, of the relation +of conduct to religion, which seem irreconcilable with conformity to the +old religion of Rome. How could a man, nourished on such spiritual ideas +and refined by a thousand years of growing culture, take part in a gross +materialistic worship, and even gallantly defend it against all +assailants? + +The conformity of highly instructed minds to ancient systems which their +reason has outgrown is not always to be explained by the easy imputation +of dishonesty. And that explanation is even less admissible in ancient +than in modern times. Roman religion did not demand any profession of +faith in any theory of the unseen; all it required was ceremonial purity +and exactness. And the Roman world was never scandalised by the spectacle +of a notorious sceptic or libertine holding the office of chief pontiff. +If a man were more scrupulous himself, philosophy, whether of the Porch or +the Academy, came to his aid. It would tell him that frail humanity, +unable to comprehend the Infinite God, had parcelled out and detached his +various powers and virtues, which it adored under material forms according +to its varying needs.(2806) Or it found a place for all the gods of +heathendom, as ministering or mediating spirits in the vast abyss which +separates us from the unapproachable and Infinite Spirit.(2807) If the +legends which had gathered around the popular gods offended a tender moral +sense, men were taught that the apparent grossness was an allegorical +husk, or a freak of poetic fancy which concealed a wholesome truth. Thus a +pantheist or monotheist, who would never have created such a religious +system for himself, was trained to cultivate a double self in matters of +religion, to worship reverently with the crowd, and to believe with Zeno +or with Plato. + +The heathen champion in the dialogue of Minucius Felix maintains that, in +the dimness and uncertainty of things, the safest course is to hold fast +to the gods of our fathers.(2808) The inclination of the sceptic was +fortified by the conservative instinct of the Latin race and its love of +precedent and precision of form. Moreover the religion of Numa was +probably more than any other involved and intertwined with the whole life +of the people. It penetrated the whole fabric of society; it consecrated +and dignified every public function, and every act or incident of private +life. To desert the ancient gods was to cut oneself off from Roman +society, as the Christians were sternly made to feel. No established +Church in modern Christendom has probably ever so succeeded in identifying +itself with the national life in all its aspects. Alike under the Republic +and under the Empire, religion was inseparable from patriotism. The +imperial pontiff was bound to watch over the purity and continuity of the +Latin rites. He might be a scoffer like Nero, or a spiritually-minded +Stoic like M. Aurelius, an Isiac devotee like Commodus, or devoted to the +Syrian worships like the Oriental princes of the third century. But he +took his duties seriously. He would dance with the Salii, or accept with +gratitude the mastership of the Arval brotherhood, or order a +_lectisternium_ to ward off a pestilence or a menacing invasion. The +imperial colleges still held their meetings on the eve of the revolution +of Theodosius. Antiquarian nobles still discussed nice questions of ritual +in the reign of Honorius. At the end of the fifth century the Lupercalia +were still celebrated with coarse, half-savage rites which went back to +the prehistoric times.(2809) The imperial policy, founded by Augustus, no +doubt inspired much of this conformity. But old Roman sentiment, the +passion expressed with such moving eloquence by Symmachus, to feel himself +in touch with a distant past(2810) through a chain of unbroken continuity, +was the great support of the State religion in the fourth century as in +the first. Yet, among the great nobles who were its last +champions--Flavianus, Praetextatus, or Volusianus--there was a spiritual +craving for which the religion provided little satisfaction. They sought +it in the rites and mysteries of Eastern lands which had little in common +with the old Roman religious sentiment. In these alien rites they found a +new religious atmosphere. The priest, set apart from the world, with his +life-long obligations and the daily offices in the shrine, becomes in some +way a minister to the spiritual life of his flock. Instead of cold +ceremonial observance, ecstatic emotion is aroused, often to a degree +which was perilous to character. Through a series of sacraments, with +ascetic preparation for them, the votary rose under priestly guidance to +some vision of the eternal world, with a new conception of sin; this life +and the next were linked in a moral sequence, with tremendous issues of +endless beatitude or endless degradation. In a temple of Magna Mater, +Isis, or Mithra in the reign of Julian, we are far away from the worship +of the Lares and the offering of a heifer to Dea Dia in the grove on the +Tiber. We are travelling towards the spiritual mystery and sacramental +consolations of the mediaeval Church. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + + MAGNA MATER + + +The earliest invader from the East of the sober decorum of old Roman +religion, and almost the last to succumb, was Magna Mater of Pessinus. +There is no pagan cult which S. Augustine, and many of the Fathers before +him, assail with such indignant contempt as hers.(2811) And indeed it was +long regarded with suspicion by old Romans of the cultivated class. For +generations after her reception on the Palatine, no Roman was permitted to +enter her official service. But there was something in that noisy and +bloody ritual, and in the cruel, ascetic sacrifice of its devotees, which +exercised an irresistible power over the imagination of the vulgar; and +even Lucretius felt a certain imaginative awe of the tower-crowned figure +drawn by lions and adored by the cities of many lands.(2812) Varro, who +probably had no great love for the un-Roman ritual, found a place for the +Phrygian goddess in his theodicee.(2813) Her baptism of blood in the +taurobolium was a rite of such strange enthralling influence that it +needed all the force of the Christian Empire to abolish it. And on many of +the last inscriptions of the fourth century the greatest names in the +Roman aristocracy leave the record of their cleansing in the curious +phrase _renatus in aeternum_.(2814) In his youth S. Augustine had seen +processions of effeminate figures with dripping locks, painted faces, and +soft womanish bearing, passing along the streets of Carthage, and begging +alms of the crowd. His horror at the memory of the scene probably springs +almost as much from the manly instincts of the Roman as from the +detestation of the Christian moralist for a debasing superstition.(2815) + +But S. Augustine knew well the power of the superstition. For more than +600 years the Great Mother had been enthroned on the Palatine; for more +than 300 years she had captivated the remotest provinces of the +West.(2816) In the terror of the Second Punic War, 204 B.C., she had been +summoned by solemn embassy from her original home at Pessinus in Galatia. +In obedience to a sibylline command, the Roman youth with purest hands, +together with the Roman matrons, had welcomed her at Ostia.(2817) The ship +which bore her up the Tiber,(2818) when it grounded on a shoal, had been +sent forward on its way, to vindicate her calumniated virtue, by the touch +of a virgin of the Claudian house.(2819) A decree of the Senate in 191 +B.C. had given the strange goddess a home on the Palatine, hard by the +shrine of Apollo; and the great Megalesian festival in April was +founded.(2820) But the foreign character of the cult was long maintained. +It was a time when the passion for religious excitement was in the air, +and when its excesses had to be restrained by all the forces of the State. +No Roman was permitted to accept the Phrygian priesthood for a century +after the coming of the Great Mother.(2821) But towards the end of the +Republic, the goddess had captured all imaginations, and her priests and +symbols meet us in all the poets of the great age.(2822) Augustus restored +her temple; some of his freedmen were among her priests;(2823) Livia is +pictured with the crown of towers upon her brow.(2824) Then came a long +interval, till the death of Nero, during which the Phrygian goddess is +hardly heard of.(2825) With the accession of the Flavians the eastern +cults finally entered on a long and unchallenged reign. Vespasian restored +the temple of the Great Mother at Herculaneum, which had been thrown down +by an earthquake.(2826) In the reign of Trajan her worship had penetrated +to the Spanish peninsula,(2827) and she is found, along with other Eastern +deities, in the towns of the new province of Dacia.(2828) The first +glimpses of the taurobolium appear before the middle of the second +century, and the goddess figures on the coins of Antoninus Pius.(2829) A +taurobolium for that emperor was offered "with intention" at Lyons in 160 +A.D.,(2830) and there are several dedications to Magna Mater in the same +reign made by colleges of the _Dendrophori_ at Ostia.(2831) Tertullian +tells how a high priest of Cybele vainly offered his blood for the safety +of M. Aurelius, seven days after the Emperor had died in his quarters on +the Danube.(2832) It does not fall within the scope of our present inquiry +to trace the immense popularity of the worship under the princes of the +third century. That was the period of the great triumph of the spiritual +powers of the East. At the end of the fourth century the Great Mother and +Mithra were in the van of the pagan resistance to the religious revolution +of Theodosius and his sons.(2833) + +The worship of Cybele, coming from the same regions as the Trojan +ancestors of Rome, was at first a patrician cult.(2834) Members of the +proudest houses bore a part in welcoming her to a place in the Roman +pantheon.(2835) Yet, as we have seen, Romans were for generations +forbidden to enrol themselves among her effeminate priesthood. By a +curious contradiction of sentiment, people were fascinated by the ritual, +while they despised the celebrants. The legend which was interpreted by +Stoic and Neoplatonist as full of physical or metaphysical meanings,(2836) +had also elements of human interest which appealed to the masses, always +eager for emotional excitement. The love of the Great Mother for a fair +youth, his unfaithfulness, and penitential self-mutilation under the +pine-tree; the passionate mourning for lost love, and then the restoration +of the self-made victim, attended by a choir of priests for ever, who had +made the same cruel sacrifice(2837)--all this, so alien to old Roman +religious sentiment, triumphed over it in the end by novelty and tragic +interest. The legend was developed into a drama, which, at the vernal +festival of the goddess, was produced with striking, if not artistic, +effect. On the first day the Dendrophori bore the sacred tree, wreathed +with violets, to the temple. There was then a pause for a day, and, on the +third, the priests, with frantic gestures and dishevelled hair, abandoned +themselves to the wildest mourning, lacerating their arms and shoulders +with wounds, from which the blood flowed in torrents. Severe fasting +accompanied these self-inflicted tortures. Then came a complete change of +sensation. On the day called Hilaria the votaries gave themselves up to +ecstasies of joy, to celebrate the restoration of Attis. On the last day +of the festival a solemn procession took its way to the brook Almon, to +bathe the goddess in its waters.(2838) The sacred stone, brought +originally from her home in Asia, and the most sacred symbol of the +worship, wrapped in robes, was borne upon a car with chants and music, and +that gross, unabashed naturalism which so often shocks and surprises us in +pagan ritual till we trace it to its source. + +The government long treated the cult of Cybele as a foreign worship.(2839) +The title of its great festival is Greek. Yet before the close of the +Republic, Romans are found enrolled in its priesthoods and sacred +colleges, and long lists of these official votaries can be gathered from +the inscriptions of the imperial period. The archigallus, or high priest, +appears often on the Italian and provincial monuments. He is found at +Merida, Capua, Ostia, and Lyons, in Numidia and Portugal.(2840) He must +have performed his part at many a taurobolium, crowned with laurel +wreaths, wearing his mitre and ear-rings and armlets, with the image of +Attis on his breast.(2841) The names of the ordinary priests abound, from +the freedman of the house of Augustus to the great nobles of the reign of +Theodosius and Honorius.(2842) The priesthood was sometimes held for life, +or for a long term of years. A priest at Salonae in Dalmatia had +punctually performed the sacred offices for seventeen years.(2843) Women +were naturally admitted to the priesthood of a cult whose central interest +was a woman's love and grief. Sometimes they are lowly freedwomen with +Greek names, sometimes they bear the proudest names in the Roman +aristocracy.(2844) The Dendrophori, who on festive days bore the sacred +tree, formed a religious college, and their record appears on many +monuments of Italian and provincial towns--Como, Ostia, and Cumae, Caesarea +(Afr.), Valentia, and Lyons.(2845) Other colleges were the Cannophori and +Cernophori, the keepers of the mystic symbols.(2846) The chanters, +drummers, and cymbal players were indispensable at great ceremonial +scenes, such as the taurobolium,(2847) and were arranged in graded ranks. +Of a lower degree were the vergers and apparitors, who watched over the +chapels of the goddess.(2848) And, lastly, there were the simple +worshippers, who also formed themselves into guilds, with all the usual +officers of such corporations. This cult, like so many others, existed not +only for ceremonial rite, but for fellowship and social exhilaration, and, +through its many gradations of religious privilege, it must have drawn +vast numbers into the sacred service in the times of the Empire. + +But the pages of Apuleius, and other authorities, show us that, beside the +official clergy and collegiate members, there were, as happens to all +popular religions, a mass of unlicensed camp followers and mere +disreputable vagrants, who used the name of the Great Mother to exploit +the ignorant devotion and religious excitability of the rustic folk. The +romance of Apuleius, as Dr. Mahaffy has suggested, is probably derived +from earlier sources, and dressed up to titillate the prurient tastes of a +degraded society.(2849) Yet its pictures of country life in Thessaly, +although they may not be always locally accurate, can hardly be purely +imaginative. The scenes may not be always Thessalian, but that they are in +the main true pictures of country life in the Antonine age may be proved +from other authorities. Apuleius was too careful an artist to sever +himself altogether from the actual life of his time. And what a picture it +is! The air positively thrills with daemonic terror and power. Witches and +lewd sorceresses abound; the solitary inn has its weird seductions; the +lonely country cottage has its tragedy of lawless love or of chaste +devotion to the dead. Brigands in mountain fastnesses divide their +far-gathered spoil, and hold debate on plans of future lawless adventure. +Mountain solitudes, and lonely villages or castles among the woods, are +aroused by the yelping hounds, who start the boar from his lair, while the +faithless traitor places his friend at its mercy. We meet the travelling +cheese merchant, and the noble exile on his way to Zacynthus. We watch the +raid on the banker's house at Thebes, and the peasants setting their dogs +on the passing traveller; the insolence of the wandering legionary; the +horrors of the slave prison, with its wasted, starved, and branded forms; +the amours of buxom wives, and the comic concealment or discovery of +lovers, in the manner of Boccaccio. It is only too certain that the +vileness and superstition which Apuleius has depicted may easily find a +parallel on the Roman stage, or in the pages of Martial. + +In all this social panorama, romantic, amusing, or disgusting, there is no +more repulsive, and probably no truer scene than that in which the +wandering priests of the Syrian goddess appear. That deity, like many +others of Eastern origin, was often identified with the Great Mother. +Apuleius probably confounded them; the rites of their worships were often +the same, and the picture in Apuleius may be taken to represent the orgies +of many a wandering troop of professed devotees of the Great Mother in the +age of the Antonines.(2850) The leader is an old eunuch, with wild +straggling locks--a man of the foulest morals, carrying about with him an +image of the goddess, and levying alms from the superstition of the +rustics. He is attended by a crew worthy of him, wretches defiled with all +the worst vices of the ancient world, and shamelessly parading their +degradation. But they combine a shrewd eye to business with this wild +licence. They know all the arts to catch the fancy of the mob of clowns, +whose grey dull lives and inbred superstition make them eager for any +display which will intoxicate them with the novelty of a violent +sensation. These people are on that level where lust and the passion for +blood and suffering readily league themselves with religious excitement. +After a night of moral horrors, the foul brotherhood go forth in various +costume to win the largesses of the countryside. With painted cheeks and +robes of white or yellow, crossed with purple stripes, their arms bared to +the shoulder, and carrying swords or axes, they dance along wildly to the +sound of the flute.(2851) With obscene gesticulation and discordant +shrieks they madly bite their arms or lacerate them with knives. One of +the band, as if seized with special inspiration, heaving and panting under +the foul afflatus, shrieks out the confession of some sin against the holy +rites, and claims the penalty from his own hands.(2852) With hard knotted +scourge he belabours himself, while the blood flows in torrents. At last +the cruel frenzy exhausts itself, and obtains its reward in the offerings +of the spectators. Fine flour and cheese, milk and wine, coins of copper +and silver, are eagerly showered upon the impostors, and as eagerly +gathered in.(2853) Surprised in frightful orgies of vice, the scoundrels +have at last to retreat before the outraged moral sense of the villagers. +They decamp during the night, and on the morrow once more find comfortable +quarters in the house of a leading citizen who is devoted to the service +of the gods, and blind to the imposture of their professing +ministers.(2854) + +The episode in Apuleius suggests some curious questions as to the moral +effect of these emotional cults. That in their early stages they had no +elevating moral influence,--nay, that their votaries might combine a strict +conformity to rite with great looseness of life,--is only too certain. The +Delias and Cynthias of the poets, who kept the fasts of Isis, were +assuredly not models of virtue. The assumption of the tonsure and linen +habit by a debauchee like Commodus does not reassure us. Yet princes of +high character in the second and the third centuries lent the countenance +of imperial power to the worships of the East.(2855) And the Mother of the +Gods found her last and most gallant defenders among great nobles of high +repute and sincere pagan piety in the last years of heathenism in the +West. It was a strange transformation. Yet the problem is not perhaps +insoluble. A religion may deteriorate as its authority over society +becomes more assured with age. But, in times of moral renovation, and in +the face of powerful spiritual rivalries, a religion may purge itself of +the impurities of youth. Religious systems may also be elevated by the +growing moral refinement of the society to which they minister. It is only +thus that we can explain the undoubted fact that the Phrygian and Egyptian +worships, originally tainted with the grossness of naturalism, became +vehicles of a warm religious emotion, and provided a stimulus to a higher +life. The idealism of humanity, by a strange alchemy, can marvellously +transform the most unpromising materials. And he would make a grave +mistake who should treat the Isis and Osiris, the Mater Deum or the Attis, +of the reign of Augustus as representing the same ideals in the reign of +Gratian. But these Eastern cults contained a germ, even in their earliest +days, of their great future development and power. The old religion of +Latium, along with much that was sound and grave and fortifying to +character, was also hard and cold and ceremonial. It could mould and +consecrate a militant and conquering state; it did little to satisfy the +craving for moral regeneration or communion with a Higher Power. It could +not appease the sense of error and frailty by ghostly comfort and +sacramental absolution. It was, moreover, wanting in that warmth of +interest and sympathy, linking the human and Divine, which has helped to +make Christianity the religion of Western civilisation, and which in a +feeble adumbration made the paganism of the East a momentary rival of the +Church. These Eastern cults, often originating in gross symbolism of the +alternations and recurring processes of nature,(2856) often arousing a +dangerous excitability and an unregulated emotion, yet contained the germ +of a religious spirit far more akin to ours than the old austere Latin +creed. A divine death and restoration, the alternation of joy and sorrow +at a divine event, instinct with human interest, calming expiation and +cleansing from the sins which burdened the conscience,--above all, the hope +of a coming life, stamped on the imagination by symbol and +spectacle,--these were the elements which, operating on imperious religious +yearnings, gave a fresh life to paganism, and prepared or deferred the +victory of the Church. The religion of the Great Mother seems at first +sight to offer the poorest promise of any moral message or spiritual +support. It expressed at first the feelings of rude rustics at the +recurring mortality and resurrection of material life in the order of the +seasons. The element of human feeling which it contained was grossly +expressed in bloody rites of mutilation. This cult was often defiled and +disgraced by a crew of effeminate and lustful impostors. Yet the +Thessalian villagers in Apuleius, who chased these vagabonds from their +fields, evidently expected something better from them. They despised the +foul hypocrites, but they did not cease to believe in their religion. The +spiritual instinct of humanity triumphed, as it has so often done, over +the vices of a historical system, extracted the good in it, rejected the +evil, and made it an organ of some sort of spiritual life. Thus the Great +Mother became the Mother of all, enthroned beside the Father of gods and +men. She wears the chaste honours of the Virgin Goddess. Attis and her +love for Attis are similarly transformed. In the syncretism of the age, +which strove to gather up all the forces of heathenism and make them +converge towards a spiritual unity, Magna Mater and Attis leagued their +forces with the conquering Mithra.(2857) In the taurobolium there was +developed a ritual, in which, coarse and materialistic as it was, paganism +made, in however imperfect form, its nearest approach to the religion of +the Cross. + +The greatest and most impressive rite in the worship of Cybele was the +taurobolium. There was none which so excited the suspicion and indignation +of the Christian apologists, from Tertullian to Prudentius, because in its +ceremony of the cleansing blood, and in its supposed effects in moral +regeneration and remission of sins, it seemed invented by the ingenuity of +daemons to be a travesty of the sacrifice on Calvary.(2858) It is possible +that the last champions of the ancient cults may have had some such +defiant purpose when they inscribed, in the record of their cleansing, the +words "_in aeternum renatus_." But in its origin there can be no doubt +that the rite was purely heathen. Its appearance in the Phrygian +ceremonial is comparatively late. The worship of Magna Mater was +essentially an orgiastic cult, and theologically arid. But the syncretism +of the second and third centuries came to its support. And the worships of +Persia, Syria, and Phrygia were ready to coalesce, and to borrow from one +another symbols and doctrines which gave satisfaction to the spiritual +wants of the time. The taurobolium, with its ideas of cleansing and +immortality, passed in the Antonine age from the worship of Anaitis of +Cappadocia to the worship of Magna Mater, and gave the Great Mother a new +hold upon the religious consciousness. In the earlier votive tablets the +name of the rite is _tauropolium_. Anaitis had been identified with the +Artemis Tauropolus of Brauron, whose legend, by popular etymology, came to +be identified, as Milesian exploration spread in the Euxine, with the cult +of the cruel goddess of the Tauric Chersonese.(2859) And by another +etymological freak and the change of a letter, we arrive at the +bull-slaughtering rite of the later Empire. Whether the taurobolium ever +became part of the service of Mithra is a disputed point.(2860) Certainly +the syncretistic tendency of the age, the fact that the most popular +Mithraist symbol was the slaying of the mystic bull, and the record of the +taurobolium on so many inscriptions dedicated to Mithra, would prepare us +for the conclusion that the rite was in the end common to the Persian and +the Phrygian deities. Whatever may be the truth on this point, the two +worships, in the last ages of heathenism in the West, were close allies. +Attis tended more and more to become a solar deity in the age which +culminated in the sun-worship of Julian.(2861) Heliolatry, the last refuge +of monotheism in heathendom, which refused to accept the religion of +Galilee, swept all the great worships of strong vitality into its system, +softened their differences, accentuated their similarities, by every +effort of fancy, false science, or reckless etymology, and in the end, +"Sol invictus" and Mithra were left masters of the field. But Magna Mater, +however originally unworthy, shared in the victory. If she could lend the +support of an accredited clergy, recognised for ages by the State, and the +impressive rite of the bloody baptism, Mithra, on the other hand, had a +moral and spiritual message, an assurance of a future life, and an +enthralling force of mystic and sacramental communion, which made his +alliance even more valuable. The Great Mother, indeed, admitted women to +the ranks of her clergy, while the rites of Mithra probably excluded +them.(2862) And thus a Fabia Aconia Paulina, while her husband, Vettius +Agorius Praetextatus, could inscribe himself "pater patrum," had no +Mithraist grade which she could place beside her consecration to Hecate +and the Eleusinian goddesses.(2863) But the pair were united in the +sacrament of the taurobolium. And the Great Mother probably never had +purer or sincerer devotees. + +When the taurobolium was first introduced into the West is +uncertain.(2864) The earliest monument belongs to A.D. 134 in the reign of +Hadrian, when the ceremony seems to be connected with the Celestial Venus. +The most famous inscription, which connects the rite with the Great +Mother, is of the year 160 A.D., when one L. Aemilius Carpus, an +Augustalis, and a member of the college of the Dendrophori at Lyons, had +the ceremony performed "for the safety" of Antoninus Pius and the imperial +house.(2865) The rite was celebrated at the command of the goddess, or on +the inspired advice of the priest.(2866) It took place generally in early +spring, and was often prolonged over three or four days.(2867) It was a +costly rite, and the expense was sometimes borne by the community, who +made an offertory for the purpose.(2868) The ceremony was superintended by +the xvviri, and attended by a great concourse of the people, with the +magistrates at their head. It is needless to describe again the scene, so +well known from the verses of Prudentius, in which the consecrated bull is +with solemn forms slaughtered on a high-raised platform, and bathes with +the streams of his blood the votary placed in a trench below.(2869) The +rite was believed to impart some sort of strength and purification, the +effect of which lasted for twenty years, when the sacrament was often +renewed. It was, as we have seen, sometimes performed "with intention," +for the reigning emperor and his house,(2870) and furnishes another +example of the manner in which religion was employed to buttress the power +of the Caesars. A considerable number of monuments in Italy and the +provinces commemorate, in a phrase perhaps borrowed from the Church, the +gratitude of one "born again to eternal life." It is probable that the +coarse ritual often expressed only an external and materialistic +conception of religious influence. On the other hand, following upon, or +closely connected with initiation into the mysteries of Mithra, it may +easily have become a symbol of moral and spiritual truth, or at any rate a +record of moral aspiration. + +For, indeed, in the syncretism and monotheistic drift of the age, the more +powerful worships lost the hardness of their original lines and tended to +absorption and assimilation. There was little strife or repulsion among +these cults; they borrowed freely legends and ritual practice from one +another; even characteristic insignia were interchanged. The legend and +tone of the Cybele worship naturally linked her with others sprung from +the same region, such as the Syrian goddess, Celestial Venus, and +Bellona.(2871) Fanaticism, self-mutilation, expiation by blood, were the +common bond between them. The fierce goddess of Cappadocia, who had +visited Sulla in a dream, was probably first introduced to Roman devotion +in his time. Her dark-robed priests and priestesses were familiar figures +in the Augustan age, gashing themselves like the Galli of Magna Mater, +catching the blood in shields, and dashing it over their train of +followers who believed in its powers of expiation. But Magna Mater, as her +name promises, assumed a milder character, and was identified sometimes +with Maia, Ops, and Minerva; sometimes with Demeter, Bona Dea, and Fauna, +as Attis was identified with Hercules.(2872) In the last age the great +goddess became the universal Mother, full of tenderness and grace, and +giving peace through her cleansing rites. Hers is, along with the cults of +Isis and Mithra, which will next claim our attention, an example of the +process of Divine evolution, by which, in the painful progress of +humanity, the crude efforts of religious symbolism are purged and +elevated. It is an example of the way in which the human spirit, refusing +to break with its past, sometimes succeeds, if only for a time, in putting +new wine into old bottles. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + + ISIS AND SERAPIS + + +The worship of Isis and Serapis, reckoning from the day when it +established itself in the port of Athens, had a reign of more than seven +centuries over the peoples of Europe. Its influence in the western +provinces of the Empire and in the capital may be roughly said to cover a +period of 500 years. It was not, indeed, the old native worship of the +valley of the Nile which won such an empire over cultivated intellects +from Chaeronea to the Thames. The ancient Egyptian worship underwent vast +transformations in the crucible of all creeds at Alexandria. It was +captured and utilised for political purposes by the Ptolemies.(2873) It +was linked with the most spiritual forces of Hellenic piety at Eleusis and +Delphi;(2874) it was transformed by the subtle syncretism of later Greek +philosophy; and, through the secretaries of embassies, and the Egyptian +slaves and merchants who poured into the ports of southern Italy in the +second century B.C., it stole or forced itself into the chapels of great +houses at Rome, till, in the end, emperors were proud to receive its +tonsure, to walk in the processions, and to build and adorn Egyptian +temples.(2875) + +The Isiac worship had conquered the Greek world before it became a power +in Italy. In the fourth century B.C. traders from the Nile had their +temple of Isis at the Peiraeus;(2876) in the third century the worship had +been admitted within the walls of Athens.(2877) About the same time the +goddess had found a home at Ceos, and Delos, at Smyrna and Halicarnassus, +and on the coasts of Thrace.(2878) She was a familiar deity at Orchomenus +and Chaeronea for generations before Plutarch found in her legends a +congenial field for the exposition of his concordat between philosophy and +myth. Nor need we wonder at his choice of the Egyptian cults. For the Isis +and Osiris of Greek and Italian lands were very different objects of +devotion from the gods who bore those names in Egyptian legend.(2879) From +the seventh century B.C. Greeks from the Asiatic coast had been securely +settled at the mouth of the Nile.(2880) Greek mercenaries had served in +the Egyptian armies in the southern deserts; and Greek half-breeds had +long amused and cajoled travellers from Miletus or Halicarnassus, as +interpreters and guides to the scenes of immemorial interest. When +Herodotus visited the country, the identity of Greek and Egyptian gods was +a long accepted fact.(2881) From the fifth century B.C. the Egyptian +Trinity of Isis, Osiris, and Horus had found counterparts in Demeter, +Dionysus, and Apollo. The campaign of the Athenian fleet in 460 probably +hastened and confirmed the process of syncretism,(2882) and crowds of +travellers, steeped in Orphic and Pythagorean mysticism, returned from the +valley of the Nile to spread the doctrine of a common faith. After the +foundation of Alexandria the theory became a propaganda. The first Ptolemy +strove to unite the two races under his sway by an eclecticism of which +Alexandria was the focus for seven centuries. He found skilful allies in +Manetho, the Egyptian priest who had written a treatise on the inner +meaning of the myths, and in Timotheus, a scion of the Eumolpidae of +Eleusis.(2883) The Orphic and Dionysiac mysticism was leagued with the +Isiac worship. The legend of Egypt was recast. A new deity was introduced, +who was destined to have a great future in all lands under the Roman sway. +The origin of Serapis is still a mystery(2884) and the latest critic may +have to acquiesce in the confused or balanced judgment of Tacitus.(2885) +Egyptian archaeologists claimed him as indigenous at Rhacotis or Memphis, +and construed his name as a compound of Osiris and that of his earthly +incarnation, the bull Apis.(2886) The more popular tale was that the first +Ptolemy, after repeated visions of the night, sent envoys to bring him +from Sinope, where he was identified with Pluto, god of the under world. +Other traditions connected him with Seleucia in Cappadocia, or with +Babylon.(2887) It may be that a false etymology, confounding a hill near +Memphis with the name of Sinope, was the source of the tale in +Tacitus.(2888) However this may be, Serapis takes the place of Osiris; +they never appear together in inscriptions. The infant Horus received the +Greek sounding name Harpocrates, and Serapis, Isis, and Harpocrates became +the Egyptian Trinity for Graeco-Roman Society. Anubis, the minister of the +Trinity, was easily identified with Hermes, "the conductor of souls" in +Greek legend. + +Syncretism and mysticism were great forces at Eleusis, from which +Ptolemy's adviser Timotheus came. And there all interest centred in the +future life, and in preparation for it by sacerdotal ritual and moral +discipline. The Orphic and Pythagorean mysticism which traced itself to +Egypt or the remoter East, returned to its sources, to aid in moulding the +cults of Egypt into a worship for the world. A crowd of ingenious +theologians set to work, by means of physical explanation, wild etymology, +and fanciful analogies, to complete the syncretism. And the final results +of their efforts, preserved in the famous treatise of Plutarch on Isis, is +a trinitarian monotheism, with an original dualism of the good and evil +principles.(2889) But the idea of God, although limited in one sense by +the recognition of a co-ordinate evil power, tends on the other to become +more all-embracing. Serapis is constantly linked with Jupiter and Sol +Invictus in the inscriptions.(2890) In the orations of Aristides he +becomes the centre of the universe.(2891) Isis of the "myriad names" tends +to absorb all other deities, and was addressed by her votaries as "Thou +who art all."(2892) The Isis of the dream of Lucius in Apuleius is the +universal mother, creator of all things, queen of the world of shades, +first of the inhabitants of heaven, in whom all gods have their unchanging +type.(2893) She is also pre-eminently the power who can cleanse and +comfort, and impart the hope of the life everlasting. + +The Isiac worship arrived in Italy probably through the ports of Campania. +Puteoli, in particular, was the great entrepot for the trade with +Alexandria. Foreign merchants, sailors, and slaves were arriving there +every day, and, in the century between 204 and 100 B.C., more than ten +embassies passed between the Ptolemies and the Roman Senate, with a crowd +of secretaries and servants attached to them.(2894) There was probably a +temple of Serapis at Puteoli as early as 150 B.C., and the old temple of +Isis at Pompeii, which was thrown down by the earthquake of 63 A.D., may +probably be referred to the year 105 B.C.(2895) But the erection of +temples must have been preceded by a period of less formal and more +obscure worship, and we may perhaps conclude that Isis had established +herself in Southern Italy, at all events early in the second century B.C. +Thus, although it was generations before the worship won its way, in the +face of fierce persecution, to an assured place at Rome, its first +appearance coincides with the decay of the old religion, the religious +excitement in the beginning of the second century B.C., and the immense +popular craving for a more emotional form of worship. + +The years at the end of the third and the beginning of the second century +B.C. were in Italy years of strange religious excitement. In 204 the great +goddess was brought from Pessinus.(2896) In 186 the decree for the +suppression of the Bacchanalian scandal was passed.(2897) Magna Graecia +and Etruria were the first points assailed by the invasion of the +orgiastic rites. But they soon crept into the capital, with results which +alarmed and shocked old Roman sentiment. At first, an appearance of +asceticism disguised the danger. But the rites soon gave an opportunity +for the wildest licence and for political intrigue. 7000 men and women +were found to be implicated, in one way or another, in the movement.(2898) +Within five years after the great scandal, the apocryphal books of Numa +were unearthed in the grounds of Cn. Terentius on the Janiculum. The +forgery was soon detected, and they were burnt publicly in the Comitium by +the praetor L. Petilius.(2899) But it was a suspicious circumstance that +the rolls were of Egyptian papyrus, which had been till then unknown to +the Roman world, and that they contained the dogmas of a Pythagorean lore +which was equally strange. It is almost certain that, in the same years in +which the Dionysiac fanaticism arrived at Ostia, the Egyptian cults had +been brought by merchants and sailors to Puteoli. Osiris and Dionysus had +long been identified by the Alexandrian theologians; both were the patrons +of mystic rites which, in their form and essence, had much in common, and +the Pythagorean system, combining so many influences of philosophy and +religion in the East and West, was the natural sponsor of the new +worships. It was perhaps some eclectic Alexandrian, half Platonist, half +Buddhist, devoted to the Isiac worship, yet ready to connect it with the +Dionysiac legends of Delphi, Cithaeron, and Eleusis, who penned the secret +scrolls, and buried them in the garden on the Janiculum. The movement was +setting in which, so often repulsed by the force of government and +conservative feeling, was destined to have enormous influence over the +last three centuries of paganism in the West. + +It has been plausibly suggested that the ease and completeness with which +the Bacchanalian movement was suppressed in 186 B.C. was due to the +diversion of religious interest to the Egyptian mysteries. The cult of +Isis had indeed very various attractions for different minds. But for the +masses, slaves, freedmen, and poor working people, its great fascination +lay in the pomp of its ritual, and the passionate emotion aroused by the +mourning for the dead Osiris, and his joyful restoration. It is this +aspect of the worship which is assailed and ridiculed by the Christian +apologists of the reign of Alexander Severus and of the reign of +Constantine.(2900) The goddess, one of whose special functions was the +care of mothers in childbirth, appealed especially to female sensibility. +As in the cult of Magna Mater, women had a prominent place in her services +and processions, and records of these sacred dignities appear on the +monuments of great Roman ladies down to the end of the Western Empire. The +history of the Isiac cult at Rome from Sulla to Nero is really the history +of a great popular religious movement in conflict with a reactionary +conservatism, of cosmopolitan feeling arrayed against old Roman sentiment. + +It is significant of the popularity of Isis that the reactionary Sulla, +who restored the election of chief pontiff to the sacred college, was +forced to recognise the Isiac guild of the Pastophori in 80 B.C.(2901) +Four times in the decade 58-48 B.C., the fierce struggle was renewed +between the government and those who wished to place Isis beside the +ancient gods; and in the year 50 B.C. the consul, when unable to find a +workman to lay hands upon her shrine, had to unrobe and use the axe +himself.(2902) The victory of conservatism was only temporary and +apparent. Within five years from the renewed fierce demolition of 48 +B.C.,(2903) the white robe and tonsure and the mask of Anubis must have +been a common sight in the streets, when the aedile M. Volusius, one of +those proscribed by the triumvirs, was able to make his escape easily in +this disguise.(2904) The influence of Cleopatra over Julius Caesar +overcame his own prejudices and probably hastened the triumph of the +popular cult. The triumvirs had to conciliate public feeling by erecting a +temple of Isis in 42 B.C.(2905) Priestesses and devotees of Isis are +henceforth found among the freedwomen of great houses and the mistresses +of men of letters of the Augustan age.(2906) And, although the reaction +following upon the battle of Actium, in which the gods of Latium and the +Nile were arrayed against one another,(2907) banished Isis for a time +beyond the pomoerium,(2908) the devotion of the masses to her seems never +to have slackened, and her tonsured, white stoled priests were to be seen +everywhere. In the reign of Tiberius a serious blow fell on the Eastern +worships. According to Josephus, a great lady named Paulina, was, with the +collusion of the priest, seduced in an Isiac temple by a libertine lover +in the guise of Anubis, and the crime was sternly punished by the +emperor.(2909) Tacitus and Suetonius seem to be ignorant of this +particular scandal, but they record the wholesale banishment to Sardinia +of persons of the freedmen class, who were infected with Judaic or +Egyptian superstition. In the grotto of Cagliari there is to be seen the +record of an obscure romance and tragedy which may have been connected +with this persecution. Atilia Pomptilla, who bore also the significant +name of Benedicta, in some great calamity had followed her husband Cassius +Philippus into exile. Their union had lasted for two-and-forty years when +the husband was stricken with disease in that deadly climate. Like another +Alcestis, Atilia by her vows and devotion offered her life for his. The +husband repaid the debt in these inscriptions, and the pair lie united in +death under the sculptured serpent of the goddess whom they probably +worshipped.(2910) + +Thenceforth under the emperors Isis met with but little opposition. +Claudius struck hard at the Jewish and Druidic rites, but on the other +hand he was ready to transport those of Eleusis to Rome.(2911) He was +probably equally tolerant to the rites of Egypt. And in his reign +dedications were made to Isis by freedmen of great consular houses.(2912) +Nero despised all religions except that of the Syrian goddess; yet Isis +had probably little to fear from a prince who had been touched by the +charm and mystery of the East, and who at the last would have accepted the +prefecture of Egypt.(2913) Otho was, however, the first Roman emperor who +openly took part in the Egyptian rites.(2914) The Flavians had all come +under the spell of Eastern superstition. Vespasian had had a solitary +vigil in the temple of Serapis; in obedience to a dream from the god he +had consented to perform miracles of healing.(2915) In the fierce civil +strife of 69 A.D., when the Capitol was stormed and burnt by the +Vitellians, the service of Isis was actually going on, and Domitian, +disguised in her sacred vestments, escaped among the crowd of priests and +acolytes.(2916) He repaid the debt by rebuilding the temple of Isis in the +Campus Martius, in 92 A.D., on a magnificent scale.(2917) The sarcasms of +Juvenal on the "shaven, linen-clad herd," and the pious austerities of +female worshippers of Isis, reveal the powerful hold which the goddess had +obtained in his day, even on the frivolous and self-indulgent. Hadrian, of +course, had the gods of the Nile in the Canopus of his cosmopolitan villa +at Tibur.(2918) Commodus walked in procession with shaven head and an +image of Anubis in his arms.(2919) The triumph of Isis in the Antonine age +was complete. + +The Serapeum at Alexandria was to the Egyptian cult what the Temple was to +the religion of Israel.(2920) And the world-wide trade and far-spreading +influence of what was then the second city in the Empire might have given +a wide diffusion even to a religion less adapted to satisfy the spiritual +wants of the time. Slaves and freedmen were always the most ardent +adherents and apostles of foreign rites. Names of persons of this class +appear on many monuments as holders of Isiac office or liberal +benefactors. A little brotherhood of household slaves at Valentia in Spain +were united in the worship.(2921) Petty traders from Alexandria swarmed in +the ports of the Mediterranean, and especially in those of Campania, and +near the Nolan gate of Pompeii the humble tombs of a little colony of +these emigrants have been discovered.(2922) The sailors and officers of +the corn fleets from Africa also helped to spread the fame of Isis and +Osiris. In the reign of Septimius Severus, their chief officer, C. +Valerius Serenus, was neocorus of Serapis.(2923) Alexandria also sent +forth a crowd of artists, philosophers, and savants to the West. Several +men of Egyptian origin filled high places in the imperial household, as +librarians or secretaries in the first and second centuries. Chaeremon, +who had been librarian at Alexandria, and who had composed a theological +treatise on Isis and Osiris, became Nero's tutor.(2924) Chaeremon's pupil, +Dionysius, was librarian and imperial secretary in the reign of Trajan. +And Julius Vestinus, who held these offices under Hadrian, is described in +an inscription as chief pontiff of Egypt and Alexandria,--a combination of +dignities which probably enabled him to throw his powerful protection +around the Isiac rites at Rome.(2925) An influence so securely seated on +the Palatine was sure to extend to the remotest parts of the Empire. If +Isis could defy all the force of the Republican Government, what might she +not do when emperors were enrolled in her priesthood, and imperial +ministers, in correspondence with every prefecture from Britain to the +Euphrates, were steeped in her mystic lore? + +Already in Nero's reign, Lucan could speak of Isis and Osiris as not only +welcomed in the shrines of Rome, but as deities of all the world.(2926) +Plutarch and Lucian, from very different points of view, are witnesses to +the same world-wide movement. The judgment will be confirmed by even a +casual inspection of the religious records of the inscriptions. Although +Isis and Serapis were not peculiarly soldiers' gods, like Mithra and +Bellona, yet they had many votaries among the legions on distant +frontiers. A legate of the Legion Tertia Augusta, who was probably of +Egyptian birth, introduced the rites into the camp of Lambaesis, and a +temple to Isis and Serapis was built by the labour of many pious hands +among his soldiers.(2927) Serapis appears often on the African monuments, +sometimes leagued or identified with Jupiter or Pluto.(2928) In Dacia and +Pannonia the cults of Egypt were probably not as popular as that of +Mithra, but they have left traces in all the great centres of +population.(2929) In several inscriptions(2930) Isis is called by a native +name such as Noreia, and we find on others the instructive blending of the +strata of four mythologies. Tacitus thought he had discovered the +counterpart of Isis in the forests of Germany.(2931) She is certainly +found in Holland, and at Cologne.(2932) Officers of the sixth Legion +worshipped her at York.(2933) French antiquaries have followed the traces +of the Egyptian gods in nearly all the old places of importance in their +own country, at Frejus, Nimes, and Arles, at Lyons, Clermont, and +Soissons.(2934) Shrines of Isis have been explored in Switzerland and at +the German spas.(2935) The scenes which were so common at Rome or Pompeii +or Corinth, the procession of shaven, white-robed priests and acolytes, +marching to the sound of chants and barbaric music, with the sacred images +and symbols of a worship which had been cradled on the Nile ages before +the time of Romulus, and transmuted by the eclectic subtlety of Platonic +theologians into a cosmopolitan religion, were reproduced in remote +villages on the edge of the Sahara and the Atlantic, in the valleys of the +Alps or the Yorkshire dales. + +What was the secret of this power and fascination in the religion of a +race whose cult of the dog and cat had so often moved the ridicule of the +satirist and comic poet? No single answer can be given to that question. +The great power of Isis "of myriad names" was that, transfigured by Greek +influences, she appealed to many orders of intellect, and satisfied many +religious needs or fancies. To the philosopher her legends furnished +abundant material for the conciliation of religion and pseudo-science, for +the translation of myth into ancient cosmic theory, or for the absorption +of troublesome mythologies into a system which perhaps tended more than +any other, except that of Mithra, to the Platonic idea of the unity of +God. The mystic who dreamt of an ecstasy of divine communion, in which the +limits of sense and personality might be left behind in a vague rapture of +imaginative emotion, found in the spectacle of her inner shrine a strange +power far surpassing the most transporting effects of Eleusis. Women +especially saw in the divine mother and mourner a glorified type of their +sex, in all its troubles and its tenderness, such as their daughters in +coming ages were destined to find in the Virgin Mother.(2936) The ascetic +impulse, which has seldom been far from the deepest religious feeling, +derived comfort and the sense of atonement in penitential abstinence and +preparation for the holy mysteries. The common mass, who are affected +chiefly by the externals of a religion, had their wants amply gratified in +the pomp and solemnity of morning sacrifice and vespers, in those +many-coloured processions, such as that which bore in spring-time the +sacred vessel to the shore, with the sound of hymn and litany.(2937) And +in an age when men were everywhere banding themselves together in clubs +and colleges for mutual help and comfort, the sacred guilds of Isis had +evidently an immense influence. That evil, as in nearly all heathen +worships, often lurked under her solemn forms cannot be denied, though +there was also groundless calumny.(2938) Yet there must have been some +strange power in a religion which could for a moment lift a sensualist +imagination like that of Apuleius almost to the height and purity of +Eckhart and Tauler.(2939) + +The triumph of Isis and Serapis in the Western world is an instructive +episode in the history of religion. It is, like that of Mithra, a curious +example of the union of conservative feeling with a purifying and +transforming influence of the growing moral sense. A religion has a double +strength and fascination which has a venerable past behind it. The ancient +symbolism may be the creation of an age of gross conceptions of the +Divine, it may be even grotesque and repulsive, at first sight, to the +more refined spiritual sense of an advanced moral culture. Yet the +religious instinct will always strive to maintain its continuity with the +past, however it may transfigure the legacy of ruder ages. Just as +Christian theologians long found anticipations of the Gospel among +patriarchs and warrior kings of Israel, so pagan theologians like Plutarch +or Aristides could discover in the cults of Egypt all their highest cosmic +theories, and satisfaction for all their spiritual wants.(2940) With +unwavering faith, Plutarch and his kind believed that under all the coarse +mythic fancy of early ages there was veiled a profound insight into the +secrets of nature and the spiritual needs of humanity. The land of the +Nile, with its charm of immemorial antiquity, was long believed to have +been the cradle of all that was best and deepest in the philosophic or +religious thought of Hellas. The gods of the classic pantheon were +identified with the gods of Egypt.(2941) Pythagoras and the Orphic mystics +had derived their inspiration from the same source.(2942) The conquests of +Alexander and the foundation of Alexandria had drawn to a focus the +philosophical or the religious ideas of East and West, of India, +Palestine, Persia, and Greece. At Alexandria were blended and transformed +all the philosophies and mythologies by the subtle dialectic of Greece. +The animal cult of Egypt, indeed, was always a stumbling-block to Greek +and Roman.(2943) It moved the contempt and ridicule of comedian and +satirist.(2944) It was an easy mark for the sneers of the crowd. Yet even +the divinised dog or ibis could find skilful, if not convinced, defenders +among the Greek eclectics, who lent all the forces of Hellenic ingenuity +to the cause of antiquarianism in religion.(2945) Their native mythology +was not without traces of zoolatry. Their own god of healing, who became +so popular in all lands, was always connected in art and legend with the +serpent. The serpent of the Acropolis, which daily ate the holy wafer, was +the immemorial companion of the tutelary goddess of Athens.(2946) Had not +Zeus, in his many amours, found an easy access to the fair victims of his +love in animal forms? The Divine virtues are only faintly imaged in +animals which have their uses in the world. If all religion is only +symbolism, why should not the multiform beneficence of the unseen Powers +be expressed in the form of creatures who give their service and +companionship to man, as fitly as in lifeless bronze or marble? + +But although men might try to reconcile theology even to a worship of +animal forms, it was by very different spiritual influences that Isis and +Serapis won the devotion of the rustics of remote villages in Spain and +Britain. The dog-headed Anubis might perhaps be borne in +processions.(2947) The forms of sacred animals might be portrayed, along +with those of Io and Andromeda, on the frescoes of Herculaneum or +Pompeii.(2948) But the monuments of the Western provinces are, as a rule, +singularly free from the grossness of early Egyptian zoolatry.(2949) And +there is hardly a hint of it in the famous picture of the initiation of +Lucius in the _Metamorphoses_ of Apuleius. In that fascinating scene, Isis +is the universal mother, Nature, queen of the worlds of light and +darkness, the eternal type of all lesser divinities. And on inscriptions +she appears as the Power who "is all in all."(2950) Whatever her special +functions may be, goddess of the spring, or of the sailor on the sea, +guardian of women in the pangs of motherhood, the "Queen of peace,"(2951) +guide and saviour of souls in the passage to the world beyond the tomb, +she remains the Supreme Power, invoked by many names, with virtues and +graces as various as her names. And Serapis, in the later theology, is not +the president of any provincial territory in the universe. He is not the +lord of sea or earth or air only; he is lord of all the elements, the +dispenser of all good, the master of human life. It is thus that Aristides +hails him after his rescue from the perils of the sea.(2952) But although +Serapis in many a monument is enthroned beside Jupiter, Queen Isis is also +supreme in the world both of the living and the dead. + +Yet, although there is a very decided tendency to monotheism in the +Alexandrian religion, a tendency which appealed strongly to minds like +Plutarch, it did not succeed in altogether breaking with polytheism and +its attendant superstitions. The attempted alliance of religion and +philosophy was far from complete. Philosophy, indeed, had substituted +abstract theory for the poetry of legend. It struggled hard to assert the +essential unity of the Divine nature. And Plutarch, in his treatise on +Isis, declares that God is one and the same in all lands under whatever +names He may be worshipped.(2953) But the treatise shows at the same time +how vague and unsettled still was the theology of Alexandria, and how hard +it found the task of wedding Platonism to the haunting tradition of old +idolatry. Physics, metaphysics, etymology, are all employed with infinite +ingenuity to recover the secret meaning which it is assumed that ancient +wisdom had veiled under the forms of legend. But arbitrary fancy plays far +too large a part in these random guesses, and system there is none, to +bridge the gulf between the Platonist eclectic and the superstitious +masses. Isis worship was in practice linked with all the reigning +superstitions, with divination, magic, astrology, oneiromancy. Manetho, +who was one of the founders of the worship of Serapis, wrote a treatise +for the Greek world on the influence of the stars on human destiny.(2954) +Egyptian astrologists were always in great demand. The emperors Otho and +M. Aurelius carried them in their train.(2955) Many Roman ladies in +sickness would not take food or medicine till the safe hour had been +determined by inspecting the Petosiris.(2956) The Isiac devotee was an +enthusiastic believer in dreams sent by his favourite deities. On many +inscriptions the record may be read of these warnings of the night.(2957) +In the syncretism of the time, Serapis came to be identified with the +Greek god of healing, and patients sleeping in Egyptian temples received +in dreams inspired prescriptions for their maladies.(2958) Sometimes the +deity vouchsafed to confer miraculous powers of cure on a worshipper. The +sceptical good sense of Vespasian was persuaded by medical courtiers at +Alexandria to try the effect of his touch on the blind and paralytic, who +had a divine monition to seek the aid of the emperor.(2959) The cultivated +Aristides had a firm faith in these heaven-sent messages. He even believed +that Serapis could call back the dead to life.(2960) + +Yet Aristides, in his prose hymn to Serapis, gives us a glimpse of the +better side of that religion. After all, the superstitions which clustered +round it were the universal beliefs of the age, prevalent among the most +cultivated and the most ignorant. The question for the modern student is +whether these Alexandrian worships provided real spiritual sustenance for +their devotees. And, in spite of many appearances to the contrary, the +impartial inquirer must come to the conclusion that the cult of the +Egyptian deities, through its inner monotheism, its ideal of ascetic +purity, its vision of a great judgment and a life to come, was a real +advance on the popular religion of old Greece and Rome. Isis and Serapis, +along with Mithra, were preparing the Western world for the religion which +was to appease the long travail of humanity by a more perfect vision of +the Divine. It is impossible for a modern man to realise the emotion which +might be excited by a symbolism like that of Demeter, or Mithra, or Isis, +with its roots in a gross heathen past. But no reader of Apuleius, +Plutarch, or Philostratus should fail to realise the surging spiritual +energy which, in the second and third centuries, was seeking for +expression and appeasement. It struck into strange devious tracks, and +often was deluded by phantasms of old superstition glorified by a new +spirit. But let us remember the enduring strength of hereditary piety and +ancient association, and, under its influence, the magical skill of the +religious consciousness to maintain the link between widely severed +generations, by purifying the grossness of the past and transforming +things absurd and offensive into consecrated vehicles of high spiritual +sentiment. No one, who has read in Apuleius the initiation of Lucius in +the Isiac mysteries, can doubt that the effect on the votary was profound +and elevating. Pious artistic skill was not wanting to heighten emotion in +Isis worship, as it is not disdained in our Christian churches. But the +prayer of thanksgiving offered by Lucius might, _mutatis mutandis_, be +uttered by a new convert at a camp-meeting, or a Breton peasant after her +first communion. It is the devout expression of the deep elementary +religious feelings of awe and gratitude, humility and joy, boundless hope +and trust. In the same tone, Aristides sings his prose canticle to +Serapis. There is not a memory of the brute gods of the Nile. The +Alexandrian god is now the equal or counterpart of Zeus, the lord of life +and death, who cares for mortal men, who comforts, relieves, sustains. He +is indeed a most awful power, yet one full of loving-kindness, tenderness, +and mercy.(2961) In Plutarch we reach perhaps an even more spiritual +height. Osiris, who in old legend represented the Nile, or the coarse +fructifying powers of nature, passes into the Eternal Love and Beauty, +pure, passionless, remote from any region of change or death, +unapproachable in His ethereal splendour, save, as in moments of inspired +musing, we may faintly touch Him as in a dream. + +In the _Metamorphoses_ of Apuleius, the goddess who appears in a vision to +Lucius promises that, when his mortal course is run, he shall find her +illumining the Stygian gloom. And, next to the maternal love with which +she embraced her votaries in this life, the great attraction of her cult +was the promise of a blessed future, through sacramental grace, which she +offered for the world to come. Serapis, too, is from the beginning a god +of the under world, a "guide of souls," as he is also their judge at the +Great Assize.(2962) The Orphic lore, the mysteries of the Eleusinian +goddesses and Dionysus, had for ages taught a dim doctrine of immortality, +under the veil of legend, through the scenic effects of their dramatic +mysteries. They first revealed to the Greek race that the life to come was +the true life, for which the present was only a purgatorial preparation. +They taught, in whatever rude fashion, that future beatitude could only be +secured by a purification from the stains of time.(2963) The doctrine may +have been drawn from Egypt, and Egypt once more gave it fresh meaning and +force. The Alexandrian worship came with a deeper faith and more +impressive ritual, with dreams and monitory visions, with a mystic lore, +and the ascetic preparation for the holy mysteries, with the final scene +in the inner sanctuary, when the votary seemed borne far beyond the limits +of space and time into ethereal distances.(2964) The soul might, indeed, +have to pass through many bodies and mortal lives before it reached the +life eternal. But the motto of the Isiac faith, inscribed on many tombs, +was _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_, "be of good courage," "may Osiris give the water of +refreshment."(2965) Everywhere the lotus, image of immortality, in its +calix opening at every dawn, appears on symbols of the worship. And +Harpocrates, the god who has triumphed over death, appears as the child +issuing from the mystic flower. The Roman practice of burning the dead +might seem to separate for ever the fate of the body from the spirit, +although it is really a question of more or less rapid resolution of the +mortal frame into its original elements. But, as we have seen, the man of +the early Empire became more and more anxious to preserve undisturbed the +"handful of white dust" rescued from the pyre, and would invoke the wrath +of Isis against the desecrator.(2966) The great object of many of the +colleges was to secure their humble members a niche in the _columbarium_. +The Alexandrine faith in immortality, by the grace of Isis and Serapis, +probably did not inquire too curiously into the manner of the +resurrection. + +Undoubtedly another secret of the popularity of the Egyptian worships lay +in their impressive ritual, the separation of their clergy from the world, +and in the comradeship of the guilds in which their votaries were +enrolled. Apuleius has left us, in the initiation of Lucius at Cenchreae, +and again at Rome, a priceless picture of the Isiac ritual. Everything in +the ceremonial tends to kindle pious enthusiasm. Sophocles and Pindar had +extolled the blessedness of those who had seen the mystic vision.(2967) +The experience of Lucius would seem to confirm the testimony of the Greek +poets. When the goddess has promised him deliverance from brutish form, +and pledged him to strict obedience, Lucius is inspired with the utmost +ardour to join in "the holy warfare." He takes up his abode in the sacred +precincts, he begs to be admitted to full communion. But the venerable +pontiff requires him to await the sign of the divine will. Lucius +continues in fasting and prayer till the sign at last comes; when it comes +he hastens to the morning sacrifice. The scrolls, covered with symbols of +ancient Egypt, are brought in, and then, before a crowd of the faithful, +he is plunged in the sacred font. Returning to the temple, as he lies +prostrate before the image of the goddess in prayer, he has whispered to +him "the unutterable words." Ten days more are spent in strictest retreat +and abstinence from pleasures of the flesh; and then came the crowning +rite, the solemn vigil in the inner sanctuary. There, as at Eleusis, a +vivid drama of a divine death and resurrection probably passed before his +eyes, in flashing radiance and awful visions, amid gloom and the tones of +weird music. But the tale of what he saw and heard could never be fully +unfolded to mortal ear. + +There indeed are some sordid and suspicious traits in the history of this +worship. As in the case of the taurobolium,(2968) the mysteries of Isis +and Serapis could not be enjoyed without a considerable outlay. And Lucius +found a difficulty in meeting the expense.(2969) But, whether in +heathendom or Christendom, a regular priesthood and an elaborate ritual +cannot be supported without the offerings of the faithful. There has +probably never been a religion in which the charge of venality has not +been levelled against the priests. But Lucius finds here no +stumbling-block. No material offering can repay the goodness and love of +the goddess. He feels towards her not only reverence and gratitude, but +the love of a son to a Divine mother. Ascetic isolation has produced the +natural result of imaginative ecstasy and mystic exaltation. The long, +quiet hours of rapt devotion before the sacred figure in the stillness of +the shrine, the spectral visions of the supreme hour of revelation, made a +profound impression on a soul which was deeply tainted by other visions of +old-world sin. + +The daily ritual of Isis, which seems to have been as regular and +complicated as that of the Catholic Church, produced an immense effect on +the Roman mind. Every day there were two solemn offices, at which +white-robed, tonsured priests, with acolytes and assistants of every +degree, officiated.(2970) The morning litany and sacrifice was an +impressive service. The crowd of worshippers thronged the space before the +chapel at the early dawn. The priest, ascending by a hidden stair, drew +apart the veil of the sanctuary,(2971) and offered the holy image to their +adoration. He then made the round of the altars, reciting the litany, and +sprinkling the holy water "from the secret spring." At two o'clock in the +afternoon the passers by could hear from the temple in the Campus Martius +the chant of vespers.(2972) A fresco of Herculaneum gives us a picture of +the service. It is the adoration of the holy water, representing in symbol +the fructifying and deathless power of Osiris. A priest, standing before +the holy place, raises breast high a sacred urn for the adoration of the +crowd. The sacrifice is smoking on the altar, and two choirs are chanting +to the accompaniment of the seistron and the flute.(2973) Another fresco +from Herculaneum exhibits a bearded, dark-skinned figure, crowned with the +lotus, in the attitude of dancing before a throng of spectators to the +sound of music. It is plausibly conjectured that we have here a pantomimic +representation of the passion of Osiris and its joyful close.(2974) There +was much solemn pomp and striking scenic effect in this public ceremonial. +But it is clear from Apuleius, that an important part of worship was also +long silent meditation before the image of the goddess. The poets speak of +devotees seated thus before the altar, and in the temple at Pompeii a +bench has been found which, from its position, was probably occupied by +such silent worshippers.(2975) + +The great festivals of the Egyptian worship were the blessing of the +sacred vessel on the fifth of March, and the celebration of the quest and +finding of Osiris in November. The anniversary of the death and rising +again of the god was strictly observed by large numbers, especially among +women. Pagan and Christian writers have alike ridiculed the theatrical +grief and joy for a god so often found, so often lost.(2976) The death of +Osiris at the hands of Typhon, the rending of the divine form, and the +dispersion of the lacerated remains, were passionately lamented in +sympathy with the mourning Isis. With effusive grief the devotees beat +their breasts and lacerated their arms, and followed in eager search. When +on the third day the god had been found and restored, the joyful event was +hailed with extravagant gladness, and celebrated by a banquet of the +initiated. For some of these holy days the rubrics prescribed a long +preparation of fasting and ascetic restraint. But that a general +strictness of life was not required of the Isiac votary, at least under +the early Empire, may be inferred from the fact that the frail Cynthias +and Delias in Propertius and Tibullus were among the most regular in +ritual observance.(2977) The festival of the holy vessel of Isis, which +marked the opening of navigation, and received the benediction of the +goddess, was, in the early Empire, observed with solemn pomp and +enthusiasm by the coast towns of the Mediterranean. A brilliantly vivid +description of such a scene at Cenchreae has been left by Apuleius. It was +a great popular carnival, in which a long procession, masquerading in the +most fantastic and various costumes, conducted the sacred ship to the +shore. Women in white robes scattered flowers and perfumes along the way. +A throng of both sexes bore torches and tapers, to symbolise the reign of +the Mother of the stars. The music of flute and pipe meanwhile filled the +air with sacred symphonies, and a band of youths in snow-white vestments +chanted a hymn. Wave upon wave came the throng of those who had been +admitted to full communion, all clad in linen, and the men marked with the +tonsure. They were followed by the priests, each bearing some symbol of +the many powers and virtues of the goddess, the boat-shaped lamp, the +"altars of succour," the palm of gold, the wand of Mercury. In a pix were +borne the holy mysteries, and, last of all, the most venerable symbol, a +small urn of shining gold and adorned in subtle workmanship with figures +of Egyptian legend.(2978) This holy vase, containing the water of the +sacred river, which was an emanation from Osiris,(2979) closed the +procession. Arrived at the margin of the sea, the chief priest consecrated +the sacred vessel with solemn form and litany, and named it with the holy +name. Adorned with gold and citrus wood and pictures of old legend, it +spread its white sails to the breeze, and bore into the distance the vows +and offerings of the faithful for the safety of those upon the deep. + +The oriental religions of the imperial period were distinguished from the +native religion of Latium by the possession of a numerous and highly +organised priesthood, and an intensely sacerdotal spirit.(2980) In an age +of growing religious faith, this characteristic gave them enormous power. +The priest became a necessary medium of intercourse with God. It is also +one of the many traits in the later paganism, which prepared and softened +the transition to the reign of the mediaeval Church. It would be tedious +and unprofitable to enumerate the various grades of the Isiac priesthood. +There were high priests of conspicuous dignity, who were also called +_prophetae_.(2981) But ordinary priests could perform many of their +functions.(2982) There were interpreters of dreams, dressers and keepers +of the sacred wardrobe of the goddess,(2983) whose duties must have been +onerous, if we may judge from the list of robes and jewels and sacred +furniture preserved in inscriptions or recovered from the ruins of Isiac +shrines.(2984) It has been remarked that the roaming Visigoths in southern +Gaul must have had a rare spoil if they had the fortune to light on one of +the great temples of Isis. The scribe of the Pastophori, in Apuleius, is +also an important officer. He summons the sacred convocation, and recites +the "bidding prayer" for the Emperor and all subjects, in their several +places and stations.(2985) Music took a large part in the ritual; there +was hymn-singing to the sound of flutes, harp, and cymbal; and the +chanters and paeanists of Serapis formed an order by themselves.(2986) The +prayer which Lucius offers to the goddess, in Apuleius, has been arranged +as a metrical litany.(2987) Women often appear in inscriptions and in our +texts as priestesses, and had a prominent place in all solemn +ritual.(2988) And it is evident that, with all its sacerdotalism, the +worship gave full recognition to devout worshippers of every degree and +sex. All who are devoted to the service have their place and function. The +initiated might even wear the tonsure in the ordinary lay life. To do +this, indeed, needed some courage, in the face of Roman ridicule. But the +religious were, from the earliest times in Greece and Italy, associated +for mutual support in sacred guilds, designated by various names, Isiaci +or Pastophori or Anubiaci. In the third century B.C., such societies are +found in Ceos and Peiraeus.(2989) On the walls of Pompeii they have left +their appeals to the electors to vote on behalf of candidates for the +aedileship.(2990) They were organised on the usual lines of the ancient +colleges, divided into decuries, with a director and a treasurer, a +"father" or a "mother," or a patron at their head.(2991) The Isiac guilds +must have had a powerful influence in the diffusion of the religion of +Alexandria. But they also were probably one cause of the suspicion so long +entertained for that worship by the Republican government, and they only +asserted their full strength in the second century, when the colleges in +general received the tacit sanction of the emperors. That the emperors +felt little fear of these foreign sacred corporations became clear when an +emperor actually took the tonsure of Isis.(2992) + +The Isiac system was energetic and self-assertive, but it can hardly be +called dangerous or revolutionary. It threw many of the old gods into the +shade, but its syncretism also found a place for many of them. Its inner +monotheism, after the fashion of those days, had open arms of charity for +all the ancient gods. One of the priests of Isis might be called +Iacchagogus or Mithra;(2993) statues of Dionysus and Venus and Priapus +stood in the court of the Isium at Pompeii.(2994) The Isis of Apuleius +proclaims her identity with nearly all the great powers of classical +legend, and gathers them into herself. But Isis identifies only to conquer +and absorb. And her priesthood formed an aggressive and powerful caste. +The sacerdotal colleges of the Latin religion were never, except in the +case of the Vestals, separated from ordinary life. The highest pontificate +was held by busy laymen, by consuls or emperors or great soldiers. After +the performance of his part in some great rite, the Roman priest returned +to his civic place and duties. And in Greece, in the third and second +centuries B.C., even the Isiac priesthood was held only for a year, or +even for a month; and the sacred processions at one time needed the +authorisation of the local council at Samos.(2995) But when we come to the +days of Apuleius, all this is changed. The chief priest at Cenchreae is +evidently a great ecclesiastic, bearing the sacred Eastern name of +Mithra.(2996) He has given up ordinary civic life, and has probably +abandoned his Greek name to take a new name "in religion." Every day two +solemn services at least have to be performed in the temple, besides the +private direction of souls, which had evidently become a regular part of +the priestly functions. Attached to the great temples, and close to the +altar, there is a "clergy house" where the ministers are lodged. It is +called the Pastophorion, and its chambers have been traced in the debris +of the temple at Pompeii.(2997) One of these presbyteries was the scene of +the seduction which convulsed the religious world in the reign of +Tiberius, and which sent so many pious exiles to the solitudes of +Sardinia. The ministers of Isis and Serapis are marked off by the tonsure +and the Isiac habit, which meet us in the pages of poets from Tibullus to +Juvenal,(2998) and in the frescoes of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The +abstinence, which was required as a preparation for communion in ordinary +votaries, was a lifelong obligation on the priest. The use of woollen +garments, of wine, pork, fish, and certain vegetables, was absolutely +forbidden to them.(2999) Chastity was essential in the celebrant of the +holy mysteries, and even Tertullian holds up the priests of Isis as a +reproachful example of continence to professing followers of Christ. The +priesthood is no longer a secondary concern; it absorbs a man's whole +life, sets him apart within the sanctuary as the dispenser of sacred +privileges, with the awful power of revealing the mystery of eternity, and +preparing souls to meet the great ordeal. + +It does not need much imagination to understand the fascination of Isis +and Serapis for a people who had outgrown a severe and sober, but an +uninspiring faith. They came to the West at the crisis of a great +spiritual and political revolution, with the charm of foreign mystery and +the immemorial antiquity of a land whose annals ran back to ages long +before Rome and Athens were even villages. But with antique charm, the +religion combined the moral and spiritual ideas of generations which had +outgrown the gross symbolism of Nature worship. The annual festivals might +preserve the memory of the myth, which in its grossness and brutal tragedy +once pictured the fructifying influence of the mysterious river on the +lands which awaited his visitations, or the waning force of vegetative +power and solar warmth. But Serapis, the new god of the Ptolemies, became +the lord of life and death, the guide and saviour of souls, the great +judge of all in the other world, an awful power, yet more inclined to +mercy than to judgment.(3000) And Isis rose to equally boundless sway, and +one of greater tenderness. Powers above and powers below alike wait on her +will: she treads Tartarus under her feet, and yet she embraces all, and +specially the weak and miserable, in the arms of her charity.(3001) Above +all, she has the secret of the unseen world, and can lighten for her +worshipper the Stygian gloom. But the Isiac, like the Orphic revelation, +while it gave a blessed promise for the life to come, attached grave +conditions to the pledge. In this brief time of probation, the soul must +prepare itself under ghostly guidance for the great trial. Sacrament and +mystery lent their aid to fortify the worshipper in the face of death, +but, to derive their full virtue, he must exercise himself in temperance, +abjure the pleasures of the senses, and purify himself for the vision of +God.(3002) The sacred ritual of the Egyptian might captivate the senses +and imagination by its pomp and music, its steaming altars, and +many-coloured symbolism. But in the stillness of the sanctuary the +worshipper was trained to find his moments of purest and most exalted +devotion in silent meditation before the Queen of heaven and the shades. +The lonely, the weak, and the desolate found in the holy guilds succour +and consolation, with a place in the ritual of her solemn seasons, which +bound each to each in the love of a Divine Mother. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + + THE RELIGION OF MITHRA + + +Of all the oriental religions which attracted the devotion of the West in +the last three centuries of the Empire, that of Mithra was the most +powerful. It is also the system which for various reasons has the greatest +interest for the modern student. It is perhaps the highest and most +striking example of the last efforts of paganism to reconcile itself to +the great moral and spiritual movement which was setting steadily, and +with growing momentum, towards purer conceptions of God, of man's +relations to Him, and of the life to come. It is also the greatest effort +of syncretism to absorb, without extinguishing, the gods of the classic +pantheon in a cult which was almost monotheistic, to transform old forms +of nature worship and cosmic symbolism into a system which should provide +at once some form of moral discipline and real satisfaction for spiritual +wants. In this effort, Mithraism was not so much impeded by a heritage of +coarse legend as the worships of Pessinus and Alexandria. It was indeed +sprung from the same order of religious thought as they. It could never +detach itself from its source as a cult of the powers of nature.(3003) But +the worship of the Sun, with which Mithra was inseparably connected, was +the purest and most natural form of devotion, if elemental powers were to +be worshipped at all. And heathendom tended more and more under the Empire +to fix its devotion on the source of all light and life. The Sun was to +Plato the highest material symbol of the Infinite Good. Neo-Pythagoreanism +and Neo-Platonism regarded him as the sacred image of the power beyond +human ken.(3004) "Before religion," it has been said, "had reached the +point of proclaiming that God must be sought in the realm of the ideal and +the absolute outside the world of sense, the one rational and scientific +cult was that of the Sun."(3005) Heliolatry also harmonised with +absolutism in the State, as the old Persian kings and their imitators, the +emperors of the third century, clearly perceived. The great temple of the +Sun, which Aurelian, the son of a priestess of the deity, founded in the +Campus Martius, with its high pontiffs and stately ritual, did honour not +only to the great lord of the heavenly spheres, but to the monarch who was +the august image of his power upon earth and who was endued with his +special grace.(3006) The power of Mithra in the fourth century lay in the +fact that, while it was tender and tolerant to the old national worships, +and never broke with the inner spirit of heathenism, it created an +all-embracing system which rose above all national barriers, which +satisfied the philosophic thought of the age in its mysticism, and gave +comfort and a hope of immortality through its sacraments. + +Mithra was one of the most ancient and venerable objects of pagan +devotion, as he was one of the last to be dethroned. In faint outline he +can be traced to the cradle of the Aryan race.(3007) In the Vedas he is a +god of light, and, as the god of truth, who hates all falsehood, he has +the germ of that moral character which grew into a great force in the last +age of his worship in the West. In the Avestas, the sacred books of the +religion of Iran, which, however late their redaction, still enshrine a +very ancient creed, Mithra has the same well-defined personality. He is +the radiant god who seems to emerge from the rocky summits of eastern +mountains at dawn, who careers through heaven with a team of four white +horses; yet he is not sun or moon or any star, but a spirit of light, ever +wakeful, watching with a thousand eyes, whom nothing can escape and +nothing deceive.(3008) And so, while he gives warmth and increase to the +earth, and health and wealth to men, he is also from the beginning a moral +power. He confers wisdom and honour and a clear conscience and concord. He +wages a truceless war with the evil powers of darkness, and guards his +faithful soldiers against the craft of the enemy. He is the friend and +consoler of the poor; he is the mediator between earth and heaven; he is +the lord of the world to come.(3009) But his place in the Zoroastrian +hierarchy was not always equally high. At one time he was only one of the +_yazatas_, who were created by the supreme Ormuzd.(3010) But Mithra has +still the attributes of guardian and saviour; he is approached with +sacrifice, libation, ablution, and litany, as in the latest days of his +power in the West. And again a higher place is given to him; he is the +vicegerent of the remote, ineffable Ormuzd, the mediator through whom the +supreme power crushes evil demons, and wages war with Ahriman; he is +invoked in the same prayers side by side with the Supreme. The Great +Kings, especially the later, regard Mithra as their special guardian, +swear by him in their most solemn oaths,(3011) and call upon him in the +hour of battle. If he was the god of the humble and afflicted, he was also +the god of the prince and warrior noble, and so we shall find him at the +end. + +The Persian conquest of Babylon had lasting effects on the religion of +Mithra. There he encountered a sacerdotal system which had its roots in an +immemorial civilisation. The conquerors, as so often happens, were to some +extent subdued by the vanquished.(3012) Syncretism set in; the deities of +the two races were reconciled and identified. The magical arts and the +astrolatry of the valley of the Euphrates imposed themselves on the purer +Mazdean faith, and never relaxed their hold, although they failed to check +its development as a moral system. Ormuzd was confounded with Bel, Mithra +with Shamash or the Sun-god. The astral and solar lore, the faith in +mystic numbers, which had been cultivated in Babylonia through many +generations, took its place in the theology of Mithra, and they have left +their mark in many a chapel on the Danube and the Rhine. Yet Mithra, +identified with the Sun at Babylon, was never absorbed in the cult of the +solar deity in the West.(3013) On many of the later inscriptions Mithra +and the Sun are mentioned side by side as equals and allies. Yet the +connection of Mithra with Babylon is never forgotten either by Greeks or +Romans. Claudian connects him with the mysteries of Bel.(3014) The priest +who, with many weird rites, in a waste sunless spot beside the Tigris, +conducts Menippus to the underworld, wears the dress of Media, and bears +the name Mithrobarzanes.(3015) + +With the destruction of the Persian empire and the diffusion of Magian +influence in Asia Minor, the worship arrived at its last stage before +entering on the conquest of the West. The monarchs of Pontus, Armenia, +Cappadocia, and Commagene, who claimed descent from the Achaemenids, were +politic or enthusiastic votaries of the religious traditions of +Iran.(3016) While they reverenced Ormuzd and Anaitis, Mithra was their +special patron, as he was to Artaxerxes.(3017) Mithra's name appears +constantly in the names of royal houses, such as Mithradates and +Mithrobarzanes. The inscription on the tomb of Antiochus of Commagene, who +boasted of his descent from Darius the son of Hystaspes, records the +endowment of solemn Persian rites, and combines the names of Ormuzd and +Zeus, of Apollo and Mithra.(3018) In the submergence of national barriers +which followed the fall of the Persian monarchy, and under the influence +of Greek philosophy, that process of syncretism began in Asia Minor which +was destined to produce such momentous results in the third and fourth +centuries. But the Mazdean faith, strong in its associations with the +ancient sources of spiritual enlightenment in the East, never succumbed to +the western paganism. The classical gods might be admitted to the Mazdean +heaven; Zeus might be confounded with Ormuzd; Anaitis might find an +analogue in Artemis Tauropolus. But the ancient name of Mithra was never +profaned in the liturgy by any translation.(3019) It was chiefly perhaps +in Phrygia and Lydia that alien worships produced a lasting effect in +modifying the Persian theology. The pure morality of the Mithraist creed +might seem to have little in common with the orgies of the devotees of +Attis and the Great Mother. But religious sentiment has a miraculous power +both to reject and to transmute. The costume and Phrygian cap of Attis +appear on all the monuments of Mithra to the end. And, although it is a +subject of debate, the taurobolium, that baptism of blood which was the +most impressive rite of the later paganism, was, in all probability, early +borrowed by Mithra from the ritual of Phrygia.(3020) The pine, the emblem +of immortality, which is so prominent in the scenes of mourning for +Attis,(3021) also has a place in the sculptured remains of the Persian +chapels. And the title Menotyrannus, a title of Attis, which is given to +the Persian god on many slabs, recalls his passage through the same +region.(3022) But Greek art had a more powerful and enduring effect on the +future of Mithra than any of these accretions. Probably the ancient +Persian faith recoiled from any material image of its divine powers,(3023) +although here also Assyria may have corrupted its purity. But when +Hellenic imagination began to play around the Mazdean gods, the result was +certain. The victorious Mithra was clothed with human form, and his legend +was fixed for ever by some nameless Pergamene artist, who drew his +inspiration from the "steer-slaying Victory" of Athens.(3024) The group in +which the youthful hero, his mantle blown back by the wind, with a +Phrygian cap upon his head, kneels on the shoulder of the bull, as he +buries his poniard in its throat, was for four centuries reproduced in +countless chapels from the mouth of the Danube to the Solway. That +symbolic scene, conveying so many meanings in its hieratic rigidity, +became to the pious Mithraist what the image of the Divine Figure on the +Cross has been for so many centuries to the devout Catholic. + +The revelation of the spread of Mithra worship in the Roman Empire is one +of the greatest triumphs of modern archaeology. Only faint notices of the +cult are found in Herodotus, Xenophon, and Strabo.(3025) Quintus Curtius +knew the Persian god as the soldier's special patron, inspiring courage in +battle.(3026) From the verses in the _Thebaid_ of Statius we may conclude +that he knew something of the service in Mithra's grottoes, and that he +had seen the figure of the "bull slaying" god.(3027) Plutarch knows Mithra +as the mediator between Ormuzd and Ahriman.(3028) Lucian had probably seen +the rites in his native Samosata; he knew the figure with the candys and +tiara, and, from the sneer at the god's ignorance of Greek, he may perhaps +have heard the old Mazdean litany.(3029) But he had probably little notion +of the hold which Mithra had already obtained on the farthest regions of +the West. Still less had he any prevision of his great destiny in the +third and fourth centuries. Literature, down to the Antonine age, teaches +us little of the character and strength of the worship. Without votive +inscriptions and the many ruins of his chapels, along with the indignant, +yet anxious, invective of the Christian apologists, we should never have +known how near the Persian god came to justifying his title of the +"Unconquered." + +It is impossible to fix the precise date when the worship of Mithra first +crossed the Aegean. The silence of inscriptions must not indeed be taken +as proving that he had no devotees in Italy before the Flavian age. A +famous passage in Plutarch's life of Pompey would seem to refer the first +appearance of the worship in the West to the conquest of the pirates of +Cilicia by Pompey, in 70 B.C.(3030) A religion of the alien and the slave +may well have been long domiciled in Italy before it attracted general +notice. And there may have been humble worshippers of Mithra at Rome or +Puteoli even in the days of Julius Caesar. The Mithraist inscription of +the time of Tiberius is now admitted to be a forgery.(3031) But from his +reign may probably be dated the first serious inroads of the cult. Under +Tiberius, Cappadocia was incorporated in the Empire, and Pontus under +Nero; Commagene, the home of Jupiter Dolichenus, who was a firm ally of +Mithra, was finally absorbed in the reign of Vespasian.(3032) The official +organisation of these districts, and the constant intercourse established +between central Asia Minor and the capital, must have opened many channels +for the importation of new forms of devotion from the East. Almost in the +very year in which Statius was penning his verses about Mithra in the +_Thebaid_, a freedman of the Flavian house erected a tablet to the god on +the Esquiline,(3033) and soldiers of the East carried his mysteries to the +camps on the Danube. The 15th Legion, which had fought under Corbulo +against the Parthians, and taken part in the conquest of Palestine in 70 +A.D., in the first years of the reign of Vespasian, established the +worship of Mithra at Carnuntum in Pannonia, which became henceforth the +sacred city of Mithra in the West.(3034) In 102 A.D. a marble group was +dedicated by the slave of a praetorian prefect of Trajan.(3035) It is +probable that at Ostia we have records of the cult from the year +162.(3036) The Mithraeum, found under the church of S. Clement at Rome, +has yielded an inscription of the last years of Antoninus Pius. That +emperor erected a temple to Mithra at Ostia.(3037) Rome and Ostia were +probably the earliest points in Italy invaded by the Persian worship. All +the conditions were favourable to an early and rapid propagation of the +cult in the capital of the world. Soldiers from the East would be serving +in the garrison, or settled after their release from service. Eastern +slaves swarmed in all the great houses, including that of the emperor. A +large proportion of the dedications are made by men of servile origin, and +the very name of the dedicator would often be enough to indicate his +nationality. More than 100 inscriptions, more than 75 pieces of Mithraist +sculpture, with the ruins of many chapels of the god, attest his powerful +influence at Rome.(3038) Ostia which, since the reconstruction of Trajan, +had overshadowed Puteoli, was hospitable to all alien rites.(3039) The +port had at least four temples of Mithra in the second century, and it is +significant of the alliance between the two worships, that a Mithraeum +there was built close to a shrine of the Great Mother,(3040) and that +members of the college of the Dendrophori sometimes made offerings and +dedications to Mithra.(3041) The remains at Ostia disclose some other +indications of the prevailing syncretism. The Roman Sylvanus has a niche +in one Mithraeum, and, in another, Saturn and Jupiter, Mars, Mercury and +Venus, are figured beside the purely Eastern symbols of the planets and +the signs of the zodiac.(3042) + +The inner secret of that rapid propaganda we shall never fully know. But +we can discover with tolerable certainty the kind of people who carried +the gospel of Mithra to the most remote parts of the western world. The +soldiers were his most zealous missionaries.(3043) Drafted from Cappadocia +or Commagene, and quartered, far from his home, in a camp on the Danube or +in the Black Forest, the legionary clung to the worship of his native +East, and was eager to admit his comrades to fellowship in its rites. The +appearance of Mithraism in certain places can be traced directly to the +quartering of a legion which had been recruited from the countries which +were the original home of the worship. Officers of eastern birth on +promotion passed into other corps, and extended the influence of the +East.(3044) Centurions retiring from active service became apostles of the +movement in the places where they settled. Syrian merchants, who were +still found at Orleans in the time of the Merovingians, with all the +fanaticism of their race popularised their native worships in the ports of +Italy, Gaul, along the coasts of the Adriatic, and among the centres of +commerce on the Danube or the Rhine.(3045) The civil servants of the +emperor, clerks and commissaries of every degree, procurators and agents +of great estates, who were often men of servile origin, have left many +traces of their zeal in spreading the Persian worship both throughout +Italy and in countries north of the Alps.(3046) The slave class probably +did as much for the glory of Mithra as any other.(3047) It was largely +drawn from Cappadocia, Pontus, and Phrygia, those regions where the +religion of Mithra had taken deep root before it passed into Europe. And, +like the Christian, the religion of Mithra was, at the outset of its +career, a religion of the poor and humble. It was only in the second +century that it achieved the conquest of the court and the educated +classes. It was probably through slaves that it found its way into remote +corners of Apulia, Lucania, or Etruria.(3048) + +The stages in the spread of the Mithraist rites throughout Italy cannot be +clearly traced. But in the second century the cult was established not +only in Campania, Capreae, and Ischia, but in lonely country places in +Southern Italy.(3049) It had spread to a circle of towns around +Rome--Lanuvium, Alba, Velitrae, Labici, and Praeneste.(3050) Borne by +traders, imperial officers or slaves, it followed the line of the great +roads to the north. Thus we can trace its march along the Via Cassia +through Etruria, at Volsinii, Arretium, and Florence.(3051) It arrived at +Pisa probably by sea. Along the Flaminian Way, it may be followed through +Interamna, Spoletium, and Sentinum to Bononia. At Nersae, in the Aequian +territory, the cult must have been of some antiquity in 172 A.D.(3052) +For, in that year the treasurer of the town, a man probably of the slave +class, restored a chapel which had fallen into ruins. The roll of the +patrons of a Mithraist society at Sentinum has come down to us, with the +names of slaves or freedmen among its members.(3053) In Gallia Cisalpina +the traces of Mithra are less frequent. Milan, already growing to its +great destiny in the fourth century, and Aquileia, are the chief seats of +the Persian cult. Aquileia has yielded a large number of inscriptions. +From its situation at the mouth of the Po, as the great _entrepot_ for the +trade between the Adriatic and the Danubian provinces, it must have +powerfully stimulated the diffusion of the worship.(3054) It is curious, +however, that the passes of the Alps have yielded richer booty to the +investigator in this field than the plains of Lombardy. In the mountain +valleys leading to Rhaetia and Noricum, as well as in those above the +Italian lakes, many relics of this far-spreading religion have been given +to the light.(3055) A temple of Mithra has been discovered near Trent, in +the valley of the Adige. In the Tyrol and Carinthia sacred grottoes, +buried among woods and rocks, have disclosed bas-reliefs, sculptured with +the traditionary figures of Persian legend. They were probably frequented +by the faithful down to the reign of Valentinian.(3056) Throughout Noricum +and Pannonia imperial functionaries or agents of private enterprise, +procurators, clerks of the treasury, custom-house officers, or eastern +freedmen and slaves, have left many traces of their devotion to the +Persian god.(3057) Thus, everywhere along the great roads which radiated +from Aquileia to the markets or strong places upon the Danube, the votary +of Mithra would find in the days of the Antonines many a shrine, stately +or humble, where he could refresh his piety by the way. + +The Greek provinces have yielded but few memorials of the worship of +Mithra. But, from the mouth of the Danube to the north of England his +triumphant march can be traced, with only a break here and there. He +follows the line of the rivers or the great roads, through the frontier +camps or the centres of Roman commerce. Firmly seated at Tomi and the +ports of the Black Sea, Mithra has not left many traces, so far as +exploration has gone, in Thrace and Macedonia.(3058) Nor have the Moesias +as yet contributed many monuments, although at Troesmis and Oescus, along +the great military road, bas-reliefs and inscriptions have been brought to +light.(3059) Next to Pannonia and the territory of the Upper Rhine, Dacia +was the province where Mithraism seems to have reached its greatest +popularity in Europe.(3060) In the year 107, after six desolating and +often doubtful campaigns, Dacia was resettled and organised by +Trajan.(3061) Its depopulated fields were colonised with immense masses of +men from all parts of the Roman world. Probably there has seldom been such +a _colluvies gentium_ assembled. And, among these alien settlers, there +were many from Edessa, Palmyra, and those regions of the East where Mithra +or his kindred deities had their earliest and most fervent +worshippers.(3062) In the capital of the province, Sarmizegetusa, an +excavated Mithraeum has afforded fifty bas-reliefs and inscriptions.(3063) +The colony of Apulum can show the remains of at least four temples. And +Potaissa and other places, with names strange to English ears, have +enriched the museums. + +Pannonia abounds with interesting remains of Mithra, not only in the great +seats of Roman power on the Danube, but in places far in the interior. +And in this province can be distinctly traced not only the progress of the +military propaganda, but the dates, with approximate accuracy, when the +mysteries of Mithra were first introduced.(3064) Aquincum and Carnuntum +were the chief seats of the Persian worship on the Danube. In the former +town, the god had at least five chapels in the third century. There were +at least four in the territory of Carnuntum, one of them being closely +connected with that of the allied deity, Jupiter Dolichenus of +Commagene.(3065) The original votaries of the reign of Vespasian had been +contented with a rude grotto, partially formed by the configuration of the +rocks, the intervals being filled in with masonry.(3066) This structure in +the third century was replaced by a more stately edifice at the expense of +a Roman knight.(3067) There can be little doubt that the spread of +Mithraism in Pannonia was chiefly the work of two Legions, the II. +Adjutrix and XV. Apollinaris, both largely recruited from Commagene or +Cappadocia.(3068) The bricks of a Mithraeum at Carnuntum bear the stamp of +the 15th Legion, and the inscriptions contain several dedications by +soldiers of the two corps.(3069) The 15th Legion, which was quartered on +the Danube in 71 or 72, had fought under Corbulo against the Parthians, +and had borne a part in suppressing the Jewish revolt of 70 A.D. We may be +sure that the gaps in its ranks were filled by eastern recruits.(3070) The +soldiers of other corps, such as the Legions XIII and XIV, Geminae +Martiae, caught the religious enthusiasm, and took part in the erection of +buildings and in monumental offerings.(3071) It was probably through +officers, transferred from the Danube, that the worship was introduced +into the camp of Lambaesis in Numidia. There is a tablet of the third +century to Mithra in that camp, dedicated by a prefect of the 3rd Legion, +who was born at Carnuntum.(3072) In Noricum and Rhaetia, the military +propaganda seems to have been less vigorous than in Pannonia. But a corner +of the former province was once guarded by a corps from Commagene, which +has left traces of its presence in the name of a town on the Danube and in +some monuments to Mithra.(3073) In Rhaetia his remains are singularly +scanty.(3074) But when we come to the _Agri Decumates_ and the region of +the Upper Rhine, we find ourselves in a district once more teeming with +relics of Mithra. Not only has this region given to the light the largest +number of his chapels,(3075) but the bas-reliefs found in their ruins +surpass all others in their dimensions and the completeness of their +symbolism. The tauroctonus group of Osterburken is regarded as the +masterpiece of Mithraist art in its complex variety and the vivid and +masterly skill of the execution.(3076) Many of the German inscriptions to +Mithra are offered by simple citizens. But, from the number dedicated by +soldiers also, Cumont may be right in tracing the diffusion of the worship +once more to military zeal. It is true, the legions quartered in Germany +did not contain any considerable number of recruits from the East. But +they were in constant communication with the camps upon the Danube, where +oriental influences were strong. It is significant that the earliest +inscription to Mithra yet found in Germany, of the year A.D. 148, is that +of a centurion of the 8th Legion, which was quartered in Moesia from 47 +till 69, and which during that time had frequent communications with the +East. The legion was in 70 removed from Moesia to Upper Germany.(3077) It +is probable that, however it was introduced, the worship of Mithra may +have found its way into the valley of the Neckar, and even to the Lower +Rhine, before the end of the first century. Coins of Trajan have been +found in the temple at Friedberg;(3078) a series of coins from Vespasian +to M. Aurelius has been recovered from a temple in the neighbourhood of +Cologne.(3079) From Cologne the line of conquest may be followed to +Boulogne, the station of the British fleet. Thence the cult passed easily +to London, which, in the time of Tacitus, was a centre of great commercial +activity.(3080) The legions probably carried the worship to the great +camps of Caerleon, Chester and York. At all the guardposts of the great +rampart of Hadrian, there were chapels of the eastern god, and the +inscriptions show that the officers at this remote outpost of the Empire +maintained a warm devotion to the religion of their native East.(3081) + +The regions of the western world on which Mithra, from whatever causes, +seems to have made least impression were Western Gaul, Spain, and North +Africa.(3082) Syrian merchants, slaves, or soldiers, had established the +worship at Lyons, Arles, and Narbonne. But Elusa is the only place in +Aquitaine where traces of it have been found. In Spain, the legionaries +carried it only to a few remote frontier posts in Asturia or +Gallicia.(3083) The African garrisons, recruited largely from the +surrounding country, remained true to their native deities, and the few +inscriptions to Mithra at great military strongholds, like Lambesi, are +probably due to the devotion of some of the higher officers, who had been +transferred to these distant quarters from Syria or the Danube.(3084) + +If we try to explain the fascination of this religion of central Asia for +western minds, we must seek it partly in its theological system, partly in +its ritual and clerical organisation, still more in its clear promise of a +life beyond the grave. In these characteristics, Mithraism differed +profoundly from Graeco-Roman paganism, and seemed, in the eyes of the +Christian apologists, to be a deceptive imitation of the rites and +doctrines of the Christian Church. Inspired with the tendency or ambition +to gather many races into its fold, Mithraism was a compound of the +influences of very different ages, and offered many footholds for the +faith or superstition of the lands which it traversed in its march. It +drew, from points widely severed in time and place, doctrine or symbolism +or rite, from the ancient lands of the Aryan race, from the mountain homes +of the Persians, from Babylon and Phrygia and Commagene, from the +philosophy of Greece, and the mythologies of all the peoples among whom it +came. Yet it never to the end ceased to be a Persian cult. In the Divine +Comedy of Lucian, as it may be called, Mithra, even when he is admitted to +Olympus, cannot speak in Greek.(3085) His name is never disguised or +translated. On many of his inscriptions the names of the old Mazdean +pantheon, such as Ahriman, the power of evil, still figure.(3086) The +mystic beasts which are always present in the sacred scene of the +tauroctonus, the lion, the dog, the snake, the scorpion, had all a +hieratic meaning in Persian theology.(3087) The cave, which was the +immemorial sanctuary of the worship, amid all the mystic meanings attached +to it by later Neo-Platonist speculation, carried the mind back to +Zoroastrian symbolism.(3088) The _petra genetrix_, which is figured on so +many sacred slabs on the Danube and in Upper Germany, goes back to the +very cradle of the worship.(3089) The young god, emerging from the spires +of rock, round which a serpent coils itself, is the first radiance of the +upspringing sun, as on high, lonely peaks it flashes and broadens to the +dawn. The great elemental powers, sun and moon, ocean, the winds and +seasons, are generally grouped around the central piece, in forms borrowed +from classic art.(3090) Fire and water are always present; no chapel was +without its fountain.(3091) And the tradition of the astral lore of the +Euphrates can be seen in the signs of the zodiac which encompass the +sacred scene of mystic sacrifice in the chapels on the Upper Rhine.(3092) +The very letters of the name of Mithra, expanded into Meithras, according +to S. Jerome, like the mystic word Abraxas, yielded to ingenious +calculation the exact number of days in the year.(3093) It is difficult +for us to conceive how these frigid astronomical fancies should form a +part in a religious system which undoubtedly from the beginning had a +profound moral effect on its adherents. Yet it is well to remember that +there was a time when the mystery of the stellar spaces, and the grandeur +and beneficence of the sun, were the most awful and impressive things in +human experience. The cold scrutiny of the telescope has long since robbed +the heavenly orbs of their mystic power over human destiny. Yet even now, +a man who has not been imbued with the influence of modern science, may, +on some calm, starlit summer night, travel back in imagination to the +dreams of the early star-gazers on the Ganges or the Euphrates, and fancy +that, in the far solitary splendour and ordered movement of those eternal +fires, which shine so serene and pitiless on this small point in the +universe, there may be forces to guide or signs to predict the course of +mortal destiny. Nor was it an altogether unworthy dream, which floated +before the minds of so many generations, that in those liquid depths of +space, where, in the infinite distance, the radiance of widely-severed +constellations blends into a luminous haze, might be the eternal abode of +spirits who, after their sojourn in the flesh, have purged themselves of +earthly taint.(3094) + +The relative influence of Babylon and ancient Iran in moulding the +theology of Mithraism, has long been a subject of controversy. The +opposing schools, represented by Lajard and Windischmann,(3095) have been +discredited or reconciled by saner methods of criticism, and wider +archaeological knowledge. It is now seen that while Babylonia has left a +deep impress on the creed of Mithra, yet the original Aryan or Persian +elements still maintained their ascendency. Mithra, in his long journey, +came under many influences; and he absorbed many alien ideas from the +cults and art of the many lands through which he travelled. His tolerance, +indeed, was one great secret of his power. But, while he absorbed, he +assimilated and transmuted. He remained the god of Persia, while he +gathered into his creed mystic elements that might appease the spiritual +cravings of the western world.(3096) His system came to represent the best +theological expression of the long movement of pagan mysticism, which, +beginning with the mythic names of Orpheus and Pythagoras, organised in +the classic mysteries, elevated and glorified by the genius of Plato, +ended, if it has ended, in the Neo-Platonic movement which offered a last +resistance to the Christian church. The central ideas of that theory of +life and death were presented to the neophyte in the mysteries of Mithra, +and one of the last expounders of the Platonic creed, in the reign of +Theodosius, had probably been initiated in one of the last chapels of the +worship.(3097) In that vision of human destiny, of the descent and ascent +of the human soul, the old Orphic doctrine is united with the star-lore of +the Euphrates. Travelling towards its future prison-house in the flesh, +the spirit which leaves the presence of Ormuzd descends by the gate of +Cancer, through the spheres of the seven planets, and in each acquires a +new faculty appropriate to its earthly state. The Mithraist discipline and +sacraments prepare it for the ascent after death. When the soul at last +leaves its mortal prison, it has to submit to a great judgment in the +presence of Mithra, and if it pass the ordeal, it may then return through +the seven spheres, at each stage divesting itself of those passions or +earthly powers, which it had taken on for a time in its downward +journey.(3098) Finally, through the remote gate of Capricorn, its +sublimated essence will pass back again to ecstatic union with the +Supreme. It is thus that the East and West, Orphic mysteries and Chaldaean +astrology, combined to satisfy the craving for a moral faith and the +vision of another world. + +The religion of Mithra probably achieved its highest victory through an +ethical theology, typified and made concrete to the average worshipper by +an elaborate symbolism in rite and sculptured scene. But it had also a +cosmic theology. Mithra, in virtue of his moral power, became in the end +the central figure. But in nearly all his chapels can be discovered a +divine hierarchy, in which, for ages, he did not hold the foremost rank. +The highest place is given to Infinite Time, without sex or passions, or +properly without even a name, although in order to bring him within the +vulgar ken, he may be called Cronus or Saturn and imaged in stone as a +lion, wrapped in the coils of a snake.(3099) He is the author of life and +death; he carries the keys of heaven, and in his limitless sway, he is +identified with the unbending power of Fate. Like other cosmic systems of +the East the Mazdean explained the universe by a succession of emanations +from the Infinite First Cause.(3100) From his own essence, Cronus +engendered Earth and Heaven, whom mythologers may call Jupiter and Juno, +and they in turn give life to Ocean. Jupiter, as in classical mythology, +succeeded to the power of Cronus, and gave to the world the Olympian +deities, along with Fortune, Themis, and the Fates. In the hemisphere of +gloom and evil, another order was engendered by Infinite Time, which is +represented by Ahriman, or, in the fancy of more western lands, by Pluto +and Hecate. The evil spirits, who are their progeny, like the Titans of +Greek legend, have tried to storm Olympus, and been hurled back to the +under world.(3101) There they still retain their power to plague and +corrupt the race of men; but, by means of incantation, and sacrifice, +their malice may be turned aside. In this daemonology Mithraism joined +hands with the new Platonism, of which Plutarch, as we have seen, was one +of the earliest apostles, and the affinity between them continued to the +last age of paganism.(3102) But it was in its divinisation of the +elemental powers and heavenly bodies that this religion probably obtained +its most powerful hold on an age profoundly fatalist and superstitious. +The strife of the four elements figures under animal symbolism on +innumerable sculptures of the chapels of Mithra, around the image of the +bull-slaying God.(3103) The divine fire which sparkles in the stars, and +diffuses the warmth of life in animal or plant, blazed perpetually on the +altar of the crypt.(3104) The sun and moon are seldom missing from these +slabs. In the great masterpiece of Mithraic art at Osterburken, the two +deities occupy opposite corners of the tablet.(3105) The sun-god, with a +cloak floating from his right shoulder, is urging his four-horse team up +the steep of heaven, and over the car floats Phosphorus, as a naked boy, +bearing a torch in each hand. On the opposite side, Selene, crowned with +the crescent and erect in her car, is urging her team of oxen downwards +towards the gloom. On another piece, also found in the heart of Germany, +there is an impressive scene, in which Mithra and the Sun, arrayed in +eastern costume, stand side by side over a huge slaughtered bull. The sun +god is handing to Mithra a bunch of grapes, which he receives with a +gesture of admiration.(3106) + +The most popular, and the least wholesome, element, which Mithraism +borrowed from Babylon, was the belief in planetary influence. The seven +planets became the arbiters of human destiny, and their number acquired a +hieratic significance.(3107) The days of the week and the seven principal +metals were consecrated to them. The various grades of initiation into the +mysteries of Mithra found a correspondence in the intervals of the seven +spheres.(3108) The soul, in descending to its earthly tenement for a +season, passes through their successive realms, and assumes appropriate +faculties in each, just as, on its release and ascension, it divests +itself of them, one by one, as it returns to the region of ethereal +purity. But the astral doctrine, introduced into the system of Iran from +Chaldaea, was a dangerous addition to the creed. It was a fatal heritage +from ages of benumbing superstition, and, while it gave an immense impetus +to the progress of the solar cult, it counterbalanced, and, to some +extent, neutralised its more spiritual and salutary doctrines.(3109) A +co-ordinate evil power, side by side with the beneficent Creator and +Preserver, and his revealer and mediator, a host of daemons, tempting to +sin, as well as visiting men with calamity, an iron Fate at the centre of +the Universe, whose inevitable decrees are at once indicated and executed +by the position and motions of the planets--all this gloomy doctrine lay +like a nightmare on the human mind for many ages, and gave birth to all +sorts of evil arts to discover or avert or direct the pitiless forces +which controlled the fate of man. This is the dark side of Mithra worship, +and, in this evil tradition from Babylon, which partially overlaid the +purer creed of Persia, we may find some explanation of the strange +blending of dark superstition with moral earnestness which characterised +the reaction of Julian, the votary of the Sun, and the patron of Maximus. + +But, although the deification of the great elemental powers and the +mingled charm and terror of astrology gave the religion of Mithra a +powerful hold on the West, there were other and nobler elements in his +system which cannot escape the candid enquirer. The old unmoral, external +paganism no longer satisfied the spiritual wants of all men in the second +century. It is true the day will probably never come when the religion of +many will not begin and end in solemn, stately rite, consecrated to the +imagination by ancient use, and captivating the sense by scrupulously +ordered ceremonial. The ritualist and the puritan conception of worship +will probably always exist side by side, for they represent two opposite +conceptions of religion which can never entirely blend. And certainly in +the days of M. Aurelius the placid satisfaction in a sumptuous sacrifice, +at which every word of the ancient litany was rendered to the letter, was +still profoundly felt by many, even by the philosophic emperor himself. +But there were other ideas in the air. Men heard from wandering preachers +that God required other offerings than the "blood of bulls and the ashes +of a heifer," that the true worship was in the sacrifice of a purified +spirit.(3110) Platonist and Pythagorean, even when they might reverently +handle the ancient symbolism of ritual, were teaching that communion with +the Infinite Father was only possible to a soul emancipated from the +tyranny of sense. Moreover, as we have seen, the new Platonism was +striving to create some mediatorial power between the world of sense and +the Infinite Spirit, transcending all old materialistic fancies of the +Divine.(3111) This Platonic daemonology, indeed, from the Christian point +of view, was a very crude and imperfect attempt to bridge the gulf. And it +had the graver fault that it was really a revival of the old mythology. +Yet it was also an attempted reformation. It was an effort to introduce a +moral influence into paganism. It was an effort to substitute for physical +and naturalistic conceptions a moral theory of the government of the +world. That was surely an immense advance in religious history, and +foreshadowed the great revolution which was to launch the western world on +a new spiritual career. The hosts of sister spirits, whom Maximus of Tyre +imagines as surrounding and sustaining the life of men, involved in the +darkness and sorrow of time, are a conception strange to the old paganism. +And the need of mediatorial sympathy, of a sympathetic link, however +slight, with the dim, awful Power, ever receding into more remote and +mysterious distances, was also connected with the need of some assurance, +or fainter hope, of a life beyond the tomb. To that hope the old classical +paganism afforded only slight and shadowy nutriment. Yet, from hundreds of +sepulchral inscriptions the yearning, often darkened by a doubt, appeals +with pathetic force. Apart, in fact, from the crowd of mere antiquarian +formalists and lovers of spectacle, there were, we believe, a great mass +who longed for some channel through which they might have the faintest +touch of sympathy with the Infinite Spirit; for some promise, however +veiled in enigmatic symbolism, that this poor, puzzling, ineffectual life +should not close impotently at death. + +In all the Mazdean pantheon, it has been remarked, Mithra was the only +divine figure that profoundly affected the religious imagination of +Europe. Who can dare at this distance to pierce the mystery? But we may +conjecture that the ascendency is partly due to his place as mediator in +the Persian hierarchy, partly to the legends, emblazoned on so many slabs, +of his miraculous and Herculean triumphs; but still more to the moral and +sacramental support, and the sure hope of immortal life which he offered +to his faithful worshippers. Mithra came as a deliverer from powers of +evil and as a mediator between man and the remote Ormuzd. He bears the +latter office in a double sense. In the cosmic system, as lord of light, +he is also lord of the space between the heavenly ether and the mists of +earth. As a solar deity, he is the central point among the planetary +orbs.(3112) In the ubiquitous group of the slaughtered bull, Mithra stands +between the two Dadophori, Cautes and Cautopates, who form with him a sort +of Trinity, and are said to be incarnations of him.(3113) One of these +figures in Mithraic sculpture always bears a torch erect, the other a +torch turned downwards to the earth. They may have a double significance. +They may figure the ascending light of dawn, and the last radiance of day +as it sinks below the horizon. They may be taken to image the growth of +solar strength to its midsummer triumphs, and its slow decline towards +fading autumn and the cold of winter. Or again, they may shadow forth the +wider and more momentous processes of universal death and resurgent life. +But Mithra also became a mediator in the moral sense, standing between +Ormuzd and Ahriman, the powers of good and evil, as Plutarch conceives +him.(3114) He is the ever victorious champion, who defies and overthrows +the malignant demons that beset the life of man; who, above all, gives the +victory over the last foe of humanity. + +The legend of Mithra in hymn or litany is almost entirely lost. But +antiquarian ingenuity and cultivated sympathy have plausibly recovered +some of its meanings from the many sculptural remains of his chapels. On +the great monuments of Virunum, Mauls, Neuenheim, and Osterburken, can be +seen the successive scenes of the hero's career. They begin with his +miraculous birth from the "mother rock," which was familiar to Justin +Martyr, S. Jerome, and many of the Fathers.(3115) The dedications _petrae +genetrici_ abound along the Danube, and the sacred stone was an object of +adoration in many chapels.(3116) A youthful form, his head crowned with a +Phrygian cap, a dagger in one hand, and a torch in the other, is pictured +emerging from an opening rock, around which sometimes a serpent is coiled. +Shepherds from the neighbouring mountain gaze in wonder at the divine +birth, and presently come nearer to adore the youthful hero, and offer him +the firstlings of their flocks and fields.(3117) And again, a naked boy is +seen screening himself from the violence of the wind in the shelter of a +fig tree; he eats of its fruit and makes himself a garment from the +leaves.(3118) In another scene, the sacred figure appears in full eastern +costume, armed with a bow from which he launches an arrow against a rock +rising in front of him.(3119) From the spot where the arrow strikes the +stone, a fountain gushes forth, and the water is eagerly caught in his +upturned palms by a form kneeling below. Then follow the famous scenes of +the chase and slaughter of the mystic bull. At first the beast is seen +borne in a skiff over an expanse of waters. Soon afterwards he is grazing +quietly in a meadow, when Mithra comes upon the scene. In one monument the +hero is carrying the bull upon his shoulders; in others he is borne upon +the animal's back, grasping it by the horns. Or again, the bull is seen in +full career with the hero's arms thrown around his neck. At last the bull +succumbs to his rider's courage, and is dragged by the hind-legs, which +are drawn over his captor's shoulders, into a cavern where the famous +slaughter was enacted.(3120) The young god, his mantle floating on the +wind, kneels on the shoulder of the fallen beast, draws back its head with +his left hand, while with the other he buries his dagger in its +neck.(3121) Below this scene are invariably sculptured the scorpion, the +faithful dog, and the serpent lapping the flowing blood. The two +Dadophori, silent representatives of the worlds of light and gloom, one on +each side, are always calm watchers of the mystic scene. But the +destruction of the bull was not a mere spectacle of death. It was followed +by a miracle of fresh springing life and fertility, and, here and there, +on the slabs are seen ears of corn shooting from the tail of the dying +beast, or young plants and flowers springing up around.(3122) His blood +gives birth to the vine which yields the sacred juice consecrated in the +mysteries. Thus, in spite of the scorpion and the serpent, symbols of the +evil powers, who seek to wither and sterilise the sources of vitality, +life is ever rising again from the body of death.(3123) + +Mithra's mysterious reconciliation with the Sun is figured in other +groups.(3124) Mithra, as usual, in eastern costume, has, kneeling before +him, a youthful figure either naked or lightly clad. The god touches the +head of the suppliant with some mysterious symbol, and the subject of the +rite raises his hands in prayer. The mystic symbol is removed, and Mithra +sets a radiant crown on the suppliant's head. This reconciliation of the +two deities is a favourite subject. In the sculpture of Osterburken, they +ratify their pact with solemn gestures before an altar. Their restored +harmony is commemorated in even more solemn fashion. In one monument the +two are reclining on a couch at a solemn agape, with a table before them +bearing the sacred bread, which is marked with the cross, and both are in +the act of raising the cup in their right hands.(3125) + +The legend of Mithra, thus faintly and doubtfully reconstructed from the +sacred sculptures, in the absence of express tradition, must probably for +ever remain somewhat of an enigma. It has been, since the third century, +the battle-ground of ingenious interpreters. To enumerate and discuss +these theories, many of them now discredited by archaeological research, +is far beyond the scope of this work. It is clear that from the early +Chaldaean magi, who, to some extent, imposed their system on Iranian +legend, down to the Neo-Platonists, the god and his attendants were +treated as the symbols of cosmic theory. The birth from the rock was the +light of dawn breaking over serrated crests of eastern hills.(3126) The +cave, which was always piously perpetuated in the latest Mithraist +architecture, was the solid vault of heaven, and the openings pierced in +its roof were the stars shining through the celestial dome.(3127) The +fountain which rose in every chapel, the fire on the altar, the animals +surrounding the bull, represent the powers of nature in their changes and +conflict. The young archer, causing water to spring from the rock by a +shot from his bow, marks the miraculous cessation of prehistoric dearth, +as the bull leaping from a skiff perhaps commemorates a primaeval deluge. +The slaying of the bull, the central scene of all, may go back to the +exploits of the heroic pioneers of settled life, a Hercules or a Theseus, +who tamed the savage wilderness to the uses of man. It had many meanings +to different ages. To one occupied with the processes of nature, it may +have symbolised the withering of the vegetative freshness of the world in +midsummer heats, yet with a promise of a coming spring. To another it may +have meant a victory over evil spirits and powers of darkness.(3128) Or it +may, in the last days, have been the prototype of that sacramental +cleansing which gave assurance of immortal life, and which seemed to the +Fathers the mockery of a Diviner Sacrifice. + +There can be no doubt that Mithra and his exploits, in response to a great +need, came to have a moral and spiritual meaning. From the earliest times, +he is the mediator between good and evil powers; ever young, vigorous, and +victorious in his struggles, the champion of truth and purity, the +protector of the weak, the ever vigilant foe of the hosts of daemons who +swarm round the life of man, the conqueror of death. His religion, in +spite of its astrology, was not one of fatalist reverie; it was a religion +of struggle and combat. In this aspect it was congenial to the virile +Roman temperament, and, above all, to the temperament of the Roman +soldier, at once the most superstitious and the most strenuous of +men.(3129) Who can tell what inspiration the young heroic figure, wearing +an air of triumphant vigour even on the rudest slabs,(3130) may have +breathed into a worn old veteran, who kept ceaseless watch against the +Germans in some lonely post on the Danube, when he spent a brief hour in +the splendour of the brilliantly lighted crypt, and joined in the old +Mazdean litany? Before him was the sacred group of the Tauroctonus, full +of so many meanings to many lands and ages, but which, to his eyes, +probably shed the light of victory over the perilous combats of time, and +gave assurance of a larger hope. Suddenly, by the touch of an unseen hand, +the plaque revolved,(3131) and he had before him the solemn agape of the +two deities in which they celebrated the peaceful close of their mystic +conflict. And he went away, assured that his hero god was now enthroned on +high, and watching over his faithful soldiers upon earth.(3132) At the +same time, he had seen around him the sacred symbols or images of all the +great forces of nature, and of the fires of heaven which, in their motions +and their effluences, could bring bane or happiness to men below. In the +chapels of Mithra, all nature became divine and sacred, the bubbling +spring, the fire on the cottage hearth, the wind that levelled the pine +tree or bore the sailor on his voyage, the great eternal lights that +brought seed-time and harvest and parted day from night, the ever-welling +vital force in opening leaf and springing corn-ear, and birth of young +creatures, triumphing in regular round over the malignant forces which +seem for a time to threaten decay and corruption. The "Unconquered Mithra" +is thus the god of light and hope in this world and the next.(3133) + +The ancient world was craving for a promise of immortality. Mithraism +strove to nurse the hope, but, like the contemporaneous Platonism and the +more ancient Orphic lore, it linked it with moral responsibility and grave +consequences. Votaries were taught that the soul descended by graduated +fall from the Most High to dwell for a season in the prison of the +flesh.(3134) After death there is a great judgment, to decide the future +destiny of each soul, according to the life which had been led on +earth.(3135) Spirits which have defiled themselves during life are dragged +down by Ahriman and his evil angels, and may be consigned to torture, or +may sink into endless debasement. The pure, who have been fortified by the +holy mysteries, will mount upwards through the seven spheres, at each +stage parting with some of their lower elements, till, at last, the +subtilised essential spirit reaches the empyrean, and is received by +Mithra into the eternal light. + +But the conflict between good and evil, even on this earth, will not last +for ever. There will be a second coming of Mithra, which is to be presaged +by great plagues. The dead will arise from their tombs to meet him. The +mystic bull will again be slain, and his blood, mingled with the juice of +the sacred Haoma, will be drunk by the just, and impart to them the gift +of eternal life.(3136) Fire from heaven will finally devour all that is +evil. Thus the slaughter of the bull, which is the image of the succession +of decay and fructifying power in physical nature, is also the symbol and +guarantee of a final victory over evil and death. And, typifying such +lofty and consolatory truths, it naturally met the eye of the worshipper +in every chapel. It was also natural that the taurobolium, which was +originally a rite of the Great Mother, should be absorbed, like so many +alien rites and ideas, by the religion which was the great triumph of +syncretism. The baptism of blood was, indeed, a formal cleansing from +impurity of the flesh; but it was also cleansing in a higher sense. The +inscriptions of the fourth century, which commemorate the blessing of the +holy rite, often close with the words _in aeternum renatus_.(3137) How far +the phrase expressed a moral resurrection, how far it records the sure +hope of another life, we cannot presume to say. Whether borrowed from +Christian sources or not, it breathes an aspiration strangely different +from the tone of old Roman religion, even at its best. There may have been +a good deal of ritualism in the cleansing of Mithra. Yet Mithra was, from +the beginning, a distinctly moral power, and his worship was apparently +untainted by the licence which made other heathen worships schools of +cruelty and lust. His connection, indeed, with some of them, must at times +have led his votaries into more than doubtful company; Sabazius and Magna +Mater were dangerous allies.(3138) Yet, on the whole, it has been +concluded that Mithraism was a gospel of truth and purity, although the +purity was often a matter of merely ceremonial purification and +abstinence. + +The day is far distant when the mass of men will be capable of the austere +mystic vision, which relies little on external ceremonies of worship. +Certainly the last ages of paganism in the West were not ripe for any such +reserved spirituality. And the religions which captivated the ages that +preceded the triumph of the Catholic Church, while they strove to satisfy +the deeper needs of the spirit, were more intensely sacerdotal, and more +highly organised than the old religions of Greece and Rome. Probably no +small part of their strength lay in sacramental mystery, and an occult +sacred lore which was the monopoly of a class set apart from the +world.(3139) Our knowledge of the Mithraic priesthood is unfortunately +scanty, and the ancient liturgy has perished.(3140) But inscriptions +mention an _ordo sacerdotum_; and Tertullian speaks of a "high pontiff of +Mithra" and of holy virgins and persons vowed to continence in his +service.(3141) The priestly functions were certainly more constant and +exacting than those of the old priestly colleges of Greece and Rome. There +were solemn sacraments and complicated rites of initiation to be +performed. Three times a day, at dawn, noon, and evening, the litany to +the Sun was recited.(3142) Daily sacrifice was offered at the altars of +various gods, with chanting and music. The climax of the solemn office was +probably marked by the sounding of a bell.(3143) And turning on a pivot, +the sacred slab in the apse displayed, for the adoration of the faithful, +the scene of the holy feast of Mithra and the Sun after their +reconciliation. The seventh day of the week was sacred to the Sun, the +sixteenth of each month to Mithra, and the 25th of December, as marking +the sun's entrance on a new course of triumph, was the great festival of +Mithra's sacred year.(3144) + +Initiation in the mysteries, after many rites of cleansing and trial, was +the crowning privilege of the Mithraist believer. The gradation of +spiritual rank, and the secrecy which bound the votaries to one another in +a sacred freemasonry, were a certain source of power. S. Jerome alone has +preserved for us the seven grades through which the neophyte rose to full +communion. They were Corax, Cryphius, Miles, Leo, Perses, Heliodromus, and +Pater.(3145) What their origin was who shall say? They may correspond to +the seven planets, and mark the various stages of the descent of the soul +into flesh, and its rise again to the presence of God. According to +Porphyry, the first three stages were merely preliminary to complete +initiation. Only the Lions were full and real communicants,(3146) and the +title Leo certainly appears oftenest on inscriptions. The dignity Pater +Patrum, or Pater Patratus, was much coveted, and conferred a real +authority over the brethren, with an official title to their +reverence.(3147) The admission to each successive grade was accompanied by +symbolic ceremonies, as when the Miles put aside the crown twice tendered +to him, saying that Mithra was his only crown.(3148) The veil of the +Cryphius, and the Phrygian bonnet of the Perses, have a significance or a +history which needs no comment. Admission to full communion was preceded +by austerities and ordeals which were made the subject of exaggeration and +slander. The neophyte, blindfold and bound, was obliged to pass through +flame. It was said that he had to take part in a simulated murder with a +blood-dripping sword. On the sculpture of Heddernheim a figure is seen +standing deep in snow. These ceremonies probably went back to the scenes +and ages in which mutilations in honour of Bellona and Magna Mater took +their rise. They may also have been a lesson, or a test of apathy and +moral courage.(3149) But the tales of murder and torture connected with +these rites have probably no better foundation than similar slanders about +the early Christian mysteries.(3150) + +The votaries of Mithra, like those of Isis and other eastern deities, +formed themselves into guilds which were organised on the model of +ordinary sodalities and colleges. As funerary societies, or under the +shelter of Magna Mater, they escaped persecution. They had their roll of +members, their council of decurions, their masters and curators.(3151) +And, like the secular colleges, they depended to a great extent, for the +erection of chapels and the endowment of their services, on the generosity +of their wealthier members and patrons.(3152) One man might give the site +of a chapel, another a marble altar; a poor slave might contribute out of +his _peculium_ a lamp or little image to adorn the walls of the +crypt.(3153) + +One undoubted cause of the success of Mithra in the West was the spirit of +fraternity and charity which was fostered in his guilds. The hopeless +obscurity and depression of the plebeian and servile classes had some +alleviation in companies where, for the moment, the poor and lowly-born +found himself on an equality with his social superiors. Plebeians and the +slaves had a great part in the propagation of the eastern worships, and +especially that of the God of Light.(3154) In his mysteries and guilds the +highest dignities were open to them.(3155) Moreover, from the size of the +chapels it is clear that the congregations were generally small, so that +the members of lower social importance were not lost in a crowd.(3156) +Growing numbers were accommodated, not by enlarging, but by multiplying +the shrines. + +In the sacraments of Mithra, Tertullian and other Apologists perceived a +diabolic parody of the usages of the Church.(3157) The _acceptio_ of the +neophytes, the _sacramentum_, in which they were pledged to secrecy and +holy service, the sign or brand made on the brow of the Miles, the +ablutions or baptism with holy water, as in the rites of Isis, whatever +their origin, could not fail, in an age of death-struggle for supremacy, +to arouse the suspicions and fears of the champions of the Church.(3158) +Finally, the consecrated bread and mingled water and wine, which were only +offered to the higher grades, may well have seemed the last and worst +profanation of the most solemn Christian rite. The draught from the mystic +cup, originally the juice of Haoma, was supposed to have supernatural +effects. It imparted not only health and prosperity and wisdom, but also +the power to conquer the spirits of evil and darkness, and a secret virtue +which might elude the grasp of death.(3159) + +The temples in which these rites took place repeated for ages the same +original type. Mithra and his cave are inseparable ideas, and the name +_spelaeum_, _antrum_, or _specus_, remained to the end the regular +designation of his chapels.(3160) In country places, grottoes or recesses +on the side of a rocky hill might supply a natural oratory of the ancient +type.(3161) But, in the centre of great towns, the skill of the architect +had to simulate the rude structure of the original cavern. Entering +through an open portico, the worshipper found himself in an antechapel, +through which he passed into another chamber which was called the +_apparatorium_, where the priests and neophytes arrayed themselves in +their robes or masques before the holy rites.(3162) Thence they descended +by stairs to the level of the cave-like crypt, which was the true +sanctuary. On each side there ran a bench of stone, on which was ranged +the company of the initiated.(3163) The central aisle led up to the apse, +against the walls of which was set the sculptured scene of the slaying of +the bull, surrounded by the symbolic figures and emblems of Chaldaean +star-lore, with altars in front.(3164) This was the holiest place, and, +from some remains, it would seem to have been railed in, like the chancel +of one of our churches.(3165) The neophyte, as he approached, must have +been impressed by a dazzling scene. On either side the congregation knelt +in prayer. Countless lamps shed their brilliant light on the forms of +ancient Hellenic gods, or on the images of the mighty powers of earth or +ether(3166)--above all, on the sacred scene which was the memorial of the +might of the "unconquered." The ancient rhythmic litany was chanted to the +sound of music; the lights came and went in startling alternations of +splendour and gloom. The draught of the sacred cup seemed to ravish the +sense. And the votary, as in the Isiac vision in Apuleius, for a moment +seemed borne beyond the bounds of space and time into mystic +distances.(3167) + +The Persian cult owed much of its success to imperial and aristocratic +favour. The last pagan emperor of the West, the last generation of the +pagan aristocracy, were devotees of the Sun-god. It is a curious thing +that even under the early Empire Mithraism seems never to have suffered +from the suspicion and persecution with which other alien worships had to +contend.(3168) Its close league with the cult of the Great Mother, which, +since the second century B.C., had been an established institution, may +have saved Mithra from official mistrust. He also emerged into prominence +in the age in which imperial jealousy of guilds and colleges was visibly +relaxing its precautions.(3169) A more satisfying explanation may perhaps +be found in the sympathy of the Flavian dynasty(3170) and the princes of +the third century for the religious ideas of the East, and in the manifest +support which heliolatry lent to growing absolutism and the worship of the +Caesars. + +The apotheosis of the emperors began even in the time of the first Caesar, +who rose to the highest divine honours before his death. But it was long a +fluctuating and hesitating creed. The provinces, and particularly the +cities of Asia Minor,(3171) were more eager to decree temples and divine +honours to the lord of the world than even the common people of Italy. The +superstitious masses and the soldiery, indeed, were equal to any +enthusiasm of flattery and superstition. But the cultivated upper class, +in spite of the effusive compliance of court poets,(3172) having but +little belief in any Divine Powers, were not likely to yield an easy faith +to the godhead of a Claudius or a Nero.(3173) The emperors themselves, +belonging to this class, and often sharing its fastidious scepticism, for +a time judiciously restrained a too exuberant devotion to their +person.(3174) The influence of Herod may have filled the lunatic +imagination of Caligula with dreams of an eastern despotism and the +superhuman dignity of kings.(3175) Nero, who had visions of a new monarchy +with its seat on eastern hills, may have rejoiced in being adored by +Tiridates as the equal of Mithra.(3176) But the politic Augustus, while he +permitted the foundation of temples and priestly orders in his honour +throughout the provinces, and even in Italian towns, along with the +divinity of Rome, obstinately refused to have shrines erected to him in +the capital.(3177) Tiberius pursued the same policy, which was congenial +to his cold, realistic temperament. Vespasian, although eastern +superstition had a certain charm for him, jested on his death-bed about +his own claims to divinity.(3178) It was reserved for his son Domitian to +be the first emperor who claimed the salutation of "Dominus et Deus" in +his lifetime.(3179) The best of the early emperors aspired to full divine +honours only when their career on earth had closed. + +Many historic causes made their posthumous elevation to divine rank seem +not unnatural. The cult of the Manes, or good spirits of departed friends +and ancestors, prepared the Roman mind to adore the memory of the father +of the State. The legendary kings of the Latin race--Saturnus, Faunus, +Picus, Latinus--were worshipped as _Di indigetes_;(3180) Romulus had +vanished in a tempest and been carried up to heaven to join the company of +the gods. The hero-worship of the Greeks, which raised to semi-divine +state after death those who had done great deeds of service to mankind, +who had founded cities, or manifested splendid gifts of mind or body, +influenced the imagination of a people who had long sat at the feet of +Greece. Greek cities raised altars to Rome and to Roman generals who had +enslaved them.(3181) When the Senate decreed divine honours to a dead +emperor, he became _divus_, not _deus_, at least to the cultivated class, +and _divus_ is a title which even modern sentiment might accord to men who +have borne a great and shining part in a world-wide system of +administration. The Spartan women were said to call great warriors, men +who won their admiration by gallantry, "divine."(3182) To the masses the +dead emperor no doubt became a veritable god, as the image of M. Aurelius +two centuries after his death was found among the _penates_ of every pious +family in the West.(3183) But the philosophic man of the world might also +honestly accept the imperial apotheosis by the decree of the Senate, in +the sense that another figure had been added to the rare company of those +who have been lifted by fortune or merit far above their fellows, and have +filled a great space in the life of humanity. People, who for generations +erected shrines to the minion of Hadrian, might easily believe in the +claims of the Antonine emperors to a place among the gods. + +The influence of Egypt and Persia lent its force to stimulate native and +original tendencies to king-worship, and to develop the principate of +Augustus into the theocratic despotism of Aurelian and Diocletian. The +eastern peoples were always eager to lavish on the emperors the adoration +which they had been used to offer to their native princes. The ancient +Pharaohs had been revered as incarnations of the deity and gods upon +earth.(3184) The Ptolemies inherited and utilised so useful a +superstition. These ideas spread into Italy with the diffusion of the +Isiac cult among the upper class, and through the influence of travellers +and envoys who kept up a fruitful intercourse between Alexandria and Rome. +But Egypt went rather too far for the western mind in its apotheosis of +kings.(3185) A more potent and congenial influence came from the lands of +the remoter East. The Persians prostrated themselves before their +monarchs, but they did not actually adore them as gods. They reverenced +the daemon, or, in Roman phrase, the "genius Caesaris," without +worshipping the monarch himself.(3186) The king was supposed to be +enlightened, inspired, and guarded by a heavenly grace; his brow was +crowned by a divine aureole. Yet he was not the equal of God. But the +majesty and fortune of kings was something divine and supernatural; they +reigned by special grace and had a divine protection. The dynasties who +succeeded to the great heritage of the East exploited these ideas to the +full, and the most solemn oath was by the Fortune of the King.(3187) The +superstition of Chaldaea, which connected all human destiny with the orbs +of heaven, exercised a profound influence for many centuries both in the +East and West. And the Sun, the monarch of the heavens, often identified +with Mithra, was regarded as the special patron of kings, enduing them +with irresistible power, and guarding their lofty destiny. These ideas +spread easily from Pontus and Commagene into the western world. In eastern +cities, Caligula and Nero had altars raised to them as solar +deities,(3188) and Tiridates offered to Nero the adoration due to +Mithra.(3189) The enigmatical goddess Fortuna, who seems to have had early +associations with the Sun,(3190) gained fresh strength from the ideas of +the divinised destiny of eastern monarchs. According to Plutarch, Tyche +left the regions of Assyria and Persia to make her home on the +Palatine.(3191) The republican "Fortune of the Roman People" naturally +passed into the "Fortuna Augusti," which appears on the imperial coins +from the reign of Vespasian. In the age of the Antonines, the image of the +goddess in gold always stood in the prince's bed-chamber, and was +transferred at the hour of his death to his successor.(3192) With the +reign of Commodus, who was himself initiated both in the Isiac and +Mithraic mysteries, begins the temporary triumph of the oriental cults, +which was to reach its height in the reign of Julian. The absence of full +materials for the history of the third century,(3193) a century crowded +with great events, and pregnant with great spiritual movements, should +perhaps impose greater caution in tracing the development of imperial +power than some writers have always observed. Yet there can be little +doubt that the monarchy of the West tended to become a theocratic +despotism, and that Persian Sun-worship had a large share in this +development. There was always a sober sense in the West which rebelled +against the oriental apotheosis of the prince.(3194) Yet the iterated +adulation, so often recorded faithfully in the Augustan History, reveals +an extraordinary abasement of the upper class before the person of the +emperor.(3195) The emperors never, indeed, claimed like the Sassanids to +be "brothers or sons of the Sun and Moon."(3196) But in their official +style and insignia there were many approaches to the divine claims of the +monarchs of the East. The title _invictus_, sacred to Mithra and the Sun, +was assumed by Commodus, and borne by his successors.(3197) The still more +imposing title of "eternal," springing from the same origin, came into +vogue in the third century, and appears in the edicts of the last shadowy +emperors of the fifth. From the reign of Nero, the imperial crown with +darting rays, symbolised the solar ancestry of the prince. Gallienus used +to go forth crowned in this manner, and with gold dust in his hair, and +raised a colossal statue of himself in the garb of the Sun.(3198) The +coins of Aurelian, who built the great temple of the Sun from the spoils +of Palmyra, bear the legend "deo et domino nato."(3199) The West probably +never took these assumptions so literally as the East. But metaphor and +imagery tended to become a real faith. The centre of the great religion +which was to be the last stronghold of paganism, was the prototype of the +emperor in the starry world, and his protector on earth. And the solar +grace which surrounded the prince found an easy explanation in the mystic +philosophy of the soul's descent which had been absorbed by Mithraism. In +coming to earth from the empyrean, the future lord of the world received a +special gift of grace and power from the great luminary which is the +source of light and life. The religion of the Sun thus tended to become a +great spiritual support of an absolutism which was more and more modelling +itself on the royalty of the East. The cult of the Sun, which was +established in such splendour in 273 A.D. by Aurelian, must have had a +great effect in preparing for the oriental claims of monarchy from the +reign of Diocletian. Thirty years after the foundation of the stately +shrine on the Esquiline, and only twenty years before the conversion of +Constantine, all the princes of the imperial house, Jovii Herculii, +Augusti, Caesares, as an inscription tells, united to restore a temple of +Mithra at Carnuntum, his holy city on the Danube.(3200) But the days of +Mithra as the god of kings were numbered. After the establishment of the +Christian Empire, he had a brief illusory triumph in the reign of Julian, +and again in the short-lived effort of reaction led by Eugenius and +Nicomachus Flavianus, which had a tragic close in the battle on the +Frigidus. Yet his mystic theology was the theme of debate among Roman +nobles, trained in the philosophy of Alexandria, long after his last +chapels had been buried in ruins; and his worship lingered in secluded +valleys of the Alps or the Vosges into the fifth century.(3201) The +theocratic claim of monarchy, to which Mithra lent his support for so many +generations, was destined, in its symbols and phrases, to have a long +reign. + +M. Renan has hazarded the opinion that, if the Christian Church had been +stricken with some mortal weakness, Mithraism might have become the +religion of the western world. And, indeed, its marvellously rapid +diffusion in Italy and the provinces along the Danube and the Rhine, in +the second and third centuries, might well have inspired the hope of such +a splendid destiny. Although it was primarily a kingly and military creed, +it appealed in the end to all classes, by many various attractions. +Springing from remote regions of the East, it seemed instinctively to +seize the opportunity offered by a marvellous political unity, along with +anarchy in morals and religion, to satisfy the imperious needs of a world +eager for spiritual light and hope, but distracted among the endless +claimants for its devotion. Philosophy had long tried and was still trying +to find a spiritual synthesis, and to draw from old mythologies a support +for life and conduct. Might not religion succeed where philosophy had +failed? Or rather, might not religion gather up into itself the forces of +philosophy, and transmute and glorify them in a great concrete symbol? +Might not the claims of the past be harmonised with the higher intuitions +of a more instructed age, and the countless cults embraced within the +circuit of the Roman power be reconciled with the supreme reverence for +one central divine figure, as the liberties of an Alpine canton, like +those of a great city of Asia, were sheltered under the unchallenged +supremacy of Rome? Mithra made the effort, and for the time he succeeded. +In his progress to what seemed an almost assured victory, he swept into +his orbit the Greek and Latin and Phrygian gods--nay, even the gods of +Celtic cantons.(3202) They all found a place in his crypts, beside his own +sacred image and the Persian deities of his original home. Their altars +were ranged around his chapels, and were duly visited by his priests. Yet, +though the Persian deity might seem very cosmopolitan and liberal in his +indulgence to parochial devotion, he never abated his own lofty claims, +and he never forgot his ancestry. While he might ally himself with Magna +Mater and Jupiter Dolichenus, he coldly repulsed any association with Isis +and Serapis, who were his rivals for oecumenical sway. The old hostility +between the worships of Persia and Egypt was only softened in the +internecine conflict of both with a more powerful foe. It is only in the +last stone records that a votary of Mithra is found combining a devotion +to Isis.(3203) The claims of the Sun-god to spiritual primacy are +expounded in the orations of Julian and the dissertations of Praetextatus +in the _Saturnalia_ of Macrobius. Monotheism in the pagan world was not, +indeed, a new thing. It goes back to the philosophers of Ionia and Elea, +to Aeschylus and Plato. Nor was syncretism unknown to earlier ages. The +Greeks of the days of Herodotus identified the gods of Egypt with their +own, as Julius Caesar and Tacitus identified Gallic and German deities +with those of the Roman pantheon.(3204) But the monotheistic syncretism of +Mithra was a broader and more sweeping movement. Local and national gods +represented single aspects of nature. Mithra was seated at the centre on +which all nature depends. If nature-worship was to justify itself in the +eyes of philosophic reason, men must rise to the adoration of the +Sun-king, the head of a great hierarchy of divine forces, by means of +which he acts and diffuses his inexhaustible energy throughout the +universe. And such is the claim made for him by Praetextatus, in the +_Saturnalia_ of Macrobius, who was a high adept in the mysteries of +Mithra. + +But the world needed more than a great physical force to assuage its +cravings; it demanded a moral God, Who could raise before the eyes of men +a moral ideal, and support them in striving to attain it; One Who could +guide and comfort in the struggles of life, and in the darkness of its +close, Who could prepare the trembling soul for the great ordeal, in which +the deeds done in the body are sifted on the verge of the eternal world. +In fulfilling his part, Mithra could rely on his own early character as a +god of truth and righteousness, a mediator between the powers of good and +evil: he had also the experience of the classic mysteries, stretching back +to the legendary Orpheus, which, in whatever crude, shadowy symbolism, had +taught for ten centuries the doctrine of a moral sequence between this +life and the next. The descent of the soul into gross material form, and +its possible ascent again, if duly fortified, to ethereal worlds, was +common to Mithra and the Orphic and Pythagorean systems. Such a system on +one side sad and pessimist, on another was full of the energy of hope. And +Mithraism combined the two. It was a religion of strenuous effort and +warfare, with the prospect of high rewards in some far-off eternal life. + +It is little wonder that the Fathers, from the second century, saw in +Mithra the most formidable foe of Christ. Indeed, the resemblances between +the two religions, some of them superficial, others of a deeper kind, were +very striking. How far some of these were due to a common stock of ideas +in East and West, how far they were the result of conscious borrowing and +mutual imitation, seems to be an insoluble problem. The most learned +student of the cult of Mithra is the most cautious in his conclusions on +the subject.(3205) On the one hand, the two religions, in outlying regions +of the Empire, long followed different lines of dispersion. Christianity +from its origin in the religion of Israel, spread at first among the +cities on the Mediterranean, chiefly where there were colonies of +Jews.(3206) On the other hand, outside Italy, Mithraism, which was +propagated by soldiers and imperial officers, followed the line of the +camps and centres of commerce chiefly along the great rivers of the +northern frontier. Yet at Ostia and Rome and elsewhere, the two eastern +religions must have been early brought face to face. In the syncretism of +that age, the age of Gnosticism, rites and doctrines passed easily from +one system to another. Mithra certainly absorbed much from kindred +worships of Asia Minor, from Hellenic mysteries, and from Alexandrian +philosophy. It is equally certain that the Church did not disdain a policy +of accommodation, along with the consecration of altars of Christ in the +old shrines of paganism. The cult of local heroes was transferred to +saints and martyrs. Converts found it hard to part with consecrated +phrases and forms of devotion, and might address Jesus in epithets sacred +to the Sun. Some Christians in the fifth century still saluted the rising +sun with a prayer.(3207) + +Futile attempts have been made to find parallels to Biblical narrative or +symbolism in the faint and faded legend of Mithra recovered from his +monuments, the miraculous birth, the sacred rock, the adoration of the +shepherds, the grotto,--above all, in the mystic sacrifice of the bull, +which seemed to occupy the same space in Mithraic devotion as the +Sacrifice on Calvary. But one great weakness of Mithraism lay precisely +here--that, in place of the narrative of a Divine life, instinct with human +sympathy, it had only to offer the cold symbolism of a cosmic legend. In +their offices and sacramental system the two religions had a more real +affinity. Mithra had his baptism and confirmation of new disciples, his +ablutions, ascetic preparation for the sacred mysteries, and holy feasts +of the consecrated bread and wine, where the mystic draught gave purity +and life to soul and body, and was the passport to a life in God. The +sacerdotal and liturgical character of his worship, with its striking +symbolism, using to the full the emotional effects of lights and music and +sacred pomp, offered to souls, who were ripe for a diviner faith, some of +that magical charm which was to be exerted over so many ages by the +Catholic Church. There are, however, deeper and more fundamental +resemblances between the faiths of Mithra and of Christ, and it was to +these that the Persian cult owed its great superiority to classical +mythology and the official Roman paganism. It responded to a great +spiritual movement, of which it is one great object of this book to show +the sweep and direction. Formal devotion and ascetic discipline were +linked with lofty doctrines as to the origin of the human spirit and an +immortal destiny, depending on conduct, as well as sacramental grace, +through Mithra the mediator. While the vulgar may have rested in the +external charm and power of the worship, there were others who drank in a +more spiritual creed expounded to us by one of the last Neo-Platonic +votaries of the Sun-God. It told of a fall of the soul into the duress of +the body, for a brief period of probation, of a resurrection and great +judgment, of a final ascent and beatitude in the life in God, or of +endless exile from His presence.(3208) + +And yet the two systems were separated by an impassable gulf, and Mithra +had associations which could not save him from the fate of Jupiter and +Demeter, of Hecate and Isis. It is true that his fate was hastened by +hostile forces and causes external to religion. Many of his shrines in the +Danubian provinces, and along the upper Rhine, were desolated and buried +in ruins by the hordes of invaders in the third century.(3209) And in the +fourth century, the fiercest assaults of the Christian Empire were +directed against the worship which was thought to be the patron of magic +arts, and a device of the Evil One to travesty and defy the Religion of +the Cross.(3210) But material force, however fiercely and decisively +exerted, although it hastened the doom of the Persian god, only +anticipated an inevitable defeat. + +A certain severity in Mithraism, which marked it off honourably from other +worships of the East, also weakened it as a popular and enduring force. +The absence of the feminine charm in its legend, while it saved it from +the sensual taint of other heathen systems, deprived it of a fascination +for the softer and more emotional side of human nature.(3211) Although +women may, perhaps, have not been altogether excluded from his +mysteries,(3212) still Mithra did not welcome them with the warm sympathy +which gave Demeter and Magna Mater and Isis so firm a hold on the +imagination of women for many generations. The Mater Dolorosa has in all +ages been an enthralling power. The legend of the Tauroctonus was a +religion for strenuous men. And even its symbolism, with all its strange +spell, seems to lack depth and warmth for human nature as a whole. It +would indeed be rash to set limits to the power of pious sentiment to +transfigure and vivify the most unspiritual materials. And the slaughtered +bull in the apse of every chapel of Mithra may have aroused in the end +visions and mystic emotion which had passed far beyond the sphere of +astral symbolism. + +Yet such spiritual interpretation of ancient myth is only for the few, who +find in a worship what they bring. For the gross masses, the symbolism of +natural processes, however majestic, could never have won that marvellous +power which has made a single Divine, yet human, life the inexhaustible +source of spiritual strength for all the future. With all his heroic +effort to make himself a moral and spiritual force, Mithra remained +inextricably linked with the nature-worships of the past. And, with such +associations, even the God of light could not be lord of the spiritual +future of humanity. Mithraism, with all its strange moral force, with all +its charm of antiquity and sacramental rite, with all its charity and +tolerance, had within it the germs of a sure mortality. In its tolerance +lay precisely its great weakness. The Christian Church might, in S. +Augustine's phrase, "spoil the Egyptians," it might borrow and adapt rites +and symbols from pagan temples, or ideas from Greek philosophy.(3213) But +in borrowing, it transfigured them. In all that was essential, the Church +would hold no truce with paganism. "Break the idols and consecrate the +temples" was the motto of the great Pontiff. But Mithra was ready to +shelter the idols under his purer faith. The images of Jupiter and Venus, +of Mars and Hecate, of the local deities of Dacia and Upper Germany, find +a place in his chapels beside the antique symbols of the Persian +faith.(3214) And thus, in spite of a lofty moral mysticism, Mithra was +loaded with the heritage of the heathen past. A man admitted to his +highest ministry might also worship at the old altars of Greece and Rome. +The last hierophant of Eleusis was a high-priest of Mithra.(3215) Human +nature and religious sentiment are so complex that men of the sincere +monotheistic faith of Symmachus, Praetextatus, and Macrobius, have left +the almost boastful record of an all-embracing laxity of tolerance on +their tombs.(3216) On many of these slabs you may read that the man who +has been a "father" in the mysteries of Mithra, who has been "born again" +in the taurobolium, is also a priest of Hecate, the goddess of dark arts +and baleful spirits of the night.(3217) Through the astral fatalism of +Babylon, Mithra was inseparably connected with the darkest superstitions +of East or West,(3218) which covered all sorts of secret crime and +perfidy, which lent themselves to seduction, conspiracy, and murder, which +involved the denial of a moral Providence of the world. Many a pious +devotee of Mithra and Hecate would have recoiled, as much as we do, from +the last results of his superstition. Such people probably wished only to +gain another ally in facing the terrors of the unseen world. Yet there can +be little doubt that the majestic supremacy of Mithra, through its old +connection with Babylon, sheltered some of the most degrading impostures +of superstition. + +So rooted is religious sentiment in reverence for the past, for what our +fathers have loved and venerated, that men will long tolerate, or even +wistfully cherish, sacred forms and ideas which their moral sense has +outgrown. Down to the last years of the fourth century, the Persian +worship was defended with defiant zeal by members of the proudest Roman +houses. In their philosophic gatherings in the reign of Honorius, they +found in Sun-worship the sum and climax of the pagan devotion of the +past.(3219) Many a pious old priest of Mithra, in the reign of Gratian, +was probably filled with wonder and sorrow when he saw a Gracchus and his +retinue break into the sanctuary and tear down the venerable symbols from +the wall of the apse.(3220) He deemed himself the prophet of a pure +immemorial faith, as pure as that of Galilee. He was probably a man of +irreproachable morals, with even a certain ascetic sanctity, unspotted by +the world. He treasured the secret lore of the mysterious East, which sped +the departing soul with the last comforting sacraments on its flight to +ethereal worlds. But he could not see, or he could not regret, that every +day when he said his liturgy, as he made the round of the altars, he was +lending the authority of a purer faith to other worships which had +affrighted or debauched and enervated the Roman world for forty +generations. He could not see that the attempt to wed a high spiritual +ideal with nature-worship was doomed to failure. The masses around him +remained in their grossness and darkness. And on that very day, it may be, +one of his aristocratic disciples, high in the ranks of Mithra's sacred +guilds, was attending a priestly college which was charged with the +guardianship of gross and savage rites running back to Evander, or he was +consulting a Jewish witch, or a Babylonian diviner, on the meaning of some +sinister omen, or he may have been sending down into the arena, with cold +proud satisfaction, a band of gallant fighters from the Thames or the +Danube, to butcher one another for the pleasure of the rabble of Rome. +Mithra, the Unconquered, the god of many lands and dynasties from the dawn +of history, was a fascinating power. But, at his best, he belonged to the +order which was vanishing. + + + + + + + INDEX + + + Abascantus, secretary _ab epistulis_, career of, described in the + _Silvae_, 110 +_ Acta diurna_, + regular arrival of, in the provinces, 205; + reader of, 95 + Acte, mistress of Nero, cares for his burial, 115 + Aelian of Praeneste, + account of his work on Providence, 456; + immense credulity, and hatred of rationalism, _ib._; + the pious cock of Tanagra, 457; + last dream of Philemon, _ib._ + Africa, + the development of its city life, organisation of Thamugadi, + 202; + of Lambesi, 208; + amphitheatres in, 201; + and bishoprics, _ib._; + little touched by Mithraism, 597 + Agrippina, mother of Nero, + memoirs by, used by Tacitus, 80; + sits on the tribunal with Claudius, 81; + shade propitiated by Nero, 491 + Albinus, P. Caeionius, restores a temple at Thamugadi, 202 + Alcantara, the bridge of, 220 + Alexander of Abonoteichos, + oracle on the Marcomannic war, 451, 476; + physical and mental gifts of, 473 sq.; + skilful charlatanry, 474 sq.; + war with the Epicureans, 476; + Lucian's treatment of, 477; + establishes new Mysteries, 476 sq. + Alexandria, + roses from, for Nero's dinners, 32; + singing boys from, at Trimalchio's dinner, 130 sq.; + character of its populace, 374; + Dion Chrysostom rebukes their passion for games, _ib._; + a great focus of religious feeling, 397; + and eclecticism, 561 + Animal-worship, + excites ridicule, 571; + philosophy justified it, _ib._, 395; + little noticed in Apuleius, 572 + Annaeus Serenus, Seneca's _De Tranquillitate_ addressed to, + character of, 319 + Antinous, death and apotheosis of, 450, 477, 478 + Antium, temple of Fortuna Primigenia at, 456 + Antoninus Pius, + builds a temple to Juno Sospita of Lanuvium, 538; + to Mithra at Ostia, 591; + his country pleasures at Lorium, 537; + flattered by the Arval Brothers, 542; + Magna Mater on his coins, 549; + taurobolium for, in 160, _ib._, 557 + Apollonius of Tyana, + involved in political conspiracy, 40; + a great preacher, effect of his sermons, 347; + early life, Pythagorean asceticism, Sun worship, and catholic + ritualism, 399; + reconciled myth with a purer faith, 400; + visits all the oracles, 472; + his ideas of a future state, 518 sqq. + Apotheosis, + in the Antonine age, 386, 537; + of Antinous, 477; + of Peregrinus, 478; + of M. Aurelius, _ib._; + of the Emperors, its history, 615 sqq. + Apuleius, + sensual imagination and mysticism of, 389; + weird scenes of miracle in Thessaly, 483; + lofty conception of God, 389; + description of the revels of the wandering priests of the + Syrian goddess, 551 sqq.; + of other scenes in Thessaly, 552; + conception of Isis in the Metamorphoses, 563; + mystic raptures, 570, 574, 576 + Aquileia, a great seat of Mithraism, 593 + Ardeliones, the, life of, described, 12, 174 + Aristides, P. Aelius, + picture of the Roman Empire in, 199; + general security, 205; + journey from Mysia to Rome, 206, 464; + early history and travels, 457; + long ill health and resort to temples of healing, 458 sqq.; + his rhetorical training affected his religious attitude, 458 + sq.; + diseases of, lasting for thirteen years, 463; + his ordeals and vitality, 465; + visited by the gods, 466; + recovers his rhetorical power, _ib._; + mingled vanity and piety of, 467 + Aristotle, influence of, + on Plutarch, 412; + on Seneca, 314; + on Maximus of Tyre, 421 + Army, the, + honesty and courage in, 49; + _ castra stativa_ grow into towns, 207; + Septimius Severus allows the soldier to live with his family, + 208; + how pensions provided for, 283; + military colleges, their objects, 283; + the worship of Mithra propagated by, 591; + the legions which were most active, 595, 596 + Arrius Antoninus, grandfather of Ant. Pius, Greek verses of, 166 + Art, + pretence of taste for, 131, 178; + influence of, in religion discussed by Dion Chrysostom, 382; + decay of, lamented by Petronius, 125 + Artemidorus, + work on Dreams by, 468; + immense industry, collections, and faith in the science, + _ib._; + contempt for impostors, 469; + quasi scientific method, _ib._; + its absurdities, 470 + Arvales Fratres, the College of, + revived by Augustus, 534; + early history, meetings and ritual of, 540 sq.; + servility to the Emperors, 541 + Asclepius, + immense popularity of his worship, 459, 539; + temples of, and their routine and organisation, 460; + new oracle of, at Abonoteichos, 474 + Asiaticus, freedman of Vitellius, history of, 206 + Astrology, + influence of, in the early empire, a political danger, 45, + 447; + astrologers banished by Claudius, Vitellius and Vespasian, 45, + 448; + a Greek trade, 93; + Augustus burns books of, 446; + Tiberius believes in, 448; + Otho, 45, 448; + Titus, 449; + and M. Aurelius, 450; + Domitian, _ib._; + Hadrian, _ib._; + in Mithraism, 598, 602 + Attis, + legend of, 549; + becomes a solar deity, 556 + Augury, + decay of, 445; + abuse of, 532 + Augustales, the, + Trimalchio one of, 136; + importance, organisation, social rank, and insignia in + municipal towns, 216, 217; + generosity of, as patrons of colleges, 275 + Augustine, S., + defends the Cynics of his time, 352; + contempt for rites of Magna Mater, 547; + on Varro's theology, 417, 531 n.; + on the cult of martyrs, 488; + on Plato, 523 + Augustus, + his disguised power, 41; + destroys 2000 books of divination, 446; + his horoscope cast, 447; + his religious restoration, and its motive, 533; + attitude to foreign religions, 533; + restores a temple of Magna Mater, 548; + cautious acceptance of divine honours, 615 + Aurelian, + his temple of the Sun, 586; + outbreak of the workmen of the Mint in his reign, 255; + legend _deo et domino nato_ on his coins, 618; + effect of his Sun-worship on the development of imperial + power, 619 + Aurelius, M., + slight interest of, in speculation, 339; + his tutors of various schools, 343; + as a boy recites the Salian litany, 385; + his gospel of renunciation, 393 sq.; + his conformity, 394; + employs diviners, 450; + relations of, with Galen, 506; + views of, about immortality, 507; + his Stoic ideal of life, 509; + his sadness and its causes, 510; + one of the Salii in his 8th year, 535; + his religious conservatism, 537; + images of, in every family in the West, 616 + + Balbilla, Greek verses by, 80 + Birth, + respect for, in Juvenal, 69; + in D. Cassius, Suetonius, and Pliny, 70; + manufacture of genealogies, in Vit. Apollonius of Tyana, and + S. Jerome, _ib._; + Herodes Atticus traced his descent from the Aeacidae, 225; + Tiberius on, 70 + Bithynia, + civic mismanagement in, 220; + literary distinction of, 372 + Boeotia, the oracles of, 471 + Brescia, high moral tone of, 147 + + Caenis, concubine of Vespasian, influence and intrigues of, 52, 115 + Caligula, + wild schemes and profusion of, 32; + his cruelty and insolence to Senators, 51; + depraving example, 73; + consults the oracle of Fortune at Antium, 472; + apparitions at his burial, 490; + claims of divinity, 615 + Calpurnia, Pliny's wife, + character of, and his love for her, 188, 189; + literary taste of, 80 +_ Canabae legionis_, at Lambesi, 208 + Canusium, + _ Album_ of, 210; + Herodes Atticus gave an aqueduct to, 225 + Captation, + a regular profession, 72; + result of plebeian poverty and aristocratic vice, 96; + at Croton, in Petronius, 127; + Regulus a captator, 156 + Carnuntum, in Pannonia, + a seat of Mithraism from 70 A.D., 591; + its temples, 595; + temple restored at, by the imperial house, in the fourth + century, 619 + Centumviral court, the, + picture of, in Pliny's Letters, 154 sqq.; + he welcomes young aristocrats to, 187 + Chaeremon, Alexandrian librarian, wrote a treatise on Isis, 568 + Charity, and munificence, + provision for poor children by Trajan and later Emperors, 192, + 193; + private benevolence exemplified by Pliny, 193; + his benefactions, 193 sqq.; + other examples in the inscriptions, 193, 224; + the Stertinii, 224; + Dion Chrysostom and his father, 225; + Herodes Atticus, enormous benefactions of, _ib._; + munificence of the Emperors, Vespasian, Titus, Hadrian, 227, + 228; + private examples from inscriptions, 223, 229; + ideals of the uses of wealth, 232; + men ruin themselves by generosity, 245 + Cicero, + adorned by Pliny, 158; + on augury, 445; + on beneficence, 190; + on superstition, 443; + on legend, 495; + on Delphi, 471; + on immortality, 488 + City life, + splendour of, in the Antonine age, 4; + weariness of life in the capital, 174; + growth of, in Gaul, Spain, Dacia, and Asia, 200 sqq. + Claudian, + connects Mithra with Bel, 588; + contempt for Greeks, 90 + Claudius, + recruits the Senate from the provinces, 71, 72; + Hellenism of, 89; + his encouragement of trade, 264; + his effort to revive the art of augury, 445; + banishes the astrologers, 418; + conservative in religion, 536; + persecutes the Jewish and Druidic religions, 566 + Claudius Etruscus, career of, and duties as minister, 109 + Clea, a priestess of Osiris at Delphi, 424 + Client, the, + in Juvenal, 93, 94; + change of the relation under the Empire, _ib._; + the relation in the colleges, 273 + Clients, + position in the time of Juvenal, 93 sq.; + and Martial, 61 + Clodius, P., uses the colleges, 254 + Colleges, the, + plebeian class in towns, 251; + pride of free artisan class, 253; + early history of _Collegia_, 254; + danger from, 255; + restrained by law, _ib._; + an irresistible movement, 256; + wish for pious burial, 257; + evidence on, from inscriptions, 258; + funerary colleges authorised, 259; + consequences of the concession, 260; + College of Diana and Antinous, its organisation, fees, etc. + 260 sqq.; + College of Aesculapius and Hygia, its regulations, 262; + colleges founded on religion, 263; + industrial colleges, great fair at Cremona, 264; + wandering traders, _collegia peregrinorum_, 265; + colleges at Lyons, Ostia, Arles, etc. 265 sq.; + objects of association, 266 sqq.; + favoured by masters, 267; + colleges moulded on the model of the city, names of offices, + etc. 269; + gradation of rank in, its object, 270; + how the _schola_ was provided, 271; + associations gather round it, gifts made to it, 272; + College of Silvanus at Philippi, _ib._; + patrons of, and their _raison d'etre_, 273; + colleges and their patrons of very different rank, 274; + election of a patron, _ib._; + colleges founded to guard a tomb, 276; + provisions for permanent observances, 277; + college feasts and _sportulae_, 277 sq.; + regulations for decorum in, fines, 279; + the college a family, in which the slave is an equal, 281; + were colleges eleemosynary institutions? 282; + military colleges of Lambesi, their organisation and objects, + 283 sqq.; + extinction of a college, 285 + Commodus, + takes the tonsure of Isis and walks in an Isiac procession, + 553; + assumes the Mithraic title of _Invictus_, 618 + Como, + Pliny's estates at, 145; + his gifts to, 194; + a suicide at, 184; + _ honorarium_ of its curia, 209 + Conversion, + Seneca on, 34; + result of the preaching of Apollonius, 347; + conversion of Polemon, _ib._; + of D. Chrysostom, 368; + in Plutarch, 413 + Corellius Rufus, suicide of, 184 + Cornelia, wife of Pompey, culture of, 80 + Cotta, M. Aurelius, liberality of, to a freedman, 119 + Country life, + growing love of, 174; + Roman country seats, their sites and architecture, 176; + extent and grounds, 178; + routine of life, 179; + purchase and management of estates, 180; + charm of the country in Roman literature, 197; + yet contempt for it, 199; + moral tone of, 2, 144, 147 + Cremona, + great fair at, 263; + sack of, 264; + colleges of youth at, 265; + munificence of its citizens, 225 + Curatores, + heard of first in the reign of Trajan, 222; + control of municipal finance by, 248 + Curia, the, + composition of, illustrated by the roll of Canusium, 210; + numbers, and qualification of, 214; + its fate, 248 + Cynics, the, + met a general demand for moral guidance, 340; + description of, in Dion Chrysostom, 349; + and in the literature of the age, 350 n.; + the Cynic in Lucian's _Banquet_, _ib._; + attractions of the life of, 351; + gross charges against; S. Augustine's testimony, 352; + causes of prejudice against, _ib._; + death of Peregrinus as treated by Lucian, 355; + affinity of, with Christian asceticism, 355, 361; + evidently a great popular force, 358; + a one-sided Stoicism, 359; + Cynic ideal, 359 sq.; + attitude to the Empire, 362 sq.; + and to popular religion, 363; + cultivated Cynics, 364 sqq. + + Dacia, + organisation and town life of, 201; + worship of Magna Mater in, 549; + of Isis, 568; + settlement of, by Trajan, a seat of Mithraism, 594; + of the worship of Isis and Magna Mater, 549, 568 + Daemons, + conception of, in Plutarch and Maximus of Tyre, 426; + history of, in Greek literature from Hesiod, 427; + use of the idea by Platonists, 425; + Xenocrates first taught the existence of evil daemons, 431 + sq.; + employed by Plutarch to rehabilitate myth, 432; + believed in by the Fathers, 433; + a cause of oracular inspiration, 437; + mortality of, 426; + daemon of Socrates, 438; + daemon a higher self, 439; + daemonology an attempt to bridge the gulf between man and the + Infinite Spirit, 603 + Dea Dia, worship of, 540 + Delation, + history and causes of, 35; + delators of every rank, _ib._; + attractions of, wealth gained by, 36; + Regulus a delator, 37, 155; + Silius Italicus, 164; + under Domitian, 35 + Delphi, + temple of Osiris at, 424; + Plutarch's love of, 403, 435; + decay of, in first century, 434; + revival of, 435; + why oracles were given in prose, 436; + sources of its inspiration, 437; + Nero's violence to, 472; + Hadrian tested, _ib._ + Demetrius, the Cynic, + life of, 361; + a cultivated ascetic, 362; + knew Apollonius of Tyana, _ib._; + attitude to the Empire, beards Nero and Vespasian, _ib._ + Demonax, + attitude to popular religion, 363; + origin, education, and philosophic tone of, 364; + fashion of his life and teaching, 365; + epigrams and sarcasms, 365 sq.; + his personal magnetism, and reverence for him after his death, + 366 + Dendrophori, + dedications by, to Magna Mater, 549; + in the inscriptions, 551; + at Lyons, 557 + Dion Chrysostom, + view of the Cynics, 349; + early history, exile, conversion, and preaching of, 367 sq.; + orations of, 368; + simple philosophy, and view of the time, 369, 370; + warning to Tarsus, 370; + sermon at Olbia, 371 sq.; + picture of city life in Asia Minor, its vices and jealousies, + 372 sqq.; + gospel of social charity, 373; + scorn for the Alexandrian character, 374; + his prose idyll on virtuous rural life in Euboea, 375 sq.; + view of prostitution and slavery, 376; + ideal of monarchy, parable of the Two Peaks, 377 sqq.; + oration at Olympia, 379 sq.; + suggested by Olympian Zeus of Pheidias, 380; + Dion's discussion on natural theology and anthropomorphism, + 381; + makes Pheidias defend representation of the Infinite in human + form, 382; + his Zeus a moral ideal and spiritual power, 383 + Domitian, + delators under, 35; + his belief in astrology, 45; + secret of his reign, 52; + value of the authorities on, 52 n.; + good traits in his character, 53; + his encouragement of literature and political merit, _ib._; + his Hellenism, 89; + a moral reformer, 54, 74; + causes of his unpopularity, 54; + contradictions in his character, 55; + replenishes the treasury by confiscation, 56; + his terror at the end, 56, 57, 450; + his funereal banquet, 57; + founds a quinquennial competition in literature, 171; + his superstition, 450; + a conservative in religion, 536; + celebrated the Quinquatria of Minerva, 538; + his victories, 542; + escaped from the capital in the vestments of Isis in 69 A.D., + 567; + built a temple to Isis, _ib._; + first called _Dominus et Deus_, 615 + Dreams, + in temples of healing, 460; + dream-oracles, 461; + prescriptions in, 463, 464; + treatise of Artemidorus on, 467 sqq.; + his faith in, 468; + his absurdities, 470; + Pliny on, 452, 490 + + Education, + Vespasian endows, 148; + influence of Quintilian on, 149; + Pliny helps to endow a school at Como, 193; + culture in Asia Minor, 372; + among freedmen, 131, 134 + Empire, the, + its temptations, 31; + the influence of the Emperor's example illustrated, 31; + how waste led to cruelty and confiscation, 33; + the secret of the imperial terror, various theories, 37; + the ideal of the Empire, 39, 43; + constant danger from pretenders, 40, 41, 44; + the fiction of Augustus, the Emperor's real power, 41; + checks upon it, 42; + its tolerance of municipal liberty, 203 + Entellus, gardens of, 112 + Epicharis, freedwoman, refuses to betray the Pisonian conspirators, + 47 + Epictetus, + his ideal of the Cynic philosopher, 359; + men the soldiers of God, 393; + gospel of renunciation in, _ib._ n. 5; + on augury and divination, 455; + early history of, 503; + attitude to belief in immortality, 504; + reference to female Platonists, 80; + preaching of gratitude and resignation, 393 + Epicurus, + Seneca quotes, and defends to Lucilius, 306; + Aelian anathematises, 456; + Epicureans at Abonoteichos oppose Alexander, 476; + orders banquets to his shade, 456; + influence of, in last age of Republic, 530 + Epidaurus, + temple of Asclepius at, 462, 539; + social life of the patients, 463 + Equites, + in provincial towns, 215; + freedmen raised to the rank of, 113; + Juvenal's contempt for, 70; + general low estimate of, 113; + displace freedmen as imperial secretaries, 107; + employment by Vitellius, Domitian, Hadrian, and Antoninus + Pius, _ib._ + Espionage, + under the Empire, 34; + under Domitian, 56 + Euboea, D. Chrysostom's description of rural life in, 375 + Euhemerus, + translated by Ennius, 530; + Plutarch on, 425 + Euphrates, + Pliny's sketch of, 151; + suicide of, 356 + Evil, Plutarch's theory of, 430 + Extravagance, + of Nero, 20, 32; + of Domitian, 55, 56; + of Vitellius, 32; + of Caligula, 32; + under the Republic, 67 + + Fannia, widow of Helvidius Priscus, Pliny's admiration for, 152 + Finance, + profusion of Caligula, 32; + straits of Domitian, 56; + economy of Vespasian, 32, 148; + Nero's waste and plunder, 20 sq.; + Nerva's retrenchment, 32; + waste of Vitellius, 32; + finance of provincial towns, 220, 248 + Fortuna Augusti, 618 + Freedmen, the, + their rise a great movement, 100; + prejudice against, 101 sqq.; + why it was natural, 103; + contempt of literary men for vulgar wealth, 104; + yet the rise of the freedmen a promising movement, 105; + rise of, in the imperial household, 106; + become great ministers, 107; + replaced gradually by Equites, 107; + early freedmen ministers worthy of their place, 108; + career of Claudius Etruscus and Abascantus, 109 sqq.; + of Narcissus and Pallas, 110, 111; + how their wealth was gained, 112, 129; + their politic splendour, 112; + romantic career of a freedman, 113; + yet freedmen despised and ostracised, _ib._; + sometimes made great marriages, 114; + doubtful position of women of this class, 114; + yet some had great influence, 115; + Panthea, mistress of L. Verus, picture of, by Lucian, _ib._; + lower freedmen in the imperial service, 116; + transition from slavery to freedom, how freedmen rose, + 118-120; + grossness and ostentation of their wealthy class, 129 sqq. + Freedom and Necessity, + Plutarch's views of, 412; + Seneca's, 311 + + Gaius, on the law of Colleges, 254 + Galen, + early history and training of, 505; + eclecticism of, _ib._; + views of immortality, _ib._; + relations with M. Aurelius, 506 + Genii, + invented for every corporation and scene in Roman life, 386; + tales of, in Britain and on the Indian Ocean, 420, 426; + wide-spread cult of, 479 sq. + Gladiators, + municipal shows of, in Petronius, 134; + Trajan provides 10,000 on his Dacian triumph, 234; + protests against, by Seneca and Demonax, 235; + schools of, 236, 241; + shows began in Campania, _ib._; + school of, at Pompeii, 237; + notices in the inscriptions, 238; + enthusiasm for, _ib._; + shows in remote places, 239; + after battle of Bedriacum, 240; + less popular in Greece, except at Corinth, 241; + various cost of, 241; + classes who furnished gladiators, attractions of the + profession, 242 sq.; + organisation of a school; a college of gladiators, 243 + God, + new conceptions of, 5; + in Seneca, 305; + God of the Stoics, varying conceptions of, 307; + demand for a moral God, 389; + Stoicism fades into Platonism, 391; + the Stoic god has no claim to worship, _ib._; + vague higher conceptions of, 396, 603; + a transcendent Deity, 397; + Plutarch's highest idea of, 418; + man's relation to, according to Maximus of Tyre, 421; + relation of, to daemons, 425 sqq. + + Hadrian, + letter of, to Servianus, 397; + tests the omniscience of Delphi, 435; + dabbled in astrology, and other dark arts, 450, 503; + his love of travel, 503; + his faint belief in immortality, 503; + a sceptic, 536; + the Canopus of, at his villa at Tibur, 567; + conspiracy against, 41; + character of, 503 + Hellenism, + various aspects of, reaction against, from the times of the + elder Cato, 88; + Hellenism of early Emperors, 88, 89; + Roman prejudice against Greeks, 90; + why Greeks succeeded under the Empire, 91; + Greek _grammatici_, 91; + Greeks as doctors, 92; + Greek parasites, 93; + love of Greek in Pliny's days, 166 sq. + Helvidius Priscus, + violence of, 40; + flouts Vespasian, _ib._ + Herculaneum, + temple of Magna Mater at, 548; + frescoes of, illustrating the worship of Isis, 578 + Herodes Atticus, + gifts of, to many communities, 225 sqq.; + friend of Demonax and Plutarch, 364, 403; + on the uses of wealth, 232; + claimed descent from the Aeacidae, 225 + Herodotus, + identifies Greek and Egyptian deities, 561; + on Mithra, 589 + Hesiod, on daemons, 427 + Holconii, the, of Pompeii, public honours and benefactions of, 223 + Horace, + love of the country, and memories of Mount Vultur in, 196, + 198; + journey to Brundisium, 206; + on beneficence, 190 + Hortensius, Q., + luxury of, 71; + poverty of his descendants, _ib._ + + Icelus, + raised to rank by Galba, 107; + journey of, to Spain, 206 + Immortality, + ideas of, depend on ideas of God, 484; + "We know not what we shall be," 485; + faith in the _Manes_, 486; + evidence of epitaphs on, 487 sqq.; + Lemures, 488 sq.; + the _Mundus_, 489; + mingled elements in Virgil's Inferno, 491 sqq.; + Roman longing for posthumous sympathy, 488; + Orphic and Pythagorean influences on Virgil, 494; + evidence of inscriptions on belief in, 496 sqq.; + Epicurean negation of, 498 sq.; + philosophic opinion on, 449 sqq.; + Lucretius and Julius Caesar on, 500, 501; + attitude of Epictetus, 504; + Galen's ideas of, 505 sq.; + M. Aurelius on, 507 sqq.; + Seneca on, 514 sq.; + Apollonius of Tyana on, 518 sq.; + Plutarch on, 521 sqq.; + Platonic imagery of the future world, and its influence on + Plutarch, 523 sq.; + belief in, fostered by Isiac worship, 575, 583; + and by Mithraism, 609 + Inns, poor and disreputable, 207 + Isis, + prescriptions of, in dreams, 461; + transformation of her worship by the Ptolemies, 560; + at the Peiraeus, _ib._; + influence of Greek settlers in Egypt, and of Greek mysticism, + 561, 563 sq.; + lofty conception of, in Apuleius, 563; + date of her introduction in Italy, _ib._; + power over women, 565; + repeated persecution of her worshippers, first century, B.C., + 565; + in the reign of Tiberius, 566; + favoured by Otho and the Flavians, 567; + Domitian builds a temple to, in 92 A.D., classes who + propagated the worship of, 567 sq.; + spread through all Western Europe, 568 sq.; + secret of her fascination, 569; + highest conception of, 572; + a real spiritual power, 574; + gives the hope of immortality, 575; + impressive ritual of, 576; + daily offices, 577 sq.; + her rites in frescoes of Herculaneum, 578; + great festivals of, the procession to the shore described, 578 + sq.; + her priesthood, including women, 580, 582; + sacred guilds, Isiaci, Pastophori, etc., 581; + syncretism of her worship, _ib._; + her priesthood a separate caste, their presbyteries, and + ascetic life, 582 + + Jerome, S., + account of the grades of initiation in Mithraism by, 611; + genealogies in, 70 + Jews, + growing influence of, in the first century A.D.; + especially under the Flavian dynasty, 83; + spread of Jewish observances, 84; + foster superstition, 84 + Julian, his hatred of Oenomaus of Gadara, 364 +_ Jumentarii_, at the gates of towns, 206 + Juvenal, + his views of society compared with Tacitus, 58; + social rank and early training of, 59; + experience as a client, _ib._; + bitterness of, 60; + dates of his _Satires_, 60; + he and Martial have a common stock of subjects, 60, 61; + plebeian pride, and old Roman prejudice, combined with the + moral feeling of a later age, 63; + attitude to religion, 64; + extravagant pessimism, his ideal in the past, 65; + great movements of society described by, and sometimes + misunderstood, 69; + decay of the noble class described by, 69; + contempt for new men, 70; + signs of aristocratic poverty, 72; + his ideal of senatorial dignity, 74; + treatment of women in the Sixth Satire, its faults, 76; + condemns mere eccentricities and even laudable tastes, 77; + distrusts growing culture of women, 79, 80; + fighting a lost battle, 81; + scorn for women's devotion to eastern cults, 82; + pessimism about women had some justification, 84 sqq.; + his judgments must be taken with some reserve, 87; + indignation at the invasion of the Greeks, 88; + humiliation of the client, 93; + general poverty, 95; + the cry of the poor, and Roman contempt for industry and + trade, 98; + Juvenal compared with Pliny, as a painter of society, 141 + + Lambaesis, + the camp at, how it grew into a _municipium_, 208; + military colleges at, 283; + temple of Isis at, 568; + worship of Mithra at, 595 + Lanuvium, college at, 260 + Lemuria, the, described, 489 + Libraries, + restocked with MSS. by Domitian, 53; + Trimalchio's Greek and Latin libraries, 131; + rapid production of books, 156 + Literature, + in the Antonine age, 3; + in Pliny's days, 157; + literary amateurs abound, _ib._; + Pliny's poetry, 159; + love of Cicero, 158; + the plague of readings, 160, 172; + decadence of, 163, 173; + Silius Italicus, 164 sq.; + composition in Greek, 166; + Titinius Capito, a historian, 167; + devotion to poetry, and its causes, influence of the Augustan + tradition, 169; + fashion of the archaic style, 170; + Domitian founds a literary competition, its influence, 171; + literary men generally born in provincial places, 196; + Demonax rebukes literary archaism, 367 + Livy, + on decay of augury, 445; + on the Bacchanalian scandal, 563; + on the apocryphal books of Numa, 564 + Lucan, + on the worship of Isis, 568; + betrays his mother, his death, 471; + style of, referred to in the _Satiricon_ of Petronius, 123 + Lucian, + his war against the Cynics, 337; + yet sometimes approaches their view of life, 337 sq.; + the _Charon_ of, 338; + the _Hermotimus_ of, witnesses to a moral movement, 341 sqq.; + the Cynic in his _Banquet_, and _Fugitives_, 350; + his treatment of the character of Peregrinus, 354 sqq.; + visit to Olympia at the time of the Cynic's suicide, 355; + how he regarded it, and watched the growth of a myth, 357 sq.; + description of the new oracle of Abonoteichos, 474 sqq.; + ridicule of superstition in the _Philopseudes_, 490; + reference to Mithra, 590 + Lucretius, + on immortality, 500, 501; + on Magna Mater, 547 + Luxury, + Juvenal's view of, 65; + Roman luxury in Republican times, 67; + luxury a relative term, 68; + luxury of the Roman villa, chiefly in marbles, 177; + the luxury of travelling, progresses of Nero, 206 + + Maecenas, + counsels of, to Augustus in Dion Cassius, 446, 533; + Trimalchio, a freedman of, 128 n. + Magna Mater, + brought from Pessinus, 204 B.C., 548; + no Roman priest of, for 100 years, _ib._; + growing popularity of, at Rome, in Spain and Dacia, 549; + legend of, _ib._; + her festival in spring, 550; + her priests in the inscriptions, 550 sq.; + her sacred colleges, 551; + her disreputable followers in Apuleius, _ib._ sqq.; + her worship transmuted, 554; + the taurobolium and its history, 556; + alliance of, with Mithra, and Attis, 556 sq.; + women admitted to sacred rank, 557; + identified with Maia, Demeter, Bona Dea, etc., 559 + Majesty, the law of, under the Empire, 33 + Malaga, inscriptions of, 209 + Manetho, + treatise of, on myths, 561; + assists the first Ptolemy in recasting Isiac worship, _ib._ + Marcian, on Colleges, 255 + Martial, + deals with the same social subjects as Juvenal, 61; + his graphic picture of the age, 61, 62; + better side of, love of country life, picture of the farm of + Faustinus, love of Bilbilis, 62; + on Regulus, 156; + on literary amateurs, 157; + on Silius Italicus, 158; + relations of, with Pliny, 158; + regret for the capital, 198 + Maximus of Tyre, + character of his Discourses, 349; + conciliation of anthropomorphism with a higher vision of God + by, 395; + ethical theory of, 421; + daemonology of, 429; + fortified by tales of apparitions, 491; + influenced by Aristotle, 421 + Medicine, + profession of, filled by Greeks, 92; + great physicians, Antonius Musa, the Stertinii, etc., _ib._; + sneers against, _ib._; + public physicians in municipal towns, 219; + income and munificence of the Stertinii, 224; + science of, in the second century, superstitious elements, + 459; + how blended with real skill, 462; + skilled physicians in temples of Asclepius, 465 +_ Medixtuticus_, title of, still preserved in Oscan towns, 203 + Minucius Felix, + quoted, 545; + on the festivals of Isis, 578 n.; + on daemons, 433 + Miracles, + Origen and Celsus on, 481; + universal belief in, 482; + miracles in temples of Serapis, 573; + Vespasian consents to work, _ib._ + Mithra, + growing power of, 386; + the taurobolium a part of his worship, 556; + alliance of, with Magna Mater and Attis, _ib._, 589 sq.; + in the Vedas and Avestas, 586; + in the Zoroastrian system, 587; + the God of kings, _ib._; + influence of Babylon on the worship of, 587; + influence of syncretism in Asia Minor on, 588; + the taurobolium probably borrowed, _ib._; + origin of the Tauroctonus group, date of the introduction of + the + cult into Europe, 590; + Plutarch's statement in the Life of Pompey, _ib._; + worship of, in the Flavian age, _ib._; + syncretism of, 592; + worship of, propagated by soldiers, civil servants, etc., + _ib._; + stages of its diffusion through Italy, 593; + and north of the Alps, 594; + progress of the worship along the Danube, 594 sqq.; + legions which propagated it in Pannonia, 595; + remains of, in Upper Germany, 596; + in England, 597; + in Gaul, _ib._; + its many attractions, _ib._; + Persian symbolism, 598; + Babylonian elements in, astrology, 598, 602, sq.; + relative influence of Iran and Babylon, different views of, + 599; + influence of Platonism and Pythagoreanism on, 600; + doctrine of the soul's descent, _ib._; + cosmic theory, doctrine of emanation, and deification of + elemental powers, 601 sqq.; + Mithra as mediator in two senses, 604 sq.; + the Dadophori, _ib._, 606; + the legend recovered from monuments, 605; + the _petra genetrix_, _ib._; + symbolism of the slaughtered bull, 606; + agape of Mithra and Sun, 607; + various interpretations of the legend, 607; + Mithraism a religion of combat, 608; + its consolations, _ib._; + its eschatology, 609; + effect of the taurobolium, _ib._; + ritual and sacraments of, 610; + daily offices, and festivals of, 611; + seven grades of the initiated, 611; + ordeals of, 612; + guilds of, 612; + rites regarded as a diabolic parody of the Church, 613; + description of the chapels of, _ib._ sq.; + how Mithraism escaped persecution, 614; + how it fostered theocratic ideas at Rome, 617 sqq.; + a great imperial cult, 619; + last days of, _ib._; + worship of, a great effort of syncretism, 620; + moral and mystic strength of, 621; + relations to Christianity, 622; + similarities between them, 623; + weaknesses of Mithraism, 624; + inseparably involved with Nature-worship, 626 + Monarchy, + Seneca's conception of, 16; + hereditary succession and adoption, 27; + ideal of, in Dion Chrysostom, 377, sqq.; + apotheosis of, in third century, 615 sqq.; + attitude of Tacitus to, 21 + Morals, + divorced from politics and speculation, 290 sq.; + became a religion in Seneca, 305; + relation of precept and dogma, _ib._; + freedom and necessity, 311; + the fall of man, 312; + Plutarch's theory of, 410 sqq. + Municipal life, + picture of, in Petronius, 133 sqq.; + rapid organisation of, in Spain, Gaul, Dacia, etc., immense + growth of towns, 200; + Baden in 69 A.D., 201; + Thamugadi in Numidia, 202; + policy of government towards provincial towns, 203; + drift towards uniformity of civic organisation, influence of + the capital, 204; + how towns were formed, 207; + development from _castra stativa_, 207, sq.; + soldiers allowed to live with their families in the third + century, 208; + municipal town aristocratic in constitution, 209, 231; + _ Album Canusii_, 210; + the _honestiores_, _ib._; + popular election the rule in the first century, 211; + magistracies, 212; + their burdens, signs of decay, 212; + powers of the duumvirs, 213; + the Curia, its numbers, qualification, and privileges, 214, + 215; + local _Equites_, 215; + Augustales, their importance, organisation, insignia, etc., + 216, 217; + municipal finance, 218; + public charges, food, education, medical attendance, 219; + public works, 220; + finances, and maladministration of Bithynian towns in Trajan's + reign, 220, 221; + municipal life of Pompeii, 222, sqq.; + generous gifts to towns, 223, 225; + examples from the inscriptions, 226 sqq.; + public feasts on a great scale, 229; + gifts of money according to social rank, 230; + tone of town life, 231; + pleasures of, 233; + gladiatorial shows, 236 sqq.; + how the community rewarded benefactors, 244 sq.; + municipal meanness, 245; + decaying local patriotism, 246; + Plutarch on, 247; + growing centralisation and interference, 248; + shadows of the end, 249 + Musonius, + his ideal of chastity, 77; + condemns the Sophists, 344; + exile of, under Nero; character of his teaching; preaches to + the soldiery in 69 A.D., 348 + + Nature, + love of, in Virgil, 197; + in Pliny, 174; + in Martial, _ib._, 62, 198 + Nero, + hereditary taint of, 17; + not without some good qualities, 17; + could inspire affection, 18; + his devotion to art, and its evil results, 19; + a _cupitor incredibilium_, 20; + his waste leads to cruel oppression, 20, 21; + examples of wild profusion, 32; + his superstition, 45, 536; + compelled by the mob to recall Octavia, 49; + popular indignation at his appearance on the stage, 74; + the "Noctes Neronis," 75; + his phil-Hellenism, 89; + silences Delphi, 434; + belief in astrology, 448; + propitiates his mother's shade, 491; + flattery of, by the Arval Brothers, 542; + worshipped by Tiridates, 617; + violence to Delphi, 472 + Nerva, + retrenchments of, 32; + first provided for poor children, 192 + Nicomedia, D. Chrysostom on its public vices, 373 + Numa, apocryphal books of, 564 + + Octavia, divorced on false charge, and recalled by Nero at the + bidding of the mob, 49 + Oenomaus of Gadara, + rejection of myth and oracles by, 363; + theory of oracles, 364; + Julian's denunciation of, _ib._ + Olbia, D. Chrysostom's visit to, 371 sq. + Oracles, + decay of, 434; + revival of, 386; + theory of their inspiration, 437 sqq.; + and of their cessation, 437, 471; + that of Abonoteichos defers to the older, 472; + many oracles not silenced till the reign of Constantine, 473; + how an oracle was worked, 474; + oracles in Boeotia, 471 + Orphic mysticism, the, 427; + influence of, on Virgil, 494; + on Mithraism, 600; + on belief in immortality, 516 + Osterburken, remains of Mithra worship at, 596 + Ostia, + colleges at, 215; + cult of Mithra at, 591; + temple of Magna Mater at, _ib._ + Otho, + extravagance of, 32; + his belief in astrology, 45, 448; + devotion of soldiers to, 50; + his end, 449; + flattered by the Arval Brotherhood, 541; + the first Emperor who took part in Isiac worship, 566 + Ovid, + his ideal of womanhood, 77, 142; + shocked by the influence of the theatre on women, 86; + attitude to religion, 532 + + Pallas, power and insolence of, receives the adulation of the + Senate, his wealth, and his end, 111 + Panaetius and the Scipionic circle, 293; + modification of Stoicism by, 408; + abandons belief in immortality, 500; + rejects divination, 530; + little sympathy with popular religion, 531 + Panthea, mistress of L. Verus, charms of, described by Lucian, 115 + Paphlagonia, superstition of, 474 + Pastophori of Isis, the, + recognised by Sulla, 565; + scribe of, 570 + Peregrinus, + early history of, connection with the Christians, and + self-immolation, 354; + Lucian's attacks on his character, 354; + assumes that the motive of Peregrinus was notoriety, 356; + Peregrinus influenced by eastern mysticism, 355; + character of, in Aulus Gellius, 358 + Pessimism, + of Seneca, 10, 11, 14, 303, 313; + of Tacitus, 30, 46; + Juvenal, 65; + M. Aurelius, 304, 335; + of the Greek poets, 416 + Petronius, + shared in the "Noctes Neronis," 75; + various opinions as to the date and object of his _Satiricon_, + 120; + motive of the work, 122; + the Petronius of Tacitus, his character and his end; the + _Satiricon_ only a fragment, 124; + not without a higher moral tone, 125; + originality of Petronius, 126; + the scene and the characters, 127 + Philosophy, + power of, in government, 6; + Stoic opposition in the first century, 39, 151 sqq.; + was it ever a dangerous force? 40; + new ideals of humanity, 63; + elevating influence of, 190; + change in the conception of, in the first century, 289; + practical interest in predominant, causes of the change, 339, + 290 sq.; + eclecticism and scepticism in, _ib._, 408, 412; + necessity for moral reform, 292; + private direction of souls, 293; + directors in great houses, 294; + the philosopher a _generis humani paedagogus_, 299; + modifications of Stoicism in Seneca, 314 sqq., 306; + "nulla virtus sine philosophia," 341; + eclecticism, 343; + the Cynic opposition, 362 sq.; + eclecticism of Dion Chrysostom, 368 sq.; + need of a philosophic theodicee, 384; + effort of, to rehabilitate myth, 432 + Pheidias, + the Olympian Zeus of, 380; + his defence of anthropomorphism in D. Chrysostom, 382 + Pisa, disturbance at elections in, 212 + Piso, the conspiracy of, 47 sq. + Platonism, + few adherents of, in the first century, 408; + affected Panaetius, _ib._; + and Seneca, 308; + and Plutarch, 409; + its daemonology, 430; + encouraged belief in immortality, 501; + visionary power of the great Master, 523; + influence on Mithraism, 600 + Plebeian life, + picture of, in Petronius, 132 sqq.; + in the inscriptions, 252 sq., 271 + Pliny, the elder, + on Roman luxury, 67, 68; + care of his nephew, 145; + life, character, and prodigious industry of, 146; + scorn for popular religion, 535; + superstition of, 451; + rejection of immortality, 502; + on town life in Spain and Gaul, 201 sq.; + description of baths of Posides, 112; + on the Stertinii, 224 + Pliny, the younger, + ideal of the principate in the _Panegyric_, 43; + compared with Juvenal as a painter of society, 141; + idealised his circle, 142, 185; + his blameless aristocrats, 144; + early life of, influence of Quintilian on, 149; + student friends, 150; + admiration of the Stoic circle, 151; + military service, and entrance on forensic work, 153 sq.; + the Centumviral court, 154 sq.; + sketch of Regulus, 155 sqq.; + passion for fame, 157; + literary amateurs, 157; + befriends Martial, 158; + admiration for Cicero, and for Greece, 158; + his loose verses, 159; + ideas of oratory, 160; + value of his Letters, 161, 163; + imitated in fourth century, _ib._; + their principle of arrangement, and date, 162; + his devotion to literature, 164; + admiration for Tacitus, _ib._; + his judgment of Silius Italicus, _ib._; + theory of life, 165; + literary coteries, Greek verse writing, 166; + writers of history, 167; + literary competitions, 171; + the plague of recitations; Pliny gives readings himself, and + punctually attends them: his estimate of their value, 173; + weariness of the capital and love of the country, 174; + not a sportsman, 175; + pictures of Roman country seats, 175; + routine of country life, 179; + management of rural estates, 180; + Pliny's kindness to slaves and dependents, 181; + view of suicide, 183; + Corellius Rufus, 184; + Pliny's belief in the solidarity of rank, and the duty of + mutual support, 186; + his superstition, 452, 490; + delight in helping young men of the upper class, 187; + love for Calpurnia, and ideal of girlhood, 188, 189; + last glimpse of Pliny and Calpurnia, 189; + he represents the finest moral tone of the age, 190; + his many benefactions and their amount, 193, 224 + Plutarch, + on the duties of municipal life, 247; + early history of, 401; + friends of, at Rome, 402; + love of Chaeronea, and Delphi, 403; + visits to other parts of Greece, 403; + table talk of, 404; + his historic power, 406; + ethical motive in, predominant, 405; + admiration for Plato, 409; + eclecticism, _ib._; + attacks Stoic psychology, 410; + adopts some Aristotelian principles, 412; + yet has many Stoic elements, 414; + his treatment of Fate and free-will, 412; + ideal of moral teaching, 413; + conception of theology, 417; + idea of God, 418; + of matter and evil, 419; + treatment of myth and religious symbol, 423; + daemonology, 430 sqq.; + used to rehabilitate myth, 432; + interest in Delphi, 435 sqq.; + theory of inspiration, 439; + on the future state, 496 sq.; + on comfort in the Mysteries, 516; + Consolation to his wife on the death of their daughter, 520 + sq.; + arguments for immortality, 521 sqq.; + visions of the future world, 523 sqq.; + reference to Mithra as a mediator, 590; + on the first appearance of Mithraism in Europe, 590; + tales of ghosts at Chaeronea, 490 + Politta, wife of Rubellius Plautus, courage and devotion of, 49 + Polybius, freedman minister of Claudius, life of, described by + Seneca, 108 + Polybius, the historian, his attitude to Roman religion, 531 + Pompeii, + situation and various industries of, 223; + family of the Holconii, Eumachia, their gifts to the town, + 223; + amphitheatre and temple of Isis at, 224, 563; + election placards at, 211; + tombs of Alexandrian traders at, 567; + colleges of "late sleepers" and "late drinkers" at, 265 + Pontifex Maximus, the, 534; + office held by the Emperors, its power, 535 + Poppaea, her sympathy with Judaism, 83 + Post, the public, + organisation of, 206; + Pliny's use of, for Calpurnia, 189 + Poverty, + contempt for, 104; + common in Juvenal's time, 94; + D. Chrysostom on, 375 + Prayer, + an effort of adoration, 394; + a colloquy with God, 420 + Preachers, the philosophic, + Apollonius, 347; + Musonius, 348; + Maximus of Tyre, 349; + Dion Chrysostom, 370 sqq. + Prudentius, description of the taurobolium by, 558 + Public works, + mismanagement of, in Bithynia, 220 sq.; + curator of, _ib._; + undertaken by private persons, evidence of inscriptions on, + 225 sq. + Pythagoreanism, + not extinct in the first century B.C., 398; + daemonology of, 428; + influence of, on Virgil, 493 sq.; + on Seneca, 515; + connection with the Mysteries, 516; + spiritual influence of, 517; + influence on the mythology of Egypt, 562; + and on Mithraism, 600 + + Quintilian, + career of, as a teacher, and high moral influence, 149; + treats immortality as an open question, 502 + + Readings, + the plague of, in Juvenal, 59, 95; + in Pliny, 160, 173; + in Martial, 61 + Regulus, M. Aquilius, + career of, as delator, 37; + as pleader, his wealth, and eccentricities, 155, 156 + Religion, old Roman, + decay of, from the second Punic War, 529; + its causes, 530; + attitude to, of Varro, Panaetius, Polybius, 531; + Augustan restoration of, 533; + conservative influence of the chief pontificate, 535; + early emperors continue the Augustan policy, 536; + reverence for the oldest Latin deities in the inscriptions, + 538; + Jupiter, 543; + Hercules, Silvanus, and the Nymphs, 539; + revival of the Arval Brotherhood, 540 sqq.; + feeling of the educated to, 544; + real strength of, 545; + last champions of, in the fourth century, 546; + its formalism compared with the eastern worships, 554 + + Scepticism, + from the second Punic War, 530; + the scepticism of the elder Pliny, Seneca, Juvenal, etc., 535 + Seleucus, an astrologer of Otho, 448 + Senate, the, + prestige and ancient claims of, 38; + hated and feared by bad princes, 38, 39; + respect for, under good Emperors, 39; + theoretical position of, under the Empire, 41, 42; + Pliny's _Panegyric_ throws light on, 44; + moral degradation of, shown in 69 A.D., 50; + poverty of many great houses, 51, 71; + insults heaped on, by Emperors, 51; + reduction of its numbers by massacre etc., 71; + great families pensioned by Emperors, 71; + Senators compelled to act and fight as gladiators, 73, 74; + scorn of, for freedmen, 113; + frivolity of, in Pliny's time, 185; + senatorial life in the country, 174 sqq. + Seneca, + his experience of the tyranny, 7, 8; + sad close of his life, 9; + knowledge of character, how acquired, 9; + conception of the state of nature, and pessimism of, 10, 11, + 14, 304, 313; + ghastly picture of high society, 11; + of slavery, 12, 329; + his terrors, 13; + attitude to philosophic revolutionaries, 15; + conception of imperial power, 16; + ideal of female character and capacity, 188; + anticipates the movement of the Antonine age, 190; + as a spiritual director, 294; + his undoubted power, 295; + his experience prepared him for the work, 296 sqq.; + his court-life and wealth, _ib._; + contrasts in, 297; + calumnies against, 298; + conception of the great office of philosophy, 299; + attitude to liberal studies, 300; + treatment of Physics, the moral effects and lessons of the + study, 301 sqq.; + intense earnestness of, 304; + defends and quotes Epicurus, 306; + yet often a Stoic dogmatist, _ib._; + conception of God, 307, 390; + influenced by Platonism, 308; + his psychology, 308 sq.; + necessity and conversion, 311; + the fall of man, 312; + Aristotelian elements in, 314 sq.; + humility of, 316; + his disciples of the upper class, 317; + on philosophic retreat, 318; + his precepts for moral growth, 320 sqq.; + death a mere bugbear, 322; + attitude to myth, _ib._; + on public duty, 325; + on the social instinct, kindness, forgiveness, etc., 327; + his ideal of womanhood, 329; + Seneca and Thomas a Kempis, 331; + his view of immortality approaches the Christian, 5, 13 sqq.; + Pythagorean influences on, 515 + Sentinum, college of Mithra at, 593 + Serapis, + his temple of healing at Canopus, 461; + his origin, various theories of, 561 sq.; + linked with Jupiter in the inscriptions, 562; + lofty conception of, in Aristides, 572, 574; + miracles in his temples, 573; + a guide and judge of souls, 575; + his boundless sway, 583 + Sidonius Apollinaris, + imitation of Pliny's Letters in, 162 sq.; + refers to Sulpicia, 80; + to Petronius, 121 + Silius Italicus, + Pliny's estimate of, 164; + career and tastes of, 165; + a connoisseur, 177; + suicide of, 184 + Slavery, + moral and political effects of, according to Seneca, 12; + courage of Octavia's slave girls, 48; + transition from slavery to freedom, 116 sq.; + kindly feeling, 117, 257; + manumission, how obtained, 118; + growing _peculium_ of trusted slaves, 118; + tie between patron and freedman, 119; + duties and generosity of patrons, _ib._; + rise of the freedmen, _ib._; + Pliny's kindness to slaves, 181; + harsh masters and their perils, 182; + slave class dwindling, 252; + slaves in the colleges, 281 + Society, + _ circuli_, 13; + gossip, 33; + extravagant luxury, 66; + respect for birth and manufacture of genealogies, 69, 70; + poverty and mendicancy of great houses, 71, 72; + wider interests among women 78; + culture of Roman women from Cornelia to Serena, wife of + Stilicho, 80; + dangerous temptations of women's life, 85 sq.; + general poverty under the Empire, 94 sq.; + mean trades more lucrative than cultivated professions, 95; + society materialised, _ib._; + contempt for poverty, 97; + grossness of freedmen, 132 sqq.; + a sounder class in the worst days, 143; + wholesome force of Roman tradition, and country life, 144; + old-fashioned retreats of virtue, 147; + love of country life, 174; + suicide, 183; + wedded life of Calpurnia and Pliny, 188 sq.; + new moral ideals in Seneca, Juvenal, and Pliny, 190; + duties of wealth, 191; + public spirit of the age, 193; + rage for amusement, 234 sqq.; + municipal gratitude and meanness, 245; + need of association in clubs, etc., 256 sqq.; + immense force of the movement, 266 sqq.; + ennui and self-abandonment of upper class, 304, 319 sq.; + need for popular evangelism, how the Cynics supplied it, 335, + 360 + Socrates, theories of his daemon, 438 + Sophists, the, + influence of, 4; + frivolous subjects and showy style of, condemned by + philosophers, 344; + Plutarch's opinion of, 413 + Sotion, trains Seneca in Pythagorean asceticism, 296 + Spain, + growth of towns in, 200; + journey of Icelus in, to reach Galba, 206; + little affected by Mithraism, 597; + worship of Isis in, 567 + Spectacles, the, + Senators descend into the arena, 73; + women present at, mingling with men at the Circus, 86; + obscenities of the theatre, _ib._; + number of days in the year given to, 234; + scene in Flavian Amphitheatre, 235 + Spurinna, Vestricius, + a verse writer, 166; + his orderly life a type, 175 + Statius, + his sketches of the great imperial freedmen, 109 sqq.; + of the villas of Manlius Vopiscus, and Pollius Felix, 176; + reference to Mithra in the _Thebaid_, 589 sq. + Stoicism, + the God of, 307; + gospel of, in Seneca, 309 sq.; + freedom and necessity, 311; + weakness of its moral theory, 313; + instantaneous conversion, _ib._; + no intermediate states of character, _ib._; + modifications of, 314; + relation to Cynicism, 323, 359; + competing tendencies in, 324; + the two cities, Zeno on civic duty, 325; + the brotherhood of man, 328; + the religion of Stoicism breaks down, 391, 512; + later Stoic mysticism, 392; + influence of Panaetius, 408, 530; + its theory of human nature assailed by Plutarch, 410 sq.; + older Stoic belief in a limited immortality, 500; + ideal of life in M. Aurelius, 509; + Stoic attitude to augury, etc., 530 + Strabo, + on oracles and augury, 471; + on the temple of Serapis at Canopus, 461 + Suetonius, + career of, 168; + Pliny's friendship for, _ib._; + a dilatory author, 168; + superstition of, 452, 535; + secretary of Hadrian, 169 + Suffetes, title of, preserved in Africa under the Empire, 203 + Suicide, + Pliny's view of, 183; + suicide of Euphrates, 356; + Stoic view of, 356; + suicide of Peregrinus, 357; + of Silius Italicus, 184; + of Corellius Rufus, 184; + Hadrian's wish for, 356; + a suicide on Lake Como, 184 + Sulla, recognises the Isiac cult in 80 B.C., 565 + Sulpicia, verses of, mentioned by Martial and Sidonius, 80 + Sun worship, + the highest form of nature-worship, 585 sq.; + Aurelian's temple, 586; + Mithra identified with the Sun at Babylon, 587; + influence of, in fostering theocratic ideas in the Empire, 617 + sq. + Superstition, + tales of, at Trimalchio's table, 131, 136; + of Regulus, 156; + of Suetonius and Pliny, 168; + various conceptions of, 443; + Plutarch on, 443 sq.; + astrology, 446 sqq.; + superstition of the Emperors, 447 sqq.; + of the great writers of the age, 451 sqq.; + its connection with medicine in the temples, 459; + dream oracles, 461; + Aristides has visits from the gods, 466; + superstition of Rutilianus and the Roman nobles in the reign + of M. Aurelius, 475; + rampant in Paphlagonia, 476 sq.; + cult of _Genii_, 479; + universal belief in miracles, 482; + apparitions in the _Philopseudes_ of Lucian, 490; + encouraged by Mithraism, 602 + Symmachus, + religious conservatism of, 546; + Letters of, 161 + Syncretism, + in Aristides, 388; + in Apuleius, _ib._; + in Plutarch, 424; + of the oriental worships, 558; + in the worship of Isis, 581; + and of Serapis, 583; + Mithraism the greatest effort of, 585, 592; + at Babylon, 587; + in Asia Minor, 588 + + Tacitus, + his attitude to the tyranny of the early Caesars, 21; + early history and experience of, 22; + various views of, 23; + the key to his tone as a historian, 24; + a moralist, rather than a politician, 25, 26; + views of the future, 26, 27; + belief in birth and traditions, 28; + early training, and ideal of family life, 28, 29; + admiration for Agricola, 29; + his experience had affected his ideas of human nature and of + the Divine government, 30; + gloomy view of the time, 46; + wavering attitude to superstition, 453, 535; + faint hope of immortality, 502; + account of Serapis, 562 + Tarsus, D. Chrysostom on its vices, 370 + Taurobolium, the, + enthralling power of, 547; + first glimpse of, 549; + offered for Ant. Pius in 160, _ib._; + suspected by the Fathers, 555; + history of, 556; + Anaitis and Artemis Tauropolus, _ib._; + question whether it became part of the worship of Mithra, + _ib._, 609; + its ceremonial and cost, 557 sq.; + its meaning and effects, 609 + Tertullian, + his tale of a priest of Cybele, 549; + on the taurobolium, 555; + holds up priests of Isis as an example, 582; + his view of the sacraments of Mithra, 613 + Theagenes, + pupil of Peregrinus, 354; + lectures in Rome, _ib._ + Theatre, the, a great corruptor, 86 + Thespesius of Soli, his vision of the unseen world, 524 + Thrasea, his character, compared with Paetus and Helvidius Priscus, + 152 + Thrasyllus, an astrologer of Tiberius, 448 + Tiberius, + conservatism of, in religion, 536; + little sympathy with Hellenism, 88; + cost of his gladiators, 241; + belief in astrology, 448; + tried the lottery at Padua, 472; + persecutes the eastern cults, 566; + treatment of descendants of Hortensius, 71; + his _mot_ on birth, 70 + Timarchus, his visit to the other world, 526 sq. + Titinius Capito, writes a history of the victims of the Terror, 167 + Titus, + his love of the East and superstition, 449; + visit to shrine of the Paphian Venus, 472 + Trade, + great fair at Cremona, 264; + wandering traders, their colleges, _ib._; + immense development of, 253, 265; + Juvenal's contempt for, 98; + encouragement of, by Claudius, 264 + Trajan, + provision of, for poor children, 192; + his friendship with Dion Chrysostom, 369 sq.; + vows of the Arval Brotherhood for, 542; + Pliny's _Panegyric_ on, 43 + Travel, + became general, 205; + example of Hadrian, _ib._; + easy and luxurious, _ib._; + facilities of posting, 206; + speed of, by land and sea, 206; + passion for change of scene, 330 sqq.; + travels of Aristides, 464; + of Dion Chrysostom, 368 + Trimalchio, the, of Petronius, + sketches his own career, 129; + his estates, _ib._; + description of, _ib._; + surprises of his dinner, 130; + his libraries and his ignorance, 131; + treatment of his wife, 137; + gives an order for his monument, 136 + Trophonius, the oracle of, 461 + + Ummidia Quadratilla, + character in Pliny's Letters, 185; + builds a temple and amphitheatre for Casinum, 224 + + Varro, + theology of, 417, 531 sq.; + on Magna Mater, 547; + Saturae Menippeae of, 126 + Veleia, tablet of, 192 + Verginius, Rufus, guardian of Pliny, 145 + Vespasian, + accession of, a moral revolution, 1; + his economies, 32, 227; + tolerance of the Stoic opposition by, 40; + treatment of astrologers, 45; + defamed by men of the Neronian circle, 52; + Hellenism of, 89; + love of old associations, 148; + his immense task; combined economy and liberality, 148; + banishes the astrologers, yet believes in them, 449; + consults the oracle on Mount Carmel, 472; + conservative in religion, 536; + restores the shrine of Magna Mater at Herculaneum, 548; + consents to work miracles at Alexandria, 573 + Vestinus, Atticus, suicide of, under Nero, 48 + Vestinus, Julius, chief pontiff of Egypt, a secretary of Hadrian, + 568 + Virgil, + immense popularity of, his verses in the Graffiti of Pompeii, + 170; + pictures of rural scenery by, 197; + _ Sortes Virgilianae_ consulted by Hadrian, 450; + Inferno of, its discordant conceptions, 491 sqq.; + recitation of the Aeneid at Trimalchio's table, 131 + Vitellius, + cruelty and ghastly end of, 240; + superstition of, 449; + profusion of, 32; + treatment of his freedman, Asiaticus, 206; + employs _Equites_ as imperial secretaries, 107; + his horoscope, 449 + + Women, + high ideal of, in the first century, 77; + growth of wider interests in, 78; + superstition among, _ib._; + emancipation of, began long before the Empire, 79; + vices of, in the time of the elder Cato, _ib._; + Roman ideal of, lasted to the end, _ib._; + cultivated women from Cornelia to Serena, 80; + growing influence of, in public life, 81; + "Mothers of the camp, _patronae_," _Curia mulierum_ at + Lanuvium, 81; + attractions of eastern cults for, 82; + Roman girls carefully guarded till marriage, when their perils + began, 84; + temptations of Roman matrons, _ib._; + dangers of the Circus, theatre, and gladiatorial shows, 86; + manners in the freedwomen class, 135; + good women of Pliny's circle, 145; + others of doubtful character, 185; + Calpurnia, wife of Pliny; their ideal married life, 188 sq.; + beautiful character of a girl, 189; + ideal of, in Seneca, 329; + light women keep fasts of Isis, 553, 565, 570; + female worshippers of Magna Mater, 557 + + Xenocrates, on bad daemons, 431, 433 + Xenophanes, on legend, 544 + + Zoticus, freedman of Elagabalus, sources of his wealth, 112 + + + + + + + THE END + + + + + + + _Printed in Great Britain by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_. + + + + + + FOOTNOTES + + +_ 1 Ann._ iii. 55; xvi. 5; cf. Suet. _Vesp._ ix. xii. + + 2 Suet. _Vesp._ ii. quare princeps quoque et locum incunabulorum + assidue frequentavit, manente villa, qualis fuerat olim, etc. + + 3 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 23; xvi. 21, 34; _Agric._ 2, 45; Plin. _Ep._ iii. + 16, § 10; vii. 19, § 3; iii. 11, § 3; ix. 13, § 3. + + 4 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 60. + + 5 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 6; i. 80; xiii. 50, 51; xi. 24; Suet. _Nero_, x.; + _Dom._ viii.; cf. Merivale, vii. 385; Renan, _Apotres_, p. 308 sqq; + Greard, _Morale de Plut._ p. 200. + + 6 Suet. _Vitell._ v.; _Otho_, iii. provinciam administravit + moderatione atque abstinentia singulari. + + 7 Sen. _Ep._ 47; _De Ira_, i. 5; iii. 24; _De Benef._ iv. 11, § 3; _De + Brev. Vit._ xiii. § 7; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 22; Juv. xiv. 15 sqq.; xv. + 131; D. Cass. lxvi. 15; _Or. Henz. Inscr. Lat._ 7244, Bene fac, hoc + tecum feres; Denis, _Hist. des Idees Morales_, ii. 156, 172, 181. + + 8 Sid. Apoll. _Ep._ viii. 6, § 5. + +_ 9 Or. Henz._ iii. Ind. p. 27 sq. + + 10 Apul. _Apol._ c. 55, sacrorum pleraque initia in Graecia + participavi, et plurimos ritus ... didici; Lamprid. _Alex. Sev._ c. + 29, 43. + + 11 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ viii.; xi. § 3; xvii.; D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 83. + + 12 Renan, _Les Evangiles_, p. 382. + + 13 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iv. 420; Denis, _Idees Morales_, ii. 200 + sqq.; Renan, _M. Aurele_, p. 24 sqq. + + 14 Luc. _Som._ 32; _Traj._ 15; _Charon_, 15, 20; _Tim._ 14, 36; M. + Aurel. v. 10, 33: ix. 29; 34; x. 19: cf. Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 8; _Ad + Marc._ ii. 17, 20, 22; Petron. _Sat._ 88. + +_ 15 Ep._ 108, § 22; cf. Suet. _Tib._ lxi. nullus a poena hominum + cessavit dies. + + 16 Suet. _Tib._ 61; Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34. + + 17 D. Cass. lix. 19; Suet. _Calig._ 53. + +_ 18 Nec. Inj._ xviii.; cf. Suet. _Calig._ 50; Sen. _De Ira_, i. 20; + iii. 18; _De Tranq._ xiv.; _Ad Polyb._ xiii. xvii.; _Ad Helv._ x. 4; + _De Benef._ iv. 31. + + 19 Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 33. + + 20 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8; D. Cass. 60. 8; 61. 10; Sen. _Ad Polyb._ 13. 2; + _Ad Helv._ 15. 2. + + 21 For the worst charges _v._ D. Cass. lxii. 2; lxi. 10; Tac. _Ann._ + 13. 13. + + 22 D. Cass. _l.c._; Tac. _Ann._ 13. 42. But cf. Seneca's reply, Tac. + _Ann._ 14. 53, and 15. 62. + + 23 Tac. _Ann._ 15. 65. + + 24 Sen. _Frag._ 108. + + 25 Sen. _De Tranq._ x. 6. + + 26 Sen. _Ep._ i. 18; Tac. _Ann._ 14. 52. + +_ 27 Ep._ 70, § 14; 88, § 17; _Ep._ 77; _De Ira_, iii. 15; _Ad Helv._ 5, + § 4. + + 28 Mart. vii. 27, 11; Juv. xi. 4; Sen. _Dial._ 1, 5, 4; _De Benef._ + vii. 22, 2; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 281. + + 29 Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 33; _De Tranq._ xii. 7. + + 30 Sen. _Ep._ 97, § 2; Sen. _De Benef._ i. 10, § 1. Cf. _De Ira_, ii. + 8; _Ep._ 95, § 20; _Ep._ 115, § 10. + + 31 Sen. _Ep._ 90, § 42. + +_ 32 Ep._ 90, § 40. + +_ 33 Ib._ 90, § 38. + +_ 34 Ib._ 90, § 5, § 36, avaritia atque luxuria dissociavere mortales. + +_ 35 Ib._ 90, § 12. + + 36 Sen. _Ep._ 90, § 19. + +_ 37 De Brev. Vit._ xvi. tarde ire horas queruntur; _Ep._ 77; _Ep._ 104, + § 15. + +_ 38 Ep._ 115, § 10; _De Ira_, iii. 33; _Ep._ 60; _Ep._ 74. + +_ 39 Ad Polyb._ vi. 5, magna servitus est magna fortuna. + +_ 40 De Ira_, ii. 8. + +_ 41 De Ira_, ii. 33. + +_ 42 Ib._ iii. 35, deinde idem de republica libertatem sublatam quereris + quam domi sustulisti. + +_ 43 Ib._ iii. 24, 32; Petron. _Sat._ 49, 53; Sen. _Ep._ 47, § 10; Juv. + vi. 490; Sen. _De Clem._ i. 18. + + 44 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 353; Marq. _Priv._ i. 142; Wallon, + _L'Escl. dans l'Ant._ ii. 146. + + 45 Sen. _De Brev._ _V._ xiii. + +_ 46 Ib._ xvi. transilire dies volunt. + + 47 Id. _Ep._ 104, § 15; 89, § 20; _Ep._ 28. + + 48 Id. _De Tranq._ xii. § 7. + + 49 Mart. ii. 7, 8 (_v._ note on the word in Friedlaender's ed.); iv. 78. + + 50 Sen. _Ep._ i. 9; cf. Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 271. + + 51 Juv. xi. 4; Mart. vii. 97; Quintil. vi. 3, 105; Sen. _De Tranq._ + xii. § 7; _De Ben._ vii. 22, 2; _De Prov._ i. 5, 4; Boissier, + _L'Opp._ p. 201 sqq. + +_ 52 Ad Marc._ xx.; _De Tranq._ x.; _Ep._ 94 _ad fin._; _Ep._ 70. + +_ 53 Ep._ 90, § 43, at vos ad omnem tectorum pavetis sonum et inter + picturas vestras, si quid increpuit, fugitis attoniti. + +_ 54 Ep._ 70, § 14; _Ep._ 88, § 17, malis paratus sum; _Ep._ 24, § 11; + _Ad Polyb._ ix. nullus portus nisi mortis; _Ad Marc._ xx. mors quae + efficit ut nasci non supplicium sit. + +_ 55 Ad Marc._ x. + +_ 56 Ad Polyb._ vi. + +_ 57 Ad Marc._ xxii. § 3. + +_ 58 Ad Polyb._ ix.; _Ep._ 77; _Ad Marc._ xxi. § 7. + +_ 59 Ep._ 108, § 17. He adopted the Pythagorean discipline under the + influence of Sotion, a pupil of Sextius, but gave it up on the + proscription of suspected rites in the reign of Tiberius, cf. Suet. + _Tib._ 36; cf. Zeller, _Die Phil. der Gr._ iii. 1, 605. + + 60 D. Cass. 62. 2; 61. 10. Zeller, iii. 1, 641, n. 1. + + 61 D. Cass. _l.c._ + +_ 62 Tac. Ann._ xv. 55. + + 63 Suet. _Vesp._ 15. + + 64 Sen. _Ep._ 73, § 3. + +_ 65 Ib._ 103, § 4. + +_ 66 De Clem._ i. 19; Plin. _Paneg._ i. 72; D. Chrys. _Or._ ii. § 77; + iii. § 39; 70 sqq. + + 67 Suet. _Dom._ 23; _Nero_, 57; cf. Tac. _Hist._ i. 7, ipsa aetas + Galbae irrisui ac fastidio erat adsuetis juventae Neronis et + imperatores forma ac decore corporis ... comparantibus. + + 68 Suet. _Calig._ 50; cf. Sen. _Nec. Inj._ 18; _De Ira_, i. 20; ii. 33; + iii. 18; _De Ben._ ii. 12, 21. + + 69 Suet. _Calig._ 38. + + 70 Id. _Nero_, 6. + +_ 71 De Clem._ i. 1, § 2, electusque sum qui in terris deorum vice + fungerer. + +_ 72 Ib._ i. § 5. + +_ 73 Ib._ i. 4, 1, ille vinculum per quod respublica cohaeret, ille + spiritus vitalis. + +_ 74 Ib._ i. 17, 1. + +_ 75 Ib._ i. 7, 2. + +_ 76 De Clem._ i. 12. + +_ 77 Ib._ i. 13, 2, scelera enim sceleribus tuenda sunt. + + 78 Renan, _L'Antechr._ p. 125. + +_ 79 De Clem._ i. 1, § 2, egone ex omnibus mortalibus placui electusque + sum qui in terris deorum vice fungerer? + + 80 Suet. _Nero_, c. 4. + +_ 81 Ib._ c. 5. + + 82 Sen. _De Clem._ i. 1, § 5. + + 83 Suet. _Nero_, c. 15; cf. _Dom._ c. viii. + +_ 84 Nero_, c. 16. + +_ 85 Ib._ c. 12, instituit et quinquennale certamen primus omnium Romae + more Graeco triplex, etc. + +_ 86 Ib._ c. 20; 53; Renan, _L'Antechr._ p. 132. + + 87 Suet. _Nero_, c. 39. + +_ 88 Ib._ c. 50. + + 89 Renan, _L'Antechr._ p. 316. + + 90 Suet. _Nero_, c. 49; Renan, _L'Antechr._ 130. sqq. + + 91 Suet. _Nero_, c. 24, 49, 52, 55; Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 16; cf. Mace, + _Suetone_, p. 179; Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 265. + + 92 Suet. _Nero_, c. 53, c. 20, cf. c. 24. + + 93 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 36, 39; Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 15, 16; xv. + 67, odisse coepi postquam parricida matris et uxoris, auriga et + histrio et incendiarius extitisti; Suet. _Nero_, c. 21; D. Cass. 63. + 9, 10. + + 94 Suet. _Nero_, c. 23. + +_ 95 Ib._ c. 32. + + 96 Merivale, viii. p. 70 sq.; Schiller, _Gesch. der Roem. Kaiserzeit_, + i. p. 467. + + 97 Petron. _Sat._ 8, where the decay of artistic sense is traced to the + grossness of evil living; at nos vino scortisque demersi ne paratas + quidem artes audemus cognoscere. + + 98 Suet. _Nero_, c. 11, 12. + + 99 Tac. _Ann._ 15. 42. + +_ 100 Ib._ 16. 1; Suet. _Nero_, 31. + +_ 101 Ib._ 16, 31. + +_ 102 Ib._ c. 31; cf. _Otho_, 7. + + 103 Suet. _Nero_, c. 40. + +_ 104 Ib._ c. 29 _ad fin._ + +_ 105 Ib._ c. 32; D. Cass. 63. 17. + + 106 Suet. _Nero_, c. 56. + + 107 Suet. _Nero_, c. 32; D. Cass. 63. 11. + + 108 Tac. _Agric._ c. 3, sic ingenia studiaque oppresseris facilius quam + revocaveris. + + 109 Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. 53 sqq. + + 110 Seneca died in 65 A.D. The _Histories_ of Tacitus were published + _circ._ 106-107; cf. Plin. _Ep._ vii. 20; Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. + 42. + + 111 Tacitus was born about 55 A.D. (Peter, ii. 43; Mace, _Suetone_, p. + 35, 81; Momms. _Plin._ p. 51). He was, perhaps, fifteen years older + than Suetonius, and seven years older than Pliny. + + 112 Plin. _Ep._ i. 6, 20; iv. 13; vi. 9, 16, 20; vii. 20, 33; viii. 7; + ix. 10, 14. + +_ 113 Hist._ i. 1; _Ann._ xi. 11. This latter important passage fixes the + date of his praetorship, 88 A.D.; cf. Teuffel, ii. p. 165 n. 6; + Peter, ii. 43. + +_ 114 Agric._ c. 45. + +_ 115 Hist._ i. 1, sed incorruptam fidem professis, neque amore quisquam + et sine odio dicendus est; Nipperdey, _Einl._ xxvi. + + 116 Merivale, viii. 84, Schiller, _Gesch. der Roem. Kaiserzeit_, i. 140, + 586. According to Schiller, Tacitus has no research, no exactness of + military or geographical knowledge, no true conception of the time. + He is an embittered aristocrat and rhetorician. For a sounder + estimate _v._ Peter, ii. 43, 60, 63; Nipperdey, _Einl._ xxv. For the + influence on the work of Suetonius of the Senatorial tradition, _v._ + Mace, _Suetone_, p. 84; Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. 69. + + 117 Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. 66. + + 118 Merivale, viii. 95 sqq. + + 119 Peter, ii. 46 sqq. + +_ 120 Ib._ ii. 188, 200. + + 121 His father was probably a Roman Eques, procurator in Belgium; Plin. + _H. N._ vii. 16, 76. + + 122 Mace, _Suetone_, p. 83, Peter, ii. 69 sqq. + + 123 Tac. _Ann._ i. 7; xv. 71; _Agr._ 45; Peter, ii. 62. + +_ 124 Ann._ xiv. 12, 57; _Hist._ iv. 6; _Agr._ 42; Peter, ii. 47. + +_ 125 Agr._ 42. + +_ 126 Ann._ iii. 65, praecipuum munus annalium reor, ne virtutes + sileantur, utque pravis dictis factisque ex posteritate et infamia + metus sit; cf. Peter, ii. 46; Nipperdey, _Einl._ xxvi. + + 127 Tac. _Ann._ i. 39, 41. + +_ 128 Ib._ c. 61, 62. + +_ 129 Hist._ ii. 49. + +_ 130 Ann._ ii. 82. + +_ 131 Hist._ iii. 72. + +_ 132 Ib._ iii. 83. + +_ 133 Agr._ 32. + +_ 134 Germ._ 17, 19, 20, 23, 25. + +_ 135 Germ._ 33, _ad fin._ + +_ 136 Hist._ i. 3; ii. 38; iii. 72; Peter, ii. 62. Yet this should be + qualified by such passages as _Ann._ iii. 55; _Agr._ i.; cf. + Nipperdey, _Einl._ xxvii. + +_ 137 Ann._ iii. 65. + +_ 138 Ib._ iii. 26. + + 139 M. Aurel. ix. 29, 34; x. 19. + + 140 Tac. _Ann._ iii. 55; M. Aurel. vii. 1; ix. 4; x. 23; ix. 28. + +_ 141 Agr._ 3. + + 142 Plin. _Paneg._ 35, 53, 54, 66; cf. Tac. _Hist._ i. 1. + +_ 143 Hist._ i. 1, omnem potentiam ad unum conferri pacis interfuit; cf. + _Hist._ i. 16; ii. 38. + +_ 144 Ann._ xiv. 47; _Hist._ iv. 8, bonos imperatores voto expetere, + qualescumque tolerare. + +_ 145 Ann._ xv. 46; vi. 42; iv. 33; iii. 27; _Hist._ ii. 38. + + 146 Peter, ii. 53; _Ann._ vi. 42. + +_ 147 Hist._ i. 16; Peter, ii. 61. + + 148 Tac. _Agr._ i. + + 149 Peter, ii. 48. + + 150 Tac. _Ann._ i. 76; quanquam _vili_ sanguine nimis gaudens. Cf. + _Dial. de Or._ 29; Plin. _Ep._ vi. 34, 1. + +_ 151 Ann._ xiv. 43; _Germ._ 20. + +_ 152 Germ._ 33. Cf. his contempt for the Christians and devotees of + Eastern cults, _Ann._ ii. 85; xv. 44. + +_ 153 Ann._ i. 53; iv. 3; iii. 39: vi. 29; xii. 12; iii. 24; xvi. 16. Cf. + Peter, ii. 51. + +_ 154 Ann._ xiv. 14. + +_ 155 Ann._ ii. 21; vi. 27; iv. 3. + +_ 156 De Or._ 29. + +_ 157 Agr._ 4. + +_ 158 Germ._ 19, saepta pudicitia agunt, nullis spectaculorum inlecebris + ... corruptae; _De Or._ 29. + +_ 159 Hist._ iii. 37; _Ann._ i. 7; xv. 57, 71. + +_ 160 Agr._ 22. + +_ 161 Ib._ 40. + +_ 162 Ann._ xv. 60. + +_ 163 Ib._ xv. 57. + +_ 164 Ib._ xiv. 60. + +_ 165 Ann._ xv. 71. + +_ 166 Hist._ i. 2. + +_ 167 Agr._ 4, memoria teneo solitum ipsum narrare se studium + philosophiae acrius, ultra quam concessum Romano ac Senatori, + exhausisse. Cf. Fabian, _Quid Tac. de num. Div. judicaverit_, p. 1. + +_ 168 Hist._ v. 5; Nipperdey, _Einl._ xiv. + +_ 169 Hist._ i. 22; ii. 78; i. 86. But cf. _Ann._ xii. 43, 64; xiv. 32; + xv. 8; _Hist._ i. 3; ii. 50; and Fabian, pp. 17, 19. + +_ 170 Ann._ iv. 20; cf. vi. 22. + +_ 171 Hist._ ii. 38. + +_ 172 Ann._ xiv. 12; Fabian, p. 23. + +_ 173 Ann._ xvi. 33, aequitate deum erga bona malaque documenta. + +_ 174 Ann._ iii. 55; cf. xvi. 5. + + 175 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. pp. 80, 81. + + 176 Plin. _Paneg._ 45; Claudian, _In Cons. Hon._ 299, componitur orbis + Regis ad exemplum. + + 177 Suet. _De Clar. Rhet._ c. 1. + + 178 Id. _Nero_, 21; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 39. + + 179 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 54. + + 180 Suet. _Calig._ 37; Sen. _Ad Helv._ x. + + 181 Suet. _Calig._ 37. + + 182 Suet. _Nero_, c. 30. + +_ 183 Ib._ c. 27. + +_ 184 Ib._ c. 30. + +_ 185 Ib._ c. 31; Tac. _Ann._ xv. 42. + + 186 Suet. _Otho_, 5, nihilque referre, ab hoste in acie, an in foro sub + creditoribus caderet. + + 187 Id. _Vitell._ c. 13. + + 188 Id. _Vesp._ 16; D. Cass. 66. 2, 8, 10. + + 189 D. Cass. 67. 5; Suet. _Dom._ 12. + + 190 D. Cass. 68. 2, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + + 191 Capitol. _M. Aurel._ c. 17, in foro divi Trajani auctionem + ornamentorum imperialium fecit vendiditque aurea pocula et + cristallina, etc. + + 192 Suet. _Dom._ iii. + + 193 Suet. _Otho_, iii.; _Vitell._ v.; _Dom._ viii.; Boissier, _L'Opp._ + p. 170. + + 194 Tac. _Ann._ i. 72; ii. 50; xiv. 48. For a clear account of this _v._ + Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 165. + + 195 Suet. _Dom._ x.; cf. xii. satis erat obici qualecunque factum + dictumve adversus majestatem principis. + +_ 196 Ib._ xii. + + 197 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 27; xiii. 6, in urbe sermonum avida; _Hist._ ii. 91; + Mart. v. 20; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. p. 280. + + 198 D. Cass. 52. 37. + + 199 Mart x. 48, 21; cf. Friedl. _Chronologie der Epigr. Mart._ p. 62; + Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. p. 285; Epict. _Diss._ iv. 13, 21, 5; + Aristid. _Or._ ix. 62. + + 200 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 69. + + 201 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ vii. 24. + + 202 Tac. _Ann._ i. 72, 74, Crispinus formam vitae iniit quam postea + celebrem miseriae temporum et audaciae hominum fecerunt, etc.; cf. + iii. 25; Sen. _De Ben._ iii. 26; Suet. _Tib._ lxi. + + 203 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 20. + + 204 Suet. _Dom._ xx. praeter commentarios et acta Tiberii nihil + lectitabat; Plin. _Paneg._ 42, 48. + + 205 Suet. _Dom._ xv. + + 206 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 10; Plin. _Paneg._ 35; D. Cass. 68. 1; Jul. + Capitol. _Ant. P._ c. 7; id. _M. Aurel._ c. 11; Meriv. vii. 370. + + 207 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 34; iii. 66; _Hist._ iv. 42. + + 208 Schol. ad Juv. iv. 53; Duruy, iv. 660. + + 209 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 20. + +_ 210 Ib._ xvi. 33; Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 186. + + 211 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 20, 13; iv. 2; cf. Tac. _Hist._ iv. 42; Mart. vii. + 31. + + 212 Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 193. + + 213 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 11, 22. + +_ 214 Ib._ iv. 7; i. 20, 15. + +_ 215 Ib._ ii. 11, 22; ii. 20. + + 216 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 20, 2. + +_ 217 Ib._ iv. 7. + +_ 218 E.g._ Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 296; Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. p. 65: + Teuffel, § 328, 15; Mackail, _Lat. Lit._ p. 215. + + 219 Schiller, i. pp. 140, 586; Meriv. viii. 89 sqq. + + 220 Suet. _Claud._ x.; _Calig._ lx.; D. Cass. 60. 1. On the + assassination of Caligula, the Senate debated the question of + abolishing the memory of the Caesars, and restoring the Republic; + but the mob outside the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter demanded + "one ruler" of the world. + + 221 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 25; xiii. 27. + + 222 Suet. _Calig._ xxx.; xxvi.; _Nero_, xxxvii. eumque ordinem + sublaturum quandoque e republica...; cf. xliii. creditur destinasse + senatum universum veneno per convivia necare.... D. Cass. 63. 15, + 17. + + 223 Plin. _Paneg._ 54, 62, 64; Spart. _Hadrian_, 6, 7, § 4; 8, § 6. + + 224 Suet. _Claud._ x. + + 225 D. Cass. 66. 16; Suet. _Vesp._ xxv. + + 226 See the speech of the dying Hadrian to the Senators, D. Cass. 69. + 20. + + 227 Boissier, _L'Opp._ 102. + + 228 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 21; xv. 23; xiv. 48, id _egregio_ sub principe ... + senatui statuendum disseruit. + + 229 Suet. _Vesp._ xv.; cf. xiii., where Demetrius is guilty of similar + rudeness; D. Cass. 66. 12. + + 230 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ v. 35. + +_ 231 Ib._ vii. 3, 4. + +_ 232 Ib._ vii. 8, 33; cf. D. Cass. 67. 18. + + 233 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ vii. 9. + + 234 D. Cass. 66. 12, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 235 Suet. _Dom._ xxi. + + 236 D. Cass. 66. 16. + + 237 D. Cass. 68. 3. + + 238 Spart. _Hadr._ 7, § 15. + + 239 Jul. Capitol. _M. Ant._ 24, 25. + + 240 Momms. _Staatsr._ ii. 787-821; Professor Pelham has given a luminous + account of the Principate in _Encycl. Brit._ vol. xx. p. 769. + + 241 Suet. _Octav._ xxviii. + + 242 Tac. _Ann._ i. 15. + + 243 Suet. _Claud._ x.; D. Cass. 60. 1; where the soldiers plainly close + the impotent debates in the Senate, and by hailing Claudius as + emperor. + + 244 Momms. _Roem. Staatsr._ ii. 839. + +_ 245 v._ Pelham, _Encycl. Brit._ xx. p. 779. + + 246 Suet. _Calig._ xxix. + + 247 D. Cass. 59. 24. + +_ 248 Ib._ 56. 1; Tac. _Ann._ vi. 13; Suet. _Dom._ xiii.; Plut. _Galba_, + 17. + + 249 Plin. _Paneg._ 43, 44, 35. + +_ 250 Ib._ 24, 62, 63, 66. + +_ 251 Ib._ 80. + +_ 252 Ib._ 62, 63, 64. + +_ 253 Ib._ 66. + +_ 254 Ib._ 72. + +_ 255 Ib._ 64. + + 256 Plin. _Paneg._ 69. + + 257 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 1; xiv. 52; xv. 48. + + 258 D. Cass. 63.17, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: Tac. _Hist._ ii. 76. + + 259 Tac. _Ann._ ii. 32; xii. 52; D. Cass. 49. 43; D. Cass. 66. 10, 9; + Suet _Tib._ lxiii. + + 260 Suet. _Tib._ xiv. lxix. + + 261 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 52. + + 262 Suet. _Nero_, xxxvi. + + 263 Id. _Otho_, iv. + + 264 Id. _Vitell._ xiv. + +_ 265 Ib._ ne Vitellius Germanicus intra eundem kalendarum diem usquam + esset. + + 266 D. Cass. 66. 10, 9. + + 267 Suet. _Dom._ xv. + + 268 Tac. _Hist._ i. 2. + + 269 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 64. + +_ 270 Ib._ xiv. 10, 12. + +_ 271 Ib._ xiv. 10; Suet. _Nero_, xxxiv. + + 272 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 48. + +_ 273 Ib._ xv. 57. + +_ 274 Ib._ xv. 54. + +_ 275 Ib._ xv. 70; probably Lucan, _Phars._ iii. 638. + + 276 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 71. + +_ 277 Ib._ xv. 73. + +_ 278 Ib._ xv. 68, 69. + + 279 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 16; Tac. _Ann._ xv. 63. + + 280 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 60. + + 281 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 22, 57. + +_ 282 Ib._ xvi. 10. + +_ 283 Ib._ xvi. 11. + +_ 284 Ib._ xv. 60. + +_ 285 Ib._ xiv. 61. + +_ 286 Ib._ xiv. 42, senatusque obsessus in quo ipso erant studia nimiam + severitatem aspernantium. + +_ 287 Ib._ xv. 67. + + 288 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 49. + +_ 289 Ib._ iii. 84. + +_ 290 Ib._ i. 88, segnis et oblita bellorum nobilitas, etc. + +_ 291 Ib._ i. 88. + +_ 292 Ib._ iii. 37, nulla in oratione cujusquam erga Flavianos duces + obtrectatio; cf. i. 90; of the Acta of the Arval College, _C.I.L._ + vi. 2051 sq. + +_ 293 Ib._ iv. 3. + + 294 Suet. _Nero_, x.; _Vesp._ xvii.; Spart. _Hadr._ 7, § 9. + + 295 Juv. i. 100. + + 296 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 34. + +_ 297 Ib._ ii. 37, 38. + + 298 Tac. _Hist._ i. 35. + + 299 Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 33; cf. iii. 19. + + 300 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 58. + + 301 Suet. _Nero_, xxxvii. + + 302 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 14; Juv. viii. 193; Suet. _Calig._ xviii. xxx.; D. + Cass. lix. 10. + + 303 Suet. _Calig._ xxvii. + + 304 Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 33. + + 305 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 12; xvi. 18; Suet. _Vitell._ iv. + + 306 Renan, _Les Ev._ p. 140. Some of their anonymous sneers may be + traced in Suet. _Vesp._ xvi. xxiii. xiv.; cf. Duruy, iv. 653. + + 307 D. Cass. 66. 16, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}_. Cf. Suet. _Vesp._ xiv.; Mace, _Suetone_, p. 86. + + 308 Cf. Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 169 sqq.; Bury, _Rom. Emp._ p. 395. + + 309 On the sources of the history of the Flavians, _v._ Krause, _De C. + Sueton. Tranq. Fontibus_; Mace, _Suetone_, p. 364, 376; Peter, + _Gesch. Litt. d. Kaiserzeit_, ii. 69, 70. For the senatorial + attitude to Domitian, _v._ Plin. _Paneg._ 48; Tac. _Agr._ 3, 41, 42, + 45; _Hist._ iv. 51; iv. 2; Suet. _Dom._ xxiii. + + 310 Nagel, _Imp. T. Flav. Domitianus iniquius dijudicatus_. + + 311 Meriv. vii. 356. + + 312 Suet. _Dom._ viii. + + 313 Tac. _Agr._ 39; cf. 41, tot exercitus in Moesia ... amissi. D. Cass. + 67. 4, 7; cf. Stat. _Silv._ iv. 3, 153; Mart. ix. 102; vii. 80, 91, + 95; Meriv. vii. 347. + + 314 Tac. _Agr._ 39. + + 315 Quintil. iv., prooem. 2; Statius, _Silvae_, iv. 2, 13; iii. 1, 1; + Mart. ii. 91; iv. 27, iii. 95. For the flattery of Martial, _v._ + esp. v. 19, 6; ix. 4; _Spectac._ 33. + + 316 Suet. _Dom._ iv. + +_ 317 Ib._ xx. + +_ 318 Ib._ vii.; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ vi. 42; _Vit. Soph._ i. 12. + + 319 Pliny was probably Quaestor in 90 A.D.; Trib. Pleb. 92; Praetor 93. + Cf. Momms. (Morel) p. 61. Tacitus says, _Hist._ i. 1, dignitatem a + Domitiano (81-96) longius provectam non abnuerim. From _Ann._ xi. 11 + it appears that he was Praetor in 88. Cf. Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. + 43. + + 320 Duruy, iv. 697 n. + +_ 321 Silv._ iii. 4, 37. + + 322 Meriv. vii. 354. + + 323 D. Cass. 67. 14; Suet. _Dom._ xiv. + + 324 Mart. iv. 63; vi. 21, crudelis nullaque invisior umbra. + + 325 Suet. _Dom._ xxiii. + + 326 Suet. _Dom._ x. + + 327 Renan, _Les Evang._ p. 291, Domitien, comme tous les souverains + hypocrites, se montraite severe conservateur. + + 328 Suet. _Dom._ xiii. + + 329 Mart. viii. 65. + + 330 Suet. _Dom._ xiii.; Mart. v. 8, 1 (_v._ Friedlaender's note), vii. 2 + and 34; viii. 2, 6; Stat. _Silv._ v. 1, 37; Meriv. vii. 375. + + 331 Suet. _Dom._ v.; Gregorov. _Gesch. St. Rom._ i. 41. + + 332 Rutil. Namat. i. 93. + + 333 Suet. _Dom._ v. _ad fin._; iv. + + 334 D. Cass. 67. 8. + + 335 Suet. _Dom._ xii. + + 336 Pliny, _Paneg._ 50. + + 337 Dion Cass. 67. 4, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}_: Momms. _Roem. St._ ii. 1012. + + 338 D. Cass. 67. 11. + +_ 339 Agr._ 45. + + 340 Suet. _Dom._ xiv. parietes phengite lapide distinxit. + +_ 341 Ib._ xvi. + + 342 D. Cass. 67. 9. + +_ 343 Ib._ 67. 4. + + 344 Tacitus b. probably 55 A.D. _Dial. de Or._ 1, juvenis admodum in 75 + or 76; cf. _Agr._ 9. He was betrothed in 77 A.D.; cf. Meriv. viii. + 92; Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. 43; Nipperdey, _Einl._ iv. Juvenal b. + _circ._ 55 A.D. (Peter, ii. 77); decessit longo senio confectus exul + Ant. Pio imp. Vit. iv.; Teuffel, § 326, 1. + + 345 Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_, pp. 118 sqq. + +_ 346 Or. Henz._ 5599, IIVir. Quinq. Flamen Divi Vespasiani. + + 347 Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 316. + + 348 Juv. xi. 74, 150; cf. xiv. 322. + + 349 Mart. xii. 18. + + 350 Juv. v. 30 sqq.; cf. Mart. iii. 49; iii. 60. + + 351 Juv. i. 52; Mart. x. 4; iv. 49. + + 352 Juv. vi. 43: v. 30 sqq.; ix. 10 sqq.; xi. 186. + + 353 It has been remarked that Martial's Epigrams on Juvenal all contain + some obscenity, vii. 24; vii. 91, xii. 18. + + 354 Teuffel, § 326, 4; Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. 77; Nettleship, + _Lectures and Essays_, p. 122, brings together the indications of + date from 96-127 A.D. He thinks that perhaps some of the earlier + _Satires_ belong to the last years of Domitian, and that the words, + spes et ratio studiorum in Caesare tantum, in _Sat._ vii., may refer + to that Emperor (p. 132). + + 355 Juv. i. 170. + + 356 Marius Priscus, Isaeus, Archigenes. + + 357 See a comparison of passages in Nettleship, pp. 125 sqq. + + 358 He says of himself, i. 5, 8, lasciva est nobis pagina, vita proba + est; cf. iii. 68; v. 2; Ausonius urges the same plea, cf. _Idyll._ + xiii. Pliny finds a long series of examples to warrant his + indulgence in loose verses, _Ep._ iv. 14; cf. v. 3. It was a bad + tradition of literature; cf. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_, p. + 39. + + 359 i. 14; iv. 13, 75. + + 360 v. 34, 37; x. 61. + + 361 i. 79; vii. 52. + + 362 iii. 58; i. 56; ii. 38; cf. iii. 38. + + 363 iii. 58. + + 364 i. 50; iv. 55; xii. 18. + + 365 Especially _Sat._ xi. xiii. xiv. xv.; cf. Munding, _Ueber die Sat. + Juv._ p. 12. + +_ 366 v._ Bk. ii. c. 3 of this work. M. Boissier has thrown a vivid light + on this class in his _Rel. Rom._ iii. 3. + + 367 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 198; Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_ p. + 136. + + 368 xiii. 120; ii. 1 sqq.; cf. Mart. ix. 48. + + 369 He refers, however, with respect to Seneca, viii. 212. + + 370 viii. 90 sqq.; cf. Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 332. + + 371 Juv. xv. 131; cf. Sen. _De Ira_, i. 5; ii. 10, 25; iii. 24. + + 372 Juv. xiii. 190. + + 373 xiii. 208, nam scelus intra se tacitum qui cogitat ullum Facti + crimen habet. + + 374 xiv. 30; Tac. _De Or._ 28, 29. + + 375 xi. 153. + + 376 vi. 510. + + 377 xiii. 39. + + 378 xiii. 208. + + 379 Juv. i. 87, 147; x. 172 cf. Sen. _Nat. Q._ vii. 31; _De Ira_, ii. 8 + sq. + +_ 380 e.g._ the picture of Otho, ii. 99; of Messalina, vi. 114; + Lateranus, viii. 146; Sejanus, x. 56; Cicero, etc., viii. 231. + + 381 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 64; cf. Plin. _Ep._ iv. 19; iii. 16; D. Cass. 68. + 5; Sen. _ad Helv._ xiv. + + 382 Juv. xi. 109; iii. 152, 183. + + 383 xi. 78. + + 384 Tac. _Ann._ iii. 55; Sen. _Ad Helv._ x. 3; _Ep._ 89, § 22. + + 385 Statius, _Silv._ v. 36; ii. 85. + + 386 Petron. c. 60; Sen. _Ep._ 95, § 9; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. p. + 67. + + 387 Plin. _H. N._ vi. 26; ix. 58; xii. 41. Cf. Friedl. iii. p. 80; Marq. + _Roem. St._ ii. 53. + + 388 Suet. _Nero_, xxx. putabat sordidos ac parcos esse quibus ratio + impensarum constaret, etc. + + 389 Sen. _Ep._ 87, § 4; Suet. _Tib._ xxxv.; Friedl. i. 196. + + 390 Liv. xxxiv. 1; Tac. _Ann._ iii. 53, 54. + + 391 Liv. xxxiv. 6, 7; Marq. _Priv._ i. 62, 162; Momms. _R. Hist._ ii. + 409. + + 392 Momms. _R. Hist._ iii. 417. + +_ 393 Ib._ 418; cf. Plin. _H. N._ ix. 80, 81; x. 23; Plut. _Lucull._ c. + 40; Macrob. _Sat._ iii. 13, § 1. + + 394 Macrob. _Sat._ iii. 13, § 11. + + 395 Hieron. _Ep._ 117, § 8; Amm. Marc. xiv. 6, 7; xxviii. 4. + + 396 Juv. xi. 69. + + 397 Thucyd. i. 95. + + 398 Prescott, _Conquest of Peru_, i. 304. + + 399 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 53 (Pallas); D. Cass. 60. 34 (Narcissus); Tac. + _Ann._ xiii. 42; D. Cass. 61. 10; cf. Duruy, v. p. 598. + + 400 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 42. + + 401 Juv. viii. 10. + + 402 Plin. _Paneg._ 69. + + 403 Suet. _Tib._ i. Cf. the funeral oration of Julius Caesar over his + aunt, quoted by Suet. _Jul. Caes._ 6. + + 404 Id. _Nero_, i. + + 405 Tac. _Ann._ vi. 33. + +_ 406 Ib._ xv. 48. + + 407 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 12. + + 408 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1. + + 409 Hieron. _Ep._ 108, § 4. + + 410 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 21, Curtius Rufus videtur mihi ex se natus. + + 411 Juv. viii. 285 sqq. + + 412 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 25. + + 413 Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 33, § 2; Juv. iv. 96. + + 414 Appian, _B. C._ iv. 5. + + 415 Suet. _Tib._ 61, nullus a poena hominum cessavit dies. + + 416 Id. _Claud._ xxix. + + 417 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 25. + + 418 Suet. _Vesp._ ix.; cf. Tac. _Ann._ iii. 55. + + 419 Sym. _Ep._ ii. 78; Seeck, _Prol._ xlvi. + + 420 Suet. _Octav._ xli. + + 421 Id. _Nero_, x.; _Vesp._ xvii. + + 422 Tac. _Ann._ ii. 37, 38. + + 423 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 25; D. Cass. lx. 29. The last revision of the Senate + was in the reign of Augustus; D. Cass. lv. 13. + + 424 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 34; Juv. i. 107. + + 425 Juv. i. 103. + + 426 Petron. _Sat._ c. 116, 124; Plin. _Ep._ ii. 20; Juv. i. 37; iii. 31. + + 427 Juv. iv.; i. 27. + + 428 D. Cass. lix. 26. + + 429 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 12. + + 430 Suet. _Tib._ lxvii. + +_ 431 Calig._ xxiii. xxiv.; cf. L. comitiali morbo vexatus, which + explains much to a medical man. + +_ 432 Ib._ xxiii. + +_ 433 Ib._ xxii.; cf. Sen. _De Ira_, i. 20. + + 434 Suet. _Calig._ xxxiv. xxxv. vetera familiarum insignia nobilissimo + cuique ademit; xxii. + +_ 435 Ib._ liv. lv. quorum vero studio teneretur, omnibus ad insaniam + favit. + + 436 Suet. _Jul. Caes._ xxxix. + + 437 D. Cass. xlviii. 43. + + 438 Suet. _Tiberius_, xxxv. + + 439 Id. _Calig._ xviii. nec ullis nisi ex senatorio ordine aurigantibus; + D. Cass. 59. 10, 13, Suet. _Nero_, xii. + + 440 Id. _Dom._ viii. vii. + + 441 Id. _Nero_, xx. xxi. + + 442 Juv. viii. 89, 147. + + 443 Suet. _Nero_, xl.; _v._ Krause, _De Sueton. Fontibus_, pp. 57, 80; + Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. 69. + + 444 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 67. + +_ 445 Ib._ xiv. 16; cf. Suet. _Nero_, lii., where Suetonius distinctly + says that some of Nero's verses, which he had seen, bore all the + marks of originality. Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 39; Mace, + _Suetone_, p. 127; Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 248. + + 446 Suet. _Nero_, xxvii. + +_ 447 Ib._ xxvi.; cf. Juv. vi. 115. + + 448 Juv. viii. 172. + + 449 Suet. _Nero_, xxvi. + + 450 Tac. _Hist._ i. 88. + + 451 See some admirable criticism in Nettleship's _Lectures and Essays_, + 2nd series, p. 141; cf. Munding, _Ueber die Sat. des Juv._ p. 7. + + 452 Duruy, v. 673; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 233 sqq. + + 453 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 19; iii. 16; iii. 3; Sen. _Ad Helv._ xiv. xix.; D. + Cass. lxviii. 5 _ad fin._ + + 454 Ov. _Trist._ iii. 3, 15-- + + Omnia cum subeant, vincis tamen omnia, conjux; + Et plus in nostro pectore parte tenes. + Te loquor absentem, te vox mea nominat unam: + Nulla venit sine te nox mihi, nulla dies. + + 455 Id. _Amor._ iii. 4, 3; cf. _Ars Am._ ii. 599, iii. 440, 613, Denis, + _Idees Morales_, ii. 124. + + 456 Plut. _Consol. ad Uxor._ x.; _Conj. Praec._ iv. xliv. xlvii. + + 457 A. Gell. xii. 1. + + 458 Denis, ii. 134; Zeller, _Die Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 660. + + 459 D. Chrys. _Or._ vii. 133. + + 460 Juv. vi. 436-- + + Committit vates et comparat; inde Maronem, + Atque alia parte in trutina suspendit Homerum. + Cedunt grammatici, vincuntur rhetores-- + + 461 Juv. vi. 400 sqq. + +_ 462 Ib._ 268. + +_ 463 Ib._ 108, 60. + +_ 464 Ib._ 427. + +_ 465 Ib._ 252. + +_ 466 Ib._ 493. + +_ 467 Ib._ 528. + + 468 Momms. _R. Hist._ ii. 408 (Tr.). + + 469 Liv. vi. 34. + + 470 Plut. _Cato Maj._ c. xx.; Juv. vi. 165, 460. + + 471 Val. Max. ii. 1, 5; Liv. xxxiv. 1, 3; Marq. i. p. 62. + + 472 Momms. _R. Hist._ ii. 408. + + 473 Cic. _in Verr._ i. 42, 107. + + 474 Sym. _Ep._ vi. 67; cf. Suet. _Octav._ lxiv.; _Or. Henz._ 2677, 4629, + 4629, lanifica, pia, pudica, casta, domiseda. + + 475 Macrob. _Sat._ iii. 14, 11. + + 476 Friedl. i. 312; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 240. + + 477 Lucr. iv. 1160; Juv. vi. 192. + + 478 Plut. _Pomp._ lv. + + 479 Suet. _Gram. Ill._ 16. + + 480 Ov. _Ars Am._ ii. 282. + + 481 Mart. xii. 98, 3; cf. Sen. _Ad Helv._ xvii.; _Ad Marc._ xvi. + + 482 Claud. _Laus Serenae_, 146. + + 483 Sen. _Ad Marc._ 4. + + 484 Epict. _Fr._ liii. + + 485 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 53; cf. Plin. _H. N._ vii. 8, 46. + + 486 Mart. x. 35; vii. 69. + + 487 Sid. Apoll. _Carm._ ix. 261. + +_ 488 C.I.G._ 4725-31. + + 489 Juv. vi. 403; cf. 434. + + 490 Suet. _Octav._ lxxxiv. + + 491 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 37, novum sane et moribus veterum insolitum, + feminam signis Romanis praesidere. + + 492 D. Cass. lxvi. 14; cf. Suet. _Vesp._ xvi.; Krause, _De Suet. + Fontibus_, p. 75. + + 493 Tac. _Ann._ iii. 33; cf. i. 64; i. 69, sed femina [_i.e._ Agrippina] + ingens animi munia ducis per eos dies induit, etc. + +_ 494 Or. Henz._ 6000, 4036, 5158, 4643, 5134, 3774, 2417, 4055, 4056, + 7207, 3815. + +_ 495 Ib._ 3738, 3773, 6992. + +_ 496 Ib._ 3740. + + 497 Suet. _Galba_, v. + + 498 Lamprid. _Heliogab._ iv.; cf. Lamprid. _Aurelian._ xlix. + + 499 Mau, _Pompeii_ (Kelsey Tr.), p. 479. + + 500 Juv. ii. 31; iv. 34; xiii. 38; vi. 394; vii. 194. + + 501 Liv. xxix. 14. + +_ 502 Ib._ xxxix. 8; cf. Lafaye, _Culte des Div. d'Alexandrie_, c. iii. + + 503 Apul. _Met._ xi. 817; Suet. _Octav._ xciii.; D. Cass. liii. 2. + + 504 Catull. x. 26; Tibull. i. 3, 23; cf. Juv. xiii. 93. + + 505 Ov. _Ars Am._ i. 77. + + 506 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 347. + + 507 Juv. vi. 547. + + 508 Tac. _Hist._ v. 2, 4; Juv. xiv. 97. + + 509 Sen. _Fr._ 42 (in Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, vi. 11), victi victoribus + leges dederunt. + + 510 Cf. Meriv. vi. 6. + + 511 Suet. _Claud._ xxv. + + 512 Tac. _Hist._ i. 22; Duruy, iv. 505. + + 513 Suet. _Dom._ xv.; D. Cass. lxvii. 14; Ren. _Les Ev._ p. 228. + + 514 Juv. xiv. 96; vi. 544; iii. 15; Ren. _Les Ev._ p. 234. + + 515 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 32. + + 516 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. p. 332; cf. Plin. _Ep._ vii. 24. + + 517 Suet. _Ill. Gram._ xvi. + + 518 Friedl. i. 314; _Inscr. Or._ 2656, 2668, 4803. + + 519 Mart. iv. 13-- + + Diligat illa senem quondam: sed et ipsa marito, + Tunc quoque cum fuerit, non videatur anus. + + Plut. _Conj. Praec._ xliv. xxxiv.; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 19; vi. 4; vii. + 5. + + 520 Sen. _Fr._ xiii. de Matrimonio, formosus assecla et procurator + calamistratus, etc., sub quibus nominibus adulteri delitescunt; cf. + S. Hieron. _Ep._ 54, § 13. S. Jerome is evidently imitating Seneca; + cf. _Or._ 639, Mart. v. 61. + + 521 Juv. vi. 460; Sen. _Fr._ 51. + + 522 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iii. 35, Luc. _Alex._ 44. + + 523 Tac. _Hist._ i. 81, erat Othoni celebre convivium primoribus feminis + virisque. D. Cass. lx. 7. + + 524 Suet. _Calig._ xxxvi. + + 525 Ov. _Ars Am._ i. 67, Friedl. i. 281. + + 526 Tac. _Germ._ 19, nec corrumpere et corrumpi saeculum vocatur. + + 527 Suet. _Octav._ xliv. + + 528 Ov. _Ars Am._ i. 139-- + + Proximus a domina, nullo prohibente, sedeto. + +_ 529 Trist._ ii. 503-- + + Nec satis incestis temerari vocibus aures: + Adsuescunt oculi multa pudenda pati. + + Cf. 515. + + 530 Mart. iii. 86 says of his poems-- + + Non sunt haec mimis improbiora: lege. + + 531 Suet. _Octav._ xliv. + + 532 Juv. vi. 62. + + 533 Suet. _Dom._ vii.; _Tib._ xxxiv. + + 534 D. Cass. lx. 22, 28. + + 535 Suet. _Dom._ iii.; D. Cass. lxvii. 3. + + 536 Capitol. _M. Anton._ xix. + +_ 537 Ib._ xxiii. mores matronarum conposuit diffluentes, etc. + + 538 Juv. vi. 281. + + 539 Suet. _Vesp._ xi. auctor senatui fuit decernendi ut quae se alieno + servo junxisset ancilla haberetur; cf. Mart. vi. 39; _C. Th._ iv. 9, + 1. + +_ 540 Or. Henz._ 2669, 4653, 7383. + + 541 Momms. _R. H._ ii. 414 sqq. + +_ 542 Ib._ 469; cf. Plut. _Cato_, xxiii. + + 543 Mahaffy, _Greek World under Roman Sway_, p. 127. + + 544 Suet. _Octav._ 89; _Tib._ 21. + + 545 Id. _Tib._ 71, sermone Graeco, quanquam alioquin promptus et + facilis, non tamen usquequaque usus est. + + 546 Suet. _Calig._ xxi. xxxiv. + + 547 Mahaffy, _The Greek World_, p. 255. + + 548 Suet. _Claud._ xlii. + +_ 549 Ib._ xxv. + +_ 550 Ib._ xlii. + + 551 Id. _Nero_, lv. erat illi aeternitatis perpetuaeque famae cupido. + Cf. xxiv. + + 552 Id. _Vesp._ xviii. + + 553 Id. _Dom._ xx. + + 554 And many in the first century, Plin. _Ep._ iv. 3; viii. 4, 1; + Friedl. iii. 360; Martha, _Les Moralistes sous l'Empire Rom._ p. + 267; Teuffel, _R. Lit._ § 342; Mackail, _R. Lit._ 232. + + 555 Plut. _Cato_, c. xxii.; Claud. _In Eutrop._ ii. 137, 339. + + 556 Juv. iii. 85. + + 557 Juv. iii. 62 sqq. + +_ 558 Ib._ iii. 69-77. + +_ 559 Ib._ i. 104. + +_ 560 Ib._ iii. 72, viscera magnarum domuum dominique futuri. + +_ 561 Ib._ iii. 60. + + 562 Suet. _Ill. Gram._ i. ii. antiquissimi doctorum qui iidem et poetae + et semigraeci erant (Livium et Ennium dico), etc.; Strab. vi. 3, 5; + A. Gell. xvii. 17, i. + + 563 Suet. _Ill. Gram._ iv. + +_ 564 Ib._ xx. xix. xvi. xv. + + 565 Suet. _Ill. Gram._ xiii. Staberius ... emptus de catasta. + +_ 566 Ib._ xiii. + +_ 567 Ib._ xviii. xxiii. + +_ 568 Ib._ xxiii. + +_ 569 Ib._ xvii.; cf. Quintilian, iv. Prooem. 2; cf. Juv. viii. 186-97. + + 570 Plin. _H. N._ xxix. 17. + + 571 Suet. _Jul. Caes._ xlii. + + 572 D. Cass. liii. 30; Plin. _H. N._ xxix. 4; _Or. Henz._ 2983. + + 573 Juv. x. 221; Petron. 42; D. Cass. lxxi. 33; lxix. 22; Mart. ii. 16; + v. 9; vi. 31; vi. 53; Tac. _Ann._ xi. 31, 35. + + 574 Mart. i. 31; i. 48; viii. 74. + + 575 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 231. + + 576 Epict. ii. 23, 30, 27. + + 577 Suet. _Otho_, iv. vi. + + 578 Id. _Dom._ xiv. xv.; cf. _Tib._ xiv.; _Nero_, xxxvi. + + 579 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 14. + + 580 Juv. iii. 100. + + 581 Luc. _De Merc. Cond._ c. 16, 19. + + 582 Mart. i. 104, ii. 68. + + 583 Juv. i. 100; v. 17; Mart. xii. 18-- + + Dum per limina te potentiorum + Sudatrix toga ventilat, etc.; + + iii. 7, 36; Suet. _Nero_, xvi; _Dom._ vii. + + 584 Mart. ii. 79; Juv. v. 17. + + 585 Juv. i. 100-- + + Jubet a praecone vocari + Ipsos Trojugenas. + + 586 Mart. ii. 43; iii. 38, 12, pallet cetera turba fame; Juv. iii. 153, + 161; xi. 40. + + 587 Momms. _R. H._ ii. 374 (Tr.). + + 588 Mart. iv. 5; v. 56-- + + Artes discere vult pecuniosas? + Fac discat citharoedus aut choraules. + Si duri puer ingeni videtur, + Praeconem facias, vel architectum; + + Juv. vii. 104; x. 226; Petron. 46, destinavi illum artificii docere, + aut tonstreinum aut praeconem etc. + + 589 Juv. vii. 38 sqq. + + 590 Mart. ii. 43; iv. 40; v. 42, quas dederis, solas semper habebis + opes. + + 591 Juv. vii. 104. + +_ 592 Ib._ vii. 180. + +_ 593 Ib._ vii. ad fin. + +_ 594 Ib._ vii. 121 sqq. + + 595 Juv. iii. 182; Martha, _Moralistes sous l'Emp._ p. 400. + + 596 Mart. ii. 57. + + 597 Juv. vi. 353. + + 598 Petron. 116, in hac urbe nemo liberos tollit ... aut captantur aut + captant. + +_ 599 e.g._ Regulus, Plin. _Ep._ ii. 20. + + 600 Juv. xii. 100; i. 36; Mart. v. 39; Plin. _Ep._ ii, 20; Petron. 140. + + 601 Juv. i. 112; Petron. 88, pecuniae cupiditas haec tropica instituit. + + 602 Juv. iii. 164. + +_ 603 Ib._ 131, 103; i. 26; iv. 98; Mart. ii. 29, iii. 29; v. 13, 35. + + 604 Suet. _Octav._ xliii.-v.; _Calig._ xviii.; _Claud._ xxi; _Nero_, xi. + xii.; _Titus_, vii.; _Dom._ iv.; D. Cass. 65. 25; Spart. _Hadr._ + vii. D. Cass. 68. 10, 15; Capitol. _M. Anton._ vi.; but cp. Suet. + _Tib._ xlvii.; Tac. _Hist._ ii 62, D. Cass. 66. 15; Suet. _Octav._ + xliv.; D. Cass. 54. 2; 68. 2; Capitol. _Anton. P._ xii. + + 605 Victor. _Epit._ 12; Spart. _Hadr._ vii. § 12; Capitol. _M. Anton._ + xxvi.; _Ant. P._ viii.; D. Cass. 68. 5; _Orelli Henz._ 4365, 7244; + Friedlaender, _Petron. Einleit._ 49; Duruy, v. 429; iv. 787; + Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 208; cf. Plin. _Ep._ ix. 30. + + 606 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 62; ii. 47, 48. + + 607 Salv. _De Gub. Dei_, v. 30; _Ad Eccles._ iv. 22. + + 608 On the Augustales _v._ _Orell. Henz._ ii. p. 197; iii. p. 427; + Friedlaender, _Cena Trim. Einl._ p. 39; Marq. _Roem. Staatsverw._ i. + 513 sqq.; Nessling, _De Seviris Augustalibus._ + + 609 v. 13, 6, et libertinas arca flagellat opes; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 27, § 5, + patrimonium libertini. + + 610 Petron. _Sat._ 48. + + 611 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 27, si separarentur libertini manifestam fore + penuriam ingenuorum. + + 612 Plin. _Paneg._ 88. + + 613 Id. _Ep._ vii. 29; viii 6. + + 614 Tac. _Germ._ 25, liberti non multum supra servos sunt, raro aliquod + momentum in domo, nunquam in civitate. + + 615 Mart. ii. 29; iii. 29; xi. 37; iii. 82; v. 14. + + 616 Suet. _Ill. Gram._ xiii., xvii., xx.; cf. Marq. _Priv._ i. 158. + + 617 Sen. _Ep._ 47, § 1; _De Clem._ i. 18, 3; _De Ben._ iii. 21; _Ep._ + 77, § 31; Plin. _Ep._ viii. 16, 1; iii. 19, 7; ii. 17, 9; cf. Juv. + xiv. 16. + + 618 Sen. _Ep._ 47, servi sunt, immo humiles amici. Cf. Macrob. _Sat._ i. + 11, 12; Eurip. _Ion_, 854; _Helen._ 730; Wallon, _L'Esclav._ iii. + 22. + +_ 619 v._ supra, p. 92. + + 620 D. Cass. 69. 16; _C. Th._ xiii. 1, 21; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i 197. + + 621 Juv. xiv. 270. + + 622 Juv. iii. 32. + + 623 Suet. _Vesp._ xxiii. + + 624 Stat. _Silv._ iii. 3, 83, Tu toties mutata ducum juga rite tulisti + Integer, etc. + + 625 Juv. iii. 153, Nil habet infelix paupertas durius in se, Quam quod + ridiculos homines facit; 164. + + 626 Id. i. 104. + + 627 Id. i. 26; iv. 108. + + 628 Juv. iii. 173. + + 629 Id. iv. 5, 23; vii. 180. + + 630 Id. xiv. 91, Ut spado vincebat Capitolia nostra Posides; cf. Suet. + _Claud._ xxviii.; Plin. _H. N._ xxxi. 2. + + 631 Juv. iii. 34 sqq. + + 632 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 37; xii. 25, 65; xi. 29; Suet. _Octav._ lxvii.; D. + Cass. lix. 29. + + 633 Suet. _Jul. Caes._ lxxvi.; cf. Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 56 sqq. + + 634 For such a career cf. _Or. Henz._ 6344. + + 635 Suet. _Octav._ lxvii. + + 636 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 6. + +_ 637 Ib._ xiv. 39. + + 638 Suet. _Nero_, xxiii. + + 639 D. Cass. lxiv. 3; Suet. _Galba_, xiv.; Plut. _Galba_, c. 17. + + 640 D. Cass. lii. 25; Tac. _Hist._ i. 58, Vitellius ministeria + principatus per libertos agi solita in equites Romanos disponit. + + 641 Suet. _Vitell._ xii. + + 642 Id. _Vesp._ xvi. + + 643 Id. _Dom._ vii. quaedam ex maximis officiis inter libertinos + equitesque communicavit. + + 644 Plin. _Paneg._ 88. + + 645 Spart. _Hadr._ iv., xxi.; Mace, _Suetone_, p. 91. + + 646 Capitol. _Ant. P._ vi., xi. + + 647 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 56. + +_ 648 Ib._ i. p. 83. + + 649 Sen. _Ad Polyb._ vi. vii. + + 650 Sen. _Ad Polyb._ xi. + + 651 Statius, _Silv._ iii. 3. + +_ 652 Ib._ 66, Tibereia primum Aula tibi--Panditur. + +_ 653 Ib._ 60. + +_ 654 Ib._ 70. + +_ 655 Ib._ 86. + +_ 656 Ib._ 100. + +_ 657 Ib._ 145. + + 658 Mart. vi. 83; Stat. _Silv._ iii. 160. + + 659 As to the form of his name _v._ Markland's _Statius_, p. 238. + + 660 Mace, _Suetone_, p. 91; cf. Tac. _Ann._ xi. 33. + + 661 Mace, 92, 93; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 86, 87. + + 662 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 12; _C.I.L._ vi. 798; Mace, pp. 89, 115. + + 663 Mace, pp. 90, 116. + + 664 Stat. _Silv._ v. 1, 80. + +_ 665 Ib._ v. 118 sqq. + +_ 666 Ib._ v. 210. + + 667 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 88. + + 668 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 30, 37, 88. + + 669 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 57; xiii. 1. + +_ 670 Ib._ xii. 25, 65. + +_ 671 Ib._ xiii. 23. + +_ 672 Ib._ xii. 53; Plin. _Ep._ viii. 6. + + 673 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 25, 65. + +_ 674 Ib._ xiii. 14. + +_ 675 Ib._ xiv. 65; Suet. _Nero_, xxxv.; D. Cass. 62. 14. + + 676 Marq. _Roem. St._ ii. p. 55; Duruy, v. p. 598; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ + i. p. 192; cf. Olympiod. _ap._ Phot. § 44 (Muell. _Frag. Hist. Gr._ + iv.). + + 677 Ael. Lamprid. _Heliogab._ x.; cf. Capitol. _Anton. P._ xi.; Suet. + _Claud._ xxviii. + + 678 Plin. _H. N._ xxxi. 2; xxxvi. 12. + + 679 Statius, _Silv._ i. 5, 36; Mart. vi. 42, et certant vario decore + saxa. + + 680 Mart. viii. 68. + + 681 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 29. + + 682 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 75; _Or. Henz._ 6344. + + 683 Claud. _In Eutrop._ ii. 137. + + 684 Plin. _Paneg._ 88. + + 685 Suet. _Nero_, xv. in curiam libertinorum filios diu non admisit. + + 686 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 38; xii. 53. + + 687 Suet. _Galba_, xiv.; Tac. _Hist._ ii. 57; iv. 39. + + 688 Mart. iii. 29; v. 8, 14, 35, 23; cf. Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 212. + + 689 Suet. _Claud._ c. xxviii. + +_ 690 Dig._ xxiii. 2, 44. + + 691 Statius, iii. 3, 115. + + 692 Id. v. 1, 53; Tac. _Hist._ v. 9; Suet. _Claud._ xxviii. Felicem ... + Judaeae proposuit--trium reginarum maritum. + + 693 Catull. x. 26; Tibull. i. 3, 33; Ov. _Ars Am._ iii. 635; cf. _Amor._ + i. 8, 73; iii. 9, 33. + + 694 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 29. + +_ 695 Ib._ xiii. 12, 46; xiv. 2; Suet. _Nero_, xxviii. Acten libertam + paullum abfuit quin justo matrimonio sibi conjungeret. + + 696 Suet. _Nero_, l. + + 697 D. Cass. lxvi. 14. + + 698 Luc. _Imag._ 10. See Croiset's _Lucien_, p. 273, on the _Imagines_ + as illustrating Lucian's power as a critic of art. + + 699 Xen. _Mem._ iii. 11; Plat. _Menex._ c. iv. + + 700 Cf. Friedl. _Sittengesch._ i. 82. + + 701 Suet. _De Ill. Gram._ xxi. + + 702 Marq. _Priv._ i. 189; Denis, _Idees Morales_, ii. 208; Spart. + _Hadr._ xvii. + + 703 Sen. _De Ben._ iii. 21; _Ep._ 47; Plin. _Ep._ ii. 17, 9; viii. 16; + cf. Marq. _Priv._ i. 175. + +_ 704 Or._ 2808. + +_ 705 Ib._ 2874. + +_ 706 Ib._ 2816. + +_ 707 Ib._ 2862. + + 708 Sen. _De Clem._ i. 18. + + 709 Marq. _Priv._ i. 174. + + 710 Sen. _Ep._ 80, § 4, peculium suum quod comparaverunt ventre fraudato + pro capite numerant. + + 711 Apul. _Met._ x. 14; cf. Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 397. + + 712 v. 22, 10, negat lasso janitor esse domi; Sen. _Nec. Inj._ xiv. + cubicularii supercilium. + + 713 Momms. _R. H._ ii. 380 (Tr.) + + 714 Marq. _Priv._ i. 162 sq. + +_ 715 C. Th._ ix. 30, 2; ii. 30, 2. + + 716 Marq. _Priv._ i. p. 163. + + 717 Petron. _Sat._ 76. + + 718 Marq. _Priv._ i. 165. + +_ 719 Ib._ p. 178, n. + + 720 Mart. v. 70; cf. vii. 64. + + 721 Liv. xxi. 63, quaestus omnis patribus indecorus visus; D. Cass. 69. + 16; cf. _C. Th._ xiii. 1, 4; _v._ Godefroy's note. + + 722 Plut. _Cat. Maj._ 21. + + 723 Petron. 77, sustuli me de negotiatione et coepi libertos foenerare. + + 724 Id. 77, assem habeas, assem valeas. + + 725 Id. 43, paratus fuit quadrantem de stercore mordicus tollere:--in + manu illius plumbum aurum fiebat. + + 726 Petron. 76. + + 727 Id. 50 + +_ 728 Or._ 1175; cf. Teuffel, _Rom. Lit._ ii. § 300, n. 4. + + 729 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 18, 19. + + 730 Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 2, 8. + + 731 Sidon. Apoll. _Carm._ ix. 268. + + 732 Sidon. Apoll. _Carm._ xxiii. 155, et te Massiliensium per hortos + sacri stipitis, Arbiter, colonum Hellespontiaco parem Priapo, etc. + + 733 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8; xiii. 2; xv. 45, 60, 65; Tac. _Hist._ iii. 65. + + 734 Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 257, ce n'est pas la coutume qu'on mette son + ideal pres de soi. + + 735 Petron. 88, at nos vino scortisque demersi ne paratas quidem artes + audemus cognoscere, sed accusatores antiquitatis vitia tantum + docemus et discimus. This rather applies to the higher cultivated + class. + + 736 Petron. 118; cf. Boissier, _L'Opp._ 213. + + 737 Petron. 70, 67. + + 738 Juv. vi. 115; Suet. _Nero_, xxvi. + + 739 Teuffel. _Rom. Lit._ § 300, n. 1. + + 740 Petron. 118, 119; cf. Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 239. Other proofs of the + date of the _Satiricon_ are the occurrence of names like Apelles and + Menecrates, c. 64, 73; cf. Suet. _Calig._ 33; _Nero_, 30; Friedl. + _Cena Trim. Einl._ 9; the reflections on decline of oratory, _Sat._ + 1; cf. Tac. _Dial. Or._ c. 35; the invention of a peculiar glass, + which belongs to the reign of Tiberius, cf. Plin. _H. N._ xxxvi. 66; + D. Cass. 57. 21 ad fin. + + 741 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 18, vigentem se ac parem negotiis ostendit. + + 742 Plin. _H. N._ xxxvii. 7 (20), T. Petronius consularis moriturus + invidia Neronis, ... trullam myrrhinam HS.c{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}c{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}c{~COMBINING OVERLINE~} emptam fregit. + + 743 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 19, sed flagitia principis et novitatem cujusque + stupri perscripsit atque obsignata misit Neroni. + + 744 Petron. 115, si bene calculum ponas, ubique naufragium est. + + 745 Id. 88. For a favourable estimate of the _Satiricon_, cf. Schiller's + _Gesch. roem. Kaiserzeit_, i. 469, 470. + + 746 See Boissier's remarks, _L'Opp._ p. 228. + + 747 Mart. v. 2; iii. 68; cf. Mahaffy, _Greek World under Roman Sway_, p. + 298. + + 748 Teuffel, _Rom. Lit._ i. p. 239; Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 5. + +_ 749 Ib._ p. 5. + + 750 Sidon. Apoll. _Carm._ ix. 268; xxiii. 155. + + 751 Petron. 81, cf. Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 6. Puteoli is excluded by + the complaints of municipal decay in c. 44: Naples, by the fact that + the town is a Roman colony (44, 57); Cumae was the only town in this + region which had Praetors. Cf. _Or. Henz._ 1498, 2263; Petron. 65. + + 752 Petron. _Sat._ 1, 2. + + 753 Tac. _De Or._ c. 31, 35. + +_ 754 Rep._ vi. p. 492 A. + + 755 Petron. _Sat._ 83. + +_ 756 Ib._ 114. + +_ 757 Ib._ 116, nihil aliud est nisi cadavera quae lacerantur aut corvi + qui lacerant. + +_ 758 Ib._ 117. + + 759 Petron. _Sat._ 124. + +_ 760 Ib._ 140. + +_ 761 Ib._ 141. + +_ 762 Ib._ 75, 76. + +_ 763 v._ Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ p. 7. His cognomen Maecenatianus + marks him as a slave of the friend of Augustus who died 8 B.C. + Trimalchio would therefore be born _circ._ 18 B.C. (_Sat._ 71, 29, + 75). He was perhaps over seventy at the time of the dinner (_Sat._ + 27, 77), which may therefore be placed about 57 A.D. + + 764 Petron. _Sat._ 48. + +_ 765 Ib._ 77. + +_ 766 Ib._ 38, scripsit ut illi ex India semen boletorum mitteretur. + +_ 767 Ib._ 53. + +_ 768 Ib._ 71; cf. Friedl. _Cena Trim._ p. 308. + + 769 Petron. _Sat._ 27. + + 770 Petron. _Sat._ 29. + +_ 771 Ib._ 31. + +_ 772 Ib._ 32. + +_ 773 Ib._ 33. + +_ 774 Ib._ 35. + +_ 775 Ib._ 40. + +_ 776 Ib._ 60; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 90, § 15, laquearia ita coagmentat ... ut + totiens tecta quotiens fercula mutentur. + +_ 777 Sat._ 34; Cic. _Brut._, lxxxiii. The Consulship of Opim. was B.C. + 121. + + 778 Petron. 48; on private and public libraries, cf. Sen. _De Tranq._ c. + ix.; Plin. _Ep._ i. 8, § 2; ii. 17, § 8; iii. 7, § 7; iv. 28, § 1; + Suet. _Vit. Pers._; Luc. _Adv. Indoct._ 1, 16; Mart. vii. 17, 1; + Suet. _J. Caes._ xliv.; _Octav._ xxix.; Marq. _Priv._ i. 114; + Gregorov. _Hadr._ (Tr.) p. 210; Mace, _Suetone_, p. 220; Sid. Apoll. + ii. 9. + + 779 Petron. 52. + + 780 Id. 59. + + 781 Id. 41; cf. Epict. iii. 23; Plin. _Ep._ i. 13; iii. 18, 4; vi. 15; + Mart. iii. 44, 45; 50. + + 782 Sen. _Brev. Vit._ xii. 2; _Or. Henz._ 3838; Mart. iv. 39; Marq. + _Priv._ ii. 688: Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. 84. + + 783 Petron. 53. + + 784 Id. 62, 63; cf. Apul. _Met._ i. 8. + + 785 Petron. 68. + + 786 Id. 52. + + 787 Petron. 38, 43. + + 788 Id. 43, in manu illius plumbum aurum fiebat. + + 789 Id. 38, Collibertos ejus cave contemnas, valde succosi sunt. _v._ + Friedl. _Cena Trim._ p. 223. + + 790 Petron. 38. + + 791 Id. 42. + + 792 Id. 42, medicus nihil aliud est quam animi consolatio. For similar + opinions of the medical profession, cf. Petron. 56; D. Cass. lxix. + 22, lxxi. 33; Mart. vi. 31; vi. 53; ii. 16; Epict. iii. 23, § 27; + Juv. iii. 77; Luc. _Philops._ c. 21, 26; _Adv. Indoct._ c. 29; Marq. + _Priv._ ii. 779. Sen. gives a higher idea of the craft, _De Ben._ + vi. 16; cf. Apul. _Met._ x. 8, where the doctor rejects the base + proposals made to him. + + 793 Petron. 42, planetus est optime, etiam si maligne illum ploravit + uxor. + + 794 Id. 43. + + 795 Id. 43, noveram hominem olim oliorum, et adhuc salax est. On the + phrase olim oliorum _v._ Friedl. _Cena Trim._ p. 237. + + 796 Petron. 44. + + 797 Id. 44, haec colonia retroversus crescit tanquam coda vituli. This + passage is used to prove that Puteoli cannot be Trimalchio's town. + Friedl. _Cena Trim._ p. 239. + + 798 Petron. 44 _ad fin._ itaque statim urceatim plovebat. + + 799 Id. 45. On the meaning of Centonarius _v._ Marq. _Priv._ ii. 585. + They had a great number of Collegia, often leagued with the Fabri; + _v._ _Henz. Ind._ pp. 171-72; _C. Th._ xiv. 8. + + 800 For the cost of such shows, _v._ _Or._ 81; _C.I.L._ ii. _Suppl._ p. + 1034; Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ p. 58; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. + p. 136. + + 801 Petron. 46, quid iste argutat molestus? + + 802 Petron. 46 _ad fin._; cf. Mart. v. 56; Juv. vii. 5, 176. + + 803 Petron. 57. + + 804 Id. 64. + + 805 Id. 67. + + 806 Id. 70. + + 807 Id. Ephesum tragoedum coepit imitare--Sonst unbekannt, Friedl. _Cena + Trim._ 306. + + 808 Cf. _Or. Henz._ 4070, 7321; Petron. 71, valde enim falsum est vivo + quidem domos cultas esse, non curari eas ubi diutius nobis + habitandum est. + +_ 809 v._ the monument of C. Munatius Faustus at Pompeii, _C.I.L._ x. + 1030. But Mau, p. 415 (Tr.), interprets it differently from Friedl. + _Cena Trim._ p. 307. + + 810 See the monument of the surgeon oculist of Assisi, _Or._ 2983, who + records the amount he gave for his freedom, his benefactions, and + his fortune. _v. C.I.L._ v. 4482, the monument of Valerius Anteros + Asiaticus, a Sevir Aug. of Brescia. + + 811 Plin. _H. N._ xxvi. 2 (26); xxviii. 6 (57), plerique (suadent) + anulum e sinistra in longissimum dextrae digitum transferre. + + 812 Petron. 75, ad hanc me fortunam frugalitas mea perduxit. + + 813 Id. 78; cf. Sen. _De Brev. Vit._ xx. 3, where a similar scene is + described. Turannius--componi se in lecto et velut exanimem a + circumstante familia plangi jussit. + + 814 Some of Pliny's older friends, the elder Pliny, Quintilian, + Spurinna, Verginius Rufus, go back to the age which Juvenal + professes to attack (i. 170). But, although Juvenal mentions few + names of his own generation, such as Isaeus, Archigenes, and Marius + Priscus, a comparison between his subjects and those of Martial + shows that they were dealing with the same social facts. Cf. + Teuffel, _R. Lit._ ii. § 326, n. 5; Nettleship, _Lectures and + Essays_, p. 124 sqq. + + 815 Momms. _Plin._ (Morel), p. 7; Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. 77; + Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_, 131. + + 816 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 28. + + 817 Mart. iii. 68, 86; v. 2. + + 818 Ov. _Amor._ iii. 4, 2. + + 819 Ov. _Trist._ ii. 212, 346, 353, Vita verecunda est, Musa jocosa + mihi; 497. + + 820 Tac. _De Or._ 28, non in cella emptae nutricis sed gremio ac sinu + matris educabatur; A. Gell. xii. 1. + + 821 Quintil. i. 2, 4, 8; nostras amicas, nostros concubinos vident. + + 822 Stob. _Flor._ vi. 61; Suet. _Nero_, xxvii.; cf. Denis, _Idees + Morales, etc._, ii. p. 134. + + 823 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 16; iii. 5; iv. 19; vi. 4; vii. 5. + + 824 Tac. _Agric._ 4. + + 825 Plin. _Ep._ i. 14. + + 826 Tac. _Ann._ iii. 55, sed praecipuus adstricti moris auctor + Vespasianus erat; Suet. _Vesp._ ix.; cf. Schiller, _Gesch. Roem. + Kaiserz._ ii. 506; Duruy, iv. 646; Renan, _Les. Ev._ 140, 381; + _L'Antechr._ 494. + + 827 Pliny is pleased with the virtuous monotony, _Ep._ iii. i. § 2, me + autem ut certus siderum cursus ita vita hominum disposita delectat, + senum praesertim; cf. iii. 5. + + 828 Momms. _Plin._ (Morel), p. 32. + + 829 The Caecilii were probably established at Como from 59 B.C.; cf. + Catull. 35; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 30, 1; vii. 32, 1; vi. 24, 5; ix. 7; + Momms. _Plin._ p. 33 (Morel). + + 830 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 1; vi. 10. + + 831 Tac. _Hist._ i. 8, 52; ii. 49. + + 832 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 20, 5. He was in his eighteenth year when the famous + eruption of Vesuvius took place 79 A.D., D. Cass. lxvi. 21 sq. + + 833 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 13, 3. + + 834 Rendall, xiii. in Mayor's ed. Plin. _Ep._ iii.; Plin. _H. N._ ii. 85 + (199). + + 835 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5; _Hist. Nat. Praef._ 3; Suet. _Vit. Plin._ He was + 56 at his death in A.D. 79; cf. Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ i. 119, 420. + + 836 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, § 13; Persius, who was eleven years younger than + the elder Pliny, shows a character of the same type, cf. Pers. + _Sat._ ii. 71-74; iii. 66 sqq.; cf. Martha, _Les Moralistes sous + l'Emp._ p. 131 sqq. + + 837 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5. + +_ 838 Praef. H. N._ § 17; cf. § 18, profecto enim vita vigilia est. + + 839 Plin. _Ep._ i. 14; cf. Tac. _Agr._ iv.; Juv. iii. 165. + + 840 Plin. _Ep._ iii. i; ii. 7; i. 12; v. 11. + + 841 Cf. Pliny's letter to Calpurnia's aunt, _Ep._ iv. 19, quae nihil in + contubernio tuo viderit nisi sanctum honestumque; cf. viii. 5; v. + 16. + + 842 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 78; iv. 81. + + 843 Cf. _Or._ 746, 2364. + + 844 Suet. _Vesp._ ii. locum incunabulorum assidue frequentavit, manente + villa qualis fuerat olim, etc. + +_ 845 Ib._ viii. ix. + + 846 D. Cass. lxvi. 8, Suet. _Vesp._ xvi., cf. Meriv. vii. 274; cf. + Schiller, _Gesch. roem. Kaiserzeit_, p. 515. + + 847 Suet. _Vesp._ lx.; _Or._ 746, sacr. aedium restitutori, 1460, 1868, + 2364, D. Cass. lxvi. 10. + + 848 Suet. _Vesp._ xvii. + +_ 849 Ib._ xix. + +_ 850 Ib._ xviii.; continued by Hadrian, Spart. xvi.; by Ant. Pius, + Capitol. xi.; by Alex. Severus, Lamprid. xliv.; cf. _C. Th._ xiii. + 3, 1, 2, 3; Eum. _Or. pro Scholis_, c. 11. + +_ 851 v._ _Rom. Soc. in the Last Century of the Western Empire_ (1st + ed.), p. 355. + + 852 Mommsen, _Rom. Prov._ (Tr.) i. p. 76. + + 853 Pliny probably came to Rome about 72 A.D. Rendall, xiv.; in Mayor's + Pliny, _Ep._ iii.; cf. Quintil. _Prooem._ i. + + 854 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 14, 10; vi. 6, 3; vi. 32. + + 855 Quintil. _Inst. Or._ i. 2, 6; cf. Plin. _Ep._ iii. 3, 4, cui in hoc + lubrico aetatis non praeceptor modo sed custos etiam rectorque + quaerendus est; cf. _Ep._ iv. 13, 4, ubi enim pudicius contineantur + quam sub oculis parentum; cf. Tac. _Dial. de Or._ 28. + + 856 Quintil. _Inst. Prooem._ i. 9-11; ii. 2, 15; xii. 1, 1; xii. 7, 7, + non convenit ei, quem oratorem esse volumus, injusta tueri scientem. + +_ 857 Ib._ vi. _Prooem._ 4. + + 858 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 13, hunc ego, cum simul studeremus, arte + familiariterque dilexi, etc. + +_ 859 Ib._ v. 14; _Paneg._ 91, 92; cf. Momms. _Plin._ p. 64. + + 860 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 6. + +_ 861 Ib._ vii. 16, 2; i. 10, 3; cf. Momms. p. 52. Pliny's service with + the iii. Gallica was later than September, A.D. 81. + + 862 Plin. _Ep._ i. 10, 4; cf. Tac. _Agr._ iv. + + 863 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 11, 5. + +_ 864 Ib._ i. 10; cf. Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ v. 37, 40; vi. 8. + + 865 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 26, 4. + +_ 866 Ib._ iii. 11, 2; Suet. _Dom._ x.; D. Cass. lxvii. 10; cf. Momms. p. + 59, where the date of Pliny's praetorship is fixed. + + 867 Suet. _Dom._ x. + + 868 Plin. _Ep._ i. 14; cf. iii. 11, 3. + +_ 869 Ib._ iii. 16; cf. vii. 19; ix. 13. + + 870 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 34. + + 871 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 19, 4; for the character of Helvidius Priscus, cf. + Tac. _Hist._ iv. 5. + + 872 Suet. _Vesp._ xv.; D. Cass. lxvi. 12; cf. Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. + 98. + + 873 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 16, 7. + + 874 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 21; D. Cass. lxii. 26. + + 875 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 12; xvi. 21, 22; cf. D. Cass. 61. 15. + + 876 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 26. + + 877 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 19. + + 878 Renan, _Les Evangiles_, p. 142, treats the philosophic opposition as + a mere aristocratic reaction; cf. pp. 287, 382. Boissier, _L'Opp._ + p. 103; Schiller, _Gesch. d. roem. Kaiserz._ pp. 509, 536. + + 879 Plin. _Ep._ v. 8, 8; Momms. p. 52. + + 880 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 1; iv. 16; vi. 23, 2. + +_ 881 Ib._ i. 20, 7. + +_ 882 Ib._ vi. 33, 8-11. + +_ 883 Ib._ iv. 16. + +_ 884 Ib._ iv. 19, 3. disponit qui nuntient sibi quem assensum, quos + clamores excitarim, quem eventum judicii tulerim. + +_ 885 Ib._ vi. 11. + +_ 886 Ib._ ii. 14, 4. + + 887 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 2, 6. + + 888 For the career and character of M. Aquilius Regulus, _v._ Tac. + _Hist._ iv. 42; Plin. _Ep._ i. 5; i. 20, 15; ii. 11; ii. 20; iv. 2; + vi. 2; and Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 193. + + 889 Mart. i. 13, 83, 112, Cum tibi sit sophiae par fama et cura deorum, + etc. + + 890 Mart. vii. 31. + +_ 891 Ib._ vi. 38; vi. 64, 11. + +_ 892 Ib._ vii. 16. + + 893 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 7, § 4. + +_ 894 Ib._ i. 20, 15; cf. references to the archaic literary taste of the + day in Mart. v. 10. + + 895 Plin. _Ep._ v. 12. + +_ 896 Ib._ vi. 2, 5. + +_ 897 Ib._ ii. 20. + +_ 898 Ib._ iv. 2. + + 899 For the light which this throws on the production of books in that + age, _v._ Haenny, _Schriftsteller u. Buchhaendler_, pp. 39-41. + + 900 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 10, 4; iii. 7, 14, quatenus nobis denegatur diu + vivere, relinquamus aliquid quo nos vixisse testemur; v. 5, 4; v. 8, + 2, me autem nihil aeque ac diuturnitatis amor sollicitat; cf. vii. + 20. + + 901 Stat. _Silv._ ii. 2. + + 902 Mart. ii. 7; v. 30; iii 20; iv. 23; v. 23. For the same breadth of + accomplishment in the fifth century, cf. Sidon. Apoll. _Carm._ v. + 97; ii. 156; xxiii. 101; _Rom. Soc. in the Last Cent. of the Western + Empire_ (1st ed.), p. 375. + + 903 Mart. vi. 60. + +_ 904 Ib._ iv. 14. + + 905 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 21. This book is dated by Mommsen 101 A.D. (_Plin._ + p. 14, Morel; _v._ App. C, p. 95); cf. Friedlaender's _Martial_, + "Chronologie der Epigr. Mart." p. 66. + + 906 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 8, 4; v. 12, est mihi cum Cicerone aemulatio. + +_ 907 Ib._ vii. 30. + + 908 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 24, reverere gloriam veterem et hanc ipsam + senectutem quae in homine venerabilis, in urbibus sacra. + +_ 909 Ib._ vii. 4, 2, Qualem? inquis. Nescio; tragoedia vocabatur. + +_ 910 Ib._ vii. 4, 3. + +_ 911 Ib._ iv. 14, cf. Ov. _Trist._ ii. 365, who makes pretty much the + same excuse to Augustus. + + 912 Plin. _Ep._ v. 3. + + 913 Cf. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_, 2nd Series, p. 39. + +_ 914 Ep._ iii. 13, 5; vii. 17. + +_ 915 Ep._ iii. 18; cf. ii. 19. + + 916 Teuffel, _R. Lit._ § 387; Mackail, _Lat. Lit._ p. 264; _Rom. Soc. in + the Last Cent. of the W. Empire_ (1st ed.), p. 357. + + 917 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 15. + +_ 918 Ib._ 1, 20. It is curious that this praise of amplitude should be + addressed to Tacitus; cf. Nipperdey, _Einleit._ xxxiv. + + 919 Macrob. _Sat._ v. 1, 7; Sidon. Apoll. i. 1, 1; iv. 22, 2, ego Plinio + ut discipulus assurgo. + + 920 Sym. _Ep._ v. 85. Seeck, _Prol._ xlv. + + 921 Momms. _Plin._ (Tr.) p. 2; cf. Haenny, _Schriftsteller_, etc. p. 19. + + 922 Plin. _Ep._ i. 1; vii. 28; i. 15; viii. 1; Mace, _Suetone_, p. 87. + + 923 Momms. _Plin._ p. 4. + +_ 924 Ib._ pp. 7, 24; Teuffel, § 335, 1. + + 925 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 18, 5; viii. 12, literarum senescentium reductor; + Stat. _Silv._ i. Prooem.; _Petron._ 88; cf. Sidon. Apoll. _Ep._ + viii. 8; ii. 14; vii. 15; ii. 10, 1. + + 926 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 17, § 5. + +_ 927 Ib._ vii. 17; v. 12. + +_ 928 Ib._ vii. 20; viii. 7. + +_ 929 Ib._ vii. 20; ix. 23, ad hoc illum "Tacitus es an Plinius?" + +_ 930 Ib._ vi. 16, 2. + +_ 931 Ib._ iii. 21, 6, at non erunt aeterna quae scripsit; non erunt + fortasse; ille tamen scripsit tanquam essent futura. + +_ 932 Ib._ iii. 7, scribebat carmina majore cura quam ingenio. + + 933 Mart. vii. 63; Tac. _Hist._ iii. 65. + +_ 934 v._ Teuffel, _R. Lit._ § 315, n. 5, and the opinions collected by + Mayor, _Plin._ iii. p. 120. + + 935 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 7, 3. + +_ 936 v._ Mayor, _Plin._ iii. p. 114, for a learned note on suicide in + the early Empire. + + 937 Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 23, 3. For a similar ideal in the fifth century, + _v._ _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, p. + 165 (1st ed.). + + 938 Plin. _Ep._ v. 8, § 1. + + 939 For a good example cf. Plin. _Ep._ iii. 15. + + 940 Capitol. _Ant. P._ 1. + + 941 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 3. + +_ 942 Ib._ iv. 18; cf. viii. 4. + + 943 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 11; ii. 18, 36; Plin. _Ep._ i. 5; ii. 7; iii. 1, + scribit et quidem utraqua lingua, lyra doctissima. Spurinna was 77, + at the date of this letter, A.D. 101-102; Momms. p. 11. + + 944 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 27; cf. ix. 8. + +_ 945 Ib._ vi. 15; ix. 22. + + 946 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 21. + +_ 947 C.I.L._ vi. 798; _Or._ 801. He was Secretary (ab Epistulis) under + Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan; cf. Mace, _Suetone_, pp. 91, 93, 115. + + 948 Plin. _Ep._ i. 17; viii. 12. Cf. C. Fannius, who wrote a history of + the victims of Nero, Plin. _Ep._ v. 5. He died _circ._ 106, Mace, p. + 82. + + 949 Plin. _Ep._ v. 8. For similar unwillingness, cf. Sidon. Apoll. _Ep._ + iv. 22. + + 950 Plin. _Ep._ i. 3. + +_ 951 Ib._ viii. 4; ix. 33. + + 952 Mart. iv. 33; vi. 14. + + 953 Momms. _Plin._ p. 13, puts his birth in 77 A.D.; but cf. Mace, p. + 35, who places it in the year 69; see too Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. + 67. The indications in Suet. are _Domit._ xii.; _Ill. Gramm._ iv.; + _Nero_, lvii. + + 954 Mace, p. 83; Peter, ii. 69; cf. Krause, _De Sueton. Fontibus._ + + 955 For the authorities, _v._ Mace, p. 29. + + 956 From 97 to 101 A.D., _ib._ pp. 53-57. + + 957 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 8. + +_ 958 Ib._ i. 24; of the year 97. On the meaning of _contubernalis_, + Suetonius being 28, and Pliny 35 years of age, _v._ Mace, p. 50. + + 959 Plin. _Ad Traj._ 94; cf. Mace, p. 50. + + 960 Plin. _Ep._ i. 18. + + 961 Mace, p. 68; Plin. _Ep._ v. 10; Momms. _Plin._ p. 18. + + 962 Mace, p. 69. + + 963 Mace, p. 90. For the disgrace of Suetonius, _v._ Spart. _Hadr._ xi. + 2. + + 964 Plin. _Paneg._ 53. + + 965 See _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, p. + 348 sq. (1st ed.). + + 966 Virg. _Aen._ vi. 848 sq. + + 967 Ov. _Trist._ iv. 128; Hor. _Carm._ ii. 20; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ + iii. p. 299. + + 968 Mau, _Pompeii_ (Tr.), 486, 488; _C.I.L._ ii. 4967. + + 969 Tac. _De Or._ 13, auditis in theatro Virgilii versibus surrexit + universus populus, etc. + + 970 Petron. _Sat._ 68. + + 971 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 18, 4; viii. 12, 1; cf. Seneca's complaints of his + time, _Ep._ 95, § 23; 100; Petron. 83-4. + + 972 Tac. _Dial. de Or._ 20; Mart. v. 10; cf. Suet. _Octav._ 86, + Cacozelos et antiquarios, ut diverso genere vitiosos, pari fastidio + sprevit; Pers. i. 69 sq.; Sen. _Ep._ 114. For Hadrian's preference + of Ennius to Virgil, etc., _v._ Spart. _Hadr._ c. 16; A. Gell. xii. + 2; Mace, p. 96; Martha, _Les Moralistes sous l'Empire Rom._ p. 184. + + 973 Sen. _Ep._ 114, § 13, duodecim tabulas loquuntur. + + 974 Tac. _Dial. de Or._ 20. + + 975 Tac. _De Or._ 12. + +_ 976 Ib._ 9, 10. + + 977 Suet. _Dom._ iv. + + 978 Stat. v. 3, 225; cf. Suet. _Claud._ xi. A Greek comedy in honour of + Germanicus was performed. + + 979 Suet. _Ner._ xii. Suetonius says it was the first of the kind. It + was called "Neronia." + +_ 980 Or._ 2603, to L. Val. Pudens, erected by his fellow-citizens in + A.D. 110. He was only 13. _v._ Teuffel, § 314, n. 4; Friedl. + _Sittengesch._ iii. p. 324. + + 981 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 2; ix. 11, 2; Mart. vii. 8. Cf. Haenny, _Schriftst. + u. Buchh._ ii. p. 24 sqq. + + 982 Epict. iii. 23, § 11. + + 983 Mart. iii. 44, 45; iv. 81. + + 984 Juv. i. 2; iii. 9. + + 985 Petron. _Sat._ 90, 91, 115. + + 986 Plin. _Ep._ i. 13; ii. 19; iv. 5; 27; v. 12; vi. 17, 21; viii. 21. + + 987 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 17. + +_ 988 Ib._ iv. 27. + +_ 989 Ib._ iii. 18; iv. 5. + +_ 990 Ib._ i. 13, 2; vi. 17; viii. 12, 1. + +_ 991 Ib._ vii 17, 7, quia in numero ipso est quoddam magnum conlatumque + consilium. Cf. Arist. _Pol._ iii. 11, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 992 Sidon. Apoll. _Ep._ ii. 14; vii. 15; i. 6. + + 993 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 12. Seneca was even more pessimist, cf. _Ep._ 95, + § 23; 100; _De Brev. V._ xiii. 1. + + 994 Plin. _Ep._ i. 9; quot dies quam frigidis rebus absumpsi! cf. the + social life of Symmachus, _Roman Society in the Last Century of the + Western Empire_, p. 128 sq. (1st ed.). + + 995 Sen. _De Tranq._ xii.; Juv. iii. xi. Mart. xii. 18. + + 996 Plin. _Ep._ i. 9; iv. 1. + + 997 Mart. iii. 58. + + 998 Plin. _Ep._ v. 6, § 7, 8; i. 3; ix. 7 § 4. + +_ 999 Ep._ viii. 8; cf. Virg. _Georg._ ii. 146; once visited by Caligula, + Suet. _Calig._ 43. + + 1000 Plin. _Ep._ i. 6, solitudo ipsumque illud silentium quod venationi + datur magna cogitationis incitamenta sunt. + +_ 1001 Ib._ iii. 1, § 7. + +_ 1002 Ib._ vii. 25. + + 1003 Sidon. Apoll. _Ep._ i. 6; ii. 14; vii. 15. + + 1004 Stat. _Silv._ ii. 2, 22, spumant templa salo. + + 1005 Plin. _Ep._ v. 6. + +_ 1006 Ib._ ii. 17, § 27. + + 1007 Stat. _Silv._ ii. 2, 53; cf. iii. 1, 124. + +_ 1008 Ib._ i. 3, 20-37. + + 1009 Imposed by Trajan on candidates for office, Plin. _Ep._ vi. 19. This + was a repetition of former enactments, _e.g._ Suet. _Tib._ 48. It + was revived again by M. Aurelius, Capitol. xi. Exclusion from + commerce necessitated investments in land. Plin. _Ep._ iii. 19, sum + prope totus in praediis, aliquid tamen foenero. In A.D. 106 the + price of land was rising, _Ep._ vi. 19; but cf. iii. 19 (A.D. 101); + see Friedl. i. p. 197. + + 1010 Sen. _De Benef._ vii. 10, 5; _Ep._ 89, § 20; Mart. v. 13, 7; Petron. + _Sat._ 76, 77; Stat. _Silv._ ii. 6, 62. + + 1011 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 17; v. 6; ix. 7; iv. 1; iv. 13. + + 1012 Mart. vii. 31. + + 1013 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 7. + + 1014 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. 64. + + 1015 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 17; Stat. _Silv._ ii. 2, 76. + + 1016 Plin. ii. 17, § 16. + + 1017 Stat. _Silv._ i. 3, 29. + + 1018 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 17, § 24. + + 1019 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. 87. + + 1020 Plin. _Ep._ v. 6. + + 1021 Stat. _Silv._ ii. 2, 85; i. 5, 36; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. 65. + + 1022 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 6; cf. the taste of Silius Italicus, iii. 7, 8; + Petron. _Sat._ 50, 88; Mahaffy, _Greek World_, etc., p. 139 sq. + + 1023 Stat. _Silv._ i. 3, 50; ii. 2, 63 sq.; Mart. iv. 39. + + 1024 Friedl. iii. 196; cf. Croiset, _Lucien_, c. ix. p. 265; Marq. + _Priv._ ii. 611. + + 1025 Plin. _Ep._ v. 6, 7; cf. ii. 17, § 3. + +_ 1026 Ib._ ii. 17, § 15; v. 6, § 33. + + 1027 Suet. _Nero_, xxvii.; Friedl. iii. 77 sqq. + + 1028 Plin. _Ep._ ix. 36; iii. 1. + +_ 1029 Ib._ iii. 5, § 15. + +_ 1030 Ib._ iii. 1. + +_ 1031 Ib._ ix. 36, § 6. + + 1032 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 1. + +_ 1033 Ib._ iii. 19. + +_ 1034 Ib._ § 7. This estate was once worth HS.5,000,000; it was now + offered for HS.3,000,000, _i.e._ L25,000; cf. _Ep._ iv. 6; ii. 4, 3. + The letter iii. 19 belongs to the year 101 A.D.; but in _Ep._ vi. 19 + (106 A.D.) it appears that the price of land was rising, owing to + competition, and Pliny advises Nepos to sell his Italian estates and + buy others in the provinces; cf. vi. 3, 1. + +_ 1035 Ep._ ix. 37, medendi una ratio, si non nummo sed partibus locem; + cf. J. S. Mill, _Pol. Econ._ bk. ii. c. 8, 1; A. Young, _Travels in + France_, p. 18. + + 1036 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 2; ix. 37, 3. + +_ 1037 Ib._ viii. 16; cf. the Lex Coll. Cultorum Dianae et Antinoi, _Or. + Henz._ 6086. The slave member is permitted to dispose of his + funeraticium by will. Marq. _Priv._ i. 189. + + 1038 Sen. _Ep._ 31; 47; 77; _De Clem._ i. 18, 3; _De Ben._ iii. 21; Juv. + xiv. 16; D. Chr. _Or._ x.; Spart. _Hadr._ 18, § 7; Boissier, _Rel. + Rom._ ii. 358; Denis, _des Idees Morales_, etc., ii. 208 sq.; + Wallon, _L'Esclav._ i. c. 11; Marq. i. 189. + +_ 1039 Ep._ vii. 32. Fabatus seems to have been a model country squire; + cf. _Ep._ iv. 1; v. 11; vi. 12; vii. 11; viii. 10. + +_ 1040 Ib._ viii. 1. + +_ 1041 Ib._ v. 19; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 27, § 6; Friedl. _SG._ iii. 89; Marq. + _Priv._ i. 158. + + 1042 Plin. _Ep._ v. 19. + + 1043 Mart. i. 44; iii. 49; Juv. v. 25 sqq.; cf. Sen. _De Ben._ vi. 33, § + 4. + + 1044 Plin. _Ep._ ii. 6. + +_ 1045 Or. Henz._ 2862, 2874, 6389. + + 1046 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 14. + +_ 1047 Ib._ vi. 25; cf. the similar fate of Lampridius, at the close of + the Western Empire in Gaul, Sid. Apoll. _Ep._ viii. 11. § 10. + + 1048 Sen. _Ep._ 4, § 8; 107, 5. + + 1049 See a great mass of instances and authorities collected, with his + unique learning, by Mayor, _Plin._ iii. pp. 114, 115; cf. Boissier, + _L'Opp._ p. 212. + + 1050 Sen. _Ep._ 24, § 11; 58, § 36; 70, § 8; 117, § 22; _De Prov._ ii. + 10; vi. 7; _De Ira_, iii. 15; Epict. i. 24; cf. ii. 15; iii. 24; M. + Aurel. x. 8; x. 32; cf. Mommsen, _De Coll._ p. 100. + + 1051 Sen. _Ep._ 70, § 21, dum hoc constat praeferendam esse spurcissimam + mortem servituti mundissimae. + +_ 1052 Ib._ 58, § 36, non adferam mihi manus propter dolorem: hunc tamen + si sciero perpetuo mihi esse patiendum, exibo; non propter ipsum, + sed quia impedimento mihi futurus est ad omne propter quod vivitur + ... prosiliam ex aedificio putri ac ruenti. + + 1053 Plin. _Ep._ i. 22, 10; Aristo was a fine type of the puritan pagan, + an "imago priscae frugalitatis." + +_ 1054 Ib._ iii. 7, 1. For similar instances, _v._ Sen. _Ep._ 70, § 6; + Tac. _Ann._ xi. 3; Suet. _Tib._ 53; Petron. 111; Epict. ii. 15. + + 1055 Plin. _Ep._ ix. 13, 6; cf. iv. 17, 4; vii. + +_ 1056 Ib._ i. 12, 10. It is characteristic of the time that his last word + was _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + +_ 1057 Ib._ vi. 24. + + 1058 Pliny boasts of idealising his friends; vii. 28, agnosco crimen.... + Ut enim non sint tales quales a me praedicantur, ego tamen beatus + quod mihi videntur. + + 1059 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 18; iv. 21; viii. 10, 11, neque enim ardentius tu + pronepotes quam ego liberos cupio; cf. iv. 15, 3, fecunditate uxoris + frui voluit eo saeculo quo plerisque etiam singulos filios orbitatis + praemia graves faciunt. + +_ 1060 Ib._ iii. 3, in hac licentia temporum. + +_ 1061 Ib._ iv. 25, proximis comitiis in quibusdam tabellis multa + jocularia atque etiam foeda dictu ... inventa sunt. + +_ 1062 Ib._ viii. 23, 3, ipsi sibi exempla sunt. + +_ 1063 Ib._ vii. 24, she was born about A.D. 27, in the reign of Tiberius. + Ummidia had the virtue of liberality; she built an amphitheatre and + temple for Casinum, _Or. Henz._ 781. + + 1064 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 28, 2. + + 1065 Cf. _Ep._ v. 14, on his relations with Cornutus Tertullus: quae + societas amicitiarum artissima nos familiaritate conjunxit. + + 1066 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 6; vi. 32; in which he offers a dowry to + Quintilian's daughter in the most delicate way; cf. Juv. iii. 215; + xv. 150; Sen. _De Benef._ ii. 21, 5; iv. 11, 3; Tac. _Ann._ iv. 62; + yet cf. the judgment of D. Chrys. _Or._ vii. § 82; Denis, _Idees + Morales_, ii. 175 sqq. + + 1067 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 23, 2; vi. 11, 3; i. 12, 12; ii. 1, 8 (of + Verginius Rufus), sic candidatum me suffragio ornavit, etc., iii. 1, + 6 (of Spurinna), quibus praeceptis imbuare! + + 1068 Plin. _Ad Traj._ 87, 94. + + 1069 Id. _Ep._ vi. 29. + +_ 1070 Ib._ iii. 3. + + 1071 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 11. + +_ 1072 Ib._ vi. 26. + +_ 1073 Ib._ iv. 15. Fundanus's consulship is mentioned in two + inscriptions, _Or._ 1588, 2471. There is a difficulty about the + dates which is discussed in Momms. _Plin._ p. 17, n. 3. Fundanus + does not appear in the _Fasti_. + + 1074 Sen. _Ad Marc._ xiii. xiv.; _Ad Helv._ xvi. + +_ 1075 Ad Marc._ xvi. par illis, mihi crede, vigor, etc. _Ad Helv._ xvii. + 4, cf. Plut. _Conj. Praec._ xlviii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._; cf. Juv. vi. 450; + Mart. vii. 69. + + 1076 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 19, § 4. + + 1077 Plin. _Ep._ v. 16. + + 1078 Seneca and Paulina, Tac. _Ann._ xv. 64; Plutarch, _Ad Uxorem_, iv. + v. + + 1079 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 4, 5, 7. + + 1080 Id. _Ad Traj._ 121, 122. + + 1081 Cic. _De Off._ ii. 18 (63), atque haec benignitas etiam reipublicae + est utilis, redimi e servitute captos, locupletari tenuiores. + + 1082 Hor. _Sat._ ii. 2, 103-- + + Cur eget indignus quisquam, te divite? + + 1083 Sen. _Ep._ 47, § 1, 31; _De Benef._ iii. 21; _De Clem._ i. 18, 3; + _De Ira_, iii. 24. + + 1084 Sen. _Ep._ 95, § 52. + + 1085 Sen. _Benef._ iv. 5; iv. 26; iv. 28, Di multa ingratis tribuunt. + + 1086 Juv. xiv. 16; vi. 219, 476. + + 1087 Id. xiv. 31. + + 1088 Id. xiii. 190. + + 1089 Juv. xv. 133. + +_ 1090 Or. Henz._ 6042. + + 1091 Cic. _De Off._ i. 14; Sym. _Ep._ ii. 78; ix. 126; Olympiod. § 44 + (Mueller, _Fr. H. Gr._ iv. p. 68); cf. Boeckh, _Public Ec. of Athens_ + (Trans. Lewis), pp. 458, 520, 578. + + 1092 Marq. _Priv._ i. 178 n. 10; cf. Juv. ii. 117; Mart. vii. 64, dominae + munere factus eques; Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 34. + + 1093 Suet. _Vesp._ 18; Spart. _Hadr._ 16, § 8; Capitol. _Ant. P._ 11, § + 3. + + 1094 D. Cass. 68. 2; Victor, _Epit._ 12. + +_ 1095 Or. Henz._ 6664; Plin. _Paneg._ 28, hi subsidium bellorum, + ornamentum pacis publicis sumptibus aluntur. Duruy, iv. 784; + Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 211; Kratz, _De Benef., a Traj. collatis_, + p. 11. + + 1096 Plin. _Ep._ x. 62. The letter reveals an unwillingness among the + people of Bithynia to become debtors to the public treasury. + + 1097 Cf. Tac. _Ann._ iv. 27, minore in dies plebe ingenua; iii. 25; cf. + Meriv. viii. 353. + + 1098 Spart. _Hadr._ 7. + + 1099 Capitol. _Ant. P._ 8. + + 1100 Id. _M. Aurel._ 26; cf. Capitol. _Pertin._ 9. He found the interest + on Trajan's foundation nine years in arrear. Lamprid. _Alex. Sev._ + 57, 7; his charity children were called Mammaeani; Kratz, p. 11. + +_ 1101 Or. Henz._ 6694 to a man who left Tibur his sole heir; 3733 ob + munificentiam; 3765, 3766, 3882, 7190, 6993, 7001, 781; cf. + Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1 sqq. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}_. Plin. _H. N._ xxix. 4 (8); Friedlaender, _Cena Trim. + Einl._ 46 sq. + + 1102 Plin. _Ep._ i. 3, § 1, Comum meae deliciae; v. 11, 2; iv. 13, + respublica nostra pro filia vel parente. + +_ 1103 v._ the inscr. in Momms. _Plin._ p. 31. + + 1104 Plin. _Ep._ i. 8; v. 7; _Or._ 1172. + + 1105 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 13. + +_ 1106 Ib._ vii. 18; _Or._ 1172. + + 1107 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 1; cf. ix. 12. + +_ 1108 Ib._ vi. 32. + +_ 1109 Ib._ i. 19. + +_ 1110 Ib._ iii. 11. + +_ 1111 Ib._ ii. 4. + +_ 1112 Ib._ vi. 3. + + 1113 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einleit._ p. 48. + +_ 1114 Or. Henz._ 114. + + 1115 Boissier, _Promenades Archaeologiques_, p. 330, ce qui nous echappe + c'est la vie de province. + + 1116 Hor. _Carm._ iii. 4, 9. + + 1117 Mart. iv. 55, 11; xii. 18, 9; i. 50. + + 1118 It must, however, be said that Virgil has preserved much of local + religious sentiment. Cf. Sellar, _Virgil_, p. 365 sq. + + 1119 Virg. _Ecl._ ii. 48; _Georg._ ii. 466 sqq.; iii. 324-338, et saltus + reficit jam roscida luna; cf. Sellar, _Virgil_, pp. 166-167. + +_ 1120 Aen._ vii. 630 sqq.; Sellar, p. 80. + + 1121 Plin. _Ep._ i. 3; i. 6; i. 9; vii. 30; ix. 36. Mart. iii. 58; i. 56; + iv. 66; iv. 90; vi. 43. + + 1122 Hor. _Carm._ i. 17. + + 1123 Juv. iii. + +_ 1124 v._ _Rom. Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, p. + 128 sq. (1st ed.); Sym. i. 101; ii. 26; v. 78. Cf. Auson. _Idyl._ x. + 20, 155, 189. + + 1125 Mart. xii. 18-- + + Dum per limina te potentiorum + Sudatrix toga ventilat, vagumque + Major Caelius, et minor fatigat. + + 1126 Ov. _Trist._ ii. 196; iii. 2, 21, Roma domusque subit, desideriumque + locorum; cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 7, 28. + + 1127 Mart. xii. _Praef._ illam judiciorum subtilitatem, illud materiarum + ingenium, bibliothecas, theatra, conventus, quasi destituti + desideramus. + + 1128 Juv. iii. 173 sqq. + + 1129 Illustrations may be found in Plaut. _Mil. Glor._ 653; _Captiv._ + 879; _Trinum._ 609; _Bacch._ 24; Cic. _Phil._ iii. 6, 15, videte + quam despiciamur omnes qui sumus e municipiis, id est, omnes plane; + Tac. _Ann._ iv. 3, seque ac majores et posteros municipali adultero + foedabat. + + 1130 Juv. x. 100; cf. Cic. _post Red. in Sen._ 17; Hor. _S._ i. 5, 34, + Insani ridentes praemia scribae, etc. + +_ 1131 Or._ xiv. (223), 391, (Jebb. i. p. 223), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}._ + + 1132 Aristid. _Or._ xiv. (225), 393-4, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}._ + + 1133 Aelian, _V. Hist._ ix. 16, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_; Jos. _B. J._ ii. 16. + + 1134 Arnold, _Rom. Prov. Administration_, p. 203. + +_ 1135 H. N._ iii. 4. + + 1136 Momms. _Rom. Prov._ i. 73. + +_ 1137 Ib._ p. 168; Tac. _Ann._ i. 36; Marq. _Roem. Staatsverw._ i. 121; + Bury, _Rom. Emp._ p. 83. + +_ 1138 C. Theod._ xiii. 3, 11. + + 1139 Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 125. + + 1140 Tac. _Hist._ i. 67; _v._ the dedication of a temple to Isis by a + magistrate of Baden and his wife and daughter; _Or._ 457. + + 1141 Marq. i. 155, in keiner andern Provinz laesst sich die Entwickelung + der roemischen Staedteanlagen so genau verfolgen als in Dacien. + Arnold, _R. Prov. Admin._ p. 205. + +_ 1142 Or. Henz._ 5287. + +_ 1143 Vit. Soph._ ii. 3. + + 1144 Arnold, p. 205; Marq. i. 199. + + 1145 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 55; Strab. xii. 578. + +_ 1146 H. N._ v. 60; Friedl. _SG._ iii. 110. + + 1147 Aristid. _Or._ xiv. 223 (392), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1148 Cf. Victor, _Vit._ i. 7; v. 9; Friedl. _SG._ iii. 110; _v._ Migne, + _Patrol. Lat._ t. lviii. 270, notitia Africae. + +_ 1149 C.I.L._ viii. 2355; Cagnat, _L'Armee Rom. d'Afrique_, p. 582; + Boissier, _L'Afr. Rom._ p. 180. + +_ 1150 Or. Henz._ 5326. + + 1151 Boissier, _L'Afr. Rom._ p. 187. + +_ 1152 C.I.L._ viii. 2388; Hieron. _Ep._ 107, § 1; Macrob. _Sat._ i, 2, + 15. + +_ 1153 C.I.L._ viii. 2403; _Suppl._ ii. 17903; _Suppl._ i. 12058. This + inscription, from an obscure place, shows how an original honorarium + of HS. 1600 was finally increased by voluntary generosity to HS. + 12,000. + +_ 1154 Ib._ 2341, 17838. + +_ 1155 C.I.L._ viii.; _Suppl._ ii. 17831. + + 1156 Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 45; Bury, _Rom. Emp._ p. 77; Arnold, _Rom. Prov. + Admin._ p. 210. + +_ 1157 Or. Henz._ 3720, 3800, 3801, 3056, 3057, 3804. + + 1158 Tac. _Ann._ i. 15; Momms. _Roem. St._ ii. 1002; Duruy, v. pp. + 336-346; Greard, _Plut._ 221, 237; Plut. _Reip. Ger. Pr._ c. 17, 19. + The first curatores civitatum are heard of in the reigns of Nerva + and Trajan; cf. Marq. i. 510, n. 10. + + 1159 Suet. _Tib._ 32; Tac. _Ann._ iv. 6; Suet. _Nero_, x.; _Otho_, iii. + provinciam administravit moderatione singulari; _Vitell._ v. + Vespasian had to increase burdens, Suet. xvi.; Tac. _Hist._ ii. 84; + as to Trajan, cf. Plin. _Paneg._ 20; Suet. _Dom._ 8. Nero, it is + true, is said to have encouraged plunder (Suet. _Nero_, 32; Plin. + _H. N._ 18, 6). Yet the general prosperity was undisturbed, + Boissier, _L'Opp._ 170; Arnold, _Rom. Prov. Admin._ 135; Greard, + _Plut._ 199. + + 1160 See a crowd of inscriptions to Domitian and Commodus in remote + places in Africa; cf. _C.I.L._ viii. 1016, 1019; 10570, 8702, in + which Commodus is described as indulgentissimus princeps, etc. + + 1161 Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 517 sq.; Arnold, p. 212. + +_ 1162 Henz._ iii. _Ind._ p. 156; Inscr. 2322, 6980, 4983; Marq. _Roem. + St._ i. 477. There were consuls at Tusculum and Beneventum. But the + grand style was ridiculed by Cicero, _In Pis._ xi. 24. + + 1163 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31; xvi. 22, diurna per provincias, per exercitus + curatius leguntur. Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ i. 212; Mace, _Suetone_, p. + 191; Marq. _Priv._ i. 88; cf. _C.I.L._ viii. 11813; Lamprid. _Com._ + 15. + + 1164 Plin. _Ep._ ix. 11, 2; Mart. vii. 88. + + 1165 Sen. _Ep._ 28, 104; Luc. _Tox._ 27; _De Dips._ 6; _Philops._ 33; + _Alex._ 44; Epict. _Dis._ iii. 13. + + 1166 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iii. 50, vi.; D. Chrys. _Or._ 36. + + 1167 Hudemann, _Gesch. des roem. Postwesens_, p. 8 sq.; Marq. _Roem. St._ + i. 417; Friedl. _SG._ ii. 8. + +_ 1168 Or. Henz._ 4093, 2413, 5163, 6983. + + 1169 Suet. _Jul. Caes._ 57. + + 1170 Plut. _Galba_, 7. + + 1171 Mart. x. 104; cf. Hor. _S._ i. 5, 104. + + 1172 Friedl. _SG._ ii. 12 sqq. + + 1173 Aristid. _Or._ xxiv. 537; cf. Hor. _S._ i. 6, 105. + + 1174 Sen. _Ep._ 123, § 7. + + 1175 Cf. Suet. _Nero_, xliv. xxx.; Sen. _Ep._ 87, § 9; 123. + + 1176 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 15; cf. Suet. _Claud._ xxxiii.; Friedl. _SG._ + ii. 19. + + 1177 Apul. _Met._ i. 7; i. 17; Sidon. Apoll. _Ep._ viii. 11. Cf. _Rom. + Soc. in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, p. 172 (1st ed.); + Friedl. ii. 20. + + 1178 Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 17, 199, 214, 317; Arnold, _Prov. Adm._ 203. + + 1179 Arn. 205, 208; Marq. i. 114, 118. + + 1180 Marq. i. 14. + + 1181 Id. i. 155. + + 1182 Boissier, _L'Afr. Rom._ p. 104. + + 1183 See the history of this legion in Cagnat, _L'Armee Rom. d'Afrique_, + p. 148 sqq. _C.I.L._ viii., Momms. _Praef._ xix. sq. The legion was + first stationed at Thevesta. + +_ 1184 Or. Henz._ 5319; _C.I.L._ viii. 2532, 10048; _v._ Mommsen, p. 21. + For the date of this visit, _v._ Cagnat, p. 154. _Vit. Hadr._ 12, + 13. + + 1185 Herodian, iii. 8; cf. Cagnat, p. 451. + +_ 1186 C.I.L._ viii. 2611; _Or. Henz._ 7408. + + 1187 Cagnat, 365, 453; cf. _C.I.L._ viii. 3015. + + 1188 Cagnat, 481-87; Marq. ii. 544. + + 1189 Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 499; Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 29; Plin. _Ep._ + i. 19; Boissier, _L'Afr. Rom._ p. 195. + +_ 1190 Or. Henz._ 3721; Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 30. + +_ 1191 Or. Henz._ 6989, 7001, 7199, ob duplam sportulam collatum sibi, + 4020, 3703. + + 1192 Hartmann, _De Exilio_, pp. 58 sq.; Duruy, _Hist. Rom._ vi. 643. + +_ 1193 Or. Henz._ 946, 3708. + +_ 1194 Ib._ 7192. + +_ 1195 Or. Henz._ 3703, 3706, 4009, 3937, 3704, 3725, 4020; Plin. _Ep._ x. + 111; cf. Ohnesseit, _De Jure Municip._ 41. + + 1196 Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 472. + +_ 1197 Or. __Henz._ 7421; _Lex Mal._ §§ 53, 55. + + 1198 Mau, 376, 388-89 (Tr.). + + 1199 Claudium iivir. animula facit, _C.I.L._ iv. 425, 677, 644. + + 1200 Petron. _Sat._ 45, ferrum optimum daturus est, sine fuga, carnarium + in medio, etc. + + 1201 The title of the highest magistracy varied a good deal: cf. Marq. + _Roem. St._ i. 475, 89, _Or. Henz._ iii. _Ind._ 154. + + 1202 Marq. i. 485; _Henz. Ind._ p. 157. Often described as iivir + quinquennalis, or iivir censoria potestate quinq. etc., or shortly + quinquennalis; cf. _Or. Henz._ 3882, 3721. + + 1203 Arnold, _Prov. Adm._ pp. 225, 226. + +_ 1204 Or. Henz._ 643. + +_ 1205 Lex Malag._ § 51; _Or._ 7421; Marq. i. 475; _C. Th._ xii. 5, 1. + +_ 1206 C.I.L._ viii. 2341, 17838. + + 1207 Marq. i. 499 n. 13. + +_ 1208 Or. Henz._ 7080, 7082, 3811, 3817, 3882. + +_ 1209 Ib._ 3817; cf. Spart. _Hadr._ c. 19. + +_ 1210 Lex Urson._ § 103. + + 1211 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 28; Duruy, v. 349 sqq. + +_ 1212 Lex Malag._ § 60 sq. + + 1213 See _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, bk. + iii. c. 2. + + 1214 There is one case in _Or. Henz._ 2279. + +_ 1215 v._ _Or. Henz._ vol. iii. _Ind._ p. 152. + + 1216 Plin. _Ep._ i. 19; at Como the census was HS.100,000; cf. Petron. + _Sat._ 44. + + 1217 The Curia is sometimes designated as Cviri, _Or. Henz._ 764, 3737, + 1552. Or., however, interprets CV. as Civium universorum in 764. + + 1218 Ohnesseit, _De Jure Municip._ p. 55; Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 504. + + 1219 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 13, 9. + +_ 1220 e.g._ _Or. Henz._ 3703, 7190. + + 1221 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 31. + + 1222 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 22. This autocratic act was the abolition of the + games at Vienne by a duumvir. + +_ 1223 Lex Urson._ § 129. + +_ 1224 Ib._ § 99; Ohnesseit, _De Jure Municip._ p. 51. + +_ 1225 Ib._ p. 53; _Lex Urson._ §§ 96, 97, 130. + + 1226 Mart. iii. 29; v. 14; v. 23; Juv. i. 28; iii. 131, 159. + +_ 1227 Or. Henz._ 7002, 7018, 3785, 3789, 3798, 3733, 3747. + +_ 1228 Ib._ 2287, 3714, 3851. + + 1229 Pers. iii. 77; Juv. xvi. + + 1230 In the Inscr. they are mentioned after the decurions and before the + plebs; cf. _Or. Henz._ 4009, 3807, 1167. On the distinction between + the Augustales and the Seviri Aug. _v._ Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 514; + Ohnesseit, _De Jure Munic._ 46; Nessling, _De Seviris Aug._ Marq. + says, scheinen die Augustales als lebenslaengliche Mitglieder des + Collegiums, die Seviri als jaehrlich wechselnde Beamte desselben zu + betrachten zu sein. + + 1231 Marq. i. 513; Ohnesseit, p. 46; cf. _Or. Henz._ 3959, 7089; Tac. + _Ann._ i. 54, 73. + + 1232 Petron. 65, 71. + +_ 1233 Or._ 2983; _C.I.L._ v. 4482. + +_ 1234 Or. Henz._ 3917, 3924, 1561, 7092, 4077, 3127, 4020, 5655, 2374. + + 1235 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 37. + +_ 1236 Or. Henz._ 3787-8; 7103. + + 1237 Petron. _Sat._ 65. + +_ 1238 Or. Henz._ 6983. + +_ 1239 Ib._ 4044, 7094. + +_ 1240 Ib._ 7112. + +_ 1241 C.I.L._ ix. 58. + + 1242 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 42. + + 1243 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 8, 6. + + 1244 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 43. + + 1245 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 58. + + 1246 Sueton. _Vesp._ 13; Tac. _Ann._ ii. 47; cf. Nipperdey's note + referring to the monument erected to Tiberius in A.D. 30, at + Puteoli. + + 1247 Petron. 44. + + 1248 Suet. _Vesp._ xviii. Latinis Graecisque rhetoribus annua centena + constituit. + + 1249 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 13. + + 1250 Herodot. iii. 131. + + 1251 Strab. iv. c. i. 5 (181), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1252 Marq. _Priv._ ii. 777. + +_ 1253 Or. Henz._ 3994, 4017. + +_ 1254 Or. Henz._ 3716, 6709, 7146. + + 1255 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. 116; _C.I.L._ ii. pp. 89-96. + + 1256 Plin. _Ad Traj._ 17. + +_ 1257 Ib._ 54, 55, 23. + +_ 1258 Ib._ 47. + +_ 1259 Ib._ 17. + +_ 1260 Ib._ 39. + +_ 1261 Ib._ 37. + + 1262 Plin. _Ad Traj._ 38. + +_ 1263 Ib._ 33. + +_ 1264 Ib._ 110; cf. Marq. _Roem. St._ i. 522. + + 1265 Plin. _Ad Traj._ 112, 114, 116. + +_ 1266 Ib._ 79. + +_ 1267 Ib._ 116. + +_ 1268 Or. Henz._ 7001; Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 53; corruption, + however, by means of hospitality is expressly forbidden by the _Lex + Urson._ § 132; _C.I.L._ ii. _Suppl._ p. 852. + + 1269 Plin. _Ad Traj._ 96. + + 1270 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ 33; Greard, _Plut._ pp. 246-7. + + 1271 The different classes of Curatores, which must be carefully + distinguished, are clearly given by Arnold, _Prov. Admin._ 236. Cf. + _Or. Henz._ 3899, 3902, 3989. For a good example of the function of + the Curator, cf. _Or._ 3787. + + 1272 For the sources of these, cf. Marq. _Roem. St._ ii. p. 96. + + 1273 Mau, _Pompeii_ (Eng. Tr.), p. 16. + + 1274 Mau, _Pompeii_ (Eng. Tr.), p. 15. + + 1275 Petron. _Sat._ 38. + + 1276 Mau, p. 143. + + 1277 Id. p. 111. + + 1278 Mau, p. 124. + + 1279 Id. pp. 147, 206. + + 1280 Id. p. 164. + +_ 1281 Or. Henz._ 7008, 7010. + + 1282 Duruy, v. 396. + +_ 1283 Or._ 781. + + 1284 Plin. _H. N._ xxix. 5. + + 1285 Duruy, v. 396. + + 1286 Plin. _l.c._ + + 1287 D. Chrys. _Or._ 46 (519). + + 1288 Tac. _Hist._ iii. 34, reposita fora templaque munificentia + municipum. + + 1289 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. p. 120. + + 1290 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. 5. + +_ 1291 Ib._ ii. 6. + + 1292 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. 3. + +_ 1293 C. Theod._ ix. 17, 5; _Nov. Valent._ 5. + +_ 1294 Or. Henz._ 6993, 7013, 7190, 6622, 2287, 6985, 3325. + +_ 1295 Ib._ 6994. + +_ 1296 Ib._ 6983. + +_ 1297 Or. Henz._ 7013. + +_ 1298 C.I.L._ viii. 5366; she received the honour of five statues in + return. + +_ 1299 Or. Henz._ 2287. + +_ 1300 Ib._ 3325. + +_ 1301 Ib._ 3772. + + 1302 Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 44. + + 1303 See _Rom. Soc. in the Last Century of the Western Empire_ (1st ed.), + p. 202. + + 1304 Suet. _Nero_, xvi. + + 1305 Suet. _Vesp._ ix.; D. Cass. lxvi. 10. + + 1306 Suet. _Tit._ vii. nemine ante se munificentia minor. + + 1307 Suet. _Domit._ v. + + 1308 Plin. _Paneg._ 51. + + 1309 D. Cass. lxviii. 7, 15; Plin. _Paneg._ 29, 51. + + 1310 Ael. Spart. _Hadr._ c. 29. + +_ 1311 Ib._ c. 19, § 10, eaque omnia propriis auctorum nominibus + consecravit. + + 1312 On the sportula at this time, cf. Suet. _Nero_, xvi., _Dom._ vii.; + Marq. _Pr._ i., 207 sq.; Momms. _De Coll._ p. 109. + + 1313 Plut. _Caes._ 55, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: D. Cass. 43, 21, 3. + + 1314 Plin. _Ep._ i. 3, triclinia illa popularia. + + 1315 Petron. 71. + +_ 1316 Or. Henz._ 7115, 1368, 4088, 4115. + +_ 1317 Ib._ 3882. + +_ 1318 Or. Henz._ 3868. + +_ 1319 Ib._ 6211. + + 1320 Marq. _Priv._ i. 210; Petron. 45; _Or._ 842; Momms. _Colleg._ p. + 110. + +_ 1321 Or. Henz._ 3394; cf. Suet. _Calig._ 18. + +_ 1322 Or. Henz._ 3738. + +_ 1323 C.I.L._ x. 5853; Friedl. _Cena Trim._ p. 55. + +_ 1324 Lex Urson._ § 132. + + 1325 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. 1. + + 1326 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 142; cf. Jul. Capitol. _M. Ant._ c. x. + + 1327 Suet. _Tit._ vii. + + 1328 D. Cass. 68. 15, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}_. + + 1329 Salv. _De Gub. Dei_, vi. § 69. + + 1330 Aug. _Conf._ vi. 8; cf. Sym. _Ep._ ii. 46. + + 1331 Tac. _Ann._ i. 76, _vili_ sanguine nimis gaudens. + + 1332 Suet. _Calig._ xxxv. + + 1333 Calpurn. _Ecl._ vii. 24 sqq. + + Vidimus in caelum trabibus spectacula textis + Surgere, Tarpeium prope despectantia culmen-- + ... Sic undique fulgor + Percussit: stabam defixus et ore patenti, + Cunctaque mirabar, etc. + + 1334 Sen. _De Brev. Vit._ viii.; _Ep._ 95, § 33; Plut. _Reipubl. Ger. + Pr._ c. 29; Luc. _Dem._ c. 57. + + 1335 Plin. _Ep._ iv. 22. + + 1336 Suet. _Nero_, iv. + + 1337 D. Cass. 66. 15; cf. M. Aur. vi. 46. + + 1338 D. Cass. 68. 10 and 15, 66. 25; Suet. _Nero_, xi.; Suet. _Dom._ iv. + + 1339 D. Cass. 67. 1; cf. Friedl. ii. 202. + + 1340 Plin. _Ep._ vi. 34; _Paneg._ 33. + + 1341 Petron. 45. + + 1342 Strabo, v. c. 4, 13. + + 1343 Mau, 206, 207. + + 1344 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 17. + + 1345 Mau, 152. + + 1346 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 206. + + 1347 Mau, 216, 217. The words in one of these, flaminis Neronis Caesaris + Aug. fili, fix the date between 50 and 54 A.D. + + 1348 Mau, 217, 218. + +_ 1349 Ib._ 411. + +_ 1350 Ib._ 220; Juv. vi. 82 sqq.; cf. Mart. v. 24. + + 1351 Friedl. ii. 189. + +_ 1352 Ib._ ii. 92. + + 1353 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 62. + +_ 1354 Or. Henz._ 2532. + +_ 1355 Ib._ 2530. + +_ 1356 Ib._ 6148; _C.I.L._ x. 1074, 6012. This was given _postulante + populo_. + +_ 1357 Or. Henz._ 5963, 5972, 2531; _C.I.L._ x. 228. + + 1358 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 70-72. + +_ 1359 Ib._ iii. 84. + +_ 1360 Or. Henz._ 3725, 6156; Strab. xvii. 1, 10; Friedl. ii. 204, 378 + sqq. + + 1361 Apul. _Met._ x. 18; cf. iv. 13. + + 1362 Plut. _Reipubl. Ger. Pr._ 30; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 21. + + 1363 Luc. _Dem._ 57; cf. Mahaffy, _Greek World under Roman Sway_, p. 271. + +_ 1364 Or. Henz._ 2373, 7037, 148, 2532. + + 1365 Mart. iii. 59, 16. + +_ 1366 Or. Henz._ 81. + + 1367 Petron. 45. + + 1368 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 137, Doch diese Summe erscheint gering im + Vergleich mit der kolossalen Verschwendung, mit der die Schauspiele + in der letzten Zeit der Republik gegeben wurden; cf. _C.I.L._ ii. + 6278 (_Suppl._ p. 1032). + +_ 1369 Or. Henz._ 2530; 2533; Friedl. _Cena Trim._ p. 58; Cic. _Ad Att._ + 12, 2. + + 1370 Suet. _Tib._ vii. + + 1371 Petron. 45. + + 1372 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 202; Suet. _Vitell._ xii. circumforaneo + lanistae vendidit. + + 1373 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 192. + + 1374 Petron. 45; D. Cass. 60. 30. + + 1375 D. Cass. 74. 2. + + 1376 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 196. + + 1377 D. Cass. 66. 15; Spart. _Hadr._ 14; cf. Suet. _Calig._ xxxiv. + + 1378 Lamprid. _Com._ xi.; cf. viii.; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 150. + + 1379 Suet. _Jul. Caes._ xxxix.; Juv. vi. 252. + + 1380 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 198. + +_ 1381 Or. Henz._ 2571, 2572; _C.I.L._ x. 7364; xii. 5836. + + 1382 Mau, _Pompeii_, p. 219 sq. + + 1383 Sen. _Ep._ 70, § 20; Tac. _Ann._ xv. 46. Sym. _Ep._ ii. 46; cf. + Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 211. + + 1384 Sen. _De Prov._ iv. + + 1385 Epict. _Diss._ i. 29, § 37. + + 1386 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ ii. 204. + +_ 1387 Or. Henz._ 2566. + +_ 1388 Ib._ 2571. + +_ 1389 Or. Henz._ 2572-9; _C.I.L._ xii. 3329. + +_ 1390 Or. Henz._ 2573-5; D. Cass. 72. 22. + + 1391 Juv. iii. 158. + +_ 1392 C.I.L._ x. 1074. + +_ 1393 Or. Henz._ 3721. + +_ 1394 Ib._ 7008, 7010; cf. 7082, where a youth of twenty had been iivir + quinquennalis, and had given a gladiatorial show. Cf. 3714, quaestor + designatus est annorum xxiiii., 3745, 3246, 3768. + +_ 1395 Ib._ 3764. + +_ 1396 Ib._ 3773, 4036, 82, 5134; cf. 3744. + +_ 1397 Or. Henz._ 3709, 3750; _C.I.L._ xii. 3203, 3219. + + 1398 Plut. _Reipubl. Ger. Pr._ c. 27. + +_ 1399 Or. Henz._ 6992. + +_ 1400 Ib._ 3811, 3722, 6999, 7007, 7004 (honore usus inpensam remisit), + 7011, 7190, 4100. + +_ 1401 Ib._ 3865, ex aere collato; 6996. + + 1402 This seems clear from Plut. _Reip. Ger. Pr._ c. 31, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1403 Plut. _Reip. Ger. Pr._ c. 18; cf. c. 10. + + 1404 Plin. _Ep._ x. 113; 79. + + 1405 Plut. _Reip. Ger. Pr._ c. 18. + + 1406 Philostr. _Apoll. T._ iv. 5. + + 1407 Plut. _Reip. Ger. Pr._ c. 32; cf. Greard, _Morale de Plut._ p. 230. + + 1408 Philostr. _Apoll. T._ v. 41, 10; cf. Greard, p. 227. + + 1409 Plut. _Reip. Ger. Pr._ c. 15. + +_ 1410 Ib._ c. 27, 29, 30, 20. + +_ 1411 Or. Henz._ 4007 (Canusium), 2391 (Praeneste), 4491 (Pisa), 3898 + (Bergamum), 3787 (Caere). For places out of Italy, cf. _C.I.L._ xii. + 3212 (datus a Trajano); viii. 2403, 2660 (Timgad and Lambesi); iii. + 3485 (Aquincum); ii. 484 (Emerita); 4112 (Tarraco); cf. x.; ii. p. + 1158; Capitol. _M. Ant._ c. 11. + +_ 1412 Or. Henz._ 3787, placuit tibi scribi an in hoc quoque et tu + consensurus esses. + + 1413 A.D. 113, as the names of the consuls show. + + 1414 See _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, p. + 208 sqq. (1st ed.). + + 1415 M. Aurel. vi. 46; vii. 3; ix. 30. + +_ 1416 Or. Henz. Ind._ 151; _C.I.L._ xii. p. 940; _Or. Henz._ 3763, 7170 + (consensus plebis); _C.I.L._ xii. 3185 (ex postulatione populi); x. + 5067, 1030, 8215, 3704. + + 1417 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 48; Hi (_i.e._ plebs) magistratuum et primi + cujusque avaritiam increpantes. + +_ 1418 C.I.L._ iv. 202, 710, 787. + + 1419 Marq. _Priv._ i. 159, 160; Duruy, _Hist. des Rom._ v. 631; Athen. + vi. 272 D. + + 1420 Suet. _Octav._ 40; D. Cass. 55. 13. + +_ 1421 Or. Henz._ iii. _Ind._ p. 180. + +_ 1422 Or. Henz._ 4148, 4143, 4268, 4154. For the provinces of _C.I.L._ + ii. Suppl. p. 1171; viii. p. 1102; x. 1163; xii. p. 943. + +_ 1423 Or. Henz._, 4148, Marcia margaritaria de Via Sacra legavit ... + libertis libertabusque suis.... + + 1424 Juv. i. 24; x. 224; Mart. iii. 16, 59. + + 1425 Duruy, v. 637. + + 1426 S. Hieron. _Ep._ 108, § 3. + +_ 1427 Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_ (1st. + ed.), p. 193. + + 1428 Momms. _De Coll._ (Morel) p. 28 sq.; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 278; + Plut. _Numa_, c. 17, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1429 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 76. + + 1430 Suet. _Caes._ 42; _Octav._ 32. + + 1431 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 84. + + 1432 Plin. _Ep._ x. 34. + + 1433 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 17, re ad patres relata ... collegia quae contra + leges instituerant dissoluta. + + 1434 Vop. _Aurel._ c. 38. + +_ 1435 Or. Henz._ 6086; cf. Momms. _De Coll._ p. 98; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ + ii. 313; Duruy, v. 408. + + 1436 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 87. + + 1437 Lamprid. _Alex. Sev._ c. 33; cf. Duruy, v. 408. + +_ 1438 Or. Henz._ 4841, Elysiis campis floreat umbra tibi; but cf. 4793, + manus levo contra deum qui me innocentem sustulit; 4796, Dii irati + aeterno somno dederunt. + +_ 1439 Ib._ 4662, Qutia Silvana Uxor virum expecto meum. + +_ 1440 Ib._ 2677, 2655, 4626, 4639, 4848, Domum servavit, lanam fecit. + Dixi, abei. + +_ 1441 Ib._ 4775. + +_ 1442 Ib._ 2669, 4653, 2413, 2414. + +_ 1443 Or. Henz._ 2815, 2817, 4687, 4777, 4653. + +_ 1444 Ib._ 4852, effugi crimen longa senecta tuum. + +_ 1445 Ib._ 4816, balnea, vina, Venus corrumpunt corpora nostra, sed vitam + faciunt. Vixi; quod comedi et ebibi tantum meum est. Non fui, fui; + non sum, non curo; 4807, 7407, 7387. + +_ 1446 Ib._ 4795, 7406. + +_ 1447 Ib._ 4836. + +_ 1448 Ib._ 4416. + +_ 1449 Ib._ 4417. + +_ 1450 Ib._ 4781, 4783, 4. + +_ 1451 Or. Henz._ 4386, 4357, 4360, 4362, 4388, 4396, 4423, 4425, 4427. + +_ 1452 Ib._ 6086. Ex S.C.P.R. quibus coire convenire collegiumque habere + liceat qui stipem menstruam conferre volent in funera, in id + collegium coeant neque sub specie ejus collegii nisi semel in mense + coeant, etc. + + 1453 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 313. + + 1454 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 87. + +_ 1455 Or. Henz._ 2399, 2400. + +_ 1456 Ib._ 4079. + +_ 1457 Ib._ 4093. + +_ 1458 Ib._ 4073, Loc. sep. convictor. qui una epulo vesci solent. + +_ 1459 Ib._ 6086; Momms. _De Coll._ p. 98; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. p. + 309 sqq.; Duruy, v. 412. + +_ 1460 Or. Henz._ 6086; Col. ii., placuit ut quisquis servus ex hoc + collegio liber factus fuerit, etc. + + 1461 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 99; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. p. 309. + + 1462 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 104. + +_ 1463 Or. Henz._ 2417; Junio Rufino Cos. _i.e._ A.D. 153; Momms. p. 73. + + 1464 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 93. + + 1465 They have their ordo, plebs, decuriones, quinquennales, curatores, + honorati, patroni, quaestores, etc.; _v._ _Henz. Ind._ p. 176 sqq. + + 1466 Herodot. v. 66. + + 1467 Tac. _Hist._ iii. 32, tempus quoque mercatus ditem alioqui coloniam + majore opum specie complebat. + + 1468 Friedl. _Cena Trim. Einl._ p. 63. + + 1469 Apul. _Met._ i. 5. + + 1470 Momms. _Rom. Prov._ i. 74. + +_ 1471 Or. Henz._ 178; Tac. _Hist._ iv. 5. + +_ 1472 C.I.L._ ii. 2423. + +_ 1473 Ib._ iii. 1500. + +_ 1474 Ib._ x. 1634, 1579. + +_ 1475 Ib._ iii. 365, 444, 455, 6051. + + 1476 Suet. _Claud._ xviii.; cf. Merivale, vi. 126 sq. + + 1477 Juv. xiv. 276. + + 1478 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 34. + +_ 1479 Or. Henz._ 6111, 6835. + +_ 1480 Ib._ 4109. + +_ 1481 Ib._ 6414, 2211, 4095, 4100, 4096; _C.I.L._ x. 5928, 1493; iii. + 4045, 5678. + +_ 1482 Or. Henz._ 2401. + +_ 1483 C.I.L._ iv. 575, 581. + +_ 1484 Or. Henz._ 4063, 4072, 4087, 7007. + +_ 1485 Or. Henz._ 4243, 7205, 6950. + +_ 1486 Ib._ 7007, 7254, 4110, 6950. + +_ 1487 Ib._ 3655, 6029, 3178. + +_ 1488 Ib._ 4093, 7206. + +_ 1489 Ib._ 4105, 2619, 4113, 4112, 2625. + + 1490 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. p. 286. + +_ 1491 Dig._ L. 7. + + 1492 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 287. + +_ 1493 Or. Henz._ 6302. + +_ 1494 Ib._ + +_ 1495 C.I.L._ iii. 2, 6150. + +_ 1496 Ib._ ii. 6004. + +_ 1497 Or. Henz._ 2863, Hilara viva rogavit ut ossa sua in olla Midaes + coicerentur cum mort. esset. + +_ 1498 C.I.L._ iii. 6077, _v._ note. + +_ 1499 Or. Henz._ 2386, 4938, 4123. + + 1500 Such as that in _Or. Henz._ 6086. + +_ 1501 Or. Henz._ 6010, Colleg. Capitolinorum, etc.; cf. Cic. _Ad Quint. + Fratr._ ii. 5. + + 1502 Rutil. Namat. i. 63. + +_ 1503 Or. Henz. Ind._ p. 154 sqq. + +_ 1504 Ib._ 4068, 4107. + +_ 1505 Ib._ 6127, 7181, 7182, 3217, 4138 (_v._ Orelli's note to this + Inscription), 4071; _C.I.L._ x. p. 1163; iii. (2) p. 1180. + +_ 1506 Or. Henz._ 2863, 7183, 5372. + +_ 1507 Or._ 2417, ut ne plures adlegantur quam numerus s. s. etc.; + _C.I.L._ ii. 1167, collegio hominum centum dumtaxet constituto. Cf. + Plin. x. 33, where the coll. fabrorum is to be limited to 150. + + 1508 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 295. + +_ 1509 Or. Henz._ 4055. + +_ 1510 Ib._ 4054, 2417, 4056. + + 1511 The ranks are mingled, however, in _Or._ 2394; _C.I.L._ iii. 633. + + 1512 D. Cass. 60. 6, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 1513 Or. Henz._ 4088, 3298, 2279, 3787, 4085. + +_ 1514 Ib._ 2417, solarium tectum junctum in quo populus collegi s. s. + epuletur. + +_ 1515 Ib._ 4070. + +_ 1516 Or. Henz._ 65, 900, 4088; cf. 4107, 4366. + +_ 1517 Ib._ 2416, 4057. + +_ 1518 Ib._ 4068. + +_ 1519 Ib._ 2502. + +_ 1520 Ib._ 2400, 4093. + +_ 1521 C.I.L._ iii. 1, 633. + + 1522 Marq. _Priv._ i. 203. + +_ 1523 Or. Henz._ 4082, 4118. + +_ 1524 Ib._ 4082, 194, 73, 4077, 6654, 4109, 4069; _C.I.L._ iii. 1, 1209, + 1497, 1051; x. 228; 1696; 3910. + +_ 1525 Or. Henz._ 7007, 4109. + +_ 1526 C.I.L._ iii. 1968; _Or. Henz._ 3927, 3321, 6275. + +_ 1527 Or. Henz._ 4133. + +_ 1528 Ib._ 7116, 3914, 3923, 4080, qui facultates suas coll. reliq. + +_ 1529 Ib._ 4109; 194, 4069, 4071, 4094, 7194. + +_ 1530 Ib._ 4109. + +_ 1531 Ib._ 3724, honore usus impensam remisit; cf. 7011, 6992, 7190, so + _passim_. + +_ 1532 C.I.L._ ii. 2102. + +_ 1533 Or. Henz._ 4371, 4070, 4400, 7365; cf. Marq. _Pr._ i. 370. + +_ 1534 Or. Henz._ 4456 aediculae in quibus simulacra, etc., 4510, 4400 + area quae ante se est maceria cincta long. p. x{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}l{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}i{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}i{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}x{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}., lat. p. + x{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}x{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}x{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}i{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}x{~COMBINING OVERLINE~}., 7365, 4337, 4070, 4085. + +_ 1535 Ib._ 4366 ejusque mausolei claves duae penes aliquem libertorum + meorum ... sint, 4637, 4353. + +_ 1536 Ib._ 6206. + +_ 1537 Ib._ 4366. + +_ 1538 Or. Henz._ 3999, 4076, 4107, 4088. + +_ 1539 Ib._ 3999. + +_ 1540 Ib._ 6085. + +_ 1541 Ib._ 7215 (A.D. 149). + + 1542 Macrob. _Sat._ iii. 13, 11-13. + + 1543 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. 319; Marq. _Pr._ i. 208; Hor. _Ep._ i. 14, + 21. + + 1544 Momms. _De Colleg._ p. 109; cf. _Or._ 2385 (panem vinum et sportulas + dedit), 3949. + +_ 1545 Or. Henz._ 2417. + + 1546 Fl. Apolloni Proc. Aug. qui fuit a pinacothecis.... Optimi piissimi, + etc. + +_ 1547 Or. Henz._ 6086, quisquis ex hoc collegio servus defunctus fuerit, + etc.; cf. the composition of the club in _Or._ 2394. + +_ 1548 Ib._ ut quieti et hilares diebus solemnibus epulemur, etc. + +_ 1549 Or. Henz._ 4107. + + 1550 S. Paul. Nol. _Carm._ xxvii. 547-585; S. Aug. _Ep._ 32; _Serm._ v. + +_ 1551 De Coll._ p. 3. + +_ 1552 Or. Henz._ 2417, 4055, 2392, 3774, 3815, 1485, 4134. + +_ 1553 Ib._ 2417, Item viii K. Mart. die Karae cognationis eodem loco + dividerent sportulas, etc. + +_ 1554 Or. Henz._ 2399, 4073, 4093. + +_ 1555 C.I.L._ i. 1406; ii. 5927. + + 1556 Momms. _De Coll._ p. 102; Plin. _Ep._ viii. 16. + + 1557 For the contempt for slaves in the fourth and fifth centuries, _v._ + S. Hieron. _Ep._ 54, § 5; Salv. _De Gub. Dei_, iv. 26. For humaner + sentiment, cf. Macrob. _Sat._ i. 11, 12 sqq.; _C. Theod._ ix. 6, 2, + 3, vii. 13, 8; ix. 7, 4; ix. 9, 1; ix. 12, 1. + + 1558 Plin. _Ep._ viii. 16, § 1; on the more humane feeling to slaves, cf. + Sen. _Ep._ 47; _De Ira_, iii. 24, 32; _De Clem._ i. 18; _De Ben._ + iii. 18, 19, 20; Juv. xiv. 16; Spart. _Hadr._ c. 18; Wallon, + _L'Esclav._ i. c. 11; Marq. _Pr._ i. 177. + + 1559 Cagnat, _L'Armee Rom._ pp. 457 sqq. + + 1560 Veget. ii. 20. + + 1561 D. Cass. 65. 22; Capitol. _M. Ant._ c. 7; D. Cass. 73. 8; Cagnat, p. + 459; Marq. _Roem. St._ ii. pp. 136, 543. + + 1562 Cf. Marcian ap. Momms. _De Coll._ p. 87, neve milites collegia in + castris habeant. + + 1563 Cagnat, p. 463. + +_ 1564 C.I.L._ viii. 2552-7. + + 1565 Cagnat, pp. 467, 540; cf. Boissier, _L'Afr. Rom._ p. 111. _C.I.L._ + viii. 2554, optiones scholam suam cum statuis et imaginibus domus + div. ex largissimis stipendiis ... fecerunt, etc. + +_ 1566 C.I.L._ viii. 2552, 3, 4; 2557, iii. 3524; _Henz._ 6790; Cagnat, p. + 472; Marq. _Roem. St._ ii. 544. + + 1567 Cagnat, p. 474. + + 1568 The Cornicines of the 3rd Legion at Lambesi paid an entrance fee of + 750 denarii (_Scamnari nomine_). The anularium on retirement, and + the funeraticium, were each 500 _denarii_. It would seem that there + must have been a considerable surplus. _C.I.L._ viii. 2557. + +_ 1569 Or. Henz._ 6086, universi consentire debemus ut longo tempore + inveterescere possimus; cf. 4357, 4360, 4366, 4386, 4395. + + 1570 The diptych, which has been singularly preserved, was found in a + deserted mine or quarry about 1780, along with some other private + documents of a commercial character; _v._ _C.I.L._ iii. p. 213, and + 921. The dates range from 131 to 167 A.D. Cf. _Or. Henz._ 6087; + Schiller, _Gesch. der roem. Kaiserzeit_, i. 2, p. 643. + + 1571 See Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, 13, 14, Jener dualistische + Idealismus, welchen Plato begruendet, und auch Aristoteles nicht + grundsaetzlich ueberwunden hatte, fuehrt in letzter Beziehung auf + nichts anderes zurueck, als auf den Gegensatz des Inneren und + Aeusseren des Denkens und der gegenstaendlichen Welt.... Es war nur + ein Schritt weiter in dieser Richtung, wenn die nacharistotelische + Philosophie den Menschen in grundsaetzlicher Abkehr von der + Aussenwelt auf sich selbst wies, um in seinem Innern die + Befriedigung zu suchen, etc. + + 1572 See Luc. _Eun._ c. 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DIALYTIKA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. Capitol. + _M. Ant._ c. 3; Philostr. _Apoll._ T. i. 7, § 8. + + 1573 Zeller, iii, 1, 16. + +_ 1574 Ib._ 493-5; Ueberweg, _Hist. of Phil._ i. 220; Cic. _De Nat. Deor._ + i. c. 17; _De Fin._ i. c. 9. + + 1575 Bussell, _School of Plato_, p. 264; Zeller, iii. 1; p. 8, 9. + + 1576 On pessimism in the reign of Augustus, _v._ Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. + p. 241. Cf. Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 8; _De Ben._ i. 10; _Ad Marc._ 20, + 22; Tac. _Hist._ ii. 37; Petron. 88. + + 1577 Cf. Epict. iii. 13, §§ 9, 10, where the contrast between the "pax + Romana" and moral unrest is drawn. + + 1578 Zeller, iii. 1, pp. 12, 14, cf. Baur, _Ch. Hist._ i. p. 14 (Tr.). + + 1579 Cic. _Tusc._ iii 3, est profecto animi medicina philosophia, Sen. + _Ep._ 22, vena tangenda est; _Ep._ 53, Epict. iii. 23, § 30, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 1580 Sen. _Ep._ 94, § 5, § 22. + +_ 1581 Ep._ 64, § 8. + + 1582 Plut. _De Rect. Rat. Aud._ c. 8; Epict. iii. 23, § 23. + + 1583 Plut. _De Rect. Rat. Aud._ c. 12. + + 1584 Plut. (?) _De Lib. Ed._ c. 14. + + 1585 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, 487; Plut. _Aemil. P._ c. vi.; + Plin. _H. N._ xxxv. 135; Polyb. xxxii. 10. But cf. Mahaffy on + Zeller's view, in _Greek World under Roman Sway_, p. 67. + + 1586 Sen. _Ad Marc._ 4. + + 1587 Luc. _De Merc. Cond._ 2, 4, 25. + + 1588 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 16, etiam sapientiae doctoribus tempus impertiebat + post epulas, utque contraria adseverantium discordia frueretur; + Spart. _Hadr._ 15. + + 1589 Sen. _De Tranq._ xiv. § 7. + + 1590 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 34. + + 1591 Zeller, iii. 1, 656, 663. + + 1592 Epict. iii. 23, §§ 24-34; i. 4, § 9, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~};_ + + 1593 Tertull. _De An._ c. 20, Seneca saepe noster; S. Hieron. _Adv. + Jovin._ i. 49. + + 1594 S. Hieron, _Adv. Jovin._ i. 29; _De Scrip. Eccl._ 12; S. Aug. _Ep._ + 153, cujus etiam ad Paulum apostolum leguntur epistolae. + + 1595 The worst about Seneca is collected in D. Cass. 61. 10. But cf. the + attack of P. Suillius, Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42 and xiv. 52. + + 1596 Sen. _Ad Helv._ xix. § 2. + + 1597 Sen. _Ep._ 108, §§ 13-17. + +_ 1598 Ep._ 108, § 22. He abandoned Pythagorean abstinence, as suspicious, + during the persecution of eastern cults; cf. Suet. _Tib._ 36. + + 1599 D. Cass. 59. 19. + +_ 1600 Ib._ 60. 8; 61. 10; Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, schol. Juv. v. 109. + + 1601 D. Cass. 61. 4; Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2. Dion suggests an intrigue with + Agrippina, 61. 10. + + 1602 Sen. _De Clem._ i. 5, 8. + + 1603 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2, quo facilius ... voluptatibus concessis + retinerent, etc. + +_ 1604 Ib._ xiii. 42; D. Cass. 61. 10. + + 1605 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 52, mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, etc. + + 1606 Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 54. + +_ 1607 Ib._ xv. 56 sqq. + + 1608 Sen. _Ep._ 55; _De Tranq._ 1 and 2. + + 1609 Sen. _Ep._ 108, §§ 17-22. + + 1610 Cf. Baur, _Ch. Hist._ i. p. 16 (Tr.). + + 1611 D. Cass. 61. 10. + + 1612 Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 13; xiv. 7; and 11, sed Seneca adverso rumore + erat, quod oratione tali confessionem scripsisset. + + 1613 Sen. _Ep._ 77, § 16, ecquid habes propter quod expectes? Voluptates + ipsas quae te morantur consumpsisti.... Nihil tibi luxuria tua in + futuros annos reservavit intactum: cf. _Ep._ 89, § 21; 90, § 42. + +_ 1614 De Ira_, ii. 8. + +_ 1615 Ep._ 90, §§ 38-41. + +_ 1616 Ep._ 49, § 5, non vaco ad istas ineptias: ingens negotium in + manibus est; _Ep._ 75, § 5, non delectent, verba nostra, sed prosint + ... non quaerit aeger medicum eloquentem; _Ep._ 88, § 36, plus scire + quam sit satis, intemperantiae genus est. Cf. _Ep._ 71, § 6. + +_ 1617 Ep._ 89, § 8, nec philosophia sine virtute est, nec sine + philosophia virtus. + +_ 1618 Ep._ 66, § 12. + +_ 1619 Ep._ 89, § 13; 117, §§ 30, 31. + +_ 1620 Ep._ 48, § 8; 75, § 6. + +_ 1621 Ep._ 64, § 3; 58, § 26. + +_ 1622 De Vita B._ xiii, where he defends Epicurus. + +_ 1623 Ep._ 64, § 8. + +_ 1624 Ep._ 88, § 37, § 20. + +_ 1625 Ep._ 88, § 2, unum studium vere liberale est quod liberum facit, + etc. + +_ 1626 Ib._ § 39; cf. _Ep._ 88. + +_ 1627 Ep._ 89; 66, § 33; 58, § 8. + +_ 1628 Ib._ 71, § 6, erige te et relinque istum ludum literarium + philosophorum qui rem magnificam ad syllabas vocant, etc. + + 1629 Teuffel, ii. § 284, n. 6; cf. Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. + 623. + + 1630 Zeller, iii. 1, p. 56. + +_ 1631 Ep._ 117, § 19; _Nat. Quaest. Prol._; _Ep._ 65, § 15; cf. Zeller, + iii. 1. 622. + +_ 1632 Nat. Quaest._ v. 15; cf. _Ep._ 88, § 15. + +_ 1633 Nat. Quaest. Prol._ § 11, formicarum iste discursus est in augusto + laborantium.... Punctum est istud in quo navigatis, in quo bellatis; + Sursum ingentia spatia sunt, etc.; cf. Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 16, § + 6. + + 1634 Sen. _Ep._ 73, § 13, sic deus non vincit sapientem felicitate + etiamsi vincit aetate. + + 1635 Cf. Pl. _Phaed._ 79 D; Arist. _Eth._ ix 8, § 7. + +_ 1636 Ep._ 102, § 26, dies iste, quem tanquam extremum reformidas, + aeterni natalis est ... discutietur ista caligo et lux undique clara + percutiet ... nulla serenum umbra turbabit. Cf. _De Imit._ iii. 48, + § 1, O supernae civitatis mansio beatissima! O dies aeternitatis + clarissima, quam nox non obscurat, sed summa Veritas semper + irradiat! Lucet quidem Sanctis perpetua claritate splendida, sed non + nisi a longe et per speculum peregrinantibus in terra. + +_ 1637 Nat. Quaest._ iii. Praef., non praeterit me quam magnarum rerum + fundamenta ponam senex. + +_ 1638 Ib._ ii. 59, § 2. + +_ 1639 Ib._ iii, § 18. + +_ 1640 Ib._ i. 17, § 8, An tu existimas auro inditum habuisse Scipionis + filias speculum cum illis dos fuisset aes grave? + +_ 1641 Nat. Quaest._ ii. 59, § 3. + +_ 1642 Ib._ iii. 1, § 1. + +_ 1643 Ib._ vi. 32. + +_ 1644 Ib._ vii. 30, § 1. + +_ 1645 Ib._ vii. 30, § 3, quam multa praeter hos per secretum eunt nunquam + humanis oculis orientia? + +_ 1646 Ib._ § 5, multa venientis aevi populus ignota nobis sciet, multa + saeculis tunc futuris, cum memoria nostra exoleverit, reservantur. + +_ 1647 Ib._ vii. 31. + +_ 1648 De Benef._ i. 10. + + 1649 Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 8, 9; _Ad Marc._ ii. 11, 17, 20; Tac. _Hist._ ii. + 37; Petron. _Sat._ 88; M. Aurel. v. 33; v. 10. + + 1650 Sen. _Ep._ 77, § 6; 24, § 25; 89, § 21; 95, § 16; _De Tranq._ c. i. + +_ 1651 Ep._ 48, § 8. + +_ 1652 Ep._ 71, § 27; 94, § 50; _Ad Marc._ 24, § 5; _Ep._ 79, § 12, tunc + animus noster habebit quod gratuletur sibi, cum emissus his + tenebris, in quibus volutatur, non tenui visu clara perspexerit ... + et caelo redditus suo fuerit; Zeller, iii. i. 637. + +_ 1653 Ep._ 79, § 12; 102, § 22, per has mortalis aevi moras illi meliori + vitae longiorique proluditur, §§ 26, 28; _Ep._ 73, § 15, Deus ad + homines venit, etc. But cf. Zeller, iii. 1, 650; and for a different + view, Burgmann, _Seneca's Theologie in ihrem Verhaeltn. zum + Stoicismus_, etc. pp. 20-32. That Burgmann's is the truer view + appears from Sen. _Ep._ 95, § 49; 65, § 9; _De Clem._ i. 5, § 7; _De + Benef._ ii. 29, § 4; _De Prov._ v. 10; _De Ira_, ii. 28, § 1; _Ep._ + 41, § 2. + +_ 1654 Ep._ 95, § 10. + +_ 1655 Ib._ § 57, rursus voluntas non erit recta nisi habitus animi rectus + fuerit, etc. + +_ 1656 De Vit. Beat._ xii. § 4, nec aestimant, voluptas illa Epicuri quam + sobria et sicca sit, sed ad nomen ipsum advolant quaerentes + libidinibus suis patrocinium aliquod ac velamentum. Cf. _Ep._ 18, § + 14; 16, § 7; 22, § 13; 28, § 9. + +_ 1657 Ad Helv._ viii. § 3, quisquis formator universi fuit, sive ille + deus est potens omnium, sive incorporalis ratio ingentium operum + artifex, sive divinus spiritus per omnia aequali intentione + diffusus, sive fatum et immutabilis causarum inter se cohaerentium + series. Cf. _N. Quaest._ ii. 45, § 2. + +_ 1658 Ep._ 71, § 14. + +_ 1659 Ep._ 57, § 8; 66, § 12; 117, § 2. + + 1660 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, 122; cf. _Nat. Quaest._ ii. 45, + § 2. + +_ 1661 De Prov._ i. ii. § 6; _De Ira_, ii. 27; _De Benef._ ii. 29; _Ep._ + 73, § 16. + +_ 1662 Ep._ 57, § 8, animus qui ex tenuissimo constat, deprehendi non + potest, etc. + + 1663 Burgmann, _Seneca's Theologie_, p. 41. + +_ 1664 Ep._ 65, § 24, quem in hoc mundo deus obtinet, hunc in homine + animus. + + 1665 Pl. _Phaed._ 83 C, D; 79 B; D; cf. Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. + 183; iii. 2, p. 634; Sen. _Ep._ 71, § 27. + +_ 1666 Nat. Quaest._ iii. 30, § 8, sed illis quoque innocentia non + durabit--cito nequitia subrepit. + +_ 1667 Ep._ 120, § 14; 65, § 16, nam corpus hoc animi pondus ac poena est; + premente illo urgetur, in vinculis est, etc. _Ad Polyb._ ix. § 6, + omnis vita supplicium est; _Ad Marc._ xx. § 2. + +_ 1668 Ib._ 22, § 3. + +_ 1669 Ep._ 24, § 18, mors nos aut consumit aut eximit; _Ep._ 36, § 10; + 102, § 23; _De Prov._ vi. § 6; _Ad Marc._ 25, § 1; _ib._ 19, § 5; + 20, § 2, quae efficit ut nasci non sit supplicium; cf. Epict. ii. 1; + iii. 10; iii. 13; iv. 1; M. Aurel. viii. 18; vi. 28; iii. 3; ix. 3. + +_ 1670 Ep._ 53, § 11, est aliquid quo sapiens antecedat deum; cf. _Ep._ + 59, § 16, talis est sapientis animus, qualis mundus super lunam; + semper illic serenum est; 72, § 8. + +_ 1671 Ep._ 74, § 1; 62, § 3, brevissima ad divitias per contemptum + divitiarum via est; 59, § 14. + +_ 1672 Ep._ 74, §§ 6-12; cf. M. Aurel. v. 15, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_: Epict. ii. 16, § 18; iii. 3, § 14. + + 1673 Sen. _Ep._ 31, § 10; 74, § 14 aut ista bona non sunt, quae vocantur, + aut homo felicior deo est, etc. + +_ 1674 Ep._ 67, § 14. + +_ 1675 Ep._ 66, § 12, ratio autem nihil aliud est quam in corpus humanum + pars divini spiritus mersa. + +_ 1676 Nat. Quaest._ ii. 36; _De Prov._ 5, § 8, eadem necessitate et deos + adligat ... ille ipse omnium conditor scripsit quidem fata, sed + sequitur; semper paret, semel jussit. + +_ 1677 Ep._ 95, § 57; cf. 116, § 7, satis natura dedit roboris si illo + utamur. + +_ 1678 Ep._ 73, § 15, non sunt di fastidiosi: adscendentibus manum + porrigunt; _Ep._ 83, § 1, nihil deo clusum est; _Ep._ 43, § 5, O te + miserum si contemnis hunc testem. + +_ 1679 Ep._, 90, § 38 sqq. avaritia omnia fecit aliena et in angustum ex + immenso redacta paupertatem intulit, et multa concupiscendo omnia + amisit. + +_ 1680 Ib._ § 46, non fuere sapientes;... ignorantia rerum innocentes + erant. + + 1681 Sen. _Ep._ 66, § 13 sqq.; 113, § 14, Cic. _Tusc._ iv. 15, 34; Plut. + _Virt. Mor._ c. 2; Zeller, iii. 1, p. 224. + + 1682 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 235; Plut. _De Prof. in + Virt._ i. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DIALYTIKA AND TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._; + _Adv. St._ c. x.; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 76, § 19. + + 1683 Hor. _Sat._ i. 3, 124; Sen. _Ep._ i. 1, 106; cf. _Ep._ 73, § 13; + Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iv. 13; Luc. _Vit. Auct._ c. 20, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1684 Sen. _De Benef._ i. 10, § 1, hoc majores nostri questi sunt, hoc nos + querimur, hoc posteri nostri querentur, eversos mores regnare + nequitiam, in deterius res humanas labi. Cf. _Ad Polyb._ c. iv. + +_ 1685 De Ira_, ii. 8, § 1, istic tantumdem esse vitiorum quantum hominum. + + 1686 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 637; cf. p. 249. Cf. Martha, + _Mor. sous l'Emp._ p. 62. On Seneca's relation to the old Stoic + theology, _v._ Burgmann, _Seneca's Theologie_, p. 42 sq. + + 1687 Sen. _De Vit. Beat._ c. 22. + +_ 1688 Ep._ 74, § 17; 87, § 29 sq.: _De Ben._ v. 13, § 1 sq.; Zeller, iii. + 1, p. 638. + +_ 1689 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_, cf. _De Brev. Vit._ xiv. § 2; _De Ira_, ii. 2-4; + Zeller, iii. 1, p. 216. + +_ 1690 De Tranq._ vii. § 4, ubi enim istum invenies quem tot seculis + quaerimus? Pro optimo est minime malus. _Ep._ 42, § 1. + +_ 1691 Ep._ 90, § 44 sqq. + +_ 1692 Ep._ 72, §§ 6-11. + +_ 1693 Ep._ 75, § 8 sqq. + +_ 1694 Ep._ 72, § 8 sapiens laetitia fruitur maxima, continua, sua. + +_ 1695 Ep._ 57, § 3, non de me loquor, qui multum ab homine tolerabili, + nedum a perfecto absum: cf. _Ep._ 89, § 2. + +_ 1696 Ad Polyb._ ii. § 1; _Ep._ 53, § 4; 56 §§ 1-3. + +_ 1697 Ep._ 24; esp. § 14. + +_ 1698 Ep._ 53, § 7, quo quis pejus se habet, minus sentit. + +_ 1699 Ep._ 94, §§ 55, 56. + +_ 1700 Ep._ 112, vitia sua et amat simul et odit. + +_ 1701 Ep._ 29. + +_ 1702 Ep._ 28, § 1. + +_ 1703 Ep._ 13, § 4 sq.; _Ep._ 24, § 11. + +_ 1704 Ep._ 117, § 31; 75, § 6. + +_ 1705 Ep._ 13, § 17, quid est turpius quam senex vivere incipiens? + +_ 1706 Ep._ 24. + +_ 1707 Ep._ 95, § 49. + +_ 1708 Ep._ 94, § 5, digiti puerorum tenentur et aliena manu per literarum + simulacra ducuntur. + +_ 1709 Ep._ 11, § 8; Plut. _De Pr. Virt._ xv. + +_ 1710 Ep._ 25, § 1. + + 1711 S. Hieron. _Ep._ 127, §§ 5-7; _Ep._ 118, § 5; Sulp. _Sev._ ii. 13, § + 7. + + 1712 Sen. _Ep._ 36, § 1, illum objurgant quod umbram et otium petierit; + _Ep._ 123, § 15, illos quoque nocere nobis existimo, qui nos sub + specie Stoicae sectae hortantur ad vitia: hoc enim jactant solum + sapientem et doctum esse amatorem. + + 1713 Sen. _Ep._ 123, § 10. Cf. _Inscr. Or. Henz._ 4806, 4807, 4816. + +_ 1714 De Tranq._ i. + +_ 1715 Ib._ i. §§ 13-15, nec aegroto nec valeo;... In omnibus rebus haec + me sequitur bonae mentis infirmitas. _Ib._ § 17, rogo, si quod habes + remedium quo hanc fluctuationem meam sistam, dignum me putes qui + tibi tranquillitatem debeam. + +_ 1716 Ep._ 7, § 8; 19, § 2. + +_ 1717 Ep._ 68, ipsum otium absconde; jactandi autem genus est nimis + latere. + +_ 1718 Ep._ 43, § 4; cf. 83, § 1; 10, § 2, mecum loquor ... cave ne cum + homine malo loquaris. + +_ 1719 Ep._ 10, § 5, turpissima vota dis insusurrant; cf. Pers. _Sat._ ii. + 7-18; Sen. _Ep._ 41, § 1. + +_ 1720 Ep._ 11, § 8; 104, § 21, vive cum Chrysippo, cum Posidonio. + +_ 1721 Ep._ 6, § 1; _Ep._ 28; _Ep._ 50, § 4; Plut. _De Prof. in Virt._ c. + xi. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 1722 De Ira_, iii. 36, § 3. + +_ 1723 Ep._ 32, § 2, in tanta brevitate vitae quam breviorem inconstantia + facimus, etc.; _Ep._ 99, § 11, intelleges etiam in longissima vita + minimum esse quod vivitur. + +_ 1724 Ep._ 56, § 15; 51, § 5. + +_ 1725 Ep._ 51, § 4; 104, § 20, si vis peregrinationes habere jucundas, + tuum comitem sana. + +_ 1726 Ep._ 17, § 5; 18, § 8; _Ep._ 87, § 1; cf. Martha, p. 42. + +_ 1727 Ep._ 96, § 5. + +_ 1728 Ep._ 78, § 16, 4, nos quoque evincamus omnia, quorum praemium non + corona nec palma est, etc. + +_ 1729 De Vit. Beat._ vii. § 4; _Ep._ 83, § 27. + +_ 1730 Ep._ 37. + +_ 1731 Ep._ 96; 98, §§ 2, 7. + +_ 1732 De Prov._ iii. § 4. + +_ 1733 Ep._ 24, § 13, rebus persona demenda est. + +_ 1734 Ib._ § 18; cf. _Ep._ 36, § 10; _Ep._ 30, § 17; _Ep._ 58, § 27; cf. + Epict. ii. 1. + +_ 1735 De Prov._ vi. § 6; _Ad Marc._ 25; _Ep._ 102, §§ 23-26, Per has + mortalis aevi moras illi meliori vitae longiorique proluditur. + +_ 1736 Ep._ 24, § 11. + +_ 1737 Ep._ 24, § 20; _Ep._ 36. + +_ 1738 Ep._ 93, § 2, longa est vita si plena est; cf. 101, § 10, singulos + dies singulas vitas puta. + +_ 1739 De Brev. Vit._ viii. § 1. + +_ 1740 Ib._ x. + +_ 1741 Ib._ ix. § 4, pueriles adhuc animos senectus opprimit. + + 1742 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 329, der Stoiker ist zu + gebildet ... um den Werth der wissenschaftlichen Weltbetrachtung zu + verkennen. + + 1743 Cf. Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 277, die Philosophie + immer nur die geschichtlich vorhandenen Zustaende abspiegele. + + 1744 Burgmann, _Seneca's Theologie_, p. 26. + +_ 1745 Ep._ 109, § 10; 9, § 15. + +_ 1746 De Otio_, iv.; _Ep._ 68, § 2; cf. S. Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, xi. 1. + + 1747 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 274; Stob. _Flor._ 45, 29; + Sen. _Ep._ 29, § 11. + +_ 1748 Ep._ 19, § 6, subduc cervicem jugo tritam. + +_ 1749 De Otio_, iii. § 2, accedet ad rempublicam nisi si quid impedierit. + +_ 1750 Ib._ viii. § 1, interrogo ad quam rempublicam sapiens sit + accessurus, ad Athenas in qua Socrates damnatur, etc.; cf. Diog. + Laert. v. 1. + +_ 1751 Ib._ vii. § 131. + + 1752 Sen. _Ep._ 9, § 13. + +_ 1753 Ep._ 109, § 3 sqq. + + 1754 Epict. _Diss._ iii. 22, § 69. + + 1755 Epict. _Diss._ i. 9, § 1 sqq. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1756 M. Aurel. iii. 11; vi. 44, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1757 Sen. _Ep._ 95, § 52; cf. M. Aurel. iv. 4, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}_: Epict. _Diss._ i. 13, § 3; Cic. _De Leg._ i. 7, 23, ut jam + universus hic mundus una civitas sit communis deorum atque hominum + existimanda. + + 1758 Sen. _Ep._ 47, § 2, alteri vivas oportet, si vis tibi vivere; _Ep._ + 55, non sibi vivit qui nemini. + +_ 1759 De Otio_, iii. § 5. + +_ 1760 De Benef._ iv. 18, § 2, nudum et infirmum societas munit. + +_ 1761 De Ira_, i. 5, § 2. + +_ 1762 De Ira_, ii. 10, § 5 sqq. + +_ 1763 Ib._ ii. 8 and 9; _Ep._ 90, § 9 sqq.; _N. Quaest._ v. 15. + +_ 1764 Ib._ ii. 10, §§ 6-8. + +_ 1765 De Clem._ i. 6, § 3, peccavimus omnes. + +_ 1766 De Ira_, ii. 28, § 8, aliena vitia in oculis habemus, a tergo + nostra sunt. + +_ 1767 De Ben._ iv. 4 and 5; iv. 28; _De Ira_, iii. 26. + +_ 1768 De Ira_, ii. 28. + +_ 1769 Ib._ iii. 5, ingens animus et verus aestimator sui non vindicat + injuriam quia non sentit.... Ultio doloris confessio est. + +_ 1770 Ib._ iii. 6. + +_ 1771 Ep._ 65, § 24; _Ad Helv._ viii. § 3; _Ep._ 41, § 2; _De Ben._ iv. 4 + and 7; _Ep._ 10, § 5, sic vive tamquam deus videat; Siedler, _De + Sen. Phil. Mor._ p. 14; Burgmann, _Seneca's Theologie_, p. 32. + +_ 1772 De Prov._ vi. § 6, hoc est quo deum antecedatis. + +_ 1773 De Ira_, iii. 26; _De Ben._ i. 10. + +_ 1774 De Ben._ vii. 28, § 2. + +_ 1775 De Ira_, iii. 26; ii. 28; ii. 31. + +_ 1776 De Ben._ iii. 28, unus omnium parens mundus est. Cf. _Ep._ 47; _De + Ira_, iii. 24; iii. 35; _De Clem._ i. 18. + +_ 1777 De Ben._ iii. 18. + +_ 1778 De Ben._ iii. 19 and 26; cf. Macrob. _Sat._ i. 11, § 16. + +_ 1779 De Ben._ iii. 20, interior illa pars mancipio dari non potest. + +_ 1780 Ad Helv._ xvi. § 3; _Ep._ 95, § 21, libidine vero ne maribus quidem + cedunt. + +_ 1781 Ad Helv._ xix. § 2, § 6; Marcia's husband, probably Vitrasius + Pollio, was governor of Egypt.--Teuffel, _R. Lit._ § 282, 1. + +_ 1782 Ad Helv._ xv.-xvii. § 3. + +_ 1783 Ad Marc._ xvi. par illis, mihi crede, vigor, etc. + + 1784 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 63, 64; Sen. _Ep._ 104, §§ 1-6. + +_ 1785 De Ben._ iii. 28; iii. 20. + +_ 1786 Ad Polyb._ xii. xiii. § 4; D. Cass. lxi. 10; Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42. + +_ 1787 Ep._ 94, § 73, quae aliis excelsa videntur, ipsis praerupta sunt. + +_ 1788 De Otio_, iv. duas respublicas animo complectamur, etc. + + 1789 Sen. _Frag._ ap. Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, vi. 10; _Ep._ 41, § 1, non sunt + ad caelum elevandae manus, nec exorandus aedituus, ut nos ad aurem + simulacri quasi magis exaudiri possimus admittat. + + 1790 Sen. _Ad Polyb._ iv. + +_ 1791 De Brev. Vit._ xv. § 3 sq. + + 1792 Sen. _Ep._ 77, § 6, cogita quamdiu jam idem facias: cibus, somnus, + libido; per hunc circulum curritur; _Ep._ 24, § 25, quosdam subit + eadem faciendi videndique satietas; _Ep._ 89, § 21; 95, § 20; 13, § + 4; 24, §§ 11-14; 91, § 5, 6; _De Tranq._ ii. § 13; x. § 5, 6. + + 1793 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, pp. 46, 47; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 88, § + 20; 117, § 20. + + 1794 Sen. _Ep._ 48, § 8, omnes undique ad te manus tendunt, etc. + + 1795 M. Aurel. ix. 34; v. 33, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}._ Petron. _Sat._ 88; Sen. _De Ira_, ii. 8; D. + Chrys. xiii. § 13, 33; vii. 133. + + 1796 Pers. ii. 4 sqq.; cf. Herod. vi. 86; Luc. _Icaromen._ 25. + + 1797 Bernays, _Lucian und die Kyniker_, p. 34. + +_ 1798 v._ p. 231 of this work. Yet cf. Luc. _Somn. seu Gallus_, 22, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1799 Croiset, _Lucien_, p. 164, il a subi fortement leur influence en + ecrivant les _Dialogues des morts_. + + 1800 Luc. _Menip._ c. 21. + + 1801 Luc. _Vit. Auct._ 11; _Traj._ 24; _Dial. Mort._ x. 9. + + 1802 Cf. Luc. _Char._ 15, 20; _Dial. Mort._ i. 3; _Somn._ 21. + + 1803 Luc. _Traj._ 15; _Necyom._ 12. + +_ 1804 Traj._ 19; _Cyn._ 7; _Menip._ 11, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. _Somn._ 14, 15, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_, cf. 22. + +_ 1805 Char._ 23, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 1806 As in _Icaromen._ 15; _Char._ 17. + +_ 1807 Char._ 3; cf. a saying of Plato, quoted in M. Aurel. vii. 48, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} __{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}__ + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1808 Luc. _Char._ 17, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1809 Luc. _Vit. Auct._ 3, 13, 16. + + 1810 Epict. _Diss._ iv. i. 138, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ M. Aurel. vii. 67; cf. Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. + 2, p. 203; Hatch, _Hibbert Lec._ p. 142. + + 1811 M. Aurel. vi. 15; vii. 19; vi. 24, 42, 47; viii 6; xi. 20; viii. 3; + vii. 67. + + 1812 Epict. _Fr._ 175; cf. _Diss._ iii. 21, § 23, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: cf. M. Aurel. ii. 17, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + + 1813 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ v. 26; D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxii. + + 1814 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 41; iv. 24; D. Chrys. xxxvi, § 17. + + 1815 Luc. _Fug._ c. 12. + +_ 1816 Hermot._ c. 2, 25. + + 1817 D. Chrys. _Or._ lxxviii.; Martha, _Mor. sous L'Emp. rom._ p. 300. + + 1818 Luc. (?) _Dem._ c. 7, 8. + + 1819 Luc. (?) _Dem._ c. 63. + + 1820 Sen. _Ep._ 89, § 6; cf. A. Gell. xvii. 19, 4. + + 1821 Luc. _Hermot._ c. 5. + +_ 1822 Ib._ c. 7, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1823 Luc. _Bis Acc._ c. 11. + +_ 1824 Ib._ c. 6, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} __{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}__ + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 1825 Fug._ c. 12; _Vit. Auct._ c. 10; D. Chrys. xxxii. 9; xxxiv. 3. + + 1826 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ v. 37. + + 1827 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 483. Renan, _Les Ev._ p. 384, + les differences des ecoles etaient a peu pres effacees. Un + eclecticisme superficie etait a la mode. + + 1828 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 7. + + 1829 Capitol. _M. Ant._ c. 3. + + 1830 Martha, _Moralistes sous l'Emp._ p. 275; Capes, _Univ. Life_, p. 58 + sqq. + +_ 1831 Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_ (1st ed.), + p. 355. + + 1832 Capes, _Univ. Life_, p. 69. + + 1833 Epict. ii. 19; iii. 23; Plut. _De Recta Rat. Aud._ vii. viii.; A. + Gell. v. i.; Zeller, iii. 1, p. 657. + + 1834 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. 3. + + 1835 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. iv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. A. Gell. v. 1, 3; Sen. _Ep._ 108, § 6, non id + agunt ut aliqua illo vitia deponant sed ut oblectamento aurium + perfruantur. Cf. Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. 7. + + 1836 Epict. iii. 23, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + Plut. _De Recta Rat. Aud._ c. viii.; cf. Hatch, _Hibbert Lec._ p. + 95. + + 1837 Plin. _Ep._ i. 10. + + 1838 Epict. iii. 21; ii. 1; ii. 23; Sen. _Ep._ 108, § 6. + + 1839 A. Gell. v. 1, 2, tum scias neque illi philosophum loqui sed + tibicinem canere. Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ iii. 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. D. Chrys. + _Or._ xxxv. §§ 7, 8. + + 1840 For a comparative estimate see Capes, _Univ. Life in Ancient + Athens_, p. 90; Hatch, _Hibbert Lec._ p. 105. + + 1841 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 3; iv. 42; D. Chrys. xxxiii. § 28; + xxxiv. § 4; xl. § 31. + + 1842 Cf. A. Gell. xii. 1, nihil, inquit, dubito quin filium lacte suo + nutritura sit. + + 1843 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iii. 41 sqq.; iv. 24; iv. 18, 20; i. 11; i. + 31. + +_ 1844 Ib._ iv. 13, 16, 19, 20, 33; vi. 40. + + 1845 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ v. 25, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 1846 Ib._ iv. 3. + +_ 1847 Ib._ iv. 8. + +_ 1848 Ib._ iv. 31. + +_ 1849 Ib._ iv. 41. + +_ 1850 Ib._ i. 11; iv. 40, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + + 1851 Diog. Laert. iv. 3, 1, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: Epict. iii. 1, § 14; Hor. _Sat._ + ii. 3, 253, quaero, faciasne, quod olim Mutatus Polemon? Cf. the + conversion of Isaeus, Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. 217. + + 1852 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 20; cf. i. 13. + +_ 1853 Ib._ vii. 16; cf. Tac. _Ann._ xv. 71; D. Cass. lxii. 27. + + 1854 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 71; xiv. 59; Epict. i. 1, 27. The Rufus is Musonius + Rufus. + + 1855 D. Cass. lxvi. 13, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}_. + + 1856 Zeller. _Phil. der __Griech._ iii. 1, pp. 651-658. + + 1857 Tac. _Hist._ iii. 81. + + 1858 Max. Tyr. v. viii. §§ 3, 10; xi.; xiv. § 8; xvii. For the little + known of him, _v._ Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 2. p. 182, n. 3. + + 1859 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxii. § 9, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1860 Sen. _Ep._ 5, § 1; 29, § 1; Mart. iv. 53, cum baculo peraque senem + ... cui dat latratos obvia turba cibos; Epict. iii. 22; D. Chrys. + _Or._ xxxiv. § 2; Athen. iii. 113; Petron. 14; Aleiphr. iii. 55; + Caspari, _De Cynicis_, p. 10. + + 1861 Luc. _Conviv._ c. 16, 35, etc. + +_ 1862 Fug._ c. 5, 15. + +_ 1863 Ib._ c. 12, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 1864 Luc. _Fug._ c. 17-21, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1865 Bernays, _Die Kyniker_, p. 39. Roheit und arbeitsscheues + Vagabundenthum ... mussten die Kynische Lebensweise sehr bequem + finden. + + 1866 Plut. (?) _De Plac. Phil._ ii. 8; iv. 5; Luc. (?) _Demon._ 4, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}_: cf. Caspari, _De Cyn._ p. 6; Zeller, iii. 1, p. 685. + + 1867 Cf. Luc. (?) _Dem._ 14 sqq.; Caspari, p. 6. + + 1868 Epict. iii. 22, § 80, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._, Luc. _Fug._ 14, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 1869 Luc. _Ver. Hist._ ii. 18; Athen. iv. 158; xiii. 588. + + 1870 S. Aug. _Civ. D._ xiv. 20, nemo tamen eorum audet hoc facere. + + 1871 D. Chrys. _Or._ lxxii. 2; Pers. v. 189; Petron. _Sat._ 71; Tac. + _Agr._ 4; _Hist._ iv. 5; Plin. _Ep._ i. 22; Quintil. xi. 1, 35; xii. + 2, 6. + + 1872 Capitol. _Avid. Cass._ 1, § 8, in a letter of Verus, te philosopham + aniculam, me luxuriosum morionem vocat: cf. c. 14. + + 1873 Bernays, _Die Kyniker_, p. 31, sie sind die am reinsten deistische + Sect, welche das hellenisch-roemische Alterthum hervorgebracht hat. + +_ 1874 Ib._ p. 30; cf. D. Cass. lxxvii. 19, for the favours showered on + the Cynic Antiochus by Severus. + + 1875 On Lucian's _Peregrinus_, _v._ Caspari, _De Cyn._ p. 24 sq.; + Bernays, p. 42 sqq. + + 1876 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 5, 10 sq. + +_ 1877 Ib._ c. 11, 12. + +_ 1878 Ib._ c. 14. + +_ 1879 Ib._ c. 17, 18; cf. the rudeness of Demetrius to Vespasian, Suet. + _Vesp._ xiii.; D. Cass. lxvi. 13. + + 1880 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 19, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1881 Caspari, _De Cyn._ p. 16; Bernays, _Luc. u. die Kyniker_, p. 16. + +_ 1882 Ib._ p. 54. + + 1883 This offended Demonax, cf. Luc. (?) _Dem._ c. 21, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1884 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 13. + +_ 1885 Ib._ 10, 14, 37; Bernays, p. 54. + + 1886 Cf. Aristid. _Or._ xlvi. (Dind. vol. ii. p. 402), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. Bernays, p. 36, + Uebertritte aus dem einen in das andere Lager vorkamen; Hatch, _Hib. + Lec._ p. 166; cf. Caspari, _De Cyn._ p. 25; Jul. _Or._ vii. 224. C. + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_ (_i.e._ _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_) + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 1887 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 36, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: c. 25, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 1888 Ib._ c. 2. + + 1889 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 7 sqq. + +_ 1890 Ib._ c. 4, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 1891 Sen. _Ep._ 58, § 36; 70, § 8; _De Prov._ ii. 10; vi. § 7; _De Ira_, + iii. 15; _De V. Beat._ 19; Epict. i. 24. Cf. Plin. _Ep._ i. 12; i. + 22; iii. 7; iii. 9; vi. 24; Boissier, _L'Opp._ p. 212 sqq. + + 1892 D. Cass. lxix. 8, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 1893 Ael. Spart. _Hadr._ c. 24. + + 1894 Diog. Laert. vi. 18; cf. vi. 77, for the death of Diogenes himself. + + 1895 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 29. + +_ 1896 Ib._ c. 33. + +_ 1897 Ib._ c. 34, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. _v._ Baur's view + of this piece (_Ch. Hist._ ii. 170). He thinks the self-immolation + of Peregrinus pure fiction, and that Lucian's object throughout was + to discredit Christianity. + + 1898 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 36. + +_ 1899 Ib._ c. 38. + + 1900 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 39. + +_ 1901 Ib._ c. 40. + + 1902 A. Gell. xii. 11, virum gravem atque constantem vidimus ... + deversantem in quodam tugurio extra urbem. + + 1903 Zeller, _Phil. der__ Griech._ iii. 1, p. 685; Bernays, _Luc. u. die + Kyniker_, p. 27 sq. + + 1904 Epict. _Diss._ iii. 22, § 23, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 1905 Ib._ iii. 22, §§ 28-30. + +_ 1906 Ib._ § 38, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1907 Epict. _Diss._ iii. 22, § 47, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 1908 Ib._ § 56, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 1909 Ib._ § 52. + +_ 1910 Ib._ § 67. + +_ 1911 Ib._ § 81, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 1912 Ib._ § 84. + +_ 1913 Ib._ § 100. + + 1914 Epict. iii. 22, §§ 86, 87. + +_ 1915 Ib._ § 93, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}_. + + 1916 Bernays, _Luc. u. die Kyniker_, pp. 36-38. + +_ 1917 Ib._ p. 99. + +_ 1918 Ib._ p. 37; Caspari, _De Cyn._ p. 25. + +_ 1919 Ib._ p. 5. + + 1920 Luc. (?) _Dem._ c. 16-21. + + 1921 Sen. _Ben._ vii. 11; Philostr. _Apoll. T._ vii. 42. + + 1922 Sen. _Ben._ vii. i. 3, vir meo judicio magnus etiamsi maximis + comparetur; vii. 8, 2. + + 1923 Id. _Ep._ 20, 9; _Vit. B._ xviii. 3. + + 1924 Id. _De Ben._ vii. 1, § 3, egregia hoc dicere solet, Plus prodesse, + si pauca praecepta sapientiae teneas, sed illa in promptu tibi sint, + etc. + + 1925 Luc. _Adv. Indoct._ 19. + + 1926 Sen. _De Ben._ vii. 8, 2. + + 1927 Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 34. + + 1928 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 25, 42; vi. 13; viii. 10; vii. 42. + + 1929 Epict. _Diss._ i. 25, § 22, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 1930 Suet. _Vesp._ xiii. philosophorum contumaciam lenissime tulit; + _Dom._ x.; D. Cass. lxvi. 13. + + 1931 Bernays, _Luc. u. die Kyniker_, p. 29. + + 1932 D. Cass. lxvi. 15. + + 1933 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 19; the attempt of Peregrinus in Greece + is probably referred to in Jul. Capitol. _Ant. P._ 5, § 5; cf. + Bernays, p. 30; Caspari, _De Cyn._ p. 15. + + 1934 Bernays, p. 31. + + 1935 Sen. _De Prov._ 5, §§ 5-7. + + 1936 Luc. _Dem._ c. 11; Oenom. _Fr._ 13, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_, 14; cf. Julian, _Or._ vii. 204, _a_. + + 1937 Caspari, _De Cyn._ p. 12; Bernays, p. 35; Zeller, _Phil. der + Griech._ iii. 1, p. 690. + + 1938 Plut. _De Def. Or._ vii. + + 1939 Julian, _Or._ vii. 209. + + 1940 Jul. vii. 209, 210, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 1941 Bernays, _Luc. u. die Kyniker_, p. 104, agrees with Bekker that the + _Demonax_ can hardly be a genuine work of Lucian. But its author was + a contemporary and friend of Demonax (c. i. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_). + + 1942 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 691, n. 6. + + 1943 Luc. _Dem._ c. 3 sqq. + +_ 1944 Ib._ c. 3, 24, 31. + +_ 1945 Ib._ c. 62. + + 1946 Luc. (?) _Dem._ c. 5, 6. + +_ 1947 Ib._ c. 14. + +_ 1948 Ib._ c. 7. + +_ 1949 Ib._ 6. + +_ 1950 Ib._ 9, 10. + +_ 1951 Ib._ c. 11, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}_. + +_ 1952 Ib._ c. 37. + +_ 1953 Ib._ 32. + +_ 1954 Ib._ c. 12, 24. + + 1955 Luc. (?) _Dem._ c. 14, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 1956 Ib._ c. 26, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}' {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}_. + +_ 1957 Ib._ c. 55. + +_ 1958 Ib._ c. 57. + +_ 1959 Ib._ c. 63 sqq. + + 1960 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxiv. § 2; lxxii. § 2. + + 1961 Cf. Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. 7. For other authorities _v._ Zeller, + _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 729, n. 1. Martha, _Moralistes sous + l'Emp. rom._ 294, gives a good sketch of Dion's career. + + 1962 D. Chrys. _Or._ xiii. § 1. + + 1963 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. 7. + + 1964 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. 2; _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + "{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}."_ + + 1965 D. Chrys. _Or._ xiii. § 6, 9, 10, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}_. + +_ 1966 Ib._ § 12, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. With the conversion of Dion cf. of that + of Isaeus and Polemon, etc., Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. p. 218; + _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 13; iv. 20; Epict. iii. 1; Diog. Laert. iv. 3, § + 1. + + 1967 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxvii. § 25; iv. § 1; vi. + +_ 1968 Or._ liv.; xiii. § 13, 14, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: cf. xviii. § 14, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 1969 D. Chrys. _Or._ lxx. § 1, 7; _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_; cf. xiii. § 33. + +_ 1970 Ib._ xiii. § 28; xxiii. § 7, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_; cf. Epict. i. § 14, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ M. Aurel. v. + 27. + + 1971 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxii. § 9; xxxv. § 2, 3; xxxiv. § 2. + +_ 1972 Or._ xvi. § 2, 3; xxxv. § 8; cf. xiii. § 11, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 1973 Or._ xiii. § 13, 34, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 1974 Or._ xxxiii. § 17, 23, 32; cf. the ghastly exposure in _Or._ vii. § + 133. + +_ 1975 Or._ xxxiii. §§ 24-28, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}_. Cf. xiii. §§ 33, 34. + + 1976 A good example is the opening of _Or._ xxxii. + +_ 1977 Or._ xiv. § 2; xiii. § 13, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: + cf. Zeller, _Phil. der Gr._ iii. 1, p. 730, er zeigt mit den + Stoikern, dass die wahre Freiheit mit der Vernuenftigkeit, die + Sklaverei mit der Unvernunft zusammenfalle; cf. _Or._ xvi. § 4. + +_ 1978 Or._ xvii. 2, 3. + +_ 1979 Or._ xx. § 8, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Hatch, _Hib. Lec._ p. 150. + + 1980 Plin. _Ep._ x. 17, 23, 24, 58; Bury, _Rom. Emp._ p. 439. + + 1981 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxiv. § 10, 14, 48; xxxviii. § 11; xxxiv. § 16, 19, + 29, 31. + +_ 1982 Ib._ xxxvi. + + 1983 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxvi. § 15, 8, 9, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. § 20, 23. + + 1984 Momms. _Rom. Prov._ i. pp. 326, 354; cf. Aristid. _Or._ xiv. xv. + 223-230 (Dind.). + + 1985 Momms. _Rom. Prov._ i. p. 362; cf. Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 7; + _Vit. Soph._ i. p. 220, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 1986 Momms. _Rom. Prov._ i. pp. 329, 330; cf. Aristid. _Or._ xv.; + Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 7, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}._ D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxiv. 48; Friedl. + _Sitteng._ iii. p. 111. + + 1987 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxviii. § 7, 31, 36. + +_ 1988 Ib._ xl. § 27, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 1989 Ib._ xxxviii. §§ 26-31. + +_ 1990 Ib._ xxxiv. §§ 44-48, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + +_ 1991 Ib._ xl. § 35. + +_ 1992 Ib._ xxxviii. §§ 42-46. + + 1993 Plin. _Ep._ x. 96, § 7. + + 1994 Mahaffy, _Greek World under Roman Sway_, p. 242; Merivale, viii. p. + 239; Momms. _Rom. Prov._ ii. p. 264. + + 1995 Momms. ii. p. 263; D. Chrys. xxxii.; Tac. _Hist._ iv. 81; Ael. + Spart. _Hadr._ c. 12, 14; D. Cass. lxix. 11; Petron. 31, 68. + + 1996 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxii. § 57, 41, 51, 55; Pl. _Rep._ iii. 399; Arist. + _Pol._ viii. 5. + + 1997 D. Chrys. _Or._ xxxii. § 75. + +_ 1998 Ib._ § 31, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 1999 Ib._ § 40. + + 2000 See an excellent analysis of this piece (vii.) in Mahaffy's _Greek + World under Roman Sway_, pp. 277-288. + + 2001 D. Chrys. _Or._ vii. § 34 sqq. + +_ 2002 Ib._ §§ 105-108. + +_ 2003 Ib._ §§ 82-89, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 2004 D. Chrys. _Or._ vii. § 133; Musonius, Stob. _Flor._ vi. 61; cf. on + this subject Denis, _Idees Morales_, etc. ii. p. 134. + + 2005 D. Chrys. _Or._ vii. § 139. + +_ 2006 Ib._ x. § 13; xv. § 5; 6, 31; cf. Juv. xiv. 16; Sen. _Ben._ iii. + 21; _Ep._ 47; cf. Denis, ii. 152; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ ii. p. 354. + + 2007 Cf. Newman's _Politics of Aristotle_, Introd. p. 144. + + 2008 D. Chrys. _Or._ xv. § 31. + + 2009 D. Chrys. _Or._ i. § 13; ii. §§ 75-77; iii. § 39, 62, 107; iv. § 63; + cf. Plin. _Paneg._ 72, 80, 67; Sen. _De Clem._ i. 13, § 4; i. 19, § + 2. + + 2010 D. Chrys. _Or._ i. § 79; cf. iii. §§ 5, 6. + +_ 2011 Ib._ i. § 52. + +_ 2012 Ib._ § 56. + +_ 2013 Ib._ § 66. + +_ 2014 Or._ iv. § 39. + +_ 2015 Ib._ iii. §§ 51, 62, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2016 D. Chrys. _Or._ iii. §§ 38, 88, 107. + + 2017 Sueton. _Dom._ xxxiii.; _Calig._ lx. abolendam Caesarum memoriam ac + diruenda templa censuerunt; cf. _Or. Henz._ 698, 699, 767, where the + names of Caligula and Domitian have been erased. + +_ 2018 Nov. Valent._ tit. viii.; _Leg. Anthem._ tit. i.; _Nov. Mart._ ii. + + 2019 D. Chrys. _Or._ vii. § 135, where the gods of pure wedlock are + appealed to against vagrant vice. + +_ 2020 Ib._ xii. § 20. + + 2021 D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 26. + + 2022 Luc. _De Sacrif._ 11, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2023 Or._ xii. § 51, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}._ + +_ 2024 Or._ xii. §§ 27, 28, 33, 42; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 117, § 6, omnibus + insita de dis opinio est. + + 2025 D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. §§ 42, 43. + +_ 2026 Ib._ § 61, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2027 D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 62. + +_ 2028 Ib._ § 56. + +_ 2029 Ib._ § 61; cf. Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ lxxi., lxxii., lxxvi.; + Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ vi. 19; Max. Tyr. _Diss._ viii. § 5. + + 2030 D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 59, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_: Plut. _De + Is._ lxxix. + + 2031 Cf. Max. Tyr. _Diss._ viii. § 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}_. + + 2032 D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 78. + +_ 2033 Ib._ §§ 74, 75. + + 2034 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. pp. 430, 435; cf. Thiersch, _Politik u. + Phil. in ihrem Verhaeltn. zur Religion_, p. 9. + + 2035 Thiersch, _Politik und Philosophie in ihrem Verhaeltniss zur + Religion_, pp. 14, 15. + + 2036 Reville, _Rel. unter den Sev._ p. 81. + + 2037 Lamprid. _Commodus_, c. 9. + + 2038 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 11, 22. + +_ 2039 Or. Henz._ 186, 193, 228 sqq., 275, 1637, 1580, 5873, 5879, 5887, + 1993. + +_ 2040 C.I.L._ vi. 110, 111. + +_ 2041 Or. Henz._ 6628 (fontis), 4922 (castrorum), 1704 (legionis), 1812 + (Neronis), 3953 (Hadriani). + + 2042 Lamprid. _Alex. Sev._ c. 29; Spart. _Hadr._ 14, § 5; Luc. _Peregr._ + c. 29; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. pp. 454-456. Thiersch, _Pol. u. + Phil. in Verhaeltn. zur Rel._ p. 10. + + 2043 Luc. _Alex._ 19; Friedl. _Sitteng._ iii. p. 470; Thiersch, p. 19. + + 2044 Luc. _Deor. Conc._ 12, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}_. + + 2045 Friedl. _Sitteng._ iii. pp 474-478; Wolff, _De Nov. Orac. Aetate_, + p. 29 sq. + + 2046 Petron. _Sat._ 61, 62. + + 2047 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ v. 12; iv. 5; iv. 10; vii. 5. + +_ 2048 C.I.L._ xii. 3070, 4316; viii. 9195; viii. 4578, Jovi, Junoni, + Minervae, Soli Mithrae, Herculi, Marti, Genio loci, Diis, Deabusque + omnibus; cf. viii. 4578; vi. 504. + + 2049 Luc. _Jup. Trag._ 8, 9; _Deor. Conc._ 8 sqq. + + 2050 Philostr. _Apoll. T._ vi. 40; Baumgart, _Aristides als Repraesentant + der Soph. Rhet._ pp. 62, 84; cf. Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 5; Macrob. + _Sat._ i. 17. + + 2051 Apul. _Met._ xi. cc. 3-6. + + 2052 Lamprid. _Alex. Sev._ c. 29. + + 2053 Apul. _Apol._ c. 64 (536), totius naturae causa et ratio, summus + animi genitor, aeternus animantum sospitator ... neque tempore neque + loco neque vice ulla comprehensus, nemini effabilis; cf. _Met._ xi. + c. 25; Denis, _Hist. des Idees Morales_, ii. p. 264. + + 2054 Thiersch, _Pol. u. Phil. in ihrem Verhaeltn. zur Rel._ p. 21, man + nennt den Marcus einen Stoiker.... Aber seine Dogmatik und seine + ganze Seelenbestimmung gehoert schon weit mehr dem Neoplatonismus an. + Cf. Bussell, _School of Plato_, pp. 278-290. + + 2055 Sen. _De Ben._ iv. 7. + + 2056 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 649. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 10, § 5; + _Ep._ 73, § 16; _Ep._ 41, § 2; _Ep._ 63, § 7; _Ep._ 83, § 1; _Ep._ + 95, § 50; _Ep._ 102, § 28, nulla serenum umbra turbabit; _De Prov._ + iv. 7; _De Ira_, ii. 27; _De Clem._ i. 7; _De Ben._ 1. 29. + + 2057 Epict. i. 9, § 7, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: cf. i. 3, § 3; + Denis, _Hist. des Idees Morales_, ii. p. 241. + + 2058 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, pp. 179, 184. + + 2059 James, _Varieties of Religious Belief_, pp. 511, 512. + + 2060 Bussell, _School of Plato_, p. 296. + + 2061 Sen. _Ep._ 41, § 2, sacer intra nos spiritus sedet. + + 2062 Yet cf. Zeller, iii. 1, p. 649, der goettliche Beistand, welchen er + verlangt, ist kein uebernatuerlicher. Seneca had broken away + unconsciously from the old Stoic idea of God, more than Zeller will + admit, or his words have no meaning. + + 2063 Sen. _Ep._ 95, §§ 51, 52. + +_ 2064 Ib._ 107, § 9; Epict. _Diss._ iii. 24. + + 2065 Epict. _Diss._ iii. 20, § 11, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: iv. 1, § 89; M. Aurel. vi. + 44. + + 2066 Epict. i. 16, § 20, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2067 M. Aurel. iv. 23. + +_ 2068 Ib._ ix. 40; Sen. _Ep._ 10, § 5. + + 2069 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 40, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xi. 8, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2070 Frag._ preserved in S. Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, vi. 10. + + 2071 D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 24 (412 R); Max. Tyr. _Diss._ viii. 10. + + 2072 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ viii. §§ 5-10; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ vi. 19. + + 2073 Max. Tyr. viii. 10, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 2074 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 299 sqq.; S. Aug. _De Civ. + Dei_, vi. 5. + + 2075 Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, i. p. 183 (Tr.); Preller, _Rom. Myth._ p. + 2. + + 2076 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, pp. 18-20. + + 2077 Sen. _Ep._ 117, §§ 19-30; Epict. _Diss._ i. 17; M. Aurel. vii. 67. + But cf. viii. 13; xii. 14; viii. 3. + + 2078 Luc. _Hermot._ c. 25, 34, 37 sqq. + + 2079 Ueberweg, _Hist. Phil._ i. p. 232; Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. + 2, p. 83; Thiersch, _Politik u. Phil._ etc., pp. 15, 16. + + 2080 Flav. Vop. _Vit. __Saturn._ c. 8, § 2, illic qui Serapem colunt + Christiani sunt, et devoti sunt Serapi, qui se Christi episcopos + dicunt, etc. + + 2081 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xiv. 8, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. xvi. 9. + + 2082 Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 8; ii. 17. + + 2083 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 2, pp. 57-62. + + 2084 Sen. _Nat. Q._ vii. 32, 2, Pythagorica illa invidiosa turbae schola + praeceptorem non invenit. + + 2085 Sen. _Ep._ 49, § 2; 108, § 17. + + 2086 Zeller, iii. 2, p. 85. + + 2087 Ueberweg, _Hist. Phil._ i. p. 228; cf. Hatch, _Hibbert Lec._ p. 148. + + 2088 Ueberweg, _Hist. Phil._ i. p. 252; cf. Eunapius, _Vit. Iambl._ + + 2089 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 3, 1; cf. Ael. Spart. _Vit. Sev._ 18. + + 2090 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 7. + +_ 2091 Ib._ ii. 38. + +_ 2092 Ib._ i. 11, § 16; i. 31; iv. 19, 20; iv. 41. + +_ 2093 Ib._ iii. 41. + + 2094 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 13; iv. 16. + +_ 2095 Ib._ iv. 1, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2096 Ib._ iv. 41. + +_ 2097 Ib._ iii. 35, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_: cf. Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xiv. § 6 sqq. + + 2098 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ ii. 37; vi. 11; vii. 26; Max. Tyr. _Diss._ + xiii. § 5. + + 2099 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ vi. 10; iv. 40; v. 12; iv. 18; iv. 44. + +_ 2100 Ib._ iv. 13; iii. 25. + +_ 2101 Ib._ vi. 19. + + 2102 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 40. + +_ 2103 Ib._ iv. 22; iv. 41; v. 26. + + 2104 Greard, _De la Morale de Plutarch_, p. 32; Volkmann, _Leben_, etc. + p. 37. + + 2105 For the apocryphal accounts, _v._ Greard, p. 3 sqq. + +_ 2106 Vit. Anton._ c. 68, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: + Volkmann, p. 21. + + 2107 Plut. _De __{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA~}__ ap. Delph._ c. 1; cf. 17; _Vit. Themist._ c. 32; + _Sympos._ iii. 1, § 1; ix. 14, § 2; ix. 14, § 7; i. 9; Eunap. _Vit. + Soph. Prooem._ 5, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2108 Sympos._ v. 5, § 1, _Vit. Agesil._ c. 19; Volkmann, pp. 34, 63. + +_ 2109 Praec. Ger. Reipub._ c. 20. + +_ 2110 Sympos._ viii. 7, § 1, _Vit. Dem._ c. 2. In this passage he says, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. Cf. _Frat. Am._ 4. + + 2111 Suet. _Dom._ c. xx.; Spart. _Vit. Hadr._ c. 16, § 5, Aul. Gell. xii. + 2; Luc. _Lexiph._ c. 20; Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. p. 278; Mace, + _Suetone_, p. 96; Greard, _Morale de Plut._ p. 33; cf. Sen. _Ep._ + 114, § 13, multi ex alieno seculo petunt verba: duodecim tabulas + loquuntur. + + 2112 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. p. 360. + + 2113 Plut. _De Curios._ c. 15, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2114 Plut. _De Tranq._ c. 1; _Sympos._ i. 9; v. 7, § 10; viii. 1; _De + Cohib. Ira_, c. 1; _Sympos._ ii. 3; i. 5; cf. Plin. _Ep._ i. 9; iv. + 5; _Ep._ i. 13; iv. 4; Tac. _Agr._ c. 2; cf. Suet. _Vesp._ c. xxii. + + 2115 For a description of this society, see Mahaffy's _Greek World under + Rom. Sway_, c. xliv. + + 2116 Plut. _Consol. ad Ux._ c. iv. x.; _Conj. Praec._ c. xliv. + + 2117 Plut. _Praec. Ger. Reipub._ c. 15; cf. _Sympos._ vi. 8, § 1. + + 2118 Plut. _An Seni Sit Ger. Resp._ c. 17, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. Suidas, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: cf. Volkmann, + p. 91. + +_ 2119 De Def. Orac._ c. v. viii. + +_ 2120 Ib._ c. ii. + + 2121 Trench, _Plutarch_, p. 22; Volkmann, p. 58. + + 2122 Plut. _Sympos._ ii. 2, § 1 (Eleusis); v. 8, § 1 (Athens); i. 10, § + 1; ii. 1, § 1 (Patrae); iii. 1, § 1; iv. 4, § 1 (Aedepsus), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_: cf. Volkmann, p. 57. + +_ 2123 Vit. Anton._ c. 28, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2124 Sympos._ ii. 2, § 1; ix. 15, § 1; viii. 6, § 5. + +_ 2125 De Fr. Am._ c. 16. + +_ 2126 Sympos._ iv. 1, 1; iv. 4, 1; v. 10, 1; v. 5, 1. + +_ 2127 Ib._ ix. 4, § 1; Mahaffy, _Greek World_, _etc._ p. 338. + + 2128 Plut. _Sympos._ viii. 2; viii. 7. + +_ 2129 Vit. Alex._ c. 1, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. So + _Vit. Nic._ c. 1, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2130 Vit. Pericl._ c. 12. + +_ 2131 Vit. Cat. Min._ c. 70. + + 2132 Greard, _Morale de Plut._ pp. 36, 52, 67. + + 2133 Cf. A. Gell. xviii. 2. + + 2134 Plut. _De Tranq._ c. xx. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK QUESTION MARK~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2135 Sen. _Ep._ 88, ad virtutem nihil conferunt liberalia studia; cf. + _Ep._ 94, 95, § 41. + + 2136 M. Aurel. vii. 35; ix. 41; Epict. _Frag._ lii. + + 2137 Zeller, _Phil. der Gr._ iii. 1, p. 720 n. + + 2138 A. Gell. i. 10; ii. 26; vii. 13; xii. 1; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ + iv. 20; v. 16. + + 2139 Oakesmith, _Rel. of Plutarch_, p. 64. + + 2140 Plut. _Cic._ c. 4. + + 2141 Zeller, _Phil. der Gr._ iii. 1, p. 534, in der Hauptsache die + bedeutendsten Philosophenschulen uebereinstimmen, etc. + +_ 2142 Ib._ p. 503. + +_ 2143 Ib._ iii. 2, pp. 144, 145. + + 2144 Sen. _Nat. Qu._ vii. 32, 2; Academici et veteres et minores nullum + antistitem reliquerunt. + + 2145 Epict. _Fr._ liii. + +_ 2146 Sympos._ vii. 1; _Consol. ad Apoll._ xxxvi. + +_ 2147 e.g._ _De Gen. Socr._ xxii. sqq.; _De Ser. Num. Vind._ xxii. + +_ 2148 Non posse Suav. vivi sec. Epic._ c. ii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: _Adv. Col._ c. ii. + + 2149 Trench, _Plut._ p. 93. + + 2150 Plut. _De Virt. Mor._ c. vii. sqq. + +_ 2151 Adv. Stoicos_, c. x. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 66, § 10; Zeller, _Phil. der. + Griech._ iii. 1, p. 230. + + 2152 M. Aurel. ix. 32; xii. 32; ix. 14; xi. 1; vii. 1; vi. 46; ix. 14. + +_ 2153 De Tranq._ c. iii., iv., xiv., xvii.; _De Cup. Div._ iii., iv.; _De + Exil._ v.; _De Alex. Virt._ c. vi.; ad init.; Zeller, iii. 1. p. + 281. + + 2154 Zeller, _Phil. der Gr._ iii. 1, p. 208; cf. iii. 2, p. 163; Plut. + _De Virt. Mor._ c. viii. + +_ 2155 De Virt. Mor._ l.c. + + 2156 Zeller. iii. 2, p. 154. + +_ 2157 De Virt. Mor._ vii. + +_ 2158 Ib._ iv. sq.; _De Cur._ i. + +_ 2159 De Virt. Mor._ vi.; Greard, p. 78. + + 2160 Pl. _Phaed._ 82 B; cf. Archer-Hind, App. i. to _Phaed._ + + 2161 Plut. _De Cohib. Ira_, i. ii.; _De Prof. in Virt._ xiii. xi. iii. + +_ 2162 De Prof._ iv.; _De Cohib. Ira_, ii. + +_ 2163 De Prof._ xvii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2164 Adv. St._ iv. vii. + +_ 2165 De Fato_, c. ix. (572). (Plut.?) + +_ 2166 Ib._ c. iv. v. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}_. + +_ 2167 Ib._ c. iv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2168 De Fort._ c. iii. iv. + + 2169 Greard, p. 68 sq. + + 2170 Plut. _De Rect. Rat. Aud._ c. vi. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: cf. viii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: c. xii. + +_ 2171 Ib._ c. vii. viii.; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 108, § 6, magnam hanc auditorum + partem videbis cui philosophi schola diversorium otii sit, etc.; + Epict. _Diss._ ii. 23. + +_ 2172 De Rect. Rat. Aud._ c. ix. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2173 Ib._ c. xii. + +_ 2174 De Cohib. Ira_, c. i. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2175 De Rect. Rat. Aud._ c. xii.; cf. _De Prof._ c. xv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2176 Trench, _Plut._ p. 33. + +_ 2177 De Tranq._ c. xvi. xvii. xiv. xv. + +_ 2178 Ib._ c. xix. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 2179 Plut. _De Tranq._ c. xi. xiii. xiv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + +_ 2180 De Prof._ c. xiv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2181 Ib._ c. i.-iv. + +_ 2182 Ib._ c. x. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2183 Ib._ c. xvii. + +_ 2184 Ib._ c. xv.; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 11, § 8; aliquis vir bonus nobis + eligendus est ... ut sic tanquam illo spectante vivamus, et omnia + tanquam illo vidente faciamus. + + 2185 Plut. (?) _Consol. ad Apoll._ c. vi. vii. sqq. + + 2186 M. Aurel. vii. 1; vii. 19; vi. 15; _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: ix. 32; + cf. _Consol. ad Apoll._ c. x. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2187 Consol. ad Apoll._ c. xvii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + +_ 2188 Ib._ c. xiv. + +_ 2189 Ib._ c. xv.; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 99, § 30; _Ep._ 36; _Ep._ 24. + +_ 2190 Consol. ad Apoll._ c. xxxiv. xxxv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}_: Pind. _Ol._ ii. 106 sqq. + + 2191 Plut. _De Virt. Mor._ c. vi. + + 2192 S. Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, iv. 27; vi. 2. + + 2193 Macrob. _Sat._ i. c. 17; cf. _Roman Society in the Last Century of + the W. Empire_, p. 77 (1st ed.). + +_ 2194 De Def. Or._ c. 2. + +_ 2195 De Is. et Osir._ c. lxxix. + +_ 2196 De __{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA~}__ ap. Delph._ c. xix. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + +_ 2197 De Is. et Osir._ c. 54, 78; _De __{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA~}__ ap. Delph._ c. 20; _Def. + Or._ c. 9, _ad fin._; Oakesmith, _Rel. of Plut._ p. 88; Zeller, + _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 2, p. 148; _De Is. et Osir._ c. 40, 66; + _non p. Suav._ c. 22, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: _De Ser. Num. Vind._ c. iv. v. xviii.; Nitsch, + _De Plut. Theologo_, p. 8; Greard, _Morale de Plut._ p. 263; cf. + Burgmann, _Seneca's Theologie_, pp. 14-20. + + 2198 Zeller, iii. 2, p. 152; _De Is._ c. 45-49; _De St. Rep._ c. 33. + + 2199 Plut. _De An. Procr._ c. 6. + + 2200 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 2, p. 155; Plat. _Tim._ 29, 30. + + 2201 Diog. Laert. ix. § 18, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} [{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}] {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}' + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_: _v._ + extracts in Ritter and Preller, _Hist. Phil._ p. 82; Plat. _Rep._ + ii. pp. 378-380. + + 2202 Plut. _De Is._ c. xxiii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 2203 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. 18, 21. + + 2204 Sen. _Ep._ 10, § 5; _Ep._ 41, § 1; Pers. ii. 73; Max. Tyr. _Diss._ + xi. § 8, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: Martha, _Moralistes sous l'Emp._ p. 163; Denis, + _Idees Morales_, ii. p. 245 sqq. + + 2205 Of the life of Maximus of Tyre little is known. He began his career + as a teacher probably about 155 A.D. Like other philosophers of his + time, he had travelled widely. See the references to Arabia and + Phrygia in _Diss._ viii., _e.g._ § 8, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. Cf. + Zeller, iii. 2, p. 183 n. + + 2206 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ iv. § 7. + +_ 2207 Ib._ xvi. § 1, § 8. + +_ 2208 Ib._ xvii. § 8. + +_ 2209 Ib._ § 10. + + 2210 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xvii. § 11. + +_ 2211 Ib._ xi. § 2, § 7. + +_ 2212 Ib._ viii. § 2, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}_. + + 2213 Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 59 (404 R). + + 2214 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ x. § 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. § 5, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2215 Ib._ x. § 3. + + 2216 Plut. _De Is._ lxviii.; xx.; Max. Tyr. x. §§ 5-7; cf. Macrob. _Som. + Scip._ i. 2, 7-19; Hatch, _Hibbert Lec._ p. 55 sq. + + 2217 Plut. _De Is._ lxvi. _ad fin._ + + 2218 Plut. _De Is._ c. lxvii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2219 Ib._ c. lxi.; xxxv.; cf. Herodot. ii. c. 50. + + 2220 Plut. _De Is._ c. xxxv. + +_ 2221 Ib._ c. xx. + + 2222 Plut. _De Is._ c. xxiii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2223 Ib._ c. lxvi. + + 2224 Apul. _De Deo Socr._ c. vi. (133). + + 2225 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xiv. §§ 7, 8. + + 2226 Cf. Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. 361, 1. M. Aurel. v. 10, 27, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_: vii. 17; Epict. + i. 14, § 12, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2227 Plut. _De Sera Num. Vind._ c. xxii. + + 2228 Apul. _De Deo Socr._ c. xiii.; Max. Tyr. xv. § 4; Plut. _De Def. + Or._ c. x. + + 2229 Plut _De Def. Or._ c. xvii. + + 2230 Max. Tyr. xv. § 3. + + 2231 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. xviii. + +_ 2232 Ib._ c. xxi. + + 2233 Plut. _De Is._ c. xxv.; _De Def. Or._ c. x. + + 2234 Hes. _Op. et D._ 125; cf. Rohde, _Psyche_, i. p. 96. + + 2235 For the spiritual influences at work _v._ Lobeck, _Aglaoph._ p. 312; + Grote, i. p. 23; Bury, _Hist. of Greece_, p. 312; Hardie, + _Lectures_, p. 57. + + 2236 Diog. Laert. i. 27, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}_. + +_ 2237 Heracl. Reliq._ p. 26 Bywater, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. Ritter and Preller, _Hist. Phil._ p. 23; + Diog. Laert. ix. 1, § 7. + + 2238 Ritter and Preller, _Hist. Phil._ pp. 126, 7; Hild, _Etude sur les + Demons_, p. 228. + + 2239 Diog. Laert. viii. 1, § 30 sqq. + + 2240 Pind. _Ol._ ii. 105 sqq. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + +_ 2241 Sympos._ 202 E; _Polit._ 271 D; _Phaed._ 107 D, 108 B; _Tim._ 90 A. + + 2242 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xiv. § 8. + + 2243 Plat. _Rep._ ii. 377-380. + + 2244 Plut. _De Is._ c. xlv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: + cf. Hatch, _Hibbert Lec._ p. 218. + +_ 2245 De Is._ c. xxvi. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: _De Def. Or._ c. x., c. xvi. + +_ 2246 De Is._ c. xxv. + + 2247 Mr. Oakesmith thinks that Plutarch tended to identify them, _Rel. of + Plut._ p. 127. + + 2248 Tatian, _Adv. Gr._ 20; Clem. Alex. _Ad Gent._ 26; Cypr. _Ep._ 75, + 10; Min. Felix, c. 26, 27, isti igitur impuri spiritus daemones, ... + sub statuis et imaginibus delitescunt, et adflatu suo auctoritatem + quasi praesentis numinis consequuntur, dum inspirant interim vates, + dum fanis immorantur ... sortes regunt, oracula efficiunt, falsis + pluribus involuta, etc. Cf. Tertull. _Apol._ c. xxii. operatio eorum + est hominis eversio.... Itaque corporibus quidem et valitudines + infligunt et aliquos casus acerbos, etc. Cf. _De Idol._ c. ix; + Maury, _La Magie_, p. 99 sqq. + + 2249 Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, viii. 14-22. + + 2250 Cic. _De Div._ ii. 57, 117, cur isto modo jam oracula Delphis non + eduntur ... ut nihil possit esse contemptius? Strab. vii. 7, 9, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + + 2251 Herodot. viii. 134. + + 2252 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. v. viii. + + 2253 D. Cass. lxiii. 14, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 2254 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. ii. + +_ 2255 De Pyth. Or._ c. xxix.; _v._ Greard, p. 252. + +_ 2256 De Pyth. Or._ c. x. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2257 De Pyth. Or._ c. xi. + +_ 2258 Ib._ c. v. xvii. + +_ 2259 Ib._ c. xix. + +_ 2260 Ib._ c. xxiii. + +_ 2261 Ib._ c. xxiv. + +_ 2262 Ib._ xxii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2263 De Pyth. Or._ c. xxv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2264 De Def. Or._ c. viii. + +_ 2265 Ib._ c. ix. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_; c. xlviii.; + _De Pyth. Or._ c. xxi. + +_ 2266 De Def. Or._ xlii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2267 Ib._ c. x. xii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_: cf. Plat. _Sympos._ 202 E; Apul. _De Deo Socr._ c. vi.; + Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xiv. §§ 2-8. + +_ 2268 De Def. Or._ c. xliii. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2269 Ib._ c. xxxviii.; Maury, p. 149. + + 2270 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. xlvi. + +_ 2271 De Gen. Socr._ c. xi. xx.; cf. Hild, _Etude sur les Demons_, p. 263 + sqq. + +_ 2272 De Gen. Socr._ c. xi. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2273 Plut. _De Gen. Socr._ c. xx. + + 2274 Philostr. _Apoll. T._ vi. 11. + +_ 2275 De Gen. Socr._ c. xx. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_; cf. _De Def. Or._ c. xxxvii. + +_ 2276 De Def. Or._ c. xxxix. + +_ 2277 De Def. Or._ c. xxxix. + + 2278 Cic. _De Nat. Deor._ i. 17, 42, § 117; ii. 28, § 70; _De Div._ ii. + 72; Sen. _Ep._ 123; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. 23. + + 2279 Lamprid. _Com._ c. 9. + + 2280 Vop. _Aurelian._ c. 35, § 3. + + 2281 Plut. _De Superst._ c. 5, 6, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + +_ 2282 De Superst._ c. 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2283 Ib._ c. 4, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2284 Ib._ c. 6, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. Cf. Bacon's _Essays, Of Superstition_, + "It were better to have no opinion of God at all, than such an + opinion as is unworthy of Him." + + 2285 Greard, p. 269. + + 2286 Luc. i. 65; iii. 991; cf. Cic. _De Div._ ii. 72. + + 2287 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 24. + + 2288 Juv. vi. 523, 547; Mart. vii. 54; Luc. _Philops._ c. 7-13. + + 2289 Eurip. _Ion_, 104. + + 2290 Liv. xliii. 13. + + 2291 Cic. _De Div._ ii. 24. + + 2292 Tac. _Ann._ xi. 15, rettulit deinde ad senatum super collegio + haruspicum, ne vetustissima Italiae disciplina per desidiam + exolesceret. + + 2293 Warde Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 343. + + 2294 D. Cass. lii. 36, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}_. + + 2295 Suet. _Octav._ xxxi. + + 2296 Cic. _De Leg._ ii. 9; Fowler, _Rom. Fest._ p. 233. + + 2297 Ov. _Fast._ iii. 285; Lucr. i. 131; Liv. i. 20. + + 2298 Val. Max. i. 3, 3; cf. Cic. _De Div._ ii. 43. + + 2299 Aul. Gell. iii. 10. + + 2300 Cic. _In Catil._ iii. 4; cf. Plut. _Vit. Cic._ c. 17. + + 2301 Suet. _Octav._ xciv. xcvii. + + 2302 Cf. D. Cass. lxvi. 9, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 2303 Suet. _Dom._ x. interemit Met. Pompeianum quod habere imperatoriam + genesin vulgo ferebatur. + + 2304 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 52; ii. 32, 75; D. Cass. xlix. 43; Suet. _Vitell._ + xiv. + + 2305 Suet. _Tib._ lxix., circa deos negligentior quippe addictus + mathematicae, etc. + +_ 2306 Ib._ xiv. Yet cf. his love of mythical _nugae_, _ib._ lxx. + + 2307 Juv. x. 94. See the remarkable chapters in Tac. _Ann._ vi. 21-22. + + 2308 Tac. _Ann._ xii. 52. + + 2309 Suet. _Ner._ lx.; xxxiv., facto per magos sacro evocare manes et + exorare tentavit. + +_ 2310 Ib._ xl. + + 2311 Suet. _Galb._ xviii. + + 2312 Suet. _Otho_, iv. + + 2313 Tac. _Hist._ i. 22. + + 2314 Suet. _Otho_, vii. viii. + + 2315 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 50. + + 2316 Suet. _Vitell._ iii. xi. xiv. + + 2317 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 62. + + 2318 D. Cass. lxv. 1, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2319 Ib._ lxvi. 9, 10. + + 2320 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 78. + + 2321 Suet. _Titus_, v. viii. ix. + + 2322 Id. _Dom._ xiv. xv. + + 2323 Suet. _Dom._ x. xiv. xv. xvi.; D. Cass. lxvii. 15, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}_. + + 2324 Spart. _Hadr._ c. 16; cf. Renan, _L'Egl. Chret._ c. 2. + + 2325 Spart. _Hadr._ c. 2, § 4. + + 2326 D. Cass. lxix. 11, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2327 Spart. _Hadr._ c. 16, § 7. + + 2328 Id. _M. Anton._ c. 19. + + 2329 D. Cass. lxxi. 8. + + 2330 Luc. _Alex._ c. 35, 47. + + 2331 M. Aurel. x. 5; ix. 27: on the Stoic belief in divination, _v._ Cic. + _De Div._ i. 38 (82); Zeller, _Phil. der Griechen_, iii. 1, p. 313 + sqq. + + 2332 Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, § 4. + + 2333 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 27. + +_ 2334 Ib._ i. 18, v. 5, 5; cf. Mayor's learned note on iii. 5, 4; + Gregorovius, _Hadrian_, p. 229 sqq. + + 2335 Suet. _Jul. Caes._ lxxvii. + + 2336 Id. _Octav._ xciii. + + 2337 Cf. Mace, _Suetone_, p. 59 sqq. + + 2338 Apul. _Met._ iv. 27; i. 8; cf. Petron. _Sat._ 62, 63. + +_ 2339 v._ Fabian, _Quid Tac. de num. div. judicaverit_, pp. 7, 13, 16, + 21, 24, 29; Nipperdey, _Einleitung_, xiv. xxvi.; Tac. _Hist._ v. 5; + ii. 38; _Ann._ iii. 18; vi. 22; xiv. 12; cf. Peter, _Die Gesch. + Litt._ ii. p. 221. + + 2340 Tac. _Agric._ c. 2, 4; _Hist._ iv. 5; _Ann._ xiv. 12. + +_ 2341 Agric._ c. 45; _Hist._ i. 2; iii. 37; _Ann._ i. 7. + +_ 2342 Ann._ i. 1. + +_ 2343 Hist._ i. 3 _ad fin._ + +_ 2344 Ann._ xvi. 33, aequitate deum erga bona malaque documenta. + +_ 2345 Ib._ vi. 22; cf. Mackail, _Rom. Lit._ p. 210. + +_ 2346 Hist._ i. 22, genus hominum potentibus infidum sperantibus fallax, + quod in civitate nostra et vetabitur semper et retinebitur; cf. + _Hist._ v. 4; _Ann._ vi. 28; iv. 58; cf. Fabian, p. 19. + +_ 2347 Hist._ ii. 50. + +_ 2348 Ib._ iv. 81; cf. Nipperdey, _Einl._ xxvi. + +_ 2349 Hist._ ii. 50; iv. 81; i. 6; i. 18; v. 13; _Ann._ i. 65; ii. 14; + _Hist._ iii. 56; iv. 83; cf. Fabian, _Quid Tac. de num. div. + judicaverit_, p. 19. + + 2350 Peter, _Gesch. Litt._ ii. p. 42. + + 2351 Tac. _Hist._ iii. 83, simul cruor et strues corporum, juxta scorta + et scortis similes, etc. + + 2352 Suet. _Nero_, c. iv. vi. + + 2353 Id. _Calig._ xxi. xxii. xxix. xxxiv. xxxvii.; cf. Mackail, _Rom. + Lit._ p. 213. + + 2354 Suet. _Nero_, lvii. + + 2355 Epict. _Diss._ ii. 7, § 10, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2356 Ib._ _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. Cf. _Ench._ 32. + + 2357 Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 72; Preller, _Rom. Myth._ (Tr.), + p. 381. + + 2358 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. p. 273, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: cf. _Praef. Jac. Perizonii ed. Aeliana_, + Gronov.; Suid. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 2359 Ael. _Var. Hist._ xi. 13. + +_ 2360 v._ _Fragm. Ael. ap. Gronov._ p. 1014. + +_ 2361 Ib._ p. 1022. + +_ 2362 Ib._ p. 1024. + +_ 2363 Ib._ p. 1023. + +_ 2364 Ib._ p. 1011. + +_ 2365 Ib._ p. 1030. + +_ 2366 Fragm. Ael._ pp. 1009, 1034. + +_ 2367 Ib._ p. 1013. + +_ 2368 Ib._ p. 1049. + +_ 2369 Ib._ p. 1051. + +_ 2370 v._ Jebb's _Aristides_, _Collect. Hist._ § vi. + + 2371 Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ ii. p. 253. + + 2372 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. p. 440 sqq.; Baumgart, _Ael. Aristides + als Repraesentant der Soph. Rhet._ pp. 68, 96. + + 2373 Baumgart rejects Welcker's view of the essentially religious + character of Aristides, pp. 112, 113. + + 2374 Baumgart, pp. 62, 102, Bald ist in der ganzen Heilungsgeschichte + dies die Hauptsache, dass nun sein Rhetorentum die hoechste Weihe + erhalten habe. + + 2375 Id. p. 62. + + 2376 Baumgart, pp. 60, 61. + + 2377 Id. p. 64. + +_ 2378 v._ c. iii. of Pater's _Marius the Epicurean_. + + 2379 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iii. 44; D. Cass. lxix. 22, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}_. + + 2380 Caton, _Temples and Ritual of Asklepios_, p. 27. + + 2381 Baumgart, p. 97; cf. Aristid. _Or._ p. 574 (Jebb's Ed.), 531. + + 2382 Aristid. _Or._ p. 530 (Jebb). + + 2383 Caton, p. 29. + + 2384 Maury, _La Magie_, p. 231. + + 2385 S. Hieron. in _Is._ c. lv. p. 482. + + 2386 Pausan. ix. 39, § 4; Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xiv. 2. + + 2387 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. 41-46; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 8; cf. + Maury, _La Magie_, p. 237. + + 2388 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 22. + + 2389 Max. Tyr. xvi. i.; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ ii. 37; vi. 11. + + 2390 See a list in Tertullian, _De Anima_, c. 46. + + 2391 Strab. xvii. 17 (1052). + + 2392 Diod. Sic. i. 25. + + 2393 Cic. _De Div._ i. 58. + + 2394 Wolff, _De Nov. Orac. Aet._ p. 29. + + 2395 Caton, p. 28. + + 2396 Diod. Sic. i. 25. + + 2397 Wolff, _De Nov. Orac. Aet._ p. 31, Ejus sacerdotes fraudibus famosi + opportune Isidis templo Pompeiano culpae convicti sunt; ubi ipse + scalinam vidi secretam, etc. Maury, _La Magie_, pp. 237-8. + + 2398 Cf. Maury, p. 240. + + 2399 See a list in Caton, p. 36 sq. + + 2400 Caton, p. 28; Pausan. ii. 27, § 5; cf. Strab. viii. 6, § 15. + + 2401 Caton, pp. 40, 38. + + 2402 Baumgart, p. 101. + + 2403 Cf. Aristid. _Or._ 536-538 (Jebb, t. i.). + + 2404 Aristid. _Or._ 537, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + +_ 2405 Ib._ 538, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2406 Ib._ 541, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}._ + Cf. 514, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._, and _Collect. Hist. ad an._ 160, in Jebb's Ed. + +_ 2407 Ib._ 504. + +_ 2408 Ib._ 554, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2409 Arist. _Or._ 501-3, 506, 531, 532. + + 2410 Aristid. _Or._ 521. + +_ 2411 Ib._ 504-5, 541-2. + + 2412 Baumgart, p. 101; Aristid. _Or._ p. 550 (Jebb, t. i.). + + 2413 Aristid. _Or._ 553; Baumgart, p. 99. + + 2414 Aristid. _Or._ 506, 515; cf. Baumgart, p. 122. + + 2415 Aristid. _Or._ 505, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2416 Ib._ 529. + + 2417 Baumgart, p. 64, und dabei entwickelte sich der Glaube, dass er dem + Asklepios alles verdanke, Leib, Leben, und speciell die Gabe der + Rede, etc.; cf. p. 68, erhebt er ihn auch als den eigentlichen + Verleiher und Spender seiner rednerischen Gaben, etc., p. 69, er dem + Gotte einen staerkeren und bleibenden Einfluss auch auf die + Gestaltung seines inneren Lebens zuschreibt. + + 2418 Id. p. 69. + + 2419 Aristid. _Or._ 512, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + + 2420 Baumgart, pp. 112, 123. + + 2421 On his vanity _v._ Baumgart, p. 110. The most glaring example is in + _Or. Sac._ 4, 591-2, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}_. + + 2422 Artemid. _Oneirocrit._ iii. 66. + +_ 2423 Ib._ i. 1, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2424 Ib._ Cf. Tertullian, _De An._ 46, 47. + + 2425 Artemid. _Oneirocrit._ _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. Praef. + +_ 2426 Ib._ ii. 70, _ad fin._ + +_ 2427 Ib._ i. Praef., _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 2428 Artemid. _Oneirocrit._ iv. 71. + +_ 2429 Ib._ _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2430 Ib._ ii. 69. + + 2431 Maury, p. 241. + + 2432 Artemid. _Oneirocrit._ iv. Praef. + +_ 2433 Ib._ ii. 4. + +_ 2434 Ib._ i. 13, 17. + +_ 2435 Ib._ i. 22. + +_ 2436 Ib._ i. 37, 39. + +_ 2437 Ib._ i. 51. + +_ 2438 Ib._ i. 66. + +_ 2439 Ib._ v. 18. + + 2440 Artemid. _Oneirocrit._ v. Praef. + + 2441 Luc. _Concil. Deor._ c. 12, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ Cf. Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 14. + + 2442 Cic. _De. Div._ ii. 57, cur isto modo iam oracula Delphis non + eduntur non modo nostra aetate, sed jamdiu, jam ut nihil possit esse + contemptius? + + 2443 Strab. ix. 3, 4, (419), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: + vii. 7, 9, (328) (Dodona); xvii. 1, 43 (Ammon). + + 2444 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. 5. + + 2445 Plut. _De Def. Or._ c. 8, 38. + + 2446 Id. _Cic._ c. 5. + + 2447 Tac. _Ann._ ii. 54. + + 2448 Suet. _Tib._ c. xiv. + + 2449 Id. _Calig._ c. lvii. + + 2450 Id. _Nero_, xl. + + 2451 Tac. _Hist._ ii. 78. + + 2452 Suet. _Tit._ c. v. + + 2453 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 24. + + 2454 Luc. _Alex._ c. 29. + + 2455 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. p. 469. + + 2456 D. Cass. lxiii. 14. + +_ 2457 v._ Wolff. _De Nov. Orac. Aet._ p. 5. + +_ 2458 Ib._ pp. 6, 52. + + 2459 Luc. _Alex._ c. 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2460 Luc. _Alex._ c. 4, 5. + +_ 2461 Ib._ c. 8, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2462 Ib._ c. 9. + +_ 2463 Ib._ c. 12. + +_ 2464 Ib._ c. 15-18. + +_ 2465 Ib._ c. 20. + + 2466 Luc. _Alex._ c. 23, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}_. + + 2467 If I am right in interpreting Lucian's statement, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 2468 Luc. _Alex._ c. 23, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2469 Ib._ c. 24. + +_ 2470 Ib._ c. 51, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}_. + +_ 2471 Ib._ c. 30, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2472 Ib._ c. 31. + +_ 2473 Ib._ c. 32. + +_ 2474 Ib._ c. 30, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 2475 Luc. _Alex._ c. 35. + +_ 2476 Ib._ c. 38, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: cf. 25, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2477 Ib._ c. 46. + +_ 2478 Ib._ cc. 53 sqq. + + 2479 Jul. Capitol. _M. Ant._ cc. 22, 17. + + 2480 Luc. _Alex._ cc. 36-48. + + 2481 Luc. _Alex._ c. 38. + + 2482 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. 456. + +_ 2483 Or. Henz._ 1810, 5320; cf. Preller, _Rom. Myth._ (Tr.), p. 415. + + 2484 D. Cass. lxix, 11; cf. Gregorov. _Hadrian_, p. 128. + + 2485 Luc. _De Morte Peregr._ c. 29. + + 2486 Jul. Capitol. _M. Ant._ c. 18, hodieque in multis domibus M. + Antonini statuae consistunt inter deos penates ... sacrilegus + judicatus est qui ejus imaginem in sua domo non habuit. + + 2487 Max. Tyr. _Diss._ xiv. 8. + + 2488 Petron. _Sat._ 17. + + 2489 Herod. i. 60. + + 2490 Preller, _Myth. Rom._ p. 65, 66, 387. + + 2491 Cf. _Or. Henz._ Ind. pp. 27, 28; _v._ especially 1730 (genius + Jovis), 1812 (Neronis), 193 (Arvernorum), 2204 (Col. Ostiensis), 689 + (municipii), 1704 (legionis), 4113 (pavimentariorum), 6628 (fontis). + +_ 2492 Or. Henz._ 2135, Sei Deo Sei Deivae Sac. etc.; 1580, Aesculapio et + Hygiae caeterisque diis deabusque hujus loci Salutaribus; 5902, + Hospitibus diis Mauricis et genio loci, etc. + + 2493 Cf. Tertull. _Apol._ c. 24. + +_ 2494 Or. Henz._ 1997-2001; cf. D. Cass. lxxvii. 15. + +_ 2495 Or. Henz._ 823, 1967. + +_ 2496 Ib._ 1959, 1986, 1954; cf. _C.I.L._ xii. 1556, 3097; viii. 9195, + 4578, 8834. + + 2497 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. pp. 482-4. + +_ 2498 Or. Henz._ 1580. + +_ 2499 Or. Henz._ 5689. + +_ 2500 Ib._ 1560. + +_ 2501 Ib._ 1632, 4, 7; Nymphis ob reditum aquarum, etc. + +_ 2502 Ib._ 5758. + + 2503 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 16, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 2504 Friedl. _Sittengesch._ iii. p. 479. + + 2505 Orig. _C. Celsum_, lib. iii. p. 124, ed. Spencer; lib. vii. p. 334, + Friedl. iv. p. 458; S. Aug. _De Civ. D._ xix. 23, quis ita stultus + est qui non intelligat ... consilio simili ab impuris daemonibus ita + fuisse responsa, etc.; cf. viii. 22, mirabilibus et fallacibus + signis sive factorum sive praedictorum deos se esse persuaserunt. + + 2506 Herodot. vi. 86. + + 2507 Plut. _Non posse suav. vivi_, etc. c. 26 sq.; _De Ser. Num. Vind._ + c. 18. + + 2508 Plat. _Phaed._ 85 D, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} [{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}] {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 2509 Soph. _O.C._ 1055. + + 2510 Sellar's _Virgil_, p. 367; cf. Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. 367. + + 2511 Cic. _Tusc._ i. 16, sub terra censebant reliquam vitam agi + mortuorum; cf. F. de Coulanges, _La Cite Ant._ p. 8. + +_ 2512 Or. Henz._ 4525. + +_ 2513 Ib._ 4433, posticum cum apparitorio, et compitum a solo pecun. sua + fecerunt, etc.; cf. 4353; Petron. c. 71. + + 2514 Marq. _Priv._ i. 367. + + 2515 Cf. Duruy, _Hist. Rom._ v. 637. + + 2516 Aesch. _Choeph._ 92, 488; F. de Coulanges, _La Cite Ant._ p. 16. + +_ 2517 Or. Henz._ 7364, 7338, 4076, 4417, 4422. + +_ 2518 Ib._ 4428, somno aeterno sacr. ... fecerunt sibi et suis libertis + libertabusque, etc., 4631, 4435. + +_ 2519 Ib._ 4781, 3, 5, 6, 4790, quisquis hoc sustulerit aut laeserit + ultimus suorum moriatur. + +_ 2520 Or. Henz._ 4775, 4419, 4420, 4415, 4737; T. Lollius positus propter + viam ut dicant praeterientes, Lolli ave, cf. 4745. + + 2521 Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 307. + +_ 2522 Or. Henz._ 4414, 4417, nam curatores substituam qui vescantur ex + horum hortorum reditu natali meo et praebeant rosam in aeternum. Hos + neque dividi neque alienari volo. + +_ 2523 Ib._ 4084, 4100, 4420. + + 2524 Marq. _Priv._ i. 362; Mau, _Pompeii_, p. 421 sqq.; cf. Cic. _Tusc._ + i. 16. + +_ 2525 Or. Henz._ 4737. + +_ 2526 Ib._ 7396, 7402, vivite felices qui legitis. + + 2527 Cic. _Tusc._ i. 12, 27, quas (caeremonias sepulcrorum) ingeniis + praediti nec tanta cura coluissent, nec violatas tam inexpiabili + religione sanxissent, nisi haereret in eorum mentibus mortem non + interitum esse omnia tollentem, etc. + + 2528 Aelian, _Fr._ p. 1023 (Gronov.). + + 2529 S. Paulin. Nol. _Carm._ 27; S. Aug. _Ep._ 22, _Serm._ v. xvii.; cf. + Sidon. Apoll. v. 17; Bingham, _Antiq. of Chr. Church_, ii. p. 1165. + + 2530 Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 108. + +_ 2531 Or. Henz._ 4775, horis nocturnis ut eum videam, et possim dulcius + et celerius aput eum pervenire. + +_ 2532 Ib._ 7346. + + 2533 Marq. _Priv._ i. pp. 438-9; Preller, _Rom. Myth._ (Tr.), p. 331. + + 2534 Momms. _Rom. Hist._ i. p. 189; Tertull. _Apol._ xv. vidimus et Jovis + fratrem gladiatorum cadavera cum malleo deducentem. + + 2535 Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 211. + + 2536 Luc. _Philops._ c. 6. + +_ 2537 Ib._ c. 16. + +_ 2538 Ib._ cc. 22-24. + +_ 2539 Ib._ c. 27. + + 2540 Plut. _Cim._ c. 1, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2541 Plin. _Ep._ vii. 27. + + 2542 Suet. _Calig._ c. 59. + + 2543 D. Cass. lxii. 17. + + 2544 Lobeck, _Aglaoph._ i. p. 221. + + 2545 D. Cass. lvii. 15. + + 2546 Suet. _Nero_, c. xxxiv. + + 2547 Max. Tyr. xv. 7. + + 2548 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. p. 316. + +_ 2549 Ib._ p. 279; cf. Conington, _Introd. Aen._ vi. p. 419; Rohde, + _Psyche_, ii. p. 165. + + 2550 Grote, ii. p. 518 (ed. 1862). + + 2551 Mommsen, _R. Hist._ i. p. 187; Preller, _Rom. Myth._ pp. 197, 407, + 438. + +_ 2552 Aen._ vi. 289. + +_ 2553 Ib._ 313, 416. + +_ 2554 Ib._ 441. + +_ 2555 Ib._ 472. + +_ 2556 Ib._ 555. + +_ 2557 Ib._ 600. + +_ 2558 Ib._ 608. + +_ 2559 Aen._ 640; cf. Pind. _Ol._ ii. 130. + +_ 2560 Aen._ vi. 645. + +_ 2561 Ib._ 748; cf. Conington's _Virg. Introd. Aen._ vi. p. 419; Lobeck, + _Aglaoph._ ii. 798. + + 2562 Diog. Laert. _Vit. Pythag._ viii. 1, § 14; _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: S. Aug. _De Civ. D._ vii. 6; cf. Liebaldt, _Theolog. Varr._ + i. p. 14; Cic. _Rep._ vi. 15-25; Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 14. + + 2563 Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. 161, n. 1, 34, 312; Cic. _De N. D._ i. 11, 27; + Pythagoras qui censuit animum esse per naturam rerum omnem intentum + et commeantem, ex quo nostri animi carperentur, etc. + +_ 2564 Aen._ vi. 756 sqq. + +_ 2565 C.I.L._ iv. 2361, 1982; Mau, _Pompeii_, 486-8; Friedl. iii. p. 300. + + 2566 Sen. _Ad. Marc._ xix. 4; Cic. _Tusc._ i. 21, 48; Juv. xiii. 48; + Plut. _De Superst._ c. 4. + + 2567 Luc. _De Luctu_, cc. 1-10. + + 2568 Plut. _Non p. Suav._ c. 27. + + 2569 Id. _De. Ser. Num. Vind._ iv. 44; _De Gen. Socr._ c. 22. + + 2570 Luc. _De Luctu_, c. 10; Friedl. iii. p. 632; Rohde, _Psyche_, i. p. + 306, n. 3; Maury, _La Magie_, p. 158. + +_ 2571 Or. Henz._ 4443. + +_ 2572 Ib._ 1197. + +_ 2573 Ib._ 2982. + +_ 2574 Ib._ 4433, 4416, 4417. + +_ 2575 Ib._ 4662, 4755. + +_ 2576 Or. Henz._ 4581, 4841, 4849, 4701, 7352. + +_ 2577 Ib._ 7392. + +_ 2578 Rel. Rom._ i. 342. + +_ 2579 Or. Henz._ 1192. + +_ 2580 Ib._ 7387, 4809, 4810, 4811, 4807, 4813, vixi dum vixi bene; jam + mea peracta mox vestra agetur fabula; velete et plaudite, 7411. + +_ 2581 Or. Henz._ 4806, 7; 4; 4816, hic secum habet omnia. Balnea, vina, + venus corrumpunt corpora nostra, set vitam faciunt. + +_ 2582 Ib._ 7407. + +_ 2583 C.I.L._ ii. 1877. + +_ 2584 Or. Henz._ 6674, dum vixi bi(bi) libenter; bibite vos qui vivitis. + +_ 2585 Ib._ 7410--miscete Lyaeum, etc., caetera post obitum tellus consumit + et ignis. + + 2586 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. 312-316; Thiersch, _Politik und Phil. in + ihrem Verhaeltn. zur Rel._ p. 13. + + 2587 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. 310. + + 2588 Lucret. iii. 952, 991. + +_ 2589 Ib._ 844 sqq. + + 2590 Plut. (?) _De Plac. Phil._ iv. 7, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 2591 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 185; Cic. _Tusc._ i. 32, 79. + + 2592 Zeller, iii. 1, p. 711, keine Seelenthaetigkeit ist ohne koerperliche + Bewegung moeglich; Renan, _Averroes_, pp. 128 sq., 418; Rohde, + _Psyche_, ii. p. 309. + + 2593 Cf. Graham, _Creed of Science_ (2nd ed.), p. 183, "The poets must + count for much in the argument, since they possess in higher degree + than others the great creative faculty of imagination which outlines + the province of the possible"; Jowett, _Plato_, i. pp. 389 sqq., + etc. + + 2594 Sall. _Catil._ c. 51. + + 2595 Plin. _H. N._ vii. 55, 188. + + 2596 Cf. Plut. (?) _Cons. ad Apoll._ c. xii. xiii. + + 2597 Sen. _Ad Marc._ c. xix. + + 2598 Sen. _Ep._ 54, 99, § 30; _De Prov._ vi. § 6; _Ad Marc._ 25. + + 2599 Quint. _Inst._ v. 14, 13, cum, soluta corpore anima an sit + immortalis vel ad tempus certe maneat, sit in dubio. + + 2600 Tac. _Agric._ c. 46; cf. Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. p. 318, n. 3. + + 2601 Spart. _Hadr._ c. 13, § 3; 14, § 3; 17, § 9; cf. Gregorovius, p. + 303. + + 2602 Spart. _Hadr._ 13, § 1. + +_ 2603 Ib._ c. 15, § 12; 16, § 8. + + 2604 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 660 n. + + 2605 Epict. _Diss._ iii. 6, § 10. + + 2606 A. Gell. xv. 11. + + 2607 Ael. Spart. _Hadr._ c. 16. + + 2608 Epict. _Diss._ iv. 5, § 17. + + 2609 M. Aurel. i. 7, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}_. + + 2610 Epict. _Diss._ ii. 1, § 17. + +_ 2611 Ib._ iii. 24, § 93; cf. M. Aurel. iv. 14, 21, and Rohde, _Psyche_, + ii. 330. + + 2612 Epict. _Diss._ iii. 13, § 15. + +_ 2613 Ib._ § 14, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}; {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + +_ 2614 Diss._ i. 9, § 14, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2615 Ueberweg, _Hist. Phil._ i. p. 237. + + 2616 Zeller, iii. 1, p. 735. + +_ 2617 Phaedo_, 86 B. + + 2618 Zeller, iii. 1, p. 740; Ueberweg, _Hist. Phil._ i. p. 237. + + 2619 Jul. Capit. _M. Ant._ c. 13; c. 21; cf. Merivale, _Rom. Hist._ viii. + pp. 335-6. + + 2620 M. Aurel. vii. 67; Zeller, iii. 1, p. 677. + + 2621 M. Arnold, _Essays in Criticism_, p. 427. + + 2622 M. Aurel. iii. 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. pp. 327-28. + + 2623 ix. 3, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND VARIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + + 2624 xii. 30-32. + + 2625 vi. 42, 47; ix. 29, 32; vi. 15; vii. 19; vi. 36, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. p. 147. + + 2626 M. Aurel. vi. 49, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 2627 M. Aurel. ix. 32, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2628 Ib._ vi. 36, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} ... {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}_. + +_ 2629 Ib._ vii. 35. + +_ 2630 Ib._ x. 33; v. 11; v. 27. + +_ 2631 Ib._ xi. 1. + +_ 2632 Ib._ vi. 16; vi. 2; vi. 51; vii. 21, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}_. + +_ 2633 Ib._ xi. 1; vii. 1. + + 2634 M. Aurel. vi. 46, 47; vii. 3; ix. 30. + +_ 2635 Ib._ vi. 47; cf. Luc. _Icaromenippus_, c. 18; _Traj. sive Tyr._ c. + 8; _Charon_, c. 17; _Menip._ c. 15, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2636 M. Aurel. vii. 19, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. Cf. ix. 29, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + +_ 2637 Ib._ vii. 49; vii. 1; ix. 14; x. 23; xi. 1. + + 2638 M. Aurel. iv. 32. + +_ 2639 Ib._ xi. 1. + +_ 2640 Ib._ ix. 29, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + +_ 2641 Ib._ vii. 47; ix. 34. + + 2642 Sen. _Ep._ 109, § 9. + + 2643 Sen. _Ep._ 57, § 7. + +_ 2644 Ib._ 73, § 16; _Ep._ 83. + + 2645 Id. _De Prov._ iv. § 7, quos amat indurat, exercet. + + 2646 Id. _De Ben._ iv. 4; _De Ira_, ii. 27. + + 2647 Sen. _Ep._ 65, § 22; 102, § 26; _Ad__ Helv._ 11, § 7; _Ad Marc._ 24, + § 5. Cf. Plat. _Phaed._ 83 C, D. Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ vi. 11; + vii. 26. + + 2648 Plat. _Phaed._ 79 C; 81 A. + + 2649 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 185. + + 2650 Sen. _Ad Marc._ c. 19, 20; cf. Plut. (?) _Consol. ad Apoll._ c. 15, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: cf. _ib._ c. 34. + + 2651 Sen. _Ep._ 36; 71, § 12; _Ad Marc._ 19, § 4. Cf. Rohde, _Psyche_, + ii. p. 328. + + 2652 Sen. _Ep._ 102, § 21. + +_ 2653 Ep._ 120, § 14; 102, § 28, aliquando naturae tibi arcana + retegentur: discutietur ista caligo ... nulla serenum umbra + turbabit, cf. Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. p. 328, n. 4. Rohde, like Zeller, + seems to me not to recognise sufficiently how far Seneca has + departed from the old Stoicism. + +_ 2654 Ep._ 26, § 5; _Ad Marc._ xxv. + + 2655 See the apocryphal letters, p. 477, of Haase's ed. of Sen.; cf. + Lightfoot, _S. Paul's Ep. to the Philippians_, p. 268 sqq. Zeller, + _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 1, p. 637, n. 1; Baur, _Ch. Hist._ i. p. + 16. + + 2656 Sen. _Ep._ 108, § 17; cf. Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 7, 8. + + 2657 Sen. _Nat. Qu._ vii. 32, § 2, Pythagorica illa invidiosa turbae + schola praeceptorem non invenit. + + 2658 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 2, p. 95. + + 2659 Herodot. ii. 123. + + 2660 Herodotus never mentions Orpheus, but speaks of _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}_, ii. 81; + nor do the schol. on Homer allude to him (Lob. _Aglaoph._ i. p. 540; + cf. _Aglaoph._ p. 255 sqq.). His existence was denied by Aristotle + (Cic. _De Nat. Deor._ 1. 38, 108). Plato seems to be as assured of + it as Iamblichus, _Cratyl._ 402; cf. Iambl. _Pythag._ 145, 243. + + 2661 Iambl. _Pythag._ 151; Lobeck, _Aglaoph._ i. p. 238. + + 2662 Cic. _De Leg._ ii. 14, 36, neque solum cum laetitia vivendi rationem + accepimus, sed etiam cum spe meliore moriendi. + + 2663 Plut. _Cons. ad Ux._ c. 10. + + 2664 Plat. _Phaed._ 70 C; 69 C. + + 2665 Plat. _Rep._ ii. 364 B. + + 2666 Cf. Gardner and Jevons, p. 268, who think the ceremonies never were + indecent. Rohde, i. p. 289. + + 2667 Herodot. ii. 81; Iambl. _Pythag._ 151; Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. p. 103. + + 2668 Baur, _Ch. Hist._ ii. p. 178. + + 2669 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 2, p. 99. + + 2670 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 7, 8; cf. Sen. _Ep._ 108, §§ 17-20. + + 2671 Zeller, iii. 2, p. 122. + + 2672 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ i. 2; cf. Zeller, iii. 2, p. 134, n.; Baur, + _Ch. Hist._ ii. pp. 174, 206. + + 2673 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ iv. 20; iii. 41; i. 11, 16; vi. 40. + + 2674 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ ii. 37; vi. 11. + +_ 2675 Ib._ iv. 16. + +_ 2676 Ib._ iv. 16. + +_ 2677 Ib._ viii. 31, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_. + + 2678 Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ viii. 31, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~};_ + + 2679 Plut. (?) _Consol. ad Apoll._ c. 34; cf. c. 15. + +_ 2680 Ib._ c. 7 sqq. + +_ 2681 Ib._ c. 36, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2682 Consol. ad Ux._ c. 3. + +_ 2683 Consol. ad Ux._ c. 4, 6. + +_ 2684 Consol. ad Apoll._ c. 17-24. + +_ 2685 De Ser. Num. Vind._ c. 18 (561 A). + +_ 2686 Ib._ _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + +_ 2687 Non p. Suav._ c. 26, 27. + +_ 2688 Ib._ c. 23 (1103). + +_ 2689 Non. p. Suav._ c. 30, 26. + +_ 2690 Ib._ c. 27, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. + +_ 2691 Ib._ c. 28. + +_ 2692 Ib._ c. 28, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2693 Consol. ad Apoll._ c. 36. + +_ 2694 De Ser. Num. Vind._ c. 16: cf. Greard, _De la Morale de Plut._ p. + 283; Oakesmith, _Rel. of Plut._ p. 111 sqq. + +_ 2695 De Ser. N. Vind._ v. c. 17, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2696 Ib._ c. 17 (560 F). + +_ 2697 Ib._ c. 17, ad fin. + + 2698 Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. pp. 275, 279; Jowett's _Plato_, i. p. 396; Pl. + _Phaed._ 85 C, D; 60 B, C; 69 C; _Meno_ 81 A; _Phaed._ 114 D, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2699 Plut. _De Ser. Num. Vind._ c. 22 (563 C). + +_ 2700 Ib._ _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2701 Plut. _De Ser. Num. Vind._ c. 22 (565). + +_ 2702 Ib._ c. 22 (566), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2703 Plut. _De Ser. Num. Vind._ c. 22 (567 D), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}{~GREEK ANO TELEIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2704 Cf. Pausan. ix. 39, § 5; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ viii. 19; Plut. + _De Gen. Socr._ c. 21, 22 (589, 590); cf. Gardner and Jevons, _Greek + Antiq._ pp. 267-8. + + 2705 Plut. _De Gen. Socr._ c. 22 (590), _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2706 Ib._ (591). + + 2707 Plut. _De Fac. in Orb. Lun._ c. 30. + + 2708 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. p. 67. + + 2709 W. Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 89. + +_ 2710 Ib._ p. 229. + + 2711 Cic. _De Div._ i. 5, 9, existimo ... si Dii sint, esse qui divinent; + i, 38, 82; si sunt Dii, neque ante declarant hominibus quae futura + sint, aut non diligunt homines, aut quid eventurum sit ignorant. + This argument is attributed to Chrysippus and Diogenes in ii. 49, + 101. + + 2712 Sen. _Frag._ 39 (Aug. _De Civ. D._ vi. 11). See Varro's opinion, + _ib._ vi. 5. + +_ 2713 De Civ. Dei_, vi. 4. + + 2714 Cic. _De Nat. D._ ii. 28, 70; cf. Sen. _Frag._ 39, cf. _Ep._ 95, 47. + + 2715 Cic. _De Div._ i. 3, 6. + + 2716 Polyb. vi. 56, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2717 Cic. _De Nat. Deor._ iii 17, 43, in illa aureola oratiuncula, cf. + Sym. _Rel._ iii. + + 2718 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. p. 60. + + 2719 Aug. _De Civ. D._ vi. 2; cf. Cic. _De Leg._ ii. 13, 33, dubium non + est quin haec disciplina et ars augurum evanuerit jam et vetustate + et negligentia. + + 2720 D. Cass. liv. 36; cf. W. Fowler's _Rom. Fest._ p. 343, Preller, + _Rom. Mythol._ p. 24. + + 2721 Suet. _Octav._ c. 30. + +_ 2722 Ib._ c. 70, coena _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: cf. Thuc. vi. c. 28, § 1. + + 2723 Suet. _Octav._ c. 91, 92. + + 2724 D. Cass. liv. 35 _ad fin._ + + 2725 Ov. _Fasti_, i. 609, hic socium summo cum Jove nomen habet. Sancta + vocant augusta patres; augusta vocantur Templa, sacerdotum rite + dicata manu. + + 2726 D. Cass. lii. 36, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}_. + +_ 2727 Ib._ xlvii. 15 _ad fin._ + +_ 2728 Ib._ liv. 6. + + 2729 Suet. _Octav._ c. 31. + + 2730 D. Cass. li. 20. + + 2731 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. 87. + + 2732 Momms. _Roem. Staatsr._ ii. p. 1024. + +_ 2733 C.I.L._ vi. 2042; cf. 2444 and 2034. Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. p + 363. + +_ 2734 C.I.L._ vi. 2051, 2. + + 2735 Momms. _Roem. Staatsr._ ii. p. 1022. + + 2736 Liv. i. 20. + + 2737 Habel, _De Pontif. Rom._ p. 45. + +_ 2738 Or._ 1080, 1117; cf. Zosim. iv. 36; Amm. Marc. xvi. 10; Sym. _Ep._ + x. 54. + + 2739 Habel, _De Pontif. Rom._ p. 13. + +_ 2740 Ib._ pp. 16, 17, 62; _C.I.L._ vi. 932, 1984. + + 2741 Habel, p. 62. + +_ 2742 Ib._ p. 24. + + 2743 Jul. Capitol. _M. Ant. Phil._ c. 4. + +_ 2744 Ib._ c. 6. + +_ 2745 Ib._ c. 16; Lamprid. _Com._ c. 12 (a. 175). + + 2746 Jul. Capitol. _M. Ant._ c. 13. + + 2747 Tac. _Ann._ iv. 16. Yet he is said to be _circa deos negligentior_, + c. 69. + +_ 2748 Ib._ c. 36. + + 2749 Suet. _Claud._ c. 22; Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8. + + 2750 Suet. _Otho_, c. 7, 8, 12; _Vitell._ c. 5, 11; Tac. _Hist._ i. 87. + +_ 2751 Or._ 2364. + + 2752 Tac. _Hist._ iv. 53. + + 2753 Suet. _Dom._ c. 5, 15. + + 2754 Ael. Spart. _Hadr._ c. 22. + +_ 2755 Ib._ 16, § 5; Plin. _Ep._ vi. 21, § 1; Mace, _Suetone_, p. 96; + Martha, _Moralistes_, p. 184 sq. + + 2756 Pater, _Marius_, chap. ii., xxvii. + + 2757 Jul. Capitol. _Ant. P._ c. 11. + +_ 2758 Ib._ c. 4. + +_ 2759 Ib._ c. 13. + + 2760 Petron. c. 17. + +_ 2761 C.I.L._ iii. p. 1160 sqq.; xii. p. 924 sqq.; _Or. Henz._ iii.; + _Ind._ pp. 25, 29, 30, 33. + +_ 2762 C.I.L._ xii. 3070, 3077; 2383; iii. 2804, 5787; _Or. Henz._ 1244, + 1245. + + 2763 Liv. xxi. 38, quem in summo sacratum vertice Poeninum montani + appellant; _Or. Henz._ 231-6, 5028, 1271. + +_ 2764 Or. Henz._ 1267, 1271. + + 2765 Petron. _Sat._ 44. + + 2766 Jul. Capitol. _Vit. Ant. P._ c. 8; Preller, _Rom. Myth._ p. 185. + + 2767 Suet. _Dom._ c. 4. + +_ 2768 Or. Henz._ 1561, 1590; _C.I.L._ xii. 4316; iii. 1162. + + 2769 Preller, p. 437. + +_ 2770 Or. Henz._ 1603. + +_ 2771 Ib._ 1613. + +_ 2772 Ib._ 1632, 1634, 1637, 5758a. + + 2773 Preller, pp. 406-8; _Or._ 1580, 1581, 1572. + +_ 2774 Or. Henz._ 2270; cf. Wordsworth, _Specimens of Early Latin_, p. + 158; _C.I.L._ vi. 2024 sqq. + + 2775 Preller, p. 293. + + 2776 Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 74, 275. + +_ 2777 C.I.L._ vi. 2059, ob inlatum ferrum, etc. + +_ 2778 Ib._ vi. 2040, 2041, 2043; Preller, p. 294; Oldenberg, _De Sacris + Fr. Arv._ p. 5. + + 2779 Oldenberg, p. 9. + +_ 2780 C.I.L._ vi. 2086. + + 2781 Boissier, i. p. 369; Oldenberg, p. 41. + + 2782 Boissier, i. p. 374; Preller, p. 295. + +_ 2783 C.I.L._ vi. 2023-2113. + +_ 2784 Ib._ 2056, ex tabella missa Imp. Vesp. cooptamus, etc. + +_ 2785 Ib._ 2024. + +_ 2786 Ib._ 2051. + + 2787 Jan. 16, 69 A.D. + +_ 2788 C.I.L._ vi. 2052. + +_ 2789 C.I.L._ vi. 2040, 2041. + +_ 2790 Ib._ 2039. + +_ 2791 Ib._ 2042. + +_ 2792 Ib._ 2044; cf. 2029 (Caligula). + +_ 2793 Ib._ 2064, 2067. + +_ 2794 Ib._ 2074. + +_ 2795 Ib._ 2078. + +_ 2796 Ib._ 2086; cf. Flav. Vop. _Probus_, c. 12. + +_ 2797 C.I.L._ vi. 2092. + +_ 2798 C.I.L._ iii. 5788; _Or._ 1245, 1290. + +_ 2799 Or._ 1238, Fulguratori, 1240, 1271, Jovi O. M. tempestatum potenti. + +_ 2800 C.I.L._ iii, 1032, 1948, 1590; _Or._ 1269, 1248, 1225, 1269; + _C.I.L._ xii. 1066. + +_ 2801 Or._ 1335. + +_ 2802 Ib._ 1410. + +_ 2803 Ib._ 1428, 1429, restitutione facta sibi capillorum. + +_ 2804 Ib._ 1634. + +_ 2805 Ib._ 1572, 1576. + + 2806 Plin. _H. N._ ii. 7, 5, fragilis et laboriosa mortalitas in partes + ista digessit infirmitatis suae memor, ut portionibus coleret + quisque quo maxime indigeret. + +_ 2807 v._ supra, p. 425 sqq. + + 2808 Min. Fel. _Octav._ c. 6, quanto venerabilius ac melius antistitem + veritatis majorum excipere disciplinam, religiones traditas colere, + deos, quos a parentibus ante imbutus es timere quam nosse + familiarius, adorare, etc. + + 2809 Virg. _Aen._ viii. 343; Ov. _Fasti_, ii. 267; Baronius, _Ann. Eccl._ + viii. 60; Gibbon, c. 36; Fowler, _Rom. Fest._ p. 310. + + 2810 Sym. _Relat._ 3. + + 2811 Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, ii. 4; Tertull. _Apol._ 13; _Adv. Marc._ i. 13. + + 2812 Lucret. ii. 600. + + 2813 Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, ii. 8, vii. 24. + +_ 2814 C.I.L._ vi. 499, 504, 509, 510, 511, 512; xii. 1782, 1567; _Or._ + 1899, 1890, 2335. + +_ 2815 De Civ. Dei_, ii. 4, 7, 8; vi. 7; vii. 24. + +_ 2816 C.I.L._ ii. 179 (Spain, 108 p. Chr.); iii. 1100, 1443 (Dacia, p. + Chr. 110); _Or. Henz._ 5839 (Portugal). + + 2817 Liv. 29, 10. + +_ 2818 Or._ 1906, Navisalviae et matri D. (_v._ note). + + 2819 Ov. _Fasti_, iv. 305; Sen. _Frag._ 80; Suet. _Tib._ c. 2. + + 2820 Fowler, _Rom. Fest._ p. 70. + + 2821 Val. Max. vii. 7, 6; Goehler, _De Matr. Magn. Cultu_, p. 10. + + 2822 Lucret. ii. 600; Virg. _Aen._ ix. 620; x. 220; Ov. _A. Am._ i. 507; + Prop. iii. 17, 35; cf. Preller, p. 484. + +_ 2823 C.I.L._ vi. 496. + + 2824 Goehler, p. 12. + + 2825 Yet cf. D. Cass. lxi. 20, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + +_ 2826 C.I.L._ x. 1406. Imp. Vesp. templum M. M. terrae motu conlapsum + restituit. + +_ 2827 Ib._ ii. 179 (108 p. Chr.); cf. _Or. Henz._ 5839. + +_ 2828 C.I.L._ iii. 1100, 1443. + +_ 2829 Ib._ x. 1596 (Naples, p. Chr. 134). + +_ 2830 Or. Henz._ 2322. + + 2831 Goehler, p. 15. + + 2832 Tertull. _Apol._ 25; D. Cass. lxxi. 33. + +_ 2833 C.I.L._ vi. 501 (p. Chr. 383); 509, 511, 510, 500. + + 2834 Reville, p. 60; Ov. _Fasti_, iv. 251, + + Cum Trojam Aeneas Italos portaret in agros, + Est dea sacriferas paene secuta rates. + + 2835 Ov. _l.c._ 293. + + 2836 Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, vi. 8; vii. 25; Jul. _Or._ v. p. 161 D. + + 2837 There were many variations of the myth; _v._ Goehler, pp. 2, 3; + Foucart, _Assoc. Rel._ p. 89; Ov. _Fasti_, iv. 223. + + 2838 Reville, p. 64; Preller, p. 485. + + 2839 Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 70; cf. Foucart, _Assoc. Rel._ p. 88, + for similar treatment at Athens. + +_ 2840 C.I.L._ x. 3810; viii. 8203; xii. 1782; ii. 5260. + +_ 2841 Ib._ xii. 1782; _Or. Henz._ 2325, 6031; Goehler, p. 40. + + 2842 Goehler, p. 12; _C.I.L._ vi. 511, 504, 500. + +_ 2843 C.I.L._ iii. 2920; xii. 1567. + +_ 2844 Ib._ x. 6074; vi. 502, 508; _Or. Henz._ 7200 (Acte), 2330, 1902, + 2371, 2319, 2325; _C.I.L._ xii. 4322, 4326. + +_ 2845 Or. Henz._ 7336, 2322, 6031, 4109, 7197; _C.I.L._ viii. 9401. + + 2846 Goehler, p. 45. + +_ 2847 C.I.L._ xii. 1782. + +_ 2848 Or. Henz._ 2325, 2984. + + 2849 Mahaffy, _The Greek World under Roman Sway_, p. 295 sqq. + + 2850 Reville, _Rel. unter den Sev._ p. 65; Apul. _Met._ viii. 24 (_v._ + Hildenbrand's notes.) + + 2851 Apul. _Met._ viii. c. 27 (580); cf. Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, ii. 4. + + 2852 Apul. _Met._ viii. c. 28 (583). + +_ 2853 Ib._ c. 28 (585). + +_ 2854 Ib._ c. 30 (589). + +_ 2855 C.I.L._ x. 1406; Lamprid. _Alex. Sev._ c. 37. + + 2856 Firm. Matern. _De Err. Prof. Rel._ c. 2, 3. + + 2857 Reville, p. 66; Goehler, p. 29; Cumont, _Mon. figures de Mithra_, + Introd. p. 333; _Or._ 2329, 2330, 1900; _C.I.L._ vi. 497, 500, 511; + cf. _ib._ x. 1596, where the taurobolium is connected with Venus + Coelesta (_sic_); Preller, p. 486. + + 2858 Tertull. _De Praescrip. Haeret._ 40; Firm. Matern. _De Err. Prof. + Relig._ c. 27, neminem aput idola profusus sanguis munit ... polluit + sanguis iste, non redimit.... Tauribolium quid vel criobolium + scelerata te sanguinis labe perfundit? S. Paulin. Nol. _Poem. Ult._ + 112-117. + + 2859 Cumont, Introd. pp. 236, 333; Herodot. iv. 103; Eur. _Iph. T._ 1455; + Strab. v. 3, § 12, p. 240. + + 2860 Cumont, p. 334; Gasquet, _Culte de Mithra_, p. 75; Cumont, Introd. + p. 334, n. 5; Reville, _Rel. unter den Sev._ p. 93, takes an + opposite view. + + 2861 Donsbach, _Die __raeumliche__ Verbreitung des Mithrasdienstes_, pp. + 8, 9. + + 2862 This is rendered doubtful by Porphyr. _De Abstin._ iv. 16, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}). + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_ (altered by Felicianus to _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_); cf. + Gasquet, p. 98. + +_ 2863 C.I.L._ vi. 1778, 9. + + 2864 Goehler, p. 55; _C.I.L._ x. 1596; Puteoli, p. Chr. 134; taurobol. + Veneris Caelestae (_sic_). + +_ 2865 Or._ 2382; Goehler, p. 55; cf. _C.I.L._ viii. 8203. + +_ 2866 Or._ 2327, ex jussu ipsius; _C.I.L._ xii. 1782, ex vaticinatione + Archigalli; cf. xii. 4321, 4323. + +_ 2867 C.I.L._ xii. 1782. + +_ 2868 Ib._ xii. 4321 (_stipe collata_); at private expense, xii. 1568. + +_ 2869 Peristeph._ x. 1011; cf. Duruy, v. p. 743. + +_ 2870 C.I.L._ xii. 1311, 251, 1822, 4332; _Or._ 2332. + + 2871 Goehler, p. 34; Reville, p. 66; Preller, p. 488; Cumont, Introd. p. + 333. + + 2872 Goehler, p. 29. + + 2873 Lafaye, _Culte des divinites d'Alexandrie_, p. 15; Plut. _De Is. et + Osir._ c. 28. + + 2874 Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 35, addressed to Clea, who was high in + the worship of Dionysus, and "hereditarily devoted to Osiris." + + 2875 Lamprid. _Com. Ant._ c. 9; Spart. _Sev._ c. 17; Reville, _Rel. unter + den Sev._ p. 58. + + 2876 Foucart, _Assoc. Religieuses_, p. 83. + + 2877 Lafaye, pp. 27-32; Paus. i. 18, § 4. + + 2878 Lafaye, p. 38. + +_ 2879 v._ Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 53, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}_, c. 52, + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: c. 38, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_: cf. c. + 32; c. 56, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}_: cf. Herodot. ii. 156; Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 7, matrem + siderum, parentem temporum, orbisque totius dominam blando mulcentes + affamine. + + 2880 Herodot. ii. 154. + +_ 2881 Ib._ 156; cf. Plew, _De Sarapide_, p. 23 sqq. + + 2882 Thuc. i. 104. + + 2883 Lafaye, p. 15 sqq. + + 2884 Plew, _De Sarapide_, p. 10 sqq. + + 2885 Tac. _Hist._ iv. 84. + + 2886 Plew, _De Sarapide_, p. 15; Preller, p. 478. + + 2887 Plew, _De Sarapide_, p. 6. + + 2888 Lafaye, p. 17. + + 2889 Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 45, 49. + +_ 2890 Or._ 1890 sqq.; _C.I.L._ viii. 1005; iii. 4560, 3. + + 2891 Aristid. _Or. Sac._ viii. 53, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}' + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_. Cf. Baumgar. _Aristides als + Repraesentant der Soph. Rhet._ p. 90 sqq. + +_ 2892 Or._ 1871, tibi quae es omnia. + + 2893 Apul. _Met._ xi. 7. + + 2894 Lafaye, p. 43. + + 2895 Id. p. 40; Mau, _Pompeii_, p. 163. + + 2896 Liv. xxix. 10; Goehler, _De Matris Magnae Cultu_, p. 7. + + 2897 Liv. xxxix. 19. + + 2898 Preller, _Myth. Rom._ p. 473. + + 2899 Plin. _H. N._ xiii. 27; Liv. xl. 29; Momms. _Rom. Hist._ ii. p. 402; + Lafaye, p. 41. + + 2900 Tertull. _Adv. Marc._ i. 13; Firm. Mat. _De Err. Prof. Rel._ 2, § 7, + cur plangitis fruges terrae et crescentia lugetis semina? + + 2901 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 30, Collegii vetustissimi et sub illis Sullae + temporibus conditi, etc. + + 2902 Tertull. _Apol._ 6; _Ad Nat._ i. 10; prohibitos Capitolio Varro + commemorat eorumque aras a senatu dejectas nonnisi per vim + popularium restructas, Val. Max. i. 3, 4; cf. Lewald, _De Peregr. + Rel. ap. Rom._ p. 10. + + 2903 D. Cass. xlii. 26. + + 2904 Lafaye, p. 47; Val. Max. vii. 3, 8; cf. App. _B. C._ iv. 47. + + 2905 D. Cass. xliii. 27; xlvii. 15. + + 2906 Catull. x. 26; Tibull. i. 3, 23; Propert. ii. 33. + +_ 2907 Aen._ viii. 698. + + 2908 D. Cass. liii. 2, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}_; cf. liv. 6. + + 2909 Lafaye, p. 55, discredits the tale of the seduction, which is given + by Josephus alone, _B. Jud._ xviii. 3; cf. Tac. _Ann._ ii. 85; Suet. + _Tib._ 36. + +_ 2910 C.I.L._ x. 2, 7563 sqq. + + 2911 Suet. _Claud._ 25; cf. D. Cass. lx. 6. + +_ 2912 C.I.L._ vi. 353. + + 2913 Tac. _Ann._ xv. 36; cf. Suet. _Nero_, 40, 47, varia agitavit, an vel + Aegypti praefecturam concedi sibi oraret, etc. + + 2914 Suet. _Otho_, 12. + + 2915 Suet. _Vesp._ iv. v. vii.; Tac. _Hist._ iv. 81. + + 2916 Tac. _Hist._ iii. 74; cf. Suet. _Domit._ i. + + 2917 Lafaye, p. 61, n. 8. + + 2918 Boissier, _Prom. __Archaeol._ p. 238; Spart. _Hadr._ c. 26. + + 2919 Lamprid. _Commod._ 9. + + 2920 Gibbon, c. 28; Amm. Marc. xxii. 16. + +_ 2921 C.I.L._ ii. 6004. + + 2922 Lafaye, p. 157. + +_ 2923 Ib._ p. 158. + + 2924 Lafaye, p. 157. + +_ 2925 C.I.G._ 5900, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_: cf. Mace, _Suetone_, pp. 92, 116. + + 2926 Lucan, _Phars._ viii. 831, nos in templa tuam Romana accepimus Isin; + ix. 158, jam numen gentibus Isin. + +_ 2927 C.I.L._ viii. 2630; cf. Cagnat, _L'Armee Rom. d'Afr._ p. 423. See + other dedications by officers in _Or. Henz._ 5836, 7. + +_ 2928 C.I.L._ viii. 2629, 1002, 4, 5. + +_ 2929 Ib._ iii. 881, 2, 1428, 1590, 1342, 4015; _Or. Henz._ 5838. + +_ 2930 C.I.L._ iii. 4809; _Or. Henz._ 2035, 5833. + + 2931 Tac. _Germ._ 9. + +_ 2932 Or. Henz._ 1897. + +_ 2933 Ib._ 5836. + + 2934 Lafaye, p. 162. For an interesting dedication for the support of the + worship at Nimes _v._ _C.I.L._ xii. 3058. + +_ 2935 Or. Henz._ 457; cf. Tac. _Hist._ i. 67, in modum municipii + exstructus locus, amoeno salubrium aquarum usu frequens. + + 2936 Lafaye, p. 160; Reville, _Rel. unter den Sev._ p. 53; _C.I.L._ ii. + 3386, Isis puellaris. + + 2937 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 11. + + 2938 Lafaye, p. 160, 1. + +_ 2939 Met._ xi. c. 24. + + 2940 Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 78; Aristid. _Or. Sac._ viii. 52, 53. + + 2941 Herodot. ii. c. 50. + +_ 2942 Ib._ c. 81; Iambl. _De Pythag. Vit._ § 151, cf. § 14; Porph. + _Pythag._ § 6; Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 10. + + 2943 Philostr. _Apollon. Tyan._ vi. 19; D. Chrys. _Or._ xii. § 68. + + 2944 Juv. xv. 3; cf. Cic. _De Nat. Deor._ iii. 15; _Tuscul._ v. 27. + + 2945 Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ cc. 72-74. + + 2946 Herodot. viii. c. 41. + + 2947 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 11, attollens canis cervices arduas Anubis; cf. + Juv. vi. 534; Plut. _De Is._ c. 44; Tertull. _Apol._ 6; _Ad Nat._ + ii. 8. + + 2948 Mau, _Pompeii_, p. 175. + + 2949 Lafaye, p. 106, 7. + +_ 2950 Or._ 1871. + + 2951 On a Dacian inscription, _C.I.L._ iii. 1590, Placidae Reginae. + + 2952 Baumgart, _Ael. Aristides Repraesent. der Soph. Rhet. des zweit. + Jahr._ p. 91; cf. Hadrian's letter to Servianus, Vopisc. _Vit. + Saturn._ c. 8. + + 2953 Plut. _De Is._ c. 66, 79. + + 2954 Lafaye, p. 101. + + 2955 Tac. _Hist._ i. 23; D. Cass. lxxi. 8, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 2956 Juv. vi. 581. + +_ 2957 Or._ 1882, ex visu; _C.I.L._ vi. 346, 572; v. 484. + + 2958 Cic. _De Div._ i. 58, 132; Diod. i. 25; Aristid. _Or. Sacr._ iii. p. + 319 (Jebb). + + 2959 Tac. _Hist._ iv. 81, monitu Serapidis, etc. + + 2960 Lafaye, p. 104; Aristid. _Or. Sacr._ viii. 55. + + 2961 Aristid. _Or. Sacr._ viii. 54, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + +_ 2962 Ib._ viii. 54, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._; Plew, _De Sarapide_, p. 30. + + 2963 Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. p. 126; cf. i. 286; Lobeck, _Aglaoph._ i. p. + 239; Hardie, _Lectures on Classical Subjects_, pp. 56, 57. The + Orphici laid more stress on the moral aspect of immortality than the + priests of Eleusis did. + + 2964 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 22. + +_ 2965 C.I.G._ 6562, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}_: cf. Plew, _De + Sarap._ p. 31. + +_ 2966 Or._ 1879. + + 2967 Pind. _Fr._ 137 (Christ); Soph. _Fr._ 753-- + + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}_ + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}_ + _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}._ + + Cf. _O.C._ 1051. + +_ 2968 C.I.L._ xii. 4321, ex stipe collata. + + 2969 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 28 (813), veste ipsa mea quamvis parvula + distracta sufficientem corrasi summulum; cf. Tertull. _Apol._ 13. + + 2970 Tibull. i. 3, 31, bisque die, resoluta comas, tibi dicere laudes + Insignis turba debeat in Pharia. + + 2971 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 20 (795), velis candentibus reductis. + + 2972 Mart. x. 48, 1, nunciat octavam Phariae sua turba juvencae. + + 2973 Mau, _Pompeii_, pp. 171, 172. + + 2974 Lafaye, p. 115; _Catal._ No. 222. + + 2975 Mau, p. 171; Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 17 (791), intuitans deae specimen + pristinos casus meos recordabar; Mart. ii. 14, 8. + + 2976 Lafaye, p. 126; Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 39, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, __{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._: Juv. viii. 29; vi. 534; + Ov. _Metam._ ix. 692, nunquamque satis quaesitus Osiris; Lucan, + viii. 831, et quem tu plangens hominem testaris Osirim; Min. Fel. c. + 21. + + 2977 Ov. _Am._ i. 8, 74; iii. 9, 30; Prop. ii. 33, 3; Tibull. i. 3, 23. + + 2978 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 11 (774-78); Reville, _Rel. unter den Sev._ p. + 56. + + 2979 Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 38, _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 2980 Reville, p. 54; Lafaye, p. 130 sqq. + +_ 2981 C.I.G._ 6006; Apul. _Met._ ii. c. 28 (159), propheta primarius, xi. + c. 17 (788), sacerdos maximus. _Or. Henz._ 2305, C. Ruf. Volusianus + pater ierofanta profata Isidos; 1878, 6666; _C.I.L._ x. 6445; xii. + 410. + + 2982 Lafaye, p. 133. + +_ 2983 C.I.L._ xii. 3061, Ornatrix fani Nemausi. + + 2984 Lafaye, p. 135. + + 2985 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 17 (789). + +_ 2986 Ib._ c. 9 (772), dicati Serapi tibicines. + + 2987 Lafaye, p. 138, n. 4. + +_ 2988 Or. Henz._ 2355, 6385, 2309. + + 2989 Foucart, _Assoc. Religieuses_, p. 117; _Inscr._ 66, 240. + + 2990 Mau, p. 478, Cn. Helv. Sabinum aed. Isiaci rogant. + + 2991 Foucart, pp. 25-30; _Or. Henz._ 6029, 2313, mater sacrorum; _C.I.L._ + vi. 2277; _Or._ 2308, patrono Sacr. Isidis; Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 30 + (817). + + 2992 Lamprid. _Commod._ c. 9. + + 2993 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 22 (800). + + 2994 Lafaye, pp. 189, 190; Mau, p. 169. + + 2995 Lafaye, p. 149. + + 2996 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 22 (800), Mithram illum suum sacerdotem + praecipuum, divino quodam stellarum consortio ut aiebat mihi + conjunctum, sacrorum ministrum decernit. + + 2997 Lafaye, pp. 151, 186; Mau, _Pompeii_, p. 174. + + 2998 Tibull. i. 3, 30; Mart. xii. 29; Juv. vi. 526; Suet. _Otho_, 12. + + 2999 Plut. _De Is._ c. 4, 8, 32. + + 3000 Aristid. _Or. Sacr._ xiii. p. 54. + + 3001 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 24. + +_ 3002 Ib._ + + 3003 Cumont, _Monuments Relatifs aux Mysteres de Mithra_, Intr. pp. 309, + 310. + + 3004 Zeller, _Phil. der Griech._ iii. 2, p. 101; cf. Macrob. _Sat._ i. + 17; Philostr. _Apoll. Tyan._ ii. 38; vi. 10, § 1; M. Aurel. xi. 27. + + 3005 Cumont, Intr. p. 336; Dieterich, _Eine Mithrasliturgie_, p. 197. + + 3006 Flav. Vop. _Aurelian_, c. 36, 39. + + 3007 Cumont, Intr. p. 223 sq.; Gasquet, _Le Culte de Mithra_, p. 16 sq. + + 3008 Cumont, Intr. p. 225. + + 3009 Gasquet, p. 20. + + 3010 Cumont, Intr. p. 226 sqq. + + 3011 Xen. _Cyrop._ vii. 5, 53; _Oecon._ iv. § 24. + + 3012 Cumont, Intr. p. 231; Gasquet, p. 21 sqq. + + 3013 Donsbach, _Die raeumliche Verbreitung des __Mithrasdienstes_, p. 5. + +_ 3014 De Laud. Stilich._ i. 62. + + 3015 Luc. _Menippus_, cc. 6-9. + + 3016 Cumont, Intr. p. 232. + +_ 3017 v._ Cumont, _Inscr. Orient._ i. 2, 3. + + 3018 Id. _Inscr. Grecques_, i. + + 3019 Cumont, Intr. p. 236. + + 3020 Gasquet, pp. 31 and 75; Reville, _Rel. unter den Sev._ p. 93; + Goehler, _De Matris Mag. Cultu_, p. 55; but cf. Cumont, Intr. pp. + 334-5. + + 3021 Gasquet, p. 31. + +_ 3022 C.I.L._ vi. 508, 511; cf. Cumont, Intr. p. 235. + + 3023 Strab. xv. 3, § 13 (732), _{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 3024 Cumont, Intr. pp. 181, 237. + + 3025 Herod. i. 131; Xen. _Cyrop._ vii. 5, 53; Strab. _l.c._ + + 3026 Q. Curt. iv. 13, § 48. + + 3027 Stat. _Theb._ i. 717; cf. Cumont, _Textes_, p. 47. + + 3028 Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 46. + + 3029 Luc. _Deor. Concil._ c. 9; _Menippus_, c. 6 sqq.; _Jup. Trag._ c. 8. + + 3030 Plut. _Pomp._ c. 24. + +_ 3031 Or. Henz._ 5844. + + 3032 Cumont, Intr. p. 243, n. 3; Tac. _Ann._ ii. 42; D. Cass. lvii. 17; + Suet. _Vesp._ c. 8. + +_ 3033 C.I.L._ vi. 732. On the date of the _Thebaid_, cf. Teuffel, _Rom. + Lit._ § 316, n. 3. + + 3034 Cumont, Intr. p. 253; cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 35. + +_ 3035 C.I.L._ vi. 718, A.D. 102. + + 3036 Cumont, Intr. p. 265, _Inscr._ No. 133. + + 3037 Reville, p. 81. + + 3038 Cumont, Intr. p. 274, n. 6. + +_ 3039 Ib._ p. 275; Donsbach, pp. 15-17. + + 3040 Cumont, p. 265, n. 4; cf. p. 333. + + 3041 Id. _Inscr._; _C.I.L._ vi. 510; _Or. Henz._ 6040. + + 3042 Donsbach, p. 17. + + 3043 Cumont, Intr. p. 246 sq. + +_ 3044 Ib._ p. 258, n. 8; cf. _Or. Henz._ 5855, 1916, 1917, 1922. + + 3045 Cumont, Intr. p. 263. + +_ 3046 C.I.L._ iii. 3960, 4797, 5620, 4802; vi. 721. + + 3047 Cumont, Intr. p. 265. + + 3048 Cf. Cumont, _Inscr._ 150, sagaris actor; cf. the list of the + Cultores Mithrae, _C.I.L._ xi. 5737. + + 3049 Cumont, Intr. p 268; Donsbach, p. 19. + + 3050 Cumont, Intr. p. 268. + + 3051 Donsbach, p. 19. + +_ 3052 C.I.L_ ix. 4109, 4110. + +_ 3053 Ib._ xi. 5737. + + 3054 Donsbach, p. 20; Cumont, Intr. p. 266. + + 3055 Cumont, Intr. p. 269. + + 3056 Cumont, _Mon._ 237, 239; _Inscr._ 408. + +_ 3057 C.I.L._ iii. 3480, 3479, 4796, 4797, 5121. + + 3058 Donsbach, p. 21. + + 3059 Cumont, Intr. p. 249; Donsbach, p. 22. + + 3060 Cumont, Intr. p. 250. + + 3061 Eutrop. viii. 6. + + 3062 Cumont, Intr. p. 247, n. 6. + +_ 3063 Ib._ p. 251, n. 3. + + 3064 Cumont, Intr. pp. 252, 3. + + 3065 Id. _Mon._ No. 228; Intr. p. 253. + + 3066 Id. _Mon._ No. 225; Intr. p. 253. + + 3067 Id. _Inscr._ No. 368. + + 3068 Mommsen, _Rom. Prov._ ii. p. 63, n. + +_ 3069 C.I.L._ iii. 4418, 4416; Donsbach, p. 25. + + 3070 Tac. _Ann._ 13, 35, habiti per Galatiam Cappadociamque dilectus. + + 3071 Cumont, _Mon._ No. 225. + +_ 3072 C.I.L._ viii. 2675; Cagnat, p. 189. + +_ 3073 C.I.L._ iii. 5650; Cumont, _Inscr._ No. 416; _Mon._ No. 238; cf. + Donsbach, p. 26. + + 3074 Cumont, Intr. p. 255; Donsbach, p. 27. + + 3075 For the number and the sites _v._ Donsbach, p. 27. + + 3076 Cumont, _Mon._ No. 351. + + 3077 Id. _Inscr._ No. 423; Intr. p. 256, n. 2. + + 3078 Id. _Mon._ No. 248 (p. 359). + +_ 3079 Ib._ No. 265 (p. 388). + + 3080 Tac. _Ann._ 14, 33, Londinium ... copia negotiatorum maxime celebre. + + 3081 Cumont, _Inscr._ Nos. 471-490; Donsbach, p. 29. + + 3082 Id. Intr. p. 259 n. + +_ 3083 Ib._ p. 260; Donsbach, p. 30. + + 3084 Cumont, _l.c._; cf. Cagnat, _L'Arm. rom. d'Afr._ p. 353, on the + history and composition of the Legio III. Augusta. + + 3085 Luc. _Deor. Concil._ c. 9. + + 3086 Reville, p. 87. + + 3087 Cumont, Intr. p. 190; Gasquet, p. 70. + + 3088 Cumont, Intr. p. 56; Gasquet, p. 36. + + 3089 Cumont, _Inscr._ 441, 444; _Mon._ 213, 245, 252. + +_ 3090 Ib._ 251 (p. 365); Intr. p. 92; cf. Herod. i. 131. + + 3091 Cumont, _Mon._ 246 (p. 348). + + 3092 Id. Intr. p. 109; _Mon._ 246, 247, 248, 251, 273. + + 3093 Donsbach, p. 6; Gasquet, p. 24; Dieterich, _Mithrasliturgie_, p. + 146; S. Hieron. _Com. in Amos_, v. 9, 10. + + 3094 Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 15, § 10 sqq. + + 3095 Cumont, Intr. pp. 71, 72. + + 3096 Cf. Dieterich, _Mithrasliturgie_, pp. 150, 165, 202; Cumont, Intr. + pp. 331, 336. + + 3097 Gasquet, p. 104; cf. Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 12; Macrob. _Sat._ i. + 17; cf. Lobeck, _Aglaoph._ ii. 933; Rohde, _Psyche_, ii. pp. 121, + 402. + + 3098 Cumont, Intr. pp. 308, 309; cf. Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 12. + + 3099 Cumont, Intr. p. 294; _ib._ p. 75. But cf. Gasquet, p. 41. + + 3100 Cumont, Intr. p. 295. + +_ 3101 Ib._ p. 296. + +_ 3102 Ib._ p. 301. + + 3103 Id. _Mon._ 251 (p. 365). + + 3104 Id. Intr. p. 297. + + 3105 Id. _Mon._ 246 (p. 349). + + 3106 Cumont, _Mon._ 251 (p. 365). + + 3107 Id. Intr. p. 300; Gasquet, p. 62. + + 3108 Cumont, Intr. p. 316; cf. Gasquet, pp. 94, 95. + + 3109 Cumont, Intr. p. 301. + + 3110 Cf. Denis, _Idees Morales_, etc. ii. p. 248 sq.; cf. Burgmann, + _Seneca's Theologie_, p. 37; Sen. _Ep._ 95, 50; 31, § 11; Philostr. + _Apoll. Tyan._ v. 25; Max. Tyr. _Diss._ viii.; xiv. § 7, 8; xvi. § + 9. + +_ 3111 v._ supra, p. 426. + + 3112 Cumont, Intr. p. 303. + +_ 3113 Ib._ pp. 207, 208. + + 3114 Plut. _De Is. et Osir._ c. 46. + + 3115 Firm. Matern. c. 20, alterius profani sacramenti signum est _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_, etc. Cf. S. Hieron. _Adv. Jov._ i. § 7; Just. Mart. _Dial. + c. Tryph._ c. 70; Prud. _Cathem._ v. 9; Cumont, _Mon._ 199, 207. + + 3116 Id. Intr. p. 160. + +_ 3117 Ib._ p. 162; _Mon._ 204. + + 3118 Id. Intr. p. 164. + +_ 3119 Ib._ p. 165; _Mon._ 204 (p. 318), 235 (p. 338). + + 3120 Cumont, Intr. p. 167 sq.; _Mon._ 253, 192, 204, 221. + + 3121 See the finest extant specimen from Osterburken; Cumont, _Mon._ 246; + cf. the one at Heddernheim, _Mon._ 251. + + 3122 Cumont, Intr. p. 186 sq.; _Mon._ 104, 246. + + 3123 Gasquet, p. 70. + + 3124 Cumont, _Mon._ 191 (p. 312); 203 (p. 317); 242 (p. 342); 246 (p. + 350); Intr. p. 172. + + 3125 Cumont, Intr. p. 175. + + 3126 Reville, p. 83. + +_ 3127 Ib._ p. 89. + + 3128 Gasquet, p. 77. + + 3129 Gasquet, p. 108. + + 3130 Cumont, _Mon._ 31, 35, 43. + +_ 3131 Ib._ 251 (p. 364). + + 3132 Id. Intr. pp. 308, 309. + + 3133 Cumont, Intr. p. 297. + + 3134 Dieterich, _Mithrasliturgie_, p. 197; Cumont, Intr. p. 309. + +_ 3135 Ib._ p. 308 sqq. + +_ 3136 Ib._ p. 310. + + 3137 Reville, p. 150; cf. _C.I.L._ vi. 510; _Or. Henz._ 2352. + +_ 3138 Or. Henz._ 6042; Gasquet, p. 112, on the inscription of Vincentius, + priest of Sabazius, who was buried by the side of Aurelius, a priest + of Mithra; cf. Reville, p. 92; Renan, _M. Aurele_, pp. 578-9, n. 1. + + 3139 Cumont, Intr. pp. 299, 323. + +_ 3140 Ib._ p. 313; cf. Dieterich, _Mithrasliturgie_, pp. 25, 26. + + 3141 Tert. _De Praescrip. Haeret._ c. 40; cf. _C.I.L._ vi. 2151, Ordo + sacerdotum Mag. suo; xiv. 403; xiv. 65. + + 3142 Cumont, Intr. p. 325. + +_ 3143 Ib._ p. 325; cf. Lafaye, _Div. d'Alexandrie_, p. 138; flutes and + bells have been found among debris of chapels, Cum. _Mon._ 253 (p. + 380); Intr. p. 68. + + 3144 Gasquet, p. 125. + + 3145 S. Hieron. _Ep._ 107, § 2; Gasquet, pp. 91, 2; 96; Cumont, Intr. p. + 315; Reville, p. 97. + +_ 3146 De Abstin._ iv. 16. Porphyry connects the degrees with ideas of + metempsychosis, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 3147 Gasquet, p. 101; Reville, p. 97. + + 3148 Tert. _De Corona_, xv. + + 3149 Cumont, Intr. p. 322. + + 3150 Lamprid. _Commodus Ant._ c. 9, sacra Mithriaca homicidio vero + polluit, cum illic aliquid ad speciem timoris, vel dici vel fingi + soleat; Gasquet, p. 90. + + 3151 Cumont, Intr. p. 326. For the organisation of the societies of Magna + Mater _v._ Foucart, _Associations Religieuses_, p. 20 sqq. Cf + _C.I.L._ vi. 717; vi. 734; vi. 3728; xiv. 286; _Or. Henz._ 6042 + (Sentinum). + +_ 3152 Or. Henz._ 6042; on the doubt, however, as to the meaning of + _patroni_ in this inscription _v._ _Henz._ note; and Cumont, Intr. + p. 327, n. 4. + + 3153 Cumont, _l.c._ + +_ 3154 Ib._ p. 264. Cf. dedications by slaves or liberti, _Inscr._ 67, + 245, 175, 53, 410, 47, 178, 292. + + 3155 Cf. _Or. Henz._ 6042; Cumont, Intr. p. 327, n. 4. + + 3156 For the dimensions of one at Rome _v._ Cumont, _Mon._ 19 (p. 205). + + 3157 Tert. _De Pr. Haeret._ c. 40. + + 3158 Gasquet, p. 84; Cumont, Intr. p. 318. + + 3159 Gasquet, pp. 81, 82; Cumont, Intr. p. 320. + + 3160 Just. Mart, c. 78; Porphyr. _De Antro Nymph._ c. 5; Tertull. _De + Cor._ xv.; S. Hieron. _Ep._ 57, 107. + + 3161 Cumont, Intr. p. 57; _Mon._ 237. + + 3162 Cumont, Intr. p. 59. Cf. _C.I.L._ iii. 1096, cryptam cum porticibus + et apparatorio et exedra, etc.; iii. 3960. + + 3163 Cumont, Intr. p. 61; _v._ the sketch of the Mithraeum under the + Church of S. Clement, at Rome, Cumont, _Mon._ 19. + + 3164 Id. _Mon._ 19. + + 3165 Id. Intr. p. 64. + + 3166 Twenty-six lamps were found in one Mithraeum, Cumont, _Mon._ 250 (p. + 362). For the classical gods, cf. _Mon._ 221 (p. 326), 235, 246 (p. + 349). + + 3167 Apul. _Met._ xi. c. 22. + + 3168 Cumont, Intr. p. 279 sqq. + +_ 3169 v._ supra, p. 254. + + 3170 Suet. _Vesp._ iv. v. vii.; _Tit._ v.; _Domit._ i. xiv.; cf. Renan, + _Les Evangiles_, p. 226 sq.; _L'Antechrist_, p. 491. + + 3171 D. Cass. xliii. 14; Tac. _Ann._ iv. 15; vi. 18. + + 3172 Mart. ix. 4. + + 3173 Sen. _Lud. De Morte Claud._ c. 12; cf. Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. p. + 193. + + 3174 Suet. _Aug._ c. lii. + + 3175 Id. _Calig._ c. xxii.; Meriv. vi. pp. 4-9. + + 3176 D. Cass. lxiii. 5, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 3177 Suet. _Aug._ lii.; D. Cass. li. 20; lxvii. 13; Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ + i. p. 163. + + 3178 Id. _Vesp._ c. xxiii. vae, inquit, puto, deus fio. + + 3179 Id. _Domit._ c. xiii. + + 3180 Virg. _Georg._ i. 498; Warde Fowler, _Rom. Festivals_, p. 258. + + 3181 Plut. _Flamin._ c. 16; cf. Herod. v. 47; Thuc. v. 11. + + 3182 Plato, _Meno_, 99 D. + + 3183 Capitol. _M. Aurel._ c. 18. + + 3184 Boissier, _Rel. Rom._ i. 125; Cumont, Intr. p. 283 sqq. + + 3185 Amm. Marc. xv. 1, 3. + + 3186 Athen. vi. 252, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_. + + 3187 Cumont, Intr. p. 286. + +_ 3188 Ib._ p. 290, n. 2. + + 3189 D. Cass. lxiii. 5, _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}_. + + 3190 W. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 169. + + 3191 Plut. _De Fort. Rom._ iv. _{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}._ + + 3192 Capitol. _Ant. P._ c. 12. + + 3193 Cf. Vop. _Prob._ c. i. § 3. + + 3194 Cf. Amm. Marc. xv. 1, 3. + + 3195 Cf. Amm. Marc. xv. 1, 3. + + 3196 Amm. Marc. xxiii. 6, 5, unde reges ejusdem gentis praetumidi + appellari se patiuntur Solis fratres et Lunae. + + 3197 D. Cass. lxxii. 15, 5. + + 3198 Treb. Poll. _Gallien._ 16, 18, crinibus suis auri scobem aspersit, + etc. + + 3199 Cumont, Intr. p. 291, n. 5. + + 3200 Cumont, _Inscr._ No. 367. + + 3201 Macrob. _Sat._ i. 17; Cumont, Intr. p. 348. The Mithraeum of + Sarreburg seems to have been frequented till 395 A.D. + + 3202 Cumont, Intr. p. 332, n. 3. + +_ 3203 C.I.L._ vi. 504, 846; C. Volusianus was perhaps Praef. Urb. in 365 + or Consul in 314. + + 3204 Herod, ii. 48, 50; Caes. _B.G._ vi. 17; Tac. _Germ._ c. 9. + + 3205 Cumont, Intr. pp. 341, 2. + +_ 3206 Ib._ p. 339. + +_ 3207 Ib._ p. 341; cf. Gasquet, p. 118 sqq. + + 3208 Macrob. _Som. Scip._ i. 13. + + 3209 Cumont, Intr. p. 344. + + 3210 S. Hieron. _Ep._ 107 (Ad Laetam). + + 3211 Gasquet, p. 134. + + 3212 Cumont, Intr. p. 329; Porphyr. _De Abstin._ iv. 36; cf. Gasquet, p. + 98. + + 3213 Hatch, _Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 49, 135, 292. + + 3214 Cumont, Intr. p. 334. + + 3215 Gasquet, p. 137. + +_ 3216 C.I.L._ vi. 500, 504, 511, 1779. + + 3217 Maury, _La Magie_, p. 54. + +_ 3218 Ib._ p. 146. + + 3219 Macrob. _Sat._ i. 17, § 4. + + 3220 S. Hieron. _Ep._ 107, § 2. + + + + + + TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE + + +The following changes have been made to the text: + + page xx, "Pages" added before "560-584" + page 13, "pannelled" changed to "panelled" + page 14, "aceticism" changed to "asceticism" + page 16, comma changed to semicolon after "23" + page 30, comma added after "17" + page 33, "Bossier" changed to "Boissier" + page 53, "proem." changed to "prooem." + page 55, period added after "character" and after "v" + page 96, "sick bed" changed to "sick-bed" + page 176, period added after "Capitol" + page 205, semicolon added after "sq." + page 211, comma changed to period after "Henz" + page 212, "Caesar" changed to "Caesar" + page 216, italics removed from "Marq.", "wechselude" changed to + "wechselnde" + page 224, period added after "wealth" + page 228, "mediaeval" changed to "mediaeval" + page 229, "1" changed to "i." + page 284, comma added after "Boissier" + page 289, "fuhrt" changed to "fuehrt" + page 300, "AEneas" changed to "Aeneas" + page 305, period changed to comma after "Burgmann". period added + after "2" + page 312, "fastidiodosi" changed to "fastidiosi" + page 320, "intelliges" changed to "intelleges" + page 325, italics removed from "Laert." + page 332, comma added after "female" + page 338, "_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}_" changed to "_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}_" + page 348, "Greich." changed to "Griech." + page 359, "Phil der." changed to "Phil. der" + page 397, comma changed to period after "Saturn" + page 405, period added after "_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}_" + page 407, period added after "64" + page 415, "xv;" changed to "xv.;" + page 437, period added after "Diss" + page 457, p. added before "1051" + page 459, period added after "piece" + page 464, period added after "_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}_" + page 475, comma added after "23" + page 480, "Aesclepius" changed to "Asclepius" + page 513, period removed after "Ad" + page 517, comma added after "2" + page 524, "mythopoeic" changed to "mythopoeic" + page 550, comma added after "Foucart" + page 556, "rauemliche" changed to "raeumliche" + page 557, parenthesis removed before "Puteoli" + page 567, "Archaeol." changed to "Archaeol." + page 578, period added after "_{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}_" + page 584, comma added after "lonely" + page 587, "Mithrasdientes" changed to "Mithrasdienstes" + page 614, italics added to "Mon." + page 627, "Caeonius" changed to "Caeionius" + page 628, comma added after "Aurelius" and "Hadrian" + page 629, "Mithriac" changed to "Mithraic" + page 633, comma added after "_ib._" + +Variations in hyphenation (e.g. "springtime", "spring-time"), +capitalisation ("inscription", "Inscription") and spelling ("under world", +"underworld"; "mediaeval", "medieval"; "praetorian", "pretorian") have not +been changed. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROMAN SOCIETY FROM NERO TO MARCUS AURELIUS*** + + + + CREDITS + + +October 23, 2010 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Stefan Cramme and the Online Distributed + Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 34122.txt or 34122.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/4/1/2/34122/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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