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diff --git a/34116.txt b/34116.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c516fc --- /dev/null +++ b/34116.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20280 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 2, Slice 5, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 5 + "Arculf" to "Armour, Philip" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 22, 2010 [EBook #34116] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2 SLICE 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [:] for division sign; [+-] for + plus-minus sign; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME II, SLICE V + + Arculf to Armour, Philip + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + ARCULF ARIMASPI + ARDASHIR ARIMINUM + ARDEA ARIOBARZANES + ARDEBIL ARION + ARDECHE ARIOSTO, LODOVICO + ARDEE ARISTAENETUS + ARDEN, FOREST OF ARISTAEUS + ARDENNES (district) ARISTAGORAS + ARDENNES (department of France) ARISTANDER + ARDGLASS ARISTARCHUS (of Samos) + ARDITI, LUIGI ARISTARCHUS (of Samothrace) + ARDMORE ARISTEAS (Greek mythical personage) + ARDRES ARISTEAS (author of "Letter") + ARDROSSAN ARISTIDES (Athenian statesman) + AREA ARISTIDES (of Miletus) + ARECIBO ARISTIDES (of Thebes) + AREMBERG ARISTIDES, AELIUS + ARENA ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS + ARENDAL ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF + ARENIG GROUP ARISTIPPUS + AREOI ARISTO (of Chios) + AREOPAGUS ARISTO (of Pella) + AREQUIPA (department of Peru) ARISTOBULUS (of Cassandreia) + AREQUIPA (city of Peru) ARISTOBULUS (of Paneas) + ARES ARISTOCRACY + ARETAEUS ARISTODEMUS + ARETAS ARISTOLOCHIA + ARETE ARISTOMENES + ARETHAS ARISTONICUS + ARETHUSA ARISTOPHANES (Greek dramatist) + ARETINO, PIETRO ARISTOPHANES (of Byzantium) + AREZZO ARISTOTLE + ARGALI ARISTOXENUS + ARGAO ARISUGAWA + ARGAUM ARITHMETIC + ARGEI ARIUS + ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH AUGUST ARIZONA + ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER ARJUNA + ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE ARK + ARGENSON ARKANSAS (river of the U.S.) + ARGENTAN ARKANSAS (state) + ARGENTEUIL ARKANSAS CITY + ARGENTINA ARKLOW + ARGENTINE ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD + ARGENTITE ARLES (town of France) + ARGENTON ARLES (kingdom) + ARGHANDAB ARLINGTON, HENRY BENNET + ARGHOUL ARLINGTON + ARGOL ARLON + ARGON ARM + ARGONAUTS ARMADA, THE + ARGONNE ARMADILLO + ARGOS ARMAGEDDON + ARGOSTOLI ARMAGH (county of Ireland) + ARGOSY ARMAGH (city) + ARGUIN ARMAGNAC + ARGUMENT ARMATOLES + ARGUS ARMATURE + ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF ARMAVIR + ARGYLLSHIRE ARMENIA + ARGYRODITE ARMENIAN CHURCH + ARGYROKASTRO ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE + ARGYROPULUS, JOHN ARMENTIERES + ARIA ARMET + ARIADNE ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ + ARIANO DI PUGLIA ARMIDALE + ARIAS MONTANO, BENITO ARMILLA + ARICA ARMINIUS + ARICIA ARMINIUS, JACOBUS + ARICINI ARMISTICE + ARIEGE ARMOIRE + ARIES ARMORICA + ARIKARA ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH + + + + +ARCULF, a Gallican bishop and pilgrim-traveller, who visited the Levant +about 680, and was the earliest Christian traveller and observer of any +importance in the Nearer East after the rise of Islam. On his return he +was driven by contrary winds to Britain, and so came to Iona, where he +related his experiences to his host, the abbot Adamnan (679-704). This +narrative, as written out by Adamnan, was presented to Aldfrith the +Wise, last of the great Northumbrian kings, at York about 701, and came +to the knowledge of Bede, who inserted a brief summary of the same in +his _Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation_, and also drew up a +separate and longer digest which obtained great popularity throughout +the middle ages as a standard guide-book (the so-called _Libellus de +locis sanctis_) to the Holy Places of Syria. Arculf is the first to +mention the column at Jerusalem, which claimed to mark the exact centre +of the Inhabited Earth, and later became one of the favourite Palestine +wonders. Besides a valuable account of the principal sacred sites of +Judaea, Samaria and Galilee as they existed in the 7th century, he also +gives important information as to Alexandria and Constantinople, briefly +describes Damascus and Tyre, the Nile and the Lipari volcanoes, and +refers to the caliph Moawiya I. (A.D. 661-680), whom he pictures as +befriending Christians and rescuing the "sudarium" of Christ from the +Jews. Arculf's record is especially useful from its plans, drawn from +personal observation by the traveller himself, of the churches of the +Holy Sepulchre and of Mount Sion in Jerusalem, of the Ascension on +Olivet and of Jacob's well at Sichem. It is also a useful witness to the +prosperity and trade of Alexandria after the Moslem conquest: it tells +us how the Pharos was still lit up every night; and it gives us (from +Constantinople) the first form of the story of St George which ever +seems to have attracted notice in Britain. + + Thirteen MSS, of the original Arculf-Adamnan narrative exist, and + fully 100 of Bede's abridgment: of the former, the most important, + containing all the plans, are (1) Bern, Canton Library, 582, of 9th + cent.; (2) Paris, National Library, Lat. 13,048, of 9th cent.; a + third MS., London, B. Mus., Cotlon, Tib. D. V., of 8th-9th cents., + though damaged by fire and lacking the illustrations, is of value for + the text, being the oldest of all. Among editions the first is of + 1619, by Gretser; the best, that of 1877, by Tobler, in _Itinera et + Descriptiones Terrae Sanctae_; we may also mention that of 1870, by + Delpit, in his _Essai sur les anciens pelerinages a Jerusalem_; see + also Delpit's remarks upon Arculf in the same work, pp. 260-304; + Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, i. 131-40 (1897). + + + + +ARDASHIR, the modern form of the Persian royal name ARTAXERXES (q.v.), +"he whose empire is excellent." After the three Achaemenian kings of +this name, it occurs in Armenia, in the shortened form Artaxias +(Armenian, Artashes or Artaxes), and among the dynasts of Persia who +maintained their independence during the Parthian period (see PERSIS). +One of these, (1) Artaxerxes or ARDASHIR I. (in his Greek inscriptions +he calls himself Artaxares, and the same form occurs in Agathias II. 25, +iv. 24), became the founder of the New-Persian or Sassanian empire. Of +his reign we have only very scanty information, as the Greek and Roman +authors mention only his victory over the Parthians and his wars with +Rome. A trustworthy tradition about the origin of his power, from +Persian sources, has been preserved by the Arabic historian Tabari (Th. +Noldeke, _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden, aus +der arabischen Chronik des Tabari_, 1879). He was the second son of +Papak (Babek), the offspring of Sassan (Sasan), after whom the dynasty +is named. Papak had made himself king of the district of Istakhr (in the +neighbourhood of Persepolis, which had fallen to ruins). After the death +of Papak and his oldest son Shapur (Shahpuhr, Sapores), Ardashir made +himself king (probably A.D. 212), put his other brothers to death and +began war against the neighbouring dynasts of Persis. When he had +conquered a great part of Persis and Carmania, the Parthian king +Artabanus IV. interfered. But he was defeated in three battles and at +last killed (A.D. 236). Ardashir now considered himself sovereign of the +whole empire of the Parthians and called himself "King of Kings of the +Iranians." But his aspirations went farther. In Persis the traditions of +the Achaemenian empire had always been alive, as the name of Ardashir +himself shows, and with them the national religion of Zoroaster. +Ardashir, who was a zealous worshipper of Ahuramazda and in intimate +connexion with the magian priests, established the orthodox Zoroastrian +creed as the official religion of his new kingdom, persecuted the +infidels, and tried to restore the old Persian empire, which under the +Achaemenids had extended over the whole of Asia from the Aegean Sea to +the Indus. At the same time he put down the local dynasts and tried to +create a strong concentrated power. His empire is thus quite different +in character from the Parthian kingdom of the Arsacids, which had no +national and religious basis but leant towards Hellenism, and whose +organization had always been very loose. Ardashir extirpated the whole +race of the Arsacids, with the exception of those princes who had found +refuge in Armenia, and in many wars, in which, however, as the Persian +tradition shows, he occasionally suffered heavy defeats, he succeeded in +subjugating the greater part of Iran, Susiana and Babylonia. The +Parthian capital Ctesiphon (q.v.) remained the principal residence of +the Sassanian kingdom, by the side of the national metropolis Istakhr, +which was too far out of the way to become the centre of administration. +Opposite to Ctesiphon, on the right bank of the Tigris, Ardashir +restored Seleucia under the name of Weh-Ardashir. The attempt to conquer +Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappadocia led to a war with Rome, in which he +was repelled by Alexander Severus (A.D. 233). Before his death (A.D. +241) Ardashir associated with himself on the throne his son Shapur, who +successfully continued his work. + +Under the tombs of Darius I. at Persepolis, on the surface of the rock, +Ardashir has sculptured his image and that of the god Ahuramazda (Ormuzd +or Ormazd). Both are on horseback; the god is giving the diadem to the +king. Under the horse of the king lies a defeated enemy, the Parthian +king Artaban; under the horse of Ormuzd, the devil Ahriman, with two +snakes rising from his head. In the bilingual inscription (Greek and +Pahlavi), Ardashir I. calls himself "the Mazdayasnian [i.e. "worshipper +of Ahuramazda"] god Artaxares, king of the kings of the Arianes +(Iranians), of godly origin, son of the god Papak the king." (See Sir R. +Ker Porter, _Travels_ (1821-1822), i. 548 foll.; Flandin et Coste, +_Voyage en Perse_, iv. 182; F. Stolze and J.C. Andreas, _Persepolis_, +pl. 116; Marcel Diculafoy, _L'Art antique de la Perse_, 1884-1889, v. +pl. 14). A similar inscription and sculpture is on a rock near Gur +(Firuzabad) in Persia. On his coins he has the same titles (in Pahlavi). +We see that he, like his father and his successors, were worshipped as +gods, probably as incarnations of a secondary deity of the Persian +creed. + +Like the history of the founder of the Achaemenian empire, that of +Ardashir has from the beginning been overgrown with legends; like Cyrus +he is the son of a shepherd, his future greatness is predicted by dreams +and visions, and by the calculations of astronomers he becomes a servant +at the court of King Artabanus and then flies to Persia and begins the +rebellion; he fights with the great dragon, the enemy of god, &c. A +Pahlavi text, which contains this legend, has been translated by Noldeke +(_Geschichte des Artachshir i Papakan_, 1879). On the same tradition the +account of Firdousi in the Shahnama is based; it occurs also, with some +variations, in Agathias ii. 26 f. Another work, which contained +religious and moral admonitions which were put into the mouth of the +king, has not come down to us. On the other hand the genealogy of +Ardashir has of course been connected with the Achaemenids, on whose +behalf he exacts vengeance from the Parthians, and with the legendary +kings of old Iran. + +(2) ARDASHIR II. (379-383). Under the reign of his brother Shapur II. he +had been governor (king) of Adiabene, where he persecuted the +Christians. After Shapur's death, he was raised to the throne by the +magnates, although more than seventy years old. Having tried to make +himself independent from the court, and having executed some of the +grandees, he was deposed after a reign of four years. + +(3) ARDASHIR III. (628-630), son of Kavadh II., was raised to the throne +as a boy of seven years, but was killed two years afterwards by his +general, Shahrbaraz. (Ed. M.) + + + + +ARDEA, a town of the Rutuli in Latium, 3 m. from the S.W. coast, where +its harbour (_Castrum Inui_) lay, at the mouth of the stream now known +as Fosso dell' Incastro, and 23 m. S. of Rome by the Via Ardeatina. It +was founded, according to legend, either by a son of Odysseus and Circe, +or by Danae, the mother of Perseus. It was one of the oldest of the +coast cities of Latium, and a place of considerable importance; +according to tradition the Ardeatines and Zacynthians joined in the +foundation of Saguntum in Spain. It was the capital of Turnus, the +opponent of Aeneas. It was conquered by Tarquinius Superbus, and appears +as a Roman possession in the treaty with Carthage of 509 B.C., though it +was later one of the thirty cities of the Latin league. In 445 B.C. an +unfair decision by the Romans in a frontier dispute with Aricia led, +according to the Roman historians, to a rising; the town became a Latin +colony 442 B.C., and shortly afterwards it appears as the place of exile +of Camillus. It had the charge of the common shrine of Venus in +Lavinium. It was devastated by the Samnites, was one of the 12 Latin +colonies that refused in 209 B.C. to provide more soldiers, and was in +186 used as a state prison, like Alba and Setia. In imperial times the +unhealthiness of the place led to its rapid decline, though it remained +a colony. In the forests of the neighbourhood the imperial elephants +were kept. A road, the Via Ardeatina, led to Ardea direct from Rome; the +gate by which it left the Servian wall was the Porta Naevia; a large +tomb behind the baths of Caracalla lay on its course. The gate by which +it left the Aurelian wall has been obliterated by the bastion of Antonio +da Sangallo (Ch. Hulsen in _Romische Mitteilungen_, 1894, 320). + +The site of the primitive city, which later became the citadel, is +occupied by the modern town; it is situated at the end of a long plateau +between two valleys, and protected by perpendicular tufa cliffs some 60 +ft. high on all sides except the north-east, where it joins the plateau. +Here it is defended by a fine wall of _opus quadratum_ of tufa, in +alternate courses of headers and stretchers. Within its area are scanty +remains of the podium of a temple and of buildings of the imperial +period. The road entering it from the south-west is deeply cut in the +rock. The area of the place was apparently twice extended, a further +portion of the narrow plateau, which now bears the name of Civita +Vecchia, being each time taken in and defended by a mound and ditch; the +nearer and better-preserved is about 1/2 m. from the city and measures +some 2000 ft. long, 133 ft. wide and 66 ft. high, the ditch being some +80 ft. wide. The second, 1/2 m. farther north-east, is smaller. In the +cliffs below the plateau to the north are early rock habitations, and +upon the plateau primitive Latin pottery has been found. In 1900 a group +of tombs cut in the rock was examined; they are outside the farther +mound and ditch, and belong, therefore, to the period after the second +extension of the city. + + See O. Richter, in _Annali dell' Istituto_ (1884), 90; J.H. Parker in + _Archaeologia_, xlix. 169 (1885); A. Pasqui, in _Notizie degli scavi_, + (1900) 53. (T. As.) + + + + +ARDEBIL, or ARDABIL, chief town of a district, or sub-province, of same +name, of the province of Azerbaijan in north-western Persia, in lat. 38 +deg. 14' N., and long. 48 deg. 21' E., and at an elevation of 4500 ft. +It is situated on the Baluk Su (Fish river), a tributary of the Kara Su +(Black river), which flows northwards to the Aras, and in a fertile +plain bounded on the west by Mount Savelan, a volcanic cone with an +altitude of 15,792 ft. (Russian triangulation), and on the east by the +Talish mountains (9000 ft.). Ardebil has a population of about 10,000, +and post and telegraph offices. Its trade, principally in the hands of +Armenians, is still important, but is chiefly a transit trade between +Russia and Persia by way of Astara, a port on the Caspian 30 m. +north-east of Ardebil. It is surrounded by a ruinous mud wall flanked by +towers; a quarter of a mile east of it stands a mud fort, 180 yds. +square, constructed according to European system of fortification. +Inside the city are the famous sepulchres and shrines of Shaikh Safi +ud-din and his descendant Shah Ismail I. (1502-1524) the first Shiah +shah of Persia and founder of the Safavi dynasty. Plans and photographs +of the shrines were taken in 1897 by Dr F. Sarre of Berlin and published +in 1901 (_Denkmaler Persischer Baukunst_; 65 large folio plates). + +European and Chinese merchants resided at Ardebil in the middle ages, +and for a long time the city was a great emporium for central Asian and +Indian merchandise, which was forwarded to Europe via Tabriz, Trebizond +and the Black Sea, and also by way of the Caucasus and the Volga. Since +the beginning of the 16th century, when Persia fell under the sway of +the Safavis, the place has been much frequented by pilgrims who come to +pay their devotions at the shrine of Shaikh Safi. This shrine is a +richly endowed establishment with mosques and college attached, and had +a fine library containing many rare and valuable MSS. presented by Shah +Abbas I. at the beginning of the 17th century, and mostly carried off by +the Russians in 1828 and placed in the library at St Petersburg. The +grand carpet which had covered the floor of one of the mosques for three +centuries was purchased by a traveller about 1890 for 100 pounds, and +was finally acquired by the South Kensington Museum for many thousands. +This beautiful carpet measures 34 ft. by 17 ft. 6 in., and contains 380 +hand-tied knots in the square inch, which gives over 32,500,000 knots to +the whole carpet (W. Griggs, _Asian Carpet Designs_). (A. H. S.) + + + + +ARDECHE, an inland department of south-eastern France, formed in 1790 +from the Vivarais, a district of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 347,140. Area, +2145 sq. m. It is bounded N.W. by the department of Loire, E. by the +Rhone which divides it from Isere and Drome, S. by Gard and W. by Lozere +and Haute-Loire. The surface of Ardeche is almost entirely covered by +the Cevennes mountains, the main chain, continued in the Boutieres +mountains, forming its western boundary. Its centre is traversed from +south-east to north-west by the Coiron range which extends from the +Rhone to the Mont Mezenc (5755 ft.), the highest point in the +department, and the oldest of its many volcanoes. These mountains +separate the southern half of the department, which comprises the basin +of the Ardeche, from the northern half which is watered by numerous +smaller tributaries of the Rhone, the chief of which are the Erieux and +the Doux. A few rivers belong to the Atlantic side of the watershed, the +chief being the Loire, which rises on the western borders of the +department, and the Allier, which for a short distance separates it from +Lozere. Nearly all the rivers of the department are of torrential +swiftness and subject to sudden floods. The scenery through which they +flow is often of great beauty and grandeur. Natural curiosities are the +Pont d'Arc, over the Ardeche, and the Chaussee des Geants, near Vals. +The climate in the valley of the Rhone is, in general, warm, and +sometimes very hot; but westward, as the elevation increases, the cold +becomes more intense and the winters longer. Some districts, especially +in summer, are liable to sudden alterations in the temperature. Rye, +wheat and potatoes are the chief crops cultivated. Good red and white +wines are grown in the hilly region bordering the Rhone valley, the +white wine of St Peray being highly esteemed. The principal fruits are +the chestnut, which is largely exported, the olive and the walnut. In +the rearing of silk-worms, Ardeche ranks second to Gard among French +departments, and great numbers of mulberry trees are grown for the +purposes of this industry. The many goats and sheep of Ardeche make it +one of the chief sources of supply of skins for glove-making. Mines of +coal, iron, lead and zinc are worked, and the quarries furnish hydraulic +lime (Le Teil) and other products. Besides flour-mills, distilleries and +saw-mills, there are important silk-mills and leather-works and +paper-factories. Annonay is the principal industrial town. The +department exports wine, cattle, lime, mineral waters, silk, paper, &c. +Hot springs are numerous, and some of them, as those of Vals, St +Laurent-les-Bains, Celles and Neyrac, are largely resorted to. Ardeche +is served by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway and has some 43 m. of +navigable waterway. The department is divided into the arrondissements +of Privas, Largentiere and Tournon, with 31 cantons and 342 communes. It +forms the diocese of Viviers and part of the archiepiscopal province of +Avignon. It is in the region of the XV. army corps, and within the +circumscription of the _academie_ (educational division) of Grenoble. +Its court of appeal is at Nimes. Privas, the capital, Annonay, Aubenas, +Largentiere and Tournon are the principal towns. Bourg-St Andeol, +Thines, Melas and Cruas have interesting Romanesque churches. Mazan has +remains of a Cistercian abbey founded in the 12th century to which its +vast church belongs. Viviers is an old town with a church of various +styles of architecture and several old houses. + + + + +ARDEE, a market-town of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south parliamentary +division, on the river Dee, 48 m. N. by W. from Dublin on a branch of +the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1883. It has some trade in grain +and basket-making. The town is of high antiquity, and its name +(Ather-dee) is taken to signify the ford of the Dee. A form Ath-Firdia, +however, is connected with the ancient story of the warrior Cuchullain +of Ulster, who, while defending the ford against the men of Connaught, +was forced to slay many with whom he was on friendly terms, and among +them the warrior Firdia, whom he regarded with special affection. A +castle of the lords of the manor was built early in the 14th century, +and remains, as does another adjacent fortified building of the same +period. Roger de Peppart, lord of the manor early in the 13th century, +founded the present Protestant church and a house of Crutched Friars. +There was also a house of Carmelite Friars, but neither of these +remains. Ardee received its first recorded charter in 1377. It had a +full share in the several Irish wars, being sacked by Edward Bruce +(1315) and by O'Neill (1538); and it was taken by the Irish and +recaptured by the English in the wars of 1641, and was occupied later by +the forces of James II. and of William III. It returned two members to +the Irish parliament. A large rath, or encampment, with remains of +fortifications, stands to the south of the town. + + + + +ARDEN, FOREST OF, a district in the north of Warwickshire, England, the +"woodland" as opposed to the "felden," or "fielden," i.e. open country, +in the south, the river Avon separating the two. Originally it was part +of a forest tract of far wider extent than that within the confines of +the county, and now, though lacking the true character of a forest, it +is still unusually well wooded. The undulating surface ranges for the +most part from 250 to 500 ft. in elevation. Wide lands in this district +were held in the time of Edward the Confessor by Alwin, whose son +Thurkill of Warwick, or "of Arden," founded the family of the +Warwickshire Ardens who in Queen Elizabeth's time still held several of +the manors ascribed to Thurkill in _Domesday_. Shakespeare, whose mother +Mary Arden claimed to be of this family, knew the district well, living +as he did at Stratford; and its natural characteristics, then still +unchanged, inspired his pictures of forest life in _As You Like It_. The +name of the Forest of Arden, besides remaining a convenient designation +of a well-marked physical area, is preserved in such place-names as +Henley-in-Arden and Hampton-in-Arden. + + + + +ARDENNES, a district covering some portion of the ancient forest of +Ardenne, and extending over the Belgian province of Luxemburg, part of +the grand duchy, and the French department of Ardennes. Bruzen +Lamartiniere states in his _Dictionnaire Geographique_ that the Gauls +and Bretons called it by a word signifying "the forest," which was +turned into Latin as _Arduenna silva_, and he thinks it quite probable +that the name was really derived from the Celtic word _ardu_ (dark, +obscure). The Arduenna Silva was the most extensive forest of Gaul, and +Caesar (_Bello Gallico_, lib. vi. cap. 29) describes it as extending +from the Rhine and the confines of the Treviri as far as the limits of +the Nervii. In book v. the Roman conqueror describes his campaign +against Indutiomarus and the Treviri in the Ardenne forest. Strabo gave +it still greater extent, treating it as covering the whole region from +the Rhine to the North Sea. It is safer to give it the more reasonable +dimensions of Caesar, and to accept the verdict of later commentators +that it never extended west of the Scheldt. At the division of the +empire of Charlemagne between the three sons of Louis the Debonnaire, +effected by the pact of Verdun in 843, the forest had become a district +and is called therein _pagus Arduensis_. It was part of the division +that fell to Lothair, and several of the charters of 843 expressly +specify certain towns as being situated in this _pagus_. In the 10th +century the district had become a _comitatus_, subject to the powerful +count of Verdun, who changed his style to that of count of Ardenne. + +The Belgian Ardennes may be said now to extend from the Meuse above +Dinant on the west to the grand duchy of Luxemburg and Rhenish Prussia +as far north as the Baraque de Michel on the east, and from a line drawn +eastward from Dinant through Marche, Durbuy and Stavelot to the Hautes +Fagnes on the north, to the French frontier roughly marked by the Semois +valley in the south. Within these limits there are still some of the +finest woods in Europe, which seem to have come down to us almost intact +from the days of the Arduenna of Caesar. Notable among these portions of +the great forest are the woods of St Hubert, the woods round La Roche, +and those of the Amerois, Herbeumont, and Chiny on the Semois. In the +grand duchy the forest has almost entirely disappeared, but owing to the +compulsory law of replanting in Belgium this fate does not seem likely +to attend the Belgian Ardennes. + +In addition to being a forest the Ardennes is a plateau, and it offers +to the geologist a most interesting field of investigation. The greater +part of the Ardennes is occupied by a large area of Devonian beds, +through which rise the Cambrian masses of Rocroi and Stavelot, and a few +others of smaller size. Upon the folded slates and schists which +constitute these inliers the Devonian rests with marked unconformity; +but north of the ridge of Condroz Ordovician and Silurian beds make +their appearance. Near Dinant carboniferous beds are infolded among the +Devonian. Along the northern margin lies the intensely folded belt which +constitutes the coalfield of Namur, and, beneath the overlying Mesozoic +beds, is continued to the Boulonnais, Dover and beyond. The southern +boundary of this belt is formed by a great thrust-plane, the _faille du +midi_, along which the Devonian beds of the south have been thrust over +the carboniferous beds of the coalfield. + +The Ardennes are the holiday ground of the Belgian people, and much of +this region is still unknown except to the few persons who by a happy +chance have discovered its remoter and hitherto well-guarded charms. +There is still an immense quantity of wild game to be found in the +Ardennes, including red and roe deer, wild boar, &c. The shooting is +preserved either by the few great landed proprietors left in the +country, or by the communes, who let the right of shooting to +individuals. Occasionally it is still stated in the press that wolves +have been seen in the Ardennes, but this is a mere fiction. The last +wolf was destroyed there in the 18th century. + + + + +ARDENNES, a department of France on the N.E. frontier, deriving its name +from that of the forest, and formed in 1790 from parts of Champagne, +Picardy and Hainault. Pop. (1906) 317,505. Area, 2028 sq. m. It is +bounded N. and N.E. by Belgium, E. by the department of Meuse, S. by +that of Marne, and W. by that of Aisne. In shape it is quadrilateral +with a cape-like prolongation into Belgium on the north. The slope of +the department is from north-east to south-west, though its longest +river, the Meuse, entering it in the south-east, pursues a winding +course of 111 m. in a north-westerly, and afterwards through deep gorges +in a northerly, direction. The other principal river, the Aisne, crosses +the southern border and takes a northerly, then a westerly course, +separating the region known as Champagne Pouilleuse from the more +elevated plateau of Argonne which forms the central zone of the +department and stretches to the left bank of the Meuse. The highest +points of the department are found in the wooded highlands of the +Ardennes which, with an altitude varying between 980 and 1640 ft., cover +the north and north-east. The climate is comparatively mild in the +south-west, but becomes colder and more rainy towards the north and +north-east. Agriculture is carried on to most advantage in the +Champagne and Argonne. Wheat and oats are the predominant cereals. +Potatoes, rye, lucerne and other kinds of forage are also important +crops. Pasturage is found chiefly on the banks of the Aisne and Meuse +and on the plateau of Rocroi in the north. Horse-raising is carried on +in the neighbourhood of Buzancy in the south, and at Bourg-Fieele in the +north. Fruit-growing is confined to the west and central districts. The +working of slate is very important, especially in the neighbourhood of +Fumay, and quarries producing freestone, lime-stone and other minerals +are found in several places. Flour-mills, saw-mills, sugar-works, +distilleries and leather-works are scattered over the department, but +iron-founding and various branches of metal-working which are active +along the valley of the Meuse (Nouzon, &c.) are the chief industries. To +these may be added wool-weaving, centred at Sedan, and minor industries +such as the manufacture of basket-work, wooden shoes, &c. Coal and raw +wool are prominent imports, while iron goods, cloth, timber, live-stock, +alcohol and the products of the soil are exported. Various branches of +the Eastern railway traverse the department. The Meuse is canalized +within the department, and the Canal des Ardennes, uniting that river +with the Aisne, and the lateral canal of the Aisne are together about 65 +m. long. Ardennes is divided into five arrondissements: Mezieres, +Rocroi, Rethel, Vouziers and Sedan, with 31 cantons and 503 communes. +The department forms part of the ecclesiastical province of Reims and of +the circumscriptions of the appeal-court of Nancy and the VI. army +corps. In educational matters, it is included in the _academic_ +(educational area) of Lille. Mezieres, the capital, Charleville, Rocroi, +Sedan and Rethel are the chief towns. Outside them its finest examples +of architecture are the churches of Mouzon (13th century) and Vouziers +(15th century). + + + + +ARDGLASS ("Green Height"): a small town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the +east parliamentary division, at the head of a rocky bay, in a +picturesque situation between two hills, 32 m. S. by E. of Belfast on a +branch of the Belfast & Co. Down railway. Pop. (1901) 501. Soon after +the Norman invasion it became of the first importance as a port, a fact +attested by the remains of no fewer than five castles in close +proximity, which give the town a picturesque aspect. There are also an +ancient church crowning the eastern hill, and a curious fortified +warehouse (called the New Works), dating probably from the 14th century, +when a trading company was established here under a grant from Henry IV. +Ardglass was a royal burgh and sent a representative to the Irish +parliament. The chief industry is the herring fishery. Ships of 500 tons +may enter the harbour at all times. In summer Ardglass is a frequented +resort of visitors; good bathing and a golf links contribute to its +attractions. + + + + +ARDITI, LUIGI (1822-1903), Italian musical composer and conductor, was +born in Piedmont, and studied music at the Conservatoire in Milan, +starting professionally as a violinist, and touring with Bottesini, the +double-bass player, in the United States in 1847. He began composing at +an early age, and in 1840 produced an overture, followed by an opera _I +Briganti_ in 1841, and other works. He paid frequent visits to America, +conducting the opera in New York, where he produced his _La Spia_ in +1856. In 1858 he became conductor of the opera at Her Majesty's theatre +in London, and both in London and abroad he became famous in this +capacity, having the reputation of being Madame Patti's favourite +conductor. His vocal waltz _Il Bacio_ was often sung by her. In 1896 he +published his _Reminiscences_, and after a long and active musical life +he died at Brighton on the 1st of May 1903. + + + + +ARDMORE, a township and the county-seat of Carter county, Oklahoma, +U.S.A., just S. of the Arbuckle Mountains, about 120 m. S. by E. of +Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 5681; (1907) 8759 (2122 being negroes, and 108 +Indians); (1910) 8618. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & +Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, and the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe +railways. Ardmore is the market-town and distributing point for the +surrounding agricultural region, which is the home of a large part of +the Chickasaw and Choctaw nations. It is situated 890 ft. above the sea +in a cotton and grain producing region, in which cattle are raised and +fruit and vegetables grown; coal, oil, natural gas and rock asphalt +(which is used for paving the streets of Ardmore) are found in the +vicinity. Ardmore is an important cotton market, and has cotton gins, a +cotton compress, machine shops, bridge works, foundries, bottling works +and manufactories of cotton-seed oil, brick, concrete, flour, brooms, +mattresses and dressed lumber. At Ardmore are the Saint Agnes Academy, a +Catholic school for girls, and Saint Agnes College for boys, a +conservatory of music, Hargrove College, and the Selvidge Commercial +College. Near Ardmore is a summer school on the Chautauqua (q.v.) +system. Ardmore was founded in 1887, and was incorporated in 1898. + + + + +ARDRES, a town of northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, +10-1/2 m. by rail S.S.E. of Calais', with which it is also connected by +a canal. Pop. (1906) 1269. The "Field of the Cloth of Gold," where Henry +VIII. of England and Francis I. of France met in 1520, was at Balinghem +in the immediate neighbourhood. The town is an important market for +cattle. + + + + +ARDROSSAN, a seaport, burgh of barony, and police burgh of Ayrshire, +Scotland, 32 m. from Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway, and +29-1/2 m. by the Lanarkshire & Ayrshire branch of the Caledonian +railway. Pop. (1901) 6077. The rise of Ardrossan was due to the +enterprise of Hugh, 12th earl of Eglinton, who began the construction of +the present town and harbour in 1806. The harbour was intended to be in +connexion with a canal from Glasgow to Ardrossan, but this was only +completed as far as Johnstone. Owing to the costliness of the +undertaking, and the death of the earl in 1819, the works were suspended +after an outlay of L100,000, but his successor completed the scheme on a +reduced scale at an expense of another L100,000. The dock accommodation +has since been considerably extended, and the town enjoys great +prosperity. Steamers run every week-day to Arran and Belfast, and during +summer there is a service also to Douglas in the Isle of Man. The +exports consist principally of coal and iron from collieries and +ironworks in the neighbourhood; and the imports of timber, ores and +general goods. Shipbuilding thrives and the fisheries are important. The +town is governed by a provost and council. + +SALTCOATS (pop. 8120), a mile to the south, is a popular seaside resort, +with a brisk trade, due to its proximity to Ardrossan and Stevenston; +the making of salt, once a leading industry, has ceased. + +Ardrossan dates from an early period. The name Arthur of Ardrossan is +found in connexion with a charter dated 1226; and Sir Fergus of +Ardrossan accompanied Edward Bruce in his Irish expedition in 1316, and +in 1320 signed the appeal to the pope, made by the barons of Scotland, +against the aggressions of England. The family of Ardrossan is now +merged, by marriage, in that of the earl of Eglinton and Winton. The +castle where Wallace surprised the English garrison and threw their +corpses into the dungeon, grimly styled "Wallace's Larder," was finally +destroyed by Cromwell, who is said to have used part of its masonry for +the construction of the fort at Ayr; but its ruins still exist. + + + + +AREA, a Latin word, originally meaning a threshing-floor, namely a +raised space in a field exposed on all sides to the wind; now applied in +English (1) to a plot of ground on which a structure is to be erected, +(2) to the court or sunk space in the front or rear of a building, (3) +to the superficial space covered by a district, country, &c., or by a +building or court. + + + + +ARECIBO, a city and port on the north coast of Porto Rico, at the mouth +of a small stream called the Rio Grande de Arecibo, and contiguous to +one of the most fertile regions of the island. Pop. (1899) 8008; of the +tributary district, about 30,000; (1910) 9612. It is connected with San +Juan, Mayaguezand Ponce by railway. It is a well-built and active +commercial city, and has a large export trade in coffee and sugar. The +harbour is an open roadstead, very dangerous to shipping in northerly +winds, and the discharge and loading of cargoes is effected by means of +lighters at considerable risk and expense. Arecibo was founded in 1788. + + + + +AREMBERG, or ARENBERG, formerly a German duchy of the Holy Roman Empire +in the circle of the Rhine Palatinate, between Julich and Cologne, and +now belonging to the Prussian administrative district of Coblenz. The +hamlet of Aremberg is at the foot of a basalt hill 2067 ft. high, on the +summit of which are the ruins of the castle which was the original seat +of the family of Aremberg. + +The lords of Aremberg first appear early in the 12th century, but had +died out in the male line by 1279. From the marriage of the heiress +Mathilda (1282-1299) with Engelbert II., count of La Marck (d. 1328), +sprang two sons. The elder of these, Adolf II, (d. 1347), inherited the +countship of La Marck; the second, Engelbert III. (d. 1387), the +lordship of Aremberg, which he increased by his marriage with Marie de +Looz, heiress of Lumain. The lordship of Aremberg remained in his family +till 1547, when it passed, by his marriage with Margaret, sister of the +childless Robert III., to John of Barbancon, of the great house of +Ligne, who assumed the name and arms of Aremberg, and was created a +count of the Empire by Charles V. He was governor of Friesland, and for +a while commanded the Spanish and Catholic forces against the "beggars," +falling at the battle of Heiligerlee in 1568. His son Charles (d. 1618) +greatly increased the possessions of the house by his marriage with Ann +of Croy, heiress of Croy and of Chimay-Aerschot, and in 1576 was made +prince of the Empire by Maximilian II. His grandson, Philip Francis, was +made duke in 1644 by the emperor Ferdinand III., and was succeeded by +his brother Charles Eugene (d. 1681), who married Marie Henriette de +Vergy de Cusance, heiress of Perwez (d. 1700). Their son, Duke Philip +Charles Francis, was killed in 1691 fighting against the Turks, and was +succeeded by Leopold (1754), a distinguished soldier of the War of the +Spanish Succession, and patron of Rousseau and Voltaire. His son Charles +(d. 1778) was an Austrian field-marshal during the Seven Years' War, and +married Louise Margaret of La Marck-Lumain, heiress of the countship of +Schleiden and lordship of Saffenberg. By the peace of Luneville +(February 1801), the next duke, Louis Engelbert, lost the greater part +of his ancestral domain, but received in compensation Meppen and +Recklinghausen. On the establishment of the confederation of the Rhine, +his son Prosper Louis (to whom, becoming blind, he had ceded his domains +in 1803) became a member (1806), and showed great devotion to the +interests of France; but in 1810 he lost his sovereignty, Napoleon +incorporating Meppen with France and Recklinghausen with the grand-duchy +of Berg, and indemnifying him by a rent of 240,702 francs. In 1815 he +received back his possessions, which were mediatized by the congress of +Vienna, Recklinghausen falling to Prussia and Meppen to Hanover. On +account of the one portion he became a peer of the Westphalian estates, +and by the other a member of the upper house in Hanover. George IV. of +England (9th May 1826) elevated the duke's Hanoverian possessions to a +dukedom under the title of Aremberg Meppen. His brother Auguste Raymond, +Comte de la Marck (1753-1833), became famous during the early stages of +the French Revolution for his friendship with Mirabeau (q.v.). Duke +Prosper Louis died in 1861, and was succeeded by his son Engelbert (d. +1875), who was followed in his turn by his son Engelbert (b. 1872). + +The duke of Aremberg is one of the wealthiest of the great continental +nobles. His feudal domain in Germany covers an area of over 1100 sq. m., +besides which he has large estates in Belgium and France. The duke has +residences in Brussels, where he has a famous collection of pictures, +and at the chateau of Klemenswerth near Meppen. + + + + +ARENA (Lat. for "sand"), the central area of an amphitheatre on which +the gladiatorial displays took place, its name being derived from the +sand with which it was covered. The word is applied sometimes to any +level open space on which spectacles take place. + + + + +ARENDAL, a seaport of Norway, in Nedenaes _amt_ (county), on the south +coast, 46 m. N.E. from Christiansand. Pop. (1900) 11,155. It rises +picturesquely above the mouth of the river Nid, with a good harbour +protected by an island from the open waters of the Skagerrack. The town +itself occupies several islets, and some of the houses are supported +above the water on piles. The chief exports are timber (very largely +exported to Great Britain), wood-pulp, sealskins and felspar. In 1879 +Arendal ranked second (after Christiania) as a ship-owning port; in 1899 +it had dropped to the fifth place. In and near the town are factories +for wood-pulp, paper, cotton and joinery; and at Fevig, 8 m. north-east, +a shipbuilding yard and engineering works. The neighbourhood is +remarkable for the number of beautiful and rare minerals found there; +one of these, a variety of epidote, was formerly called Arendalite. +Louis Philippe stayed here for some time during his exile. + + + + +ARENIG GROUP, in geology, the name now applied by British geologists to +the lowest stage of the Ordovician System in Britain. The term was first +used by Adam Sedgwick in 1847 with reference to the "Arenig Ashes and +Porphyries" in the neighbourhood of Arenig Fawr, in Merioneth, North +Wales. + +The rock-succession in the Arenig district has been recognized by W.G. +Fearnsides ("On the Geology of Arenig Fawr and Moel Llanfnant," +_Q.J.G.S._ vol. lxi., 1905, pp. 608-640, with maps) as follows:-- + + Ordovician + + Caradoc / _Dicranograptus_--shales. + \ Defrel or _Orthis_--limestone. + + / Rhyolitic ashes = Upper \ Upper Ashes + | Massive ashes = Middle > of + Llandeilo < Acid andesitic ashes = Lower / Arenig. + Group | Daerfawr Shales. Zone of _Didymograptus Murchisoni_. + | Platy ashes \ Lower Ashes of Arenig + \ Great Agglomerate / (Hypersthene Andesites). + + / Olchfa or _Bifidus--shales_ (_Didymograptus bifidus_). + | Filltirgerig or _Hirundo_ Beds \ _Didymograptus + Arenig < Erewnt or _Ogygia_--limestone / Hirundo._ + Group | Henllan or _Calymene_--ashes \ _Didymograptus + | Llyfnant or _Extensus_ flags / extensus._ + \ Basal Grit + \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ + (unconformity) + +The above succession is divisible into: (1) a lower series of gritty and +calcareous sediments, the "Arenig Series," as it is now understood; (2) +a middle series, mainly volcanic, with shales, the "Llandeilo Series"; +and (3) the shales and limestones of the Bala or Caradoc Stage. It was +to the middle series (2) that Sedgwick first applied the term "Arenig." + +In the typical region and in North Wales generally the Arenig series +appears to be unconformable upon the Cambrian rocks; this is not the +case in South Wales. The Arenig series is represented in North Wales by +the Garth grit and Ty-Obry beds, by the Shelve series of the Corndon +district, the Skiddaw slates of the Lake District, the Ballantrae group +of Ayrshire, and by the Ribband series of slates and shales in Wicklow +and Wexford. It may be mentioned here that the "Llanvirn" Series of H. +Hicks was equivalent to the bifidus-shales and the Lower Llandeilo +Series. + + REFERENCES.-Adam Sedgwick, _Synopsis of the Classification of the + British Palaeozoic Rocks_ (1885); Sir A. Ramsay, "North Wales," _Geol. + Survey Memoir_, vol. iii.; C. Lapworth, _Ann. Mag. Nat, Hist._ vol. + vi., 1880; G.A.J. Cole and C.V. Jennings, _Q.J.G.S._ vol. xlv., 1889; + C.V. Jennings and G.J. Williams, _ibid._ vol. xlvii., 1891; Messrs + Crosfield and Skeat, _ibid_. vol. lii., 1896; G.L. Elles, _Geol. + Mag._, 1904; J.E. Marr and T. Roberts, _Q.J.G.S._, 1885; H. Hicks, + _ibid._ vol. xxxi., 1875. See also ORDOVICIAN. (J. A. H.) + + + + +AREOI, or AREOITI, a secret society which originated in Tahiti and later +extended its influence to other South Pacific islands. To its ranks both +sexes were admitted. The society was primarily of a religious character. +Members styled themselves descendants of Oro-Tetifa, the Polynesian god, +and were divided into seven or more grades, each having its +characteristic tattooing. Chiefs were at once qualified for the highest +grade, but ordinary members attained promotion only through initiatory +rites. The Areois enjoyed great privileges, and were considered as +depositaries of knowledge and as mediators between God and man. They +were feared, too, as ministers of the taboo and were entitled to +pronounce a kind of excommunication for offences against its rules. The +chief religious purpose of the society was the worship of the generative +powers of nature, and the ritual and ceremonies of initiation were +grossly licentious. But the Areois were also a social force. They aimed +at communism in all things. The women members were common property; the +period of cohabitation was limited to three days, and the female Areois +were bound by oath at initiation to strangle at birth any child born to +them. If, however, the infant was allowed to survive half an hour only, +it was spared; but to have the right of keeping it the mother must find +a male Areoi willing to adopt it. The Areois travelled about, devoting +their whole time to feasting, dancing (the chief dance of the women +being the grossly indecent _Timorodee_ mentioned by Captain Cook), and +debauchery, varied by elaborate realistic stage presentments of the +lives and loves of gods and legendary heroes. + + + + +AREOPAGUS ([Greek: Hareios Pagos]), a bare, rocky hill, 370 ft. high, +immediately west of the northern rim of the acropolis of Athens. The +ancients interpreted the name as "Hill of Ares." Though accepted by some +modern scholars, this derivation of the word is rendered improbable by +the fact that Ares was not worshipped on the Areopagus. A more +reasonable explanation connects the name with _Arae_, "Curses," commonly +known as _Semnae_, "Awful Goddesses," whose shrine was a cave at the +foot of the hill, of which they were the guardian deities (Aeschyl. +Eumen. 417, 804; Schol. on Lucian, vol. iii. p. 68, ed. Jacobitz; Paus. +i. 28. 6). + +The Boule, or Council, of the Areopagus ([Greek: he en Harehio Pago +boule]), named after the hill, is to be compared in origin and +fundamental character with the council of chiefs or elders which we find +among the earliest Germans, Celts, Romans, and other primitive peoples. +Under the kings of Athens it must have closely resembled the Boule of +elders described by Homer; and there can be no doubt that it was the +chief factor in the work of transforming the kingship into an +aristocracy, in which it was to be supreme. It was composed of +ex-archons. Aristotle attributes to it for the period of aristocracy the +appointment to all offices (_Ath. Pol_. viii. 2), the chief work of +administration, and the right to fine or otherwise punish in cases, not +only of violation of laws, but also of immorality (_ibid._ iii. 6; cf. +Isoc. vii. 46; Androtion and Philochorus, in Muller, _Frag. Hist. +Graec_. i. 387. 17, 394 60).[1] This evidence is corroborated by the +remnants of political power left to it in later time, after its +importance had been greatly curtailed, and by the designation Boule, +which in itself indicates that the body so termed was once a state +council. In a passage bearing incidentally upon the early constitution +of Athens, Thucydides (i. 126. 8) informs us that at the time of the +Cylonian insurrection the Athenians, we may suppose in their assembly +([Greek: Hekklesia]), commissioned the archons with absolute power to +deal with the trouble at their discretion. From this passage, if we +accept the Aristotelian view as to the early supremacy of the +Areopagitic council, we must infer that a modification of the +aristocracy in a popular direction had at that time already taken place. + +In addition to its political functions, the council from the time of +Draco, if not earlier, exercised jurisdiction in certain cases of +homicide (see below, _ad fin_.). The assumption that in their criminal +jurisdiction the Areopagites were called Ephetae till after the +legislation of Draco (of. Philoch. 58, in Muller, _ibid_. 394) would +explain the otherwise obscure circumstances that, according to Plutarch +(_Sol_. 19), Draco (q.v.) in his laws mentioned only the Ephetae, and +that Pollux (viii. 125) included the Areopagus among the localities in +which sat the Ephetae.[2] The same assumption would supply a reason for +the notion entertained by many writers of later time that the +Areopagitic council was instituted by Solon (q.v.)--a notion partly +explained also by the desire of political thinkers to ascribe to Solon +the making of a complete constitution. Conformably with the view here +presented we may suppose that the name "Boule of the Areopagus" +developed from the simple term "Boule" in order to distinguish it from +the new Boule (q.v.), or Council of Four Hundred. The popular reforms of +Solon (594 B.C.), so far as they were carried into effect, tended +practically to limit the Council of the Areopagus, though +constitutionally it retained all its earlier powers and functions, +augmented by the right to try persons accused of conspiracy against the +state (Arist. _Ath. Pol._ viii. 4). In the exercise of its duty as the +protector of the laws it must have had power to inhibit in the Four +Hundred, or in the Ecclesia, a measure which it judged unconstitutional +or in any way prejudicial to the state, and in the levy of fines for +violation of law or moral usage it remained irresponsible. As censor of +the conduct of citizens it inquired into every man's source of income +and punished the idle (Plut. _Sol._ 22). + +The tyrants (560-510 B.C.) left to the council its cognizance of murder +cases (Demosth. xxiii. 66; Arist. _Ath. Pol_. xvi. 8) and probably the +nominal enjoyment of all its prerogatives; but their method of filling +the archonship with their own kinsmen and creatures gradually converted +the Areopagites into willing supporters of tyranny. Though hostile, +therefore, to the policy of Cleisthenes, their council seems to have +suffered no direct abridgment of power from his reforms. After his +legislation it gradually changed character and political sentiment by +the annual admission of ex-archons who had held office under a popular +constitution. In 487 B.C., however, the introduction of the lot as a +part of the process of filling the archonship (see ARCHON) began to +undermine its ability. This deterioration was necessarily slow; it could +not have advanced far in 480 B.C., when on the eve of the battle of +Salamis, as we are informed (Arist. _Polit._ viii. 4, p. 1304a, 17; +_Ath. Pol._ xxiii. 25; Plut. _Them._ 10; Cic. _Off._ i. 22, 75), the +council of the Areopagus succeeded in manning the fleet by providing pay +for the seamen, thereby regaining the confidence and respect of the +people. The patriotic action of the council and its attendant popularity +enabled it to recover considerable administrative control, which it +continued to exercise for the next eighteen years, although its +deterioration in ability, becoming every year more noticeable, as well +as the rapid rise of democratic ideas, prevented it from fully +re-establishing the supremacy which Aristotle, with some exaggeration, +attributes to it for this period. Its prestige was seriously undermined +by the conduct of individual members, whose corrupt use of power was +exposed and punished by Ephialtes, the democratic leader. Following up +this advantage, Ephialtes (462 B.C.), and less prominently Archestratus +and Pericles (q.v.), proposed and carried measures for the transfer of +most of its functions to the Council of Five Hundred, the Ecclesia, and +the popular courts of law (Arist. _Ath. Pol._ xxv. 2, xxvii. 1, xxxv. 2; +Plut. _Per_. 9). Among these functions were probably jurisdiction in +cases of impiety, the supervision of magistrates and the censorship of +the morals of citizens, the inhibition of illegal and unconstitutional +resolutions in the Five Hundred and the Ecclesia, the examination into +the fitness of candidates for office, and the collection of rents from +the sacred property (of. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, _Arist. u. Ath._ ii. +186-197; Busolt, _Griech. Gesch._ (2nd ed.) iii. 269-294; G. Gilbert, +_Const. Antiq. of Sparta and Athens_, Eng. trans., 154 f.). It retained +jurisdiction in cases of homicide and the care of sacred olive trees. +From this time to the establishment of the Thirty (462-404 B.C.) the +Areopagitic council, degraded still further by the opening of the +archonship to the Zeugitae (457 B.C.) and by the absolute use of the lot +in filling the office, was a political nullity. The first indication of +a revival of its prestige is to be traced in the action attributed to it +by Lysias during the siege of Athens (404 B.C.) (in Eratosth. 69: +[Greek: prattouses men tes en Areio Pago boules soteria]). After the +surrender of Athens and the appointment of the Thirty, the repeal of the +laws of Ephialtes and Archestratus prepared the way for the +rehabilitation of the council as guardian of the constitution by the +restored democracy (Arist. _Ath. Pol._ xxxv. 2; decree of Tisamenus, in +Andoc. i. 84; cf. Din. i. 9). Although under the new conditions the +Areopagites could not hope to recover their full supremacy, they did +exercise considerable political influence, especially in crises. In the +time of Demosthenes, accordingly, we find them annulling the election of +individuals to offices for which they were unfit (Plut. _Phoc_. 16), +exercising during a crisis a disciplinary power extending to life and +death over all the Athenians "in conformity with ancestral law," +procuring the banishment of one, the racking of another, and the +infliction of capital punishment on several of the citizens. This +authority seems to have been delegated to them by the assembly with +reference either to individual cases or temporarily to the whole body of +Athenians (Din. i. 10, 62 f.; Aeschin. iii. 252; Lye. _Leoc_. 52; +Demosth. xviii. 132 f.; Plut. _Demosth_. 14). Religion, too, was their +care (Pseud. Demosth. lix. 80 f.). Lycurgus (_ibid_.) even goes so far +as to claim chat by their action during the crisis after Chaeroneia they +had saved the state. After the period of the great orators their +influence continued to grow. Demetrius of Phalerum empowered them to +assist the _gynaeconomi_ in supervising festivals held in private houses +(_Philoch_. in Muller, _ibid_. i. 408. 143). Under Roman supremacy in +addition to earlier functions they had jurisdiction in cases of forgery, +tampering with the standard measures, and probably other high crimes, +the supervision of buildings, and the care of religion and of education +(Cic. _Fam_. xiii. i; _Att_. v. 9; Tac. _Ann_. ii. 55; Plut. _Cic_. 24; +_C.I.G._ i. 123. 9; _C.I.A._ ii. 476; iii. 703, 714, 716; Acts xvii. +19). Their council acquired, too, in conjunction with the assembly, with +or without the cooperation of the Five Hundred (or Six Hundred), the +right to pass decrees and to represent their city in foreign relations +(_C.I.A._ iii. 10, 31, 40, 41, 454, 457, 458). From the overthrow of the +Thirty to the end of their history they enjoyed a high reputation for +ability and integrity (Isoc. vii.; Demosth. xxiii. 65 f.; Val. Max. +viii. 1. _Amb_. 2; Gell. xii. 7; Lucian, _Bis Acc._ iv. 12. 14). About +A.D. 400 their council came to an end (Theodoret, _Curat_. ix. 55). + +With regard to the jurisdiction of the council in cases of homicide, the +procedure, so far as it may be gathered from the orators and other +sources, was as follows:--accusations were brought by relatives within +the circle of brothers' and sisters' children, supported by the wider +kin and the phratry (Demosth. xliii. 57). On receiving the accusation +the king-archon by proclamation warned the accused to keep away from +temples and other places forbidden to such persons. He made three +investigations of the case in the three successive months, and brought +it to trial in the fourth month. As he was forbidden to hand a case over +to his successor, it resulted that in the last three months of the year +no accusations of homicide could be brought (Ant. vi. 42). After the +examination he assigned the case to the proper court, and presided over +it during the trial, which took place in the open air, that the judges +and the accuser might not be polluted by being brought under the same +roof with the offender (Ant. v. 11). The accuser and the accused, +standing on two white stones termed "Relentlessness" ([Greek: Anaideia]) +and "Outrage" ([Greek: Hubois]) respectively (Paus. i. 28. 5), bound +themselves to the truth by most solemn oaths (Demosth. xxiii. 68). Each +was allowed two speeches, and the trial lasted three days. After the +first speech the accused, unless charged with parricide, was at liberty +to withdraw into exile (Poll. viii. 117). If condemned, he lost his +life, and his property was confiscated. A tie vote acquitted (Aeschyl. +_Eumen_. 735; Ant. v. 51; Aeschin. iii. 252). See further GREEK LAW. + + AUTHORITIES.--Among other works may be mentioned E. Dugit, _Etude sur + I'Areopage athenien_ (Paris, 1867); E. Caillemer, "Areopagus," in + Daremberg et Saglio, _Dict. d. Antiq. grecq. et rom._ (Paris, 1873) i. + 395-404; A. Philippi, _Areopag und Epheten_ (Berlin, 1874). The + discovery of the Aristotelian "Constitution of Athens" (_Ath. Pol._) + has largely rendered obsolete all works published before 1891. See + Hermann-Thumser, _Griechische Staatsaltertumer_ (6th ed., Freiburg, + 1892), 365-371, 387-391, 788; U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, + _Aristoteles und Athen_ (Berlin, 1893), ii. 186-200; J.J. Terwen, _De + Areopago Atheniensium Quaestiones Variae_ (Utrecht, 1894); G. Gilbert, + _Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta_ (Eng. trans., London + and New York, 1895), 114, 122, 137, 154, 282; F. Cauer, "Aischylos und + der Areopag," in _Rhein. Mus._ (1895), N.F. i. 348-356; Wachsmuth and + Thalheim, s.v. "Areios pagos" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencycl. d. kl. + Altertumswiss_. (Stuttgart, 1896), ii. 627-633; G. de Sanctis,[Greek: + Atthis], _Storia delta Repubblica Ateniese_ (Rome, 1898); L. Ziehen, + "Drakontische Gesetzgebung," in _Rhein. Mus._ (1899), N.F. liv. + 321-344. See also CLEISTHENES; PERICLES and ATHENS. (G. W. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Neither Herodotus nor Thucydides tells us anything as to its + powers; but their silence on this point need not surprise us, as they + had no especial occasion for referring to the subject, and in general + it may be said that before the 4th century B.C. writers took little + interest in the constitutional history of the remote past. The + statement of Thucydides (i. 126. 8) that at the time of the Cylonian + insurrection the nine archons attended to a great part of the + business of government does not contradict the Aristotelian view, for + their administration may well have been under Areopagitic supervision + (see also ARCHON); and, as is stated in the text, the supremacy of + the council may have already suffered considerable limitation. _The + Eumenides of Aeschylus_ is a glorification of the institution, though + for obvious reasons it is there represented as an essentially + judicial body. + + [2] It is possible also to explain the alleged absence of reference + to the Areopagitic council in the Draconian laws by the supposition + that Solon, while leaving untouched the Draconian laws concerned with + the cases of homicide which came before the Ephetae, substituted a + law of his own regarding wilful murder, which fell within the + jurisdiction of the Areopagites. This view finds strong support in + the circumstance that the copy of the Draconian laws (_C.I.A._ i. + 61), made in pursuance of a decree of the people of the year 409-408 + B.C., does not contain the provision for cases of premeditated + homicide; cf. G. de Sanctis, [Greek: Attis], 135. The relation of the + Ephetae to the court of the Areopagus is obscure; cf. Philippi, _Der + Areopag und die Epheten_ (Berlin, 1874); Busolt, _Griechische + Geschichte_ (2nd ed.), ii. 138 ff. + + + + +AREQUIPA, a coast department of southern Peru, bounded N. by the +departments of Ayacucho and Cuzco, E. by Puno and Moquegua, S. and W. by +Moquegua and the Pacific. It is divided into seven provinces. Area, +21,947 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 229,007. It is traversed by an important +railway line from Mollendo (Islay) to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, 325 m. +long, with extensions to Santa Rosa, Peru and La Paz, Bolivia. The +highest point reached by this line is 14,660 ft. The department includes +an arid, sand-covered region on the coast traversed by deep gorges +formed by river courses, and a partly barren, mountainous region inland +composed of the high Cordillera and its spurs toward the coast, between +which are numerous highly fertile valleys watered by streams from the +snow-clad peaks. These produce cotton, rice, sugar-cane, wheat, coffee, +Indian corn, barley, potatoes and fruit. The mountainous region is rich +in minerals, and there is a valuable deposit of borax near the capital, +Arequipa. + + + + +AREQUIPA, a city of southern Peru, capital of the department of the same +name, about 90 m. N.E. by N. of its seaport Mollendo (107 m. by rail), +and near the south-west foot of the volcano Misti which rises to a +height of 19,029 ft. above sea-level. The population was estimated at +35,000 in 1896. The city is provided with a tram line, and is connected +with the coast at Mollendo (Islay) by a railway 107 m. long, and with +Puno, on Lake Titicaca, by an extension of the same line 218 m. long. +The city occupies a green, fertile valley of the Rio Chile, 7753 ft. +above the sea, surrounded by an arid, barren desert. It is built on the +usual rectangular plan and the streets are wide and well paved. The +edifices in general are low, and are massively built with thick walls +and domed ceilings to resist earthquakes, and lessen the danger from +falling masonry. The material used is a soft, porous magnesian +limestone, which is well adapted to the purpose in view. Arequipa is the +seat of a bishopric created in 1609-1612, and possesses a comparatively +modern cathedral, its predecessor having been destroyed by fire in 1849. +It has several large churches, and formerly possessed five monasteries +and three nunneries, which have been closed and their edifices devoted +to educational and other public purposes. The religious element has +always been a dominating factor in the life of the city. A university, +founded in 1825, three colleges, one of them dating from colonial times, +a medical school, and a public library, founded in 1821, are +distinguishing features of the city, which has always taken high rank in +Peru for its learning and liberalism, as well as for its political +restlessness. The city's water-supply is derived from the Chile river +and is considered dangerous to new arrivals because of the quantity of +saline and organic matter contained. The climate is temperate and +healthy, and the fertile valley (10 m. long by 5 m. wide) surrounding +the city produces an abundance of cereals, fruits and vegetables common +to both hot and temperate regions. Pears and strawberries grow side by +side with oranges and granadillas, and are noted for their size and +flavour. The trade of the city is principally in Bolivian +products--mineral ores, alpaca wool, &c.--but it also receives and +exports the products of the neighbouring Peruvian provinces, and the +output of the borax deposits in the neighbourhood. Arequipa was founded +by Pizarro in 1540, and has been the scene of many events of importance +in the history of Peru. It was greatly damaged in the earthquakes of +1582, 1609, 1784 and 1868, particularly in the last. It was captured by +the Chileans in 1883, near the close of the war between Chile and Peru. + + + + +ARES, in ancient Greek mythology, the god of war, or rather of battle, +son of Zeus and Hera. (For the Roman god, identified with Ares, see +MARS.) As contrasted with Athena, who added to her other attributes that +of being the goddess of well-conducted military operations, he +personifies brute strength and the wild rage of conflict. His delight is +in war and bloodshed; he loves fighting for fighting's sake, and takes +the side of the one or the other combatant indifferently, regardless of +the justice of the cause. His quarrelsomeness was regarded as inherited +from his mother, and it may have been only as an illustration of the +perpetual strife between Zeus and Hera that Ares was accounted their +son. According to a later tradition, he was the son of Hera (Juno) +alone, who became pregnant by touching a certain flower (Ovid, _Fasti_, +v. 255). All the gods, even Zeus, hate him, but his bitterest enemy is +Athena, who fells him to the ground with a huge stone. Splendidly armed, +he goes to battle, sometimes on foot, sometimes in the war chariot made +ready by his sons Deimos and Phobos (Panic and Fear) by whom he is +usually accompanied. In his train also are found Enyo, the goddess of +war who delights in bloodshed and the destruction of cities; his sister, +Eris, goddess of fighting and strife; and the Keres, goddesses of death, +whose function it is especially to roam the battle-field, carrying off +the dead to Hades. In later accounts (and even in the _Odyssey_) Ares' +character is somewhat toned down; thus, in the "Homeric" hymn to Ares he +is addressed as the assistant of Themis (Justice), the enemy of tyrants, +and leader of the just. It is to be noted, however, that in this little +poem he is to some extent confounded with the planet named after him +(Ares, or Mars). + +The primitive character of Ares has been much discussed. He is a god of +storms; a god of light or a solar god; a chthonian god, one of the +deities of the subterranean world, who could bring prosperity as well as +ruin upon men, although in time his destructive qualities obscured the +others. In this last aspect he was one of the chief gods of the +Thracians, amongst whom his home was placed even in the time of Homer. +In Scythia an old iron sword served as the symbol of the god, to which +yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses were made, and in earlier times +(as apparently also at Sparta) human victims, selected from prisoners of +war, were offered. Thus Ares developed into the god of war, in which +character he made his way into Greece. This theory may have been nothing +more than an instance of the Greek tendency to assign a northern or +"hyperborean" home to deities in whose character something analogous to +the stormy elements of nature was found. But it appears that the +Thracians and Scythians in historical times (Herodotus i. 59) worshipped +chiefly a war god, and that certain Thracian settlements, formed in +Greece in prehistoric times, left behind them traces of the worship of a +god whom the Greeks called Ares. The story of his imprisonment for +thirteen months by the Aloidae (_Iliad_, v. 385) points to the conquest +of this chthonian destroyer of the fields by the arts of peace, +especially agriculture, of which the grain-fed sons of Aloeus (the +thresher) are the personification. + +In Homer Ares is the lover of Aphrodite, the wife of Hephaestus, who +catches them together in a net and holds them up to the ridicule of the +gods. In what appears to be a very early development of her character, +Aphrodite also was a war goddess, known under the name of Areia; and in +Thebes, the most important seat of the worship of Ares, she is his wife, +and bears him Eros and Anteros, Deimos and Phobos, and Harmonia, wife of +Cadmus, the founder of the city (Hesiod, _Theog._ 933). In the legend of +Cadmus and his family Ares plays a prominent part. His worship was not +so widely spread over Greece as that of other gods, although he was +honoured here and there with festivals and sacrifices. Thus, at Sparta, +under the name of Theritas, he was offered young dogs and even human +beings. The Dioscuri were said to have brought his image from Colchis to +Laconia, where it was set up in an old sanctuary on the road from Sparta +to Therapnae. At Athens, he had a temple at the foot of the Areopagus, +with a statue by Alcamenes. It was here, according to the legend, that +he was tried and acquitted by a council of the gods for the murder of +Halirrhothius, who had violated Alcippe, the daughter of Ares by +Agraulos. The figure of Ares appears in various stories of ancient +mythology. Thus, he engages in combat with Heracles on two occasions to +avenge the death of his son Cycnus; once Zeus separates the combatants +by a flash of lightning, but in the second encounter he is severely +wounded by his adversary, who has the active support of Athena; maddened +by jealousy, he changes himself into the boar which slew Adonis, the +favourite of Aphrodite; and stirs up the war between the Lapithae and +Centaurs. His attributes were the spear and the burning torch, +symbolical of the devastation caused by war (in ancient times the +hurling of a torch was the signal for the commencement of hostilities). +The animals sacred to him were the dog and the vulture. + +The worship of Ares being less general throughout Greece than that of +the gods of peace, the number of statues of him is small; those of +Ares-Mars, among the Romans, are more frequent. Previous to the 5th +century B.C. he was represented as full-bearded, grim-featured and in +full armour. From that time, apparently under the influence of Athenian +sculptors, he was conceived as the ideal of a youthful warrior, and was +for a time associated with Aphrodite and Eros. He then appears as a +vigorous youth, beardless, with curly hair, broad head and stalwart +shoulders, with helmet and chlamys. In the Villa Ludovisi statue (after +the style of Lysippus) he appears seated, in an attitude of thought; his +arms are laid aside, and Eros peeps out at his feet. In the Borghese +Ares (also taken for Achilles) he is standing, his only armour being the +helmet on his head. He also appears in many other groups, with +Aphrodite, in marble and on engraved gems of Roman times. But before +this grouping had recommended itself to the Romans, with their legend of +Mars and Rhea Silvia, the Greek Ares had again become under Macedonian +influence a bearded, armed and powerful god. + + AUTHORITIES.--H.D. Muller, Ares (1848), H.W. Stoll, _Uber die + ursprungliche Bedeutung des A. und der Athene_ (1881); F.A. Voigt, + "Beitrage zur Mythologie des Ares und Athena" in _Leipziger Studien_, + iv. 1881; W.H. Roscher, _Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie_, i., + 1873; C. Tumpel, _Ares und Aphrodite_ (1880); articles in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, Roscher's _Lexikon der + Mythologie_, and Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des Antiquites_ + (s.v. MARS); Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_. + + + + +ARETAEUS, of Cappadocia, a Greek physician, who lived at Rome in the +second half of the 2nd century A.D. We possess two treatises by him, +each in four books, in the Ionic dialect: _On the Causes and Indications +of Acute and Chronic Diseases, and On their Treatment_. His work was +founded on that of Archigenes; like him, he belonged to the eclectic +school, but did not ignore the theories of the "Pneumatics," who made +the heart the seat of life and of the soul. + + Editions by Kuhn (1828), Ermerius (1848). English translations: Wigan + (1723); Moffat (1786); Reynolds (1837); Adams (1856). See Locher, + _Aretaeus aus Kappadocien_ (1847). + + + + +ARETAS (Arab. Haritha), the Greek form of a name borne by kings of the +Nabataeans resident at Petra in Arabia, (i) A king in the time of +Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (2 Mace. v. 8). (2) The father-in-law of Herod +Antipas (Jos. _Ant._ xviii. 5. 1, 3), In 2 Cor. xi. 32 he is described +as ruler of Damascus (q.v.) at the time of Paul's conversion. Herod +Antipas had married a daughter of Aretas, but afterwards discarded her +in favour of Herodias. This led to a war with Aretas in which Antipas +was defeated. + +An Aretas is mentioned in 1 Macc. xv. 22, but the true reading is +probably Ariarathes (king of Cappadocia). See NABATAEANS. + + + + +ARETE (O. Fr. _areste_, Lat. _arista_, ear of corn, fish-bone or spine), +a ridge or sharp edge; a French term used in Switzerland to denote the +sharp bayonet-like edge of a mountain (such as the Matterhorn), that +slopes steeply upward with two precipitous sides meeting in a long +ascending ridge. Hence the word has passed into common use to denote any +sharp mountain edge denuded by frost action above the snowline, where +the consequent angular ridges give the characteristic "house-roof +structure" of these altitudes. + + + + +ARETHAS (c. 860-940), Byzantine theological writer and scholar, +archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, was born at Patrae. He was the +author of a Greek commentary on the Apocalypse, avowedly based upon that +of Andrew, his predecessor in the archbishopric. In spite of its +author's modest estimate, Arethas's work is by no means a slavish +compilation; it contains additions from other sources, and especial care +has been taken in verifying the references. His interest was not, +however, confined to theological literature; he annotated the margins of +his classical texts with numerous scholia (many of which are preserved), +and had several MSS. copied at his own expense, amongst them the Codex +Clarkianus of Plato (brought to England from the monastery of St John in +Patmos), and the Dorvillian MS. of Euclid (now at Oxford). + + Most divergent opinions have been held as to the time in which Arethas + lived; the reasons for the dates given above will be found succinctly + stated in the article "Aretas," by A. Julicher in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopadie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (1896). The + text of the commentary is given in Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, cvi.; + see also O. Gebhardt and A. Harnack, _Texte und Untersuchungen zur + Geschichte der altchristlichen Litt._ i. pp. 36-46 (1882), and _Vita + Euthymii_ (patriarch of Constantinople, d. 917), ed. C. de Boor + (1888); H. Wace, _Dictionary of Christian Biography_, i.; C. + Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897); G. + Heinrici in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1897). + + + + +ARETHUSA, in Greek mythology, a nymph who gave her name to a spring in +Elis and to another in the island of Ortygia near Syracuse. According to +Pausanias (v. 7. 2), Alpheus, a mighty hunter, was enamoured of +Arethusa, one of the retinue of Artemis; Arethusa fled to Ortygia, where +she was changed into a spring; Alpheus, in the form of a river, made his +way beneath the sea, and united his waters with those of the spring. In +Ovid (_Metam._ v. 572 foll.), Arethusa, while bathing in the Alpheus, +was seen and pursued by the river god in human form; Artemis changed her +into a spring, which, flowing underground, emerged at Ortygia. In the +earlier form of the legend, it is Artemis, not Arethusa, who is the +object of the god's affections, and escapes by smearing her face with +mire, so that he fails to recognize her (see L.R. Farnell, _Cults of the +Greek States_, ii. p. 428). The probable origin of the story is the part +traditionally taken in the foundation of Syracuse by the Iamidae of +Olympia, who identified the spring Arethusa with their own river +Alpheus, and the nymph with Artemis Alpheiaia, who was worshipped at +Ortygia. The subterranean passage of the Alpheus in the upper part of +its course (confirmed by modern explorers), and the freshness of the +water of Arethusa in spite of its proximity to the sea, led to the +belief that it was the outlet of the river. Further, according to Strabo +(vi. p. 270), during the sacrifice of oxen at Olympia the waters of +Arethusa were disturbed, and a cup thrown into the Alpheus would +reappear in Ortygia. In Virgil (_Ecl_. x. 1) Arethusa is addressed as a +divinity of poetical inspiration, like one of the Muses, who were +themselves originally nymphs of springs. + + For Arethusa on Syracusan coins, see B.V. Head, _Historia Numorum_, + pp. 151, 155. + + + + +ARETINO, PIETRO (1492-1556), Italian author, was born in 1492 at Arezzo +in Tuscany, from which place he took his name. He is said to have been +the natural son of Luigi Bacci, a gentleman of the town. He received +little education, and lived for some years poor and neglected, picking +up such scraps of information as he could. When very young he was +banished from Arezzo on account of a satirical sonnet which he composed +against indulgences. He went to Perugia, where for some time he worked +as a bookbinder, and continued to distinguish himself by his daring +attacks upon religion. After some years' wandering through parts of +Italy he reached Rome, where his talents, wit and impudence commended +him to the papal court. This favour, however, he lost in 1523 by writing +a set of obscene sonnets, to accompany an equally immoral series of +drawings by the great painter, Giulio Romano. He left Rome and was +received by Giovanni de' Medici, who introduced him at Milan to Francis +I. of France. He gained the good graces of that monarch, and received +handsome presents from him. Shortly after this Aretino attempted to +regain the favour of the pope, but, having come to Rome, he composed a +sonnet against a rival in some low amour, and in return was assaulted +and severely wounded. He could obtain no redress from the pope, and +returned to Giovanni de' Medici. On the death of the latter in December +1526, he withdrew to Venice, where he afterwards continued to reside. He +spent his time here in writing comedies, sonnets, licentious dialogues, +and a few devotional and religious works. He led a profligate life, and +procured funds to satisfy his needs by writing sycophantish letters to +all the nobles and princes with whom he was acquainted. This plan proved +eminently successful, for large sums were given him, apparently from +fear of his satire. So great did Aretino's pride grow, that he styled +himself the "divine," and the "scourge of princes." He died in 1556, +according to some accounts by falling from his chair in a fit of +laughter caused by hearing some indecent story of his sisters. The +reputation of Aretino in his own time rested chiefly on his satirical +sonnets or burlesques; but his comedies, five in number, are now +considered the best of his works. His letters, of which a great number +have been printed, are also commended for their style. The dialogues and +the licentious sonnets have been translated into French, under the title +_Academie des Dames_. + + + + +AREZZO (anc. _Arretium_), a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, Italy, +the capital of the province of Arezzo, 54 m. S.E. of Florence by rail. +Pop. (1901) town, 16,780; commune, 46,926. It is an attractive town, +situated on the slope of a hill 840 to 970 ft. above sea-level, in a +fertile district. The walls by which it is surrounded were erected in +1320 by Guido Tarlati di Pietramala, its warlike bishop, who died in +1327, and is buried in the cathedral; they were reconstructed by Cosimo +I. de Medici between 1541 and 1568, on which occasion the bronze statues +of Pallas and the Chimaera, now at Florence, were discovered. The town +itself is fan-shaped, the streets, which contain some fine old houses +with projecting eaves and many towers, radiating from the citadel +(Fortezza), which was constructed in 1502, and dismantled by the French +in 1800. The cathedral, close by, is a fine specimen of Italian Gothic +begun in 1277, but not completed internally until 1511, while the facade +was not begun until 1880. The interior is spacious and contains some +fine 14th-century sculptures, those of the high altar, which contains +the tomb of St Donatus, the patron saint of Arezzo, being the best; very +good stained-glass windows of the beginning of the 16th century by +Guillaume de Marcillat, and some terra-cotta reliefs by Andrea della +Robbia. Another fine church is S. Maria della Pieve, having a campanile +and a facade of 1216, the latter with three open colonnades running for +its whole length above the doors. The interior was restored to its +original style in 1863-1865. The Romanesque choir and apse belong to the +11th century, the rest of the interior is contemporary with the facade. +In the square behind the church is a colonnade designed by Vasari. In +the cloisters of S. Bernardo, on the site of the ancient amphitheatre, +is a remarkable view of medieval Rome. S. Francesco contains famous +frescoes by Piero de' Franceschi, representing scenes from the legend of +the Holy Cross, and others by Spinello Aretino, a pupil of Giotto. There +are several other frescoes by the latter in S. Domenico. Among the +Renaissance buildings the churches of S. Maria delle Grazie and the +Santissima Annunziata may be noted. The collection of majolica in the +municipal museum is very fine, and so is that of the Funghini family. In +the middle ages Arezzo was generally on the Ghibelline side; it +succumbed to Florence in 1289 at the battle of Campaldino, but at the +end of the century recovered its strength under the Tarlati family. In +1336 it became subject to Florence for six years, and after intestine +struggles, finally came under her rule in 1384. Among the natives of +Arezzo the most famous are the Benedictine monk Guido of Arezzo, the +inventor of the modern system of musical notation (died _c_. 1050), the +poet Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, the satirist (1492-1556), and Vasari, +famous for his lives of Italian painters. The town never possessed a +distinct school of artists. + +See C. Signorini, _Arezzo, Citta y Provincia, Guida illustrata_ +(Arezzo,1904). (T. As,) + + + + +ARGALI, the Tatar name of the great wild sheep, _Ovis ammon_, of the +Altai and other parts of Siberia. Standing as high as a large donkey, +the argali is the finest of all the wild sheep, the horns of the rams, +although of inferior length, being more massive than those of _Ovis +poli_ of the Pamirs. There are several local races of argali, among +which _O. ammon hodgsoni_ of Ladak and Tibet is one of the best known. +There are likewise several nearly related central Asian species, such as +_O. sairensis_ and _O. littledalei_. (See SHEEP.) + + + + +ARGAO, a town on the east coast of Cebu, Philippine Islands, 36 m. +S.S.W. of the town of Cebu. Pop. (1903) 35,448. Large quantities of a +superior quality of cacao are produced in the vicinity, and rice and +Indian corn are other important products. A limited amount of cotton is +raised and woven into cloth. The language is Cebu-Visayan. Argao was +founded in 1608. + + + + +ARGAUM, a village of British India in the Akola district of the Central +Provinces, 32 m. north of Akola. The village is memorable for an action +which took place on the 28th of November 1803 between the British army, +commanded by Major-General Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington), +and the Mahrattas under Sindhia and the raja of Berar, in which the +latter were defeated with great loss. A medal struck in England in 1851 +commemorates the victory. + + + + +ARGEI, the name given by the ancient Romans to a number of rush puppets +(24 or 27 according to the reading of Varro, _de Ling_. _lat_. vii. 44, +or 30 according to Dionysius i. 38) resembling men tied hand and foot, +which were taken down to the ancient bridge over the Tiber (_pans +sublicius_) on the 14th of May by the pontifices and magistrates, with +the flaminica Dialis in mourning guise, and there thrown into the Tiber +by the Vestal virgins. There were also in various parts of the four +Servian regions of the city a number of _sacella Argeorum_ (chapels), +round which a procession seems to have gone on the 17th of March (Varro, +_L.L._ v. 46-54; Jordan, _Rom. Topogr._ vol. ii. 603), and it has been +conjectured that the puppets were kept in these chapels until the time +came for them to be cast into the river. The Romans had no historical +explanation of these curious rites, and neither the theories of their +scholars nor the beliefs of the common people, who fancied that the +puppets were substitutes for old men who used at one time to be +sacrificed to the river, are worth serious consideration. Recently two +explanations have been given: (1) that of W. Mannhardt, who by comparing +numerous examples of similar customs among other European peoples +arrived at the conclusion that the rite was of extreme antiquity and of +dramatic rather than sacrificial character, and that its object was +possibly to procure rain; (2) that of Wissowa, who refuses to date it +farther back than the latter half of the 3rd century B.C., and sees in +it the yearly representation of an original sacrifice of twenty-seven +captive Greeks (taking Argei as a Latin form of [Greek: Argeioi]) by +drowning in the Tiber. This second theory is, however, not borne out by +any Roman historical record. + + See Wissowa's arguments in the article "Argei" in his edition of + Pauly's _Realencydopadie_. For the other view see W. Mannhardt, + _Antike Wald und Feldkulte_, 178 foll.; W.W. Fowler, _Roman + Festivals_, pp. 111 foll. (W. W. F.*) + + + + +ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1799-1875), German astronomer, was +born at Memel on the 22nd of March 1799. He studied at the university of +Konigsberg, and was attracted to astronomy by F.W. Bessel, whose +assistant he became (October 1, 1820). His treatise on the path of the +great comet of 1811 appeared in 1822; he was, in 1823, entrusted with +the direction of the observatory at Abo; and he exchanged it for a +similar charge at Helsingfors in 1832. His admirable investigation of +the sun's motion in space was published in 1837; and in the same year he +was appointed professor of astronomy in the university of Bonn, where he +died on the 17th of February 1875. He also published _Observations +Astronomicae Aboae Factae_ (3 vols., 1830-1832); _DLX Stellarum Fixarum +Positiones Mediae_ (1835); and the first seven volumes of _Astronomische +Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Benn_ (1846-1869), containing his +observations of northern and southern star-zones, and his great +_Durchmusterung_ (vols, iii,-v., 1859-1862) of 324,198 stars, from the +north pole to -2 deg. Dec. The corresponding atlas was issued in 1863. +His observations (begun in 1838) and discussions of variable stars were +embodied in vol. vii. of the same series. + + See E. Schonfeld in _Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen + Gesellschaft_, x. pp. 150-178. + + + + +ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER, MARQUIS D' (1704-1771), was born at Aix +in Provence on the 24th of June 1704. He entered the army at the age of +fifteen, and after a dissipated and adventurous youth settled for a time +at Amsterdam, where he wrote some historical compilations and began his +more famous _Lettres juives_ (The Hague, 6 vols., 1738-1742), _Lettres +chinoises_ (The Hague, 6 vols., 1730-1472), and _Lettres cabalistiques_ +(2nd ed., 7 vols., 1769); also the _Memoires secrets de la republique +des lettres_ (7 vols., 1743-1478), afterwards revised and augmented as +_Histoire de l'esprit humain_ (Berlin, 14 vols., 1765-1768). He was +invited by Prince Frederick (afterwards Frederick the Great) to Potsdam, +and received high honours at court; but Frederick was bitterly offended +by his marrying a Berlin actress, Mlle Cochois. Argens returned to +France in 1769, and died near Toulon on the 11th of January 1771. + + + + +ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE (1559-1613), Spanish dramatist and poet, +was baptized at Barbastro on the 14th of December 1559. He was educated +at the universities of Huesca and Saragossa, becoming secretary to the +duke de Villahermosa in 1585. He was appointed historiographer of Aragon +in 1599, and in 1610 accompanied the count de Lemos to Naples, where he +died in March 1613. His tragedies--_Filis, Isabela_ and _Alejandra_--are +said by Cervantes to have "filled all who heard them with admiration, +delight and interest"; _Filis_ is lost, and _Isabela_ and _Alejandra_, +which were not printed till 1772, are ponderous imitations of Seneca. +Argensola's poems were published with those of his brother in 1634; they +consist of excellent translations from the Latin poets, and of original +satires. His "echoing sonnets"--such as _Despues que al mundo el rey +divino vino_--lend themselves to parody; but his diction is singularly +pure. + +His brother, BARTOLOME LEONARDO DE ARGENSOLA (1562-1631), Spanish poet +and historian, was baptized at Barbastro on the 26th of August 1562, +studied at Huesca, took orders, and was presented to the rectory of +Villahermosa in 1588. He was attached to the suite of the count de +Lemos, viceroy of Naples, in 1610, and succeeded his brother as +historiographer of Aragon in 1613. He died at Saragossa on the 4th of +February 1631. His principal prose works are the _Conquista de las Islas +Molucas_ (1609), and a supplement to Zurita's _Anales de Aragon_, which +was published in 1630. His poems (1634), like those of his elder +brother, are admirably finished examples of pungent wit. His +commentaries on contemporary events, and his _Alteraciones populares_, +dealing with a Saragossa rising in 1591, are lost. An interesting life +of this writer by Father Miguel Mir precedes a reprint of the _Conquista +de las Islas Molucas_, issued at Saragossa in 1891. + + + + +ARGENSON, the name, derived from an old hamlet situated in what is now +the department of Indre-et-Loire, of a French family which produced some +prominent statesmen, soldiers and men of letters. + +RENE DE VOYER, seigneur d'Argenson (1596-1651), French statesman, was +born on the 21st of November 1596. He was a lawyer by profession, and +became successively _avocat_, councillor at the parlement of Paris, +_maitre des requetes_, and councillor of state. Cardinal Richelieu +entrusted him with several missions as inspector and intendant of the +forces. In 1623 he was appointed intendant of justice, police and +finance in Auvergne, and in 1632 held similar office in Limousin, where +he remained till 1637. After the death of Louis XIII. (1643) he retained +his administrative posts, was intendant of the forces at Toulon (1646), +commissary of the king at the estates of Languedoc (1647), and intendant +of Guienne (1648), and showed great capacity in defending the authority +of the crown against the rebels of the Fronde. After his wife's death he +took orders (February 1651), but did not cease to take part in affairs +of state. In 1651 he was appointed by Mazarin ambassador at Venice, +where he died on the 14th of July 1651. + +His son, MARC RENE DE VOYER, comte d'Argenson (1623-1700), was born at +Blois on the 13th of December 1623. He also was a lawyer, being +councillor at the parlement of Rouen (1642) and _maitre des requetes_. +He attended his father in all his duties and succeeded him at the +embassy at Venice. In 1655 he returned from his embassy, ruined, and +lost favour with Mazarin, who removed him from his office of councillor +of state. He then gave up public affairs and retired to his estates, +where he occupied himself with good works. In September 1656 he entered +the Company of the Holy Sacrament, a secret society for the diffusion of +the Catholic religion. Besides writing the _Annals_ of the society, he +composed many pious works, which were destroyed in the fire at the +Louvre in 1871. Some of his correspondence with the once famous +letter-writer, Jean Louis Guez de Balzac (1597-1654), has been +published. He died in May 1700, leaving two sons, Marc Rene (see below), +and Francois Elie (1656-1728), who became archbishop of Bordeaux. + + See Fr. Rabbe, "Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement," in the _Revue + historique_ (Nov. 1899); Beaucher-Filleau, _Les Annales de la + compagnie_ du Saint-Sacrement (Paris, 1900); R. Allier, _La Cobalt des + devots_ (Paris, 1902). + +MARC RENE DE VOYER, marquis de Paulmy and marquis d'Argenson +(1652-1721), son of the preceding, was born at Venice on the 4th of +November 1652. He became _avocat_ in 1669, and lieutenant-general in the +_senechaussee_ of Angouleme (1679). After the death of Colbert, who +disliked his family, he went to Paris and married Marguerite Lefevre de +Caomartin, a kinswoman of the comptroller-general Pontchartrain. This +was the beginning of his fortunes. He became successively _maitre des +requetes_ (1694), member of the _conseil des prises_ (prize court) +(1695), _procureur-general_ of the commission of inquest into false +titles of nobility (1696), and finally lieutenant-general of police +(1697). This last office, which had previously been filled by N.G. de la +Reynie, was very important. It not only gave him the control of the +police, but also the supervision of the corporations, printing press, +and provisioning of Paris. All contraventions of the police regulations +came under his jurisdiction, and his authority was arbitrary and +absolute. Fortunately, he had, in Saint-Simon's phrase, "a nice +discernment as to the degree of rigour or leniency required for every +case that came before him, being ever inclined to the mildest measures, +but possessed of the faculty of making the most innocent tremble before +him; courageous, bold, audacious in quelling _emeutes_, and consequently +the master of the people." During the twenty-one years that he exercised +this office he was a party to every private and state secret; in fact, +he had a share in every event of any importance in the history of Paris. +He was the familiar friend of the king, who delighted in scandalous +police reports; he was patronized by the duke of Orleans; he was +supported by the Jesuits at court; and he was feared by all. He +organized the supply of food in Paris during the severe winter of 1709, +and endeavoured, but with little success, to run to earth the libellers +of the government. He directed the destruction of the Jansenist +monastery of Port Royal (1709), a proceeding which provoked many +protests and pamphlets. Under the regency, the Chambre de Justice, +assembled to inquire into the malpractices of the financiers, suspected +d'Argenson and arrested his clerks, but dared not lay the blame on him. +On the 28th of January 1718 he voluntarily resigned the office of +lieutenant-general of police for those of keeper of the seals--in the +place of the chancellor d'Aguesseau--and president of the council of +finance. He was appointed by the regent to suppress the resistance of +the parlements and to reorganize the finances, and was in great measure +responsible for permitting John Law to apply his financial system, +though he soon quarrelled with Law and intrigued to bring about his +downfall. The regent threw the blame for the outcome of Law's schemes on +d'Argenson, who was forced to resign his position in the council of +finance (January 1720). By way of compensation he was created +inspector-general of the police of the whole kingdom, but had to resign +his office of keeper of the seals (June 1720). He died on the 8th of May +1721, the people of Paris throwing taunts and stones at his coffin and +accusing him of having ruined the kingdom. In 1716 he had been created +an honorary member of the Academie des Sciences and, in 1718, a member +of the French Academy. + + See the contemporary memoirs, especially those of Saint-Simon (de + Boislisle's ed.), Dangeau and Math. Marais; Barbier's _Journal_; + "Correspondance administrative sous Louis XIV." in _Coll. des doc. + ined. sur I'histoire de France_, edited by G.B. Depping (1850-1855); + _Correspondance des controleurs-generaux des finances_, pub. by de + Bois-lisle (1873-1900); _Correspondance de M. de Marville avec M. de + Maurepas_ (1896-1897); _Rapports de police de Rene d'Argenson_, pub. + by P. Cottin (Paris, undated); P. Clement, _La police sous Louis XIV_. + (1873). + +RENE LOUIS DE VOYER DE PAULMY, marquis d'Argenson (1694-1757), eldest +son of the preceding, was a lawyer, and held successively the posts of +councillor at the parlement (1716), _maitre des requetes_ (1718), +councillor of state (1719), and intendant of justice, police and finance +in Hainaut. During his five years' tenure of the last office he was +mainly employed in provisioning the troops, who were suffering from the +economic confusion resulting from Law's system. He returned to court in +1724 to exercise his functions as councillor of state. At that time he +had the reputation of being a conscientious man, but ill adapted to +intrigue, and was nicknamed "la bete." He entered into relations with +the philosophers, and was won over to the ideas of reform. He was the +friend of Voltaire, who had been a fellow-student of his at the Jesuit +college Louis-le-grand, and frequented the Club de l'Entresol, the +history of which he wrote in his memoirs. It was then that he prepared +his _Considerations sur le gouvernement de la France_, which was +published posthumously by his son. He was also the friend and counsellor +of the minister G.L. de Chauvelin. In May 1744 he was appointed member +of the council of finance, and in November of the same year the king +chose him as secretary of state for foreign affairs, his brother, the +comte d'Argenson (see below), being at the same time secretary of state +for war. France was at that time engaged in the War of the Austrian +Succession, and the government had been placed by Louis XV. virtually in +the hands of the two brothers. The marquis d'Argenson endeavoured to +reform the system of international relations. He dreamed of a "European +Republic," and wished to establish arbitration between nations in +pursuance of the ideas of his friend the abbe de Saint-Pierre. But he +failed to realize any part of his projects. The generals negotiated in +opposition to his instructions; his colleagues laid the blame on him; +the intrigues of the courtiers passed unnoticed by him; whilst the +secret diplomacy of the king neutralized his initiative. He concluded +the marriage of the dauphin to the daughter of Augustus III., king of +Poland, but was unable to prevent the election of the grand-duke of +Tuscany as emperor in 1745. On the both of January 1747 the king thanked +him for his services. He then retired into private life, eschewed the +court, associated with Voltaire, Condillac and d'Alembert, and spent his +declining years in working at the Academic des Inscriptions, of which he +was appointed president by the king in 1747, and revising his +_Memoires_. Voltaire, in one of his letters, declared him to be "the +best citizen that had ever tasted the ministry." He died on the 26th of +January 1757. + +He left a large number of manuscript works, of which his son, Antoine +Rene (1722-1787), known as the marquis de Paulmy, published the +_Considerations sur le gouvernement de France_ (Amsterdam, 1764) and +_Essais dans le gout de ceux de Montaigne_ (_ib._ 1785). The latter, +which contains many useful biographical notes and portraits of his +contemporaries, was republished in 1787 as _Loisirs d'un ministre +d'etat_. Argenson's most important work, however, is his _Memoires_, +covering in great detail the years 1725 to 1756, with an introductory +part giving his recollections since the year 1696. They are, as they +were intended to be, valuable "materials for the history of his time." +There are two important editions, the first, with some letters, not +elsewhere published, by the marquis d'Argenson, his great-grand-nephew +(5 vols., Paris, 1857 et seq.); the second, more correct, but less +complete, published by J.B. Rathery, for the Societe de l'Histoire de +France (9 vols., Paris, 1859 et seq.). The other works of the marquis +d'Argenson, in MS., were destroyed in the fire at the Louvre library in +1871. + + See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vols. xii. and xiv.); + Levasseur. "Le Marquis d'Argenson" in the _Memoires de l'Academie des + Sciences Morales et Politiques_ (vol. lxxxvii., 1868); and, + especially, E. Zevort, _Le Marquis d'Argenson et le ministere des + affaires etrangeres_ (Paris, 1880). See also G. de R. de Flassan, + _Histoire de la diplomatie francaise_ (2nd ed., 1811); Voltaire, + _Siecle de Louis XV_.; E. Boutaric, _Correspondance secrete inedite de + Louis XV_. (1866); E. Champion, "Le Marquis d'Argenson," in the + _Revolution francaise_ (vol. xxxvi., 1899); A. Alem, _D'Argenson + economiste_ (Paris, 1899); Arthur Ogle, _The Marquis d'Argenson_ + (1893). + +MARC PIEERE DE VOYER DE PAULMY, comte d'Argenson (1696-1764), younger +brother of the preceding, was born on the 16th of August 1696. Following +the family tradition he studied law and was councillor at the parlement +of Paris. He succeeded his father as lieutenant-general of police in +Paris, but held the post only five months (January 26 to June 30, 1720). +He then received the office of intendant of Tours, and resumed the +lieutenancy of police in 1722. On the 2nd of January 1724 he was +appointed councillor of state. He gained the confidence of the regent +Orleans, administering his fortune and living with his son till 1737. +During this period he opened his salon to the philosophers Chaulieu, la +Fare and Voltaire, and collaborated in the legislative labours of the +chancellor d'Aguesseau. In March 1737 d'Argenson was appointed director +of the censorship of books, in which post he showed sufficiently liberal +views to gain the approval of writers--a rare thing in the reign of +Louis XV. He only retained this post for a year. He became president of +the grand council (November 1738), intendant of the _generalite_ of +Paris (August 1740), was admitted to the king's council (August 1742), +and in January 1743 was appointed secretary of state for war in +succession to the baron de Breteuil. As minister for war he had a heavy +task; the French armies engaged in the War of the Austrian Succession +were disorganized, and the retreat from Prague had produced a disastrous +effect. After consulting with Marshal Saxe, he began the reform of the +new armies. To assist recruiting, he revived the old institution of +local militias, which, however, did not come up to his expectation. In +the spring of 1744 three armies were able to resume the offensive in the +Netherlands, Germany and Italy, and in the following year France won the +battle of Fontenoy, at which d'Argenson was present. After the peace in +1748 he occupied himself with the important work of recasting the French +army on the model of the Prussian. He unified the types of cannon, +grouped the grenadiers into separate regiments, and founded the Ecole +Militaire for the training of officers (1751). An edict of the 1st of +November 1751 granted patents of nobility to all who had the rank of +general officer. In addition to his duties as minister of war he had the +supervision of the printing, postal administration and general +administration of Paris. He was responsible for the arrangement of the +promenade of the Champs Elysees and for the plan of the present Place de +la Concorde. He was exceedingly popular, and, although the court +favourites hated him, he had the support of the king. Nevertheless, +after the attempt of R.F. Damiens to assassinate the king, Louis +abandoned d'Argenson to the machinations of the court favourites and +dismissed both him and his colleague, J.B. de Machault d'Arnouville +(February 1757). D'Argenson was exiled to his estates at Les Ormes near +Saumur, but he had previously found posts for his brother, the marquis +d'Argenson, as minister of foreign affairs, for his son Marc Rene as +master of the horse, and for his nephew Marc Antoine Rene as commissary +of war. From the time of his exile he lived in the society of savants +and philosophers. He had been elected member of the Academie des +Inscriptions in 1749. Diderot and d'Alembert dedicated the +_Encyclopedie_ to him, and Voltaire, C.J.F. Henault, and J.F. Marmontel +openly visited him in his exile. After the death of Madame de Pompadour +he obtained permission to return to Paris, and died a few days after his +return, on the 22nd of August 1764. + +MARC ANTOINE RENE DE VOYER, marquis de Paulmy d'Argenson (1722-1787), +nephew of the preceding and son of Rene Louis, was born at Valenciennes +on the 22nd of November 1722. Appointed councillor at the parlement +(1744), and _maitre des requetes_ (1747), he was associated with his +father in the ministry of foreign affairs and with his uncle in the +ministry of war, and, in recognition of this experience, was +commissioned to inspect the troops and fortifications and sent on +embassy to Switzerland (1748). In 1751 his uncle recognized him as his +deputy and made over to him the reversion of the secretariate of war. He +then worked on the great reform of the army, and after the dismissal of +his uncle became minister of war (February 1757). But the outbreak of +the Seven Years' War made this post exceedingly difficult to hold, and +he resigned on the 23rd of March 1758. He was ambassador to Poland from +1762 to 1764, but failed to procure the nomination of the French +candidate to that throne. From 1766 to 1770 he was ambassador at Venice. +Failing to obtain the embassy at Rome, he retired at the age of +forty-eight and devoted the rest of his life to indulging his tastes for +history and biography. He brought together a large library, very rich in +French poetry and romance, and undertook various publications with the +help of his librarian. In 1775 he began his _Bibliotheque universelle +des romans_, of which forty volumes appeared within three years, but +subsequently handed over the publication to other editors. His great +work, _Melanges tires d'une grande bibliotheque_, was published in 65 +volumes (Paris, 1779-1788). At his death he forbade his library to be +dispersed: it was bought by the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.) +and formed the nucleus of the present Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal at Paris +(the marquis having been governor of the arsenal). He died on the 13th +of August 1787. + + See contemporary memoirs; also Dacier's eulogium in the _Academie des + Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_ (November 1788); and Sainte-Beuve, + _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. xii.). + +MARC RENE, marquis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson (1721-1782), known as +the marquis de Voyer, son of Marc Pierre de Voyer, the minister of war, +was born in Paris on the 20th of September 1721. He served in the army +of Italy and the army of Flanders in the War of the Austrian Succession, +and was _mestre de camp_ (proprietary colonel) of the regiment of Berry +cavalry at the battle of Fontenoy (May 10, 1745), where he was promoted +brigadier. He was associated with his father in his work of reorganizing +the army, was made inspector of cavalry and dragoons (1749), and +succeeded his father as master of the horse (1752). He introduced +English horses into France. He was lieutenant-general of Upper Alsace in +1753 and governor of Vincennes in 1754, and served afterwards under +Soubise in the Seven Years' War. He was wounded at Crefeld in 1758, and +was promoted lieutenant-general (1759). He followed his father into +exile at Les Ormes (1763), and in the last years of the reign of Louis +XV. sided with the malcontents headed by Choiseul; but on the rupture +with England he rejoined the service of the king (1775). He was +appointed inspector of the sea-board, and put the roadstead of the +island of Aix in a state of defence during the American War of +Independence. He caught marsh-fever while attempting to drain the +marshes of Rochefort, and died at Les Ormes on the 18th of September +1782. + +MARC RENE MARIE DE VOYER DE PAULMY, marquis d'Argenson (1771-1842), son +of the preceding, was born in Paris in September 1771. He was brought up +by his father's cousin, the marquis de Paulmy, governor of the arsenal, +and was made lieutenant of dragoons in 1789. Although, at the age of +eighteen, he had succeeded to several estates and a large fortune, he +embraced the revolutionary cause, joining the army of the North as +Lafayette's aide-de-camp and remaining with it even after Lafayette's +defection. Leaving France to take one of his sisters to England, he was +denounced on his return as a royalist conspirator, on the charge of +having in his possession portraits of the royal family. He then went to +live in Touraine, married the widow of Prince Victor de Broglie, and +saved her and her children from proscription. He introduced new +agricultural instruments and processes on his estates, and installed +machinery imported from England in his ironworks in Alsace. He was an +enthusiastic adherent of Napoleon, by whom he was appointed in May 1809 +prefect of Deux-Nethes. He helped to repel the English invasion of the +islands of South Beveland and Walcheren (August 1809), and afterwards +directed the defence works of Antwerp, but resigned this post (March +1813) in consequence of the complaints of the inhabitants and the +exacting demands of the emperor. In May 1814 he refused the prefecture +of Marseilles offered to him by the Bourbons, but was elected deputy +from Belfort in 1815 during the Hundred Days. On the 5th of July 1815 he +took part in the declaration protesting against any tampering with the +immutable rights of the nation. He was a member of the _Chambre +introuvable_, where he became one of the orators of the democratic +party. He was one of the founders of the journal _Le censeur europeen_ +and of the _Club de la liberte de la presse_, and was an uncompromising +opponent of reaction. Not re-elected in 1824 on account of his liberal +ideas, he returned to the chamber under the Martignac ministry (1828), +and resolutely persisted in his championship of the liberty of the press +and of public worship. On the death of his wife he voluntarily renounced +his mandate (July 1829), and hailed the revolution of 1830 with great +satisfaction. On the 3rd of November 1830 he was elected to the chamber +as deputy from Chatellerault, and took the oath, adding, however, the +reservation "subject to the progress of the public reason." His +independent attitude resulted in his defeat in the following year at the +Chatellerault election, but he was returned for Strassburg. He wished +the incidence of the taxes to be arranged according to social condition, +and advocated a single tax proportionate to income like the English +income tax. He harped incessantly on this idea in his speeches and +articles (see his letters in _La Tribune_ of June 20, 1832). Although he +was a proprietor of ironworks he opposed the protectionist laws, which +he considered injurious to the workmen. He became the mouthpiece of the +advanced ideas; subsidized the opposition newspapers, especially the +_National_; received into his house F.M. Buonarroti, who in 1796 had +been implicated in the conspiracy of "Gracchus" Babeuf (q.v.); and +became a member of the committee of the Society of the Rights of Man. He +was even sued in the courts for a pamphlet called _Boutade d'un homme +riche a sentiments populaires_, and delivered a speech to the jury in +which he displayed very daring social theories. But he gradually grew +discouraged and retired from public affairs, refusing even municipal +office, and living in seclusion at La Grange in the forest of Guerche, +where he devoted his inventive faculty to devising agricultural +improvements. He subsequently returned to Paris, where he died on the +1st of August 1842. + +CHARLES MARC RENE DE VOYER, marquis d'Argenson (1796-1862), son of the +preceding, was born at Boulogne-sur-Spine on the 20th of April 1796. He +concerned himself little with politics. He was, however, a member of the +council-general of Vienne for six years, but was expelled from it in +1840 in consequence of his advanced ideas and his relations with the +Opposition. In 1848 he was elected deputy from Vienne to the Constituent +Assembly by 12,000 votes. He was an active member of the Archaeological +Society of Touraine and the Society of Antiquaries of the West, and +wrote learned works for these bodies. He collaborated in preparing the +archives of the scientific congress at Tours in 1847; brought out two +editions of the MSS. of his great-grand-uncle, the minister of foreign +affairs under Louis XV., under the title _Memoires du marquis +d'Argenson_, one in 1825, and the other, in 5 vols., in 1857-1858; and +published _Discours et opinions de mon pere, M. Voyer d'Argenson_ (2 +vols., 1845). He died on the 31st of July, 1862. + + + + +ARGENTAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Orne, 27 m. N.N.W. of Alencon on the railway from +Le Mans to Caen. Pop. (1906) 5072. It is situated on the slope of a hill +on the right bank of the Orne at its confluence with the Ure. The town +has remains of old fortifications, among them the Tour Marguerite, and a +chateau, now used as a law-court, dating from the 15th century. The +church of St Germain (15th, 16th and 17th centuries) has several +features of architectural beauty, notably the sculptured northern +portal, and the central and western towers. The church of St Martin, +dating from the 15th century, has good stained glass. The handsome +modern town-hall contains among other institutions the tribunal of +commerce, the museum and the library. Argentan is the seat of a +sub-prefect, has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. +Leather-working and the manufacture of stained glass are leading +industries. There are quarries of limestone in the vicinity. Argentan +was a viscounty from the 11th century onwards; it was often taken and +pillaged. During the Religious Wars it remained attached to the Catholic +party. Francois Eudes de Mezeray, the historian, was born near the town, +and a monument has been erected to his memory. + + + + +ARGENTEUIL, a town of northern France in the department of +Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 5 m. N.W. of the fortifications of Paris by +the railway from Paris to Mantes. Pop. (1906) 17,330. Argenteuil grew up +round a monastery, which, dating from A.D. 656, was by Charlemagne +changed into a nunnery; it was afterwards famous for its connexion with +Heloise (see ABELARD), and on her expulsion in 1129 was again turned +into a monastery. Asparagus, figs, and wine of medium quality are grown +in the district; and heavy iron goods, chemical products, clocks and +plaster are among the manufactures. + + + + +ARGENTINA, or the ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (officially, _Republica +Argentina_), a country occupying the greater part of the southern +extremity of South America. It is of wedge shape, extending from 21 deg. +55' S. to the most southerly point of the island of Tierra del Fuego in +55 deg. 2' 30" S., while its extremes of longitude are 53 deg. 40' on +the Brazilian frontier and 73 deg. 17' 30" W. on the Chilean frontier. +Its length from north to south is 2285 statute miles, and its greatest +width about 930 m. It is the second largest political division of the +continent, having an area of 1,083,596 sq. m. (Gotha measurement). It is +bounded N. by Bolivia and Paraguay, E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay and +the Atlantic, W. by Chile, and S. by the converging lines of the +Atlantic and Chile. + +_Boundaries._--At different times Argentina has been engaged in disputes +over boundary lines with every one of her neighbours, that with Chile +being only settled in 1902. Beginning at the estuary of the Rio de la +Plata, the boundary line ascends the Uruguay river, on the eastern side +of the strategically important island of Martin Garcia, to the mouth of +the Pequiry, thence under the award of President Grover Cleveland in +1894 up that small river to its source and in a direct line to the +source of the Santo Antonio, a small tributary of the Iguassu, thence +down the Santo Antonio and Iguassu to the upper Parana, which forms the +southern boundary of Paraguay. From the confluence of the upper Parana +and Paraguay the line ascends the latter to the mouth of the Pilcomayo, +which river, under the award of President R.B. Hayes in 1878, forms the +boundary between Argentina and Paraguay from the Paraguay river +north-west to the Bolivian frontier. In accordance with the +Argentine-Bolivian treaty of 1889 the boundary line between these +republics continues up the Pilcomayo to the 22nd parallel, thence west +to the Tarija river, which it follows down to the Bermejo, thence up the +latter to its source, and westerly through the Quiaca ravine and across +to a point on the San Juan river opposite Esmoraca. From this point it +ascends the San Juan south and west to the Cerro de Granadas, and thence +south-west to Cerro Incahuasi and Cerro Zapalegui on the Chilean +frontier. The boundary with Chile, extending across more than 32 deg. +lat., had been the cause of disputes for many years, which at times led +to costly preparations for war. The debts of the two nations resulted +largely from this one cause. In 1881 a treaty was signed which provided +that the boundary line should follow the highest crests of the Andes +forming the watershed as far south as the 52nd parallel, thence east to +the 70th meridian and south-east to Cape Dungeness at the eastern +entrance to the Straits of Magellan. Crossing the Straits the line +should follow the meridian of 68 deg. 44', south to Beagle Channel, and +thence east to the Atlantic, giving Argentina the eastern part of the +Tierra del Fuego and Staten Island. By this agreement Argentina was +confirmed in the possession of the greater part of Patagonia, while +Chile gained control of the Straits of Magellan, much adjacent territory +on the north, the larger part of Tierra del Fuego and all the +neighbouring islands south and west. + +When the attempt was made to mark this boundary the commissioners were +unable to agree on a line across the Puna de Atacama in the north, where +parallel ranges enclosing a high arid plateau without any clearly +defined drainage to the Atlantic or Pacific, gave an opportunity for +conflicting claims. In the south the broken character of the Cordillera, +pierced in places by large rivers flowing into the Pacific and having +their upper drainage basins on the eastern side of the line of highest +crests, gave rise to unforeseen and very difficult questions. Finally, +under a convention of the 17th of April 1896, these conflicting claims +were submitted to arbitration. In 1899 a mixed commission with Hon. W.I. +Buchanan, United States minister at Buenos Aires, serving as arbitrator, +reached a decision on the Atacama line north of 26 deg. 52' 45" S. lat., +which was a compromise though it gave the greater part of the territory +to Argentina. The line starts at the intersection of the 23rd parallel +with the 67th meridian and runs south-westerly and southerly to the +mountain and volcano summits of Rincon, Socompa, Llullaillaco, Azufre, +Aguas Blancas and Sierra Nevada, thence to the initial point of the +British award. (See _Geogr. Jour._, 1899, xiv. 322-323.) The line south +of 26 deg. 52' 45" S. lat. had been located by the commissioners of the +two republics with the exception of four sections. These were referred +to the arbitration of Queen Victoria, and, after a careful survey under +the direction of Sir Thomas H. Holdich, the award was rendered by King +Edward VII. in 1902. (See _Geogr. Jour._, 1903, xxi. 45-50.) In the +first section the line starts from a pillar erected in the San Francisco +pass, about 26 deg. 50' S. lat., and follows the water-parting southward +to the highest peak of the Tres Cruces mountains in 27 deg. 0' 45" S. +lat., 68 deg. 49' 5" W. long. In the second, the line runs from 40 deg. +2' S. lat., 71 deg. 40' 36" W. long., along the water-parting to the +southern termination of the Cerro Perihueico in the valley of the Huahum +river, thence across that river, 71 deg. 40' 36" W. long., and along the +water-parting around the upper basin of the Huahum to a junction with +the line previously determined. In the third and longest section, the +line starts from a pillar erected in the Perez Rosales pass, near Lake +Nahuel-Huapi, and follows the water-parting southward to the highest +point of Mt. Tronador, and thence in a very tortuous course along local +water-partings and across the Chilean rivers Manso, Puelo, Fetaleufu, +Palena, Pico and Aisen, and the lakes Buenos Aires, Pueyrredon and San +Martin, to avoid the inclusion of Argentine settlements within Chilean +territory, to the Cerro Fitzroy and continental water-parting north-west +of Lake Viedma, between 49 deg. and 50 deg. S. lat. The northern half of +this line does not run far from the 72nd meridian, except in 44 deg. 30' +S. where it turns eastward nearly a degree to include the upper valley +of the Frias river in Chilean territory, but south of the 49th parallel +it curves westward to give Argentina sole possession of lakes Viedma and +Argentino. The fourth section, which was made particularly difficult of +solution by the extension inland of the Pacific coast inlets and sounds +and by the Chilean colonies located there, was adjusted by running the +line eastward from the point of divergence in 50 deg. 50' S. lat. along +the Sierra Baguales, thence south and south-east to the 52nd parallel, +crossing several streams and following the crests of the Cerro Cazador. +The Chilean settlement of Ultima Esperanza (Last Hope), over which there +had been much controversy, remains under Chilean jurisdiction. + + _Physical Geography._--For purposes of surface description, Argentina + may be divided primarily into three great divisions--the mountainous + zone and tablelands of the west, extending the full length of the + republic; the great plains of the east, extending from the Pilcomayo + to the Rio Negro; and the desolate, arid steppes of Patagonia. The + first covers from one-third to one-fourth of the width of the country + between the Bolivian frontier and the Rio Negro, and comprises the + elevated Cordilleras and their plateaus, with flanking ranges and + spurs toward the east. In the extreme north, extending southward from + the great Bolivian highlands, there are several parallel ranges, the + most prominent of which are: the Sierra de Santa Catalina, from which + the detached Cachi, Gulumpaji and Famatina ranges project southward; + and the Sierra de Santa Victoria, south of which are the Zenta, + Aconquija, Ambato and Ancaste ranges. These minor ranges, excepting + the Zenta, are separated from the Andean masses by comparatively low + depressions and are usually described as distinct ranges; + topographically, however, they seem to form a continuation of the + ranges running southward from the Santa Victoria and forming the + eastern rampart of the great central plateau of which the Puna de + Atacama covers a large part. The elevated plateaus between these + ranges are semi-arid and inhospitable, and are covered with extensive + saline basins, which become lagoons in the wet season and morasses or + dry salt-pans in the dry season. These saline basins extend down to + the lower terraces of Cordoba, Mendoza and La Pampa. Flanking this + great widening of the Andes on the south-east are the three short + parallel ranges of Cordoba, belonging to another and older formation. + North of them is the great saline depression, known as the "salinas + grandes," 643 ft. above sea-level, where it is crossed by a railway; + north-east is another extensive saline basin enclosing the "Mar + Chiquita" (of Cordoba) and the morasses into which the waters of the + Rio Saladillo disappear; and on the north are the more elevated + plains, partly saline, of western Cordoba, which separate this + isolated group of mountains from the Andean spurs of Rioja and San + Luis. The eastern ranges parallel to the Andes are here broken into + detached extensions and spurs, which soon disappear in the elevated + western pampas, and the Andes contract south of Aconcagua to a single + range, which descends gradually to the great plains of La Pampa and + Neuquen. The lower terrace of this great mountainous region, with + elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 ft., is in reality the western + margin of the great Argentine plain, and may be traced from Oran (1017 + ft.) near the Bolivian frontier southward through Tucuman (1476 ft.), + Frias (1129 ft.), Cordoba (1279 ft.), Rio Cuarto (1358 ft.), Paunero + (1250 ft.), and thence westward and southward through still unsettled + regions to the Rio Negro at the confluence of the Neuquen and Limay. + + The Argentine part of the great La Plata plain extends from the + Pilcomayo south to the Rio Negro, and from the lower terraces of the + Andes eastward to the Uruguay and Atlantic. In the north the plain is + known as the Gran Chaco, and includes the country between the + Pilcomayo and Salado del Norte and an extensive depression immediately + north of the latter river, believed to be the undisturbed bottom of + the ancient Pampean sea. The northern part of the Gran Chaco is partly + wooded and swampy, and as the slope eastward is very gentle and the + rivers much obstructed by sand bars, floating trees and vegetation, + large areas are regularly flooded during rainy seasons. South of the + Bermejo the land is more elevated and drier, though large depressions + covered with marshy lagoons are to be found, similar to those farther + north. The forests here are heavier. Still farther south and + south-west there are open grassy plains and large areas covered with + salt-pans. The general elevation of the Chaco varies from 600 to 800 + ft. above sea-level. The Argentine "mesopotamia," between the Parana + and Uruguay rivers, belongs in great measure to this same region, + being partly wooded, flat and swampy in the north (Corrientes), but + higher and undulating in the south (Entre Rios). The Misiones + territory of the extreme north-east belongs to the older highlands of + Brazil, is densely wooded, and has ranges of hills sometimes rising to + a height of 1000 to 1300 ft. + + The remainder of the great Argentine plain is the treeless, grassy + _pampa_ (Quichua for "level spaces"), apparently a dead level, but in + reality rising gradually from the Atlantic westward toward the Andes. + Evidence of this is to be found in the altitudes of the stations on + the Buenos Aires and Pacific railway running a little north of west + across the pampas to Mendoza. The average elevation of Buenos Aires is + about 65 ft.; of Mercedes, 70 m. westward, 132 ft.; of Junin (160 m.), + 267 ft.; and of Paunero (400 m.) it is 1250 ft., showing an average + rise of about 3 ft. in a mile. The apparently uniform level of the + pampas is much broken along its southern margin by the Tandil and + Ventana sierras, and by ranges of hills and low mountains in the + southern and western parts of the territory of La Pampa. Extensive + depressions also are found, some of which are subject to inundations, + as along the lower Salado in Buenos Aires and along the lower courses + of the Colorado and Negro. In the extreme west, which is as yet but + slightly explored and settled, there is an extensive depressed area, + largely saline in character, which drains into lakes and morasses, + having no outlet to the ocean. The rainfall is under 6 in. annually, + but the drainage from the eastern slopes of the Andes is large enough + to meet the loss from evaporation and keep these inland lakes from + drying up. At an early period this depressed area drained southward to + the Colorado, and the bed of the old outlet can still be traced. The + rivers belonging to this inland drainage system are the Vermejo, San + Juan and Desaguadero, with their affluents, and their southward flow + can be traced from about 28 deg. S. lat. to the great lagoons and + morasses between 36 deg. and 37 deg. S. lat. in the western part of La + Pampa territory. Some of the principal affluents are the Vinchina and + Jachal, or Zanjon, which flow into the Vermejo, the Patos, which flows + into the San Juan, and the Mendoza, Tunuyan and Diamante which flow + into the Desaguadero, all of these being Andean snow-fed rivers. The + Desaguadero also receives the outflow of the Laguna Bebedero, an + intensely saline lake of western San Luis. The lower course of the + Desaguadero is known as the Salado because of the brackish character + of its water. Another considerable river flowing into the same great + morass is the Atuel, which rises in the Andes not far south of the + Diamante. (A description of the Patagonian part of Argentina will be + found under PATAGONIA.) + + _Rivers and Lakes._--The hydrography of Argentina is of the simplest + character. The three great rivers that form the La Plata system--the + Paraguay, Parana and Uruguay--have their sources in the highlands of + Brazil and flow southward through a great continental depression, two + of them forming eastern boundary lines, and one of them, the Parana, + flowing across the eastern part of the republic. The northern part of + Argentina, therefore, drains eastward from the mountains to these + rivers, except where some great inland depression gives rise to a + drainage having no outlet to the sea, and except, also, in the + "mesopotamia" region, where small streams flow westward into the + Parana and eastward into the Uruguay. The largest of the rivers + through which Argentina drains into the Plata system are the + Pilcomayo, which rises in Bolivia and flows south-east along the + Argentine frontier for about 400 m.; the Bermejo, which rises on the + northern frontier and flows south-east into the Paraguay; and the + Salado del Norte (called Rio del Jura-mento in its upper course), + which rises on the high mountain slopes of western Salta and flows + south-east into the Parana. Another river of this class is the + Carcaranal, about 300 m. long, formed by the confluence of the Tercero + and Cuarto, whose sources are in the Sierra de Cordoba; it flows + eastward across the pampas, and discharges into the Parana at Gaboto, + about 40 m. above Rosario. Other small rivers rising in the Cordoba + sierras are the Primero and Segundo, which flow into the lagoons of + north-east Cordoba, and the Quinto, which flows south-easterly into + the lagoons and morasses of southern Cordoba. The Lujan rises near + Mercedes, province of Buenos Aires, is about 150 m. long, and flows + north-easterly into the Parana delta. Many smaller streams discharge + into the Paraguay and Parana from the west, some of them wholly + dependent upon the rains, and drying up during long droughts. The + Argentine "mesopotamia" is well watered by a large number of small + streams flowing north and west into the Parana, and east into the + Uruguay. The largest of these are the Corrientes, Feliciano and + Gualeguay of the western slope, and the Aguapey and Mirinay of the + eastern. None of the tributaries of the La Plata system thus far + mentioned is navigable except the lower Pilcomayo and Bermejo for a + few miles. These Chaco rivers are obstructed by sand bars and snags, + which could be removed only by an expenditure of money unwarranted by + the present population and traffic. In the southern pampa region there + are many small streams, flowing into the La Plata estuary and the + Atlantic; most of these are unknown by name outside the republic. The + largest and only important river is the Salado del Sud, which rises in + the north-west corner of the province of Buenos Aires and flows + south-east for a distance of 360 m. into the bay of Samborombon. On + the southern margin of the pampas are the Colorado and Negro, both + large, navigable rivers flowing entirely across the republic from the + Andes to the Atlantic. Many of the rivers of Argentina, as implied by + their names (Salado and Saladillo), are saline or brackish in + character, and are of slight use in the pastoral and agricultural + industries of the country. The lakes of Argentina are exceptionally + numerous, although comparatively few are large enough to merit a name + on the ordinary general map. They vary from shallow, saline lagoons in + the north-western plateaus, to great, picturesque, snow-fed lakes in + the Andean foothills of Patagonia. The province of Buenos Aires has + more than 600 lakes, the great majority small, and some brackish. The + La Pampa territory also is dotted with small lakes. The Bebedero, in + San Luis, and Porongos, in Cordoba, and others, are shallow, saline + lakes which receive the drainage of a considerable area and have no + outlet. The large saline Mar Chiquita, of Cordoba, is fed from the + Sierra de Cordoba and has no outlet. In the northern part of + Gorrientes there is a large area of swamps and shallow lagoons which + are believed to be slowly drying up. + + _Harbours._--Although having a great extent of coast-line, Argentina + has but few really good harbours. The two most frequented by + ocean-going vessels are Buenos Aires and Ensenada (La Plata), both of + which have been constructed at great expense to overcome natural + disadvantages. Perhaps the best natural harbour of the republic is + that of Bahia Blanca, a large bay of good depth, sheltered by islands, + and 534 m. by sea south of Buenos Aires; here the government is + building a naval station and port called Puerto Militar or Puerto + Belgrano, and little dredging is needed to render the harbour + accessible to the largest ocean-going vessels. About 100 m. south of + Bahia Blanca is the sheltered bay of San Bias, which may become of + commercial importance, and between the 42nd and 43rd parallels are the + land-locked bays of San Jose and Nueva (Golfo Nuevo)--the first as yet + unused; on the latter is Puerto Madryn, 838 m. from Buenos Aires, the + outlet for the Welsh colony of Chubut. Other small harbours on the + lower Patagonian coast are not prominent, owing to lack of population. + An occasional Argentine steamer visits these ports in the interests of + colonists. The beet-known among them are Puerto Deseado (Port Desire) + at the mouth of the Deseado river (1253 m.), Santa Cruz, at the mouth + of the Santa Cruz river (1481 m.), and Ushuaia, on Beagle Channel, + Tierra del Fuego. North of Buenos Aires, on the Parana river, is the + port of Rosario, the outlet for a rich agricultural district, ranking + next to the federal capital in importance. Other river ports, of less + importance, are Concordia on the Uruguay river, San Nicolas and + Campana on the Parana river, Santa Fe on the Salado, a few miles from + the Parana, the city of Parana on the Parana river, and Gualeguay on + the Gualeguay river. + + _Geology._--The Pampas of Argentina are generally covered by loess. + The Cordillera, which bounds them on the west, is formed of folded + beds, while the Sierras which rise in their midst, consist mainly of + gneiss, granite and schist. In the western Sierras, which are more or + less closely attached to the main chain of the Cordillera, Cambrian + and Silurian fossils have been found at several places. These older + beds are overlaid, especially in the western part of the country, by a + sandstone series which contains thin seams of coal and many remains of + plants. At Bajo de Velis, in San Luis, the plants belong to the + "Glossopteris flora," which is so widely spread in South Africa, India + and Australia, and the beds are correlated with the Karharbari series + of India (Permian or Permo-Carboni-ferous). Elsewhere the plants + generally indicate a higher horizon and are considered to correspond + with the Rhaetic of Europe. Jurassic beds are known only in the + Cordillera itself, and the Cretaceous beds, which occur in the west of + the country, are of fresh-water origin. As far west, therefore, as the + Cordillera, there is no evidence that any part of the region was ever + beneath the sea in Mesozoic times, and the plant-remains indicate a + land connexion with Africa. This view is supported by Neumayr's + comparison of Jurassic faunas throughout the world. The Lower Tertiary + consists largely of reddish sandstones resting upon the old rocks of + the Cordillera and of the Sierras. Towards the east they lie at a + lower level; but in the Andes they reach a height of nearly 10,000 + ft., and are strongly folded, showing that the elevation of the chain + was not completed until after their deposition. The marine facies of + the later Tertiaries is confined to the neighbourhood of the coast, + and was probably formed after the elevation of the Andes; but inland, + fresh-water deposits of this period are met with, especially in + Patagonia. Contemporaneous volcanic rocks are associated with the + Ordovician beds and with the Rhaetic sandstones in several places. + During the Tertiary period the great volcanoes of the Andes were + formed, and there were smaller eruptions in the Sierras. The principal + rocks are andesites, but trachytes and basalts are also common. Great + masses of granite, syenite and diorite were intruded at this period, + and send tongues even into the andesitic tuffs. + + Silver, gold, lead and copper ores occur in many localities. They are + found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the eruptive masses of the hilly + regions. (See also ANDES.)[1] + + _Climate._--The great extent of Argentina in latitude--about 33 + deg.--and its range in altitude from sea-level westward to the + permanently snow-covered peaks of the Andes, give it a highly + diversified climate, which is further modified by prevailing winds and + mountain barriers. The temperature and rainfall are governed by + conditions different from those in corresponding latitudes of the + northern hemisphere. Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, for + instance, although they correspond in latitude to Labrador, are made + habitable and an excellent sheep-grazing country by the southerly + equatorial current along the continental coast. The climate, however, + is colder than the corresponding latitudes of western Europe, because + of the prevailing westerly winds, chilled in crossing the Andes. In + the extreme north-west an elevated region, whose aridity is caused by + the "blanketing" influence of the eastern Andean ranges, extends + southward to Mendoza. The northern part of the republic, east of the + mountains, is subject to the oscillatory movements of the south-east + trade winds, which cause a division of the year into wet and dry + seasons. Farther south, in Patagonia, the prevailing wind is westerly, + in which case the Andes again "blanket" an extensive region and + deprive it of rain, turning it into an arid desolate steppe. Below + this region, where the Andean barrier is low and broken, the moist + westerly winds sweep over the land freely and give it a large + rainfall, good pastures and a vigorous forest growth. If the republic + be divided into sections by east and west lines, diversities of + climate in the same latitude appear. In the extreme north a little + over a degree and a half of territory lies within the torrid zone, + extending from the Pilcomayo about 500 m. westward to the Chilean + frontier; its eastern end is in the low, wooded plain of the Gran + Chaco, where the mean annual temperature is 73 deg. F., and the annual + rainfall is 63 in.; but on the arid, elevated plateau at its western + extremity the temperature falls below 57 deg. F., and the rainfall has + diminished to 2 in. The character of the soil changes from the + alluvial lowlands of the Gran Chaco, covered with forests of palms and + other tropical vegetation, to the sandy, saline wastes of the Puna de + Atacama, almost barren of vegetation and overshadowed by permanently + snow-crowned peaks. Between the 30th and 31st parallels, a region + essentially sub-tropical in character, the temperature ranges from 66 + deg. on the eastern plains to 62-5 deg. in Cordoba and 64 deg. F. on + the higher, arid, sun-parched tablelands of San Juan. The rainfall, + which varies between 39 and 47 in. in Entre Rios, decreases to 27 in. + in Cordoba and 2 in. in San Juan. The republic has a width of about + 745 m. at this point, three-fourths of which is a comparatively level + alluvial plain, and the remainder an arid plateau broken by mountain + ranges. In the vicinity of Buenos Aires the climatic conditions vary + very little from those of the pampa region; the mean annual + temperature is about 63 deg. (maximum 104 deg.; minimum 32 deg.), and + the annual rainfall is 34 in.; snow is rarely seen. South of the pampa + region, on the 40th parallel, the mean temperature varies only + slightly in the 370 m. from the mouth of the Colorado to the Andes, + ranging from 57 deg. to 55 deg.; but the rainfall increases from 8 in. + on the coast to 16 in. on the east slope of the Cordillera. This + section is near the northern border of the arid Patagonian steppes. In + Tierra del Fuego (lat. 53 deg. to 55 deg.), the climatic conditions + are in strong contrast to those of the north. Here the mean + temperature is between 46 deg. and 48 deg. in summer and 36 deg. and + 38 deg. in winter, rains are frequent, and snow falls every month in + the year. The central and southern parts of the island and the + neighbouring Staten Island are exceptionally rainy, the latter having + 251-1/2 rainy days in the year. The precipitation of rain, snow and + hail is about 55 + + in. + + [Illustration: Map of Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay.] + + The prevailing winds through this southern region are westerly, being + moist below the 52nd parallel, and dry between it and the 40th + parallel. In the north and on the pampas the north wind is hot and + depressing, while the south wind is cool and refreshing. The north + wind usually terminates with a thunderstorm or with a _pampero_, a + cold south-west wind from the Andes which blows with great violence, + causes a fall in temperature of 15 deg. to 20 deg., and is most + frequent from June to November--the southern winter and spring. In the + Andean region, a dry, hot wind from the north or north-west, called + the _Zonda_, blows with great intensity, especially in + September-October, and causes much discomfort and suffering. It is + followed by a cold south wind which often lowers the temperature 25 + deg. The climate of the pampas is temperate and healthy, and is + admirably suited to agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Its greatest + defect is the cold southerly and westerly storms, which cause great + losses in cattle and sheep. The Patagonian coast-line and mountainous + region are also healthy, having a dry and bracing climate. In the + north, however, the hot lowlands are malarial and unsuited to north + European settlement, while the dry, elevated plateaus are celebrated + for their healthiness, those of Catamarca having an excellent + reputation as a sanatorium for sufferers from pulmonary and bronchial + diseases. + + _Flora._--The flora of Argentina should be studied according to + natural zones corresponding to the physical divisions of the + country--the rich tropical and sub-tropical regions of the north, the + treeless pampas of the centre, the desert steppes of the south, and + the arid plateaus of the north-west. The vegetation of each region has + its distinctive character, modified here and there by elevation, + irrigation from mountain streams, and by the saline character of the + soil. In the extreme south, where an Arctic vegetation is found, the + pastures are rich, and the forests, largely of the Antarctic beech + (_Fagus antarctica_), are vigorous wherever the rainfall is heavy. The + greater part of Patagonia is comparatively barren and has no arboreal + growth, except in the well-watered valleys of the Andean foothills. + The water-courses and depressions of the shingly steppts afford + pasturage sufficient for the guanaco, and in places support a thorny + vegetation of low growth and starved appearance. The Antarctic beech + and Winter's bark (_Drimys Winteri_) are found at intervals along the + Andes to the northern limits of this zone. The pampas, which cover so + large a part of the republic, have no native trees whatever, and no + woods except the scrubby growth of the delta islands of the Parana, + and a fringe of low thorn-bushes along the Atlantic coast south to Mar + Chiquita and south of the Tandil sierra, which, strictly speaking, + does not belong to this region. The great plains are covered with + edible grasses, divided into two classes, _pasto duro_ (hard grass) + and _pasto blando_, or _tierno_ (soft grass)--the former tall, coarse, + nutritious and suitable for horses and cattle, and the latter tender + grasses and herbs, including clovers, suitable for sheep and cattle. + The so-called "pampas-grass" (_Gynerium argenteum_) is not found at + all on the dry lands, but in the wet grounds of the south and + south-west. The _pasto duro_ is largely composed of the genera _Stipa_ + and _Melica_. In the dry, saline regions of the west and north-west, + where the rainfall is slight, there are large thickets of low-growing, + thorny bushes, poor in foliage. The predominating species is the + chanar (_Gurliaca decorticans_), which produces an edible berry, and + occurs from the Rio Negro to the northern limits of the republic. Huge + cacti are also characteristic of this region. On the lower slopes of + the Andes are found oak, beech, cedar, Winter's bark, pine (_Araucaria + imbricata_), laurel and calden (_Prosopis algarobilla_). The provinces + of Santa Fe, Cordoba and Santiago del Estero are only partially + wooded; large areas of plains are intermingled with scrubby forests of + algarrobo (_Prosopis_), quebracho-blanco (_Aspido-sperma quebracho_), + tala (_Celtis tola_, _Sellowiana_, _acuminata_), acacias and other + genera. In Tucuman and eastern Salta the same division into forests + and open plains exists, but the former are of denser growth and + contain walnut, cedar, laurel, tipa (_Machaerium fertile_) and + quebracho-colorado (_Loxopterygium Lorentzii_). The territories of the + Gran Chaco, however, are covered with a characteristic tropical + vegetation, in which the palm predominates, but intermingled south of + the Bermejo with heavy growths of algarrobo, quebracho-colorado, + urunday (_Astronium fraxinifolium_), lapacho (_Tecoma curialis_) and + palosanto (_Cuayacum officinalis_), all esteemed for hardness and + fineness of grain. Other palms abound, such as the pindo (_Cocos + australis_), mbocaya (_Cocos sclerocarpa_) and the yatai (_Cocos + yatai_), but the predominating species north of the Bermejo is the + caranday or Brazilian wax-palm (_Copernicia cerifera_), which has + varied uses. The forest habit in this region is close association of + species, and there are "palmares," "algarrobales," "chanarales," &c,, + and among these open pasture lands, giving to a distant landscape a + park-like appearance. In the "mesopotamia" region the flora is similar + to that of the southern Chaco, but in the Misiones it approximates + more to that of the neighbouring Brazilian highlands. Among the + marvellous changes wrought in Argentina by the advent of European + civilization, is the creation of a new flora by the introduction of + useful trees and plants from every part of the world. Indian corn, + quinoa, mandioca, possibly the potato, cotton and various fruits, + including the strawberry, were already known to the aborigines, but + with the conqueror came wheat, barley, oats, flax, many kinds of + vegetables, apples, peaches, apricots, pears, grapes, figs, oranges + and lemons, together with alfalfa and new grasses for the plains. The + Australian eucalyptus is now grown in many places, and there are + groves of the paradise or paraiso tree (_Melia azedarach_) on the + formerly treeless pampa. The cereals of Europe are a source of + increasing wealth to the nation, and alfalfa promises new prosperity + for pastoral industries. + + _Fauna._--The Argentine fauna, like its flora, has been greatly + influenced by the character and position of the pampas. Whatever it + may have been in remote geological periods, it is now extremely + limited both in size and numbers. Of the indigenous fauna, the tapir + of the north and the guanaco of the west and south are the largest of + the animals. The pampas were almost destitute of animal life before + the horses and cattle of the Spanish invaders were there turned out to + graze, and the puma and jaguar never came there until the herds of + European cattle attracted them. The timid viscacha (_Lagostomus + trichodactylus_), living in colonies, often with the burrowing owl, + and digging deep under ground like the American prairie dog, was + almost the only quadruped to be seen upon these immense open plains. + The fox, of which several species exist, probably never ventured far + into the plain, for it afforded him no shelter. Immense flocks of + gulls were probably attracted to it then as now by its insect life, + and its lagoons and streams teemed with aquatic birds. The occupation + of this region by Europeans, and the introduction of horses, asses, + cattle, sheep, goats and swine, have completely changed its aspect and + character. On the Patagonian steppes there are comparatively few + species of animals. Among them are the puma (_Felis concolor_), a + smaller variety of the jaguar (_Felis onca_), the wolf, the fox, the + Patagonian hare (_Dolichotis patagonica_) and two species of wild cat. + The huge glyptodon once inhabited this region, which now possesses the + smallest armadillo known, the "quir-quincho" or _Dasypus minutus_. The + guanaco (_Auchenia_), which ranges from Tierra del Fuego to the + Bolivian highlands, finds comparative safety in these uninhabitable + solitudes, and is still numerous. The "nandu" or American ostrich + (_Rhea americana_), inhabiting the pampas and open plains of the + Chaco, has in Patagonia a smaller counterpart (_Rhea Darwinii_), which + is never seen north of the Rio Negro. On the arid plateaus of the + north-west, the guanaco and vicuna are still to be found, though less + frequently, together with a smaller species of viscacha (_Lagidium + cuvieri_). The greatest development of the Argentine fauna, however, + is in the warm, wooded regions of the north and north-east, where many + animals are of the same species as those in the neighbouring + territories of Brazil. Several species of monkeys inhabit the forests + from the Parana to the Bolivian frontier. Pumas, jaguars and one or + two species of wild cat are numerous, as also the Argentine wolf and + two of three species of fox. The coati, marten, skunk and otter + (_Lutra paranensis_) are widely distributed. Three species of deer are + common. In the Chaco the tapir or anta (_Tapir americanus_) still + finds a safe retreat, and the peccary (_Dycotyles torquatus_) ranges + from Cordoba north to the Bolivian frontier. The capybara + (_Hydrochoerus capybara_) is also numerous in this region. Of birds + the number of species greatly exceeds that of the mammals, including + the rhea of the pampas and condor of the Andes, and the tiny, + brilliant-hued humming-birds of the tropical North. Vultures and hawks + are well represented, but perhaps the most numerous of all are the + parrots, of which there are six or seven species. The reptilians are + represented in the Parana by the jacare (_Alligator sclerpos_), and on + land by the "iguana" (_Teius teguexim, Podinema teguixin_), and some + species of lizard. Serpents are numerous, but only two are described + as poisonous, the cascavel (rattlesnake) and the "vibora de la cruz" + (_Trigonocephalus alternatus_).[2] + +_Population._--In population Argentina ranks second among the republics +of South America, having outstripped, during the last quarter of the +19th century, the once more populous states of Colombia and Peru. During +the first half of the 19th century civil war and despotic government +seriously restricted the natural growth of the country, but since the +definite organization of the republic in 1860 and the settlement of +disturbing political controversies, the population had increased +rapidly. Climate and a fertile soil have been important elements in this +growth. According to the first national census of 1869 the population +was 1,830,214. The census of 1895 increased this total to 3,954,911, +exclusive of wild Indians and a percentage for omissions customarily +used in South American census returns. In 1904 official estimates, based +on immigration and emigration returns and upon registered births and +deaths, both of which are admittedly defective, showed a population +increased to 5,410,028, and a small diminution in the rate of annual +increase from 1895 to 1904 as compared with 1860-1895. The birth-rate is +exceptionally high, largely because of the immigrant population, the +greater part of which is concentrated in or near the large cities. In +the rural districts of the northern provinces, the increase in +population is much less than in the central provinces, the conditions of +life being less favourable. According to the official returns,[3] the +over-sea immigration for the forty-seven years 1857-1903 aggregated +2,872,588, while the departure of emigrants during the same period was +1,066,480, showing a net addition to the population of 1,806,108. A +considerable percentage of these arrivals and departures represents +seasonal labourers, who come out from Europe solely for the Argentine +wheat harvest and should not be classed as immigrants. Unfavourable +political and economic conditions of a temporary character influence the +emigration movement. During the years 1880-1889, when the country +enjoyed exceptional prosperity, the arrivals numbered 1,020,907 and the +departures only 175,038, but in 1890-1899, a period of financial +depression following the extravagant Celman administration, the arrivals +were 928,865 and the departures 532,175. Another disturbing influence +has been the high protective tariffs, adopted during the closing years +of the century, which increased the costs of living more rapidly than +the wages for labour, and compelled thousands of immigrants to seek +employment elsewhere. The influence of such legislation on unsettled +immigrant labourers may be seen in the number of Italians who +periodically migrate from Argentina to Brazil, and _vice versa_, seeking +to better their condition. Of the immigrant arrivals for the forty-seven +years given, 1,331,536 were Italians, 414,973 Spaniards, 170,293 French, +37,953 Austrians, 35,435 British, 30,699 Germans, 25,775 Swiss, 19,521 +Belgians, and the others of diverse nationalities, so that Argentina is +in no danger of losing her Latin character through immigration. This +large influx of Europeans, however, is modifying the population by +reducing the Indian and _mestizo_ elements to a minority, although they +are still numerous in the mesopotamian, northern and north-western +provinces. The language is Spanish. + +_Science and Literature._--Though the university of Cordoba is the +oldest but one in South America, it has made no conspicuous contribution +to Argentine literature beyond the historical works of its famous +rector, Gregorio Funes (1749-1830). This university was founded in 1621 +and the university of Buenos Aires in 1821, but although Bonpland and +some other European scientists were members of the faculty of Buenos +Aires in its early years, neither there nor at Cordoba was any marked +attention given to the natural sciences until President Sarmiento +(official term, 1868-1874) initiated scientific instruction at the +university of Cordoba under the eminent German naturalist, Dr Hermann +Burmeister (1807-1892), and founded the National Observatory at Cordoba +and placed it under the direction of the noted American astronomer, +Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1824-1896). Both of these men made important +contributions to science, and rendered an inestimable service to the +country, not only through their publications but also through the +interest they aroused in scientific research. A bureau of meteorology +was afterwards created at Cordoba which has rendered valuable service. +Dr Burmeister was afterwards placed in charge of the provincial museum +of Buenos Aires, and devoted himself to the acquisition of a collection +of fossil remains, now in the La Plata museum, which ranks among the +best of the world. Not only has scientific study advanced at the +university of Buenos Aires, but scientific research is promoting the +development of the country; examples are the geographical explorations +of the Andean frontier, and especially of the Patagonian Andes, by +Francisco P. Moreno. In literature Argentina is still under the spell of +Bohemianism and dilettanteism. Exceptions are the admirable biographies +of Manuel Belgrano (d. 1820) and San Martin, important contributions to +the history of the country and of the war of independence, by +ex-President Bartolome Mitre (1821-1906). Buenos Aires has some +excellent daily journals, but the tone of the press in general is +sensational. The number of newspapers published is large, especially in +Buenos Aires, where in 1902 the total, including sundry periodicals, was +183. + +_Political Divisions and Towns._--The chief political divisions of the +republic consist of one federal district, 14 provinces and 10 +territories, the last in great part dating from the settlement of the +territorial controversies with Chile. For purposes of local +administration the provinces are divided into departments. The names, +area and population of the provinces and territories are as follows: + + +---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ + | | Area | Pop. | Pop. est.| + | Administrative Divisions. | sq. m. | 1895. | for 1904.| + +---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ + | _Provinces_-- | | | | + | Federal Capital | 72 | 663,854 | 979,235 | + | Buenos Aires | 117,778 | 921,168 |1,312,953 | + | Santa Fe | 50,916 | 397,188 | 640,755 | + | Entre Rios | 28,784 | 292,019 | 367,006 | + | Corrientes | 32,580 | 239,618 | 299,479 | + | Cordoba | 62,160 | 351,223 | 465,464 | + | San Luis | 28,535 | 81,450 | 97,458 | + | Santiago del Estero | 39,764 | 161,502 | 186,206 | + | Mendoza | 56,502 | 116,136 | 159,780 | + | San Juan | 33,715 | 84,251 | 99,933 | + | Rioja | 34,546 | 69,302 | 82,099 | + | Catamarca | 47,531 | 90,161 | 103,082 | + | Tucuman | 8,926 | 215,742 | 263,079 | + | Salta | 62,184 | 118,015 | 136,059 | + | Jujuy | 18,977 | 49,713 | 55,430 | + | | | | | + | _Territories_-- | | | | + | Misiones | 11,282 | 33,163 | 38,755 | + | Formosa | 41,402 | 4,829 | 6,094 | + | Chaco | 32,741 | 10,422 | 13,937 | + | Pampa | 56,320 | 25,914 | 52,150 | + | Neuquen | 42,345 | 14,517 | 18,022 | + | Rio Negro | 75,924 | 9,241 | 18,648 | + | Chobut | 93,427 | 3,748 | 9,000 | + | Santa Cruz | 109,142 | 1,058 | 1,793 | + | Tierra del Fuego | 8,299 | 477 | 1,411 | + | Los Andes | 21,989 | .. | 2,095 | + | +----------+----------+----------+ + | Total |1,135,840 |3,954,911 |5,410,028 | + | Gotha computations of 1902| | | | + | with corrections for | | | | + | boundary changes. |1,083,596 | | | + +---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ + +The principal towns, with estimated population for 1905, are as follows: +Buenos Aires (1,025,653), Rosario (129,121), La Plata (85,000), Tucuman +(55,000), Cordoba (43.000), Sante Fe (33,200), Mendoza (32,000), Parana +(27,000), Salta (18,000), Corrientes (18,000), Chivilcoy (15,000), +Gualeguaychu (13,300), San Nicolas (13,000), Concordia (11,700), San +Juan (11,500), Rio Cuarto (10,800), San Luis (10,500), Barracas al Sud +(10,200). + + _Communications._--The development of railways in Argentina, which + dates from 1857 when the construction of the Buenos Aires Western was + begun, was at first slow and hesitating, but after 1880 it went + forward rapidly. Official corruption and speculation have led to some + unsound ventures, but in the great majority of cases the lines + constructed have been beneficial and productive. The principal centres + of the system are Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia Blanca, with La + Plata as a secondary centre to the former, and from these the lines + radiate westward and northward. The creation of a commercial port at + Bahia Blanca and the development of the territories of La Pampa, Rio + Negro and Neuquen, have given an impetus to railway construction in + that region, and new lines are being extended toward the promising + districts among the Andean foothills. Beginning with 6 m. in 1857, the + railway mileage of the republic increased to 1563 m. in 1880, 5865 m. + in 1890, 7752 m. in 1891, 10,304 m. in 1901, and 12,274 m. in 1906, + with 1794 m. under construction. The greater development of railway + construction between 1885 and 1891 was due, principally, to the + dubious concessions of interest guarantees by the Celman + administration, and also to the fever of speculation. Some of these + lines resulted disastrously. The Transandine line, designed to open + railway communication between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso, was so far + completed early in 1909 that on the Argentine side only the summit + tunnel, 2 m. 127 yds. long, remained to be finished. The piercing was + completed in Nov. 1909, but in the meantime passengers were conveyed + by road over the pass. The gauge is broken at Mendoza, the Buenos + Aires and Pacific having a gauge of 5 ft. 6 in. and the Transandine of + one metre. + + Tramway lines, which date from 1870, are to be found in all important + towns. Those of Buenos Aires, Rosario and La Plata are owned by public + companies. According to the census returns of 1895, the total mileage + was 496 m., representing a capital expenditure of $84,044,581 paper. + Electric traction was first used in Buenos Aires in 1897, since when + nearly all the lines of that city have been reconstructed to meet its + requirements, and subways are contemplated to relieve the congested + street traffic of the central districts; the companies contribute 6% + of their gross receipts to the municipality, besides paying $50 per + annum per square on each single track in paved streets, 5 per thousand + on the value of their property, and 33% of the cost of street repaving + and renewals. + + The telegraph lines of Argentina are subject to the national telegraph + law of 1875, the international telegraph conventions, and special + conventions with Brazil and Uruguay. In 1902 the total length of wires + strung was 28,125 m.; in 1906 it had been increased to 34,080 m. The + national lines extend from Buenos Aires north to La Quiaca on the + Bolivian frontier (1180 m.), and south to Cape Virgenes (1926 m.), at + the entrance to the Straits of Magellan. Telegraphic communication + with Europe is effected by cables laid along the Uruguayan and + Brazilian coasts, and by the Brazilian land lines to connect with + transatlantic cables from Pernambuco. Communication with the United + States is effected by land lines to Valparaiso, and thence by a cable + along the west coast. The service is governed by the international + telegraph regulations, but is subject to local inspection and + interruption in times of political disorder. + + The postal and telegraph services are administered by the national + government, and are under the immediate supervision of the minister of + the interior. Argentina has been a member of the Postal Union since + 1878. Owing to the great distances which must be covered, and also to + the defective means of communication in sparsely settled districts, + the costs of the postal service in Argentina are unavoidably high in + relation to the receipts. + + _Shipping._--Although Argentina has an extensive coast-line, and one + of the great fluvial systems of the world, the tonnage of steamers and + sailing vessels flying her flag is comparatively small. In 1898 the + list comprised only 1416 sailing vessels of all classes, from 10 tons + up, with a total tonnage of 118,894 tons, and 222 steamships, of + 36,323 tons. There has been but slight improvement since that date. + There are excellent fishing grounds on the coast, but they have had no + appreciable influence in developing a commerical marine. The + steamships under the national flag are almost wholly engaged in the + traffic between Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the river traffic, and + port services. + + + Live stock, &c. + + _Agriculture._--In 1878 the production of wheat was insufficient for + home consumption, the amount of Indian corn grown barely covered local + necessities, and the only market for live stock was in the + slaughtering establishments, where the meat was cut into strips and + cured, making the so-called "jerked beef" for the Brazilian and Cuban + markets. But three years later a new economic development began. In + 1881 President Roca offered for public purchase by auction the lands + in the south-west of the province of Buenos Aires, the Pampa Central, + and the Neuquen district, these lands having been rendered habitable + after the campaign of 1878 against the Indians. The upset (reserve) + price was L80 sterling per square league of 6669 acres, and, as the + lands were quickly sold, an expansion of the pastoral industry + immediately ensued. The demand for animals for stock-breeding purposes + sent up prices, and this acted as a stimulus to other branches of + trade, so that, as peace under the Roca regime seemed assured, a + steady flow of immigration from Italy set in. The development of the + pastoral industry of Argentina from that time to the end of the + century was remarkable. In 1878 the number of cattle was 12,000,000; + of sheep, 65,000,000; and of horses, 4,000,000; in 1899 the numbers + were--cattle, 25,000,000; sheep, 89,000,000; and horses, about + 4,500,000. Originally the cattle were nearly all of the long-horned + Spanish breed and of little value for their meat, except to the + saladero establishments. Gradually Durham, Shorthorn, Hereford and + other stock were introduced to improve the native breeds, with results + so satisfactory that now herds of three-quarters-bred cattle are to be + found in all parts of the country. Holstein, Jersey and other + well-known dairy breeds were imported for the new industries of + butter- and cheese-making. Not only has the breed of cattle been + improved, but the system of grazing has completely altered. Vast areas + of land have been ploughed and sown with lucerne (alfalfa); + magnificent permanent pasturage has been created where there were + coarse and hard grasses in former days, and Argentina has been able to + add baled hay to her list of exports. In 1889 the first shipment of + Argentine cattle, consisting altogether of 1930 steers, was sent to + England. The results of these first experiments were not encouraging, + owing mainly to the poor class of animals, but the exporters + persevered, and the business steadily grew in value and importance, + until in 1898 the number of live cattle shipped was 359,296, which + then decreased to 119,189 in 1901, because of the foot-and-mouth + disease. In 1906 the export of live stock was prohibited for that + reason. Large quantities of frozen and preserved meat are exported, + profitable prices being realized. Dairy-farming is making rapid + strides, and the development of sheep-farming has been remarkable. In + 1878, 65,000,000 sheep yielded 230,000,000 Ib weight of wool, or an + average per sheep of, about 3-1/2 lb. In the season of 1899-1900 the + wool exports weighed 420,000,000 Ib, and averaged more than 5 lb. per + sheep. The extra weight of fleece was owing to the large importation + of better breeds. The export, moreover, of live sheep and of frozen + mutton to Europe has become an important factor in the trade of + Argentina. In 1892 the number of live sheep shipped for foreign ports + was 40,000; in 1898 the export reached a total of 577,813, which in + 1901 fell off to 25,746. In 1892 the frozen mutton exported was 25,500 + tons, and this had increased in 1901 to 63,013 tons. + + + Crops. + + The advance made in agricultural industry also is of very great + importance. In 1872 the cultivated area was about 1,430,000 acres; in + 1895, 12,083,000 acres; in 1901, 17,465,973 acres. In 1899 the wheat + exports exceeded 50,000,000 bushels, and the Indian corn 40,000,000 + bushels. The area under wheat in 1901 was 8,351,843 acres; Indian + corn, 3,102,140 acres; linseed, 1,512,340 acres; alfalfa, 3,088,929 + acres. The farming industry is not, however, on a satisfactory basis. + No national lands in accessible districts are available for the + application of a homestead law, and the farmer too often has no + interest in the land beyond the growing crops, a percentage of the + harvest being the rent charged by the owner of the property. This + system is mischievous, since, if a few, consecutive bad seasons occur, + the farmer moves to some more favoured spot; while, on the other hand, + a succession of good years tends to increase rents. The principal + wheat and Indian corn producing districts lie in the provinces of + Santa Fe, Buenos Aires, Cordoba and Entre Rios, and the average yield + of wheat throughout the country is about 12 bushels to the acre. + Little attention is paid to methods of cultivation, and the farmer has + no resources to help him if the cereal crops fail. In the Andean + provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, Catamarca and Rioja viticulture + attracts much attention, and the area in vineyards in 1901 was 109,546 + acres, only 18% of which was outside the four provinces named. Wine is + manufactured in large quantities, but the output is not sufficient to + meet the home demand. In the provinces of Tucuman, Salta and Jujuy the + main industry is sugar growing and manufacture. In 1901 the production + of sugar was 151,639 tons, of which 58,000 tons were exported. The + sugar manufacture, however, is a protected and bounty-fed industry, + and the 51 sugar mills in operation in 1901 are a heavy tax upon + consumers and taxpayers. Other products are tobacco, olives, + castor-oil, peanuts, canary-seed, barley, rye, fruit and vegetables. + + The pastoral and agricultural industries have been hampered by + fluctuations in the value of the currency, farm products being sold at + a gold value for the equivalent in paper, while labourers are paid in + currency. The existing system of taxation also presses heavily upon + the provinces, as may be seen from the fact that the national, + provincial and municipal exactions together amount to L7 per head of + population, while the total value of the exports in 1898 was only L6 + in round numbers. The _guia_ tax on the transport of stock from one + province to another, which has been declared unconstitutional in the + courts, is still enforced, and is a vexatious tax upon the + stock-raiser, while the consumption, or _octroi_, tax in Buenos Aires + and other cities is a heavy burden upon small producers. + + _Manufactures._--Manufacturing enterprise in Argentina, favoured by + the protection of a high tariff, made noticeable progress in the + national capital during the closing years of the last century, + especially in those small industries which commanded a secure market. + The principal classes of products affected are foods, wearing apparel, + building materials, furniture, &c., chemical products, printing and + allied trades, and sundry others, such as cigars, matches, tanning, + paints, &c. In some manufactures the raw material is imported partly + manufactured, such as thread for weaving. The lack of coal in + Argentina greatly increases the difficulty and cost of maintaining + these industries, and high prices of the products result. Electric + power generated by steam is now commonly used in Buenos Aires and + other large cities for driving light machinery. + + _Commerce._--The rapid development of the foreign trade of the + republic since 1881 is due to settled internal conditions and to the + prime necessity to the commercial world of many Argentine products, + such as beef, mutton, hides, wool, wheat and Indian corn. Efforts to + hasten this development have created some serious financial and + industrial crises, and have burdened the country with heavy debts and + taxes. During the decade 1881-1890 great sums of European capital were + invested in railways and other undertakings, encouraged by the grant + of interest guarantees and by state mortgage bank loans in the form of + _cedulas_, nominally secured on landed property. In 1890 the crisis + came, the mortgage banks failed, credits were contracted, the value of + property declined, defaults were common, imports decreased, and the + losses to the country were enormous. The constant fluctuations in the + value of the currency, then much depreciated, intensified the distress + and complicated the situation. Recovery required years, although made + easier by the sound and steady development of the pastoral and + agricultural industries, which were slightly affected by the crisis; + and the steadily increasing volume of exports, mainly foodstuffs and + other staples, saved the situation. There have been some changes in + commercial methods since 1890, the retailer, and sometimes the + consumer, importing direct to save intermediate commission charges. + Such transactions are made easy by the foreign banks established in + all the large cities of the republic. The conversion law of 1899, + which gave a fixed gold value to the currency (44 centavos gold for + each 100 centavos paper), has had beneficial influence on commercial + transactions, through the elimination of daily fluctuations in the + value of the currency, and the commercial and financial situation has + been steadily improved, notwithstanding heavy taxation and tariff + restrictions. The import trade shows the largest totals in foodstuffs, + wines and liquors, textiles and raw materials for their manufacture, + wood and its manufactures, iron and its manufactures, paper and + cardboard, glass and ceramic wares. The official valuation of imports, + which is arbitrary and incorrect, was $164,569,884 gold in 1889, fell + off to $67,207,780 in 1891, but gradually increased to $205,154,420 in + 1905. The exports, which are almost wholly of agricultural and + pastoral products, increased from $103,219,000 in 1891 to $322,843,841 + in 1905. + +_Government._--The present constitution of Argentina dates from the 25th +of September 1860. The legislative power is vested in a congress of two +chambers--the senate, composed of 30 members (two from each province and +two from the capital), elected by the provincial legislatures and by a +special body of electors in the capital for a term of nine years; and +the chamber of deputies, of 120 members (1906), elected for four years +by direct vote of the people, one deputy for every 33,000 inhabitants. +To the chamber of deputies exclusively belongs the initiation of all +laws relating to the raising of money and the conscription of troops. It +has also the exclusive right to impeach the president, vice-president, +cabinet ministers, and federal judges before the senate. The executive +power is exercised by the president, elected by presidential electors +from each province chosen by direct vote of the people. The president +and vice-president are voted for by separate tickets. The system closely +resembles that followed in the United States. The president must be a +native citizen of Argentina, a Roman Catholic, not under thirty years of +age, and must have an annual income of at least $2000. His term of +office is six years, and neither he nor the vice-president is eligible +for the next presidential term. All laws are sanctioned and promulgated +by the president, who is invested with the veto power, which can be +overruled only by a two-thirds vote. The president, with the advice and +consent of the senate, appoints judges, diplomatic agents, governors of +territories, and officers of the army and navy above the rank of +colonel. All other officers and officials he appoints and promotes +without the consent of the senate. The cabinet is composed of eight +ministers--the heads of the government departments of the interior, +foreign affairs, finance, war, marine, justice, agriculture, and public +works. They are appointed by and may be removed by the president. + +Justice is administered by a supreme federal court of five judges and an +attorney-general, which is also a court of appeal, four courts of +appeal, with three judges each, located in Buenos Aires, La Plata, +Parana and Cordoba, and by a number of inferior and local courts. Each +province has also its own judicial system. Trial by jury is established +by the constitution, but never practised. Civil and criminal courts are +both corrupt and dilatory. In May 1899 the minister of justice stated in +the chamber of deputies that the machinery of the courts in the country +was antiquated, unwieldy and incapable of performing its duties; that +50,000 cases were then waiting decision in the minor courts, and 10,000 +in the federal division; and that a reconstruction of the judiciary and +the judicial system had become necessary. In June 1899 he sent his +project for the reorganization of the legal procedure to congress, but +no action was then taken beyond referring the bill to a committee for +examination and report. The proceedings are, with but few exceptions, +written, and the procedure is a survival of the antiquated Spanish +system. + +Under the constitution, the provinces retain all the powers not +delegated to the federal government. Each province has its own +constitution, which must be republican in form and in harmony with that +of the nation. Each elects its governor, legislators and provincial +functionaries of all classes, without the intervention of the federal +government. Each has its own judicial system, and enacts laws relating +to the administration of justice, the distribution and imposition of +taxes, and all matters affecting the province. All the public acts and +judicial decisions of one province have full legal effect and authority +in all the others. In cases of armed resistance to a provincial +government, the national government exercises the right to intervene by +the appointment of an interventor, who becomes the executive head of the +province until order is restored. The territories are under the direct +control of the national government. + +_Army._--The military service of the republic was reorganized in 1901, +and is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of 20 and 45. The +army consists of: (1) The Line, comprising the Active and Reserve, in +which all citizens 20 to 28 years of age are obliged to serve; (2) the +National Guard, comprising citizens of 28 to 40 years; (3) the +Territorial Guard, comprising those 40 to 45 years. Conscripts of 20 +years of age have to serve two years, three months each year. The active +or standing army comprises 18 battalions of infantry, 12 regiments of +cavalry, 8 regiments of artillery, and 4 battalions of engineers. A +military school, with 125 cadets, is maintained at San Martin, near the +national capital, and a training school for non-commissioned officers in +the capital itself. Compulsory attendance of young men at national guard +drills is enforced for at least two months of the year, under penalty of +enforced service in the Line. In 1906 the president announced that +permission had been given by the German emperor for 30 Argentine +officers to enter the German army each year and to serve eighteen +months, and also for five officers to attend the Berlin Military +Academy. The equipment of the standing army is thoroughly modern, the +infantry being provided with Mauser rifles and the artillery with Krupp +batteries. + +_Navy._--The disputes with Chile during the closing years of the 19th +century led to a large increase in the navy, but in 1902 a treaty +between the two countries provided for the restriction of further +armaments for the next four years. The naval vessels then under +construction were accordingly sold, but in 1906 both countries, +influenced apparently by the action of Brazil, gave large orders in +Europe for new vessels. At the time when further armaments were +suspended, the effective strength of the Argentine navy consisted of 3 +ironclads, 6 first-class armoured cruisers, 2 monitors (old), 4 +second-class cruisers, 2 torpedo cruisers, 3 destroyers, 3 high-sea +torpedo boats, 14 river torpedo boats, 1 training ship, 5 transports, +and various auxiliary vessels. Two of these first-class cruisers were +sold to Japan. The armament included 394 guns of all calibres, 6 of +which were of 250 millimetres, 4 of 240, and 12 of 200. There are about +320 officers in active service, and the total personnel ranges from 5000 +to 6000 men. The service is not popular, and it is recruited by means of +conscription from the national guard, the term of service being two +years. These conscripts number about 2000 a year. In addition, there is +a corps of coast artillery numbering 450 men, from which garrisons are +drawn for the military port, Zarate arsenal and naval prison. The +government maintains a naval school at Flores, a school of mechanics in +Buenos Aires, an artillery school on the cruiser "Patagonia," and a +school for torpedo practice at La Plata. The naval arsenal is situated +on the "north basin" of the Buenos Aires port, and the military port at +Bahia Blanca is provided with a dry dock of the largest size, and +extensive repair shops. There is also a dockyard and torpedo arsenal at +La Plata, an artillery depot at Zarate, above Buenos Aires, and naval +depots on the island of Martin Garcia and at Tigre, on the Lujan river. + +_Education._--Primary education is free and secular, and is compulsory +for children of 6 to 14 years. In the national capital and territories +it is supervised by a national council of education with the assistance +of local school boards; in the 14 provinces it is under provincial +control. Secondary instruction is also free, but is not compulsory. It +is under the control of the national government, which in 1902 +maintained 10 colleges. Of these colleges four are in Buenos Aires, one +in each province, and one in Conception del Uruguay. For the instruction +of teachers the republic has 28 normal schools, as follows: three in the +national capital; one in Parana, three (regional) in Corrientes, San +Luis and Catamarca; 14 for female teachers in the provincial capitals; +and seven for either sex in the larger towns of the provinces of Buenos +Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba and San Luis. The normal schools, maintained by +the state on a secular basis, were founded by President Sarmiento, who +engaged experienced teachers in the United States to direct them; their +work is excellent; notably, their model primary schools. For higher and +professional education there are two national universities at Buenos +Aires and Cordoba, and three provincial universities, at La Plata, Santa +Fe and Parana, which comprise faculties of law, medicine and +engineering, in addition to the usual courses in arts and science. To +meet the needs of technical and industrial education there are a school +of mines at San Juan, a school of viticulture at Mendoza, an agronomic +and veterinary school at La Plata, several agricultural and pastoral +schools, and commercial schools in Buenos Aires, Rosario, Bahia Blanca +and Concordia. Schools of art and conservatories of music are also +maintained in the large cities, where there are, besides, many private +schools. Secular education has been vigorously opposed by strict +churchmen, and efforts have been made to maintain separate schools under +church control. The national government has founded several scholarships +(some in art) for study abroad. The total school population of Argentina +in 1900 (6 to 14 years) was 994,089, of which 45% attended school, and +13% of those not attending were able to read and write. The illiterate +school population was about 41%, and of those of 15 years and over 54% +were illiterate. Of the whole population over 6 years, 50.5% were +illiterate. + +_Religion._--The Argentine constitution recognizes the Roman Catholic +religion as that of the state, but tolerates all others. The state +controls all ecclesiastical appointments, decides on the passing or +rejection of all decrees of the Holy See, and provides an annual subsidy +for maintenance of the churches and clergy. Churches and chapels are +founded and maintained by religious orders and private gift as well. At +the head of the Argentine hierarchy are one archbishop and five +suffragan bishops, who have five seminaries for the education of the +priesthood. From statistics of 1895 it appears that in each 1000 of +population 991 are Roman Catholics, 7 Protestants, and 2 Jews, the Jews +being entirely of Russian origin, sent into the republic since 1891 by +the Jewish Colonization Association under the provisions of the Hirsch +legacy; from 1895 to 1908 the number of Jews in Argentina increased from +6085 to about 30,000. + + _Finance._--The revenue of the republic is derived mainly from customs + and excise, and the largest item of expenditure is the service of the + public debt. Since 1891 the national budgets have been calculated in + both gold and currency, and both receipts and expenditures have been + carried out in this dual system. The collection of a part of the + import duties in gold has served to give the government the gold it + requires for certain expenditures, but it has complicated returns and + accounts and increased the burden of taxation. According to a + compilation of statistical returns published by Dr. Francisco Latzina + in 1901, the national revenues and expenditures for the 37 years from + 1864 to 1900, inclusive, reduced to a common standard, show a total + deficit for that period of $408,260,795 gold, which has been met by + external and internal loans, and by a continued increase in the scope + and rate of taxation. The growth of the annual budget is shown by a + comparison of the following years:-- + + Total Revenue. Total Expenditure. + + 1864 $7,005,328 gold. $7,119,931 gold. + 1880 19,594,306 " 26,919,295 " + 1890 73,150,856 " 95,363,854 " + 1900 / 62,045,458 paper. / 104,501,614 paper. + \ 37,998,704 gold. \ 23,644,543 gold. + 1905 / 63,439,000 paper. / 105,581,680 paper. + \ 43,461,324 gold. \ 24,865,016 gold. + + The bane of Argentine finance has been the extravagant and + unscrupulous use of national credit for the promotion of schemes + calculated to benefit individuals rather than the public. The large + increase in military expenditures during the disputes with Chile also + proved a heavy burden, and in the continued strife with Brazil for + naval superiority this burden could not fail to be increased greatly. + A very considerable percentage of Argentina's population of five to + six millions is hopelessly poor and unprogressive, and cannot be + expected to bear its share of the burden. To meet these expenditures + there are a high tariff on imported merchandise, and excise and stamp + taxes of a far-reaching and often vexatious character. Nothing is + permitted to escape taxation, and duplicated taxes on the same thing + are frequent. In Argentina these burdens bear heavily upon the + labouring classes, and in years of depression they send away by + thousands immigrants unable to meet the high costs of living. For the + year 1900 the total expenditures of the national government, 14 + provincial governments, and 16 principal cities, were estimated to + have been $208,811,925 paper, which is equivalent to $91,877,247 gold, + or (at $5.04 per pound stg.) to L18,229,612, 10s. The population that + year was estimated to be 4,794,149, from which it is seen that the + annual costs of government were no less than L3, 16s. for each man, + woman, and child in the republic. About 71% of this charge was on + account of national expenditures, and 29% provincial and municipal + expenditures. Had the expenses of all the small towns and rural + communities been included, the total would be in excess of $20 gold, + or L4, _per capita_. + + In 1889 the public debt of the republic amounted to about L24,000,000, + but the financial difficulties which immediately followed that year, + and the continuance of excessive expenditures, forced the debt up to + approximately L128,000,000 during the next ten years. In the year 1905 + the outstanding and authorized debt of the republic was as follows:-- + + External debt (July 31, 1905): + + National loans L42,297,050 + Provincial loans and others, assumed 30,395,916 + National cedulas 11,763,923 + ---------- + Total L84,456,889 + + Consolidated Internal debt (Dec. 31, 1904): + + Gold $16,544,000 + Paper 79,174,400 + ---------- L10,178,718 + + Total service on funded debt, 1905, + $24,375,067 gold, and $15,914,335 paper L6,225,669 + + Floating debt L259,170 + Treasury bills (Apr. 30, 1905) 275,220 + Unpaid bills, $3,332,594, paper 288,560 + --------- L822,950 + + The paper currency forms an important part of the internal debt, and + has been a fruitful source of trouble to the country. Few countries + have suffered more from a depreciated currency than Argentina. During + the era of so-called "prosperity" between 1881 and 1890 an enormous + amount of bank notes were issued under various authorizations, + especially that of the "free banking law" of 1887. During this period + the bank-note circulation was increased to $161,700,000, and two + mortgage banks--the National Hypothecary Bank and the Provincial + Mortgage Bank (of Buenos Aires)--flooded the country with $509,000,000 + of _cedulas_ (hypothecary bonds). When the crash came and the national + treasury was found to be without resources to meet current expenses, + further issues of $110,000,000 in currency were made. The free-banking + law which permitted the issue of notes by provincial banks was + primarily responsible for this situation. Under the provisions of this + law the provinces were authorized to borrow specie abroad and deposit + the same with the national government as security for their issues. + These loans aggregated L27,000,000. The Celman administration, in + violation of the trust, then sold the specie and squandered the + proceeds, leaving the provincial bank notes without guarantee and + value. The national government has since assumed responsibility for + all these provincial loans abroad. As on previous occasions, the great + depreciation in the value of the currency has led to a repudiation of + part of its nominal value. This depreciation reached its maximum in + October 1891 ($460.82 paper for $100 gold), and remained between that + figure and $264 during the next six years. To check these prejudicial + fluctuations and to prevent too great a fall in the price of gold (to + repeat a popular misconception), a conversion law was adopted on the + 31st of October 1899, which provided that the outstanding circulation + should be redeemed at the rate of 44 centavos gold for each 100 + centavos paper, the official rate for gold being 227.27. Provisions + were also made for the creation of a special conversion fund in specie + to guarantee the circulation, which fund reached a total of + $100,000,000 in March 1906. These measures have served to give greater + stability to the value of the circulating medium, and to prevent the + ruinous losses caused by a constant fluctuation in value, but the rate + established prevents the further appreciation of the currency. On the + 18th of January 1906 the currency in circulation amounted to + $502,420,485, which is more than $95 _per capita_. (A. J. L.) + + +HISTORY + +The first Europeans who visited the river Plate were a party of Spanish +explorers in search of a south-west passage to the East Indies. Their +leader, Juan Diaz de Solis, landing incautiously in 1516 on the north +coast with a few attendants to parley with a body of Charrua Indians, +was suddenly attacked by them and was killed, together with a number of +his followers. This untoward disaster led to the abandonment of the +expedition, which forthwith returned to Spain, bringing with them the +news of the discovery of a fresh-water sea. Four years later (1520) the +Portuguese seaman, Ferdinand Magellan, entered the estuary in his +celebrated voyage round the world, undertaken in the service of the king +of Spain (Charles I., better known as the emperor Charles V.). Magellan, +as soon as he had satisfied himself that there was no passage to the +west, left the river without landing. + + + Cabot. + +The first attempt to penetrate by way of the river Plate and its +affluents inland, with a view to effecting settlements in the interior, +was made in 1526 by Sebastian Cabot. This great navigator had already +won renown in the service of Henry VII. of England by his voyage to the +coast of North America in company with his father, Giovanni Caboto or +Cabot (see CABOT, JOHN). Sebastian Cabot had in 1519 deserted England +for Spain, and had received from King Charles the post of pilot-major +formerly held by Juan de Solis. In 1526 he was sent out in command of an +expedition fitted out for the purpose of determining by astronomical +observations the exact line of demarcation, under the treaty of +Tordesillas, between, the colonizing spheres of Spain and Portugal, and +of conveying settlers to the Moluccas. Arrived in the river Plate in +1527, rumours reached Cabot of mineral wealth and a rich and civilized +empire in the far interior, and he resolved to abandon surveying for +exploration. He built a fort a short distance up the river Uruguay, and +despatched one of his lieutenants, Juan Alvarez Ramon, with a separate +party upon an expedition up stream. This expedition was assailed by the +Charruas and forced to return on foot, their leader himself being +killed. Cabot, with a large following, entered the Parana and +established a settlement just above the mouth of the river Carcaranal, +to which he gave the name of San Espiritu, among the Timbu Indians, with +whom he formed friendly relations. He continued the ascent of the Parana +as far as the rapids of Apipe, and finding his course barred in this +direction, he afterwards explored the river Paraguay, which he mounted +as far as the mouth of the affluent called by the Indians Lepeti, now +the river Bermejo. His party was here fiercely attacked by the Agaces or +Payagua Indians, and suffered severely. Cabot in his voyage had seen +many silver ornaments in the possession of the Timbu and Guarani +Indians. Some specimens of these trinkets he sent back to Spain with a +report of his discoveries. The arrival of these first-fruits of the +mineral wealth of the southern continent gained for the estuary of the +Parana the name which it has since borne, that of Rio de la Plata, the +silver river. As Cabot was descending the stream to his settlement of +San Espiritu, he encountered an expedition which had been despatched +from Spain for the express purpose of exploring the river discovered by +Solis, under the command of Diego Garcia. Finding that he had been +forestalled, Garcia resolved to return home. Cabot himself, after an +absence of more than three years, came back in 1530, and applied to +Charles V. for means to open up communications with Peru by way of the +river Bermejo. The emperor's resources were, however, absorbed by his +struggle for European supremacy with Francis I. of France, and he was +obliged to leave the enterprise of South American discoveries to his +wealthy nobles. Cabot's colony at San Espiritu did not long survive his +departure; an attempt of the chief of the Timbus to gain possession of +one of the Spanish ladies of the settlement led to a treacherous +massacre of the garrison. + + + Mendoza. + + Buenos Aires. + +Two years after the return of Cabot, the news of Francisco Pizarro's +marvellous conquest of Peru reached Europe (1532), and stirred many an +adventurous spirit to strive to emulate his good fortune. Among these +was Pedro de Mendoza, a Basque nobleman. He obtained from Charles V. a +grant (_asiento_) of two hundred leagues of the coast from the boundary +of the Portuguese possessions southward towards the Straits of Magellan, +and the inland country which lay behind it. Mendoza undertook to conquer +and settle the territory at his own charges, certain profits being +reserved to the crown. In August 1534 the _adelantado_, or governor, +sailed from San Lucar, at the head of the largest and wealthiest +expedition that had ever left Europe for the New World. In January 1535 +he entered the river Plate, where he followed the northern shore to the +island of San Gabriel, and then crossing over he landed by a little +stream, still called Riachuelo. The name of Buenos Aires was given to +the country by Sancho del Campo, brother-in-law of the _adelantado_, who +first stepped ashore. Here, on the 2nd of February, Mendoza laid the +foundations of a settlement which in honour of the day he named Santa +Maria de Buenos Aires. Mendoza, after some fierce encounters with the +Indians, now proceeded up the Parana, and built a fort, which he called +Corpus Christi, near the site of Cabot's former settlement of San +Espiritu. The expedition, which originally numbered 2500 men, was +reduced by deaths at the hands of the Indians, by disease and privation, +within a year to less than 500 men. From Corpus Christi, Mendoza sent +out various bodies to explore the interior in the direction of Peru, but +without much success, and at length, thoroughly discouraged and broken +in health, he abandoned his enterprise, and returned to Spain in 1537. + + + Asuncion + +A portion of one of the expeditions he despatched, under Juan de Ayolas, +pushing up the Paraguay, is said to have reached the south-east +districts of Peru, but while returning laden with booty, was attacked by +the Payagua Indians, and every man perished. The other portion, which +had stayed behind as a reserve under Domingos Irala, had better +fortunes. Finding their comrades did not return, Irala and his +companions determined to descend the river, and on their downward +journey opposite the mouth of the river Pilcomayo, finding a suitable +site for colonizing, they founded (1536) what proved to be the first +permanent Spanish settlement in the interior of South America, the +future city of Asuncion (15th August 1536). + + + Irala + +In the meantime the colony at Buenos Aires had been dragging on a +miserable existence, and after terrible sufferings from famine and from +the ceaseless attacks of the Indians, the remaining settlers abandoned +the place and made their way up the river first to Corpus Christi, then +to Asuncion. Here, by the emperor's orders, the assembled Spaniards +proceeded to the election of a captain-general, and their choice fell +almost unanimously on Domingos Martinez de Irala, who was proclaimed +captain-general of the Rio de la Plata (August 1538). In 1542 the +settlement of Buenos Aires was re-established by an expedition sent for +the purpose from Spain, under a tried _adelantado_, Cabeza de Vaca. This +able leader, eager to reach Asuncion as quickly as possible, sent on his +ships to the river Plate, but himself with a small following marched +overland from Santa Catherina on the coast of Brazil to join Irala. His +doings at Asuncion belong, however, not to the history of Argentina, but +of Paraguay. Suffice it to say that differences with Irala eventually +led to his arrest, and to his being sent back to Spain to answer to the +charges brought against him for maladministration. The second settlement +made by his expedition at Buenos Aires was even less successful and +long-lived than the first. Exposed to the incessant attacks of the +savages, the piace was a second time abandoned, February 1543. + + + Juan de Garay. + +Forty years were now to elapse before any further efforts were made by +the Spaniards to colonize any part of the territory of the river Plate +and lower Parana. In 1573 Juan de Garay, at the head of an expedition +despatched from Asuncion, founded the city of Santa Fe near the +abandoned settlements of San Espiritu and Corpus Christi. Seven years +later (1580), when the new colony had been firmly established, Juan de +Garay proceeded southwards, and made the third attempt to build a city +on the site of Buenos Aires; and despite the determined hostility of the +Querendi Indians he succeeded in finally gaining a complete mastery over +them. In a desperate battle, the natives were defeated with great +slaughter, and the territory surrounding the town was divided into +ranches, in which the conquered natives had to labour. The new town +received from Garay the name of _Ciudad de la Santissima Trinidad_, +while its port retained the old appellation of Santa Maria de Buenos +Aires. It was endowed by its founder with a _cabildo_ (corporation) and +full Spanish municipal privileges. Garay, when on his way to Santa Fe, +was unfortunately murdered by a party of Indians, Minuas (Mimas), three +years later, while incautiously sleeping on the river bank near the +ruins of San Espiritu. The new settlement, however, continued to +prosper, and the cattle and horses brought from Europe multiplied and +spread over the plains of the Pampas. + +In the meantime the Spaniards had penetrated into the interior of what +is now the Argentine Republic, and established themselves on the eastern +slopes of the Andes. In 1553 an expedition from Peru made their way +through the mountain region and founded the city of Santiago del Estero, +that of Tucuman in 1565, and that of Cordoba in 1573. Another expedition +from Chile, under Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, crossed the Cordillera in +1559, and having defeated the Araucanian Indians, made a settlement +which from the name of the leader was called Mendoza. In 1620 Buenos +Aires was separated from the authority of the government established at +Asuncion, and was made the seat of a government extending over Mendoza, +Santa Fe, Entre Rios and Corrientes, but at the same time remained like +the government of Paraguay at Asuncion, and that of the province of +Tucuman, which had Cordoba as its capital, subject to the authority of +the viceroyalty of Peru. + + + Evils of Spanish colonial system. + + Asiento question. + +Thus at the opening of the 17th century, after many adventurous efforts, +and the expenditure of many lives and much treasure, the Spaniards found +themselves securely established on the river Plate, and had planted a +number of centres of trade and colonization in the interior. +Unfortunately, in no part of the Spanish oversea possessions did the +restrictive legislation of the home government operate more harshly or +disadvantageously to the interests of the colony; it was a more +effective hindrance to the development of its resources and the spread +of civilization over the country, than the hostility of the Indians. +Cabot had urged the feasibility of opening an easier channel for trade +with the interior of Peru through the river Plate and its tributaries, +than that by way of the West Indies and Panama; and now that his views +were able to be realized, the interests of the merchants of Seville and +of Lima, who had secured a monopoly of the trade by the route of the +isthmus, were allowed to destroy the threatened rivalry of that by the +river Plate. Never in the history of colonization has a mother country +pursued so relentlessly a policy more selfish and short-sighted. Spanish +legislation was not satisfied with endeavouring to exclude all European +nations except Spain from trading with the West Indies, but it sought to +limit all commerce to one particular route, and it forbade any trade +being transacted by way of the river Plate, thus enacting the most +flagrant injustice towards the people it had encouraged to settle in the +latter country. The strongest protests were raised, but the utmost they +could effect was that, in 1618, permission was granted to export from +Buenos Aires two shiploads of produce a year. But the Spanish government +was not content with the prohibition of sea-borne commerce. To prevent +internal trade with Peru a custom-house was set up at Cordoba to levy a +duty of 50% on everything in transit to and from the river Plate. In +1665 the relaxation of this system was brought about by the continual +remonstrances of the people, but for more than a century afterwards +(until 1776) the policy of exclusion was enforced. This naturally led to +a contraband trade of considerable dimensions. The English, after the +treaty of Utrecht (1715) held the contract (_asiento_) for supplying the +Spanish-American colonies with negro slaves. Among other places the +slave ships regularly visited Buenos Aires, and despite the efforts of +the Spanish authorities, contrived both to smuggle in and carry away a +quantity of goods. This illicit commerce went on steadily till 1739, +when it led to an outbreak of war between England and Spain, which put +an end to the _asiento_. The Portuguese were even worse offenders, for +in 1680 they made a settlement on the north of the river Plate, right +opposite to Buenos Aires, named Colonia, which with one or two short +intervals, remained in their hands till 1777. From this port foreign +merchandise found its way duty free into the Spanish provinces of Buenos +Aires, Tucuman and Paraguay, and even into the interior of Peru. The +continual encroachments of the Portuguese at length led the Spanish +government to take the important step of making Buenos Aires the seat of +a viceroyalty with jurisdiction over the territories of the present +republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Argentine Confederation +(1776). At the same time all this country was opened to Spanish trade +even with Peru, and the development of its resources, so long thwarted, +was allowed comparatively free play. Pedro de Zeballos, the first +viceroy, took with him from Spain a large military force with which he +finally expelled the Portuguese from the banks of the river Plate. + + + Effects of French war. + +The wars of the French Revolution, in which Spain was allied with France +against Great Britain, interrupted the growing prosperity of Buenos +Aires. On the 17th of June 1806 General William Beresford landed with a +body of troops from a British fleet under the command of Sir Home +Popham, and obtained possession of Buenos Aires. But a French officer, +Jacques de Liniers, gathered together a large force with which he +enclosed the British within the walls, and finally, on the 12th of +August, by a successful assault, forced Beresford and his troops to +surrender. In July 1807 another British force of eight thousand men +under General Whitelock endeavoured to regain possession of Buenos +Aires, but strenuous preparations had been made for resistance, and +after fierce street fighting the invading army, after suffering severe +losses, was compelled to capitulate. The colonists, who had achieved +their two great successes without any aid from the home government, were +naturally elated, and began to feel a new sense of self-reliance and +confidence in their own resources. The successful defence of Buenos +Aires accentuated the growing feeling of dissatisfaction with the +Spanish connexion, which was soon to lead to open insurrection. The +establishment of the Napoleonic dynasty at Madrid was the actual cause +which brought about the disturbances which were to end in separation. +Liniers was viceroy on the arrival of the news of the crowning of Joseph +Bonaparte as king of Spain, but as a Frenchman he was distrusted and was +deposed by the adherents of Ferdinand VII. The central junta at Seville, +acting in the name of Ferdinand, appointed Balthasar de Cisneros to be +viceroy in his place. He entered upon the duties of his office on the +19th of July 1809, and at first he gained popularity by acceding to the +urgent appeals of the people and throwing open the trade of the country +to all nations. But his measures speedily gave dissatisfaction to the +Argentine or Creole party, who had long chafed under the disabilities of +Spanish rule, and who now felt themselves no longer bound by ties of +loyalty to a country which was in the possession of the French armies. + + + Struggle for independence. + +On the 25th of May 1810 a great armed assembly met at Buenos Aires and a +provisional junta was formed to supersede the authority of the viceroy +and carry on the government. The acts of the new government ran in the +name of Ferdinand VII., but the step taken was a revolutionary one, and +the 25th of May has ever since been regarded as the birthday of +Argentine independence. The most prominent leader of the junta was its +secretary Mariano Moreno (1778-1811), who with a number of other active +supporters of the patriot cause succeeded in raising a considerable +force of Buenos Aireans to maintain, arms in hand, their nationalist and +anti-Spanish doctrines. An attempt of the Spanish party to make +Balthasar de Cisneros president of the junta failed, and the ex-viceroy +retired to Montevideo. A sanguinary struggle between the party of +independence and the adherents of Spain spread over the whole country, +and was carried on with varying fortune. Foremost among the leaders of +the revolutionary armies were Manuel Belgrano, and after March 1812 +General Jose de San Martin, an officer who had gained experience against +the French in the Peninsular War. A state of disorder, almost of +anarchy, reigned in the provinces, but on the 25th of March 1816 a +congress of deputies was assembled at Tucuman, who named Don Martin +Pueyrredon supreme director, and on the 9th of July the separation of +the united provinces of the Rio de la Plata was formally proclaimed, and +comparative order was re-established in the country; Buenos Aires was +declared the seat of the government. The jealousy of the provinces, +however, against the capital led to a series of disturbances, and for +many years continual civil war devastated every part of the country. +Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay rose in armed revolt, and finally +established themselves as separate republics, whilst the city of Buenos +Aires itself was torn with faction and the scene of many a sanguinary +fight. + + + Republic established. + +From 1816, however, the independence of the Argentine Republic was +assured, and success attended the South Americans in their contest with +the royal armies. The combined forces of Buenos Aires and Chile defeated +the Spaniards at Chacabuco in 1817, and at Maipu in 1818; and from Chile +the victorious general Jose de San Martin led his troops into Peru, +where on the 9th of July 1821, he made a triumphal entry into Lima, +which had been the chief stronghold of the Spanish power, having from +the time of its foundation by Pizarro been the seat of government of a +viceroyalty which at one time extended to the river Plate. A general +congress was assembled at Buenos Aires on the 1st of March 1822, of +representatives from all the liberated provinces, and a general amnesty +was decreed, though the war was not over until the 9th of December 1824, +when the republican forces gained the final, victory of Ayacucho, in the +Peruvian border-land. The Spanish government did not, however, formally +acknowledge the independence of the country until the year 1842. On the +23rd of January 1825, a national constitution for the federal states, +which formed the Argentine Republic, was decreed; and on the 2nd of +February of the same year Sir Woodbine Parish, acting under the +instructions of George Canning, signed a commercial treaty in Buenos +Aires, by which the British government acknowledged the independence of +the country. It had already been recognized by the United States of +America two years previously. + + + Unitarians and Federalists. + +In 1826 Bernardo Rivadavia was elected president of the confederation. +His policy was to establish a strong central government, and he became +the head of a party known as Unitarians in contradistinction to their +opponents, who were styled Federalists, their aim being to maintain to +the utmost the local autonomy of the various provinces. Under the +government of Rivadavia the people of Buenos Aires became involved, +practically single-handed, in a war with Brazil in defence of the Banda +Oriental, which had been seized by the imperial forces (see URUGUAY). +The Brazilians were defeated, notably at Ituzaingo, and in 1827 the war +issued in the independence of Uruguay. Rivadavia's term of office was +likewise memorable for the constitution of the 24th of December 1826, +passed by the constituent congress of all the provinces, by which the +bonds which united the confederated states of the Argentine Republic +were strengthened. This project of closer union met, however, with much +opposition both at Buenos Aires and the provinces. Rivadavia resigned, +and Vicente Lopez, a Federalist, was elected to succeed him, but was +speedily displaced by Manuel Dorrego (1827), another representative of +the same party. The carrying out of Federalist principles led, however, +to the formation in the republic of a number of quasi-independent +military states, and Dorrego only ruled in Buenos Aires. After the +conclusion of the peace with Brazil, the Unitarians placed themselves +under the leadership of General Juan de Lavalle, the victor of +Ituzaingo. Lavalle, at the head of a division of troops, drove Dorrego +from Buenos Aires, pursued him into the interior, and captured him. He +was shot (December 9, 1828), by the order of Lavalle, and during the +year 1828 the country was given up to the horrors of civil war. + + + Rosas dictator. + +On the death of Dorrego, a remarkable man, Juan Manuel de Rosas, became +the Federalist chief. In 1829 he defeated Lavalle, made himself master +of Buenos Aires, and in the course of the next three years made his +authority recognized after much fighting throughout the provinces. The +Unitarians were relentlessly hunted down and a veritable reign of terror +ensued. Rosas gradually concentrated all power in his own hands, and was +hailed by the populace as a saviour of the state. In 1835, with the +title of governor and captain-general, he acquired dictatorial powers, +and all public authority passed into his hands. This dictatorship of +Rosas continued until 1852. In every department of administration and of +government he was supreme. He was exceedingly jealous of foreign +interference, and quarrelled with France on questions connected with the +rights of foreign residents. Buenos Aires was in 1838 blockaded by a +French fleet; but Rosas stood firm. A formidable revolt took place in +1839 under General Lavalle, who had returned to the country accompanied +by a number of banished Unitarians. In 1840 he invaded Buenos Aires at +the head of troops raised chiefly in the province of Entre Rios; but he +was defeated at Santa Fe, then at Lujan, and finally was captured in +Jujuy and shot, 1841. The rule of Rosas was now one of tyranny and +almost incessant bloodshed in Buenos Aires, while his partisans, +foremost amongst whom was General Ignacio Oribe, endeavoured to +exterminate the Unitarians throughout the provinces. The scene of +slaughter was extended to the Banda Oriental by the attempt of Oribe, +with the support of Rosas, and of Justo Jose de Urquiza, governor of +Entre Rios, to establish himself as president of that republic (see +URUGUAY), where the existing government was hostile to Rosas and +sheltered all political refugees from the country under his despotic +rule. The siege of Montevideo led to a joint intervention of England and +France. Buenos Aires was blockaded by the combined English and French +fleets, September 1845, which landed a force to open the passage up the +Parana to Paraguay, which had been declared closed to foreigners by +Rosas. A convention was signed in 1849, which secured the free +navigation of the Parana and the independence of the Banda Oriental. The +downfall of Rosas was at last brought about by the instrumentality of +Justo Jose de Urquiza, who as governor of Entre Rios, had for many years +been one of his strongest supporters. The breach between the two men +which led to open collision took place in 1846. The first efforts of +Urquiza to rouse the country against the oppressor were unsuccessful, +but in 1851 he concluded an alliance with Brazil, to which Uruguay +afterwards adhered. A large army of twenty-four thousand men was +collected at Montevideo, and on the 8th of January 1852 the allied +forces crossed the Parana and the road to Buenos Aires lay open before +them. Rosas met the allies at the head of a body of troops fully equal +in numbers to their own, but was crushingly routed, February 3rd, at +Monte Caseros, about 10 m. from the capital. The dictator fled for +refuge to the British legation, from whence he was conveyed on board +H.B.M.S. "Locust," which carried him into exile. + + + Urquiza president. + + Buenos Aires and the provinces. + +A provisional government was formed under Urquiza, and the Brazilian and +Uruguayan troops withdrew. He summoned all the provincial governors at +San Nicolas in the province of Buenos Aires, and on the 31st of May they +proclaimed a new constitution, with Urquiza as provisional director of +the Argentine nation. A constituent congress, in which each province had +equal representation, was duly elected, and in order to provide against +the predominance of Buenos Aires, it was determined that Sante Fe should +be the place of session. But this did not suit the _portenos_, as the +people of Buenos Aires were called, and the province refused to take any +part in the congressional proceedings. But Urquiza was a man of +different temperament from Rosas, and when he found that Buenos Aires +refused to submit to his authority, he declined to use force. The +congress had (May 1, 1853) appointed Urquiza president of the +confederation, and he established the seat of government at Parana. The +province of Buenos Aires was recognized as an independent state, and +under the enlightened administration of Doctor Obligado made rapid +strides in commercial prosperity. The two sections of the Argentine +nation contrived to exist as separate governments without an open breach +of the peace until 1859, when the long-continued tension led to the +outbreak of hostilities. The army of the _portenos_, commanded by +Colonel Bartolome Mitre, was defeated at Cepeda by the confederate +forces under Urquiza, and Buenos Aires agreed to re-enter the +confederation (November 11, 1859). Urquiza at this juncture resigned the +presidency, and Doctor Santiago Derqui was elected president of the +fourteen provinces with the seat of government at Parana; while Urquiza +became once more governor of Entre Rios, and Mitre was appointed +governor of Buenos Aires. + + + Mitre president. + + Paraguay war. + +The struggle for supremacy between Buenos Aires and the provinces had, +however, to be fought out, and hostilities once more broke out in 1861. +The armies of the opposing parties, under Generals Mitre and Urquiza +respectively, met at Pavon in the province of Santa Fe (September 17). +The battle ended in the disastrous defeat of the provincial forces; +General Mitre used his victory in a spirit of moderation and sincere +patriotism. He was elected president of the Argentine confederation and +did his utmost to settle the questions which had led to so many civil +wars, on a permanent and sound basis. The constitution of 1853 was +maintained, but Buenos Aires became the seat of federal government +without ceasing to be a provincial capital. Causes of friction still +remained, but they did not develop into open quarrels, for Mitre was +content to leave Urquiza in his province of Entre Rios, and the other +administrators (_caudillos_) in their several governments, a large +measure of autonomy, trusting that the position and growing commercial +importance of Buenos Aires would inevitably tend to make the federal +capital the real centre of power of the republic. In 1865 the Argentines +were forced into war with Paraguay through the overbearing attitude of +the president Francisco Solano Lopez. The dictator of Paraguay had +quarrelled with Brazil for its intervention in the internal affairs of +Uruguay, and he demanded free passage for his troops across the +Argentine province of Corrientes. This Mitre refused, and alliance was +formed between Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, for joint action against +Lopez. General Mitre became commander-in-chief of the combined armies +for the invasion of Paraguay and was absent for several years in the +field. The struggle was severe and attended by heavy losses, and it was +not until 1870 that the Paraguayans were conquered, Lopez killed, and +peace concluded (see PARAGUAY). Meanwhile, disturbances had broken out +in the interior of Argentina (1867), which compelled Mitre to relinquish +his command in Paraguay, and to call back a large part of the Argentine +forces to suppress the insurrection. The rebels had hoped for assistance +from Urquiza, but the powerful governor of Entre Rios maintained the +peace in his province, which under his firm and beneficent rule had +greatly prospered, and the revolutionary movement was quickly subdued. + + + Sarmiento president. + +In 1868 the term of General Mitre came to an end, and Doctor Domingo +Faustino Sarmiento, a native of San Juan, was quietly elected to succeed +him. His conduct of affairs was broad-minded and upright, and was +characterized by earnest efforts to promote education and to develop the +resources of the country. His period of office was marked by the rapid +advance of Buenos Aires in population and prosperity, and by an +expansion of trade that was unfortunately accompanied by financial +extravagance. The war with Paraguay left a legacy of disputes concerning +boundaries which almost led to war between the two victorious allies, +Argentina and Brazil, but by the exertions of Mitre, who was sent at the +close of 1872 as special envoy to Rio, a settlement was arrived at and +friendly relations restored. The month of April 1870 saw an insurrection +in Entre Rios headed by the _caudillo_, Lopez Jordan. Urquiza was +assassinated, and the provincial legislature, through fear, at once +proclaimed Lopez Jordan governor. The federal government refused to +acknowledge the new governor, and troops were despatched by Sarmiento +against Entre Rios. The contest lasted with varying success for more +than a year, but finally Lopez Jordan was completely defeated and driven +into exile. + + + Avellaneda president. + + The Tiro Nacional. + +The presidential election of 1874 resolved itself, as so often before, +into a struggle between the provincials and the _portenos_ (Buenos +Aires). The candidate of the former, Dr Nicolas Avellaneda, triumphed +over General Mitre, not without suspicions of tampering with the +returns; and the unsuccessful party appealed to arms. The new president, +however, who was installed in office on the 12th of October, took active +steps to suppress the revolution, which never assumed a really serious +character. The government troops gained two decisive victories over the +insurgents under Generals Mitre and Arredondo, and they were compelled +to surrender at discretion. But though peace was for a time restored, +the old causes of soreness and dissension remained unappeased, and as +the time for the next presidential election began to draw near, it +became more and more evident that a critical struggle was at hand, and +that the people of Buenos Aires, supported by the province of +Corrientes, were determined to bring to an issue the question as to what +position Buenos Aires was to hold for the future with regard to the +remaining provinces of the confederation. It was evident that the +president intended to use all the influence which the party in power +could exercise, to secure the return of General Julio Roca, who had +distinguished himself in 1878 by a successful campaign against the +warlike Indian tribes bordering on the Andes. The _portenos_ on their +part were determined to resist this policy to the utmost. Mass meetings +were held, and a committee was appointed for the purpose of considering +what action should be taken to defeat the ambitious designs of the +provincials. Under the direction of this committee, the association +known as the "Tiro Nacional" was formed, with the avowed object of +training the able-bodied citizens of Buenos Aires in military exercises +and creating a volunteer army, ready for service if called upon, to +withstand by force the pretensions of their opponents. The establishment +of the Tiro Nacional was enthusiastically received by all classes in +Buenos Aires, the men turning out regularly to drill, and the women +aiding the movement by collecting subscriptions for the purpose of +armament and other necessaries. On the 13th of February 1880, the +minister of war, Dr Carlos Pellegrini, summoned the principal officers +connected with the Tiro Nacional, General Bartolome Mitre, his brother +Emilio, Colonel Julio Campos, Colonel Hilario Lagos and others, and +warned them that as officers of the national army they owed obedience to +the national government, and would be severely punished if concerned in +any revolutionary outbreak against the constituted authorities. The +reply to this threat was the immediate resignation of their commissions +by all the officers connected with the Tiro Nacional. Two days later, +the national government occupied, with a strong force of infantry and +artillery, the parade ground at Palermo used by the Buenos Aires +volunteers for drill purposes. A great meeting of citizens was then +called and marched through the streets. President Avellaneda was +frightened at the results of his action, and to avoid a collision +ordered the troops to be withdrawn. Negotiations were now opened by the +government with the provincial authorities for the disarmament of the +city and province of Buenos Aires, but they led to nothing. Matters +became still further strained on account of the outrages committed by +the national troops, and such was the bitterness of feeling developed +between the two factions, that an appeal to arms became inevitable. + + + Appeal to Arms. + + Fall of Buenos Aires. + +In the month of June 1880, President Avellaneda and his ministers left +Buenos Aires, and this act was considered by the _porteno_ leaders +equivalent to a declaration of war. The national government and the +twelve provinces forming the Cordoba League, were ranged on one side; +the city and province of Buenos Aires and the province of Corrientes on +the other. The national troops were well armed with Remington rifles, +provided with abundant ammunition, equipped with artillery and supported +by the fleet. In the city and province of Buenos Aires, plenty of +volunteers offered their services, and an army of some twenty-five +thousand men was quickly raised, but they were armed with old-fashioned +weapons and there was only a limited supply of ammunition. Feverish +attempts were made to remedy the lack of warlike stores, but difficulty +was experienced on account of the fleet blockading the entrance to the +river. After several skirmishes, the national army commanded by General +Roca, containing many troops seasoned in Indian campaigns, assaulted the +_portenos_ posted before Buenos Aires, and after two days' hard fighting +(20th and 21st July) forced its way into the town. On 23rd July the +surrender of the city was demanded and obtained. The terms of the +surrender were that all the leaders of the revolution should be removed +from positions of authority, all government employees implicated in the +movement dismissed, and the force in the province and city of Buenos +Aires at once disarmed and disbanded. The power of Buenos Aires was thus +completely broken and at the mercy of the Cordoba League. The _portenos_ +were no longer in a position to nominate a candidate in opposition to +General Julio Roca, who was duly elected. He assumed office in October +1880. + + + Roca president. + +Hitherto General Roca had been regarded only in his capacity as a +soldier, and not from the point of view of an administrator. In the +campaigns against the Indians in the south-west of the province of +Buenos Aires and the valley of the Rio Negro he had gained much +prestige; the victory over Buenos Aires added to his fame, and secured +his authority in the outlying provincial centres. One of the first +notable acts of the Roca administration was to declare the city of +Buenos Aires the property of the national government. This separation of +the city from the province, and its federalization had been one of the +chief aims of the Cordoba League, and was the natural consequence of the +crushing defeat inflicted on the _portenos_. As a sequel to this step, +in 1884 the town of La Plata was declared to be the capital of the +province of Buenos Aires, and the provincial administration was moved to +that place. This federalization of the capital has proved to be a most +important factor in binding together the different parts of the +confederation, and in promoting the evolution of an Argentine nation out +of a loosely cemented union of a number of semi-independent states. + +Considering the circumstances in which General Roca assumed office, it +must be admitted that he showed great moderation and used the +practically absolute power that he possessed to establish a strong +central government, and to initiate a national policy, which aimed at +furthering the prosperity and development of the whole country. He was +able by the influence he exerted to keep down the internal dissensions +and insurrectionary outbreaks which had so greatly impeded for many +years the development of the vast natural resources of the republic. +With this object he had promoted the extension of railways so as to link +the provinces with the great port of Buenos Aires, and to provide at the +same time facilities for the rapid despatch of military forces to +disturbed districts. Unfortunately the last two years of Roca's term of +office were marked by two grave errors, which subsequently caused +widespread suffering and distress throughout the country. The first of +these mistakes was a measure making (January 1885) the currency +inconvertible for a period of two years. This act, which was only +decided upon after much hesitation, had a most deleterious effect upon +the national credit. The second was the nomination of Dr Miguel Juarez +Celman for the presidential term commencing in October 1886. The +nomination was brought about by the Cordoba clique, and Roca lacked the +moral courage to oppose the decision of this group, though he was well +aware that Celman, who was his brother-in-law, was neither +intellectually nor morally fitted for the post. + + + Celman president. + + The Union Civica. + +No sooner had President Juarez Celman come into power towards the close +of 1886, than the respectable portion of the community began to feel +alarmed at the methods practised by the new president in his conduct of +public affairs. At first it was hoped that the influence of General Roca +would serve to check any serious extravagance on the part of Celman. +This hope, however, was doomed to disappointment, and before many months +had elapsed it was clear that the president would listen to no prudent +counsels from Roca or from any one else. The men of the old Cordoba +League became dominant in all branches of the government, and +carpet-bagging politicians occupied every official post. In their hurry +to obtain wealth, this crowd of office-mongers from the provinces lent +themselves to all kinds of bribery and corruption. The public credit was +pledged at home and abroad to fill the pockets of the adventurers, and +the wildest excesses were committed under the guise of administrative +acts. What followed in the second and third years of the Celman +administration can only adequately be described as a debauchery of the +national honour, of the national resources, of the rights of Argentines +as citizens of the republic. Buenos Aires was still prostrate under the +crushing blow of the misfortunes of 1880, and lacked strength and power +of organization necessary to raise any effective protest against the +proceedings of Celman and his friends when the true character of these +proceedings was first understood. The conduct of public affairs, +however, at length became so scandalous, that action on the part of the +more sober-minded and conservative sections was seen to be absolutely +imperative if the country was to be saved from speedy and certain ruin. +In 1889 the association of the "Union Civica" was founded, and the +organization undertaken by Dr Leandro Alem, Dr Aristobulo del Valle, Dr +Bernardo Irigoyen, Dr Vicente Lopez, Dr Lucio Lopez, Dr Oscar Lilliedale +and other leading citizens. The untiring energy and zeal of Leandro Alem +fitted him for being the chief organizer of a movement into which he +threw himself heart and soul. Mass meetings were held in Buenos Aires, +and it fell specially to the lot of Dr del Valle, who was an able orator +as well as a sincere patriot, to expose the irresponsible and corrupt +character of the administration, and the terrible dangers that +threatened the republic through its reckless extravagance and financial +improvidence. Subsidiary clubs affiliated to the central administration +were formed throughout the length and breadth of the country, and +millions of leaflets and pamphlets were distributed broadcast to explain +the importance of the movement. President Celman underrated the strength +of the new opposition, and relied upon his armed forces promptly to +suppress any signs of open hostility. No change was made in official +methods, and the condition of affairs drifted from bad to worse, until +the temper of the people, so long and so sorely tried, showed plainly +that the situation had become insufferable. The Union Civica then +decided to make a bold bid for freedom by attempting forcibly to eject +Celman and his clique from office. + +On the night of the 26th of July 1890 the Union Civica called its +members to arms. It was joined by some regiments of the regular army and +received the support of the fleet. Barricades were thrown up in the +principal streets, and the surrounding houses were occupied by the +insurgents. Two days of desultory street fighting ensued, during which +the fleet began to bombard the city, but was compelled to desist by the +interference of foreign men-of-war, on the ground that the bombardment +was causing unnecessary damage to the life and property of +non-combatants. A suspension of hostilities then took place, and +negotiations were opened between the contending parties. Celman, acting +upon the advice of General Roca, who recognized the strength of public +opinion in the outbreak, placed his resignation in the hands of congress +on the 31st of July. A scene of intense enthusiasm followed, and Buenos +Aires was _en fete_ for the following three days. The vice-president of +the confederation, Carlos Pellegrini, who had been minister of war under +presidents Avellaneda and Roca and had had much administrative +experience, succeeded without opposition to the vacant post. + + + Pellegrini president. + +Much satisfaction was shown in Europe at the fall of President Celman, +for investors had suffered heavily by the way in which the resources of +Argentina had been dissipated by a corrupt government, and hopes were +entertained that the uprising of public opinion against his financial +methods signified a more honest conduct of the national affairs in the +future. Great expectations were entertained of the ability of President +Pellegrini to establish a sound administration, and he succeeded in +forming a ministry which gave general satisfaction throughout the +country. General Roca was induced to undertake the duties of minister of +the interior, and his influence in the provinces was sufficient to check +any attempts to stir up disturbances at Cordoba or elsewhere. The most +onerous post of all, that of minister of finance, was confided to Dr +Vicente Lopez, who, though he was not of marked financial ability, was +at least a man of untiring industry and of a personal integrity that was +above suspicion. But the economic and financial situation was one of +almost hopeless embarrassment and confusion, and Pellegrini proved +himself incapable of grappling with it. Instead of facing the +difficulties, the president preferred to put off the day of reckoning by +flooding the country with inconvertible notes, with the result that the +financial crisis became more and more aggravated. Through the rapid +depreciation of Argentine credit, the great firm of Baring Brothers, the +financial agents of the government in London, became so heavily involved +that they were forced into liquidation, November 1890. The consequences +of this catastrophe were felt far and wide, and in the spring of 1891 +both the Banco Nacional and the Banco de la provincia de Buenos Aires +were unable to meet their obligations. Amidst this sea of financial +troubles the government drifted helplessly on, without showing any +inclination or capacity to initiate a strong policy of reform in the +methods of administration which had done so much to ruin the country. + +It is little wonder that, in these circumstances, the choice of a +successor to Pellegrini, whose term of office expired in 1892, should +have been felt to possess peculiar importance. General Bartolome Mitre +was proposed by the _portenos_ as their candidate. He had been absent +from Argentina on a journey to Europe, and on his return in April 1891, +a popular reception was given to him at which 50,000 persons attended. A +petition was presented to him begging him to be a candidate for the +presidency, and with some reluctance the veteran leader gave his +consent. His partisans, however, found themselves confronted by a +compact provincial party, who proposed to put forward the other strong +man of the republic, General Roca, to oppose him. But the two generals +were equally averse to a contest _a outrance_, which could only end in +civil war. They met accordingly at a conference known as _El Acuerdo_, +and it was arranged that both should withdraw, and that a non-party +candidate should be selected who should receive the support of them +both. The choice fell upon Dr Saenz Pena, a judge of the supreme court, +and a man universally respected, who had never taken any part in +political life. This compact aroused the bitter enmity of Dr Leandro +Alem, who did his utmost to stir up the Union Civica to a campaign +against the neutral candidate. Finding that the more conservative +section of the union would not follow him, Alem formed a new association +to which he gave the name of Union Civica Radical. Such was his energy, +that soon a network of branches of the Union Civica Radical was +organized throughout the republic, and Dr Bernardo Irigoyen was put +forward as a rival candidate to Dr Saenz Pena. But Alem was not content +with constitutional opposition to the Acuerdo, and his movement soon +assumed the character of a revolutionary propaganda against the national +government. His violence gave Pellegrini the opportunity of taking +active steps to preserve the peace. In April 1892 Alem and his chief +colleagues were arrested and sent into exile. + +In the following month (May), the presidential elections were held; Dr +Saenz Pena was declared duly elected, and Dr Jose Uriburu, the minister +in Chile, was chosen as vice-president. + + + Saenz Pena president. + +The idea of Dr Saenz Pena was to conduct the government on common sense +and non-partisan lines, in fact to translate into practical politics the +principles which underlay the compromise of the Acuerdo. He was a +straightforward and honourable man, who tried his best to do his duty in +a position that had been forced upon him, and was in no sense of the +word his own seeking. No sooner, however, was he installed in office +than difficulties began to crop up on all sides, and he quickly +discovered that to attempt to govern without the aid of a majority in +congress was practically impossible. He had had no experience of +political life, and he refused to create the support he needed by using +his presidential prerogative to build up a political majority. +Obstruction met his well-meant efforts to promote the general good, and +before twelve months of the presidential term had run public affairs +were at a deadlock. Dr Alem, who had been permitted to return from +exile, was not slow to profit by the occasion. Embittered by his +treatment in 1892, he openly preached the advisability of an armed +rising to overthrow the existing administration. Public opinion had been +outraged by the immunity with which the governors of certain provinces, +and more particularly Dr Julio Costa, the governor of the province of +Buenos Aires, had been allowed to maintain local forces, by the aid of +which they exacted the payment of illegal taxes and exercised other acts +of injustice and oppression. A number of officers of the army and navy +agreed to lend assistance to a revolutionary outbreak, and towards the +end of July 1893 matters came to a head. The population of Buenos Aires +assembled in armed bodies with the avowed intention of ejecting the +governor from office, and electing in his stead a man who would give +them a just administration. The president was for some time in doubt +whether he had any right to intervene in provincial affairs, but +eventually troops were despatched to La Plata. There was no serious +fighting. Negotiations were soon opened which quickly led to the +resignation of Costa, and the return of the insurgents to their homes. +While these disturbances were taking place in the province of Buenos +Aires, another revolutionary rising was in progress in Santa Fe. Here +the efforts of Dr Alem succeeded in supplying a large body of rebels +with arms and ammunition, and he was able, by a bold attack, to seize +the town of Rosario and there establish the revolutionary headquarters. +This capture so alarmed the national government that a force was sent +under the command of Roca to put down the insurrection. The revolt +speedily collapsed before this redoubtable commander, and Alem and the +other leaders surrendered. They were sentenced to banishment in Staten +Island at the pleasure of the federal government. + +But the suppression of disorder did not relieve the tension between the +congress and the executive. During the whole of the 1894 session, the +attitude of senators and deputies alike was one of pronounced hostility +to the president. All his acts were opposed, legislation was at a +standstill and every effort was made to force Dr Saenz Pena to resign. +But although he experienced the utmost difficulty in forming a cabinet, +the president was obstinate in his determination to retain office +without identifying himself with any party. A definite issue was +therefore sought by the congress on which to join battle, and it arose +out of the death sentences which had been pronounced on certain naval +and military officers who had been implicated in the Santa Fe outbreak. +The president had made up his mind that the sentence must be carried +out; the congress by a great majority were resolved not to permit the +death penalty to be inflicted. It was a one-sided struggle, for without +the consent of the congress the president could not raise any money for +supplies, and congress refused to vote the budget. But heavy expenses +had been incurred in putting down revolutionary movements in various +parts of the provinces, and war with Chile was threatened upon the +question of a dispute concerning the boundaries between the two +republics. In January 1895 a special session of congress was summoned to +take into consideration the financial proposals of the government, which +included an increase in the naval and military estimates. Congress, +however, had now got their opportunity, and they used the time of +national stress to bring increased pressure to bear upon the president. +On the 21st of January Dr Saenz Pena at last perceived that his position +was untenable, and he handed in his resignation. It was accepted at once +by the chambers, and the vice-president, Dr Jose Uriburu, became +president of the republic for the three years and nine months of Pena's +term which remained unexpired. + + + Uriburu President. + +Uriburu was neither a politician nor a statesman, but had spent the +greater portion of his life abroad in the diplomatic service. His +knowledge of foreign affairs was, however, peculiarly useful at a +juncture when boundary questions were the subjects that chiefly +attracted public attention. After disputes with Brazil, extending over +fifteen years, about the territory of "Misiones," the matter had been +submitted to the arbitration of the president of the United States. In +March 1895 President Cleveland gave his decision, which was wholly +favourable to the contention of Brazil. The Argentine government, though +disappointed at the result, accepted the award loyally. The boundary +dispute with Chile, to which reference has already been made, was of a +more serious character. The dispute was of old standing. Already in 1884 +a protocol had been signed between the contending parties, by which it +was agreed that the frontier should follow the line where "the highest +peaks of the Andine ranges divide the watershed." This definition +unfortunately ignored the fact that the Andes do not run from north to +south in one continuous line, but are separated into cordilleras with +valleys between them, and covering in their total breadth a considerable +extent of country. Difference of opinion, therefore, arose as to the +interpretation of the protocol, the Argentines insisting that the +boundary should run from highest peak to highest peak, the Chileans that +it should follow the highest points of the watershed. The quarrel at +length became acute, and on both sides the populace clamoured from time +to time for an appeal to arms, and the resources of both countries were +squandered in military and naval preparations for a struggle. +Nevertheless despite these obstacles, President Uriburu did something +during his term of office to relieve the nation's financial +difficulties. In 1896 a bill was passed by congress, which authorized +the state by the issue of national bonds to assume the provincial +external indebtedness. This proof of the desire of the Argentine +government to meet honestly all its obligations did much to restore its +credit abroad. Uriburu found in 1897 the financial position so far +improved that he was able to resume cash payments on the entire foreign +debt. + + + Roca President. + +In 1898 there was another presidential election. Public opinion, excited +by the prospect of a war with Chile, naturally supported the candidature +of General Roca, and he was elected without opposition (12th October +1898). The first question which he had to handle was the Chilean +boundary dispute. During the last months of President Uriburu's +administration, matters had reached a climax, especially in connexion +with the delimitation in a district known as the Puna de Atacama. In +August an ultimatum was received from Chile demanding arbitration. After +some hesitation, on the advice of Roca the Argentines agreed to the +demand, and peace was maintained. The principle of arbitration being +accepted, the conditions were quickly arranged. The question of the Puna +de Atacama was referred to a tribunal composed of the United States +minister to Argentina and of one Argentine and one Chilean delegate; +that of the southern frontier in Patagonia to the British crown. One of +the first steps of President Roca, after his accession to office, was to +arrange a meeting with the president of Chile at the Straits of +Magellan. At their conference all difficulties were discussed and +settled, and an undertaking was given on both sides to put a stop to +warlike preparations. The decision of the representative of the United +States was given in April 1899. Although the Chileans professed +dissatisfaction, no active opposition was raised, and the terms were +duly ratified. In his message to congress, on the 1st of May 1899, +General Roca spoke strongly of the immediate necessity of a reform in +the methods of administering justice, the expediency of a revision of +the electoral law, and the imperative need of a reconstruction of the +department of public instruction. The administration of justice, he +declared, had fallen to so low an ebb as to be practically non-existent. +By the powerful influence of the president, government measures were +sanctioned by the legislature dealing with the abuses which had been +condemned. On the 31st of August of the same year a series of proposals +upon the currency question was submitted to congress by the president, +whose real object was to counteract the too rapid appreciation of the +inconvertible paper money. The official value of the dollar was fixed at +44 cents gold for all government purposes. The violent fluctuations in +the value of the paper dollar, which caused so much damage to trade and +industry, were thus checked. In October 1900 Dr Manuel Campos Salles, +president of Brazil, paid a visit to Buenos Aires, and was received with +great demonstrations of friendliness. The aggressive attitude of Chile +towards Bolivia was causing considerable anxiety, and Argentina and +Brazil wished to show that they were united in opposing a policy which +aimed at acquiring an extension of territory by force of arms. The +feeling of enmity between Chile and Argentina was indeed anything but +extinct. The delay of the arbitration tribunal in London in giving its +decision in the matter of the disputed boundary in Patagonia led to a +crop of wild rumours being disseminated, and to a revival of animosity +between the two peoples. In December 1901 warlike preparations were +being carried on in both states, and the outbreak of active hostilities +appeared to be imminent. At the critical moment the British government, +urged to move in the matter by the British residents in both countries, +who feared that war would mean the financial ruin of both Chile and +Argentina, used its utmost influence both at Santiago and Buenos Aires +to allay the misunderstandings; and negotiations were set on foot which +ended in a treaty for the cessation of further armaments being signed, +June 1902. The award of King Edward VII. upon the delimitation of the +boundary was given a few months later, and was received without +controversy and ratified by both governments. + + + Quintana and Alcorta Presidents. + +To the calm resourcefulness and level-headedness of President Roca at a +very difficult and critical juncture must be largely ascribed the +preservation of peace, and the permanent removal of a dispute that had +aroused so much irritation. His term of office came to an end in 1904, +when Dr Manuel Quintana was elected president and Dr Jose Figueroa +Alcorta vice-president, both having Roca's support. Dr Quintana at the +time of his election was sixty-four years of age. He proved a +hard-working progressive president, who did much for the development of +communications and the opening up of the interior of the country. He +died amidst general regret in March 1906, and was succeeded by Dr +Alcorta for the remaining years of his term. (G. E.) + + AUTHORITIES.--C.E. Akers, _Argentine, Patagonian and Chilian + Sketches_ (London, 1893), and _A History of South America 1854-1904_ + (New York, 1905); Theodore Child, _The Spanish-American Republics_ + (London, 1891); Sir T.H. Holdich, _The Countries of the King's Award_ + (London, 1904); W.H. Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_ (London, + 1892), and _Idle Days in Patagonia_ (London, 1893); A.H. Keane and C. + R. Markham, _Central and South America_, in Stanford's "Compendium of + Geography and Travel" (London, 1901); G.E. Church, "Argentine + Geography and the Ancient Pampean Sea" (_Geogr. Journal_, xii. p. + 386); "South America: an Outline of its Physical Geography" (_Geogr. + Journal_, xvii. p. 333); Dr Karl Karger, _Landwirtschaft und + Kolonisation im spanischen Amerika_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1901); F.P. + Moreno, "Explorations in Patagonia" (_Geogr. Journal_, xiv. pp. 241, + 354); Carlos Lix Klett, _Estudios sobre produccion, comercio, finanzas + e interesses generales de la Republica Argentina_ (2 vols., Buenos + Aires, 1900); G. Carrasco, _El crecimiento de la poblacion de la + Republica Argentina comparado con el de las principales naciones + 1890-1903_ (Buenos Aires, 1904); C.M. Urien and C. Colombo, + _Geografia Argentina_ (Buenos Aires, 1905); E. von Rosen, + _Archaeological Researches on the Frontier of Argentina and Bolivia + 1901-1902_ (Stockholm, 1904); Arturo B. Carranza, _Constitucion + Nacional y Constituciones Provinciales Vigentes_ (Buenos Aires, 1898); + Angelo de Gubernatis, _L'Argentina_ (Firenze, 1898); Meliton Gonzales, + _El Gran Chaco Argentino_ (Buenos Aires, 1890); John Grant & Sons, + _The Argentine Year Book_ (Buenos Aires, 1902 et seq.); Francis + Latzina, _Diccionario Geografico Argentino_ (Buenos Aires, 1891); + _Geographie de la Republique Argentine_ (Buenos Aires, 1890); + _L'Agriculture et l'Elevage dans la Republique Argentine_ (Paris, + 1889); Bartolome Mitre, _Historia de San Martin y de la Emancipation + Sud-Americana, segun nuevos documentos_ (3 vols., Buenos Aires, 1887); + _Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina_ (3 vols., + Buenos Aires, 1883); Felipe Soldan, _Diccionario Geografico + Estadistico Nacional Argentino_ (Buenos Aires, 1885); Thomas A. + Turner, _Argentina and the Argentines_ (New York and London, 1892); + Estanislao S. Zeballos, _Descripcion Amena de la Republica Argentina_ + (3 vols., Buenos Aires, 1881); _Anuario de la Direcion General de + Estadistica 1898_ (Buenos Aires, 1899); Charles Wiener, _La Republique + Argentine_ (Paris, 1899); _Segundo Censo Republica Argentina_ (3 + vols., Buenos Aires, 1898); _Handbook of the Argentine Republic_ + (Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, 1892-1903). + (A. J. L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the geology of Argentina, see Stelzner, _Beitrage zur + geologie der argentinischen Republik_ (Cassel and Berlin, 1885); + Brackebusch, _Mapa geologico del Interiore de la Republica Argentina_ + (Gotha, 1892); Valentin, _Bosquejo geologico de la Argentina_ (Buenos + Aires, 1897); Hauthal, "Beitrage zur Geologie der argentinischen + Provinz Buenos Aires," _Peterm. Mitt._ vol. 1., 1904, pp. 83-92, + 112-117, pi. vi. + + [2] Interesting details of the Argentine fauna may be found in + Darwin's _Voyage of the Beagle_; W.H. Hudson's _Idle Days in + Patagonia_, and _Naturalist in the La Plata_; G. Pelleschi's _Eight + Months on the Gran Chaco_; R. Napp's _Argentine Republic_; and de + Moussy's _Confederation argentine_. + + [3] There are two distinct statistical offices compiling immigration + returns and their totals do not agree, owing in part to the traffic + between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Another report gives the + arrivals in 1904 as 125,567 and the departures 38,923. Of the + arrivals 67,598 were Italians and 39,851 Spaniards. The total for the + years 1859-1904 was 3,166,073 and the departures 1,239,064, showing a + net gain of 1,927,009. + + + + +ARGENTINE, a former city of Wyandotte county, Kansas, U.S.A., since +1910 a part of Kansas City, on the S. bank of the Kansas river, just +above its mouth. Pop. (1890) 4732; (1900) 5878, of whom 623 were +foreign-born and 603 of negro descent; (1905, state census) 6053. It is +served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway, which maintains here +yards and machine shops. The streets of the city run irregularly up the +steep face of the river bluffs. Its chief industrial establishment is +that of the United Zinc and Chemical Company, which has here one of the +largest plants of its kind in the country. There are large grain +interests. The site was platted in 1880, and the city was first +incorporated in 1882 and again, as a city of the second class, in 1889. + + + + +ARGENTITE, a mineral which belongs to the galena group, and is cubic +silver sulphide (Ag2S). It is occasionally found as uneven cubes and +octahedra, but more often as dendritic or earthy masses, with a blackish +lead-grey colour and metallic lustre. The cubic cleavage, which is so +prominent a feature in galena, is here present only in traces. The +mineral is perfectly sectile and has a shining streak; hardness 2.5, +specific gravity 7.3. It occurs in mineral veins, and when found in +large masses, as in Mexico and in the Comstock lode in Nevada, it forms +an important ore of silver. The mineral was mentioned so long ago as +1529 by G. Agricola, but the name argentite (from the Lat. _argentum_, +"silver") was not used till 1845 and is due to W. von Haidinger. Old +names for the species are Glaserz, silver-glance and vitreous silver. A +cupriferous variety, from Jalpa in Tabasco, Mexico, is known as +jalpaite. Acanthite is a supposed dimorphous form, crystallizing in the +orthorhombic system, but it is probable that the crystals are really +distorted crystals of argentite. (L. J. S.) + + + + +ARGENTON, a town of western France, in the department of Indre, on the +Creuse, 19 m. S.S.W. of Chateauroux on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) +5638. The river is crossed by two bridges, and its banks are bordered by +picturesque old houses. There are numerous tanneries, and the +manufacture of boots and shoes and linen goods is carried on. The site +of the ancient _Argentomagus_ lies a little to the north. + + + + +ARGHANDAB, a river of Afghanistan, about 250 m. in length. It rises in +the Hazara country north-west of Ghazni, and flowing south-west falls +into the Helmund 20 m. below Girishk. Very little is known about its +upper course. It is said to be shallow, and to run nearly dry in height +of summer; but when its depth exceeds 3 ft. its great rapidity makes it +a serious obstacle to travellers. In its lower course it is much used +for irrigation, and the valley is cultivated and populous; yet the water +is said to be somewhat brackish. It is doubtful whether the ancient +Arachotus is to be identified with the Arghandab or with its chief +confluent the Tarnak, which joins it on the left about 30 m. S. W. of +Kandahar. The two rivers run nearly parallel, inclosing the backbone of +the Ghilzai plateau. The Tarnak is much the shorter (length about 200 +m.) and less copious. The ruins at Ulan Robat, supposed to represent the +city Arachosia, are in its basin; and the lake known as Ab-i-Istada, the +most probable representative of Lake Arachotus, is near the head of the +Tarnak, though not communicating with it. The Tarnak is dammed for +irrigation at intervals, and in the hot season almost exhausted. There +is a good deal of cultivation along the river, but few villages. The +high road from Kabul to Kandahar passes this way (another reason for +supposing the Tarnak to be Arachotus), and the people live off the road +to avoid the onerous duties of hospitality. + + + + +ARGHOUL, ARGHOOL, or ARGHUL (in the Egyptian hieroglyphs, AS or +AS-IT),[1] an ancient and modern Egyptian and Arab wood-wind instrument, +with cylindrical bore and single reed mouthpiece of the clarinet type. +The arghoul consists of two reed pipes of unequal lengths bound together +by means of waxed thread, so that the two mouthpieces lie side by side, +and can be taken by the performer into his mouth at the same time. The +mouthpiece consists of a reed having a small tongue detached by means of +a longitudinal slit which forms the beating reed, as in the clarinet +mouthpiece. The shorter pipe has six holes on which the melody is +played; the three upper holes being covered by the fingers of the right +hand, and the lower by those of the left hand. The longer pipe has no +lateral holes; it is a drone pipe with one note only, which, however, +can be varied by the addition of extra lengths of reed. In the +illustration all three lengths are shown in use. An arghoul belonging to +the collection of the Conservatoire Royal at Brussels, described by +Victor Mahillon in his catalogue[2] (No. 113), gives the following +scale:-- + +[Illustration: SHORT PIPE. + Holes uncovered.] + +[Illustration: DRONE PIPE. + Without additional joint. + With shortest additional joint. + With shortest and medium additional joints. + With longest additional joint.] + +[Illustration: (From Edward William Lane's _An Account of the Manners +and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_.) + +Modern Arghoul, 3 ft. 2-1/2 in. long.] + +The total length of the shorter pipe, including the mouthpiece, is 0.435 +m.; of the longer pipe, without additional joints, 0.555 m. An Egyptian +arghoul,[3] presented by the khedive to the Victoria and Albert Museum, +measures 4 ft. 8-1/2 in. + + For further information see Victor Loret, _L'Egypte au temps des + Pharaons_ (Paris, 1889), 8vo, pp. 139, 143, 144; G.A. Villoteau, + _Description historique technique et litteraire des instruments de + musique des orientaux_ (_Description de l'Egypte_, Paris, 1823, tome + xiii, pp. 456-473). (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Victor Loret. "Les Flutes egyptiennes antiques," _Journal + Asiatique_, 8eme serie, tome xiv., Paris, 1889, pp. 129, 130 and 132. + + [2] _Catalogue descriptif et analytique du musee du Conservatoire + Royal de Bruxelles_ (Ghent, 1880), p. 141. + + [3] _A Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical Instruments in the South + Kensington Museum_, by Carl Engel (London, 1874), p. 143. + + + + +ARGOL, the commercial name of crude tartar (q.v.). It is a +semi-crystalline deposit which forms on wine vats, and is generally grey +or red in colour. + + + + +ARGON (from the Gr. [Greek: a-], privative, and [Greek: ergon], work; +hence meaning "inert"), a gaseous constituent of atmospheric air. For +more than a hundred years before 1894 it had been supposed that the +composition of the atmosphere was thoroughly known. Beyond variable +quantities of moisture and traces of carbonic acid, hydrogen, ammonia, +&c., the only constituents recognized were nitrogen and oxygen. The +analysis of air was conducted by determining the amount of oxygen +present and assuming the remainder to be nitrogen. Since the time of +Henry Cavendish no one seemed even to have asked the question whether +the residue was, in truth, all capable of conversion into nitric acid. + +The manner in which this condition of complacent ignorance came to be +disturbed is instructive. Observations undertaken mainly in the interest +of Prout's law, and extending over many years, had been conducted to +determine afresh the densities of the principal gases--hydrogen, oxygen +and nitrogen. In the latter case, the first preparations were according +to the convenient method devised by Vernon Harcourt, in which air +charged with ammonia is passed over red-hot copper. Under the influence +of the heat the atmospheric oxygen, unites with the hydrogen of the +ammonia, and when the excess of the latter is removed with sulphuric +acid, the gas properly desiccated should be pure nitrogen, derived in +part from the ammonia, but principally from the air. A few concordant +determinations of density having been effected, the question was at +first regarded as disposed of, until the thought occurred that it might +be desirable to try also the more usual method of preparation in which +the oxygen is removed by actual oxidation of copper without the aid of +ammonia. Determinations made thus were equally concordant among +themselves, but the resulting density was about 1/1000 part greater than +that found by Harcourt's method (Rayleigh, _Nature_, vol. xlvi. p. 512, +1892). Subsequently when _oxygen_ was substituted for air in the first +method, so that all (instead of about one-seventh part) of the nitrogen +was derived from ammonia, the difference rose to 1/2%. Further +experiment only brought out more clearly the diversity of the gases +hitherto assumed to be identical. Whatever were the means employed to +rid air of accompanying oxygen, a uniform value of the density was +arrived at, and this value was 1/2% greater than that appertaining to +nitrogen extracted from compounds such as nitrous oxide, ammonia and +ammonium nitrite. No impurity, consisting of any known substance, could +be discovered capable of explaining an excessive weight in the one case, +or a deficiency in the other. Storage for eight months did not disturb +the density of the chemically extracted gas, nor had the silent electric +discharge any influence upon either quality. ("On an Anomaly encountered +in determining the Density of Nitrogen Gas," _Proc. Roy. Soc._, April +1894.) + +At this stage it became clear that the complication depended upon some +hitherto unknown body, and probability inclined to the existence of a +gas in the atmosphere heavier than nitrogen, and remaining unacted upon +during the removal of the oxygen --a conclusion afterwards fully +established by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay. The question which +now pressed was as to the character of the evidence for the universally +accepted view that the so-called nitrogen of the atmosphere was all of +one kind, that the nitrogen of the air was the same as the nitrogen of +nitre. Reference to Cavendish showed that he had already raised this +question in the most distinct manner, and indeed, to a certain extent, +resolved it. In his memoir of 1785 he writes:-- + + "As far as the experiments hitherto published extend, we scarcely know + more of the phlogisticated part of our atmosphere than that it is not + diminished by lime-water, caustic alkalies, or nitrous air; that it is + unfit to support fire or maintain life in animals; and that its + specific gravity is not much less than that of common air; so that, + though the nitrous acid, by being united to phlogiston, is converted + into air possessed of these properties, and consequently, though it + was reasonable to suppose, that part at least of the phlogisticated + air of the atmosphere consists of this acid united to phlogiston, yet + it may fairly be doubted whether the whole is of this kind, or whether + there are not in reality many different substances confounded together + by us under the name of phlogisticated air. I therefore made an + experiment to determine whether the whole of a given portion of the + phlogisticated air of the atmosphere could be reduced to nitrous acid, + or whether there was not a part of a different nature to the rest + which would refuse to undergo that change. The foregoing experiments + indeed, in some measure, decided this point, as much the greatest part + of air let up into the tube lost its elasticity; yet, as some remained + unabsorbed, it did not appear for certain whether that was of the same + nature as the rest or not. For this purpose I diminished a similar + mixture of dephlogisticated [oxygen] and common air, in the same + manner as before [by sparks over alkali], till it was reduced to a + small part of its original bulk. I then, in order to decompound as + much as I could of the phlogisticated air [nitrogen] which remained in + the tube, added some dephlogisticated air to it and continued the + spark until no further diminution took place. Having by these means + condensed as much as I could of the phlogisticated air, I let up some + solution of liver of sulphur to absorb the dephlogisticated air; after + which only a small bubble of air remained unabsorbed, which certainly + was not more than 1/120 of the bulk of the dephlogisticated air let up + into the tube; so that, if there be any part of the dephlogisticated + air of our atmosphere which differs from the rest, and cannot be + reduced to nitrous acid, we may safely conclude that it is not more + than 1/120 part of the whole." + +Although, as was natural, Cavendish was satisfied with his result, and +does not decide whether the small residue was genuine, it is probable +that his residue was really of a different kind from the main bulk of +the "phlogisticated air," and contained the gas afterwards named argon. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The announcement to the British Association in 1894 by Rayleigh and +Ramsay of a new gas in the atmosphere was received with a good deal of +scepticism. Some doubted the discovery of a new gas altogether, while +others denied that it was present in the atmosphere. Yet there was +nothing inconsistent with any previously ascertained fact in the +asserted presence of 1% of a non-oxidizable gas about half as heavy +again as nitrogen. The nearest approach to a difficulty lay in the +behaviour of liquid air, from which it was supposed, as the event proved +erroneously, that such a constituent would separate itself in the solid +form. The evidence of the existence of a new gas (named Argon on account +of its chemical inertness), and a statement of many of its properties, +were communicated to the Royal Society (see _Phil. Trans._ clxxxvi. p. +187) by the discoverers in January 1895. The isolation of the new +substance by removal of nitrogen from air was effected by two distinct +methods. Of these the first is merely a development of that of +Cavendish. The gases were contained in a test-tube A (fig. 1) standing +over a large quantity of weak alkali B, and the current was conveyed in +wires insulated by U-shaped glass tubes CC passing through the liquid +and round the mouth of the test-tube. The inner platinum ends DD of the +wire may be sealed into the glass insulating tubes, but reliance should +not be placed upon these sealings. In order to secure tightness in spite +of cracks, mercury was placed in the bends. With a battery of five Grove +cells and a Ruhmkorff coil of medium size, a somewhat short spark, or +arc, of about 5 mm. was found to be more favourable than a longer one. +When the mixed gases were in the right proportion, the rate of +absorption was about 30 c.c. per hour, about thirty times as fast as +Cavendish could work with the electrical machine of his day. Where it is +available, an alternating electric current is much superior to a battery +and break. This combination, introduced by W. Spottiswoode, allows the +absorption in the apparatus of fig. 1 to be raised to about 80 c.c. per +hour, and the method is very convenient for the purification of small +quantities of argon and for determinations of the amount present in +various samples of gas, e.g. in the gases expelled from solution in +water. A convenient adjunct to this apparatus is a small voltameter, +with the aid of which oxygen or hydrogen can be introduced at pleasure. +The gradual elimination of the nitrogen is tested at a moment's notice +with a miniature spectroscope. For this purpose a small Leyden jar is +connected as usual to the secondary terminals, and if necessary the +force of the discharge is moderated by the insertion of resistance in +the primary circuit. When with a fairly wide slit the yellow line is no +longer visible, the residual nitrogen may be considered to have fallen +below 2 or 3%. During this stage the oxygen should be in considerable +excess. When the yellow line of nitrogen has disappeared, and no further +contraction seems to be in progress, the oxygen maybe removed by +cautious introduction of hydrogen. The spectrum may now be further +examined with a more powerful instrument. The most conspicuous group in +the argon spectrum at atmospheric pressure is that first recorded by A. +Schuster (fig. 2). Water vapour and excess of oxygen in moderation do +not interfere seriously with its visibility. It is of interest to note +that the argon spectrum may be fully developed by operating upon a +miniature scale, starting with only 5 c.c. of air (_Phil. Mag._ vol. i. +p. 103, 1901). + +The development of Cavendish's method upon a large scale involves +arrangements different from what would at first be expected. The +transformer working from a public supply should give about 6000 volts on +open circuit, although when the electric flame is established the +voltage on the platinums is only from 1600 to 2000. No sufficient +advantage is attained by raising the pressure of the gases above +atmosphere, but a capacious vessel is necessary. This may consist of a +glass sphere of 50 litres' capacity, into the neck of which, presented +downwards, the necessary tubes are fitted. The whole of the interior +surface is washed with a fountain of alkali, kept in circulation by +means of a small centrifugal pump. In this apparatus, and with about one +horse-power utilized at the transformer, the absorption of gas is 21 +litres per hour ("The Oxidation of Nitrogen Gas," _Trans. Chem. Soc._, +1897). + +In one experiment, specially undertaken for the sake of measurement, the +total air employed was 9250 c.c., and the oxygen consumed, manipulated +with the aid of partially de-aerated water, amounted to 10,820 c.c. The +oxygen contained in the air would be 1942 c.c.; so that the quantities +of atmospheric nitrogen and of total oxygen which enter into combination +would be 7308 c.c. and 12,762 c.c. respectively. This corresponds to N + +1.75 O, the oxygen being decidedly in excess of the proportion required +to form nitrous acid. The argon ultimately found was 75.0 c.c., or a +little more than 1% of the atmospheric nitrogen used. A subsequent +determination over mercury by A.M. Kellas (_Proc. Roy. Soc._ lix. p. +66, 1895) gave 1.186 c.c. as the amount of argon present in 100 c.c. of +mixed atmospheric nitrogen and argon. In the earlier stages of the +inquiry, when it was important to meet the doubts which had been +expressed as to the presence of the new gas in the atmosphere, blank +experiments were executed in which air was replaced by nitrogen from +ammonium nitrite. The residual argon, derived doubtless from the water +used to manipulate the gases, was but a small fraction of what would +have been obtained from a corresponding quantity of air. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The other method by which nitrogen may be absorbed on a considerable +scale is by the aid of magnesium. The metal in the form of thin turnings +is charged into hard glass or iron tubes heated to a full red in a +combustion furnace. Into this air, previously deprived of oxygen by +red-hot copper and thoroughly dried, is led in a continuous stream. At +this temperature the nitrogen combines with the magnesium, and thus the +argon is concentrated. A still more potent absorption is afforded by +calcium prepared _in situ_ by heating a mixture of magnesium dust with +thoroughly dehydrated quick-lime. The density of argon, prepared and +purified by magnesium, was found by Sir William Ramsay to be 19.941 on +the O = 16 scale. The volume actually weighed was 163 c.c. Subsequently +large-scale operations with the same apparatus as had been used for the +principal gases gave an almost identical result (19.940) for argon +prepared with oxygen. + +Argon is soluble in water at 12 deg. C. to about 4.0%, that is, it is +about 2-1/2 times more soluble than nitrogen. We should thus expect to +find it in increased proportion in the dissolved gases of rain-water. +Experiment has confirmed this anticipation. The weight of a mixture of +argon and nitrogen prepared from the dissolved gases showed an excess of +24 mg. over the weight of true nitrogen, the corresponding excess for +the atmospheric mixture being only 11 mg. Argon is contained in the +gases liberated by many thermal springs, but not in special quantity. +The gas collected from the King's Spring at Bath gave only 1/2%, i.e. +half the atmospheric proportion. + +The most remarkable physical property of argon relates to the constant +known as the ratio of specific heats. When a gas is warmed one degree, +the heat which must be supplied depends upon whether the operation is +conducted at a constant volume or at a constant pressure, being greater +in the latter case. The ratio of specific heats of the principal gases +is 1.4, which, according to the kinetic theory, is an indication that an +important fraction of the energy absorbed is devoted to rotation or +vibration. If, as for Boscovitch points, the whole energy is +translatory, the ratio of specific heats must be 1.67. This is precisely +the number found from the velocity of sound in argon as determined by +Kundt's method, and it leaves no room for any sensible energy of +rotatory or vibrational motion. The same value had previously been found +for mercury vapour by Kundt and Warburg, and had been regarded as +confirmatory of the monatomic character attributed on chemical grounds +to the mercury molecule. It may be added that helium has the same +character as argon in respect of specific heats (Ramsay, _Proc. Roy. +Soc._ l. p. 86, 1895). + +The refractivity of argon is .961 of that of air. This low refractivity +is noteworthy as strongly antagonistic to the view at one time favoured +by eminent chemists that argon was a condensed form of nitrogen +represented by N3. The viscosity of argon is 1.21, referred to air, +somewhat higher than for oxygen, which stands at the head of the list of +the principal gases ("On some Physical Properties of Argon and Helium," +_Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. lix. p. 198, 1896). + +The spectrum shows remarkable peculiarities. According to circumstances, +the colour of the light obtained from a Plucker vacuum tube changes +"from red to a rich steel blue," to use the words of Crookes, who first +described the phenomenon. A third spectrum is distinguished by J.M. +Eder and Edward Valenta. The red spectrum is obtained at moderately low +pressures (5 mm.) by the use of a Ruhmkorff coil without a jar or +air-gap. The red lines at 7056 and 6965 (Crookes) are characteristic. +The blue spectrum is best seen at a somewhat lower pressure (1 mm. to +2.5 mm.), and usually requires a Leyden jar to be connected to the +secondary terminals. In some conditions very small causes effect a +transition from the one spectrum to the other. The course of electrical +events attending the operation of a Ruhmkorff coil being extremely +complicated, special interest attaches to some experiments conducted by +John Trowbridge and T.W. Richards, in which the source of power was a +secondary battery of 5000 cells. At a pressure of 1 mm. the red glow of +argon was readily obtained with a voltage of 2000, but not with much +less. After the discharge was once started, the difference of potentials +at the terminals of the tube varied from 630 volts upwards. + + The introduction of a capacity between the terminals of the Geissler + tube, for example two plates of metal 1600 sq. cm. in area separated + by a glass plate 1 cm. thick, made no difference in the red glow so + long as the connexions were good and the condenser was quiet. As soon + as a spark-gap was introduced, or the condenser began to emit the + humming sound peculiar to it, the beautiful blue glow so + characteristic of argon immediately appeared. (_Phil. Mag._ xliii. p. + 77, 1897.) + +The behaviour of argon at low temperatures was investigated by K.S. +Olszewski (_Phil. Trans._, 1895, p. 253). The following results are +extracted from the table given by him:-- + + +----------+--------------+-----------+----------+----------+ + | | Critical | Critical | Boiling | Freezing | + | Name. | Temperature, | Pressure, | Point, | Point, | + | | Cent. | Atmos. | Cent. | Cent. | + +----------+--------------+-----------+----------+----------+ + | Nitrogen | -146.0 | 35.0 | -194.4 | -214.0 | + | Argon | -121.0 | 50.6 | -187.0 | -189.6 | + | Oxygen | -118.8 | 50.8 | -182.7 | ? | + +----------+--------------+-----------+----------+----------+ + +The smallness of the interval between the boiling and freezing points is +noteworthy. + +From the manner of its preparation it was clear at an early stage that +argon would not combine with magnesium or calcium at a red heat, nor +under the influence of the electric discharge with oxygen, hydrogen or +nitrogen. Numerous other, attempts to induce combination also failed. +Nor does it appear that any well-defined compound of argon has yet been +prepared. It was found, however, by M.P.E. Berthelot that under the +influence of the silent electric discharge, a mixture of benzene vapour +and argon underwent contraction, with formation of a gummy product from +which the argon could be recovered. + +The facts detailed in the original memoir led to the conclusion that +argon was an element or a mixture of elements, but the question between +these alternatives was left open. The behaviour on liquefaction, +however, seemed to prove that in the latter case either the proportion +of the subordinate constituents was small, or else that the various +constituents were but little contrasted. An attempt, somewhat later, by +Ramsay and J. Norman Collie to separate argon by diffusion into two +parts, which should have different densities or refractivities, led to +no distinct effect. More recently Ramsay and M.W. Travers have obtained +evidence of the existence in the atmosphere of three new gases, besides +helium, to which have been assigned the names of neon, krypton and +xenon. These gases agree with argon in respect of the ratio of the +specific heats and in being non-oxidizable under the electric spark. As +originally defined, argon included small proportions of these gases, but +it is now preferable to limit the name to the principal constituent and +to regard the newer gases as "companions of argon." The physical +constants associated with the name will scarcely be changed, since the +proportion of the "companions" is so small. Sir William Ramsay considers +that probably the volume of all of them taken together does not exceed +1/400th part of that of the argon. The physical properties of these +gases are given in the following table (_Proc. Roy. Soc._ lxvii. p. 331, +1900):-- + + +----------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+--------+ + | | Helium. | Neon. | Argon. | Krypton. | Xenon. | + +----------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+--------+ + | Refractivities | .1238 | .2345 | .968 | 1.449 | 2.364| + | (air = 1) | | | | | | + | Densities | 1.98 | 9.97 | 19.96 | 40.88 | 64 | + | (O = 16) | | | | | | + | Boiling points | c. 6 | ? | 86.9 | 121.33 | 163.9 | + | at 760 mm. | deg.[1]| | deg. | deg. | deg. | + | | abs. | | abs. | abs. | abs. | + | Critical | ? | below |155.6 | 210.5 | 287.7 | + | temperatures | | 68 deg.| deg. | deg. | deg. | + | | | abs. | abs. | abs. | abs. | + | Critical | ? | ? | 40.2 | 41.24 | 43.5 | + | pressures | | | metres.| metres. | metres.| + | Weight of 1 | ? | ? | 1.212 | 2.155 | 3.52 | + | c.c. of liquid| | | gm. | gm. | gm. | + +----------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+--------+ + +The glow obtained in vacuum tubes is highly characteristic, whether as +seen directly or as analysed by the spectroscope. + +Now that liquid air is available in many laboratories, it forms an +advantageous starting-point in the preparation of argon. Being less +volatile than nitrogen, argon accumulates relatively as liquid air +evaporates. That the proportion of oxygen increases at the same time is +little or no drawback. The following analyses (Rayleigh, _Phil. Mag._, +June 1903) of the _vapour_ arising from liquid air at various stages of +the evaporation will give an idea of the course of events:-- + + +---------------+---------------+--------------------------+ + | Percentage of | Percentage of | Argon as a Percentage of | + | Oxygen. | Argon. | the Nitrogen and Argon. | + +---------------+---------------+--------------------------+ + | 30 | 1.3 | 1.9 | + | 43 | 2.0 | 3.5 | + | 64 | 2.0 | 5.6 | + | 75 | 2.1 | 8.4 | + | 90 | 2.0 | 20.0 | + +---------------+---------------+--------------------------+ + (R.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Sir James Dewar, _Compt. Rend._ (1904), 139, 261 and 241. + + + + +ARGONAUTS ([Greek: Argonautai], the sailors of the "Argo"), in Greek +legend a band of heroes who took part in the Argonautic expedition under +the command of Jason, to fetch the golden fleece. This task had been +imposed on Jason by his uncle Pelias (q.v.), who had usurped the throne +of Iolcus in Thessaly, which rightfully belonged to Jason's father +Aeson. The story of the fleece was as follows. Jason's uncle Athamas had +two children, Phrixus and Helle, by his wife Nephele, the cloud goddess. +But after a time he became enamoured of Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, and +neglected Nephele, who disappeared in anger. Ino, who hated the children +of Nephele, persuaded Athamas, by means of a false oracle, to offer +Phrixus as a sacrifice, as the only means of alleviating a famine which +she herself had caused by ordering the grain to be secretly roasted +before it was sown. But before the sacrifice the shade of Nephele +appeared to Phrixus, bringing a ram with a golden fleece on which he and +his sister Helle endeavoured to escape over the sea. Helle fell off and +was drowned in the strait, which after her was called the Hellespont. +Phrixus, however, reached the other side in safety, and proceeding by +land to Aea in Colchis on the farther shore of the Euxine Sea, +sacrificed the ram, and hung up its fleece in the grove of Ares, where +it was guarded by a sleepless dragon. + +Jason, having undertaken the quest of the fleece, called upon the +noblest heroes of Greece to take part in the expedition. According to +the original story, the crew consisted of the chief members of Jason's +own race, the Minyae. But when the legend became common property, other +and better-known heroes were added to their number--Orpheus, Castor and +Polydeuces (Pollux), Zetes and Calais, the winged sons of Boreas, +Meleager, Theseus, Heracles. The crew was supposed to consist of fifty, +agreeing in number with the fifty oars of the "Argo," so called from its +builder Argos, the son of Phrixus, or from [Greek: argos] (swift). It +was a larger vessel than had ever been seen before, built of pine-wood +that never rotted from Mount Pelion. The goddess Athena herself +superintended its construction, and inserted in the prow a piece of oak +from Dodona, which was endowed with the power of speaking and delivering +oracles. The outward course of the "Argo" was the same as that of the +Greek traders, whose settlements as early as the 6th century B.C. dotted +the southern shores of the Euxine. The first landing-place was the +island of Lemnos, which was occupied only by women, who had put to death +their fathers, husbands and brothers. Here the Argonauts remained some +months, until they were persuaded by Heracles to leave. It is known from +Herodotus (iv. 145) that the Minyae had formed settlements at Lemnos at +a very early date. Proceeding up the Hellespont, they sailed to the +country of the Doliones, by whose king, Cyzicus, they were hospitably +received. After their departure, being driven back to the same place by +a storm, they were attacked by the Doliones, who did not recognize them, +and in a battle which took place Cyzicus was killed by Jason. After +Cyzicus had been duly mourned and buried, the Argonauts proceeded along +the coast of Mysia, where occurred the incident of Heracles and Hylas +(q.v.). On reaching the country of the Bebryces, they again landed to +get water, and were challenged by the king, Amycus, to match him with a +boxer. Polydeuces came forward, and in the end overpowered his +adversary, and bound him to a tree, or according to others, slew him. At +the entrance to the Euxine, at Salmydessus on the coast of Thrace, they +met Phineus, the blind and aged king whose food was being constantly +polluted by the Harpies. He knew the course to Colchis, and offered to +tell it, if the Argonauts would free him from the Harpies. This was done +by the winged sons of Boreas, and Phineus now told them their course, +and that the way to pass through the Symplegades or Cyanean rocks--two +cliffs which moved on their bases and crushed whatever sought to +pass--was first to fly a pigeon through, and when the cliffs, having +closed on the pigeon, began to retire to each side, to row the "Argo" +swiftly through. His advice was successfully followed, and the "Argo" +made the passage unscathed, except for trifling damage to the stern. +From that time the rocks became fixed and never closed again. The next +halting-places were the country of the Maryandini, where the helmsman +Tiphys died, and the land of the Amazons on the banks of the Thermodon. +At the island of Aretias they drove away the Stymphalian birds, who used +their feathers of brass as arrows. Here they found and took on board the +four sons of Phrixus who, after their father's death, had been sent by +Aeetes, king of Colchis, to fetch the treasures of Orchomenus, but had +been driven by a storm upon the island. Passing near Mount Caucasus, +they heard the groans of Prometheus and the flapping of the wings of the +eagle which gnawed his liver. They now reached their goal, the river +Phasis, and the following morning Jason repaired to the palace of +Aeetes, and demanded the golden fleece. Aeetes required of Jason that +he should first yoke to a plough his bulls, given him by Hephaestus, +which snorted fire and had hoofs of brass, and with them plough the +field of Ares. That done, the field was to be sown with the dragons' +teeth brought by Phrixus, from which armed men were to spring. +Successful so far by means of the mixture which Medea, daughter of +Aeetes, had given him as proof against fire and sword, Jason was next +allowed to approach the dragon which watched the fleece; Medea soothed +the monster with another mixture, and Jason became master of the fleece. +Then the voyage homeward began, Medea accompanying Jason, and Aeetes +pursuing them. To delay him and obtain escape, Medea dismembered her +young brother Absyrtus, whom she had taken with her, and cast his limbs +about in the sea for his father to pick up. Her plan succeeded, and +while Aeetes was burying the remains of his son at Tomi, Jason and Medea +escaped. In another account Absyrtus had grown to manhood then, and met +his death in an encounter with Jason, in pursuit of whom he had been +sent. Of the homeward course various accounts are given. In the oldest +(Pindar) the "Argo" sailed along the river Phasis into the eastern +Oceanus, round Asia to the south coast of Libya, thence to the mythical +lake Tritonis, after being carried twelve days over land through Libya, +and thence again to Iolcus. Hecataeus of Miletus (Schol. Apollon. Rhod. +iv. 259) suggested that from the Oceanus it may have sailed into the +Nile, and so to the Mediterranean. Others, like Sophocles, described the +return voyage as differing from the outward course only in taking the +northern instead of the southern shore of the Euxine. Some +(pseudo-Orpheus) supposed that the Argonauts had sailed up the river +Tanais, passed into another river, and by it reached the North Sea, +returning to the Mediterranean by the Pillars of Hercules. Again, others +(Apollonius Rhodius) laid down the course as up the Danube (Ister), from +it into the Adriatic by a supposed mouth of that river, and on to +Corcyra, where a storm overtook them. Next they sailed up the Eridanus +into the Rhodanus, passing through the country of the Celts and +Ligurians to the Stoechades, then to the island of Aethalia (Elba), +finally reaching the Tyrrhenian Sea and the island of Circe, who +absolved them from the murder of Absyrtus. Then they passed safely +through Scylla and Charybdis, past the Sirens, through the Planctae, +over the island of the Sun, Trinacria and on to Corcyra again, the land +of the Phaeacians, where Jason and Medea held their nuptials. They had +sighted the coast of Peloponnesus when a storm overtook them and drove +them to the coast of Libya, where they were saved from a quicksand by +the local nymphs. The "Argo" was now carried twelve days and twelve +nights to the Hesperides, and thence to lake Tritonis (where the seer +Mopsus died), whence Triton conducted them to the Mediterranean. At +Crete the brazen Talos, who would not permit them to land, was killed by +the Dioscuri. At Anaphe, one of the Sporades, they were saved from a +storm by Apollo. Finally, they reached Iolcus, and the "Argo" was placed +in a groove sacred to Poseidon on the isthmus of Corinth. Jason's death, +it is said, was afterwards caused by part of the stern giving way and +falling upon him. + +The story of the expedition of the Argonauts is very old. Homer was +acquainted with it and speaks of the "Argo" as well known to all men; +the wanderings of Odysseus may have been partly founded on its voyage. +Pindar, in the fourth Pythian ode. gives the oldest detailed account of +it. In Greek, there are also extant the _Argonautica_ of Apollonius +Rhodius and the pseudo-Orpheus (4th century A.D.), and the account in +Apollodorus (i. 9), based on the best extant authorities; in Latin, the +imitation of Apollonius (a free translation or adaptation of whose +_Argonautica_ was made by Terentius Varro Atacinus in the time of +Cicero) by Valerius Flaccus. In ancient times the expedition was +regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the +Euxine to Greek commerce and colonization. Its object was the +acquisition of gold, which was caught by the inhabitants of Colchis in +fleeces as it was washed down the rivers. Suidas says that the fleece +was a book written on parchment, which taught how to make gold by +chemical processes. The rationalists explained the ram on which Phrixus +crossed the sea as the name or ornament of the ship on which he escaped. +Several interpretations of the legend have been put forward by modern +scholars. According to C.O. Muller, it had its origin in the worship of +Zeus Laphystius; the fleece is the pledge of reconciliation; Jason is a +propitiating god of health, Medea a goddess akin to Hera; Aeetes is +connected with the Colchian sun-worship. Forchhammer saw in it an old +nature symbolism; Jason, the god of healing and fruitfulness, brought +the fleece--the fertilizing rain-cloud--to the western land that was +parched by the heat of the sun. Others treat it as a solar myth; the ram +is the light of the sun, the flight of Phrixus and the death of Helle +signify its setting, the recovery of the fleece its rising again. + + There are numerous treatises on the subject: F. Vater, _Der + Argonautenzug_ (1845); J. Stender, _De Argonautarum Expeditione_ + (1874); D. Kennerknecht, _De Argonautarum Fabula_ (1886); M. Groeger, + _De Argonautarum Fabularum Historia_ (1889); see also Grote, _History + of Greece_, part i. ch. 13; Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_; + articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, Roscher's _Lexikon der + Mythologie_, and Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des Antiquites_. + + + + +ARGONNE, a rocky forest-clad plateau in the north-east of France, +extending along the borders of Lorraine and Champagne, and forming part +of the departments of Ardennes, Meuse and Marne. The Argonne stretches +from S.S.E. to N.N.W., a distance of 63 m. with an average breadth of 19 +m., and an average height of 1150 ft. It forms the connecting-link +between the plateaus of Haute Marne and the Ardennes, and is bounded E. +by the Meuse and W. by the Ante and the Aisne, which rises in its +southern plateau. The valleys of the Aire and other rivers traverse it +longitudinally, a fact to which its importance as a bulwark of +north-eastern France is largely due. Of the numerous forests which +clothe both slopes of the plateau, the chief is that of Argonne, which +extends for 25 m. between the Aire and the Aisne. + + For Dumouriez's Argonne campaign in 1792, see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY + WARS. + + + + +ARGOS, the name of several ancient Greek cities or districts, but +specially appropriated in historic times to the chief town in eastern +Peloponnese, whence the peninsula of Argolis derives its name. The +Argeia, or territory of Argos proper, consisted of a shelving plain at +the head of the Gulf of Argolis, enclosed between the eastern wall of +the Arcadian plateau and the central highlands of Argolis. The waters of +this valley (Inachus, Charadrus, Erasinus), when properly regulated, +favoured the growth of excellent crops, and the capital standing only 3 +m. from the sea was well placed for Levantine trade. Hence Argos was +perhaps the earliest town of importance in Greece; the legends indicate +its high antiquity and its early intercourse with foreign countries +(Egypt, Lycia, &c.). Though eclipsed in the Homeric age, when it appears +as the seat of Diomedes, by the later foundation of Mycenae, it regained +its predominance after the invasion of the Dorians (q.v.), who seem to +have occupied this site in considerable force. In accordance with the +tradition which assigned the portion to the eldest-born of the Heracleid +conquerors, Argos was for some centuries the leading power in +Peloponnesus. There is good evidence that its sway extended originally +over the entire Argolis peninsula, the land east of Parnon, Cythera, +Aegina and Sicyon. Under King Pheidon the Argive empire embraced all +eastern Peloponnesus, and its influence spread even to the western +districts. + +This supremacy was first challenged about the 8th century by Sparta. +Though organized on similar lines, with a citizen population divided +into three Dorian tribes (and one containing other elements), with a +class of Perioeci (neighbouring dependents) and of serfs, the Argives +had no more constant foe than their Lacedaemonian kinsmen. In a +protracted struggle for the possession of the eastern seaboard of +Laconia in spite of the victory at Hysiae (apparently in 669), they were +gradually driven back, until by 550 they had lost the whole coast strip +of Cynuria. A later attempt to retrieve this loss resulted in a crushing +defeat near Tiryns at the hands of King Cleomenes I. (probably in 495), +which so weakened the Argives that they had to open the franchise to +their Perioeci. By this time they had also lost control over the other +cities of Argolis, which they never succeeded in recovering. Partly in +consequence of its defeat, partly out of jealousy against Sparta, Argos +took no part in the war against Xerxes. Indeed on this, as on later +occasions, its relations with Persia seem to have been friendly. About +470 the conflict with Sparta was renewed in concert with the Arcadians, +but all that the Argives could achieve was to destroy their revolted +dependencies of Mycenae and Tiryns (468 or 464). In 461 they contracted +an alliance with Athens, thus renewing a connexion established by +Peisistratus (q.v.). In spite of this league Argos made no headway +against Sparta, and in 451 consented to a truce. A more important result +of Athenian intervention was the substitution of the democratic +government for the oligarchy which had succeeded the early monarchy; at +any rate forty years later we find that Argos possessed complete +democratic institutions. + +During the early Peloponnesian War Argos remained neutral; after the +break-up of the Spartan confederacy consequent upon the peace of Nicias +the alliance of this state, with its unimpaired resources and +flourishing commerce, was courted on all sides. By throwing in her lot +with the Peloponnesian democracies and Athens, Argos seriously +endangered Sparta's supremacy, but the defeat of Mantineia (418) and a +successful rising of the Argive oligarchs spoilt this chance. The +speedily restored democracy put little heart into the conflict, and +beyond sending mercenary detachments, lent Athens no further help in the +war (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR). + +At the outset of the 4th century, Argos, with a population and resources +equalling those of Athens, took a prominent part in the Corinthian +League against Sparta. In 394 the Argives helped to garrison Corinth, +and the latter state seems for a while to have been annexed by them. But +the peace of Antalcidas (q.v.) dissolved this connexion, and barred +Argive pretensions to control all Argolis. After the battle of Leuctra +Argos experienced a political crisis; the oligarchs attempted a +revolution, but were put down by their opponents with such +vindictiveness that 1200 of them are said to have been executed (370). +The democracy consistently supported the victorious Thebans against +Sparta, figuring with a large contingent on the decisive field of +Mantineia (362). When pressed in turn by their old foes the Argives were +among the first to call in Philip of Macedon, who reinstated them in +Cynuria after becoming master of Greece. In the Lamian War Argos was +induced to side with the patriots against Macedonia; after its capture +by Cassander from Polyperchon (317) it fell in 303 into the hands of +Demetrius Poliorcetes. In 272 the Argives joined Sparta in resisting the +ambition of King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose death ensued in an +unsuccessful night attack upon the city. They passed instead into the +power of Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, who maintained his control by +means of tyrants. After several unavailing attempts Aratus (q.v.) +contrived to win Argos for the Achaean League (229), in which it +remained save during a brief occupation by the Spartans Cleomenes III. +(q.v.) and Nabis (224 and 196). + +The Roman conquest of Achaea enhanced the prosperity of Argos by +removing the trade competition of Corinth. Under the Empire, Argos was +the headquarters of the Achaean synod, and continued to be a resort of +Roman merchants. Though plundered by the Goths in A.D. 267 and 395 it +retained some of its commerce and culture in Byzantine days. The town +was captured by the Franks in 1210; after 1246 it was held in fief by +the rulers of Athens. In later centuries it became the scene of frequent +conflicts between the Venetians and the Turks, and on two occasions +(1397 and 1500) its population was massacred by the latter. Repeopled +with Albanian settlers, Argos was chosen as seat of the Greek national +assembly in the wars of independence. Its citadel was courageously +defended by the patriots (1822); in 1825 the city was burnt to the +ground by Ibrahim Pasha. The present town of 10,000 inhabitants is a +purely agricultural settlement. The Argive plain, though not yet +sufficiently reclaimed, yields good crops of corn, rice and tobacco. + +In the early days of Greece the Argives enjoyed high repute for their +musical talent. Their school of bronze sculpture, whose first famous +exponent was Ageladas (Hagelaidas), the reputed master of Pheidias, +reached its climax towards the end of the 5th century in the atelier of +Polyclitus (q.v.) and his pupils. To this period also belongs the new +Heraeum (see below), one of the most splendid temples of Greece. + +Remains of the early city are still visible on the Larissa acropolis, +which towers 900 ft. high to the north-west of the town. A few courses +of the ancient ramparts appear under the double enceinte of the +surviving medieval fortress. An aqueduct of Greek times is represented +by some fragments on the south-western edge. In the slope above the town +was hewn a theatre equalling that of Athens in size. The Aspis or +smaller citadel to the north-east has revealed traces of an early +Mycenaean settlement; the Deiras or ridge connecting the two heights +contains a prehistoric cemetery. + + AUTHORITIES.--Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon; Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, + 30-34; Strabo pp. 373-374; Pausanias ii. 15-24; W.M. Leake, _Travels + in the Morea_ (London, 1835), ii. chs. 19-22; E. Curtius, + _Peloponnesos_ (Gotha, 1851), ii. 350-364; H.F. Tozer, _Geography of + Greece_ (London, 1873), pp. 292-294; J.K. Kophiniotis, [Greek: + Historia ton Argous] (Athens, 1892-1893); W. Vollgraff in _Bulletin de + Correspondance Hellenique_ (1904, pp. 364-399; 1906, pp. 1-45; 1907, + pp. 139-184). (M. O. B. C.) + +_The Argive Heraeum._--Since 1892 investigation has added considerably +to our knowledge concerning the Argive Heraeum or Heraion, the temple of +Hera, which stood, according to Pausanias, "on one of the lower slopes +of Euboea." The term Euboea did not designate the eminence upon which +the Heraeum is placed, or the mountain-top behind the Heraeum only, but, +as Pausanias distinctly indicates, the group of foothills of the hilly +district adjoining the mountain. When once we admit that this designated +not only the mountain, which is 1730 ft. high, but also the hilly +district adjoining it, the general scale of distance for this site grows +larger. The territory of the Heraeum was divided into three parts, +namely Euboea, Acraea and Prosymna. Pausanias tells us that the Heraeum +is 15 stadia from Mycenae. Strabo, on the other hand, says that the +Heraeum was 40 stadia from Argos and 10 from Mycenae. Both authors +underestimate the distance from Mycenae, which is about 25 stadia, or a +little more than 3 m., while the distance from Argos is 45 stadia, or a +little more than 5 m. The distance from the Heraeum to the ancient Midea +is slightly greater than to Mycenae, while that from the Heraeum to +Tiryns is about 6 m. The Argive Heraeum was the most important centre of +Hera and Juno worship in the ancient world; it always remained the chief +sanctuary of the Argive district, and was in all probability the +earliest site of civilized life in the country inhabited by the Argive +people. In fact, whereas the site of Hissarlik, the ancient Troy, is not +in Greece proper, but in Asia Minor, and can thus not furnish the most +direct evidence for the earliest Hellenic civilization as such; and +whereas Tiryns, Mycenae, and the city of Argos, each represent only one +definite period in the successive stages of civilization, the Argive +Heraeum, holding the central site of early civilization in Greece +proper, not only retained its importance during the three periods marked +by the supremacy of Tiryns, Mycenae and the city of Argos, but in all +probability antedated them as a centre of civilized Argive life. These +conditions alone account for the extreme archaeological importance of +this ancient sanctuary. + +According to tradition the Heraeum was founded by Phoroneus at least +thirteen generations before Agamemnon and the Achaeans ruled. It is +highly probable that before it became important merely as a temple, it +was the fortified centre uniting the Argive people dwelling in the +plain, the citadel which was superseded in this function by Tiryns. +There is ample evidence to show that it was the chief sanctuary during +the Tirynthian period. When Mycenae was built under the Perseids it was +still the chief sanctuary for that centre, which superseded Tiryns in +its dominance over the district, and which this temple clearly antedated +in construction. According to the _Dictys Cretensis_, it was at this +Heraeum that Agamemnon assembled the leaders before setting out for +Troy. In the period of Dorian supremacy, in spite of the new cults which +were introduced by these people, the Heraeum maintained its supreme +importance: it was here that the tablets recording the succession of +priestesses were kept which served as a chronological standard for the +Argive people, and even far beyond their borders; and it was here that +Pheidon deposited the [Greek: obeliskoi] when he introduced coinage into +Greece. + +We learn from Strabo that the Heraeum was the joint sanctuary for +Mycenae and Argos. But in the 5th century the city of Argos vanquished +the Mycenaeans, and from that time onwards the city of Argos becomes the +political centre of the district, while the Heraeum remains the +religious centre. And when in the year 423 B.C., through the negligence +of the priestess Chryseis, the old temple was burnt down, the Argives +erected a splendid new temple, built by Eupolemos, in which was placed +the great gold and ivory statue of Hera, by the sculptor Polyclitus, the +contemporary and rival of Pheidias, which was one of the most perfect +works of sculpture in antiquity. Pausanias describes the temple and its +contents (ii. 17), and in his time he still saw the ruins of the older +burnt temple above the temple of Eupolemos. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF THE HERAEUM (_surveyed and drawn by Edward L. +Tilton_). + + I. Old Temple. + II. Stoa. + III. Stoa. + IV. East Building. + V. 5th-Century Temple. + VI. South Stoa. + VII. West Building. + VIII. North-West Building. + IX. Roman Building. + X. Lower Stoa. + XI. Phylakeion. + A, B, C, D, E, F, Cisterns.] + +All these facts have been verified and illustrated by the excavations of +the American Archaeological Institute and School of Athens, which were +carried on from 1892 to 1895. In 1854 A.R. Rhangabe made tentative +excavations on this site, digging a trench along the north and east +sides of the second temple. Of these excavations no trace was to be seen +when those of 1892 were begun. The excavations have shown that the +sanctuary, instead of consisting of but one temple with the ruins of the +older one above it, contained at least eleven separate buildings, +occupying an area of about 975 ft. by 325. + +On the uppermost terrace, defined by the great Cyclopean supporting +wall, exactly as described by Pausanias, the excavations revealed a +layer of ashes and charred wood, below which were found numerous objects +of earliest date, together with some remains of the walls resting on a +polygonal platform--all forming part of the earliest temple. Immediately +adjoining the Cyclopean wall and below it were found traces of small +houses of the rudest, earliest masonry which are pre-Mycenaean, if not +pre-Cyclopean. + +We then descend to the second terrace, in the centre of which the +substructure of the great second temple was revealed, together with so +much of the walls, as well as the several architectural members forming +the superstructure, that it has been possible for E.L. Tilton to design +a complete restoration of the temple. On the northern side of this +terrace, between the second temple and the Cyclopean supporting wall, a +long stoa or colonnade runs from east to west abutting at the west end +in structures which evidently contained a well-house and waterworks; +while at the eastern end of this stoa a number of chambers were erected +against the hill, in front of which were placed statues and +inscriptions, the bases for which are still extant. At the eastern-most +end of this second terrace a large hall with three rows of columns in +the interior, with a porch and entrance at the west end facing the +temple, is built upon elaborate supporting walls of good masonry. + +Below the second terrace at the south-west end a large and complicated +building, with an open courtyard surrounded on three sides by a +colonnade and with chambers opening out towards the north, may have +served as a gymnasium or a sanatorium. It is of good early Greek +architecture, earlier than the second temple. A curious, ruder building +to the north of this and to the west of the second terrace is probably +of much earlier date, perhaps of the Mycenaean period, and may have +served as propylaea. + +Immediately below the second temple at the foot of the elevation on +which this temple stands, towards the south, and thus facing the city of +Argos, a splendid stoa or colonnade, to which large flights of steps +lead, was erected about the time of the building of the second temple. +It is a part of the great plan to give worthy access to the temple from +the city of Argos. To the east of this large flights of steps lead up to +the temple proper. + +At the western extremity of the whole site, immediately beside the +river-bed, we again have a huge stoa running round two sides of a +square, which was no doubt connected with the functions of this +sanctuary as a health resort, especially for women, the goddess Hera +presiding over and protecting married life and child-birth. Finally, +immediately to the north of this western stoa there is an extensive +house of Roman times also connected with baths. + +While the buildings give archaeological evidence for every period of +Greek life and history from the pre-Mycenaean period down to Roman +times, the topography itself shows that the Heraeum must have been +constructed before Mycenae and without any regard to it. The foothills +which it occupies form the western boundary to the Argive plain as it +stretches down towards the sea in the Gulf of Nauplia. While it was thus +probably chosen as the earliest site for a citadel facing the sea, its +second period points towards Tiryns and Midea. It could not have been +built as the sanctuary of Mycenae, which was placed farther up towards +the north-west in the hills, and could not be seen from the Heraeum, its +inhabitants again not being able to see their sanctuary. The west +building, the traces of bridges and roads, show that at one time it did +hold some relation to Mycenae; but this was long after its foundation or +the building of the huge Cyclopean supporting wall which is coeval with +the walls of Tiryns, these again being earlier than those of Mycenae. +There are, moreover, traces of still more primitive walls, built of rude +small stones placed one upon the other without mortar, which are in +character earlier than those of Tiryns, and have their parallel in the +lowest layers of Hissarlik. + +Bearing out the evidence of tradition as well as architecture, the +numerous finds of individual objects in terra-cotta figurines, vases, +bronzes, engraved stones, &c., point to organized civilized life on this +site many generations before Mycenae was built, _a fortiori_ before the +life as depicted by Homer flourished--nay, before, as tradition has it, +under Proetus the walls of Tiryns were erected. We are aided in forming +some estimate of the chronological sequence preceding the Mycenaean age, +as suggested by the finds of the Heraeum, in the new distribution which +Dorpfeld has been led to make of the chronological stratification of +Hissarlik. For the layer, which he now assigns to the Mycenaean period, +is the sixth stratum from below. Now, as some of the remains at the +Heraeum correspond to the two lowest layers of Hissarlik, the evidence +of the Argive temple leads us far beyond the date assigned to the +Mycenaean age, and at least into the second millennium B.C. (see also +AEGEAN CIVILIZATION). As to its chronological relation to the Cretan +sites--Cnossus, Phaestus, &c., and the "Minoan" civilization as +determined by Dr A. Evans, see the discussion under CRETE. + +This sanctuary still holds a position of central importance as +illustrating the art of the highest period in Greek history, namely, the +art of the 5th century B.C. under the great sculptor Polyclitus. Though +the excavations in the second temple have clearly revealed the outlines +of the base upon which the great gold and ivory statue of Hera stood, it +is needless to say that no trace of the statue itself has been found. +From Pausanias we learn that "the image of Hera is seated and is of +colossal size: it is made of gold and ivory, and is the work of +Polyclitus." Based on the computations made by the architect of the +American excavations, E.L. Tilton, on the ground of the height of the +nave, the total height of the image, including the base and the top of +the throne, would be about 26 ft., the seated figure of the goddess +herself about 18 ft. It is probable that the face, neck, arms and feet +were of ivory, while the rest of the figure was draped in gold. Like the +Olympian Zeus of Pheidias, Hera was seated on an elaborately decorated +throne, holding in her left hand the sceptre, surmounted in her case by +the cuckoo (as that of Zeus had an eagle), and in her right, instead of +an elaborate figure of Victory (such as the Athena Parthenos and the +Olympian Zeus held), simply a pomegranate. The crown was adorned with +figures of Graces and the Seasons. A Roman imperial coin of Antoninus +Pius shows us on a reduced scale the general composition of the figure; +while contemporary Argive coins of the 5th century give a fairly +adequate rendering of the head. A further attempt has been made to +identify the head in a beautiful marble bust in the British Museum +hitherto known as Bacchus (Waldstein, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, +vol. xxi., 1901, pp. 30 seq.) + +We also learn from Pausanias that the temple was decorated with +"sculptures over the columns, representing some the birth of Zeus and +the battle of the gods and giants, others the Trojan War and the taking +of Ilium." It was formerly supposed that the phrase "over the columns" +pointed to the existence of sculptured metopes, but no pedimental +groups. Finds made in the excavations, however, have shown that the +temple also had pedimental groups. Besides numerous fragments of nude +and draped figures belonging to pedimental statues, a well-preserved and +very beautiful head of a female divinity, probably Hera, as well as a +draped female torso of excellent workmanship, both belonging to the +pediments, have been discovered. Of the metopes also a great number of +fragments have been found, together with two almost complete metopes, +the one containing the torso of a nude warrior in perfect preservation, +as well as ten well-preserved heads. These statues bear the same +relation to the sculptor Polyclitus which the Parthenon marbles hold to +Pheidias; and the excavations have thus yielded most important material +for the illustration of the Argive art of Polyclitus in the 5th century +B.C. + + See Waldstein, _The Argive Heraeum_ (vol. i., Boston and New York, + 1902; vol. ii., the Vases by J.C. Hoppin, the Bronzes by H.F. de + Cosa, 1905); _Excavations of the American School of Athens at the + Heraion of Argos_ (1892); and numerous reports and articles in the + _American Archaeological Journal_ since 1892. (C. W.*) + + + + +ARGOSTOLI (anc. _Cephallenia_), the capital of Cephalonia (one of the +Ionian islands), and the seat of a bishop of the Greek church. Pop. +about 10,000. It possesses an excellent harbour, a quay a mile in +length, and a fine bridge. Shipbuilding and silk-spinning are carried +on. Near at hand are the ruins of Cranii, which afford fine examples of +Greek military architecture; and at the west side of the harbour there +is a curious stream, flowing _from_ the sea, and employed to drive mills +before losing itself in caverns inland. + + See Sir C. Fellows's _Journal of an Excursion in Asia Minor_ in 1838, + and Wiebel's _Die Insel Kephalonia und die Meermuhlen von Argostoli_ + (Hamburg, 1873). + + + + +ARGOSY (a corruption, by transposition of letters, of the name of the +seaport Ragusa), the term originally for a carrack or merchant ship from +Ragusa and other Adriatic ports, now used poetically of any vessel +carrying rich merchandise. In English writings of the 16th century the +seaport named is variously spelt Ragusa, Aragouse or Aragosa, and ships +coming thence were named Ragusyes, Arguzes and Argosies; the last form +surviving and passing into literature. The incorrect derivation from +Jason's ship, the "Argo," is of modern origin. + + + + +ARGUIN, an island (identified by some writers with Hanno's Cerne), off +the west coast of Africa, a little south of Cape Blanco, in 20 deg. 25' +N., 16 deg. 37' W. It is some 4 m. long by 2-1/2 broad, produces +gum-arabic, and is the seat of a lucrative turtle-fishery. Off the +island, which was discovered by the Portuguese in the 15th century, are +extensive and very dangerous reefs. Arguin was occupied in turn by +Portuguese, Dutch, English and French; and to France it now belongs. The +aridity of the soil and the bad anchorage prevent a permanent +settlement. The fishery is mostly carried on by inhabitants of the +Canary Isles. In July 1816 the French frigate "Medusa," which carried +officers on their way to Senegal to take possession of that country for +France, was wrecked off Arguin, 350 lives being lost. + + + + +ARGUMENT, a word meaning "proof," "evidence," corresponding in English +to the Latin word _argumentum_, from which it is derived; the +originating Latin verb _arguere_, to make clear, from which comes the +English "argue," is from a root meaning bright, appearing in Greek +[Greek: argaes], white. From its primary sense are derived such +applications of the word as a chain of reasoning, a fact or reason given +to support a proposition, a discussion of the evidence or reasons for or +against some theory or proposition and the like. More particularly +"argument" means a synopsis of the contents of a book, the outline of a +novel, play, &c. In logic it is used for the middle term in a syllogism, +and for many species of fallacies, such as the _argumentum ad hominem, +ad baculum_, &c. (see FALLACY). In mathematics the term has received +special meanings; in mathematical tables the "argument" is the quantity +upon which the other quantities in the table are made to depend; in the +theory of complex variables, e.g. such as a + ib where i = [root](-1), +the "argument" (or "amplitude") is the angle [theta] given by tan +[theta] = b/a. In astronomy, the term is used in connexion with the +Ptolemaic theory to denote the angular distance on the epicycle of a +planet from the true apogee of the epicycle; and the "equation to the +argument" is the angle subtended at the earth by the distance of a +planet from the centre of the epicycle. + + + + +ARGUS, in ancient Greek mythology, the son of Inachus, Agenor or +Arestor, or, according to others, an earth-born hero (autochthon). He +was called Panoptes (all-seeing), from having eyes all over his body. +After performing several feats of valour, he was appointed by Hera to +watch the cow into which Io had been transformed. While doing this he +was slain by Hermes, who stoned him to death, or put him to sleep by +playing on the flute and then cut off his head. His eyes were +transferred by Hera to the tail of the peacock. Argus with his countless +eyes originally denoted the starry heavens (Apollodorus ii. 1; +Aeschylus, _P. V._ 569; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 264). + +Another ARGUS, the old dog of Odysseus, who recognized his master on his +return to Ithaca, figures in one of the best-known incidents in Homer's +_Odyssey_ (xvii. 291-326). + + + + +ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The rise of this family of Scottish peers, +originally the Campbells of Lochow, and first ennobled as Barons +Campbell, is referred to in the article ARGYLLSHIRE. + +ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 5th earl of Argyll (1530-1573), was the elder son of +Archibald, 4th earl of Argyll (d. 1558), and a grandson of Colin, the +3rd earl (d. 1530). His great-grandfather was the 2nd earl, Archibald, +who was killed at Flodden in 1513, and this nobleman's father was Colin, +Lord Campbell (d. 1493), the founder of the greatness of the Campbell +family, who was created earl of Argyll in 1457. With Lord James Stuart, +afterwards the regent Murray, the 5th earl of Argyll became an adherent +of John Knox about 1556, and like his father was one of the most +influential members of the party of religious reform, signing what was +probably the first "godly band" in December 1557. As one of the "lords +of the congregation" he was one of James Stuart's principal lieutenants +during the warfare between the reformers and the regent, Mary of +Lorraine; and later with Murray he advised and supported Mary queen of +Scots, who regarded him with great favour. It was about this time that +William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley, referred to Argyll as "a goodly +gentleman universally honoured of all Scotland." Owing to his friendship +with Mary, Argyll was separated from the party of Knox, but he forsook +the queen when she determined to marry Lord Darnley; he was, however, +again on Mary's side after Queen Elizabeth's refusal to aid Murray in +1565. Argyll was probably an accomplice in the murder of Rizzio; he was +certainly a consenting party to that of Darnley, and then separating +himself from Murray he commanded Mary's soldiers after her escape from +Lochleven, and by his want of courage and resolution was partly +responsible for her defeat at Langside in May 1568. Soon afterwards he +made his peace with Murray, but it is possible that he was accessory to +the regent's murder in 1570. After this event Argyll became lord high +chancellor of Scotland, and he died on the 12th of September 1573. His +first wife was an illegitimate daughter of James V., and he was thus +half-brother-in-law to Mary and to Murray. His relations with her were +not harmonious; he was accused of adultery, and in 1568 he performed a +public penance at Stirling. + +He left no children, and on his death his half-brother Colin (d. 1584) +became 6th earl of Argyll. This nobleman, whose life was partly spent in +feuds with the regent Morton, died in October 1584. He was succeeded as +7th earl by his young son Archibald (1576-1638), who became a Roman +Catholic, fought for Philip III. of Spain in Flanders, whither he had +gone to avoid his creditors, and, having entrusted the care of his +estates to his son, died in London. + +ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 1st marquess and 8th earl of Argyll (1607-1661), +eldest son of Archibald, 7th earl, by his first wife, Lady Anne Douglas, +daughter of William, 1st earl of Morton, was born in 1607[1] and +educated at St Andrews University, where he matriculated on the 15th of +January 1622. He had early in life, as Lord Lorne, been entrusted with +the possession of the Argyll estates when his father renounced +Protestantism and took service with Philip of Spain; and he exercised +over his clan an authority almost absolute, disposing of a force of +20,000 retainers, and being, according to Baillie, "by far the most +powerful subject in the kingdom." On the outbreak of the religious +dispute between the king and Scotland in 1637 his support was eagerly +desired by Charles I. He had been made a privy councillor in 1628, and +in 1638 the king summoned him, together with Traquair and Roxburgh, to +London; but he refused to be won over, openly and courageously warned +Charles against his despotic ecclesiastical policy, and showed great +hostility towards Laud. In consequence a secret commission was given to +the earl of Antrim to invade Argyllshire and stir up the Macdonalds +against the Campbells, a wild and foolish project which completely +miscarried. Argyll, who inherited the title by the death of his father +in 1638, had originally no preference for Presbyterianism, but now +definitely took the side of the Covenanters in defence of the national +religion and liberties. He continued to attend the meetings of the +Assembly after its dissolution by the marquess of Hamilton, when +Episcopacy was abolished. In 1639 he sent a statement to Laud, and +subsequently to the king, defending the Assembly's action; and raising a +body of troops he seized Hamilton's castle of Brodick in Arran. After +the pacification of Berwick he carried a motion, in opposition to +Montrose, by which the estates secured to themselves the election of the +lords of the articles, who had formerly been nominated by the king, a +fundamental change in the Scottish constitution, whereby the management +of public affairs was entrusted to a representative body and withdrawn +from the control of the crown. An attempt by the king to deprive him of +his office as justiciary of Argyll and Tarbet failed, and on the +prorogation of the parliament by Charles, in May 1640, Argyll moved that +it should continue its sittings and that the government and safety of +the kingdom should be secured by a committee of the estates, of which, +though not a member, he was himself the guiding spirit. In June he was +entrusted with a "commission of fire and sword" against the royalists in +Atholl and Angus, which, after succeeding in entrapping the earl of +Atholl, he carried out with completeness and some cruelty. It was on +this occasion that took place the burning of "the bonnie house of +Airlie." By this time the personal rivalry and difference in opinion +between Montrose and Argyll had led to an open breach. The former +arranged that on the occasion of Charles's approaching visit to +Scotland, Argyll should be accused of high treason in the parliament. +The plot, however, was disclosed, and Montrose with others was +imprisoned. Accordingly when the king arrived he found himself deprived +of every remnant of influence and authority. It only remained for +Charles to make a series of concessions. He transferred the control over +judicial and political appointments to the parliament, created Argyll a +marquess (1641) with a pension of L1000 a year, and returned home, +having in Clarendon's words "made a perfect deed of gift of that +kingdom." Meanwhile the king's policy of peace and concession had, as +usual, been rudely and treacherously interrupted by a resort to force, +an unsuccessful attempt, known as the "incident," being made to kidnap +Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark. Argyll was mainly instrumental at this +crisis in keeping the national party faithful to what was to him +evidently the common cause, and in accomplishing the alliance with the +Long Parliament in 1643. In January 1644 he accompanied the Scottish +army into England as a member of the committee of both kingdoms and in +command of a troop of horse, but was soon in March compelled to return +to suppress royalist movements in the north and to defend his own +territories. He compelled Huntly to retreat in April, and in July +advanced to meet the Irish troops now landed in Argyllshire, which were +acting in conjunction with Montrose, who had put himself at the head of +the royalist forces in Scotland. A campaign followed in the north in +which neither general succeeded in obtaining any advantage over the +other, or even in engaging battle. Argyll then returned to Edinburgh, +threw up his commission, and retired to Inveraray Castle. Thither +Montrose unexpectedly followed him in December, compelled him to flee to +Roseneath, and devastated his territories. On the 2nd of February 1645, +when following Montrose northwards, Argyll was surprised by him at +Inverlochy and witnessed from his barge on the lake, to which he had +retired owing to a dislocated arm, a fearful slaughter of his troops, +which included 1500 of the Campbells. He arrived at Edinburgh on the +12th of February and was again present at Montrose's further great +victory on the 15th of August at Kilsyth, whence he escaped to +Newcastle. Argyll was at last delivered from his formidable antagonist +by Montrose's final defeat at Philiphaugh on the 12th of September. In +1646 he was sent to negotiate with the king at Newcastle after his +surrender to the Scottish army, when he endeavoured to moderate the +demands of the parliament and at the same time to persuaade the king to +accept them. On the 7th of July 1646 he was appointed a member of the +Assembly of Divines. + +Up to this point the statesmanship of Argyll had been highly successful. +The national liberties and religion of Scotland had been defended and +guaranteed, and the power of the king in Scotland reduced to a mere +shadow. In addition, these privileges had been still further secured by +the alliance with the English opposition, and by the subsequent triumph +of the parliament and Presbyterianism in the neighbouring kingdom. The +sovereign himself, after vainly contending in arms, was a prisoner in +their midst. But Argyll's influence could not survive the rupture of the +alliance between the two nations on which his whole policy was +constructed. He opposed in vain the secret treaty now concluded between +the king and the Scots against the parliament, and while Hamilton +marched into England and was defeated by Cromwell at Preston, Argyll, +after a narrow escape from a surprise at Stirling, joined the +Whiggamores, a body of Covenanters at Edinburgh; and, supported by +London, Leven and Leslie, he established a new government, which +welcomed Cromwell on his arrival there on the 4th of October. This +alliance, however, was at once destroyed by the execution of Charles I., +which excited universal horror in Scotland. In the series of tangled +incidents which followed, Argyll lost control of the national policy. He +describes himself at this period as "a distracted man ... in a +distracted time" whose "remedies ... had the quite contrary operation." +He supported the invitation from the Covenanters to Charles II. to land +in Scotland, gazed upon the captured Montrose, bound on a cart on his +way to execution at Edinburgh, and subsequently, when Charles II. came +to Scotland, having signed the Covenant and repudiated Montrose, Argyll +remained at the head of the administration. After the defeat of Dunbar, +Charles retained his support by the promise of a dukedom and the Garter, +and an attempt was made by Argyll to marry the king to his daughter. On +the 1st of January 1651 he placed the crown on Charles's head at Scone. +But his power had now passed to the Hamilton party. He strongly opposed, +but was unable to prevent, the expedition into England, and in the +subsequent reduction of Scotland, after having held out in Inveraray +Castle for nearly a year, was at last surprised in August 1652 and +submitted to the Commonwealth. His ruin was then complete. His policy +had failed, his power had vanished. In his estate he was hopelessly in +debt, and on terms of such violent hostility with his eldest son as to +be obliged to demand a garrison in his house for his protection. During +his visit to Monk at Dalkeith in 1654 to complain of this, he was +subjected to much personal insult from his creditors, and on visiting +London in September 1655 to obtain money due to him from the Scottish +parliament, he was arrested for debt, though soon liberated. In Richard +Cromwell's parliament of 1659 Argyll sat as member for Aberdeenshire. At +the Restoration he presented himself at Whitehall, but was at once +arrested by order of Charles and placed in the Tower (1660), being sent +to Edinburgh to stand his trial for high treason. He was acquitted of +complicity in the death of Charles I., and his escape from the whole +charge seemed imminent, but the arrival of a packet of letters written +by Argyll to Monk showed conclusively his collaboration with Cromwell's +government, particularly in the suppression of Glencairn's royalist +rising in 1652. He was immediately sentenced to death, his execution by +beheading taking place on the 27th of May 1661, before even the death +warrant had been signed by the king. His head was placed on the same +spike upon the west end of the Tolbooth on which that of Montrose had +previously been exposed, and his body was buried at the Holy Loch, where +the head was also deposited in 1664. A monument was erected to his +memory in St Giles's church in Edinburgh in 1895. + +While imprisoned in the Tower he wrote _Instructions to a Son_ (1661; +reprinted in 1689 and 1743). Some of his speeches, including the one +delivered on the scaffold, were published and are printed in the +_Harleian Miscellany_. He married Lady Margaret Douglas, daughter of +William, 2nd earl of Morton, and had two sons and four daughters. + + See also the _Life and Times of Archibald Marquis of Argyll_ (1903), + by John Willcock, who prints for the first time the six incriminating + letters to Monk; _Eng. Hist. Review_, xviii. 369 and 624; _Scottish + History Society_, vol. xvii. (1894); _Charles II. and Scotland in + 1650_, ed. by S.R. Gardiner, and vol. xviii. (1895); _History of + Scotland_, by A. Lang, vol. iii. (1904). + +ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 9th earl of Argyll (1629-1685), eldest son of the +8th earl, studied abroad, and at the age of thirteen was appointed +captain in the Scottish regiment serving in France under his uncle the +earl of Irvine. He returned home at the close of 1649, and was made +captain of Charles II.'s life guards on the king's arrival in Scotland +in 1650. He declared himself a royalist in opposition to his father, +with the view, as some said, of securing the family estates in any +event. He fought at Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, and after the +battle of Worcester joined Glencairn in the Highlands. Bitter disputes +arose, and on the 2nd of January 1654 Lorne, quitting his troops, fled +to avoid arrest. In 1653 he submitted to Monk. He appears, however, to +have maintained communications with Charles, and on his refusal to take +the oath renouncing allegiance to the Stuarts in 1657 he was imprisoned, +remaining in confinement probably till a short time before the +Restoration. He was then well received at court by Charles II. After the +execution of his father, he endeavoured to obtain the restitution of his +forfeited estates and title, but having incautiously attacked certain +members of the government in letters which were made public, he was +indicted at Edinburgh on the capital charge of "leasing-making" and was +sentenced to death on the 26th of August. He remained a prisoner in +Edinburgh Castle till the 4th of June 1663, when the sentence was +cancelled and he was re-created earl and restored to his estates. He +disapproved of the severities practised upon the Covenanters in the +west, and in 1671 pleaded for milder methods. His staunch Protestantism +rendered him exceedingly obnoxious to James, duke of York, who in 1680 +arrived as high commissioner in Scotland and at once expressed his +jealousy of Argyll's immense territorial influence. Argyll moved the +re-enactment of "all the acts against popery" omitted on James's +account, and opposed the exemption of the royal family from the test, +though allowing it in the case of James. In signing the test himself, in +its final form both ambiguous and self-contradictory, he made the +reservation "so far as consistent with itself and the Protestant faith," +and declined to engage himself not to promote any alteration of +advantage in church or state. On his refusal to record his oath in +writing and to sign it, he was dismissed from the Scottish privy +council, and on the 9th of November 1681 was accused of treason, a +charge which Halifax declared openly in England "they would not hang a +dog upon." A trial followed, a scandalous exhibition of illegality and +injustice, at the close of which Argyll was sentenced to death and to +the forfeiture of his estates. Shortly afterwards, through the +instrumentality of his step-daughter, Sophia Lindsay, he succeeded in +making his escape, and after some adventures retired to Holland. His +subsequent movements are uncertain, but he appears to have again +visited London, and was in correspondence with the Rye House plotters +and proposing to head a rebellion in Scotland in 1683. In 1685 he joined +the conspiracy in Holland to set Monmouth on the throne instead of James +II., arriving in Orkney on the 6th of May and making his way to his own +country. But his clansmen refused to join him, and whatever small +chances of success remained were destroyed by constant and paralysing +disputes. His ships and ammunition were captured, and after some aimless +wanderings he found himself deserted, with but one companion, Major +Fullerton. On the 18th of June he was taken prisoner at Inchinnan and +arrived at Edinburgh on the 20th, where he was paraded through the +streets and put in irons in the castle. James ordered his summary +execution on the 29th, and it was carried out by beheading on the +following day, on the old charge of 1681. His head was exposed on the +west side of the Tollbooth, where his father's and Montrose's had also +been exhibited, his body finding its final place of burial at Inveraray. + +By his first wife, Lady Mary Stewart, daughter of the 4th earl of Moray +(Murray), he had four sons and three daughters. + + See _Argyll Papers_ (1834); _Letters from Archibald, 9th Earl of + Argyle, to the Duke of Lauderdale_ (1829); _Hist. MSS. Comm_. vi. Rep. + 606; _Life of Mr Donald Cargile_, by P. Walker, pp. 45 et seq.; _The + 3rd Part of the Protestant Plot ... and a Brief Account of the Case of + the Earl of Argyle_ (1682); Sir George MacKenzie's _Hist. of + Scotland_, p. 70; and J. Willcock, _A Scots Earl in Covenanting Times_ + (1908). + +ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 1st duke of Argyll (?1651-1703), was the eldest son +of the 9th earl. He tried to get his father's attainder reversed by +seeking the king's favour, but being unsuccessful he went over to the +Hague and joined William of Orange as an active promoter of the +revolution of 1688. In spite of the attainder, he was admitted in 1689 +to the convention of the Scottish estates as earl of Argyll, and he was +deputed, with Sir James Montgomery and Sir John Dalrymple, to present +the crown to William III. in its name, and to tender him the coronation +oath. In 1690 an act was passed restoring his title and estates, and it +was in connexion with the refusal of the Macdonalds of Glencoe to join +in the submission to him that he organized the terrible massacre which +has made his name notorious. In 1696 he was made a lord of the treasury, +and his political services were rewarded in 1701 by his being created +duke of Argyll. He had two sons by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Sir +Lionel Talmash, John (the 2nd duke) and Archibald (the 3rd duke.) + +JOHN CAMPBELL, 2nd duke of Argyll and duke of Greenwich (1678-1743), was +born on the 10th of October 1678. He entered the army in 1694, and in +1701 was promoted to the command of a regiment. On the death of his +father in 1703, he was appointed a member of the privy council, and at +the same time colonel of the Scotch horse guards, and one of the +extraordinary lords of session. In return for his services in promoting +the Union, he was created (1705) a peer of England, by the titles of +baron of Chatham and earl of Greenwich, and in 1710 was made a knight of +the Garter. He first distinguished himself in a military capacity at the +battle of Oudenarde (1708), where he served as a brigadier-general; and +was afterwards present under the duke of Marlborough at the sieges of +Lille, Ghent, Bruges and Tournay, and did remarkable service at the +battle of Malplaquet in 1709. He was very popular with the troops, and +his rivalry with Marlborough on this account is thought to have been the +cause of the enmity shown by Argyll afterwards to his old commander. In +1711 he was sent to take command in Spain; but being seized with a +violent fever at Barcelona, and disappointed of supplies from home, he +returned to England. Having a seat in the House of Lords, and being +gifted with an extraordinary power of oratory, he censured the measures +of the ministry with such freedom that all his places were disposed of +to other noblemen; but at the accession of George I. he recovered his +influence. On the breaking out of the rebellion in 1715 he was appointed +commander-in-chief of the forces in North Britain, and was principally +instrumental in effecting the total extinction of the rebellion in +Scotland without much bloodshed. He arrived in London early in March +1716, and at first stood high in the favour of the king, but in a few +months was strippee of his offices. This disgrace, however, did not +deter him from the discharge of his parliamentary duties; he supported +the bill for the impeachment of Bishop Atterbury, and lent his aid to +his countrymen by opposing the bill for punishing the city of Edinburgh +for the Porteous riot. In the beginning of the year 1719 he was again +admitted into favour, appointed lord steward of the household, and, in +April following, created duke of Greenwich; he held various offices in +succession, and in 1735 was made a field marshall. He continued in the +administration till after the accession of George II., when, in April +1740, a violent speech against the government led again to his dismissal +from office. He was soon restored on a change of the ministry, but +disapproving the measures of the new administration, and apparently +disappointed at not being given the command of the army, he shortly +resigned all his posts, and spent the rest of his life in privacy and +retirement. He died on the 4th of October 1743. A monument by Roubillac +was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. He was twice married, +and by his second wife, Jane Warburton, had five daughters; his Scottish +titles passed to his brother, but his English titles became extinct, and +though his eldest daughter was created baroness of Greenwich in 1767 +this title also became extinct on her death in 1794. + +ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 3rd duke of Argyll (1682-1761), was born at Ham +House in Surrey, in June 1682. On his father being created a duke, he +joined the army, and served for a short time under the duke of +Marlborough. In 1705 he was appointed treasurer of Scotland, and in the +following year was one of the commissioners for treating of the Union; +on the consummation of which, having been raised to the peerage of +Scotland as earl of Islay, he was chosen one of the sixteen peers for +Scotland in the first parliament of Great Britain. In 1711 he was called +to the privy council, and commanded the royal army at the battle of +Sheriffmuir in 1715. he was appointed keeper of the privy seal in 1721, +and was afterwards entrusted with the principal management of Scottish +affairs to an extent which caused him to be called "king of Scotland." +In 1733 he was made keeper of the great seal, an office which he held +till his death. He succeeded to the dukedom in 1743. Both as earl of +Islay and as duke of Argyll he was prominently connected (with Duncan +Forbes of Culloden) with the movement for consolidating Scottish loyalty +by the formation of locally recruited highland regiments. The duke was +eminent not only for his political abilities, but also for his literary +accomplishments, and he collected one of the most valuable private +libraries in Great Britain. He died suddenly on the 15th of April 1761. +He was married but had no legitimate issue, and his English property was +left to a Mrs Williams, by whom he had a son, William Campbell. + +The succession now passed to the descendants of the younger son of the +9th earl, the Campbells of Mamore; the 4th duke died in 1770, and was +succeeded by his son JOHN, the 5th duke (1723-1806) He was a soldier who +had fought at Dettingen and Culloden, and became colonel of the 42nd +regiment (Black Watch), and eventually a field marshall. He sat in the +House of Commons for Glasgow from 1744 to 1761, when on his father's +succession to the dukedom he became legally disqualified, as courtesy +marquess of Lorne, for a Scottish constituency; he could sit, however, +for an English one, and was returned for Dover, which he represented +till 1766, when he was created an English peer as Baron Sundridge, the +title by which till 1892 the dukes of Argyll sat in the House of Lords. +The 5th duke was an active landlord, and was the first president of the +Highland and Agricultural Society. In 1759 he had married the widowed +duchess of Hamilton (the beautiful Elizabeth Gunning), by whom he had +two sons and two daughters. The eldest of his sons, GEORGE (d. 1841), +became 6th duke, and on his death was succeeded as 7th duke by his +brother JOHN (1777-1847), who from 1799-1822 sat in parliament as member +for Argyllshire. He was thrice married, and by his second wife, Joan +Glassell (d. 1828), had two sons, the eldest of whom (b. 1821) died in +1837, and two daughters, the second of whom died in infancy. + +GEORGE JOHN DOUGLAS CAMPBELL, 8th duke (1823-1900), the second son of +the 7th duke, was born on the 30th of April 1823, and succeeded his +father in April 1847. He had already obtained notice as a writer of +pamphlets on the disruption of the Church of Scotland, which he strove +to avert, and he rapidly became prominent on the Liberal side in +parliamentary politics. He was a frequent and eloquent speaker in the +House of Lords, and sat as lord privy seal (1852) and postmaster-general +(1855) in the cabinets of Lord Aberdeen and Lord Palmerston. In Mr +Gladstone's cabinet of 1868 he was secretary of state for India, and +somewhat infelicitously signalized his term of office by his refusal, +against the advice of the Indian government, to promise the amir of +Afghanistan support against Russian aggression, a course which threw +that ruler into the arms of Russia and was followed by the second Afghan +War. His eminence alike as a great Scottish noble, and as a British +statesman, was accentuated in 1871 when his son, the marquess of Lorne, +married Princess Louise, the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria; but in +the political world few memorable acts on his part call for record +except his resignation of the office of lord privy seal, which he held +in Mr Gladstone's administration of 1880, from his inability to assent +to the Irish land legislation of 1881. He opposed the Home Rule Bill +with equal vigour, though Mr Gladstone subsequently stated that, among +all the old colleagues who dissented from his course, the duke was the +only one whose personal relations with him remained entirely unchanged. +Detached from party, the duke took an independent position, and for many +years spoke his mind with great freedom in letters to _The Times_ on +public questions, especially such as concerned the rights or interests +of landowners. He was no less active on scientific questions in their +relation to religion, which he earnestly strove to reconcile with the +progress of discovery. With this aim he published _The Reign of Law_ +(1866), _Primeval Man_ (1869), _The Unity of Nature_ (1884), _The Unseen +Foundations of Society_ (1893), and other essays. He also wrote on the +Eastern question, with especial reference to India, the history and +antiquities of Iona, patronage in the Church of Scotland, and many other +subjects. The duke (to whose Scottish title was added a dukedom of the +United Kingdom in 1892) died on the 24th of April 1900. He was thrice +married: first (1844) to a daughter of the second duke of Sutherland (d. +1878); secondly (1881) to a daughter of Bishop Claughton of St Albans +(d. 1894); and thirdly (1895) to Ina Erskine M'Neill. Few men of the +duke's era displayed more versatility of intellect, and he was +remarkable among the men of his time for his lofty eloquence. + +He was succeeded as 9th duke by his eldest son JOHN DOUGLAS SUTHERLAND +CAMPBELL (1845- ), whose marriage in 1871 to H.R.H. Princess Louise gave +him a special prominence in English public life. He was governor-general +of Canada from 1878 to 1883; member of parliament for South Manchester, +in the Unionist interest, 1895 to 1900; and he also became known as a +writer both in prose and verse. In 1907 he published his reminiscences, +_Pages from the Past_. + + See the _Autobiography and Memoirs_ of the 8th duke, edited by his + widow (1906), which is full of interesting historical and personal + detail. (P. C. Y.; H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The date of 1598, previously accepted, is shown by Willcock to be + incorrect. + + + + +ARGYLLSHIRE, a county on the west coast of Scotland, the second largest +in the country, embracing a large tract of country on the mainland and a +number of the Hebrides or Western Isles. The mainland portion is bounded +N. by Inverness-shire; E. by Perth and Dumbarton, Loch Long and the +Firth of Clyde; S. by the North Channel (Irish Sea); and W. by the +Atlantic. Its area is 1,990,471 acres or 3110 sq. m. The principal +districts are Ardnamurchan on the Atlantic, Ardnamurchan Point being the +most westerly headland of Scotland; Morven or Morvern, bounded by Loch +Sunart, the Sound of Mull and Loch Linnhe; Appin, on Loch Linnhe, with +piers at Ballachulish and Port Appin; Benderloch, lying between Loch +Creran and Loch Etive; Lorne, surrounding Loch Etive and giving the +title of marquess to the Campbells; Argyll, in the middle of the shire, +containing Inveraray Castle and furnishing the titles of earl and duke +to the Campbells; Cowall, between Loch Fyne and the Firth of Clyde, in +which lie Dunoon and other favourite holiday resorts; Knapdale between +the Sound of Jura and Loch Fyne; and Kintyre or Cantyre, a long narrow +peninsula (which, at the isthmus of Tarbert, is little more than 1 m. +wide), the southernmost point of which is known as the Mull, the nearest +part of Scotland to the coast of Ireland, only 13 m. distant. + +There are no navigable rivers. The two principal mountain streams are +the Orchy and Awe. The Orchy flows from Loch Tulla through Glen Orchy, +and falls into the north-eastern end of Loch Awe; and the Awe drains the +loch at its north-western extremity, discharging into Loch Etive. Among +other streams are the Add, Aray, Coe or Cona, Creran, Douglas, Eachaig, +Etive, Euchar, Feochan, Finart, Fyne, Kinglass, Nell, Ruel, Shiel, +Shira, Strae and Uisge-Dhu. The county is remarkable for the numerous +sea-lochs which deeply indent the coast, the principal being Loch Long +(with its branches Loch Goil and the Holy Loch), Loch Striven +(Rothesay's "weather glass"), Loch Riddon, Loch Fyne (with Loch Gilp and +Loch Gair), Lochs Tarbert, Killisport, Swin, Crinan, Craignish, Melfort, +Feochan, Etive, Linnhe (with its branches Loch Creran, Loch Leven and +Loch Eil) and Sunart. There are also a large number of inland lakes, the +total area of which is about 25,000 acres. Of these the principal are +Lochs Awe, Avich, Eck, Lydoch and Shiel. The principal islands are Mull, +Islay, Jura, Colonsay, Lismore, Tyree, Coll, Gigha, Luing and Kerrera. +Besides these there are the two small but interesting islands of Staffa +and Iona. The mountains are so many as to give the shire a markedly +rugged character. Some of them are among the loftiest in the kingdom, as +Ben Cruachan with its summit of twin pyramids (3689 ft.), Ben More, in +Mull (3172), Ben Ima (3318), Buachaille Etive (3345), Ben Bui (3106), +Ben Lui (or Loy), on the confines of the shires of Perth and Argyll +(3708), Ben Starav near the head of Loch Etive (3541), and Ben Arthur, +called from its shape "The Cobbler" (2891), on the borders of +Dumbartonshire. There are many picturesque glens, of which the +best-known are Glen Aray, Glen Croe, Glen Etive, Glendaruel, Glen Lochy +("the wearisome glen"--some 10 m. of bare hills and boulders--between +Tyndrum and Dalmally), Glen Strae, Hell's Glen (off Lech Goil) and +Glencoe, the scene of the massacre in 1692. The waterfalls of Cruachan +are beautiful; and those of Connel, which are more in the nature of +rapids, caused by the rush of the ebbing tide over the rocky bar at the +narrowing mouth of Loch Etive, have been made celebrated by Ossian, who +called them "the Falls of Lora." In several of the glens, as Glen Aray, +small falls may be seen, enhanced in beauty when the rivers are in +flood. Pre-eminently Argyll is the shire of the sportsman. The lovely +Western Isles provide endless enjoyment for the yachtsman; the lochs and +rivers abound with salmon and trout; the deer forests and grouse moors +are second to none in Scotland. + + _Geology._--The mainland portion of the county consists chiefly of the + metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands, nearly all the + subdivisions of that series (see SCOTLAND: _Geology_) being + represented. They form parallel belts of varying width trending + north-east and south-west. The slates and phyllites referred to the + lowest group occur along the shore at Dunoon, and are followed by the + Beinn Bheula grits and albite schists, forming nearly all the highest + ground in Cowall between Loch Fyne and the Firth of Clyde and the + greater part of Kintyre. The green beds, Glensluan mica-schists and + Loch Tay limestones are developed in Glendaruel, and have been traced + north-east to Glen Fyne and at intervals south-west to Campbeltown. + The next prominent zone is that of the Ardrishaig phyllites, with + quartzites in the lower portion and soft phyllites in the upper part, + which cover a belt from 3 to 6 m. across, stretching from Glen Shira + by Inveraray and Ardrishaig to south Knapdale. + + Next in order come the Easdale slates, phyllites with thin dark + limestone, the main limestone of Loch Awe and the pebbly quartzite + (Schiehallion), which are repeated by innumerable folds and spread + northwards to Loch Linnhe and westwards to Jura and Islay. The slates + of this horizon have been largely quarried at Easdale and + Ballachulish, and this main limestone is typically developed near Loch + Awe, near Kilmartin, on the islands of Lismore and Shuna, and in Islay + between Bridgend and Portaskaig. The quartzites of this series form + the highest hills in the south of Islay, occupy nearly the whole of + Jura, and are continued in the mainland, where, by means of the rapid + isoclinal folding, they form lenticular masses. In Islay and at + various localities on the mainland a conglomerate occurs at or near + the base of the quartzites, which contains fragments of the underlying + rocks and boulders of granite not now found in place in that region. + + On the mainland, on the north side of the compound synclinal folding + of Loch Awe, the Ardrishaig phyllites reappear at Craignish near + Kilmartin, and the quartzites of this group are supposed to come to + the surface again in Glencoe, not far from the outcrop of the + Schiehallion quartzite. + + The metamorphic rocks are associated with bands of epidiorite which + have shared in the folding and metamorphism of the region. These are + largely developed near Loch Awe, in Knapdale, and on the south-east + coast of Islay. They have been usually regarded as intrusive, but + south of Tayvallich on the mainland, lavas and tuffs, which have + escaped deformation, occur in the Easdale slates and the pebbly + limestone. + + The Lower Old Red Sandstone, chiefly composed of volcanic rocks--lavas + and tuffs--rests unconformably on the metamorphic series. These rocks + cover a wide area in Lorne between Loch Melfort, Oban and the Pass of + Brander, and they reappear in the lofty mountains on both sides of + Glencoe. Representatives of this formation are found in Kintyre, south + of Campbeltown, where the sediments prevail. The intrusive igneous + rocks belonging to this period are widely distributed and form + conspicuous features. The plutonic masses are represented by the + granite of Ben Cruachan, by the diorite of Gleann Domhainn, and by the + kentallenite (a basic rock related to the monxonites), near + Ballachulish. Throughout the Lorne volcanic plateau there are numerous + dykes of porphyrite which likewise traverse the schists and part of + the Ben Cruachan granite. Sheets of quartz-porphyry, lamprophyre and + diorite are also represented, the first of these types being quarried + at Crarae on the north shore of Loch Fyne. + + The Upper Old Red Sandstone forms isolated patches resting + unconformably on all older rocks, on the west coast of Kintyre, and + between Campbeltown and Southend. In the district of Campbeltown these + red sandstones and cornstones are followed by the volcanic rocks of + the Calciferous Sandstone series, which lie to the south of the + depression at Machrihanish, and are succeeded by the lower limestones + and coals of the Carboniferous Limestone series. + + On the north and south shores of the promontory of Ardnamurchan there + are small patches of Jurassic strata ranging from the Lower Lias to + the Oxford Clay, and in Morvern on the shores of Loch Aline + representatives of the Upper Greensand are covered by the basaltic + lavas of Tertiary age. The acid and basic plutonic rocks (gabbros and + granophyres) of Tertiary time occur in Ardnamurchan. A striking + geological feature of the county is the number of dolerite and basalt + dykes trending in a north-west direction, which are referred to the + same period of intrusion. There is, however, another group of dolerite + dykes running east and west near Dunoon and elsewhere, which are cut + by the former and are probably of older date. + + Lead veins occur at Strontian which have yielded a number of minerals, + including sphalerite, fluorite, strontianite, harmotone, brewsterite + and pilolite. Near Inveraray, nickeliferous ore has been obtained at + two localities. + +_Climate._--The rainfall is very abundant. At Oban, the average annual +amount is 64.18 in.; in Glen Fyne, 104.11 in.; at the bridge of Orchy, +113.62 in., and at Upper Glencoe 127.65. The prevailing winds, as +observed near Crinan, are south-west and south-east, and next in +frequency are the north-west and north-east. The average yearly +temperature is 48 deg. F. + +_Agriculture._--Argyllshire was formerly partly covered with natural +forests, remains of which, consisting chiefly of oak, ash, pine and +birch, are still visible in the mosses; but, owing to the clearance of +the ground for the introduction of sheep, and to past neglect of +planting, the county is now remarkable for its lack of wood, except in +the neighbourhood of Inveraray, where there are extensive and +flourishing plantations, and a few other places. Replanting, however, +has been carried on. Most of the county is unfitted for agriculture; but +many districts afford fine pasturage for mountain sheep; and some of the +valleys, such as Glendaruel, are very fertile. The chief crop is oats; +there is a little barley, but no wheat. The shire is one of those where +the crofting system exists, but it is by no means universal. It is +predominant in Tyree and the western district of the mainland, but +elsewhere farms of moderate size are the rule. The cattle, though small, +are equal to any other breed in the kingdom, and are marketed in large +numbers in the south. Dairy farming is carried on to some extent in the +southern parts of Kintyre, where there is a large proportion of arable +land. In the higher tracts sheep have taken the place of cattle with +excellent results. The black-faced is the species most generally reared. + +_Industries._--Whisky is manufactured at Campbeltown, in Islay, at Oban, +Ardrishaig and elsewhere. Gunpowder is made at Kames (Kyles of Bute), +Melfort and Furnace. Coarse woollens are made for home use; but fishing +is the most important industry, Loch Fyne being famous for its herrings. +The season lasts from June to January, but white fishing is carried on +at one or other of the ports all the year round. Slate and granite +quarrying and some coal-mining are the only other industries of any +consequence. + +_Communications._--Owing partly to the paucity of trading industries and +partly to the fact that, owing to its greatly indented coast-line, no +place in the shire is more than 12 m. from the sea, the railway mileage +in the county is very small. The Tyndrum to Oban section of the +Caledonian railway company's system is within the county limits; a small +portion of the track of the North British railway company's line to +Mallaig skirts the extreme west of the shire, and the Caledonian line +from Oban to Ballachulish serves the northern coast districts of the +Argyllshire mainland. In connexion with this last route mention should +be made of the cantilever bridge crossing the Falls of Lora with a span +of 500 ft. at a height of 125 ft. above the water-way. The chief means +of communication is by steamers, which maintain regular intercourse +between Glasgow and various parts of the coast. In order to avoid the +circuitous passage round the Mull of Kintyre the Crinan Canal, across +the isthmus from Ardrishaig to Loch Crinan, a distance of 9 m., was +constructed in 1793-1801, at a cost of L142,000. It has 15 locks, an +average depth of 10 ft., a surface width of 66 ft., and bottom width of +30 ft., is navigable by vessels of 200 tons, and runs through a district +of remarkable beauty. Another canal unites Campbeltown with Dalavaddy. +In summer the mails for the islands and the great bulk of the tourist +traffic by the MacBrayne fleet is conveyed through the Crinan Canal, +transhipment being effected at Ardrishaig and Crinan. Throughout the +year goods traffic between the Clyde and elsewhere and the West Highland +ports is conveyed by deep-sea steamers round the Mull. Before the advent +of railways the shire contained many famous coaching routes, but now +coaches only run during the tourist season, either in connexion with +train and steamer, or in districts still not served by either. + +_Population and Government._--Owing to emigration, chiefly to Canada, +the population has declined, almost without a break, since 1831, when it +was 100,973, to 74,085 in 1891 and 73,642 in 1901, in which year there +were 24 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 the number of Gaelic-speaking +persons was 34,224, of whom 3313 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are +Campbeltown (population in 1901, 8286), Dunoon (6779) and Oban (5427), +with Ardrishaig (1285), Ballachulish (1143), Lochgilphead (1313) and +Tarbert (1697). The county returns a member to parliament. Inveraray, +Campbeltown and Oban belong to the Ayr district group of parliamentary +burghs. Argyllshire is a sheriffdom, and there are resident +sheriffs-substitute at Inveraray, Campbeltown and Oban; courts are held +also at Tobermory, Lochgilphead, Bowmore in Islay, and Dunoon. Both +Presbyterian bodies are strongly represented; there are Roman Catholic +and (Anglican) Episcopal bishops of Argyll and the Isles, and there is a +Roman Catholic pro-cathedral at Oban. Campbeltown, Dunoon and Oban have +secondary schools, Tarbert public school has a secondary department, and +several other schools earn grants for giving higher education. Part of +the "residue" grant is spent by the county council on classes of +navigation and other subjects in various schools, short courses in +agriculture for farmers, and in providing bursaries. + +_History._--The early history of Argyll (Airergaidheal) is very obscure. +At the close of the 5th century Fergus, son of Erc, a descendant of +Conor II., _airdrigh_ or high king of Ireland, came over with a band of +Irish Scots and established himself in Argyll and Kintyre. Nothing more +is known till, in the days of Conall I., the descendant of Fergus in the +fourth generation, St Columba appears. Conall died in 574, and Columba +was mainly instrumental in establishing his first cousin, Aidan, founder +of the Dalriad kingdom and ancestor of the royal house of Scotland, in +power. In the 8th century Argyll, with the Western Islands and Man, fell +under the power of the Norsemen until, in the 12th century, Somerled (or +Somhairle), a descendant of Colla-Uais, _airdrigh_ of Ireland (327-331), +succeeded in ousting them and established his authority, not only as +thane of Argyll, but also in Kintyre and the Western Islands. Somerled +died in 1164 and his descendants maintained themselves in Argyll and the +islands, between the conflicting claims of the kings of Scotland, Norway +and Man, until the end of the 15th century. + +Up to 1222 Argyll had formed an independent Celtic princedom; but in +that year it was reduced by Alexander II., the Scottish king, to a +sheriffdom, and was henceforth regarded as an integral part of Scotland. +Among the various clans in Argyll, the Campbells of Loch Awe, a branch +of the clan McArthur, now began to come to the fore, though the mainland +was still chiefly in the possession of the MacDougals. The position of +the lords of the house of Somerled was now curious, since they were +feudatories of the king of Norway for the isles and of the king of +Scotland for Argyll. Their policy in the wars between the two powers was +a masterly neutrality. Thus, during the expedition of Alexander II. to +the Western Isles in 1249, Ewan (Eoghan), lord of Argyll, refused to +fight against the Norwegians; in 1263 the same Ewan refused to join +Haakon of Norway in attacking Alexander III. Forty years later the +clansmen of Argyll, mainly MacDougals, were warring on the side of +Edward of England against Robert Bruce, by whom they were badly beaten +on Loch Awe in 1309. The clansmen of the house of Somerled in the isles, +on the other hand, the MacDonalds, remained loyal to Scotland in spite +of the persuasions of John of Argyll, appointed admiral of Edward II.'s +western fleet; and, under their chief Angus Og, they contributed much to +the victory of Bannockburn. The alliance of John, earl of Ross and lord +of the Isles, with Edward IV. of England in 1461 led to the breaking of +the power of the house of Somerled, and in 1478 John was forced to +resign Ross to the crown and, two years later, his lordships of Knapdale +and Kintyre as well. In Argyll itself the Campbells had already made the +first step to supremacy through the marriage of Colin, grandson of Sir +Duncan Campbell of Lochow, first Lord Campbell, with Isabel Stewart, +eldest of the three co-heiresses of John, third lord of Lorne. He +acquired the greater part of the lands of the other sisters by purchase, +and the lordship of Lorne from Walter their uncle, the heir in tail +male, by an exchange for lands in Perthshire. In 1457 he was created, by +James II., earl of Argyll. He died on the 10th of May 1493. From him +dates the greatness of the house of the earls and dukes of Argyll +(q.v.), whose history belongs to that of Scotland. The house of Somerled +survives in two main branches--that of Macdonald of the Isles, Alexander +Macdonald (d. 1795) having been raised to the peerage in 1776, and that +of the Macdonnells, earls of Antrim in Ireland. The principal clans in +Argyll, besides those already mentioned, were the Macleans, the Stewarts +of Appin, the Macquarries and the Macdonalds of Glencoe, and the +Macfarlanes of Glencroe. The Campbells are still very numerous in the +county. + +Argyllshire men have made few contributions to English literature. For +long the natives spoke Gaelic only and their bards sang in Gaelic (see +CELT: _Literature:_ Scottish). Near Inistrynich on the north-eastern +shore of Loch Awe stands the monumental cairn erected in honour of +Duncan Ban McIntyre (1724-1812), the most popular of modern Gaelic +bards. But the romantic beauty of the country has made it a favourite +setting for the themes of many poets and story-tellers, from "Ossian" +and Sir Walter Scott to Robert Louis Stevenson, while not a few men +distinguished in affairs or in learning have been natives of the county. + +The antiquities comprise monoliths, circles of standing stones, crannogs +and cairns. In almost all the burying-grounds--as at Campbeltown, Keil, +Soroby, Kilchousland, Kilmun--there are specimens of sculptured crosses +and slabs. Besides the famous ecclesiastical remains at Iona (q.v.), +there are ruins of a Cistercian priory in Oronsay, and of a church +founded in the 12th century by Somerled, thane of Argyll, at Saddell. +Among castles may be mentioned Dunstaffnage, Ardtornish, Skipness, +Kilchurn (beloved of painters), Ardchonnel, Dunolly, Stalker, Dunderaw +and Carrick. + + AUTHORITIES.--The (Eighth) Duke of Argyll, _Commercial Principles + Applied to the Hire of Land_ (London, 1877); _Crofts and Farms in the + Hebrides_ (Edinburgh, 1883); _Iona_ (Edinburgh, 1889); _Scotland as it + Was and Is_ (Edinburgh, 1887), _House of Argyll_ (Glasgow, 1871); A. + Brown, _Memorials of Argyllshire_ (Greenock, 1889); Harvie-Brown and + Buckley, _Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the Inner Hebrides_ + (Edinburgh, 1892); D. Clerk, "On the Agriculture of the County of + Argyll" (_Trans. of H. and A. Soc._, 1878); T. Gray, _Week at Oban_ + (Edinburgh, 1881); Stewart, _Collection of Views of Campbeltown_. For + antiquities see _The Sculptured Stones of Scotland_, vol. ii., + published by the Spalding Club, and Capt. T.P. White's + _Archaeological Sketches in Kintyre_ and _Proc. Antiq. Soc. of + Scotland_, vols. iv., v., viii. + + + + +ARGYRODITE, a mineral which is of interest as being that in which the +element germanium was discovered by C. Winkler in 1886. It is a silver +sulpho-germanate, Ag8GeS6, and crystallizes in the cubic system. The +crystals have the form of the octahedron or rhombic dodecahedron, and +are frequently twinned. The botryoidal crusts of small indistinct +crystals first found in a silver mine at Freiberg in Saxony were +originally thought to be monoclinic, but were afterwards proved to be +identical with the more distinctly developed crystals recently found in +Bolivia. The colour is iron-black with a purplish tinge, and the lustre +metallic. There is no cleavage; hardness 2-1/2, specific gravity 6.2. It +is of interest to note that the Freiberg mineral was long ago +imperfectly described by A. Breithaupt under the name _Plusinglanz_, and +that the Bolivian crystals were incorrectly described in 1849 as +crystallized brongniardite. The name argyrodite is from the Greek +[Greek: argurodaes], rich in silver. + +Isomorphous with argyrodite is the corresponding tin compound Ag8SnS6, +also found in Bolivia as cubic crystals, and known by the name +canfieldite. Other Bolivian crystals are intermediate in composition +between argyrodite and canfieldite. (L. J. S.) + + + + +ARGYROKASTRO, or ARGYROCASTRON (Turkish, _Ergeri_; Albanian _Ergir +Castri_), a town of southern Albania, Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina. +Pop. (1900) about 11,000. Argyrokastro is finely situated 1060 ft. above +sea-level, on the eastern slopes of the Acroceraunian mountains, and +near the left bank of the river Dhrynos, a left-hand tributary of the +Viossa. It is the capital of a sanjak bearing the same name, and was +formerly important as the headquarters of the local Moslem aristocracy, +partly owing to the mountainous and easily defensible nature of the +district. It contains the ruins of an imposing castellated fort. A fine +kind of snuff, known as _fuli_, is manufactured here. Argyrokastro has +been variously identified with the ancient Hadrianopolis and Antigonea. +In the 18th century it is said to have contained 20,000 inhabitants, but +it was almost depopulated by plague in 1814. Albanian Moslems constitute +the greater part of the population. + + + + +ARGYROPULUS, or ARGYROPULO, JOHN (c. 1416-1486), Greek humanist, one of +the earliest promoters of the revival of learning in the West, was born +in Constantinople, and became a teacher there, Constantine Lascaris +being his pupil. He then appears to have crossed over to Italy, and +taught in Padua in 1434, being subsequently made rector of the +university. About 1441 he returned to Constantinople, but after its +capture by the Turks, again took refuge in Italy. About 1456 he was +invited to Florence by Cosimo de' Medici, and was there appointed +professor of Greek in the university. In 1471, on the outbreak of the +plague, he removed to Rome, where he continued to act as a teacher of +Greek till his death. Among his scholars were Angelus Politianus and +Johann Reuchlin. His principal works were translations of the following +portions of Aristotle,--_Categoriae, De Interpretatione, Analytica +Posteriora, Physica, De Caelo, De Anima, Metaphysica, Ethica Nicomachea, +Politica_; and an _Expositio Ethicorum Aristotelis_. Several of his +writings exist still in manuscript. + + See Humphrey Hody, _De Graecis Illustribus_, 1742, and Smith's + _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, s.v._ Joannes. + + + + +ARIA (Ital. for "air"), a musical term, equivalent to the English "air," +signifying a melody apart from the harmony, but especially a musical +composition for a single voice or instrument, with an accompaniment of +other voices or instruments. + +The aria originally developed from the expansion of a single vocal +melody, generally on the lines of what is known as binary form (see +SONATA and SONATA FORMS). Accordingly, while the germs of aria form may +be traceable in the highest developments of folk-song, the aria as a +definite art-form could not exist before the middle of the 17th century; +because up to that time the whole organization of music was based upon +polyphonic principles which left no room for the development of melody +for melody's sake. When at the beginning of the 17th century the +Monodists (see HARMONY and MONTEVERDE) inaugurated a new era and showed +in their first experiments the enormous possibilities latent in their +new art of accompanying single voices by instruments, it was natural +that for many years the mere suggestiveness and variety of their +experiments should suffice to retain the attention of contemporary +listeners, without any real artistic coherence in the works as wholes. +But, even at the outset, mere novelty of harmony, however poignant its +emotional expression, was felt by the profounder spirits of the new art +to be an untrustworthy guide to progress. And Monteverde's famous lament +of the deserted Ariadne is one of many early examples that appeal to an +elementary sense of form by making the last phrase identical with the +first. As instrumental music grew, and the modern sense of key became +strong and consistent, composers felt themselves more and more able to +appeal to that sense of harmonically consistent melody which has +asserted itself in folk-music before the history of harmonic music may +be said to have begun. The technique of solo singers grew as rapidly as +that of solo players, and composers soon found their chief musical +interest in doing justice to both. In Sir Hubert Parry's work, _The +Music of the 17th Century (Oxford History of Music_, vol. iii.), will be +found numerous illustrations of the early development of aria forms, +from their first indications in Monteverde's instinctive struggles after +coherence, to their complete maturity in the works of Alessandro +Scarlatti. + +By Scarlatti's time it was thoroughly established that the binary form +of melody was that which could best be expanded into a form which should +do justice both to singers and to the players who accompanied them. Thus +the aria became on a small scale the prototype of the Concerto; and +under that heading will accordingly be found all that need be said as to +the relation between the instrumental _ritornello_ and the material of +the voice part in an aria. + +So far we have spoken only of the main body of the aria; but the +addition of a middle section with a _da Capo_, which constitutes the +universal 18th-century _da Capo_ form of aria, adds a very simple new +principle to the essential scheme without really modifying it. A typical +aria of the Scarlatti or Handelian type is a very large melody in binary +form, delivered by the voice, which expands it with florid perorations +before each cadence (and sometimes also with florid preludes); while +relief is given to the voice, further spaciousness to the form, and +justice done to the accompaniment, by the addition of an instrumental +ritornello containing the gist of the melody not only at the beginning +and end, but also in suitable shorter forms at the principal +intermediate cadences in foreign keys. A smaller scheme of the same kind +in a new group of related keys, but generally without much new material, +is then appended as a middle section after which follows the main +section _da Capo_. The result is generally a piece of music of +considerable length, in a form which cannot fail to be effective and +coherent; and there is little cause for wonder in the extent to which it +dominated 18th-century music. It was not, however, invariable. In the +_Cavatina_ we find a form too small for the _da Capo_; and in the +oratorios of Handel and the choral works of Bach we find a majority of +arias in a larger form which evades the possibility of exact repetition. + +The aria forms are profoundly influenced by the difference between the +Sonata style and the style of Bach and Handel. But the scale of the form +is inevitably small, and in any opera an aria is hardly possible except +in a situation which is a tableau rather than an action. Consequently +there is no such difference between the form of the classical operatic +aria of Mozart and that of the Handelian type as there is between sonata +music and suite music. The scale, however, has become too large for the +_da Capo_, which was in any case too rigid to survive in music designed +to intensify a dramatic situation instead of to distract attention from +it. The necessary change of style was so successfully achieved that, +until Wagner succeeded in devising music that moved absolutely _pari +passu_ with his drama, the aria remained as the central formal principle +in dramatic music; and few things in artistic evolution are more +interesting than the extent to which Mozart's predecessor, the great +dramatic reformer Gluck, profited by the essential resources of his pet +aversion, the aria style, when he had not only purged it of what had +become the stereotyped ideas of ritornellos and vocal flourishes, but +animated it by the new sense of dramatic climax to which the sonata +style appealed. + +In modern opera the aria is almost always out of place, and the forms in +which definite melodies nowadays appear are rather those of the song in +its limited sense as that of a poem in formal stanzas all set to the +same music. In other words, a song in a modern opera tends to be +something which would be sung even if the drama had to be performed as a +play without music; whereas a classical aria would in non-musical drama +be a soliloquy. This can be shown by works at such opposite poles of +musical and dramatic technique as Bizet's _Carmen_ and the later works +of Wagner. In _Carmen_ the librettist has so managed that, if his work +were performed as a play, almost the whole of it would have to be sung; +and the one exception of musical importance is the developed soliloquy +of Micaela in the third act, which, although treated in no old-fashioned +or commonplace spirit by the composer, is the one thing in the opera +which sounds "operatic." + +In the later works of Wagner those passages in which we can successfully +detach complete melodies from their context have, one and all, +dramatically the aspect of songs and not of soliloquies. Siegmund sings +the song of Spring to his sister-bride; Mime teaches Siegfried lessons +of gratitude in nursery rhymes; and the whole story of the +_Meistersinger_ is a series of opportunities for song-singing. + +The distinctions and gradations between aria and song are of great +aesthetic importance, but their history would carry us too far. The +distinction is obviously of the same importance as that between dramatic +and lyric poetry. Beethoven's _Adelaide_ is a famous example of what is +called a song when it is really entirely in aria style; while the operas +of Mozart and Weber naturally contain in appropriate situations many +numbers which really are songs. The composers themselves generally give +appropriate names. Thus Mozart, in _Figaro_, calls "Non so piu cosa son" +an aria, because of its free style, though Cherubino actually sings it +as a song he has just invented; while "Voi che sapete," being more +purely lyric, is called _Canzona_. + +The term _aria form_ is applied, generally most inaccurately, to all +kinds of slow cantabile instrumental music of which the general design +can be traced to the operatic aria. Mozart, for example, is very fond of +slow movements in large binary form without development, and this is +constantly called aria-form, though the term ought certainly to be +restricted to such examples as have some traits of the aria style, such +as the first slow movement in the great serenade in B flat. At all +events, until writers on music have agreed to give the term some more +accurate use, it is as well to avoid it and its cognate version, +_Lied-form_, altogether in speaking of instrumental music. + +The _air_ or _aria_ in a suite is a short binary movement in a flowing +rhythm in common or duple time and by no means of the broadly tunelike +quality which its name would seem to imply. (D. F. T.) + + + + +ARIADNE (in Greek mythology), was the daughter of Minos, king of Crete, +and Pasiphae, the daughter of Helios the Sun-god. When Theseus landed on +the island to slay the Minotaur (q.v.), Ariadne fell in love with him, +and gave him a clue of thread to guide him through the mazes of the +labyrinth. After he had slain the monster, Theseus carried her off, but, +according to Homer (_Odyssey_, xi. 322) she was slain by Artemis at the +request of Dionysus in the island of Dia near Cnossus, before she could +reach Athens with Theseus. In the later legend, she was abandoned, while +asleep on the island of Naxos, by Theseus, who had fallen a victim to +the charms of Aegle (Plutarch, _Theseus_, 20; Diodorus, iv. 60, 61). Her +abandonment and awakening are celebrated in the beautiful _Epithalamium_ +of Catullus. On Naxos she is discovered by Dionysus on his return from +India, who is enchanted with her beauty, and marries her when she +awakes. She receives a crown as a bridal gift, which is placed amongst +the stars, while she herself is honoured as a goddess (Ovid, _Metam._ +viii. 152, _Fasti_, iii. 459). + +The name probably means "very holy" = [Greek: ari-agne]; another +(Cretan) form [Greek: Aridela] (= [Greek: phanera])indicates the return +to a "bright" season of nature. Ariadne is the personification of +spring. In keeping with this, her festivals at Naxos present a double +character; the one, full of mourning and sadness, represents her death +or abandonment by Theseus, the other, full of joy and revelry, +celebrates her awakening from sleep and marriage with Dionysus. Thus +nature sleeps and dies during winter, to awake in springtime to a life +of renewed luxuriance. With this may be compared the festivals of Adonis +and Osiris and the myth of Persephone. Theseus himself was said to have +founded a festival at Athens in honour of Ariadne and Dionysus after his +return from Crete. The story of Dionysus and Ariadne was a favourite +subject for reliefs and wall-paintings. Most commonly Ariadne is +represented asleep on the shore at Naxos, while Dionysus, attended by +satyrs and bacchanals, gazes admiringly upon her; sometimes they are +seated side by side under a spreading vine. The scene where she is +holding the clue to Theseus occurs on a very early vase in the British +Museum. There is a statue of the sleeping Ariadne in the Vatican Museum. + + Kanter, _De Ariadne_ (1879); Pallat, _De Fabula Ariadnea_ (1891). + + + + +ARIANO DI PUGLIA, a town and episcopal see, which, despite its name, now +belongs to Campania, Italy, in the province of Avellino, 1509 ft. above +sea-level, on the railway between Benevento and Foggia, 24 m. E. of the +former by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 8384; commune, 17,653. It lies in the +centre of a fertile district, but has no buildings of importance, as it +has often been devastated by earthquakes. A considerable part of the +population still dwells in caves. It has been supposed to occupy the +site of Aequum Tuticum, an ancient Samnite town, which became a +post-station on the Via Traiana[1] in Roman times; but this should +probably be sought at S. Eleuterio 5-1/2 m. north. It was a military +position of some importance in the middle ages. Thirteen miles +south-south-east is the Sorgente Mefita, identical with the pools of +Ampsanctus (q.v.). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This has generally been supposed to be the place referred to by + Horace (_Sat_. i. 5. 87), as one which the metre would not allow him + to mention by name; but H.-Nissen (_Halische Landeskunde_, Berlin, + 1902, ii. 845) proposes Ausculum instead. + + + + +ARIAS MONTANO, BENITO (1527-1598), Spanish Orientalist and editor of the +Antwerp Polyglot, was born at Fregenal de la Sierra, in Estremadura, in +1527. After studying at the universities of Seville and Alcala, he took +orders about the year 1559 and in 1562 he was appointed consulting +theologian to the council of Trent. He retired to Pena de Aracena in +1564, wrote his commentary on the minor prophets (1571), and was sent to +Antwerp by Philip II. to edit the polyglot Bible projected by +Christopher Plantin. The work appeared in 8 volumes folio, between 1568 +and 1573. Leon de Castro, a professor at Salamanca, thereon brought +charges of heresy against Arias Montano, who was finally acquitted after +a visit to Rome in 1575-1576. He was appointed royal chaplain, but +withdrew to Pena de Aracena from 1579 to 1583; he resigned the +chaplaincy in 1584, and went into complete seclusion at Santiago de la +Espada in Seville, where he died in 1598. + + He is the subject of an _Elogio historico_ by Tomas Gonzalez Carvajal + in the _Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia_ (Madrid, 1832), + vol. vii. + + + + +ARICA (SAN MARCOS DE ARICA), a town and port of the Chilean-governed +province of Tacna, situated in 18 deg. 28' 08" S. lat. and 70 deg. 20' +46" W. long. It is the port for Tacna, the capital of the province, 38 +m. distant, with which it is connected by rail, and is the outlet for a +large and productive mining district. Arica at one time had a population +of 30,000 and enjoyed much prosperity, but through civil war, +earthquakes and conquest, its population had dwindled to 2853 in 1895 +and 2824 in 1902. The great earthquake of 1868, followed by a tidal +wave, nearly destroyed the town and shipping. Arica was captured, looted +and burned by the Chileans in 1880, and in accordance with the terms of +the treaty of Ancon (1883) should have been returned to Peru in 1894, +but this was not done. Late in 1906 the town again suffered severely +from an earthquake. + + + + +ARICIA (mod. _Ariccia_), an ancient city of Latium, on the Via Appia, 16 +m. S.E. of Rome. The old town, or at any rate its acropolis, now +occupied by the modern town, lay high (1350 ft. above sea-level) above +the circular Valle Aricciana, which is probably an extinct volcanic +crater; some remains of its fortifications, consisting of a mound of +earth supported on each side by a wall of rectangular blocks of peperino +stone, have been discovered (D. Marchetti, in _Notizie degli scavi_, +1892, 52). The lower town was situated on the north edge of the valley, +close to the Via Appia, which descended into the valley from the modern +Albano, and re-ascended partly upon very fine substructions of _opus +quadratum_, some 200 yds. in length, to the modern Genzano. Remains of +the walls of the lower town, of the _cella_ of a temple built of blocks +of peperino, and also of later buildings in brickwork and _opus +reticulatum_, connected with the post-station (Aricia being the first +important station out of Rome, cf. Horace, _Sat._ i. 5. 1, _Egressum +magna me excepit Aricia Roma hospitio modico_) on the highroad, may +still be seen (cf. T. Ashby in _Melanges de l'ecole francaise de Rome_, +1903, 399). Aricia was one of the oldest cities of Latium, and appears +as a serious opponent of Rome at the end of the period of the kings and +beginning of the republic. In 338 B.C. it was conquered by C. Maenius +and became a _civitas sine suffragio_, but was soon given full rights. +Even in the imperial period its chief magistrate was styled _dictator_, +and its council _senatus_, and it preserved its own calendar of +festivals. Its vegetables and wine were famous, and the district is +still fertile. (T. As.) + + + + +ARICINI, the ancient inhabitants of Aricia (q.v.), the form of the name +ranking them with the Sidicini, Marrucini (q.v.), &c., as one of the +communities belonging probably to the earlier or Volscian stratum of +population on the west side of Italy, who were absorbed by the Sabine or +Latin immigrants. Special interest attaches to this trace of their +earlier origin, because of the famous cult of Diana Nemorensis, whose +temple in the forest close by Aricia, beside the _lacus Nemorensis_, was +served by "the priest who slew the slayer, and shall himself be slain"; +that is to say, the priest, who was called _rex Nemorensis_, held office +only so long as he could defend himself from any stronger rival. This +cult, which is unique in Italy, is picturesquely described in the +opening chapter of J.G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_ (2nd ed., 1900) where +full references will be found. Of these references the most important +are, perhaps, Strabo v. 3. 12; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 263-272; and +Suetonius, _Calig_. 35, whose wording indicates that the old-world +custom was dying out in the 1st century A.D. It is a reasonable +conjecture that this extraordinary relic of barbarism was characteristic +of the earlier stratum of the population who presumably called +themselves _Arici_. + + On the anthropological aspect of the cult, see also A.B. Cook, + _Class. Rev_. xvi., 1902, p. 365, where the whole evidence is very + fully collected; and Frazer's _Studies in the Early History of + Kingship_ (1907), where he accepts Cook's criticism of his own earlier + theory. (R. S. C.) + + + + +ARIEGE, an inland department of southern France, bounded S. by Spain, W. +and N. by the department of Haute-Garonne, N.E. and E. by Aude, and S.E. +by Pyrenees-Orientales. It embraces the old countship of Foix, and a +portion of Languedoc and Gascony. Area, 1893 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 205,684. +Ariege is for the most part mountainous. Its southern border is occupied +by the snow-clad peaks of the eastern Pyrenees, the highest of which +within the department is the Pic de Montcalm (10,512 ft.). Communication +with Spain is afforded by a large number of _ports_ or _cols_, which +are, however, for the most part difficult paths, and only practicable +for a few months in the year. Farther to the north two lesser ranges +running parallel to the main chain traverse the centre of the department +from south-east to north-west. The more southerly, the Montagne de Tabe, +contains, at its south-eastern end, several heights between 7200 and +9200 ft., while the Montagues de Plantaurel to the north of Foix are of +lesser altitude. These latter divide the fertile alluvial plains of the +north from the mountains of the centre and south. The department is +intersected by torrents belonging to the Garonne basin--the Salat, the +Arize, which, near Mas d'Azil, flows through a subterranean gallery, the +Ariege and the Hers. The climate is mild in the south, but naturally +very severe among the mountains. Generally speaking, the arable land, +which is chiefly occupied by small holdings, is confined to the +lowlands. Wheat, maize and potatoes are the chief crops. Good vineyards +and market gardens are found in the neighbourhood of Pamiers in the +north. Flax and hemp are also cultivated. The mountains afford excellent +pasture, and a considerable number of cattle, sheep and swine are +reared. Poultry- and bee-farming flourish. Forests cover more than +one-third of the department and harbour wild boars and even bears. Game, +birds of prey and fish are plentiful. There is abundance of minerals, +including lead, copper, manganese and especially iron. Grindstones, +building-stone, talc, gypsum, marble and phosphates are also produced. +Warm mineral springs of note are found at Ax, Aulus and Ussat. Pamiers +and St Girons are the most important industrial towns. Iron founding and +forging, which have their chief centre at Pamiers are principal +industries. Flour-milling, paper-making and cloth-weaving may also be +mentioned. Ariege is served by the Southern railway. It forms the +diocese of Pamiers and belongs to the ecclesiastical province of +Toulouse. It is within the circumscriptions of the academie (educational +division) and of the court of appeal of Toulouse and of the XVII. army +corps. Its capital is Foix; it comprises the arrondissements of Foix, St +Girons and Pamiers, with 20 cantons and 338 communes. Foix, Pamiers, St +Girons and St Lizier-de-Couserans are the more noteworthy towns. Mention +may also be made of Mirepoix, once the seat of a bishopric, and +possessing a cathedral (15th and 16th centuries) with a remarkable +Gothic spire. + + + + +ARIES ("The Ram"), in astronomy, the first sign of the zodiac (q.v.), +denoted by the sign [symbol], in imitation of a ram's head. The name is +probably to be associated with the fact that when the sun is in this +part of the heavens (in spring) sheep bring forth their young; this +finds a parallel in _Aquarius_, when there is much rain. It is also a +constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued eighteen stars, Tycho Brahe +twenty-one, and Hevelius twenty-seven. According to a Greek myth, +Nephele, mother of Phrixus and Helle, gave her son a ram with a golden +fleece. To avoid the evil designs of Hera, their stepmother, Phrixus and +Helle fled on the back of the ram, and reaching the sea, attempted to +cross. Helle fell from the ram and was drowned (hence the _Hellespont_); +Phrixus, having arrived in Colchis and been kindly received by the king, +Aeetes, sacrificed the ram to Zeus, to whom he also dedicated the +fleece, which was afterwards carried away by Jason. Zeus placed the ram +in the heavens as the constellation. + + + + +ARIKARA, or ARICARA (from _ariki_, horn), a tribe of North American +Indians of Caddoan stock. They are now settled with the Hidatsas and the +Mandans on the Fort Berthold Reservation, North Dakota. They originally +lived in the Platte Valley, Nebraska, with the Pawnees, to whom they are +related. They number about 400. + + See _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington 1907) + + + + +ARIMASPI, an ancient people in the extreme N.E. of Scythia (q.v.), +probably the eastern Altai. All accounts of them go back to a poem by +Aristeas of Proconnesus, from whom Herodotus (iii. 116, iv. 27) drew his +information. They were supposed to be one-eyed (hence their Scythian +name), and to steal gold from the griffins that guarded it. In art they +are usually represented as richly dressed Asiatics, picturesquely +grouped with their griffin foes; the subject is often described by poets +from Aeschylus to Milton. They are so nearly mythical that it is +impossible to insist on the usual identification with the ancestors of +the Huns. Their gold was probably real, as gold still comes from the +Altai. + + + + +ARIMINUM (mod. _Rimini_), a city of Aemilia, on the N.E. coast of Italy, +69 m. S.E. of Bononia. It was founded by the Umbrians, but in 268 B.C. +became a Roman colony with Latin rights. It was reached from Rome by the +Via Flaminia, constructed in 220 B.C., and from that time onwards was +the bulwark of the Roman power in Cisalpine Gaul, to which province it +even gave its name. Its harbour was of some importance, but is now +silted up, the sea having receded. The remains of its moles were +destroyed in 1807-1809. Ariminum became a place of considerable traffic +owing to the construction of the Via Aemilia (187 B.C.) and the Via +Popilia (132 B.C.), and is frequently mentioned by ancient authors. In +90 B.C. it acquired Roman citizenship, but in 82 B.C. having been held +by the partisans of Marius, it was plundered by those of Sulla (who +probably made the Rubicon the frontier of Italy instead of the Aesis), +and a military colony settled there. Caesar occupied it in 49 B.C. after +his crossing of the Rubicon. It was one of the eighteen richest cities +of Italy which the triumviri selected as a reward for their troops. In +27 B.C. Augustus planted new colonists there, and divided the city into +seven _vici_ after the model of Rome, from which the names of the _vici_ +were borrowed. He also restored the Via Flaminia (_Mon. Ancyr._ c. 20) +from Rome to Ariminum. At the entrance to the latter the senate erected, +in his honour, a triumphal arch which is still extant--a fine simple +monument with a single opening. At the other end of the _decumanus +maximus_ or main street (3000 Roman ft. in length) is a fine bridge over +the Ariminus (mod. Marecchia) begun by Augustus and completed by +Tiberius in A.D. 20. It has five wide arches, the central one having a +span of 35 ft., and is well preserved. Both it and the arch are built of +Istrian stone. The present Piazza Giulio Cesare marks the site of the +ancient forum. The remains of the amphitheatre are scanty; many of its +stones have gone to build the city wall, which must, therefore, at the +earliest belong to the end of the classical period. In A.D. 1 Augustus's +grandson Gaius Caesar had all the streets of Ariminum paved. In A.D. 69 +the town was attacked by the partisans of Vespasian, and was frequently +besieged in the Gothic wars. It was one of the five seaports which +remained Byzantine until the time of Pippin. (See RIMINI.) + + See A. Tonini, _Storia della Citta di Rimini_ (Rimini, 1848-1862). + (T. As.) + + + + +ARIOBARZANES, the name of three ancient kings or satraps of Pontus, and +of three kings of Cappadocia and a Persian satrap. + +Of the Pontic rulers two are most famous, (1) The son of Mithradates I., +who revolted against Artaxerxes in 362 B.C. and may be regarded as the +founder of the kingdom of Pontus (q.v.). According to Demosthenes he and +his three sons received from the Athenians the honour of citizenship. +(2) The son of Mithradates III., who reigned c. 266-240 B.C., and was +one of those who enlisted the help of the invading Gauls (see GALATIA). + +Of the Cappadocian rulers the best-known one ("Philo-Romaeus" on the +coins) reigned nominally from 93 to 63 B.C., but was three times +expelled by Mithradates the Great and as often reinstated by Roman +generals. Soon after the third occasion he formally abdicated in favour +of his son Ariobarzanes "Philopator," of whom we gather only that he was +murdered some time before 51. His son Ariobarzanes, called "Eusebes" and +"Philo-Romaeus," earned the gratitude of Cicero during his proconsulate +in Cilicia, and fought for Pompey in the civil wars, but was afterwards +received with honour by Julius Caesar, who subsequently reinstated him +when expelled by Pharnaces of Pontus. In 42 B.C. Brutus and Cassius +declared him a traitor, invaded his territory and put him to death. + +The Persian satrap of this name unsuccessfully opposed Alexander the +Great on his way to Persepolis (331 B.C.). + + + + +ARION, of Methymna, in Lesbos, a semi-legendary poet and musician, +friend of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. He flourished about 625 B.C. +Several of the ancients ascribe to him the invention of the dithyramb +and of dithyrambic poetry; it is probable, however, that his real +service was confined to the organization of that verse, and the +conversion of it from a mere drunken song, used in the Dionysiac revels, +to a measured antistrophic hymn, sung by a trained body of performers. +The name Cycleus given to his father indicates the connexion of the son +with the "cyclic" or circular chorus which was the origin of tragedy. +According to Suidas he composed a number of songs and proems; none of +these is extant; the fragment of a hymn to Poseidon attributed to him +(Aelian, _Hist. An._ xii. 45) is spurious and was probably written in +Attica in the time of Euripides. Nothing is known of the life of Arion, +with the exception of the beautiful story first told by Herodotus (i. +23) and elaborated and embellished by subsequent writers. According to +Herodotus, Arion being desirous of exhibiting his skill in foreign +countries left Corinth, and travelled through Sicily and parts of Italy, +where he gained great fame and amassed a large sum of money. At Taras +(Tarentum) he embarked for his homeward voyage in a Corinthian vessel. +The sight of his treasure roused the cupidity of the sailors, who +resolved to possess themselves of it by putting him to death. In answer +to his entreaties that they would spare his life, they insisted that he +should either die by his own hand on shipboard or cast himself into the +sea. Arion chose the latter, and as a last favour begged permission to +sing a parting song. The sailors, desirous of hearing so famous a +musician, consented, and the poet, standing on the deck of the ship, in +full minstrel's attire, sang a dirge accompanied by his lyre. He then +threw himself overboard; but instead of perishing, he was miraculously +borne up in safety by a dolphin, supposed to have been charmed by the +music. Thus he was conveyed to Taenarum, whence he proceeded to Corinth, +arriving before the ship from Tarentum. Immediately on his arrival Arion +related his story to Periander, who was at first incredulous, but +eventually learned the truth by a stratagem. Summoning the sailors, he +demanded what had become of the poet. They affirmed that he had remained +behind at Tarentum; upon which they were suddenly confronted by Arion +himself, arrayed in the same garments in which he had leapt overboard. +The sailors confessed their guilt and were punished. Arion's lyre and +the dolphin were translated to the stars. Herodotus and Pausanias (iii. +25. 7) both refer to a brass figure at Taenarum which was supposed to +represent Arion seated on the dolphin's back. But this story is only one +of several in which the dolphin appears as saving the lives of favoured +heroes. For instance, it is curious that Taras, the mythical founder of +Tarentum, is said to have been conveyed in this manner from Taenarum to +Tarentum. On Tarentine coins a man and dolphin appear, and hence it may +be thought that the monument at Taenarum represented Taras and not +Arion. At the same time the connexion of Apollo with the dolphin must +not be forgotten. Under this form the god appeared when he founded the +celebrated oracle at Delphi, the name of which commemorates the +circumstance. He was also the god of music, the special preserver of +poets, and to him the lyre was sacred. + + Among the numerous modern versions of the story, particular mention + may be made of the pretty ballad by A.W. Schlegel; see also Lehrs, + _Populare Aufsatze aus dem Alterthum_ (1844-1846); Clement, _Arion_ + (1898). + + + + +ARIOSTO, LODOVICO (1474-1533) Italian poet, was born at Reggio, in +Lombardy, on the 8th of September 1474. His father was Niccolo Ariosto, +commander of the citadel of Reggio. He showed a strong inclination to +poetry from his earliest years, but was obliged by his father to study +the law--a pursuit in which he lost five of the best years of his life. +Allowed at last to follow his inclination, he applied himself to the +study of the classics under Gregorio da Spoleto. But after a short time, +during which he read the best Latin authors, he was deprived of his +teacher by Gregorio's removal to France as tutor of Francesco Sforza. +Ariosto thus lost the opportunity of learning Greek, as he intended. His +father dying soon after, he was compelled to forego his literary +occupations to undertake the management of the family, whose affairs +were embarrassed, and to provide for his nine brothers and sisters, one +of whom was a cripple. He wrote, however, about this time some comedies +in prose and a few lyrical pieces. Some of these attracted the notice of +the cardinal Ippolito d'Este, who took the young poet under his +patronage and appointed him one of the gentlemen of his household. This +prince usurped the character of a patron of literature, whilst the only +reward which the poet received for having dedicated to him the _Orlando +Furioso_, was the question, "Where did you find so many stories, Master +Ludovic?" The poet himself tells us that the cardinal was ungrateful; +deplores the time which he spent under his yoke; and adds, that if he +received some niggardly pension, it was not to reward him for his +poetry, which the prelate despised, but to make some just compensation +for the poet's running like a messenger, with the risk of his life, at +his eminence's pleasure. Nor was even this miserable pittance regularly +paid during the period that the poet enjoyed it. The cardinal went to +Hungary in 1518, and wished Ariosto to accompany him. The poet excused +himself, pleading ill health, his love of study, the care of his private +affairs and the age of his mother, whom it would have been disgraceful +to leave. His excuses were not received, and even an interview was +denied him. Ariosto then boldly said, that if his eminence thought to +have bought a slave by assigning him the scanty pension of 75 crowns a +year, he was mistaken and might withdraw his boon--which it seems the +cardinal did. + +The cardinal's brother, Alphonso, duke of Ferrara, now took the poet +under his patronage. This was but an act of simple justice, Ariosto +having already distinguished himself as a diplomatist, chiefly on the +occasion of two visits to Rome as ambassador to Pope Julius II. The +fatigue of one of these hurried journeys brought on a complaint from +which he never recovered; and on his second mission he was nearly killed +by order of the violent pope, who happened at the time to be much +incensed against the duke of Ferrara. On account of the war, his salary +of only 84 crowns a year was suspended, and it was withdrawn altogether +after the peace; in consequence of which Ariosto asked the duke either +to provide for him, or to allow him to seek employment elsewhere. A +province, situated on the wildest heights of the Apennines, being then +without a governor, Ariosto received the appointment, which he held for +three years. The office was no sinecure. The province was distracted by +factions and banditti, the governor had not the requisite means to +enforce his authority and the duke did little to support his minister. +Yet it is said that Ariosto's government satisfied both the sovereign +and the people confided to his care; and a story is added of his having, +when walking out alone, fallen in with a party of banditti, whose chief, +on discovering that his captive was the author of _Orlando Furioso_, +humbly apologized for not having immediately shown him the respect which +was due to his rank. Although he had little reason to be satisfied with +his office, he refused an embassy to Pope Clement VII. offered to him by +the secretary of the duke, and spent the remainder of his life at +Ferrara, writing comedies, superintending their performance as well as +the construction of a theatre, and correcting his _Orlando Furioso_, of +which the complete edition was published only a year before his death. +He died of consumption on the 6th of June 1533. + +That Ariosto was honoured and respected by the first men of his age is a +fact; that most of the princes of Italy showed him great partiality is +equally true; but it is not less so that their patronage was limited to +kind words. It is not known that he ever received any substantial mark +of their love for literature; he lived and died poor. He proudly wrote +on the entrance of a house built by himself, + + "Parva, sed apta mihi, sed nulli obnoxia, sed non + Sordida, parta meo sed tamen aere domus;" + +which serves to show the incorrectness of the assertion of flatterers, +followed by Tiraboschi, that the duke of Ferrara built that house for +him. The only one who seems to have given anything to Ariosto as a +reward for his poetical talent was the marquess del Vasto, who assigned +him an annuity of 100 crowns on the revenues of Casteleone in Lombardy; +but it was only paid, if ever, from the end of 1531. That he was crowned +as poet by Charles V. seems untrue, although a diploma may have been +issued to that effect by the emperor. + +The character of Ariosto seems to have been fully and justly delineated +by Gabriele, his brother:-- + + "Ornabat pietas et grata modestia Vatem, + Sancta fides, dictique memor, munitaque recto + Justitia, et nullo patientia victa labore, + Et constans virtus animi, et clementia mitis, + Ambitione procul pulsa, fastusque tumore." + +His satires, in which we see him before us such as he was, show that +there was no flattery in this portrait. In these compositions we are +struck with the noble independence of the poet. He loved liberty with a +most jealous fondness. His disposition was changeable withal, as he +himself very frankly confesses in his Latin verses, as well as in the +satires. + + "Hoc olim ingenio vitales hausimus auras, + Multa cito ut placeant, displicitura brevi. + Non in amore modo mens haec, sed in omnibus impar + Ipsa sibi longa non retinenda mora." + +Hence he never would bind himself, either by going into orders, or by +marrying, till towards the end of his life, when he espoused Alessandra, +widow of Tito Strozzi. He had no issue by his wife, but he left two +natural sons by different mothers. + +His Latin poems do not perhaps deserve to be noticed: in the age of +Flaminio, Vida, Fracastoro and Sannazaro, better things were due from a +poet like Ariosto. His lyrical compositions show the poet, although they +do not seem worthy of his powers. His comedies, of which he wrote four, +besides one which he left unfinished, are avowedly imitated from Plautus +and Terence; and although native critics may admire in them the elegance +of the diction, the liveliness of the dialogue and the novelty of some +scenes, few will feel interest either in the subject or in the +characters, and it is hard to approve the immoral passages by which they +are disfigured, however grateful these might be to the audiences and +patrons of theatrical representations in Ariosto's own day. + +Of all the works of Ariosto, the most solid monument of his fame is the +_Orlando Furioso_, the extraordinary merits of which have cast into +oblivion the numberless romance poems which inundated Italy during the +15th, 16th and 17th centuries. + +The popularity which an earlier poem on the same theme, _Orlando +Innamorato_, by Boiardo, enjoyed in Ariosto's time, cannot be well +conceived, now that the enthusiasm of the crusades, and the interest +which was attached to a war against the Moslems, have passed away. +Boiardo wrote and read his poem at the court of Ferrara, but died before +he was able to finish it. Many poets undertook the difficult task of its +completion; but it was reserved for Ariosto both to finish and to +surpass, his original. Boiardo did not, perhaps, yield to Ariosto either +in vigour or in richness of imagination, but he lived in a less refined +age, and died before he was able to recast or even finish the poetical +romance which he had written under the impulse of his exuberant fancy. +Ariosto, on the other hand, united to a powerful imagination an elegant +and cultivated taste. He began to write his great poem about 1503, and +after having consulted the first men of the age of Leo X., he published +it in 1516, in only 40 cantos (extended afterwards to 46); and up to the +moment of his death never ceased to correct and improve both the subject +and the style. It is in this latter quality that he excels, and for +which he had assigned him the name of _Divino Lodovico_. Even when he +jests, he never compromises his dignity; and in pathetic description or +narrative he excites the reader's deepest feelings. In his machinery he +displays a vivacity of fancy with which no other poet can vie; but he +never lets his fancy carry him so far as to omit to employ, with an art +peculiar to himself, those simple and natural pencil-strokes which, by +imparting to the most extraordinary feats a colour of reality, satisfy +the reason without disenchanting the imagination. The death of Zerbino, +the complaints of Isabella, the effects of discord among the Saracens, +the flight of Astolfo to the moon, the passion which causes Orlando's +madness, teem with beauties of every variety. The supposition that the +poem is not connected throughout is wholly unfounded; there is a +connexion which, with a little attention, will become evident. The love +of Ruggero and Bradamante forms the main subject of the _Furioso_; every +part of it, except some episodes, depend upon this subject; and the poem +ends with their marriage. + + The first complete edition of the _Orlando Furioso_ was published at + Ferrara in 1532, as noted above. The edition of Morali (Milan, 1818) + follows the text of the 1532 edition with great correctness. Of + editions published in England, those of Baskerville (Birmingham, 1773) + and Panizzi (London, 1834) are the most important. The indifferent + translations into English of Sir John Harrington (1591) and John Hoole + (1783) have been superseded by the spirited rendering of W. Stewart + Rose (1823). See also E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the Prince of Court Poets_ + (1906). + + + + +ARISTAENETUS, Greek epistolographer, flourished in the 5th or 6th +century A.D. He was formerly identified with Aristaenetus of Nicaea (the +friend of Symmachus), who perished in an earthquake at Nicomedia, A.D. +358, but internal evidence points to a much later date. Under his name +two books of love stories, in the form of letters, are extant; the +subjects are borrowed from the erotic elegies of such Alexandrian +writers as Callimachus, and the language is a patchwork of phrases from +Plato, Lucian, Alciphron and others. The stories are feeble and insipid, +and full of strange and improbable incidents. + + Text: Boissonade (1822); Hercher, _Epistolographi Graeci_ (1873). + English translations: Boyer (1701); Thomas Brown (1715); R.B. + Sheridan and Halked (1771 and later). + + + + +ARISTAEUS, a divinity whose worship was widely spread throughout ancient +Greece, but concerning whom the myths are somewhat obscure. The account +most generally received connects him specially with Thessaly. Apollo +carried off from Mount Pelion the nymph Cyrene, daughter or +granddaughter of the river-god Peneus, and conveyed her to Libya, where +she gave birth to Aristaeus. From this circumstance the town of Cyrene +took its name. The child was at first handed over to the care of the +Hours, or the nymph Melissa and the centaur Cheiron. He afterwards left +Libya and went to Thebes, where he received instruction from the Muses +in the arts of healing and prophecy, and married Autonoe, daughter of +Cadmus, by whom he had several children, among others, the unfortunate +Actaeon. He is said to have visited Ceos, where, by erecting a temple to +Zeus Icmaeus (the giver of moisture), he freed the inhabitants from a +terrible drought. The islanders worshipped him, and occasionally +identified him with Zeus, calling him Zeus Aristaeus. After travelling +through many of the Aegean islands, through Sicily, Sardinia and Magna +Graecia, everywhere conferring benefits and receiving divine honours, +Aristaeus reached Thrace, where he was initiated into the mysteries of +Dionysus, and finally disappeared near Mount Haemus. While in Thrace he +is said to have caused the death of Eurydice, who was bitten by a snake +while fleeing from him. Aristaeus was essentially a benevolent deity; he +was worshipped as the first who introduced the cultivation of bees +(Virgil, _Georg._ iv. 315-558), and of the vine and olive; he was the +protector of herdsmen and hunters; he warded off the evil effects of the +dog-star; he possessed the arts of healing and prophecy. He was often +identified with Zeus, Apollo and Dionysus. In ancient sculptures and +coins he is represented as a young man, habited like a shepherd, and +sometimes carrying a sheep on his shoulders. Coins of Ceos exhibit the +head of Aristaeus and Sirius in the form of a dog crowned with rays. + + Pindar, _Pythia_, ix. 5-65; Apollonius Rhodius, schol. on ii. 498, + 500; Diodorus, iv. 81. + + + + +ARISTAGORAS (d. 497 B.C.), brother-in-law and cousin of Histiaeus, +tyrant of Miletus. While Histiaeus was practically a prisoner at the +court of Darius, he acted as regent in Miletus. In 500 B.C. he +persuaded the Persians to join him in an attack upon Naxos, but he +quarrelled with Megabates, the Persian commander, who warned the +inhabitants of the island, and the expedition failed. Finding himself +the object of Persian suspicion, Aristagoras, instigated by a message +from Histiaeus, raised the standard of revolt in Miletus, though it +seems likely that this step had been under consideration for some time +(see IONIA). After the complete failure of the Ionian revolt he +emigrated to Myrcinus in Thrace. Here he fell in battle (497), while +attacking Ennea Hodoi (afterwards Amphipolis) on the Strymon, which +belonged to the Edonians, a Thracian tribe. The aid given to him by +Athens and Eretria, and the burning of Sardis, were the immediate cause +of the invasion of Greece by Darius. + + See Herodotus v. 30-51, 97-126; Thucydides iv. 102; Diodorus xii. 68; + for a more favourable view see G.B. Grundy, _Great Persian War_ + (London, 1901). + + + + +ARISTANDER, of Telmessus in Lycia, was the favourite soothsayer of +Alexander the Great, who consulted him on all occasions. After the death +of the monarch, when his body had lain unburied for thirty days, +Aristander procured its burial by foretelling that the country in which +it was interred would be the most prosperous in the world. He is +frequently mentioned by the historians who wrote about Alexander, and +was probably the author of a work on prodigies, which is referred to by +Pliny (_Nat. Hist_. xvii. 38) and Lucian. + + _Philopatris_, 21; Arrian, _Anabasis_, ii. 26, iii. 2, iv. 4; + Plutarch, _Alexander_; Curtius iv. 2, 6, 15, vii. 7. + + + + +ARISTARCHUS, of Samos, Greek astronomer, flourished about 250 B.C. He is +famous as having been the first to maintain that the earth moves round +the sun. On this account he was accused of impiety by the Stoic +Cleanthes, just as Galileo, in later years, was attacked by the +theologians. His only extant work is a short treatise (with a commentary +by Pappus) _On the Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun and Moon_. His +method of estimating the relative lunar and solar distances is +geometrically correct, though the instrumental means at his command +rendered his data erroneous. Although the heliocentric system is not +mentioned in the treatise, a quotation in the _Arenarius_ of Archimedes +from a work of Aristarchus proves that he anticipated the great +discovery of Copernicus. Further, Copernicus could not have known of +Aristarchus's doctrine, since Archimedes's work was not published till +after Copernicus's death. Aristarchus is also said to have invented two +sun-dials, one hemispherical, the so-called _scaphion_, the other plane. + + Editio princeps by Wallis (1688); Fortia d'Urban (1810); Nizze (1856). + See Bergk-Hinrichs, _Aristarchus van Samos_ (1883); Tannery, + _Aristarque de Samos_; also ASTRONOMY. + + + + +ARISTARCHUS, of Samothrace (c. 220-143 B.C.), Greek grammarian and +critic, flourished about 155. He settled early in Alexandria, where he +studied under Aristophanes of Byzantium, whom he succeeded as librarian +of the museum. On the accession of the tyrant Ptolemy Physcon (his +former pupil), he found his life in danger and withdrew to Cyprus, where +he died from dropsy, hastened, it is said, by voluntary starvation, at +the age of 72. Aristarchus founded a school of philologists, called +after him "Aristarcheans," which long flourished in Alexandria and +afterwards at Rome. He is said to have written 800 commentaries alone, +without reckoning special treatises. He edited Hesiod, Pindar, +Aeschylus, Sophocles and other authors; but his chief fame rests on his +critical and exegetical edition of Homer, practically the foundation of +our present recension. In the time of Augustus, two Aristarcheans, +Didymus and Aristonicus, undertook the revision of his work, and the +extracts from these two writers in the Venetian scholia to the _Iliad_ +give an idea of Aristarchus's Homeric labours. To obtain a thoroughly +correct text, he marked with an obelus the lines he considered spurious; +other signs were used by him to indicate notes, varieties of reading, +repetitions and interpolations. He arranged the _Iliad_ and the +_Odyssey_ in twenty-four books as we now have them. As a commentator his +principle was that the author should explain himself, without recourse +to allegorical interpretation; in grammar, he laid chief stress on +analogy and uniformity of usage and construction. His views were opposed +by Crates of Mallus, who wrote a treatise [Greek: Heri Anomalias], +especially directed against them. + + See Lehrs, _De Aristarchi Stud. Homericis_ (3rd ed., 1882); Ludwich, + _Aristarchs homerische Textcritik_ (1884); especially Sandys, _Hist. + of Class. Schol._ (ed. 1906), vol. i. with authorities; also HOMER. + + + + +ARISTEAS, a somewhat mythical personage in ancient Greece, said to have +lived in the time of Cyrus and Croesus, or, according to some, ca. 690 +B.C. We are chiefly indebted to Herodotus (iv. 13-15) for our knowledge +of him and his poem _Arimaspeia_. He belonged to a noble family of +Proconnesus, an island colony from Miletus in the Propontis, and was +supposed to be inspired by Apollo. He travelled through the countries +north and east of the Euxine, and visited the Hyperboreans, Issedonians +and Arimaspians, who fought against the gold-guarding griffins. An +important historical fact which seems to be indicated in his poem is the +rush of barbarian hordes towards Europe under pressure from their +neighbours. Twelve lines of the poem are preserved in Tzetzes and +Longinus. Wonderful stories are told of Aristeas. At Proconnesus, he +fell dead in a shop; simultaneously a traveller declared he had spoken +with him near Cyzicus; his body vanished; six years afterwards, he +returned. Again disappearing, 240 years later he was at Metapontum, and +commanded the inhabitants to raise a statue to himself and an altar to +Apollo, whom he had accompanied in the form of a raven, at the founding +of the city. According to Suidas, Aristeas also wrote a prose theogony. +The genuineness of his works is disputed by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. + + See Tournier, _De Aristea Proconneso_ (1863); Macan, _Hdt._ iv. 14 + note. + + + + +ARISTEAS, the pseudonymous author of a famous _Letter_ in which is +described, in legendary form, the origin of the Greek translation of the +Old Testament known as the Septuagint (q.v.). Aristeas represents +himself as a Gentile Greek, but was really an Alexandrian Jew who lived +under one of the later Ptolemies. Though the _Letter_ is unauthentic, it +is now recognized as a useful source of information concerning both +Egyptian and Palestinian affairs in the 2nd and possibly in the 3rd +century B.C. + + An English translation, based on a critical Greek text, was published + by H. St J. Thackeray in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_, vol. xv. There + are two modern editions of the Greek, one by the last named (in + Swete's _Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek_, Cambridge, + 1900), the other by P. Wendland (Leipzig, 1900). + + + + +ARISTIDES [[Greek: Aristeides]] (c. 530-468 B.C.), Athenian statesman, +called "the Just," was the son of Lysimachus, and a member of a family +of moderate fortune. Of his early life we are told merely that he became +a follower of the statesman Cleisthenes and sided with the aristocratic +party in Athenian politics. He first comes into notice as strategus in +command of his native tribe Antiochis at Marathon, and it was no doubt +in consequence of the distinction which he then achieved that he was +elected chief archon for the ensuing year (489-488). In pursuance of his +conservative policy which aimed at maintaining Athens as a land power, +he was one of the chief opponents of the naval policy of Themistocles +(q.v.). The conflict between the two leaders ended in the ostracism of +Aristides, at a date variously given between 485 and 482. It is said +that, on this occasion, a voter, who did not know him, came up to him, +and giving him his sherd, desired him to write upon it the name of +Aristides. The latter asked if Aristides had wronged him. "No," was the +reply, "and I do not even know him, but it irritates me to hear him +everywhere called _the just_." + +Early in 480 Aristides profited by the decree recalling the +post-Marathonian exiles to help in the defence of Athens against the +Persian invaders, and was elected strategus for the year 480-479. In the +campaign of Salamis he rendered loyal support to Themistocles, and +crowned the victory by landing Athenian infantry on the island of +Psyttaleia and annihilating the Persian garrison stationed there (see +SALAMIS). In 479 he was re-elected strategus, and invested with special +powers as commander of the Athenian contingent at Plataea; he is also +said to have judiciously suppressed a conspiracy among some oligarchic +malcontents in the army, and to have played a prominent part in +arranging for the celebration of the victory. In 478 or 477 Aristides +was in command of the Athenian squadron off Byzantium, and so far won +the confidence of the Ionian allies that, after revolting from the +Spartan admiral Pausanias, they offered him the chief command and left +him with absolute discretion in fixing the contributions of the newly +formed confederacy (see DELIAN LEAGUE). His assessment was universally +accepted as equitable, and continued as the basis of taxation for the +greater part of the league's duration; it was probably from this that he +won the title of "the Just." Aristides soon left the command of the +fleet to his friend Cimon (q.v.), but continued to hold a predominant +position in Athens. At first he seems to have remained on good terms +with Themistocles, whom he is said to have helped in outwitting the +Spartans over the rebuilding of the walls of Athens. But in spite of +statements in which ancient authors have represented Aristides as a +democratic reformer, it is certain that the period following the Persian +wars during which he shaped Athenian policy was one of conservative +reaction. (For the theory based on Plutarch, _Aristid._ 22, that +Aristides after Plataea threw open the archonship to all the citizens, +see ARCHON.) + +He is said by some authorities to have died at Athens, by others on a +journey to the Euxine sea. The date of his death is given by Nepos as +468; at any rate he lived to witness the ostracism of Themistocles, +towards whom he always displayed a generous conduct, but had died before +the rise of Pericles. His estate seems to have suffered severely from +the Persian invasions, for apparently he did not leave enough money to +defray the expenses of his burial, and it is known that his descendants +even in the 4th century received state pensions. (See ATHENS; +THEMISTOCLES.) + + AUTHORITIES.--Herodotus viii. 79-81, 95; ix. 28; "Constitution of + Athens" (_Ath. Pol._), 22-24, 41; Plutarch, _Aristides_; Cornelius + Nepos, _Vita Aristidis_. See also E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_ + (Stuttgart, 1901), iii. pp. 481, 492. In the absence of positive + information the 4th-century writers (on whom Plutarch and Nepos mainly + rely) seized upon his surname of "Just," and wove round it a number of + anecdotes more picturesque than historical. Herodotus is practically + our only trustworthy authority. (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +ARISTIDES, of Miletus, generally regarded as the father of Greek prose +romance, flourished 150-100 B.C. He wrote six books of erotic _Milesian +Tales_ ([Greek: Milesiaka]), which enjoyed great popularity, and were +subsequently translated into Latin by Cornelius Sisenna (119-67 B.C.). +They are lost, with the exception of a few fragments, but the story of +the Ephesian matron in Petronius gives an idea of their nature. They +have been compared with the old French _fabliaux_ and the tales of +Boccaccio. + + Plutarch, _Crassus_, 32; Ovid, _Tristia_, ii. 413, 443; Muller, + _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iv. + + + + +ARISTIDES, of Thebes, a Greek painter of the 4th century B.C. He is said +to have excelled in expression. For example, a picture of his +representing a dying mother's fear lest her infant should suck death +from her breast was much celebrated. He also painted one of Alexander's +battles. One of his pictures is said to have been bought by King Attalus +for 100 talents (more than L20,000). + + + + +ARISTIDES, AELIUS, surnamed THEODORUS, Greek rhetorician and sophist, +son of Eudaemon, a priest of Zeus, was born at Hadriani in Mysia, A.D. +117 (or 129). He studied under Herodes Atticus of Athens, Polemon of +Smyrna, and Alexander of Cotyaeum, in whose honour he composed a funeral +oration still extant. In the practice of his calling he travelled +through Greece, Italy, Egypt and Asia, and in many places the +inhabitants erected statues to him in recognition of his talents. In 156 +he was attacked by an illness which lasted thirteen years, the nature of +which has caused considerable speculation. However, it in no way +interfered with his studies; in fact, they were prescribed as part of +his cure. Aristides' favourite place of residence was Smyrna. In 178, +when it was destroyed by an earthquake, he wrote an account of the +disaster to Aurelius, which deeply affected the emperor and induced him +to rebuild the city. The grateful inhabitants set up a statue in honour +of Aristides, and styled him the "builder" of Smyrna. He refused all +honours from them except that of priest of Asclepius, which office he +held till his death, about 189. The extant works of Aristides consist of +two small rhetorical treatises and fifty-five declamations, some not +really speeches at all. The treatises are on _political_ and _simple +speech_, in which he takes Demosthenes and Xenophon as models for +illustration; some critics attribute these to a later compiler (Spengel, +_Rhetores Graeci_). The six _Sacred Discourses_ have attracted some +attention. They give a full account of his protracted illness, including +a mass of superstitious details of visions, dreams and wonderful cures, +which the god Asclepius ordered him to record. These cures, from his +account, offer similarities to the effects produced by hypnotism. The +speeches proper are epideictic or show speeches--on certain gods, +panegyrics of the emperor and individual cities (Smyrna, Rome); +justificatory--the attack on Plato's _Gorgias_ in defence of rhetoric +and the four statesmen, Thucydides, Miltiades, Pericles, Cimon; +symbouleutic or political, the subjects being taken from the past +history of free Greece--the Sicilian expedition, peace negotiations with +Sparta, the political situation after the battle of Leuctra. The +_Panathenaicus_ and _Encomium of Rome_ were actually delivered, the +former imitated from Isocrates. The _Leptinea_--the genuineness of which +is disputed--contrast unfavourably with the speech of Demosthenes. +Aristides' works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries; they were +much used for school instruction, and distinguished rhetoricians wrote +commentaries upon them. His style, formed on the best models, is +generally clear and correct, though sometimes obscured by rhetorical +ornamentation; his subjects being mainly fictitious, the cause possessed +no living interest, and his attention was concentrated on form and +diction. + + Editio princeps (52 declamations only) (1517); Dindorf (1829); Keil + (1899); Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. 312 (ed. 1906). + + + + +ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS, the author of an ancient treatise on music, who +lived probably in the third century A.D. According to Meibomius, in +whose collection (_Antiq. Musicae Auc. Septem_, 1652) this work is +printed, it contains everything on music that is to be found in +antiquity. (See Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc._ ii. 894.) + + + + +ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF. Until 1878 our knowledge of the early Christian +writer Aristides was confined to the statement of Eusebius that he was +an Athenian philosopher, who presented an apology "concerning the faith" +to the emperor Hadrian. In that year, however, the Mechitharists of S. +Lazzaro at Venice published a fragment in Armenian[1] from the beginning +of the apology; and in 1889 Dr Rendel Harris found the whole of it in a +Syriac version on Mount Sinai. While his edition was passing through the +press, it was observed by the present writer that all the while the work +had been in our hands in Greek, though in a slightly abbreviated form, +as it had been imbedded as a speech in a religious novel written about +the 6th century, and entitled "The Life of Barlaam and Josaphat." The +discovery of the Syriac version reopened the question of the date of the +work. For although its title there corresponds to that given by the +Armenian fragment and by Eusebius, it begins with a formal inscription +to "the emperor Titus Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius"; and Dr R. +Harris is followed by Harnack and others in supposing that it was only +through a careless reading of this inscription that the work was +supposed to have been addressed to Hadrian. If this be the case, it must +be placed somewhere in the long reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161). There +are, however, no internal grounds for rejecting the thrice-attested +dedication to Hadrian his predecessor, and the picture of primitive +Christian life which is here found points to the earlier rather than to +the later date. It is possible that the Apology was read to Hadrian in +person when he visited Athens, and that the Syriac inscription was +prefixed by a scribe on the analogy of Justin's Apology, a mistake being +made in the amplification of Hadrian's name. + +The Apology opens thus: "I, O king, by the providence of God came into +the world; and having beheld the heaven, and the earth, and the sea, the +sun and moon, and all besides, I marvelled at their orderly +disposition; and seeing the world and all things in it, that it is moved +by compulsion, I understood that He that moveth and governeth it is God. +For whatsoever moveth is stronger than that which is moved, and +whatsoever governeth is stronger than that which is governed." Having +briefly spoken of the divine nature in the terms of Greek philosophy, +Aristides proceeds to ask which of all the races of men have at all +partaken of the truth about God. Here we have the first attempt at a +systematic comparison of ancient religions. For the purpose of his +inquiry he adopts an obvious threefold division into idolaters, Jews and +Christians. Idolaters, or, as he more gently terms them in addressing +the emperor, "those who worship what among you are said to be gods," he +subdivides into the three great world-civilizations--Chaldeans, Greeks +and Egyptians. He chooses this order so as to work up to a climax of +error and absurdity in heathen worship. The direct nature-worship of the +Chaldeans is shown to be false because its objects are works of the +Creator, fashioned for the use of men. They obey fixed laws and have no +power over themselves. "The Greeks have erred worse than the Chaldeans +... calling those gods who are no gods, according to their evil lusts, +in order that having these as advocates of their wickedness they may +commit adultery, and plunder and kill, and do the worst of deeds." The +gods of Olympus are challenged one by one, and shown to be either vile +or helpless, or both at once. A heaven of quarrelling divinities cannot +inspire a reasonable worship. These gods are not even respectable; how +can they be adorable? "The Egyptians have erred worse than all the +nations; for they were not content with the worships of the Chaldeans +and Greeks, but introduced, moreover, as gods even brute beasts of the +dry land and of the waters, and plants and herbs.... Though they see +their gods eaten by others and by men, and burned, and slain, and +rotting, they do not understand concerning them that they are no gods." + +Throughout the whole of the argument there is strong common-sense and a +stern severity unrelieved by conscious humour. Aristides is engaged in a +real contest; he strikes hard blows, and gives no quarter. He cannot +see, as Justin and Clement see, a striving after truth, a feeling after +God, in the older religions, or even in the philosophies of Greece. He +has no patience with attempts to find a deeper meaning in the stories of +the gods. "Do they say that one nature underlies these diverse forms? +Then why does god hate god, or god kill god? Do they say that the +histories are mythical? Then the gods themselves are myths, and nothing +more." + +The Jews are briefly treated. After a reference to their descent from +Abraham and their sojourn in Egypt, Aristides praises them for their +worship of the one God, the Almighty Creator; but blames them as +worshipping angels, and observing "sabbaths and new moons, and the +unleavened bread, and the great fast, and circumcision, and cleanness of +meats." He then proceeds to the description of the Christians. He begins +with a statement which, when purged of glosses by a comparison of the +three forms in which it survives, reads thus: "Now the Christians reckon +their race from the Lord Jesus Christ; and He is confessed to be the Son +of God Most High. Having by the Holy Spirit come down from heaven, and +having been born of a Hebrew virgin, He took flesh and appeared unto +men, to call them back from their error of many gods; and having +completed His wonderful dispensation, He was pierced by the Jews, and +after three days He revived and went up to heaven. And the glory of His +coming thou canst learn, O king, from that which is called among them +the evangelic scripture, if thou wilt read it. He bad twelve disciples, +who after His ascent into heaven went forth into the provinces of the +world and taught His greatness; whence they who at this day believe +their preaching are called Christians." This passage contains striking +correspondences with the second section of the Apostles' Creed. The +attribution of the Crucifixion to the Jews appears in several +2nd-century documents; Justin actually uses the words "He was pierced by +you" in his dialogue with Trypho the Jew. + +"These are they," he proceeds, "who beyond all the nations of the earth +have found the truth: for they know God as Creator and Maker of all +things, and they worship no other god beside Him; for they have His +commandments graven on their hearts, and these they keep in expectation +of the world to come.... Whatsoever they would not should be done unto +them, they do not to another.... He that hath supplieth him that hath +not without grudging: if they see a stranger they bring him under their +roof, and rejoice over him, as over a brother indeed, for they call not +one another brethren after the flesh, but after the spirit. They are +ready for Christ's sake to give up their own lives; for His commandments +they securely keep, living holily and righteously, according as the Lord +their God hath commanded them, giving thanks to Him at all hours, over +all their food and drink, and the rest of their good things." This +simple description is fuller in the Syriac, but the additional details +must be accepted with caution: for while it is likely that the monk who +appropriated the Greek may have cut it down to meet the exigencies of +his romance, it is the habit of certain Syriac translators to elaborate +their originals. After asserting that "this is the way of truth," and +again referring for further information to "the writings of the +Christians," he says: "And truly this is a new race, and there is +something divine mingled with it." At the close we have a passage which +is found only in the Syriac, but which is shown by internal evidence to +contain original elements: "The Greeks, because they practise foul +things ... turn the ridicule of their foulness upon the Christians." +This is an allusion to the charges of Thyestean banquets and other +immoralities, which the early apologists constantly rebut. "But the +Christians offer up prayers for them, that they may turn from their +error; and when one of them turns, he is ashamed before the Christians +of the deeds that were done by him, and he confesses to God saying: 'In +ignorance I did these things'; and he cleanses his heart, and his sins +are forgiven him, because he did them in ignorance in former time, when +he was blaspheming the true knowledge of the Christians." + +These last words point to the use in the composition of this Apology of +a lost apocryphal work of very early date, _The Preaching of Peter_. +This book is known to us chiefly by quotations in Clement of Alexandria: +it was widely circulated, and at one time claimed a place within the +Canon. It was used by the Gnostic Heracleon and probably by the unknown +writer of the epistle to Diognetus. From the fragments which survive we +see that it contained: (1) a description of the nature of God, which +closely corresponds with Arist. i., followed by (2) a warning not to +worship according to the Greeks, with an exposure of various forms of +idolatry; (3) a warning not to worship according to the Jews--although +they alone think they know the true God--for they worship angels and are +superstitious about moons and sabbaths, and feasts, comp. Arist. xiv.; +(4) a description of the Christians as being "a third race," and +worshipping God in "a new way" through Christ; (5) a proof of +Christianity from Jewish prophecy; (6) a promise of forgiveness to Jews +and Gentiles who should turn to Christ, because they had sinned "in +ignorance" in the former time. Now all these points, except the proof +from Jewish prophecy, are taken up and worked out by Aristides with a +frequent use of the actual language of _The Preaching of Peter_. A +criterion is thus given us for the reconstruction of the Apology, where +the Greek which we have has been abbreviated, and we are enabled to +claim with certainty some passages of the Syriac which might otherwise +be suspected as interpolations. + +The style of the Apology is exceedingly simple. It is curiously +misdescribed by Jerome, who never can have seen it, as "Apologeticum pro +Christianis contextum philosophorum sententiis." Its merits are its +recognition of the helplessness of the old heathenism to satisfy human +aspiration after the divine, and the impressive simplicity with which it +presents the unfailing argument of the lives of Christians. + + The student may consult _The Apology of Aristides_, Syriac text and + translation (J.R. Harris), with an appendix containing the Greek + text, _Texts and Studies_, i. 1 (1891), and a critical discussion by + R. Seeberg in Zahn's _Forschungen_, v. 2 (1893); also, brief + discussions by A. Harnack, _Altchristl. Litteratur_, i. 96 ff., + _Chronologie_, i. 271 ff., where references to other writers may be + found. The _Epistola ad omnes philosophos_ and the _Homily on the + Penitent Thief_, ascribed by Armenian tradition to Aristides, are + really of 5th-century origin. Trans. of _Apology_ by W.S. Walford + (1909). (J. A. R.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Codex Venet. ann._, 981, and _Codex Etchmiaz._ of the 11th + century. + + + + +ARISTIPPUS (c. 435-356 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the founder of the +Cyrenaic school, was the son of Aritadas, a merchant of Cyrene. At an +early age he came to Athens, and was induced to remain by the fame of +Socrates, whose pupil he became. Subsequently he travelled through a +number of Grecian cities, and finally settled in Cyrene, where he +founded his school. His philosophy was eminently practical (see +CYRENAICS). Starting from the two Socratic principles of virtue and +happiness, he emphasized the second, and made pleasure the criterion of +life. That he held to be good which gives the maximum of pleasure. In +pursuance of this he indulged in all forms of external luxury. At the +same time he remained thoroughly master of himself and had the +self-control to refrain or to enjoy. Diogenes Laertius (ii. 65), quoting +Phanias the peripatetic, says that he received money for his teaching, +and Aristotle (_Met_. ii. 2) expressly calls him a sophist. Diogenes +further states that he wrote several treatises, but none have survived. +The five letters attributed to him are undoubtedly spurious. His +daughter Arete, and her son Aristippus ([Greek: maetrodidaktos], "pupil +of his mother"), carried on the school after his death. A cosmopolitan +on principle, and a convinced disbeliever in the ethics of his day, he +comes very near to modern empiricism and especially to the modern +Hedonist school. + + + + +ARISTO or ARISTON, of Chios (c. 250 B.C.), a Stoic philosopher and pupil +of Zeno. He differed from Zeno on many points, and approximated more +closely to the Cynic school. He was eloquent (hence his nickname "the +Siren") but controversial in tone. He despised logic, and rejected the +philosophy of nature as beyond the powers of man. Ethics alone he +considered worthy of study, and in that only general and theoretical +questions. He rejected Zeno's doctrine of desirable things, intermediate +between virtue and vice. There is only one virtue--a clear, intelligent, +healthy state of mind (_hygeia_). Aristo is frequently confounded with +another philosopher of the same name, Ariston of Iulis, in Ceos, who, +about 230 B.C., succeeded Lyco as scholarch of the Peripatetics. (See +STOICS.) + + + + +ARISTO, of Pella, a Jewish Christian writer of the middle of the 2nd +century, who like Hegesippus (q.v.) represents a school of thought more +liberal than that of the Pharisaic and Essene Ebionites to which the +decline of Jewish Christianity mainly led. Aristo is cited by Eusebius +(_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 6. 3) for a decree of Hadrian respecting the Jews, +but he is best known as the writer of a _Dialogue_ (between Papiscus, an +Alexandrian Jew, and Jason, who represents the author) on the witness of +prophecy to Jesus Christ, which was approvingly defended by Origen +against the reproaches of Celsus. The little book was perhaps used by +Justin Martyr in his own _Dialogue with Trypho_, and probably also by +Tertullian and Cyprian, but it has not been preserved. + + The literature is cited in G. Kruger's _Early Christian Literature_, + pp. 104 f. + + + + +ARISTOBULUS, of Cassandreia, Greek historian, accompanied Alexander the +Great on his campaigns, of which he wrote an account, mainly +geographical and ethnological. His work was largely used by Arrian. + + Muller, _Historicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_; Schone, _De Rerum + Alexandri Magni Scriptoribus_ (1870). + + + + +ARISTOBULUS, of Paneas (c. 160 B.C.), a Jewish philosopher of the +Peripatetic school. Gercke places him in the time of Ptolemy X. +Philometor (end of 2nd century), Anatolius in that of Ptolemy II. +Philadelphus, but the middle of the 2nd century is more probable. He was +among the earliest of the Jewish-Alexandrian philosophers whose aim was +to reconcile and identify Greek philosophical conceptions with the +Jewish religion. Only a few fragments of his work, apparently entitled +_Commentaries on the Writings of Moses_, are quoted by Clement, Eusebius +and other theological writers, but they suffice to show its object. He +endeavoured to prove that early Greek philosophers had borrowed largely +from certain parts of Scripture, and quoted from Linus, Orpheus, Musaeus +and others, passages which strongly resemble the Mosaic writings. These +passages, however, were obvious forgeries. It is suggested that the name +Aristobulus was taken from 2 Macc. i. 10. The hypothesis (Schlatter, +_Das neugefundene hebraische Stuck des Sirach_) that it was from +Aristobulus that the philosophy of _Ecclesiasticus_ was derived is not +generally accepted. + + See E. Schurer, _History of the Jewish People_ (Eng. trans., + 1890-1891), ii. 237 seq.; article ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL: _Philosophy_; + and _s.v._ "Aristobulus" in _Jewish Encyclopedia_ (Paul Wendland). + + + + +ARISTOCRACY (Gr. [Greek: aristos], best; [Greek: aristos], government), +etymologically, the "rule of the best," a form of government variously +defined and appreciated at different times and by different authorities. +In Greek political philosophy, aristocracy is the government of those +who most nearly attain to the ideal of human perfection. Thus Plato in +the _Republic_ advocates the rule of the "philosopher-king" who, in the +social scheme, is analogous to Reason in the intellectual, and alone is +qualified to control the active principles, i.e. the fighting population +and the artisans or workers. Aristocracy is thus the government by those +who are superior both morally and intellectually, and, therefore, govern +directly in the interests of the governed, as a good doctor works for +the good of his patient. Aristotle classified good governments under +three heads--monarchy, aristocracy and commonwealth [Greek: politeia], +to which he opposed the three perverted forms--tyranny or absolutism, +oligarchy and democracy or mob-rule. The distinction between aristocracy +and oligarchy, which are both necessarily the rule of the few, is that +whereas the few [Greek: aristoi] will govern unselfishly, the oligarchs, +being the few wealthy ("plutocracy" in modern terminology), will allow +their personal interests to predominate. While Plato's aristocracy might +be the rule of the wise and benevolent despot, Aristotle's is +necessarily the rule of the few. + +Historically aristocracy develops from primitive monarchy by the gradual +progressive limitation of the regal authority. This process is effected +primarily by the nobles who have hitherto formed the council of the king +(an excellent example will be found in Athenian politics, see ARCHON), +whose triple prerogative--religious, military and judicial--is vested, +e.g., in a magistracy of three. These are either members of the royal +house or the heads of noble families, and are elected for life or +periodically by their peers, i.e. by the old royal council (cf. the +Areopagus at Athens, the Senate at Rome), now the sovereign power. In +practice this council depends primarily on a birth qualification, and +thus has always been more or less inferior to the Aristotelian ideal; it +is, by definition, an "oligarchy" of birth, and is recruited from the +noble families, generally by the addition of emeritus magistrates. From +the earliest times, therefore, the word "aristocracy" became practically +synonymous with "oligarchy," and as such it is now generally used in +opposition to democracy (which similarly took the place of Aristotle's +[Greek: politeia]), in which the ultimate sovereignty resides in the +whole citizen body. + +The aristocracy of which we know most in ancient Greece was that of +Athens prior to the reforms of Cleisthenes, but all the Greek +city-states passed through a period of aristocratic or oligarchic +government. Rome, between the regal and the imperial periods, was always +more or less under the aristocratic government of the senate, in spite +of the gradual growth of democratic institutions (the Lat. _optimates_ +is the equivalent of [Greek: aristoi]). There is, however, one feature +which distinguishes these aristocracies from those of modern states, +namely, that they were all slave-owning. The original relation of the +slave-population, which in many cases outnumbered the free citizens, +cannot always be discovered. But in some cases we know that the slaves +were the original inhabitants who had been overcome by an influx of +racially different invaders (cf. Sparta with its Helots); in others they +were captives taken in war. Hence even the most democratic states of +antiquity were so far aristocratic that the larger proportion of the +inhabitants had no voice in the government. In the second place this +relation gave rise to a philosophic doctrine, held even by Aristotle, +that there were peoples who were inferior by nature and adapted to +submission ([Greek: phusei douloi]); such people had no "virtue" in the +technical civic sense, and were properly occupied in performing the +menial functions of society, under the control of the [Greek: aristoi]. +Thus, combined with the criteria of descent, civic status and the +ownership of the land, there was the further idea of intellectual and +social superiority. These qualifications were naturally, in course of +time, shared by an increasingly large number of the lower class who +broke down the barriers of wealth and education. From this stage the +transition is easy to the aristocracy of wealth, such as we find at +Carthage and later at Venice, in periods when the importance of commerce +was paramount and mercantile pursuits had cast off the stigma of +inferiority (in Gr. [Greek: banausia]). + +It is important at this stage to distinguish between aristocracy and the +feudal governments of medieval Europe. In these it is true that certain +power was exercised by a small number of families, at the expense of the +majority. But under this system each noble governed in a particular area +and within strict limitations imposed by his sovereign; no sovereign +authority was vested in the nobles collectively. + +Under the conditions of the present day the distinction of aristocracy, +democracy and monarchy cannot be rigidly maintained from a purely +governmental point of view. In no case does the sovereign power in a +state reside any longer in an aristocracy, and the word has acquired a +social rather than a political sense as practically equivalent to +"nobility," though the distinction is sometimes drawn between the +"aristocracy of birth" and the "aristocracy of wealth." Modern history, +however, furnishes many examples of government in the hands of an +aristocracy. Such were the aristocratic republics of Venice, Genoa and +the Dutch Netherlands, and those of the free imperial cities in Germany. +Such, too, in practice though not in theory, was the government of Great +Britain from the Revolution of 1689 to the Reform Bill of 1832. The +French nobles of the _Ancien Regime_, denounced as "aristocrats" by the +Revolutionists, had no share as such in government, but enjoyed +exceptional privileges (e.g. exemption from taxation). This privileged +position is still enjoyed by the heads of the German mediatized families +of the "High Nobility." In Great Britain, on the other hand, though the +aristocratic principle is still represented in the constitution by the +House of Lords, the "aristocracy" generally, apart from the peers, has +no special privileges. + + + + +ARISTODEMUS (8th century B.C.), semi-legendary ruler of Messenia in the +time of the first Messenian War. Tradition relates that, after some six +years' fighting, the Messenians were forced to retire to the fortified +summit of Ithome. The Delphic oracle bade them sacrifice a virgin of the +house of Aepytus. Aristodemus offered his own daughter, and when her +lover, hoping to save her life, declared that she was no longer a +maiden, he slew her with his own hand to prove the assertion false. In +the thirteenth year of the war, Euphaes, the Messenian king, died. As he +left no children, popular election was resorted to, and Aristodemus was +chosen as his successor, though the national soothsayers objected to him +as the murderer of his daughter. As a ruler he was mild and +conciliatory. He was victorious in the pitched battle fought at the foot +of Ithome in the fifth year of his reign, a battle in which the +Messenians, reinforced by the entire Arcadian levy and picked +contingents from Argos and Sicyon, defeated the combined Spartan and +Corinthian forces. Shortly afterwards, however, led by unfavourable +omens to despair of final success, he killed himself on his daughter's +tomb. Though little is known of his life and the chronology is +uncertain, yet Aristodemus may fairly be regarded as a historical +character. His reign is dated 731-724 B.C. by Pausanias, and this may be +taken as approximately correct, though Duncker (_History of Greece_, +Eng. trans., ii. p. 69) inclines to place it eight years later. + + Pausanias iv. 9-13 is practically our only authority. He followed as + his chief source the prose history of Myron of Priene, an + untrustworthy writer, probably of the 2nd century B.C.; hence a good + deal of his story must be regarded as fanciful, though we cannot + distinguish accurately between the true and the fictitious. + (M. N. T.) + + + + +ARISTOLOCHIA (Gr. [Greek: aristos], best, [Greek: locheia], child-birth, +in allusion to its repute in promoting child-birth), a genus of shrubs +or herbs of the natural order Aristolochiaceae, often with climbing +stems, found chiefly in the tropics. The flower forms a tube inflated at +the base. _A. Clematitis_, birthwort, is a central and southern European +species, found sometimes in England apparently wild on ruins and similar +places, but not a native. _A. Sipho_, Dutchman's pipe, or pipe vine, is +a climber, native in the woods of the Atlantic United States, and grown +in Europe as a garden plant. The flower is bent like a pipe. + +A member of the same order is the _asarabacca_ (_Asarum europaeum_), a +small creeping herb with kidney-shaped leaves and small purplish +bell-shaped flowers. It is a native of the woods of Europe and north +temperate Asia, and occurs wild in some English counties. It was +formerly grown for medicinal purposes, the underground stem having +cathartic and emetic properties. An allied species, _A. canadense_, is +the Canadian snake-root, a native of Canada and the Atlantic United +States. + + + + +ARISTOMENES, of Andania, the semi-legendary hero of the second Messenian +war. He was a member of the Aepytid family, the son of Nicomedes (or, +according to another version, of Pyrrhus) and Nicoteleia, and took a +prominent part in stirring up the revolt against Sparta and securing the +co-operation of Argos and Arcadia. He showed such heroism in the first +encounter, at Derae, that the crown was offered him, but he would accept +only the title of commander-in-chief. His daring is illustrated by the +story that he came by night to the temple of Athene "of the Brazen +House" at Sparta, and there set up his shield with the inscription, +"Dedicated to the goddess by Aristomenes from the Spartans." His prowess +contributed largely to the Messenian victory over the Spartan and +Corinthian forces at "The Boar's Barrow" in the plain of Stenyclarus, +but in the following year the treachery of the Arcadian king +Aristocrates caused the Messenians to suffer a crushing defeat at "The +Great Trench." Aristomenes and the survivors retired to the mountain +stronghold of Eira, where they defied the Spartans for eleven years. On +one of his raids he and fifty of his companions were captured and thrown +into the Caeadas, the chasm on Mt. Taygetus into which criminals were +cast. Aristomenes alone was saved, and soon reappeared at Eira: legend +told how he was upheld in his fall by an eagle and escaped by grasping +the tail of a fox, which led him to the hole by which it had entered. On +another occasion he was captured during a truce by some Cretan +auxiliaries of the Spartans, and was released only by the devotion of a +Messenian girl who afterwards became his daughter-in-law. At length Eira +was betrayed to the Spartans (668 B.C. according to Pausanias), and +after a heroic resistance Aristomenes and his followers had to evacuate +Messenia and seek a temporary refuge with their Arcadian allies. A +desperate plan to seize Sparta itself was foiled by Aristocrates, who +paid with his life for his treachery. Aristomenes retired to Ialysus in +Rhodes, where Damagetus, his son-in-law, was king, and died there while +planning a journey to Sardis and Ecbatana to seek aid from the Lydian +and Median sovereigns (Pausanias iv. 14-24). Another tradition +represents him as captured and slain by the Spartans during the war +(Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xi. 187; Val. Maximus i. 8, 15; Steph. Byzant. s.v. +[Greek: Andania]). Though there seems to be no conclusive reason for +doubting the existence of Aristomenes, his history, as related by +Pausanias, following mainly the _Messeniaca_ of the Cretan epic poet +Rhianus (about 230 B.C.), is evidently largely interwoven with fictions. +These probably arose after the foundation of Messene in 369 B.C. +Aristomenes' statue was set up in the stadium there: his bones were +fetched from Rhodes and placed in a tomb surmounted by a column (Paus. +iv. 32. 3, 6); and more than five centuries later we still find heroic +honours paid to him, and his exploits a popular subject of song (_ib_. +iv. 14. 7; 16. 6). + + For further details see Pausanias iv.; Polyaenus ii. 31; G. Grote, + _History of Greece_, pt. ii. chap. vii.; M. Duncker, _History of + Greece_, Eng. trans., book iv. chap, viii.; A. Holm, _History of + Greece_, Eng. trans., vol. i. chap. xvi. (M. N. T.) + + + + +ARISTONICUS, of Alexandria, Greek grammarian, lived during the reigns of +Augustus and Tiberius. He taught at Rome and wrote commentaries and +grammatical treatises. His chief work was [Greek: Peri Saemeion +Homaerou], in which he gave an account of the "critical marks" inserted +by Aristarchus in the margin of his recension of the text of the _Iliad_ +and _Odyssey_. Important fragments are preserved in the scholia of the +Venetian Codex A of the _Iliad_. + + Friedlander, _Aristonici_ [Greek: Peri Saemeion Iliados] _reliquiae_ + (1853); Carnuth, _Aristonici_ [Greek: Peri Saemeion Odusseias] + _reliquiae_ (1869). + + + + +ARISTOPHANES (c. 448-385 B.C.[1]), the great comic dramatist and poet of +Athens. His birth-year is uncertain. He is known to have been about the +same age as Eupolis, and is said to have been "almost a boy" when his +first comedy (_The Banqueters_) was brought out in 427 B.C. His father +Philippus was a landowner in Aegina. Aristophanes was an Athenian +citizen of the tribe Pandionis, and the deme Cydathene. The stories +which made him a native of Camirus in Rhodes, or of the Egyptian +Naucratis, had probably no other foundation than an indictment for +usurpation of civic rights ([Greek: xenias graphae]) which appears to +have been more than once laid against him by Cleon. His three +sons--Philippus, Araros and Nicostratus--were all comic poets. +Philippus, the eldest, was a rival of Eubulus, who began to exhibit in +376 B.C. Araros brought out two of his father's latest comedies--the +_Cocalus_ and the _Aeolosicon_, and in 375 began to exhibit works of his +own. Nicostratus, the youngest, is assigned by Athenaeus to the Middle +Comedy, but belongs, as is shown by some of the names and characters of +his pieces, to the New Comedy also. + +Although tragedy and comedy had their common origin in the festivals of +Dionysus, the regular establishment of tragedy at Athens preceded by +half a century that of comedy. The Old Comedy may be said to have lasted +about eighty years (470-390 B.C.), and to have flourished about +fifty-six (460-404 B.C.). Of the forty poets who are named as having +illustrated it the chief were Cratinus, Eupolis and Aristophanes. The +Middle Comedy covers a period of about seventy years (390-320 B.C.), its +chief poets being Antiphanes, Alexis, Theopompus and Strattis. The New +Comedy was in vigour for about seventy years (320-250 B.C.), having for +its foremost representatives Menander, Philemon and Diphilus. The Old +Comedy was possible only for a thorough democracy. Its essence was a +satirical censorship, unsparing in personalities, of public and of +private life--of morality, of statesmanship, of education, of +literature, of social usage--in a word, of everything which had an +interest for the city or which could amuse the citizens. Preserving all +the freedom of banter and of riotous fun to which its origin gave it an +historical right, it aimed at associating with this a strong practical +purpose--the expression of a democratic public opinion in such a form +that no misconduct or folly could altogether disregard it. That +licentiousness, that grossness of allusion which too often disfigures +it, was, it should be remembered, exacted by the sentiment of the +Dionysiac festivals, as much as a decorous cheerfulness is expected at +the holiday times of other worships. This was the popular element. +Without this the entertainment would have been found flat and +unseasonable. But for a comic poet of the higher calibre the +consciousness of a recognized power which he could exert, and the desire +to use this power for the good of the city, must always have been the +uppermost feelings. At Athens the poet of the Old Comedy had an +influence analogous, perhaps, rather to that of the journalist than to +that of the modern dramatist. But the established type of Dionysiac +comedy gave him an instrument such as no public satirist has ever +wielded. When Moliere wished to brand hypocrisy he could only make his +Tartuffe the central figure of a regular drama, developed by a regular +process to a just catastrophe. He had no choice between touching too +lightly and using sustained force to make a profound impression. The +Athenian dramatist of the Old Comedy worked under no such limitations of +form. The wildest flights of extravagance were permitted to him. Nothing +bound him to a dangerous emphasis or a wearisome insistence. He could +deal the keenest thrust, or make the most earnest appeal, and at the +next moment--if his instinct told him that it was time to change the +subject--vary the serious strain by burlesque. He had, in short, an +incomparable scope for trenchant satire directed by sure tact. + +Aristophanes is for us the representative of the Old Comedy. But his +genius, while it includes, also transcends the genius of the Old Comedy. +He can denounce the frauds of a Cleon, he can vindicate the duty of +Athens to herself and to her allies, with a stinging scorn and a force +of patriotic indignation which makes the poet almost forgotten in the +citizen. He can banter Euripides with an ingenuity of light mockery +which makes it seem for the time as if the leading Aristophanic trait +was the art of seeing all things from their prosaic side. Yet it is +neither in the denunciation nor in the mockery that he is most +individual. His truest and highest faculty is revealed by those +wonderful bits of lyric writing in which he soars above everything that +can move laughter or tears, and makes the clear air thrill with the +notes of a song as free, as musical and as wild as that of the +nightingale invoked by his own chorus in the _Birds_. The speech of +Dikaios Logos in the _Clouds_, the praises of country life in the +_Peace_, the serenade in the _Ecclesiazusae_, the songs of the Spartan +and Athenian maidens in the _Lysistrata_, above all, perhaps, the chorus +in the _Frogs_, the beautiful chant of the Initiated,--these passages, +and such as these, are the true glories of Aristophanes. They are the +strains, not of an artist, but of one who warbles for pure gladness of +heart in some place made bright by the presence of a god. Nothing else +in Greek poetry has quite this wild sweetness of the woods. Of modern +poets Shakespeare alone, perhaps, has it in combination with a like +richness and fertility of fancy. + +Fifty-four[2] comedies were ascribed to Aristophanes. Forty-three of +these are allowed as genuine by Bergk. Eleven only are extant. These +eleven form a running commentary on the outer and the inner life of +Athens during thirty-six years. They may be ranged under three periods. +The first, extending to 420 B.C., includes those plays in which +Aristophanes uses an absolutely unrestrained freedom of political +satire. The second ends with the year 405. Its productions are +distinguished from those of the earlier time by a certain degree of +reticence and caution. The third period, down to 388 B.C., comprises two +plays in which the transition to the character of the Middle Comedy is +well marked, not merely by disuse of the parabasis, but by general +self-restraint. + +I. _First Period_, (1) 425 B.C. _The Acharnians._--Since the defeat in +Boeotia the peace party at Athens had gained ground, and in this play +Aristophanes seeks to strengthen their hands. Dicaeopolis, an honest +countryman, is determined to make peace with Sparta on his own account, +not deterred by the angry men of Acharnae, who crave vengeance for the +devastation of their vineyards. He sends to Sparta for samples of peace; +and he is so much pleased with the flavour of the Thirty Years' sample +that he at once concludes a treaty for himself and his family. All the +blessings of life descend on him; while Lamachus, the leader of the war +party, is smarting from cold, snow and wounds. + +(2) 424 B.C. _The Knights._--Three years before, in his _Babylonians_, +Aristophanes had assailed Cleon as the typical demagogue. In this play +he continues the attack. The Demos, or State, is represented by an old +man who has put himself and his household into the hands of a rascally +Paphlagonian steward. Nicias and Demosthenes, slaves of Demos, contrive +that the Paphlagonian shall be supplanted in their master's favour by a +sausage-seller. No sooner has Demos been thus rescued than his +youthfulness and his good sense return together. + +(3) 423 B.C. _The Clouds_ (the first edition; a second edition was +brought out in 422 B.C.).--This play would be correctly described as an +attack on the new spirit of intellectual inquiry and culture rather than +on a school or class. Two classes of thinkers or teachers are, however, +specially satirized under the general name of "Sophist" (v. 331)--1. The +Physical Philosophers--indicated by allusions to the doctrines of +Anaxagoras, Heraclitus and Diogenes of Apollonia. 2. The professed +teachers of rhetoric, belles lettres, &c., such as Protagoras and +Prodicus. Socrates is taken as the type of the entire tendency. A youth +named Pheidippides--obviously meant for Alcibiades--is sent by his +father to Socrates to be cured of his dissolute propensities. Under the +discipline of Socrates the youth becomes accomplished in dishonesty and +impiety. The conclusion of the play shows the indignant father preparing +to burn up the philosopher and his hall of contemplation. + +(4) 422 B.C. _The Wasps._--This comedy, which suggested _Les Plaideurs_ +to Racine, is a satire on the Athenian love of litigation. The strength +of demagogy, while it lay chiefly in the ecclesia, lay partly also in +the paid dicasteries. From this point of view the _Wasps_ may be +regarded as supplementing the _Knights_. Philocleon (admirer of Cleon), +an old man, has a passion for lawsuits--a passion which his son, +Bdelycleon (detester of Cleon) fails to check, until he hits upon the +device of turning the house into a law-court, and paying his father for +absence from the public suits. The house-dog steals a Sicilian cheese; +the old man is enabled to gratify his taste by trying the case, and, by +an oversight, acquits the defendant. In the second half of the play a +change comes over the dream of Philocleon; from litigation he turns to +literature and music, and is congratulated by the chorus on his happy +conversion. + +(5) 421 B.C.[3] _The Peace._--In its advocacy of peace with Sparta, this +play, acted at the Great Dionysia shortly before the conclusion of the +treaty, continues the purpose of the _Acharnians_. Trygaeus, a +distressed Athenian, soars to the sky on a beetle's back. There he finds +the gods engaged in pounding the Greek states in a mortar. In order to +stop this, he frees the goddess Peace from a well in which she is +imprisoned. The pestle and mortar are laid aside by the gods, and +Trygaeus marries one of the handmaids of Peace. + +II. _Second Period_. (6) 414 B.C. _The Birds._--Peisthetaerus, an +enterprising Athenian, and his friend Euelpides persuade the birds to +build a city--"Cloud-Cuckoo-borough"--in mid-air, so as to cut off the +gods from men. The plan succeeds; the gods send envoys to treat with the +birds; and Peisthetaerus marries Basileia, daughter of Zeus. Some have +found in the _Birds_ a complete historical allegory of the Sicilian +expedition; others, a general satire on the prevalence at Athens of +headstrong caprice over law and order; others, merely an aspiration +towards a new and purified Athens--a dream to which the poet had turned +from his hope for a revival of the Athens of the past. In another view, +the piece is mainly a protest against the religious fanaticism which the +incident of the Hermae had called forth. + +(7) 411 B.C. _The Lysistrata._--This play was brought out during the +earlier stages of those intrigues which led to the revolution of the +Four Hundred. It appeared shortly before Peisander had arrived in Athens +from the camp at Samos for the purpose of organizing the oligarchic +policy. The _Lysistrata_ expresses the popular desire for peace at any +cost. As the men can do nothing, the women take the question into their +own hands, occupy the citadel, and bring the citizens to surrender. + +(8) 411 B.C. _The Thesmophoriazusae_ (Priestesses of Demeter).--This +came out three months later than the _Lysistrata_, during the reign of +terror established by the oligarchic conspirators, but before their blow +had been struck. The political meaning of the play lies in the absence +of political allusion. Fear silences even comedy. Only women and +Euripides are satirized. Euripides is accused and condemned at the +female festival of the Thesmophoria. + +(9) 405 B.C. _The Frogs._--This piece was brought out just when Athens +had made her last effort in the Peloponnesian War, eight months before +the battle of Aegospotami, and about fifteen months before the taking of +Athens by Lysander. It may be considered as an attempt to distract men's +minds from public affairs. It is a literary criticism. Aeschylus and +Euripides were both lately dead. Athens is beggared of poets; and +Dionysus goes down to Hades to bring back a poet. Aeschylus and +Euripides contend in the under-world for the throne of tragedy; and the +victory is at last awarded to Aeschylus. + +III. _Third Period_.[4] (10) 393 B.C.[4] _The Ecclesiazusae_ (women in +parliament).--The women, disguised as men, steal into the ecclesia, and +succeed in decreeing a new constitution. At this time the demagogue +Agyrrhius led the assembly; and the play is, in fact, a satire on the +general demoralization of public life. + +(11) 388 B.C. _The Plutus_ (Wealth).--The first edition of the play had +appeared in 408 B.C., being a symbolical representation of the fact that +the victories won by Alcibiades in the Hellespont had brought back the +god of wealth to the treasure-chamber of the Parthenon. In its extant +form the _Plutus_ is simply a moral allegory. Chremylus, a worthy but +poor man, falls in with a blind and aged wanderer, who proves to be the +god of wealth. Asclepius restores eyesight to Plutus; whereupon all the +just are made rich and all the unjust are reduced to poverty. + + Among the lost plays, the following are the chief of which anything is + known:-- + + 1. _The Banqueters_ [Greek: Daitaleis], 427 B.C.--A satire on young + Athens. A father has two sons; one is brought up in the good old + school, another in the tricky subtleties of the new; and the contrast + of results is the chief theme. + + 2. _The Babylonians_, 426 B.C.--Under this name the subject-allies of + Athens are represented as "Babylonians"-barbarian slaves, employed to + grind in the mill. The oppression of the allies by the demagogues--a + topic often touched elsewhere--was, then, the main subject of the + piece, in which Aristophanes is said to have attacked especially the + system of appointing to offices by lot. The comedy is memorable as + opening that Aristophanic war upon Cleon which was continued in the + _Knights_ and the _Wasps_. + + _The Merchantmen, The Farmers, The Preliminary Contest_ (_Proagon_), + and possibly the _Old Age_ (_Geras_), belonged to the First Period. + The _Geras_ is assigned by Suvern to 422 B.C., and is supposed to have + been a picture of dotage similar to that in the _Knights_. A comedy + called _The Islands_ is conjectured to have dealt with the sufferings + imposed by the war on the insular tributaries. The _Triphales_ was + probably a satire on Alcibiades; the _Storks_, on the tragic poet + Patrocles. + + In the _Aeolosicon_--produced by his son Araros in 387 + B.C.--Aristophanes probably parodied the _Aeolus_ of Euripides. The + _Cocalus_ is thought to have been a parody of the legend, according to + which a Sicilian king of that name slew Minos. + +A sympathetic reader of Aristophanes can hardly fail to perceive that, +while his political and intellectual tendencies are well marked, his +opinions, in so far as they colour his comedies, are too indefinite to +reward, or indeed to tolerate, analysis. Aristophanes was a natural +conservative. His ideal was the Athens of the Persian wars. He +disapproved the policy which had made Athenian empire irksome to the +allies and formidable to Greece; he detested the vulgarity and the +violence of mob-rule; he clave to the old worship of the gods; he +regarded the new ideas of education as a tissue of imposture and +impiety. How far he was from clearness or precision of view in regard to +the intellectual revolution which was going forward, appears from the +_Clouds_, in which thinkers and literary workers who had absolutely +nothing in common are treated with sweeping ridicule as prophets of a +common heresy. Aristophanes is one of the men for whom opinion is mainly +a matter of feeling, not of reason. His imaginative susceptibility gave +him a warm and loyal love for the traditional glories of Athens, however +dim the past to which they belonged; a horror of what was ugly or +ignoble in the present; a keen perception of what was offensive or +absurd in pretension. The broad preferences and dislikes thus generated +were enough not only to point the moral of comedy, but to make him, in +many cases, a really useful censor for the city. The service which he +could render in this way was, however, only negative. He could hardly +be, in any positive sense, a political or a moral teacher for Athens. +His rooted antipathy to intellectual progress, while it affords easy and +wide scope for his wit, must after all, lower his intellectual rank. The +great minds are not the enemies of ideas. But as a mocker--to use the +word which seems most closely to describe him on this side--he is +incomparable for the union of subtlety with riot of the comic +imagination. As a poet, he is immortal. And, among Athenian poets, he +has it for his distinctive characteristic that he is inspired less by +that Greek genius which never allows fancy to escape from the control of +defining, though spiritualizing, reason, than by such ethereal rapture +of the unfettered fancy as lifts Shakespeare or Shelley above it,-- + + "Pouring his full heart + In profuse strains of unpremeditated art." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editio princeps (Aldine, Venice, 1498), by Marcus + Musurus (not including the _Lysistrata_ and _Thesmophoriazusae_); S. + Bergler (ed. P. Burmann, 1760); Invernizi-Beck-Dindorf (1794-1834); I. + Bekker (1829); H.A. Holden (expurgated text, 1868), with + _Onomasticon_ (new ed., 1902); F.H.M. Blaydes (1880-1893), and + critical edition (1886); J. van Leeuwen (1893 foll.); F.W. Hall and + E.M. Geldart (text, 1900-1901), with the fragment (from the + Oxyrhynchus papyri) of a dialogue between two women concerning a + leathern phallus, perhaps from Aristophanes. There is a complete + edition of the valuable scholia by F. Dubner (1842, Didot + series),--with the anonymous biographies of the poet; of the Ravenna + MS. by A. Martin (1883), and W.G. Rutherford (1896-1905). Among + English translations mention may be made of those of V.J. Hickie + (prose, in Bohn's _Classical Library_); (verse) J. Hookham Frere, five + plays; T. Mitchell, four plays; and, above all, B.B. Rogers, a + brilliant work of exceptional merit. There is a concordance to the + plays and fragments by H. Dunbar (1883). On Aristophanes generally see + H. Muller-Strubing, _Aristophanes und die historische Kritik_ (1873); + the article by G. Kaibel in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 1 + (1896); A. Couat, _Aristophane et l'ancienne comedie attique_ (1889); + E. Deschanel, _Etudes sur Aristophane_ (3rd ed., 1892); G. Dantu, + _Opinions et critiques d'Aristophane sur le mouvement politique et + intellectuel a Athenes_ (Paris, 1907). For the numerous editions and + translations of separate plays in English and other languages see the + introductions to Blaydes's edition, and, for the literature, the + introduction to W.J.M. Starkie's edition of the _Wasps_ (1897); W. + Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_ (1880); and "Bericht uber die Literatur + der griechischen Komodie aus den Jahren 1892-1901" in C. Bursian's + _Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, cxvi. (1904). (R. C. J.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The dates in the text, as given by Jebb, are retained. According + to R.G. Kent, _Classical Review_ (April 1905, April 1906), + Aristophanes was born in 465, and died in 375 B.C. + + [2] Or "fourty-four" (reading [Greek: mt'] for [Greek: nd'] in + Suidas). + + [3] See E. Curtius, _Hist. of Greece_, iii (Eng. trans. p. 275). + + [4] The date is uncertain; others give 392 and 389. + + + + +ARISTOPHANES, of Byzantium, Greek critic and grammarian, was born about +257 B.C. He removed early to Alexandria, where he studied under +Zenodotus and Callimachus. At the age of sixty he was appointed chief +librarian of the museum. He died about 185-180 B.C. Aristophanes chiefly +devoted himself to the poets, especially Homer, who had already been +edited by his master Zenodotus. He also edited Hesiod, the chief lyric, +tragic and comic poets, arranged Plato's dialogues in trilogies, and +abridged Aristotle's _Nature of Animals_. His arguments to the plays of +Aristophanes and the tragedians are in great part preserved. His works +on Athenian courtesans, masks and proverbs were the results of his study +of Attic comedy. He further commented on the [Greek: Pinakes] of +Callimachus, a sort of history of Greek literature. As a lexicographer, +Aristophanes compiled collections of foreign and unusual words and +expressions, and special lists (words denoting relationship, modes of +address). As a grammarian, he founded a scientific school, and in his +_Analogy_ systematically explained the various forms. He introduced +critical signs--except the obelus; punctuation prosodiacal, and +accentual marks were probably already in use. The foundation of the +so-called Alexandrian "canon" was also due to his impulse (_Sandys, +Hist. Class. Schol_., ed. 1906, i. 129 f.). + + Nauck, _Aristophanis Byzantii Grammatici Fragmenta_ (1848). + + + + +ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.), the great Greek philosopher, was born at +Stagira, on the Strymonic Gulf, and hence called "the Stagirite." +Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his _Epistle on Demosthenes and +Aristotle_ (chap. 5), gives the following sketch of his life:--Aristotle +([Greek: Aristotelaes]) was the son of Nicomachus, who traced back his +descent and his art to Machaon, son of Aesculapius; his mother being +Phaestis, a descendant of one of those who carried the colony from +Chalcis to Stagira. He was born in the 99th Olympiad in the archonship +at Athens of Diotrephes (384-383), three years before Demosthenes. In +the archonship of Polyzelus (367-366), after the death of his father, in +his eighteenth year, he came to Athens, and having joined Plato spent +twenty years with him. On the death of Plato (May 347) in the archonship +of Theophilus (348-347) he departed to Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus, and, +after three years' stay, during the archonship of Eubulus (345-344) he +moved to Mitylene, whence he went to Philip of Macedon in the archonship +of Pythodotus (343-342), and spent eight years with him as tutor of +Alexander. After the death of Philip (336), in the archonship of +Euaenetus (335-334), he returned to Athens and kept a school in the +Lyceum for twelve years. In the thirteenth, after the death of Alexander +(June 323) in the archonship of Cephisodorus (323-322), having departed +to Chalcis, he died of disease (322), after a life of three-and-sixty +years. + + +I. ARISTOTLE'S LIFE + +This account is practically repeated by Diogenes Laertius in his _Life +of Aristotle_, on the authority of the _Chronicles_ of Apollodorus, who +lived in the 2nd century B.C. Starting then from this tradition, near +enough to the time, we can confidently divide Aristotle's career into +four periods: his youth under his parents till his eighteenth year; his +philosophical education under Plato at Athens till his thirty-eighth +year; his travels in the Greek world till his fiftieth year; and his +philosophical teaching in the Lyceum till his departure to Chalcis and +his death in his sixty-third year. But when we descend from generals to +particulars, we become less certain, and must here content ourselves +with few details. + +Aristotle from the first profited by having a father who, being +physician to Amyntas II., king of Macedon, and one of the Asclepiads +who, according to Galen, practised their sons in dissection, both +prepared the way for his son's influence at the Macedonian court, and +gave him a bias to medicine and biology, which certainly led to his +belief in nature and natural science, and perhaps induced him to +practise medicine, as he did, according to his enemies, Timaeus and +Epicurus, when he first went to Athens. At Athens in his second period +for some twenty years he acquired the further advantage of balancing +natural science by metaphysics and morals in the course of reading +Plato's writings and of hearing Plato's unwritten dogmas (cf. [Greek: en +tois legomenois agraphois dogmasin], Ar. _Physics_, iv. 2, 209 b 15, +Berlin ed.). He was an earnest, appreciative, independent student. The +master is said to have called his pupil the intellect of the school and +his house a reader's. He is also said to have complained that his pupil +spurned him as colts do their mothers. Aristotle, however, always +revered Plato's memory (_Nic. Ethics_, i. 6), and even in criticizing +his master counted himself enough of a Platonist to cite Plato's +doctrines as what "we say" (cf. [Greek: phamen], _Metaphysics_, i. 9, +990 b 16). At the same time, he must have learnt much from other +contemporaries at Athens, especially from astronomers such as Eudoxus +and Callippus, and from orators such as Isocrates and Demosthenes. He +also attacked Isocrates, according to Cicero, and perhaps even set up a +rival school of rhetoric. At any rate he had pupils of his own, such as +Eudemus of Cyprus, Theodectes and Hermias, books of his own, especially +dialogues, and even to some extent his own philosophy, while he was +still a pupil of Plato. + +Well grounded in his boyhood, and thoroughly educated in his manhood, +Aristotle, after Plato's death, had the further advantage of travel in +his third period, when he was in his prime. The appointment of Plato's +nephew, Speusippus, to succeed his uncle in the Academy induced +Aristotle and Xenocrates to leave Athens together and repair to the +court of Hermias. Aristotle admired Hermias, and married his friend's +sister or niece, Pythias, by whom he had his daughter Pythias. After the +tragic death of Hermias, he retired for a time to Mitylene, and in +343-342 was summoned to Macedon by Philip to teach Alexander, who was +then a boy of thirteen. According to Cicero (_De Oratore_, iii. 41), +Philip wished his son, then a boy of thirteen, to receive from Aristotle +"agendi praecepta et eloquendi." Aristotle is said to have written on +monarchy and on colonies for Alexander; and the pupil is said to have +slept with his master's edition of Homer under his pillow, and to have +respected him, until from hatred of Aristotle's tactless relative, +Callisthenes, who was done to death in 328, he turned at last against +Aristotle himself. Aristotle had power to teach, and Alexander to learn. +Still we must not exaggerate the result. Dionysius must have spoken too +strongly when he says that Aristotle was tutor of Alexander for eight +years; for in 340, when Philip went to war with Byzantium, Alexander +became regent at home, at the age of sixteen. From this date Aristotle +probably spent much time at his paternal house in his native city at +Stagira as a patriotic citizen. Philip had sacked it in 348: Aristotle +induced him or his son to restore it, made for it a new constitution, +and in return was celebrated in a festival after his death. All these +vicissitudes made him a man of the world, drew him out of the +philosophical circle at Athens, and gave him leisure to develop his +philosophy. Besides Alexander he had other pupils: Callisthenes, +Cassander, Marsyas, Phanias, and Theophrastus of Eresus, who is said to +have had land at Stagira. He also continued the writings begun in his +second period; and the Macedonian kings have the glory of having +assisted the Stagirite philosopher with the means of conducting his +researches in the _History of Animals_. + +At last, in his fourth period, after the accession of Alexander, +Aristotle at fifty returned to Athens and became the head of his own +school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium near the temple of Apollo Lyceius in +the suburbs. The master and his scholars were called Peripatetics +([Greek: oi ek ton peripaton]), certainly from meeting, like other +philosophical schools, in a walk ([Greek: peripatos]), and perhaps also, +on the authority of Hermippus of Smyrna, from walking and talking there, +like Protagoras and his followers as described in Plato's _Protagoras_ +(314 E, 315 C). Indeed, according to Ammonius, Plato too had talked as +he walked in the Academy; and all his followers were called +Peripatetics, until, while the pupils of Xenocrates took the name +"Academics," those of Aristotle retained the general name. Aristotle +also formed his Peripatetic school into a kind of college with common +meals under a president ([Greek: archon]) changing every ten days; while +the philosopher himself delivered lectures, in which his practice, as +his pupil Aristoxenus tells us (_Harmonics_ ii, _init_.), was, avoiding +the generalities of Plato, to prepare his audience by explaining the +subject of investigation and its nature. But Aristotle was an author as +well as a lecturer; for the hypothesis that the Aristotelian writings +are notes of his lectures taken down by his pupils is contradicted by +the tradition of their learning while walking, and disproved by the +impossibility of taking down such complicated discourses from dictation. +Moreover, it is clear that Aristotle addressed himself to readers as +well as hearers, as in concluding his whole theory of syllogisms he +says, "There would remain for all of you or for our hearers ([Greek: +panton umon ae ton aekroamenon]) a duty of according to the defects of +the investigation consideration, to its discoveries much gratitude" +(_Sophisticai Elenchi_, 34,184 b 6). In short, Aristotle was at once a +student, a reader, a lecturer, a writer and a book collector. He was, +says Strabo (608), the first we knew who collected books and taught the +kings in Egypt the arrangement of a library. In his library no doubt +were books of others, but also his own. There we must figure to +ourselves the philosopher, constantly referring to his autograph rolls; +entering references and cross-references; correcting, rewriting, +collecting and arranging them according to their subjects; showing as +well as reading them to his pupils; with little thought of publication, +but with his whole soul concentrated on being and truth. + +On his first visit to Athens, during which occurred the fatal battle of +Mantineia (362 B.C.), Aristotle had seen the confusion of Greece +becoming the opportunity of Macedon under Philip; and on his second +visit he was supported at Athens by the complete domination of Macedon +under Alexander. Having witnessed the unjust exactions of a democracy at +Athens, the dwindling population of an oligarchy at Sparta, and the +oppressive selfishness of new tyrannies throughout the Greek world, he +condemned the actual constitutions of the Greek states as deviations +([Greek: parekbaseis]) directed merely to the good of the government; +and he contemplated a right constitution ([Greek: orthae politeia]), +which might be either a commonwealth, an aristocracy or a monarchy, +directed to the general good; but he preferred the monarchy of one man, +pre-eminent in virtue above the rest, as the best of all governments +(_Nicomachean Ethics_, viii. 10; _Politics_, [Gamma] 14-18). Moreover, +by adding (_Politics_, [Eta] 7, 1327 b 29-33) that the Greek race could +govern the world by obtaining one constitution ([Greek: mias tonchanon +politeias]), he indicated some leaning to a universal monarchy under +such a king as Alexander. On the whole, however, he adhered to the Greek +city-state ([Greek: polis]), partly perhaps out of patriotism to his own +Stagira. Averse at all events to the Athenian democracy, leaning towards +Macedonian monarchy, and resting on Macedonian power, he maintained +himself in his school at Athens, so long as he was supported by the +friendship of Antipater, the Macedonian regent in Alexander's absence. +But on Alexander's sudden death in 323, when Athens in the Lamian war +tried to reassert her freedom against Antipater, Aristotle found himself +in danger. He was accused of impiety on the absurd charge of deifying +the tyrant Hermias; and, remembering the fate of Socrates, he retired to +Chalcis in Euboea. There, away from his school, in 322 he died. (A tomb +has been found in our time inscribed with the name of Biote, daughter of +Aristotle. But is this _our_ Aristotle?) + +Such is our scanty knowledge of Aristotle's life, which seems to have +been prosperous by inheritance and position, and happy by work and +philosophy. His will, which was quoted by Hermippus, and, as afterwards +quoted by Diogenes Laertius, has come down to us, though perhaps not +complete, supplies some further details, as follows:--Antipater is to be +executor with others. Nicanor is to marry Pythias, Aristotle's daughter, +and to take charge of Nicomachus his son. Theophrastus is to be one of +the executors if he will and can, and if Nicanor should die to act +instead, if he will, in reference to Pythias. The executors and Nicanor +are to take charge of Herpyllis, "because," in the words of the +testator, "she has been good to me," and to allow her to reside either +in the lodging by the garden at Chalcis or in the paternal house at +Stagira. They are to provide for the slaves, who in some cases are to be +freed. They are to see after the dedication of four images by Gryllion +of Nicanor, Proxenus, Nicanor's mother and Arimnestus. They are to +dedicate an image of Aristotle's mother, and to see that the bones of +his wife Pythias are, as she ordered, taken up and buried with him. On +this will we may remark that Proxenus is said to have been Aristotle's +guardian after the death of his father, and to have been the father of +Nicanor; that Herpyllis of Stagira was the mother of Nicomachus by +Aristotle; and that Arimnestus was the brother of Aristotle, who also +had a sister, Arimneste. Every clause breathes the philosopher's +humanity. + + +II. DEVELOPMENT FROM PLATONISM + +Turning now from the man to the philosopher as we know him best in his +extant writings (see _Aristoteles_, ed. Bekker, Berlin, 1831, the pages +of which we use for our quotations), we find, instead of the general +dialogues of Plato, special didactic treatises, and a fundamental +difference of philosophy, so great as to have divided philosophers into +opposite camps, and made Coleridge say that everybody is born either a +Platonist or an Aristotelian. Platonism is the doctrine that the +individuals we call things only become, but a thing is always one +universal form beyond many individuals, e.g. one good beyond seeming +goods; and that without supernatural forms, which are models of +individuals, there is nothing, no being, no knowing, no good. +Aristotelianism is the contrary doctrine: a thing is always a separate +individual, a _substance_ ([Greek: ousia]), natural such as earth or +supernatural such as God; and without these individual substances, which +have attributes and universals belonging to them, there is nothing, to +be, to know, to be good. Philosophic differences are best felt by their +practical effects: philosophically, Platonism is a philosophy of +universal forms, Aristotelianism a philosophy of individual substances: +practically, Plato makes us think first of the supernatural and the +kingdom of heaven, Aristotle of the natural and the whole world. + +So diametrical a difference could not have arisen at once. For, though +Aristotle was different from Plato, and brought with him from Stagira a +Greek and Ionic but colonial origin, a medical descent and tendency, and +a matter-of-fact worldly kind of character, nevertheless on coming to +Athens as pupil of Plato he must have begun with his master's +philosophy. What then in more detail was the philosophy which the pupil +learnt from the master? When Aristotle at the age of eighteen came to +Athens, Plato, at the age of sixty-two, had probably written all his +dialogues except the _Laws_; and in the course of the remaining twenty +years of his life and teaching, he expounded "the so-called unwritten +dogmas" in his lectures on the Good. There was therefore a written +Platonism for Aristotle to read, and an unwritten Platonism which he +actually heard. + +To begin with the written philosophy of the Dialogues. Individual +so-called things neither are nor are not, but become: the real thing is +always one universal form beyond the many individuals, e.g. the one +beautiful beyond all beautiful individuals; and each form ([Greek: +idea]) is a model which causes individuals by participation to become +like, but not the same as, itself. Above all forms stands the form of +the good, which is the cause of all other forms being, and through them +of all individuals becoming. The creator, or the divine intellect, with +a view to the form of the good, and taking all forms as models, creates +in a receptacle ([Greek: hypodochae], Plato, _Timaeus_, 49 A) individual +impressions which are called things but really change and become without +attaining the permanence of being. Knowledge resides not in sense but in +reason, which, on the suggestion of sensations of changing individuals, +apprehends, or (to be precise) is reminded of, real universal forms, +and, by first ascending from less to more general until it arrives at +the form of good and then descending from this unconditional principle +to the less general, becomes science and philosophy, using as its method +the dialectic which gives and receives questions and answers between man +and man. Happiness in this world consists proximately in virtue as a +harmony between the three parts, rational, spirited and appetitive, of +our souls, and ultimately in living according to the form of the good; +but there is a far higher happiness, when the immortal soul, divesting +itself of body and passions and senses, rises from earth to heaven and +contemplates pure forms by pure reason. Such in brief is the Platonism +of the written dialogues; where the main doctrine of forms is +confessedly advanced never as a dogma but always as a hypothesis, in +which there are difficulties, but without which Plato can explain +neither being, nor truth nor goodness, because throughout he denies the +being of individual things. In the unwritten lectures of his old age, he +developed this formal into a mathematical metaphysics. In order to +explain the unity and variety of the world, the one universal form and +the many individuals, and how the one good is the main cause of +everything, he placed as it were at the back of his own doctrine of +forms a Pythagorean mathematical philosophy. He supposed that the one +and the two, which is indeterminate, and is the great and little, are +opposite principles or causes. Identifying the form of the good with the +one, he supposed that the one, by combining with the indeterminate two, +causes a plurality of forms, which like every combination of one and two +are numbers but peculiar in being incommensurate with one another, so +that each form is not a mathematical number ([Greek: mathaematikos +arithmos]), but a formal number ([Greek: eidaetikos arithmos]). Further +he supposed that in its turn each form, or formal number, is a limited +one which, by combining again with the indeterminate two, causes a +plurality of individuals. Hence finally he concluded that the good as +the one combining with the indeterminate two is directly the cause of +all forms as formal numbers, and indirectly through them all of the +multitude of individuals in the world. + +Aristotle knew Plato, was present at his lectures on the Good, wrote a +report of them ([Greek: peri tagathou]), and described this latter +philosophy of Plato in his _Metaphysics_. Modern critics, who were not +present and knew neither, often accuse Aristotle of misrepresenting +Plato. But Heracleides and Hestiacus, Speusippus and Xenocrates were +also present and wrote similar reports. What is more, both Speusippus +and Xenocrates founded their own philosophies on this very +Pythagoreanism of Plato. Speusippus as president of the Academy from 347 +to 339 taught that the one and the many are principles, while abolishing +forms and reducing the good from cause to effect. Xenocrates as +president from 339 onwards taught that the one and many are principles, +only without distinguishing mathematical from formal numbers. +Aristotle's critics hardly realize that for the rest of his life he had +to live and to struggle with a formal and a mathematical Platonism, +which exaggerated first universals and attributes and afterwards the +quantitative attributes, one and many, into substantial things and real +causes. + +Aristotle had no sympathy with the unwritten dogmas of Plato. But with +the written dialogues of Plato he always continued to agree almost as +much as he disagreed. Like Plato, he believed in real universals, real +essences, real causes; he believed in the unity of the universal, and in +the immateriality of essences; he believed in the good, and that there +is a good of the universe; he believed that God is a living being, +eternal and best, who is a supernatural cause of the motions and changes +of the natural world, and that essences and matter are also necessary +causes; he believed in the divine intelligence and in the immortality of +our intelligent souls; he believed in knowledge going from sense to +reason, that science requires ascent to principles and is descent from +principles, and that dialectic is useful to science; he believed in +happiness involving virtue, and in moral virtue being a control of +passions by reason, while the highest happiness is speculative wisdom. +All these inspiring metaphysical and moral doctrines the pupil accepted +from his master's dialogues, and throughout his life adhered to the +general spirit of realism without materialism pervading the Platonic +philosophy. But what he refused to believe with Plato was that reality +is not here, but only above; and what he maintained against Plato was +that it is both, and that universals and forms, one and many, the good, +are real but not separate realities. This deep metaphysical divergence +was the prime cause of the transition from Platonism to Aristotelianism. + +_Fragmenta Aristotelis._--Aristotle's originality soon asserted itself +in early writings, of which fragments have come down to us, and have +been collected by Rose (see the Berlin edition of Aristotle's works, or +more readily in the Teubner series, which we shall use for our +quotations). Many, no doubt, are spurious; but some are genuine, and a +few perhaps cited in Aristotle's extant works. Some are dialogues, +others didactic works. A special interest attaches to the dialogues +written after the manner of Plato but with Aristotle as principal +interlocutor; and some of these, e.g. the [Greek: peri poiaeton] and the +_Eudemus_, seem to have been published. It is not always certain which +were dialogues, which didactic like Aristotle's later works; but by +comparing those which were certainly dialogues with their companions in +the list of Aristotle's books as given by Diogenes Laertius, we may +conclude with Bernays that the books occurring first in that list were +dialogues. Hence we may perhaps accept as genuine the following:-- + + 1. Dialogues:-- + [Greek: peri dikaiosunaes]: On justice. + [Greek: peri poiaeton]: On poets (perhaps cited in _Poetics_, 15, + 1454 b 18, [Greek: en tois ekdekomenois logois]). + [Greek: peri philosophias]: On philosophy (perhaps cited in + _Physics_, ii. 2, 194 a 35-36). + [Greek: peri politikou]: A politician. + [Greek: peri rhaetorikaes hae Grullos]: On rhetoric. + [Greek: protreptikos]: An exhortation to philosophy (probably in + dialogue, because it is the model of Cicero's dialogue + _Hortensius_). + [Greek: Eudaemos hae peri Psuchaes]: On soul (perhaps cited in _De + Anima_, i. 4, 407 b 29, [Greek: kai tois en koino levomenois + logois]). + + 2. Didactic writings:-- + (1) Metaphysical:-- + [Greek: peri tagathou]: On the good (probably not a dialogue but a + report of Plato's lectures). + [Greek: peri ideon]: On forms. + (2) Political:-- + [Greek: peri basileias]: On monarchy. + [Greek: Alexandros hae hyper apoikon]: On colonies. + (3) Rhetorical:-- + [Greek: technaes taes theodektou sunagogae]: The _Theodectea_ + (cited in the Preface to the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ (chap. + i.)), and as [Greek: ta theodekteia] in the _Rhetoric_ (iii. 9, + 1410 b 2), + [Greek: technon sunagogae]: A historical collection of arts of + rhetoric. + +Difficult as it is to determine when Aristotle wrote all these various +works, some of them indicate their dates. Gryllus, celebrated in the +dialogue on rhetoric, was Xenophon's son who fell at Mantineia in 362; +and Eudemus of Cyprus, lamented in the dialogue on soul, died in Sicily +in 352. These then were probably written before Plato died in 347; and +so probably were most of the dialogues, precisely because they were +imitations of the dialogues of Plato. Among the didactic writings, the +[Greek: peri tagathou] would probably belong to the same time, because +it was Aristotle's report of Plato's lectures. On the other hand, the +two political works, if written for Alexander, would be after 343-342 +when Philip made Aristotle his tutor. So probably were the rhetorical +works, especially the _Theodectea_; since both politics and oratory were +the subjects which the father wanted the tutor to teach his son, and, +when Alexander came to Phaselis, he is said by Plutarch (_Alexander_, +17) to have decorated the statue of Theodectes in honour of his +association with the man through Aristotle and philosophy. On the whole, +then, it seems as if Aristotle began with dialogues during his second +period under Plato, but gradually came to prefer writing didactic works, +especially in the third period after Plato's death, and in connexion +with Alexander. + +These early writings show clearly how Aristotle came to depart from +Plato. In the first place as regards style, though the Stagirite pupil +Aristotle could never rival his Attic master in literary form, yet he +did a signal service to philosophy in gradually passing from the vague +generalities of the dialogue to the scientific precision of the didactic +treatise. The philosophy of Plato is dialogue trying to become science; +that of Aristotle science retaining traces of dialectic. Secondly as +regards subject-matter, even in his early writings Aristotle tends to +widen the scope of philosophic inquiry, so as not only to embrace +metaphysics and politics, but also to encourage rhetoric and poetics, +which Plato tended to discourage or limit. Thirdly as regards doctrines, +the surpassing interest of these early writings is that they show the +pupil partly agreeing, partly disagreeing, with his master. The +_Eudemus_ and _Protrepticus_ are with Plato; the dialogues _on +Philosophy_ and the treatise _on Forms_ are against Plato. + + The _Eudemus_, on the soul (_Fragmenta_, 37 seq.), must have been in + style and thought the most Platonic of all the Aristotelian writings. + Plato's theory of the soul and its immortality was not the ordinary + Greek view derived from Homer, who regarded the body as the self, the + soul as a shade having a future state but an obscure existence, and + stamped that view on the hearts of his countrymen, and affected + Aristotle himself. After Homer there had come to Greece the new view + that the soul is more real than the body, that it is imprisoned in the + carcase as a prison-house, that it is capable of enjoying a happier + life freed from the body, and that it can transmigrate from body to + body. This strange, exotic, ascetic view was adopted by some + philosophers, and especially by the Pythagoreans, and so transmitted + to Plato. Aristotle in the _Eudemus_, written about 352, when he was + thirty-two, also believed in it. Accordingly, the soul of Eudemus, + when it left his body, is said to be returning home: the soul is made + subject to the casting of lots, and in coming from the other world to + this it is supposed to forget its former visions: but its disembodied + life is regarded as its natural life in a better world. The _Eudemus_ + also contained a celebrated passage, preserved by Plutarch (_Consolat. + ad Apoll._.27; _Fragm._ 44). Here we can read the young Aristotle, + writing in the form of the dialogue like Plato, avoiding hiatus like + Isocrates, and justifying the praises accorded to his style by Cicero, + Quintilian and Dionysius. It shows how nearly the pupil could imitate + his master's dialogues, and still more how exactly he at first + embraced his master's doctrines. It makes Silenus, captured by Midas, + say that the best of all things is not to have been born, and the next + best, having been born, to die as soon as possible. Nothing could be + more like Plato's _Phaedo_, or more unlike Aristotle's later work _on + the Soul_, which entirely rejects transmigration and allows the next + life to sink into the background. + + Hardly less Platonic is the _Protrepticus_ (_Fragm._ 50 seq.), an + exhortation to philosophy which, according to Zeno the Stoic, was + studied by his master Crates. It is an exhortation, whose point is + that the chief good is philosophy, the contemplation of the universe + by divine and immortal intellect. This is indeed a doctrine of + Platonic ethics from which Aristotle in his later days never swerved. + But in the _Protrepticus_ he goes on to say that seeming goods, such + as strength, size, beauty, honours, opinions, are mere illusion + ([Greek: okiagraphia]), worthless and ridiculous, as we should know if + we had Lyncean eyes to compare them with the vision of the eternal. + This indifference to goods of body and estate is quite Platonic, but + is very different from Aristotle's later ethical doctrine that such + goods, though not the essence, are nevertheless necessary conditions + of happiness. Finally, in the spirit of Plato's _Phaedo_ and the + dialogue _Eudemus_, the _Protrepticus_ holds that the soul is bound to + the sentient members of the body as prisoners in Etruria are bound + face to face with corpses; whereas the later view of the _De Anima_ is + that the soul is the vital principle of the body and the body the + necessary organ of the soul. + + Thus we find that at first, under the influence of his master, + Aristotle held somewhat ascetic views on soul and body and on goods of + body and estate, entirely opposed both in psychology and in ethics to + the moderate doctrines of his later writings. This perhaps is one + reason why Cicero, who had Aristotle's early writings, saw no + difference between the Academy and the Peripatetics (_Acad. Post_, i. + 4, 17-18). + + On the other hand, the dialogue _on Philosophy_ ([Greek: peri + philosophias], _Fragm._ 1 seq.) strikingly exhibits the origin of + Aristotle's divergence from Platonism, and that too in Plato's + lifetime. The young son of a doctor from the colonies proved too fond + of this world to stomach his Athenian master's philosophy of the + supernatural. Accordingly in this dialogue he attacked Plato's + fundamental position, both in its written and in its unwritten + presentment, as a hypothesis both of forms and of formal numbers. + First, he attacked the hypothesis of forms ([Greek: taen ton ideon + hypothesin], _Fragm._ 8), exclaiming in his dialogues, according to + Proclus, that he could not sympathize with the dogma even if it should + be thought that he was opposing it out of contentiousness; while + Plutarch says that his attacks on the forms by means of his exoteric + dialogues were thought by some persons more contentious than + philosophical, as presuming to disdain Plato's philosophy: so far was + he, says Plutarch, from following it. Secondly, in the same dialogue + (_Fragm._ 9), according to Syrianus, he disagreed with the hypothesis + of formal numbers ([Greek: tois eidaetikois arithmois]). If, wrote + Aristotle, the forms are another sort of number, not mathematical, + there would be no understanding of it. Lastly, in the same dialogue + (_Fragm._ 18 seq.) he revealed his emphasis on nature by contending + that the universe is uncreate and indestructible. According to Plato, + God caused the natural world to become: according to Aristotle it is + eternal. This eternity of the world became one of his characteristic + doctrines, and subsequently enabled him to explain how essences can be + eternal without being separate from this world which is also eternal + (cf. _Metaph._ [Zeta] 8). Thus early did Aristotle begin, even in + Plato's lifetime, to oppose Plato's hypothesis of supernatural forms, + and advance his own hypothesis of the eternity of the world. + + He made another attack on Platonism in the didactic work [Greek: peri + ideon], (_Fragm._ 185 seq.), contending that the Platonic arguments + prove not forms ([Greek: ideai]) but only things common ([Greek: ta + koina]). Here, according to Alexander the commentator, he first + brought against Plato the argument of "the third man" ([Greek: ho + tritos anthropos]); that, if there is the form, one man beyond many + men, there will be a third man predicated of both man and men, and a + fourth predicated of all three, and so on to infinity (_Fragm._ 188). + Here, too, he examined the hypothesis of Eudoxus that things are + caused by mixture of forms, a hypothesis which formed a kind of + transition to his own later views, but failed to satisfy him on + account of its difficulties. Lastly, in the didactic work [Greek: peri + tagathou] (_Fragm._ 27 seq.), containing his report of Plato's + lectures on the Good, he was dealing with the same mathematical + metaphysics which in his dialogue _on Philosophy_ he criticized for + converting forms into formal numbers. Aristoxenus, at the beginning of + the second book of the _Harmonics_, gives a graphic account of the + astonishment caused by these lectures of Plato, and of their effect on + the lectures of Aristotle. In contending, as Aristotle's pupil, that a + teacher should begin by proposing his subject, he tells us how + Aristotle used to relate that most of Plato's hearers came expecting + to get something about human goods and happiness, but that when the + discourses turned out to be all about mathematics, with the conclusion + that good is one, it appeared to them a paradox, which some despised + and others condemned. The reason, he adds, was that they were not + informed by Plato beforehand; and for this very reason, Aristotle, as + he told Aristoxenus himself, used to prepare his hearers by informing + them of the nature of the subject. From this rare personal + reminiscence we see at a glance that the mind of Plato and the mind of + Aristotle were so different, that their philosophies must diverge; the + one towards the supernatural, the abstract, the discursive, and the + other towards the natural, the substantial, the scientific. + + Aristotle then even in the second period of his life, while Plato was + still alive, began to differ from him in metaphysics. He rejected the + Platonic hypothesis of forms, and affirmed that they are not separate + but common, without however as yet having advanced to a constructive + metaphysics of his own; while at the same time, after having at first + adopted his master's dialectical treatment of metaphysical problems, + he soon passed from dialogues to didactic works, which had the result + of separating metaphysics from dialectic. The all-important + consequence of this first departure from Platonism was that Aristotle + became and remained primarily a metaphysician. After Plato's death, + coming to his third period he made a further departure from Platonism + in his didactic works on politics and rhetoric, written in connexion + with Alexander and Theodectes. Those on politics (_Fragm._ 646-648) + were designed to instruct Alexander on monarchy and on colonization; + and in them Aristotle agreed with Plato in assigning a moral object to + the state, but departed from him by saying that a king need not be a + philosopher, as Plato had said in the _Republic_, but does need to + listen to philosophers. Still more marked was his departure from Plato + as regards rhetoric. Plato in the _Gorgias_, (501 [Alpha]) had + contended that rhetoric is not an art but an empirical practice + ([Greek: tribae kai empeiria]); Aristotle in the _Gryllus_ (_Fragm._ + 68-69), written in his second period, took according to Quintilian a + similar view. But in his third period, in the _Theodectea_ (_Fragm._ + 125 seq.), rhetoric is treated as an art, and is laid out somewhat in + the manner of his later _Art of Rhetoric_; while he also showed his + interest in the subject by writing a history of other arts of rhetoric + called [Greek: technon ounagogae] (_Fragm._ 136 seq.). Further, in + treating rhetoric as an art in the _Theodectea_ he was forced into a + conclusion, which carried him far beyond Plato's rigid notions of + proof and of passion: he concluded that it is the work of an orator to + use persuasion, and to arouse the passions ([Greek: to ta pathae + diageirai]), e.g. anger and pity (_ib._ 133-134). Nor could he treat + poetry as he is said to have done without the same result. + +On the whole then, in his early dialectical and didactic writings, of +which mere fragments remain, Aristotle had already diverged from Plato, +and first of all in metaphysics. During his master's life, in the second +period of his own life, he protested against the Platonic hypothesis of +forms, formal numbers and the one as the good, and tended to separate +metaphysics from dialectic by beginning to pass from dialogues to +didactic works. After his master's death, in the third period of his own +life, and during his connexion with Alexander, but before the final +construction of his philosophy into a system, he was tending to write +more and more in the didactic style; to separate from dialectic, not +only metaphysics, but also politics, rhetoric and poetry; to admit by +the side of philosophy the arts of persuasive language; to think it part +of their legitimate work to rouse the passions; and in all these ways to +depart from the ascetic rigidity of the philosophy of Plato, so as to +prepare for the tolerant spirit of his own, and especially for his +ethical doctrine that virtue consists not in suppressing but in +moderating almost all human passions. In both periods, too, as we shall +find in the sequel, he was already occupied in composing some of the +extant writings which were afterwards to form parts of his final +philosophical system. But as yet he had given no sign of system, +and--what is surprising--no trace of logic. Aristotle was primarily a +metaphysician against Plato; a metaphysician before he was a logician; a +metaphysician who made what he called primary philosophy ([Greek: protae +philosophia]) the starting-point of his philosophical development, and +ultimately of his philosophical system. + + +III. COMPOSITION OF HIS EXTANT WORKS + +The system which was taught by Aristotle at Athens in the fourth period +of his life, and which is now known as the Aristotelian philosophy, is +contained not in fragments but in extant books. It will be best then to +give at once a list of these extant works, following the traditional +order in which they have long been arranged, and marking with a dagger +([+]) those which are now usually considered not to be genuine, though +not always with sufficient reason. + + A. LOGICAL + + 1. [Greek: Kataegoriai]: _Categoriae_: On simple expressions + signifying different kinds of things and capable of predication + [probably an early work of Aristotle, accepting species and genera as + "secondary substances" in deference to Plato's teaching]. + + 2. [Greek: peri Hermaeneias]: _De interpretatione_: On language as + expression of mind, and especially on the enunciation or assertion + ([Greek: apophansis, apophantikos logos]) [rejected by Andronicus + according to Alexander; but probably an early work of Aristotle, based + on Plato's analysis of the sentence into noun and verb]. + + 3. [Greek: Analytika protera]: _Analytica Priora_, On syllogism, with + a view to demonstration. + + 4. [Greek: Analytika ustera]: _Analytica Posteriora_: On + demonstration, or demonstrative or scientific syllogism ([Greek: + apodeixis, apodeiktikos ae epistaemonilos syllogismos]). + + 5. [Greek: Topika]: _Topica_: On dialectical syllogism ([Greek: + Dialektikos syllogismos]), so called from consisting mainly of + commonplaces ([Greek: topoi]. _loci_), or general sources of argument. + + 6. [Greek: Sophistikoi elenchoi]: _Sophistici Elenchi_: On sophistic + ([Greek: sophistikos]) or eristic syllogism ([Greek: eristikos + syllogismos]), so called from the fallacies used by sophists in + refutation ([Greek: elenchos]) of their opponents. + + [Numbers 1-6 were afterwards grouped together as the _Organon_.] + + B. PHYSICAL + + 1. [Greek: Physikae akroasis]: _Physica Auscultatio_: On Nature as + cause of change, and the general principles of natural science. + + 2. [Greek: peri ouranou]: _De coelo_: On astronomy, &c. + + 3. [Greek: peri geneseos kai phthoras]: _De generatione et + corruptione_: On generation and destruction in general. + + 4. [Greek: Meteorologika]: _Meteorologica_: On sublunary changes. + + 5.[+] [Greek: peri kosmou]: _De mundo_: On the universe. [Supposed by + Zeller to belong to the latter half of the 1st century B.C.] + + 6. [Greek: peri psyches]: _De anima_: On soul, conjoined with organic + body. + + 7. [Greek: peri aistheseos kai aistheton]: _De sensu et sensili_: On + sense and objects of sense. + + 8. [Greek: peri mnaemaes kai anamneseos]: _De memoria et + reminiscentia_: On memory and recollection. + + 9. [Greek: peri hypnou kai egregorseos]: _De somno et vigilia_: On + sleep and waking. + + 10. [Greek: peri enypnion]: _De insomniis_: On dreams. + + 11. [Greek: peri taes kath hypnon mantikes] or [Greek: peri mantikes + pes hen tois hypnois]: _De divinatione per somnum_: On prophecy in + sleep. + + 12. [Greek: peri makrobiotetos kai brachybiotetos]: _De longitudine et + brevitate vitae_: On length and shortness of life. + + 13. [Greek: peri neotetos kai geros kai peri zoaes kai thanatou]: _De + juventute et senectute et de vita et morte_: On youth and age, and on + life and death. + + 14. [Greek: peri anapnoes]: _De respiratione_: On respiration. + [Numbers 7-14 are grouped together as Parva naturalia.] + + 15.[+] [Greek: peri pneumatos]: _De spiritu_: On innate spirit + (_spiritus vitalis_). + + 16. [Greek: peri ta zoa istoriai]: _Historia animalium_: Description + of facts about animals, i.e. their organs. &c. + + 17. [Greek: peri zoon morion]. _De partibus animalium_: Philosophy of + the causes of the facts about animals, i.e. their functions. + + 18.[+] [Greek: peri zoon kineseos]: _De animalium motione_: On the + motion of animals. [Ascribed to the school of Theophrastus and Strato + by Zeller.] + + 19. [Greek: peri zoon poreias]: _De animalium incessu_: On the going + of animals. + + 20. [Greek: peri zoon geneseos]: _De animalium generatione_: On the + generation of animals. + + 21.[+] [Greek: peri chromaton]: _De coloribus_: On colours. [Ascribed + to the school of Theophrastus and Strato by Zeller.] + + 22.[+] [Greek: peri akouston]: _De audibilibus_. [Ascribed to the + school of Theophrastus and Strato by Zeller.] + + 23.[+] [Greek: Physiognomonika]: _Physiognomonica_: On physiognomy, + and the sympathy of body and soul. + + 24.[+] [Greek: peri phytos]: _De plantis_: On plants. [Not Aristotle's + work on this subject.] + + 25.[+] [Greek: peri thaumasion akousmatos]: _De mirabilibus + ausculationibus_: On phenomena chiefly connected with natural history. + + 26.[+] [Greek: Maechanica]: _Quaestiones mechanicae_: Mechanical + questions. + + C. MISCELLANEOUS + + 1.[+] [Greek: Problaemata]: _Problemata_: Problems on various subjects + [gradually collected by the Peripatetics from partly Aristotelian + materials, according to Zeller]. + + 2.[+] [Greek: peri atomon grammon]: _De insecabilibus lineis_: On + indivisible lines. [Ascribed to Theophrastus, or his time, by Zeller.] + + 3.[+] [Greek: anemos theseis kai prosaegoriai]: _Ventorum situs et + appellationes_: A fragment on the winds. + + 4.[+] [Greek: peri Xenophanous, peri Zaenonos, peri Gorgiou]: _De + Xenophane, Zenone et Gorgia_: On Xenophanes, Zeno and Gorgias. + + D. PRIMARY PHILOSOPHY OR THEOLOGY OR WISDOM + + [Greek: ta meta ta physika]: _Metaphysica_: On being as being and its + properties, its causes and principles, and on God as the motive motor + of the world. + + E. PRACTICAL + + 1. [Greek: Aethika Nikomacheia]: _Ethica Nicomachea_: On the good of + the individual. + + 2.[+] [Greek: Aethika megala]: _Magna Moralia_: On the same subject. + [According to Zeller, an abstract of the _Nicomachean_ and the + _Eudemian Ethics_, tending to follow the latter, but possibly an early + draft of the _Nicomachean Ethics_.] + + 3.[+] [Greek: Aethika Eudaemia] or [Greek: pros Eudaemos]: _Ethica ad + Eudemum_: On the same subject. [Usually supposed to be written by + Eudemus, but possibly an early draft of the _Nicomachean Ethics_.] + + 4.[+] [Greek: peri aretos kai kakios]: _De virtutibus et vitiis_: On + virtues and vices. [An eclectic work of the 1st century B.C., half + Academic and half Peripatetic, according to Zeller.] + + 5. [Greek: Politika]: _De re publica_: Politics, on the good of the + state. + + 6.[+] [Greek: Oikonomika]: _De cura rei familiaris_: Economics, on the + good of the family. [The first book a work of the school of + Theophrastus or Eudemus, the second later Peripatetic, according to + Zeller.] + + F. ART + + 1. [Greek: technae Rhaetorikae]: _Ars rhetorica_: On the art of + oratory. + + 2.[+] [Greek: Rhaetorikae pros: Alexandron:] _Rhetorica ad + Alexandrum_: On the same subject. [Ascribed to Anaximenes of Lampsacus + (fl. 365, Diodorus xv. 76) by Petrus Victorius, and Spengel, but + possibly an earlier rhetoric by Aristotle.] + + 3. [Greek: peri Poiaetikaes]: _De poetica_: On the art of poetry + [fragmentary]. + + G. HISTORICAL + + [Greek: Athaenaion politeia:] _De republica Atheniensium_: On the + Constitution of Athens. [One of the [Greek: Politeiai], said to have + been 158 at least, the genuineness of which is attested by the defence + which Polybius (xii.) makes of Aristotle's history of the Epizephyrian + Locrians against Timaeus, Aristotle's contemporary and critic. + Hitherto, only fragments have come down to us (cf. _Fragm_. 381-603). + The present treatise, without however its beginning and end, written + on a papyrus discovered in Egypt and now in the British Museum, was + first edited by F.G. Kenyon 1890-1891.] (See the article CONSTITUTION + OF ATHENS.) + +_The Difficulty._--The genuineness of the Aristotelian works, as +Leibnitz truly said (_De Stilo Phil. Nizolii_, xxx.), is ascertained by +the conspicuous harmony of their theories, and by their uniform method +of swift subtlety. Nevertheless difficulties lurk beneath their general +unity of thought and style. In style they are not quite the same: now +they are brief and now diffuse: sometimes they are carelessly written, +sometimes so carefully as to avoid hiatus, e.g. the _Metaphysics_ A, and +parts of the _De Coelo_ and _Parva Naturalia_, which in this respect +resemble the fragment quoted by Plutarch from the early dialogue +_Eudemus_ (_Fragm_. 44). They also appear to contain displacements, +interpolations, prefaces such as that to the _Meteorologica_, and +appendices such as that to the _Sophistical Elenchi_, which may have +been added. An Aristotelian work often goes on continuously at first, +and then becomes disappointing by suddenly introducing discussions which +break the connexion or are even inconsistent with the beginning; as in +the _Posterior Analytics_, which, after developing a theory of +demonstration from necessary principles, suddenly makes the admission, +which is also the main theory of science in the _Metaphysics_, that +demonstration is about either the necessary or the contingent, from +principles either necessary or contingent, only not accidental. At times +order is followed by disorder, as in the _Politics_. Again, there are +repetitions and double versions, e.g. those of the _Physics_, vii., and +those of the _De Anima_, ii., discovered by Torstrik; or two discussions +of the same subject, e.g. of pleasure in the _Nicomachean Ethics_, vii. +and x.; or several treatises on the same subject very like one another, +viz. the _Nicomachean Ethics_, the _Eudemian Ethics_ and the _Magna +Moralia_; or, strangest of all, a consecutive treatise and other +discourses amalgamated, e.g. in the _Metaphysics_, where a systematic +theory of being running through several books ( [Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, +Zeta, Eta, Theta]) is preceded, interrupted and followed by other +discussions of the subject. Further, there are frequently several titles +of the same work or of different parts of it. Sometimes diagrams +([Greek: diagraphai] or [Greek: hypographai]) are mentioned, and +sometimes given (e.g. in _De Interp_. 13, 22 a 22; _Nicomachean Ethics_, +ii. 7; _Eudemian Ethics_, ii. 3), but sometimes only implied (e.g. in +_Hist. An._ i. 17, 497 a 32; iii. 1, 510 a 30; iv. 1, 525 a 9). The +different works are more or less connected by a system of references, +which give rise to difficulties, especially when they are +cross-references: for example, the _Analytics_ and _Topics_ quote one +another: so do the _Physics_ and the _Metaphysics_; the _De Vita_ and +_De Respiratione_ and the _De Partibus Animalium_; this latter treatise +and the _De Animalium Incessu_; the _De Interpretatione_ and the _De +Anima_. A late work may quote an earlier; but how, it may be asked, can +the earlier reciprocally quote the later? + +Besides these difficulties in and between the works there are others +beyond them. On the one hand, there is the curious story given partly by +Strabo (608-609) and partly in Plutarch's _Sulla_ (c. 26), that +Aristotle's successor Theophrastus left the books of both to their joint +pupil, Neleus of Scepsis, where they were hidden in a cellar, till in +Sulla's time they were sold to Apellicon, who made new copies, +transferred after Apellicon's death by Sulla to Rome, and there edited +and published by Tyrannio and Andronicus. On the other hand, there are +the curious and puzzling catalogues of Aristotelian books, one given by +Diogenes Laertius, another by an anonymous commentator (perhaps +Hesychius of Miletus) quoted in the notes of Gilles Menage on Diogenes +Laertius, and known as "Anonymus Menagii," and a third copied by two +Arabian writers from Ptolemy, perhaps King Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of +the founder of the library at Alexandria. (See Rose, _Fragm_. pp. 1-22.) +But the extraordinary thing is that, without exactly agreeing among +themselves, the catalogues give titles which do not agree well with the +Aristotelian works as we have them. A title in some cases suits a given +work or a part of it; but in other cases there are no titles for works +which exist, or titles for works which do not exist. + +These difficulties are complicated by various hypotheses concerning the +composition of the Aristotelian works. Zeller supposes that, though +Aristotle may have made preparations for his philosophical system +beforehand, still the properly didactic treatises composing it almost +all belong to the last period of his life, i.e. from 335-334 to 322; and +from the references of one work to another Zeller has further suggested +a chronological order of composition during this period of twelve years, +beginning with the treatises on Logic and Physics, and ending with that +on Metaphysics. There is a further hypothesis that the Aristotelian +works were not originally treatises, but notes of lectures either for or +by his pupils. This easily passes into the further and still more +sceptical hypothesis that the works, as we have them, under Aristotle's +name, are rather the works of the Peripatetic school, from Aristotle, +Theophrastus and Eudemus downwards. "We cannot assert with certainty," +says R. Shute in his _History of the Aristotelian Writings_ (p. 176), +"that we have even got throughout a treatise in the exact words of +Aristotle, though we may be pretty clear that we have a fair +representation of his thought. The unity of style observable may belong +quite as much to the school and the method as to the individual." This +sceptical conclusion, the contrary of that drawn by Leibnitz from the +harmony of thought and style pervading the works, shows us that the +Homeric question has been followed by the Aristotelian question. + +_The Solution._--Such hypotheses attend to Aristotle's philosophy to the +neglect of his life. He was really, as we have seen, a prolific writer +from the time when he was a young man under Plato's guidance at Athens; +beginning with dialogues in the manner of his master, but afterwards +preferring to write didactic works during the prime of his own life +between thirty-eight and fifty (347-335-334), and with the further +advantage of leisure at Atarneus and Mitylene, in Macedonia and at home +in Stagira. When at fifty he returned to Athens, as head of the +Peripatetic school, he no doubt wrote much of his extant philosophy +during the twelve remaining years of his life (335-322). But he was then +a busy teacher, was growing old, and suffered from a disease in the +stomach for a considerable time before it proved fatal at the age of +sixty-three. It is therefore improbable that he could between fifty and +sixty-three have written almost the whole of the many books on many +subjects constituting that grand philosophical system which is one of +the most wonderful works of man. It is far more probable that he was +previously composing them at his leisure and in the vigour of manhood, +precisely as his contemporary Demosthenes composed all his great +speeches except the _De Corona_ before he was fifty. + +Turning to Aristotle's own works, we immediately light upon a surprise: +Aristotle began his extant scientific works during Plato's lifetime. By +a curious coincidence, in two different works he mentions two different +events as contemporary with the time of writing, one in 357 and the +other in 356. In the _Politics_ ([Epsilon] 10, 1312 b 10), he mentions +as now ([Greek: nun]) Dion's expedition to Sicily which occurred in 357. +In the _Meteorologica_ (iii. 1, 371 a 30), he mentions as now ([Greek: +nun]) the burning of the temple at Ephesus, which occurred in 356. To +save his hypothesis of late composition, Zeller resorts to the vagueness +of the word "now" ([Greek: nun]). But Aristotle is graphically +describing isolated events, and could hardly speak of events of 357 and +356 as happening "now" in or near 335. Moreover, these two works contain +further proofs that they were both begun earlier than this date. The +_Politics_ ([Beta] 10) mentions as having happened lately ([Greek: +neosti]) the expedition of Phalaecus to Crete, which occurred towards +the end of the Sacred War in 346. The _Meteorologica_ ([Gamma] 7) +mentions the comet of 341. It is true that the _Politics_ also mentions +much later events, e.g. the assassination of Philip which took place in +336 ([Epsilon] 10, 1311 b 1-3). Indeed, the whole truth about this great +work is that it remained unfinished at Aristotle's death. But what of +that? The logical conclusion is that Aristotle began writing it as early +as 357, and continued writing it in 346, in 336, and so on till he died. +Similarly, he began the _Meteorologica_ as early as 356 and was still +writing it in 341. Both books were commenced some years before Plato's +death: both were works of many years: both were destined to form parts +of the Aristotelian system of philosophy. It follows that Aristotle, +from early manhood, not only wrote dialogues and didactic works, +surviving only in fragments, but also began some of the philosophical +works which are still parts of his extant writings. He continued these +and no doubt began others during the prime of his life. Having thus +slowly matured his separate writings, he was the better able to combine +them more and more into a system, in his last years. No doubt, however, +he went on writing and rewriting well into the last period of his life; +for example, the recently discovered [Greek: Athaenaion politeia] +mentions on the one hand (c. 54) the archonship of Cephisophon +(329-328), on the other hand (c. 46) triremes and quadriremes but +without quinqueremes, which first appeared at Athens in 325-324; and as +it mentions nothing later it probably received its final touches between +320 and 324. But it may have been begun long before, and received +additions and changes. However early Aristotle began a book, so long as +he kept the manuscript, he could always change it. Finally he died +without completing some of his works, such as the _Politics_, and +notably that work of his whole philosophic career and foundation of his +whole philosophy--the _Metaphysics_--which, projected in his early +criticism of Plato's philosophy of universal forms, gradually developed +into his positive philosophy of individual substances, but remained +unfinished after all. + +On the whole, then, Aristotle was writing his extant works very +gradually for some thirty-five years (357-322), like Herodotus (iv. 30) +contemplated additions, continued writing them more or less together, +not so much successively as simultaneously, and had not finished writing +at his death. + +There is a curious characteristic connected with this gradual +composition. An Aristotelian treatise frequently has the appearance of +being a collection of smaller discourses ([Greek: logoi]), as, e.g., +K.L. Michelet has remarked. + +This is obvious enough in the _Metaphysics_: it has two openings (Books +[Alpha] and [alpha]); then comes a nearly consecutive theory of being +([Beta], [Gamma], [Epsilon], [Zeta], [Eta], [Theta]), but interrupted by +a philosophical lexicon [Delta]; afterwards follows a theory of unity +([Iota]); then a summary of previous books and of doctrines from the +_Physics_ ([Kappa]); next a new beginning about being, and, what is +wanted to complete the system, a theory of God in relation to the world +([Lambda]); finally a criticism of mathematical metaphysics ([Mu], +[Nu]), in which the argument against Plato ([Alpha] 9) is repeated +almost word for word ([Mu] 4-5). The _Metaphysics_ is clearly a +compilation formed from essays or discourses; and it illustrates another +characteristic of Aristotle's gradual method of composition. It refers +back to passages "in the first discourses" ([Greek: en tois protois +logois]) --an expression not uncommon in Aristotelian writings. +Sometimes the reference is to the beginning of the whole treatise; e.g. +_Met_. [Beta] 2, 997 b 3-5, referring back to [Alpha] 6 and 9 about +Platonic forms. Sometimes, on the other hand, the reference only goes +back to a previous part of a given topic, e.g. _Met_. [Theta] 1, 1045 b +27-32, referring back to [Zeta] 1, or at the earliest to [Gamma] 2. On +either alternative, however, "the first discourses" mentioned may have +originally been a separate discourse; for Book [Gamma] begins quite +fresh with the definition of the science of being, long afterwards +called "Metaphysics," and Book [Zeta] begins Aristotle's fundamental +doctrine of substance. + +Another indication of a treatise having arisen out of separate +discourses is its consisting of different parts imperfectly connected. +Thus the _Nicomachean Ethics_ begins by identifying the good with +happiness ([Greek: eudaimonia]), and happiness with virtuous action. But +when it comes to the moral virtues (Book iii. 6), a new motive of the +"honourable" ([Greek: tou kalou eneka]) is suddenly introduced without +preparation, where one would expect the original motive of happiness. +Then at the end of the moral virtues justice is treated at inordinate +length, and in a different manner from the others, which are regarded as +means between two vices, whereas justice appears as a mean only because +it is of the middle between too much and too little. Later, the +discussion on friendship (Books viii.-ix.) is again inordinate in +length, and it stands alone. Lastly, pleasure, after having been first +defined (Book vii.) as an activity, is treated over again (Book x.) as +an end beyond activity, with a warning against confusing activity and +pleasure. The probability is that the _Nicomachean Ethics_ is a +collection of separate discourses worked up into a tolerably systematic +treatise; and the interesting point is that these discourses correspond +to separate titles in the list of Diogenes Laertius ([Greek: peri kalou, +peri dikaion, peri philias, peri haedonaes, and peri haedonon]). The +same list also refers to tentative notes ([Greek: upomnaemata +epicheiraematika]), and the commentators speak of ethical notes ([Greek: +aethika upomnaemata]). Indeed, they sometimes divide Aristotle's works +into notes ([Greek: upomnaematika]) and compilations ([Greek: +syntagmatika]). How can it be doubted that in the gradual composition of +his works Aristotle began with notes ([Greek: upomnaematika]) and +discourses ([Greek: logoi]), and proceeded to treatises ([Greek: +pragmateiai])? He would even be drawn into this process by his writing +materials, which were papyrus rolls of some magnitude; he would tend to +write discourses on separate rolls, and then fasten them together in a +bundle into a treatise. + +If then Aristotle was for some thirty-five years gradually and +simultaneously composing manuscript discourses into treatises and +treatises into a system, he was pursuing a process which solves +beforehand the very difficulties which have since been found in his +writings. He could very easily write in different styles at different +times, now avoiding hiatus and now not, sometimes writing diffusely and +sometimes briefly, partly polishing and partly leaving in the rough, +according to the subject, his own state of health or humour, his age, +and the degree to which he had developed a given topic; and all this +even in the same manuscript as well as in different manuscripts, so that +a difference of style between different parts of a work or between +different works, explicable by one being earlier than another, does not +prove either to be not genuine. As he might write, so might he think +differently in his long career. To put one extreme case, about the soul +he could think at first in the _Eudemus_ like Plato that it is +imprisoned in the body, and long afterwards in the _De Anima_ like +himself that it is the immateriate essence of the material bodily +organism. Again, he might be inconsistent; now, for example, calling a +universal a substance in deference to Plato, and now denying that a +universal can be a substance in consequence of his own doctrine that +every substance is an individual; and so as to contradict himself in the +same treatise, though not in the same breath or at the same moment of +thinking. Again, in developing his discourses into larger treatises he +might fall into dislocations; although it must be remembered that these +are often inventions of critics who do not understand the argument, as +when they make out that the treatment of reciprocal justice in the +_Ethics_ (v. 5-6) needs rearrangement through their not noticing that, +according to Aristotle, reciprocal justice, being the fairness of a +commercial bargain, is not part of absolute or political justice, but is +part of analogical or economical justice. Or he might make repetitions, +as in the same book, where he twice applies the principle, that so far +as the agent does the patient suffers, first to the corrective justice +of the law court (_Eth_. v. 4) in order to prove that in a wrong the +injurer gains as much as the injured loses, and immediately afterwards +to the reciprocal justice of commerce (_ib_. 5) in order to prove that +in a bargain a house must be exchanged for as many shoes as equal it in +value. Or he might himself, without double versions, repeat the same +argument with a different shade of meaning; as when in the _Nic. Ethics_ +(vii. 4) he first argues that incontinence about such natural pleasures +as that of gain is only modified incontinence, a sign (as _causa +cognoscendi_) of which is that it is not so bad as incontinence about +carnal pleasures, and then argues that, because (as _causa essendi_) it +is only modified incontinence, therefore it is not so bad. Or he might +return again and again to the same point with a difference: there is a +good instance in his conclusion that the speculative life is the highest +happiness; which he first infers because it is the life of man's highest +and divine faculty, intelligence (1176 b-1178 a 8), then after an +interval infers a second time because our speculative life is an +imitation of that of God (1178 b 7-32), and finally after another +interval infers a third time, because it will make man most dear to God +(1179 a 22-32). Or, extending himself as it were still more, he might +write two drafts, or double versions of his own, on the same subject; +_e.g. Physics_, vii. and _De Anima_, ii. Or he might, going still +further, in his long literary career write two or more treatises on the +same subject, different and even more or less inconsistent with each +other, as we shall find in the sequel. Finally, having a great number of +discourses and treatises, containing all those small blemishes, around +him in his library, and determined to collect, consolidate and connect +them into a philosophical system, he would naturally be often taking +them down from their places to consult and compare one with another, and +as naturally enter in them references one to the other, and +cross-references between one another. Thus he would enter in the +_Metaphysics_ a reference to the _Physics_, and in the _Physics_ a +reference to the _Metaphysics_, precisely because both were manuscripts +in his library. For the same purpose of connexion he would be tempted to +add a preface to a book like the _Meteorologica_. In order to refer back +to the _Physics_, the _De Coelo_, and the _De Generatione_, this work +begins by stating that the first causes of all nature and all natural +motion, the stars ordered according to celestial motion and the bodily +elements with their transmutations, and generation and corruption have +all been discussed; and by adding that there remains to complete this +investigation, what previous investigators called meteorology. To +suppose this preface, presupposing many sciences, to have been written +in 356, when the _Meteorologica_ had been already commenced, would be +absurd; but equally absurd would it be to reject that date on account of +the preface, which even a modern author often writes long after his +book. Nor is it at all absurd to suppose that, long after he began the +_Meteorologica_, Aristotle himself added the preface in the process of +gathering his general treatises on natural science into a system. So he +might afterwards add the preface to the _De Interpretatione_, in order +to connect it with the _De Anima_, though written afterwards, in order +to connect his treatises on mind and on its expression. So also he might +add the appendix to the _Sophistical Elenchi_, long after he had written +that book, and perhaps, to judge from its being a general claim to have +discovered the syllogism, when the founder of logic had more or less +realized that he had written a number of connected treatises on +reasoning. + +_The Question of Publication._--There is still another point which would +facilitate Aristotle's gradual composition of discourses into treatises +and treatises into a system; there was no occasion for him to publish +his manuscripts beyond his school. Printing has accustomed us to +publication, and misled us into applying to ancient times the modern +method of bringing out one book after another at definite dates by the +same author. But Greek authors contemplated works rather than books. +Some of the greatest authors were not even writers: Homer, Aesop, +Thales, Socrates. Some who were writers were driven to publish by the +occasion; and after the orders of government, which were occasionally +published to be obeyed, occasional poems, such as the poems of Solon, +the odes of Pindar and the plays of the dramatists, which all had a +political significance, were probably the first writings to be published +or, rather, recited and acted, from written copies. With them came +philosophical poems, such as those of Xenophanes and Empedocles; the +epical history of Herodotus; the dramatic philosophy of Plato. On a +larger scale speeches written by orators to be delivered by litigants +were published and encouraged publication; and, as the Attic orators +were his contemporaries, publication had become pretty common in the +time of Aristotle, who speaks of many bundles ([Greek: desmas]) of +judicial speeches by Isocrates being hawked about by the booksellers +(_Fragm_. 140). + +No doubt then Aristotle's library contained published copies of the +works of other authors, as well as the autographs of his own. It does +not follow that his own works went beyond his library and his school. +Publication to the world is designed for readers, who at all times have +demanded popular literature rather than serious philosophy such as that +of Aristotle. Accordingly it becomes a difficult question, how far +Aristotle's works were published in his lifetime. In answering it we +must be careful to exclude any evidence which refers to Aristotle as a +man, not as a writer, or refers to him as a writer but does not prove +publication while he was alive. + +Beginning then with his early writings, which are now lost, the +dialogues _On Poetry_ and the _Eudemus_ were probably the published +discourses to which Aristotle himself refers (_Poetics_, 15; _De Anima_, +i. 4); and the dialogue _Protrepticus_ was known to the Cynic Crates, +pupil of Diogenes and master of Zeno (_Fragm_. 50), but not necessarily +in Aristotle's lifetime, as Crates was still alive in 307. Again, +Aristotle's early rhetorical instructions and perhaps writings, as well +as his opinion that a collection of proverbs is not worth while, must +have been known outside Aristotle's rhetorical school to the orator +Cephisodorus, pupil of Isocrates and master of Demosthenes, for him to +be able to write in his _Replies to Aristotle_ ([Greek: en tais pros +Aristotelaen antigraphais]) an admired defence of Isocrates (Dionys. H. +_De Isoc_. 18). But this early dialectic and rhetoric, being popular, +would tend to be published. History comes nearer to philosophy; and +Aristotle's _Constitutions_ were known to his enemy Timaeus, who +attacked him for disparaging the descent of the Locrians of Italy, +according to Polybius (xii.), who defended Aristotle. But as Timaeus +brought his history down to 264 B.C. (Polyb. i. 5), and therefore might +have got his information after Aristotle's death, we cannot be sure that +any of the _Constitutions_ were published in the author's lifetime. We +are equally at a loss to prove that Aristotle published his philosophy. +He had, like all the great, many enemies, personal and philosophical; +but in his lifetime they attacked the man, not his philosophy. In the +Megarian school, first Eubulides quarrelled with him and calumniated him +(Diog. Laert. ii. 109) in his lifetime; but the attack was on his life, +not on his writings: afterwards Stilpo wrote a dialogue ([Greek: +Aristotelaes]), which may have been a criticism of the Aristotelian +philosophy from the Megarian point of view; but he outlived Aristotle +thirty years. In the absence of any confirmation, "the current +philosophemata" ([Greek: ta egkuklia philosophaemata]), mentioned in the +_De Coela_ (i. 9, 279 a 30), are sometimes supposed to be Aristotle's +published philosophy, to which he is referring his readers. But the +example there given, that the divine is unchangeable, is precisely such +a religious commonplace as might easily be a current philosopheme of +Aristotle's day, not of Aristotle; and this interpretation suits the +parallel passage in the _Nic. Ethics_ (i. 5, 1096 a 3) where opinions +about the happiness of political life are said to have been sufficiently +treated "even in current discussions" ([Greek: kai en tois egkukliois]). + +There is therefore no contemporary proof that Aristotle published any +part of his mature philosophical system in his lifetime. It is true that +a book of Andronicus, as reported by Aulus Gellius (xx. 5), contained a +correspondence between Alexander and Aristotle in which the pupil +complained that his master had published his "acroatic discourses" +([Greek: tous akroatikous ton logon]). But ancient letters are +proverbially forgeries, and in the three hundred years which elapsed +between the supposed correspondence and the time of Andronicus there was +plenty of time for the forgery of these letters. But even if the +correspondence is genuine, "acroatic discourses" must be taken to mean +what Alexander would mean by them in the time of Aristotle, and not what +they had come to mean by the time of Andronicus. Alexander meant those +discourses which Aristotle, when he was his tutor, intended for the ears +of himself and his fellow-pupils; such as the early political works on +_Monarchy_ and on _Colonies_, and the early rhetorical works, the +_Theodectea_, the _Collection of Arts_, and possibly the _Rhetoric to +Alexander_, in the preface to which the writer actually says to +Alexander: "You wrote to me that nobody else should receive this book." +These few early works may have been published, and contrary to the +wishes of Alexander, without affecting Aristotle's later system. But +even so, Alexander's complaint would not justify writers three centuries +later in taking Alexander to have referred to mature scientific +writings, which were not addressed, and not much known, to him, the +conqueror of Asia; although by the times of Andronicus and Aulus +Gellius, Aristotle's scientific writings were all called acroatic, or +acroamatic, or sometimes esoteric, in distinction from exoteric--a +distinction altogether unknown to Aristotle, and therefore to Alexander. +In the absence of any contemporary evidence, we cannot believe that +Aristotle in his lifetime published any, much less all, of his +scientific books. The conclusion then is that Aristotle on the one hand +to some extent published his early dialectical and rhetorical writings, +because they were popular, though now they are lost, but on the other +hand did not publish any of the extant historical and philosophical +works which belong to his mature system, because they were best adapted +to his philosophical pupils in the Peripatetic school. The object of the +philosopher was not the applause of the public but the truth of things. +Now this conclusion has an important bearing on the composition of +Aristotle's writings and on the difficulties which have been found in +them. If he had like a modern author brought out each of his extant +philosophical works on a definite day of publication, he would not have +been able to change them without a second edition, which in the case of +serious writings so little in demand would not be worth while. But as he +did not publish them, but kept the unpublished manuscripts together in +his library and used them in his school, he was able to do with them as +he pleased down to the very end of his life, and so gradually to +consolidate his many works into one system. + +While Aristotle did not publish his philosophical works to the world, he +freely communicated them to the Peripatetic school. They are not mere +lectures; but he used them for lectures: he allowed his pupils to read +them in his library, and probably to take copies from them. He also used +diagrams, which are sometimes incorporated in his works, but sometimes +are only mentioned, and were no doubt used for purposes of teaching. He +also availed himself of his pupils' co-operation, as we may judge from +his description in the _Ethics_ (x. 7) of the speculative philosopher +who, though he is self-sufficing, is better having co-operators ([Greek: +synergous hexon]). From an early time he had a tendency to address his +writings to his friends. For example, he addressed the _Theodectea_ to +his pupil Theodectes; and even in ancient times a doubt arose whether it +was a work of the master or the pupil. It was certainly by Aristotle, +because it contained the triple grammatical division of words into noun, +verb and conjunction, which the history of grammar recognized as his +discovery. But we may explain the share of Theodectes by supposing that +he had a hand in the work (cf. Dionys. H. _De Comp. Verb._ 2; Quintilian +i. 4. 18). Similarly in astronomy, Aristotle used the assistance of +Eudoxus and Callippus. Indeed, throughout his writings he shows a +constant wish to avail himself of what is true in the opinions of +others, whether they are philosophers, or poets or ordinary people +expressing their thoughts in sayings and proverbs. With one of his +pupils in particular, Theophrastus, who was born about 370 and therefore +was some fifteen years younger than himself, he had a long and intimate +connexion; and the work of the pupil bears so close a resemblance to +that of his master, that, even when he questions Aristotle's opinions +(as he often does), he seems to be writing in an Aristotelian +atmosphere; while he shows the same acuteness in raising difficulties, +and has caught something of the same encyclopaedic genius. Another +pupil, Eudemus of Rhodes, wrote and thought so like his master as to +induce Simplicius to call him the most genuine of Aristotle's companions +([Greek: ho gnaesiotatos ton Aristotelous hetairon]). It is probable +that this extraordinary resemblance is due to the pupils having actually +assisted their master; and this supposition enables us to surmount a +difficulty we feel in reading Aristotle's works. How otherwise, we +wonder, could one man writing alone and with so few predecessors compose +the first systematic treatises on the psychology of the mental powers +and on the logic of reasoning, the first natural history of animals, and +the first civil history of one hundred and fifty-eight constitutions, in +addition to authoritative treatises on metaphysics, biology, ethics, +politics, rhetoric and poetry; in all penetrating to the very essence of +the subject, and, what is most wonderful, describing more facts than any +other man has ever done on so many subjects? + +_The Uncompleted Works._--Such then was the method of composition by +which Aristotle began in early manhood to write his philosophical works, +continued them gradually and simultaneously, combined shorter discourses +into longer treatises, compared and connected them, kept them together +in his library without publishing them, communicated them to his school, +used the co-operation of his best pupils, and finally succeeded in +combining many mature writings into one harmonious system. Nevertheless, +being a man, he did not quite succeed. He left some unfinished; such as +the _Categories_, in which the main part on categories is not finished, +while the last part, afterwards called postpredicaments, is probably not +his, the _Politics_ and the _Poetics_. He left others imperfectly +arranged, and some of the most important, the _Metaphysics_, the +_Politics_ and the logical writings. Of the imperfect arrangement of the +_Metaphysics_ we have already spoken; and we shall speak of that of his +logical writings when we come to the order of his whole system. At +present the _Politics_ will supply us with a conspicuous example of the +imperfect arrangement of some, as well as of the gradual composition of +all, of Aristotle's extant writings. + +The _Politics_ was begun as early as 357, yet not finished in 322. It +betrays its origin from separate discourses. First comes a general +theory of constitutions, right and wrong (Books [Alpha], [Beta], +[Gamma]); and this part is afterwards referred to as "the first +discourses" ([Greek: hen tois protois logois]). Then follows the +treatment of oligarchy, democracy, commonwealth and tyranny, and of the +various powers of government ([Delta]), and independent investigation of +revolution, and of the means of preserving states ([Epsilon]), and a +further treatment of democracy and oligarchy, and of the different +offices of the state ([Zeta]), and finally a return to the discussion of +the right form of constitution ([Eta], [Theta]). But [Delta] and [Zeta] +are a group interrupted by [Epsilon], and [Eta] and [Theta] are another +group unconnected with the previous group and with [Epsilon], and are +also distinguished in style by avoiding hiatus. Further, the group +([Delta], [Zeta]) and the group ([Eta], [Theta]) are both unfinished. +Finally the group ([Delta], [Zeta]), the book ([Epsilon]) and the group +([Eta], [Theta]) though unconnected with one another, are all connected +though imperfectly with "the first discourses" ([Alpha], [Beta], +[Gamma]). This complicated arrangement may be represented in the +following diagram:-- + + [Alpha], [Beta], [Gamma] + | + +----------------------+----------------------+ + | | | + [Delta], [Epsilon] [Eta], + [Zeta] [Theta] + +The simplest explanation is that Aristotle began by writing separate +discourses, four at least, on political subjects; that he continued to +write them and perhaps tried to combine them: but that in the end he +failed and left the _Politics_ unfinished and in disorder. But modern +commentators, possessed by the fallacy that Aristotle like a modern +author must from the first have comtemplated a whole treatise in a +regular order for definite publication, lose themselves in vain disputes +as to whether to go by the traditional order of books indicated by their +letters and known to have existed as early as the abstract (given in +Stobaeus, _Ecl._ ii. 7) ascribed to Didymus (1st century A.D.), or to +put the group [Eta], [Theta], as more connected with [Alpha], [Beta], +[Gamma], before the group [Delta], [Zeta], and this group before the +book [Eta]. It is agreed, says Zeller, that the traditional order +contradicts the original plan. But what right have we to say that +Aristotle had an original plan? + +The incomplete state in which Aristotle left the _Metaphysics_, the +_Politics_ and his logical works, brings us to the hard question how +much he did, and how much his Peripatetic followers did to his writings +after his death. To answer it we should have to go far beyond Aristotle. +But two corollaries follow from our present investigation of his extant +writings; the first, that it was the long continuance of the Peripatetic +school which gradually caused the publication, and in some cases the +forgery, of the separate writings; and the second, that his Peripatetic +successors arranged and edited some of Aristotle's writings, and +gradually arrived by the time of Andronicus, the eleventh from +Aristotle, at an order of the whole body of writings forming the system. +Now, it is probable that the arrangement of the works which we are +considering was done by the Peripatetic successors of Aristotle. There +is nothing indeed in the _Metaphysics_ to show whether he left it in +isolated treatises or in its present disorder; and nothing in the +_Politics_. On the other hand, in the case of logic, it is certain that +he did not combine his works on the subject into one whole, but that the +Peripatetics afterwards put them together as organic, and made them the +parts of logic as an organon, as they are treated by Andronicus. Perhaps +something similar occurred to the _Metaphysics_, as Alexander imputed +its redaction to Eudemus, and the majority of ancient commentators +attributed its second opening (Book [alpha]) to Pasicles, nephew of +Eudemus. Again, it is not unlikely that the _Politics_ was arranged in +the traditional order of books by Theophrastus, and that this is the +meaning of the curious title occurring in the list of Aristotle's works +as given by Diogenes Laertius, [Greek: politikes akroaseos hos he +theophrastou a' b' g' d' e' s' z' e'], which agrees with the _Politics_ +in having eight books. Although, however, we may concede that such great +works as the _Metaphysics_, the _Politics_ and the logical writings did +not receive their present form from Aristotle himself, that concession +does not deprive Aristotle of the authorship, but only of the +arrangement of those works. On the contrary, Theophrastus and Eudemus, +his immediate followers, both wrote works presupposing Aristotle's +_Metaphysics_ and his logical works, and Dicaearchus, their +contemporary, used his _Politics_ for his own _Tripoliticus_. It was +Aristotle himself then who wrote these works, whether he arranged them +or not; and if he wrote the incomplete works, then _a fortiori_ he wrote +the completed works except those which are proved spurious, and +practically consummated the Aristotelian system, which, as Leibnitz +said, by its unity of thought and style evinces its own genuineness and +individuality. We must not exaggerate the school and underrate the +individual, especially such an individual. What he mainly wanted was the +time, the leisure and the labour, which we have supposed to have been +given to the gradual composition of the extant Aristotelian writings. +Aristotle, asked where dwell the Muses, answered, "In the souls of those +who love work." + + +IV. EARLIER AND LATER WRITINGS + +Aristotle's quotations of his other books and of historical facts only +inform us at best of the dates of isolated passages, and cannot decide +the dates and sequences of whole philosophical books which occupied him +for many years. Is there then any way of discriminating between early +and late works? There is the evidence of the influences under which the +books were written. This evidence applies to the whole Aristotelian +literature including the fragments. As to the fragments, we are safe in +saying that the early dialogues in the manner of Plato were written +under the influence of Plato, and that the subsequent didactic writings +connected with Alexander were written more under the influence of Philip +and Alexander. Turning to the extant writings, we find that some are +more under the influence of Plato, while others are more original and +Aristotelian. Also some writings are more rudimentary than others on the +same subject; and some have the appearance of being first drafts of +others. By these differences we can do something to distinguish between +earlier and later philosophical works; and also vindicate as genuine +some works, which have been considered spurious because they do not +agree in style or in matter with his most mature philosophy. In +thirty-five years of literary composition, Aristotle had plenty of time +to change, because any man can differ from himself at different times. + +On these principles, we regard as early genuine philosophical works of +Aristotle, (1) the _Categories_, (2) the _De Interpretatione_;(3) the +_Eudemian Ethics_ and _Magna Moralia_; (4) the _Rhetoric to Alexander_. + +1. The Categories ([Greek: kataegoriai]).--This short discourse turns on +Aristotle's fundamental doctrine of individual substances, without which +there is nothing. He arrives at it from a classification of categories, +by which he here means "things stated in no combination" ([Greek: ta +kata maedemian symplokaen legomena]) or what we should call "names," +capable of becoming predicates ([Greek: kataegoroumena, kataegoriai]). +"Every name," says he (chap. 4), "signifies either substance or +something quantitative, or qualitative, or relative, or somewhere, or +sometimes, or that it is in a position, or in a condition, or active or +passive." He immediately adds that, by the combination of these names +with one another, affirmation or negation arises. The categories then +are names signifying things capable of becoming predicates in a +proposition. Next he proceeds to substances ([Greek: ousiai]), which he +divides into primary ([Greek: protai]) and secondary ([Greek: +deuterai]). "Substance", says he (chap. 5), "which is properly, +primarily and especially so called, is that which is neither a predicate +of a subject nor inherent in a subject; for example, a particular man, +or a particular horse. Secondary substances so called are the species in +which are the primarily called substances, and the genera of these +species: for example, a particular man is in a species, man, the genus +of which is animal: these then are called secondary substances, man and +animal." Having made these subdivisions of substance, he thereupon +reduces secondary substances and all the rest of the categories to +belongings of individual or primary substances. "All other things", says +he, "are either predicates of primary substances as subjects" ([Greek: +kath' hypokeimenon ton proton ousion]) "or inherent in them as subjects" +([Greek: en hypokeimenais autais]). He explains that species and genus +are predicates of, and that other categories (e.g. the quality of +colour) are inherent in, some individual substance such as a particular +man. Then follows his conclusion: "without primary substances it is +impossible for anything to be" ([Greek: mae ouson oun ton proton ousion +adunaton ton hallon ti einai]. _Cat._ 5, 2 b 5-6). + +Things are individual substances, without which there is nothing--this +is the fundamental point of Aristotelianism, as against Platonism, of +which the fundamental point is that things are universal forms without +which there becomes nothing. The world, according to Aristotle, consists +of substances, each of which is a separate individual, this man, this +horse, this animal, this plant, this earth, this water, this air, this +fire; in the heavens that moon, that sun, those stars; above all, God. +On the other hand, a universal species or genus of substances is a +predicate which, as well as everything else in all the other categories, +always belongs to some individual substance or other as subject, and has +no separate being. In full, then, a substance is a separate individual, +having universals, and things in all other categories, inseparably +belonging to it. The individual substance Socrates, for example, is a +man and an animal ([Greek: ousia]), tall, ([Greek: poson]), white +([Greek: poion]), a husband ([Greek: pros ti]), in the market ([Greek: +pou]), yesterday ([Greek: pote]), sitting ([Greek: keisthai]), armed +([Greek: hechein]), talking ([Greek: poiein]), listening ([Greek: +paschein]). Aristotelianism is this philosophy of substantial things. + + The doctrine that all things are substances which are separate + individuals, stated in the _Categories_, is expanded in the + _Metaphysics_. Both works arrive at it from the classification of + categories, which is the same in both; except that in the former the + categories are treated rather as a logical classification of names + signifying things, in the latter rather as a metaphysical + classification of things. In neither, however, are they a grammatical + classification of words by their structure; and in neither are they a + psychological classification of notions or general conceptions + ([Greek: noaemata]), such as they afterwards became in Kant's + _Critique_ and the post-Kantian idealism. Moreover, even in the + _Categories_ as names signifying distinct things they imply distinct + things; and hence the _Categories_, as well as the _Metaphysics_, + draws the metaphysical conclusion that individual substances are the + things without which there is nothing else, and thereby lays the + positive foundation of the philosophy running through all the extant + Aristotelian writings. + + Again, according to both works, an individual substance is a subject, + a universal its predicate; and they have in common the Aristotelian + metaphysics, which differs greatly from the modern logic of subject + and predicate. Subject ([Greek: upokeimenon]) originally meant a real + thing which is the basis of something, and was used by Aristotle both + for a thing to which something belongs and for a name of which another + is asserted: accordingly "predicate" ([Greek: kataegoroymenon]) came + with him to mean something really belonging ([Greek: uparchon]) to a + substance as real subject, as well as a name capable of being asserted + of a name as a nominal subject. In other words, to him subject meant + real as well as nominal subject, and predicate meant real as well as + nominal predicate; whereas modern logic has gradually reduced both to + the nominal terms of a proposition. Accordingly, when he said that a + substance is a subject, he meant a real subject; and when he said that + a universal species or genus is a predicate, he meant that it is a + real predicate belonging to a real subject, which is always some + individual substance of the kind. It follows that Aristotelianism in + the _Categories_ and in the _Metaphysics_ is a realism both of + individuals and of universals; of individual substances as real + subjects, and of universals as real predicates. + + Lastly, the two works agree in reducing the _Categories_ to substance + and its belongings ([Greek: uparchonta]). According to both, it is + always some substance, such as Socrates, which is quantitative, + qualitative, relative, somewhere, some time, placed, conditioned, + active, passive; so that all things in all other categories are + attributes which are belongings of substances. There are therefore two + kinds of belongings, universals and attributes; and in both cases + belonging in the sense of having no being but the being of the + substance. + + In brief then the common ground of the _Categories_ and the + _Metaphysics_ is the fundamental position that all things are + substances having belonging to them universals and attributes, which + have no separate being as Plato falsely supposed. + + This essential agreement suffices to show that the _Categories_ and + the _Metaphysics_ are the result of one mind. Nevertheless, there is a + deep difference between them in detail, which may be expressed by + saying that the _Categories_ is nearer to Platonism. We have seen how + anxious Aristotle was to be considered one of the Platonists, how + reluctant he was to depart from Plato's hypothesis of forms, and how, + in denying the separability, he retained the Platonic belief in the + reality and even in the unity of the universal. We have now to see + that, in writing the _Categories_, on the one hand he carried his + differences from his master further than he had done in his early + criticisms by insisting that individual substances are not only real, + but are the very things which sustain the universal; but on the other + hand, he clung to further relics of the Platonic theory, and it is + those which differentiate the _Categories_ and the _Metaphysics_. + + In the first place, in the _Categories_ the belonging of things in + other categories to individual substances in the first category is not + so well developed. A distinction (chap. 2) is drawn between things + which are predicates of a subject ([Greek: kath upokeimenon]) and + things which inhere in a subject ([Greek: en ipokeimeno]); and, while + universals are called predicates of a subject, things in a subordinate + category, i.e. attributes such as colour ([Greek: chroma]) in the + qualitative, are said to inhere in a subject. It is true that the work + gives only a negative definition of the inherent, namely, that it does + not inhere as a part and cannot exist apart from that in which it + inheres (1 a 24-25), and it admits that what is inherent may sometimes + also be a predicate (chap. 5, 2 a 27-34). The commentators explain + this to mean that an attribute as individual is inherent, as universal + is a predicate. But even so the _Categories_ concludes that everything + is either a predicate of, or inherent in, a substance; and the view + that this colour belongs to this substance only in the sense of being + in it, not of it, leaves the impression that, like a Platonic form, it + is an entity rather in than of an individual substance, though even in + the _Categories_ Aristotle is careful to deny its separability. The + hypothesis of inherence gives an inadequate account of the dependence + of an attribute on a substance, and is a kind of half-way house + between separation and predication. + + On the other hand, in the _Metaphysics_, the distinction between + inherence and predication disappears; and what is more, the relation + of an attribute to a substance is regarded as so close that an + attribute is merely the substance modified. "The thing itself and the + thing affected," says Aristotle, "are in a way the same; e.g. Socrates + and Socrates musical" (_Met._ [Delta] 29, 1024 b 30-31). Consequently, + all attributes, as well as universals, belong as predicates of + individual substances as subjects, according to the _Metaphysics_, and + also according to the most authoritative works of Aristotle, such as + the _Posterior Analytics_, where (cf. i. 4, 22) an attribute ([Greek: + symbebaekos]) is said to be only by being the substance possessing it, + and any separation of an attribute from a substance is held to be + entirely a work of human abstraction ([Greek: aphairesis]). At this + point, Plato and Aristotle have become very far apart: to the master + beauty appears to be an independent thing, and really separate, to the + pupil at his best only something beautiful, an attribute which is only + mentally separable from an individual substance. The first difference + then between the _Categories_ and the _Metaphysics_ is in the nature + of an attribute; and the theory of inherence in the _Categories_ is + nearer to Plato and more rudimentary than the theory of predication in + the _Metaphysics_. The second difference is still nearer to Plato and + more rudimentary, and is in the nature of substance. For though both + works rest on the reality of individual substances, the _Categories_ + (chap. 5) admits that universal species and genera can be called + substances, whereas the _Metaphysics_ ([Zeta] 13) denies that a + universal can be a substance at all. + + It is evident that in the category of substance, as Aristotle + perceived, substance is predicate of substance, e.g. Socrates ([Greek: + ousia]) is a man ([Greek: ousia]), and an animal ([Greek: ousia]). The + question then arises, what sort of substance can be predicate; and in + the _Categories_ Aristotle gave an answer, which would have been + impossible, if he had not, under Plato's influence, accepted both the + unity and the substantiality of the universal. What he said in + consequence was that the substance in the predicate is not an + individual substance, e.g. this man or this animal, because such a + primary substance is not a predicate; but that the species man or the + genus animal is the substance which is the predicate of Socrates the + subject (_Cat._ 5, 3 a 36 seq.). Finding then that substances are real + predicates, and supposing that in that case they must be species or + genera, he could not avoid the conclusion that some substances are + species or genera, which were therefore called by him "secondary + substances," and by his Latin followers _substantiae universales_. It + is true that this conclusion gave him some misgivings, because he + recognized that it is a characteristic of a substance to signify an + individual ([Greek: tose ti]), which a species or a genus does not + signify (_ib._ 5, 3 b 10-21). Nevertheless, in the _Categories_, he + did not venture to deny that in the category of substance a universal + species (e.g. man), or genus (e.g. animal), is itself a substance. On + the other hand, in the _Metaphysics_ ([Zeta] 13), he distinctly denies + that any universal can be a substance, on the ground that a substance + is a subject, whereas a universal is a predicate and a belonging of a + subject, from which it follows as he says that no universal is a + substance, and no substance universal. Here again the _Categories_ + forms a kind of transition from Platonism to the _Metaphysics_ which + is the reverse: to call universals "secondary substances" is half way + between Plato's calling them the only substances and Aristotle's + denial in the _Metaphysics_ that they are substances at all. + + What conclusion are we to draw from these differences between the + _Categories_ and the _Metaphysics_? The only logical conclusion is + that the _Categories_, being nearer to Plato on the nature of + attributes, and still nearer on the relation of universals to + substances, is earlier than the _Metaphysics_. There are difficulties + no doubt in drawing this conclusion; because the _Metaphysics_, though + it denies that universals can be substances, and does not allow + species and genera to be called "secondary substances," nevertheless + falls itself into calling a universal essence ([Greek: to ti aen + einai]) a substance---and that too in the very book where it is proved + that no universal can be a substance. But this lapse only shows how + powerful a dominion Plato exercised over Aristotle's soul to the last; + for it arises out of the pupil still accepting from his master the + unity of the universal though now applying it, not to classes, but to + essences. The argument about essences in the _Metaphysics_ is as + follows:--Since a separate individual, e.g. Socrates, is a substance, + and he is essentially a rational animal, then his essence, being what + he is, is a substance; for we cannot affirm that Socrates is a + substance and then deny that this rational animal is a substance + (_Met._ [Zeta] 3). Now, according to the unity of a universal asserted + by Plato and accepted by Aristotle, the universal essence of species, + being one and the same for all individuals of the kind, is the same as + the essence of each individual: e.g. the rational animal in the human + species and in Socrates is one and the same; "for the essence is + indivisible" ([Greek: atomon gar to eisos], _Met._ [Zeta] 8, 1034 a + 8). It follows that we must call this selfsame essence, at once + individual and universal, substance--a conclusion, however, which + Aristotle never drew in so many words, though he continued always to + call essence substance, and definition a knowledge of substance. + + There is therefore a history of Aristotle's metaphysical views, + corresponding to his gradual method of composition. It is as + follows:-- + + (1) Negative rejection of Plato's hypothesis of forms and formal + numbers, and reduction of forms to the common in the early dialogue + [Greek: peri philosophias] and in the early work [Greek: peri iseon]. + + (2) Positive assertion of the doctrine that things are individual + substances in the _Categories_, but with the admission that attributes + sometimes inhere in substance without being predicates of it, and that + universal species and genera are "secondary substances." + + (3) Expansion of the doctrine that things are individual substances in + the _Metaphysics_, coupled with the reduction of all attributes to + predicates, and the direct denial of universal substances; but + nevertheless calling the universal essence of a species of substances + substance, because the individual essence of an individual substance + really is that substance, and the universal essence of the whole + species is supposed to be indivisible and therefore identical with the + individual essence of any individual of the species. + +2. The _De Interpretatione._--Another example of Aristotle's gradual +desertion of Plato is exhibited by the _De Interpretatione_ as compared +with the _Prior Analytics_, and it shows another gradual history in +Aristotle's philosophy, namely, the development of subject, predicate +and copula, in his logic. + +The short discourse on the expression of thought by language ([Greek: +peri Ermaeneias], _De Interpretatione_) is based on the Platonic +division of the sentence ([Greek: logos]) into noun and verb ([Greek: +onoma] and [Greek: rema].) Its point is to separate the enunciative +sentence, or that in which there is truth or falsity, from other +sentences; and then, dismissing the rest to rhetoric or poetry (where we +should say grammar), to discuss the enunciative sentence ([Greek: +apophantikos logos]), or enunciation ([apophansis]), or what we should +call the proposition (_De Int._ chap. 4). Here Aristotle, starting from +the previous grammar of sentences in general, proceeded, for the first +time in philosophical literature, to disengage the logic of the +proposition, or that sentence which can alone be true or false, whereby +it alone enters into reasoning. But in spite of this great logical +achievement, he continued throughout the discourse to accept Plato's +grammatical analysis of all sentences into noun and verb, which indeed +applies to the proposition as a sentence but does not give its +particular elements. The first part of the work confines itself strictly +to noun and verb, or the form of proposition called _secundi +adjacentis_. Afterwards (chap. 10) proceeding to the opposition of +propositions, he adds the form called _tertii adjacentis_, in a passage +which is the first appearance, or rather adumbration, of the verb of +being as a copula. In the form _secundi adjacentis_ we only get +oppositions, such as the following:-- + + man is--man is not + not-man is--not-man is not + +In the form _tertii adjacentis_ the oppositions, becoming more complex, +are doubled, as follows:-- + + man is just--man is not just + man is non-just--man is not non-just + not-man is just--not-man is not just + not-man is non-just--not-man is not non-just. + +The words introducing this form ([Greek: dtan de to esti triton +proskategoretai], chap. 10, 19 b 19), which are the origin of the phrase +_tertii adjacentis_, disengage the verb of being ([Greek: esti]) +partially but not entirely, because they still treat it as an extra part +of the predicate, and not as a distinct copula. Nor does the work get +further than the analysis of some propositions into noun and verb with +"is" added to the predicated verb; an analysis, however, which was a +great logical discovery and led Aristotle further to the remark that +"is" does not mean "exists"; e.g. "Homer is a poet" does not mean "Homer +exists" (_De Int._ chap. 11). + +How then did Aristotle get further in the logical analysis of the +proposition? Not in the _De Interpretatione_, but in the _Prior +Analytics_. The first adumbration was forced upon him in the former work +by his theory of opposition; the complete appearance in the latter work +by his theory of syllogism. In analysing the syllogism, he first says +that a premiss is an affirmative or negative sentence, and then that a +term is that into which a premiss is dissolved, i.e. predicate and +subject, combined or divided by being and not being (_Pr. An._ i. 1). +Here, for the first time in logical literature, subject and predicate +suddenly appear as terms, or extremes, with the verb of being ([Greek: +to einai]) or not being ([Greek: to me einai]) completely disengaged +from both, but connecting them as a copula. Why here? Because the +crossing of terms in a syllogism requires it. In the syllogism "Every +man is mortal and Socrates is a man," if in the minor premiss the copula +"is" were not disengaged from the predicate "man," there would not be +one middle term "man" in the two premisses. It is not necessary in every +proposition, but it is necessary in the arrangement of a syllogism, to +extricate the terms of its propositions from the copula; e.g. +mortal--man--Socrates. + +This important difference between the _De Interpretatione_ and the +_Prior Analytics_ can only be explained by supposing that the former is +the earlier treatise. It is nearer to Plato's analysis of the sentence, +and no logician would have gone back to it, after the Prior Analytics. +It is not spurious, as some have supposed, nor later than the _De +Anima_, as Zeller thought, but Aristotle in an earlier frame of mind. + +Moreover we can make a history of Aristotle's thought and gradual +composition thus: + +(1) Earlier acceptance in the _De Interpretatione_ of Plato's +grammatical analysis of the sentence into noun and verb (_secundi +adjacentis_) but gradually disengaging the proposition, and afterwards +introducing the verb of being as a third thing added (_tertium +adjacens_) to the predicated verb, for the purpose of opposition. + +(2) Later logical analysis in the _Prior Analytics_ of the proposition +as premiss into subject, predicate and copula, for the purpose of +syllogism; but without insisting that the original form is illogical. + +3. The _Eudemian Ethics_ and _Magna Moralia_ in relation to the +_Nicomachean Ethics._--Under the name of Aristotle, three treatises on +the good of man have come down to us, [Greek: Ethika Nikomacheia] +([Greek: pros Nikomachon], Porphyry), [Greek: Ethika Eudemia] ([Greek: +pros Eudemon], Porphyry), and [Greek: Ethika Megala]; so like one +another that there seems no tenable hypothesis except that they are the +manuscript writings of one man. Nevertheless, the most usual hypothesis +is that, while the _Nicomachean Ethics_ (E.N.) was written by Aristotle +to Nicomachus, the _Eudemian_ (E.E.) was written, not to, but by, +Eudemus, and the _Magna Moralia_ (M.M.) was written by some early +disciple before the introduction of Stoic and Academic elements into the +Peripatetic school. The question is further complicated by the fact that +three Nicomachean books (E.N. v.-vii.) and three Eudemian (E.E. +[Delta]-[Zeta]) are common to the two treatises, and by the consequent +question whether, on the hypothesis of different authorship, the common +books, as we may style them, were written for the _Nicomachean_ by +Aristotle, or for the _Eudemian Ethics_ by Eudemus, or some by one and +some by the other author. Against the "Chorizontes," who have advanced +various hypotheses on all these points without convincing one another, +it may be objected that they have not considered Aristotle's method of +gradual and simultaneous composition of manuscripts within the +Peripatetic school. We have to remember the traces of his separate +discourses, and his own double versions; and that, as in ancient times +Simplicius, who had two versions of the _Physics_, Book vii., suggested +that both were early versions of Book viii. on the same subject, so in +modern times Torstrik, having discovered that there were two versions of +the _De Anima_, Book ii., suggested that both were by Aristotle. Above +all, we must consider our present point that Platonic influence is a +sign of earliness in an Aristotelian work; and generally, the same man +may both think and write differently at different times, especially if, +like Aristotle, he has been a prolific author. + +These considerations make it probable that the author of all three +treatises was Aristotle himself; while the analysis of the treatises +favours the hypothesis that he wrote the _Eudemian Ethics_ and the +_Magna Moralia_ more or less together as the rudimentary first drafts of +the mature _Nicomachean Ethics_. + +As the Platonic philosophy was primarily moral, and its metaphysics a +theory of the moral order of the universe, Aristotle from the first must +have mastered the Platonic ethics. At first he adopted the somewhat +ascetic views of his master about soul and body, and about goods of body +and estate; but before Plato's death he had rejected the hypothesis of +forms, formal numbers and the form of the good identified with the one, +by which Plato tried to explain moral phenomena; while his studies and +teaching on rhetoric and poetry soon began to make him take a more +tolerant view than Plato did of men's passions. Throughout his whole +subsequent life, however, he retained the fundamental doctrine, which he +had learnt from Plato, and Plato from Socrates, that virtue is essential +to happiness. Twice over this tenet, which makes Socrates, Plato and +Aristotle one ethical school, inspired Aristotle to attempt poetry: +first, in the Elegy to Eudemus of Cyprus, in which, referring to either +Socrates or Plato, he praises the man who first showed clearly that a +good and happy man are the same (_Fragm._ 673); and secondly, in the +Hymn in memory of Hermias, beginning "Virtue, difficult to the human +race, noblest pursuit in life" (_ib._ 675). Moreover, the successors of +Plato in the Academy, Speusippus and Xenocrates, showed the same belief +in the essentiality of virtue. The question which divided them was what +the good is. Speusippus took the ascetic view that the good is a perfect +condition of neutrality between two contrary evils, pain and pleasure. +Xenocrates took the tolerant view that it is the possession of +appropriate virtue and noble actions, requiring as conditions bodily +and external goods. Aristotle was opposed to Speusippus, and nearly +agreed with Xenocrates. According to him, the good is activity of soul +in accordance with virtue in a mature life, requiring as conditions +bodily and external goods of fortune; and virtue is a mean state of the +passions. It is probable that when, after Plato's death and the +accession of Speusippus in 347, Aristotle with Xenocrates left Athens to +visit his former pupil Hermias, the three discussed this moderate system +of Ethics in which the two philosophers nearly agreed. At any rate, it +was adopted in each of the three moral treatises which pass under the +name of Aristotle. + + The three treatises are in very close agreement throughout, and in the + following details. The good of Ethics is human good; and human good is + happiness, not the universal good or form of the good to which Plato + subordinated human happiness. Happiness is activity of soul according + to virtue in a mature life: it requires other goods only as + conditions. The soul is partly irrational, partly rational; and + therefore there are two kinds of virtue. Moral virtue, which is that + of the irrational desires so far as they are obedient to reason, is a + purposive habit in the mean. The motive of the moral virtues is the + honourable ([Greek: to kalon], _honestum_). As the rational is either + deliberative or scientific, either practical or speculative intellect, + there are two virtues of the intellect--prudence of the deliberative + or practical, and wisdom of the scientific or speculative, intellect. + The right reason by which moral virtue is determined is prudence, + which is determined in its turn by wisdom. Pleasure is a psychical + state, and is not a generation in the body supplying a defect and + establishing a natural condition, but an activity of a natural + condition of the soul. It should be specially noted that this doctrine + like the rest is common to the three treatises: in Book vii. of the + _Nicomachean_, which is [Zeta] of the _Eudemian_, pleasure is defined + as [Greek: energeia taes kata thusin exeos anempodistos] (chap. 12, + 1153 a 14-15); and in the _Magna Moralia_ as [Greek: hae kinaesis + autou kai hae energeia] (ii. 7, 1204 b 28; cf. 1205 b 20-28). It is + plain from the context that in the former definition "the natural + condition" ([Greek: hae kata thusin exis]) refers to the soul which, + while the body is regenerated, remains unimpaired (cf. 1152 b 35 seq., + 1154 b 15 seq.); and in the latter definition the thing ([Greek: + autou]), whose "motion, that is activity" is spoken of, is the part of + the soul with which we feel pleased. + + Down then to their common definition of pleasure as activity the three + treatises present a harmonious system of morals, consistently with one + another, and with the general philosophy of Aristotle. In particular, + the theory that pleasure is activity ([Greek: energeia]) is the theory + of two of his most authoritative works. In the _De Anima_ (iii. 7, 431 + a 10-12), being pleased and pained are defined by him as acting + [Greek: to] ([Greek: energein]) by a sensitive mean in relation to + good or evil as such. In the _Metaphysics_ ([lambda] 7, 1072 b 16), in + discussing the occupation of God, he says "his pleasure is activity," + or "his activity is pleasure," according to a difference of readings + which makes no difference to the identification of pleasure and + activity ([Greek: energeia]). As then we find this identification of + pleasure with activity in the _Metaphysics_ and in the _De Anima_, as + well as in the _Nicomachean Ethics_, the _Eudemian Ethics_ and the + _Magna Moralia_, the only logical conclusion, from which there is no + escape, is that, so far as the treatment of pleasure goes, any + Aristotelian treatise which defines it as activity is genuine. There + is no reason for doubting that the _Nicomachean Ethics_ to the end of + Book vii., the _Eudemian Ethics_ to the end of Book [Zeta], and the + _Magna Moralia_ as far as Book ii. chap. 7, were all three written by + Aristotle. + + Why then doubt at all? It is because the _Nicomachean Ethics_ contains + a second discourse on pleasure (x. 1-5), in which the author, while + agreeing with the previous treatment of the subject that pleasure is + not a bodily generation, even when accompanied by it, but something + psychical, nevertheless defines it (x. 4, 1174 b 31-33) not as an + activity, but as a supervening end ([Greek: epigignomenon ti telos]) + perfecting an activity ([Greek: teleioi taen energeian]). He allows + indeed that activity and pleasure are very closely related; that a + pleasure of sense or thought perfects an act of sensation or of + thinking, depends on it, and is so inseparably conjoined with it as to + raise a doubt whether pleasure is end of life or life end of pleasure, + and even whether the activity is the same as the pleasure. But he + disposes of this doubt in a very emphatic and significant manner. + "Pleasure," says he, "does not seem to be thinking or perceiving; for + it is absurd: but on account of not being separated from them, it + appears to some persons to be the same." Now it is not likely that + Aristotle either, after having so often identified pleasure with + activity, would say that the identification is absurd though it + appears true to some persons, of whom he would in that case be one, + or, having once disengaged the pleasure of perceiving and thinking + from the acts of perceiving and thinking, would go backwards and + confuse them. It is more likely that Aristotle identified pleasure + with activity in the _De Anima_, the _Metaphysics_ and the three moral + treatises, as we have seen; but that afterwards some subsequent + Peripatetic, considering that the pleasure of perceiving or thinking + is not the same as perceiving or thinking, declared the previous + identification of pleasure with activity absurd. At any rate, if we + are to choose, it is the identification that is Aristotle's, and the + distinction not Aristotle's. Moreover, the distinction between + activity and pleasure in the tenth book is really fatal to the + consistency of the whole _Nicomachean Ethics_, which started in the + first book with the identification of happiness and virtuous activity. + For if the pleasure of virtuous activity is a supervening end beyond + the activity, it becomes a supervening end beyond the happiness of + virtuous activity, which thus ceases to be the final end. + Nevertheless, the distinction between activity and pleasure is true. + Some unknown Peripatetic detected a flaw in the _Nicomachean Ethics_ + when he said that pleasure is a supervening end beyond activity, and, + if he had gone on to add that happiness is also a supervening end + beyond the virtuous activities which are necessary to produce it, he + would have destroyed the foundation of his own founder's Ethics. + + It is further remarkable that the _Nicomachean Ethics_ proceeds to a + different conclusion. After the intrusion of this second discourse on + pleasure, it goes on (E.N. x. 6-fin.) to the famous theory that the + highest happiness is the speculative life of intellect or wisdom as + divine, but that happiness as human also includes the practical life + of combining prudence and moral virtue; and that, while both lives + need external goods as necessaries, the practical life also requires + them as instruments of moral action. The treatise concludes with the + means of making men virtuous; contending that virtue requires + habituation, habituation law, law legislative art, and legislative art + politics: Ethics thus passes into Politics. The _Eudemian Ethics_ + proceeds to its conclusion (E.E. [Eta] 13-15) differently, with the + consideration of (1) good fortune ([Greek: eutuchia]), and (2) + gentlemanliness ([Greek: kalokagathia]). Good fortune it divides into + two kinds, both irrational; one divine, according to impulse, and more + continuous; the other contrary to impulse and not continuous. + Gentlemanliness it regards as perfect virtue, containing all + particular virtues, and all goods for the sake of the honourable. + Finally, it concludes with the limit ([Greek: horos]) of goods. First + it finds the limit of goods of fortune in that desire and possession + of them which will conduce to the contemplation of God, whereas that + which prevents the service and contemplation of God is bad. Then it + adds that the best limit of the soul is as little as possible to + perceive the other part of the soul (i.e. desire). Finally, the + treatise concludes with saying that the limit of gentlemanliness has + thus been stated, meaning that its limit is the service and + contemplation of God and the control of desire by reason. The _Magna + Moralia_ (M.M. ii. 8-10) on these points is unlike the _Nicomachean_, + and like the _Eudemian Ethics_ in discussing good fortune and + gentlemanliness, but it discusses them in a more worldly way. On good + fortune (ii. 8), after recognizing the necessity of external goods to + happiness, it denies that fortune is due to divine grace, and simply + defines it as irrational nature ([Greek: alogos thusis]). + Gentlemanliness (ii. 9) it regards as perfect virtue, and defines the + gentleman as the man to whom really good things are good and really + honourable things honourable. It then adds (ii. 10) that acting + according to right reason is when the irrational part of the soul does + not hinder the rational part of intellect from doing its work. + Thereupon it proceeds to a discourse on friendship, which in the + _Nicomachean_ and _Eudemian Ethics_ is discussed in an earlier + position, but breaks off unfinished. + + On the whole, the three moral treatises proceed on very similar lines + down to the common identification of pleasure with activity, and then + diverge. From this point the _Eudemian Ethics_ and the _Magna Moralia_ + become more like one another than like the _Nicomachean Ethics_. They + also become less like one another than before: for the treatment of + good fortune, gentlemanliness, and their limit is more theological in + the _Eudemian Ethics_ than in the _Magna Moralia_. + + How are the resemblances and differences of the three to be explained? + By Aristotle's gradual method of composition. All three are great + works, contributing to the origin of the independent science of + Ethics. But the _Eudemian Ethics_ and the _Magna Moralia_ are more + rudimentary than the _Nicomachean Ethics_, which as it were seems to + absorb them except in the conclusion. They are, in short, neither + independent works, nor mere commentaries, but Aristotle's first drafts + of his Ethics. + + In the _Ethics to Eudemus_, as Porphyry properly called the _Eudemian + Ethics_, Aristotle in the first four books successively investigates + happiness, virtue, the voluntary and the particular moral virtues, in + the same order and in the same letter and spirit as in his _Ethics to + Nicomachus_. But the investigations are never so good. They are all + such rudiments as Aristotle might well polish into the more developed + expositions in the first four books of the _Nicomachean Ethics_. On + the other hand, nobody would have gone back afterwards on his masterly + treatment of happiness, in the first book, or of virtue in the second, + or of the voluntary in the third, or of the particular virtues in the + third and fourth, to write the sketchy accounts of the _Eudemian + Ethics_. + + Again, these sketches are rough preparations for the subsequent books + common to the two treatises. It is true, as Dr Henry Jackson has + pointed out, though with some exaggeration, that the Eudemian agrees + in detail rather better than the Nicomachean treatment of the + voluntary with the subsequent discussion of injury (E.E. [Delta] = + E.N. v. 8); and, as Th. H. Fritzsche remarks, the distinction between + politics, and economics, and prudence in the _Eudemian Ethics_ + ([Alpha] 8) is a closer anticipation of the subsequent triple + distinction of practical science (E.E. [Epsilon] = E.N. vi 8). On the + other hand, there are still more fundamental points in which the first + three books of the _Eudemian Ethics_ are a very inadequate preparation + for the common books. Notably its treatment of prudence ([Greek: + phronaesis]) is a chaos. At first, prudence appears as the operation + of the philosophical life and connected with the speculative + philosophy of Anaxagoras (E.E. [Alpha] 1-5): then it is brought into + connexion with the practical philosophy of Socrates (_ib_. 5) and + co-ordinated with politics and economics (_ib_. 8); then it is + intruded into the diagram of moral virtues as a mean between villainy + ([Greek: panourgia]) and simplicity (([Greek: euhaetheia]) (E.E. + [Beta] 33, 1221 a 12); finally, a distinction between virtue by nature + and virtue with prudence ([Greek: metha phronhaeseos]) is promised + (E.E. [Tau] 7, 1234 a 4). In addition to all this confusion of + speculative and practical knowledge, prudence is absent when it ought + to be present; e.g. from the division of virtues into moral and + intellectual (E.E. [Beta] 1, 1220 a 4-13), and from the definition of + moral virtue (_ib_. 5, 10); while, in a passage ([Beta] 11) + anticipating the subsequent discussion of the relation between + prudence and moral virtue (E.E. [Epsilon] = E.N. vi. 12-13), it is + stated that in purpose the end is made right by moral virtue, the + means by another power, reason, without this right reason being stated + to be prudence. After this, it can never be said that the earlier + books of the _Eudemian Ethics_ are so good a preparation as those of + the _Nicomachean Ethics_ for the distinction between prudence ([Greek: + phrhoraesis]) and wisdom ([Greek: sophia]), which is the main point of + the common books, and one of Aristotle's main points against Plato's + philosophy. + + Curiously enough, although little is made of it, this distinction, + absent from the earlier books, is present in the final book II of the + _Eudemian Ethics_ (cf. 1246 b 4 seq., 1248 a 35, 1249 b 14); and + probably therefore this part was a separate discourse. Meanwhile, + however, the truth about the _Eudemian Ethics_ in general is that it + was an earlier rudimentary sketch written by Aristotle, when he was + still struggling, without quite succeeding, to get over Plato's view + that there is one philosophical knowledge of universal good, by which + not only the dialectician and mathematician must explain the being and + becoming of the world, but also the individual and the statesman guide + the life of man. Indeed, the final proof that the _Eudemian Ethics_ is + earlier than the _Nicomachean_ is the very fact that it is more under + Platonic influence. In the first place, the reason why the account of + prudence begins by confusing the speculative with the practical is + that the _Eudemian Ethics_ starts from Plato's _Philebus_, where, + without differentiating speculative and practical knowledge, Plato + asks how far good is prudence ([Greek: phronaesis]), how far pleasure + ([Greek: haedorhae]); and in the _Eudemian Ethics_ Aristotle asks the + same question, adding virtue ([Greek: harethae]) in order to correct + the Socratic confusion of virtue with prudence. Secondly, the + _Eudemian Ethics_, while not agreeing with Plato's _Republic_ that the + just can be happy by justice alone, does not assign to the external + goods of good fortune ([Greek: ehutuchia]) the prominence accorded to + them in the _Nicomachean Ethics_ as the necessary conditions of all + virtue, and the instruments of moral virtue. Thirdly, the emphasis of + the _Eudemian Ethics_ on the perfect virtue of gentlemanliness + ([Greek: kalokhagathia]) is a decidedly old-fashioned trait, which + descended to Aristotle from the Greek notion of a gentleman who does + his duty to his state (cf. Herodotus i. 30, Thucydides iv. 40) and to + his God (Xenophon, _Symp_. iv. 49) through Plato, who in the _Gorgias_ + (470 [Epsilon]) says that the gentleman is happy, and in the + _Republic_ (489 [Epsilon]) imputes to him the love of truth essential + to philosophy. Moreover, when Plato goes on (_ib._ 505 [Beta]) to + identify the form of good, without which nothing is good, with the + gentlemanly thing ([Greek: kalhon kai agathon]), without which any + possession is worthless, he inspired into the author of the _Eudemian + Ethics_ the very limit ([Greek: opos]) of good fortune and + gentlemanliness with which it concludes, only without Plato's + elevation of the good into the form of the good. In the _Nicomachean + Ethics_ the old notion, we gladly see, survives (cf. i. 8): virtuous + actions are gentlemanly actions, and happiness accordingly is being at + our best and noblest and pleasantest ([Greek: ariston kai kalliston + kai aediston]). But gentlemanliness is no longer called perfect + virtue, as in the _Eudemian Ethics_: its place has been taken by + justice, which is perfect virtue to one's neighbour, by prudence which + unites all the moral virtues, and by wisdom which is the highest + virtue. Accordingly, in the end the old ideal of gentlemanliness is + displaced by the new ideal of the speculative and practical life. + + Lastly, the _Eudemian Ethics_ derives from Platonism a strong + theological bias, especially in its conclusion ([Eta] 14-15). The + opposition of divine good fortune according to impulse to that which + is contrary to impulse reminds us of Plato's point in the _Phaedrus_ + that there is a divine as well as a diseased madness. The + determination of the limit of good fortune and of gentlemanliness by + looking to the ruler, God, who governs as the end for which prudence + gives its orders, and the conclusion that the best limit is the most + conducive to the service and contemplation of God, presents the Deity + and man's relation to him as a final and objective standard more + definitely in the _Eudemian_ than in the _Nicomachean Ethics_, which + only goes so far as to say that man's highest end is the speculative + wisdom which is divine, like God, dearest to God. + + Because, then, it is very like, but more rudimentary and more + Platonic, we conclude that the _Eudemian_ is an earlier draft of the + _Nicomachean Ethics_, written by Aristotle when he was still in + process of transition from Plato's ethics to his own. + + The _Magna Moralia_ contains similar evidence of being earlier than + the _Nicomachean Ethics_. It treats the same subjects, but always in a + more rudimentary manner; and its remarks are always such as would + precede rather than follow the masterly expositions of the + _Nicomachean Ethics_. This inferiority applies also to its treatment + not only of the early part (i. 1-33 corresponding to E.N. i.-iv.), but + also of the middle part (i. 34-11. 7 corresponding to E.N. v.-vii. = + E.E. [Delta]-[Zeta]). In dealing with justice, it does not make it + clear, as the _Nicomachean Ethics_ (Book v.) does, that even universal + justice is virtue towards another (M.M. i. 34, 1193 b 1-15), and it + omits altogether the division into distributive and corrective + justice. In dealing with what the _Nicomachean Ethics_ (Book vi.) + calls intellectual virtues, but the _Magna Moralia_ (i. 5, 35) virtues + of the rational part of the soul, and right reason, it distinguishes + (i. 35, 1196 b 34-36) science, prudence, intelligence, wisdom, + apprehension ([Greek: upolaepsis]), in a rough manner very inferior to + the classification of science, art, prudence, intelligence, wisdom, + all of which are coordinate states of attaining truth, in the + _Nicomachean Ethics_ (vi. 3). It distinguishes prudence ([Greek: + phronaesis]) and wisdom ([Greek: sophia]) as the respective virtues of + deliberative and scientific reason; and on the whole its account of + prudence (cf. M.M. i. 5) is more consistent than that of the _Eudemian + Ethics_. In these points it is a better preparation for the + _Nicomachean Ethics_. But it falls into the confusion of first saying + that praise is for moral virtues, and not for virtues of the reason, + whether prudence or wisdom (M.M. i. 5, 1185 b 8-12), and afterwards + arguing that prudence is a virtue, precisely because it is praised (i. + 35, 1197 a 16-18). In dealing with continence and incontinence, the + same doubts and solutions occur as in the _Nicomachean Ethics_ (Book + vii. = E.E. [Zeta]), but sometimes confusing doubts and solutions + together, instead of first proposing all the doubts and then supplying + the solutions as in the _Nicomachean Ethics_. Such rudimentary and + imperfect sketches would be quite excusable in a first draft, but + inexcusable and incredible after the _Nicomachean Ethics_ had been + written. + + It has another characteristic which points to its being an early work + of Aristotle, when he was still under the influence of Plato's style; + namely its approximation to dialogue. It asks direct questions (e.g. + [Greek: dia ti]; M.M. i. 1 repeatedly, 12; ii. 6, 7), incorporates + direct statements of others (e.g. [Greek: phaesi], i. 12, 13; ii. 3, + 6, 7), alternates direct objections and answers (i. 34), and + introduces conversations between the author and others, expressed + interrogatively, indicatively and even imperatively ([Greek: all erei + moi, ta poia diasaphaeson hygieina estin]. i. 35, 1196 b 10; cf. ii. + 10, 1208 a 20-22). The whole treatise inclines to run into dialogue. + It is also Platonic, like the _Endemian Ethics_, in making little of + external goods in the account of good fortune (ii. 8), and in + emphasizing the perfect virtue of gentlemanliness (ii. 9). Indeed, in + some respects it is more like the _Eudemian_, though in the main more + like the _Nicomachean Ethics_. In the first book, it has the Eudemian + distinction between prudence, virtue and pleasure (i. 3, 1184 b 5-6); + but does not make so much of it as the distinction between prudence + and wisdom blurred in the _Eudemian_ but defined in the _Nicomachean + Ethics_. In the second book, it runs parallel to the _Eudemian Ethics_ + in placing good fortune and gentlemanliness (ii. 8-9), where the + _Nicomachean Ethics_ places the speculative and the practical life; + but it omits the theological element by denying that good fortune is + divine grace, and by submitting gentlemanliness to no standard but + that of right reason, when the irrational part of the soul does not + hinder the rational part, or intellect ([Greek: nous]), from doing its + work. + + Because, then, the _Magna Moralia_ is very like the _Nicomachean + Ethics_, but more rudimentary, nearer to the Platonic dialogues in + style and. to a less degree in matter, and also like the _Eudemian + Ethics_, we conclude that it is also like that treatise in having been + written as an earlier draft of the _Nicomachean Ethics_ by Aristotle + himself. + + The hypothesis that the _Eudemian Ethics_, and by consequence the + _Magna Moralia_, are later than Aristotle has arisen from a simple + misconception, continued in a Scholium attributed to Aspasius, who + lived in the 2nd century A.D. Nicomachean means "addressed to + Nicomachus," and Eudemian "addressed to Eudemus"; but, as Cicero + thought that the _Nicomachean Ethics_ was written by Nicomachus, so + the author of the Scholium thought that the _Eudemian Ethics_, at + least so far as the first account of pleasure goes, was written by + Eudemus. He only thought so, however, because Aristotle could not have + written both accounts of pleasure; and, taking for granted that + Aristotle had written the second account of pleasure in the + _Nicomachean Ethics_ (Book x.), he concluded that the first account + (Book vii.) was not the work of Aristotle, but of Eudemus (_Comm. in + Ar._ (Berlin) xix. p. 151). We have seen reason to reverse this + argument: Aristotle did write the first account in Book vii., because + it contains his usual theory; and, if we must choose, he did not write + the second account in Book x. In this way, too, we get a historical + development of the theory of pleasure: Plato and Speusippus said it is + generation (cf. Plato's _Philebus_): Aristotle said it is psychical + activity sometimes requiring bodily generation, sometimes not (E.N. + vii. = E.E. [zeta]): Aristotle, or some Aristotelian, afterwards said + that it is a supervening end completing an activity (E.N. x.). + Secondly, some modern commentators, starting from the false conclusion + that the definition of pleasure as activity (E.N. vii. = E.E. [zeta]) + is by Eudemus, and supposing without proof that he was also author of + the first three books of the _Eudemian Ethics_, have further asserted + that these are a better introduction than the first four books of the + _Nicomachean Ethics_ to the books common to both treatises (E.N. Books + v.-vii.= E.E. Books [Delta]-[Zeta]), and have concluded that Eudemus + wrote these common books. But we have seen that Aristotle wrote the + first three books of the _Eudemian_ as an earlier draft of the + _Nicomachean Ethics_; so that, even so far as they form a better + introduction, this will not prove the common books to be by Eudemus. + Again, those first three books are a better introduction only in + details; whereas in regard to the all-important subject of prudence as + distinct from wisdom, they are so bad an introduction that the common + book which discusses that subject at large (E.N. Book vi. = E.E. Book + [Epsilon]) must be rather founded on the first four books of + Aristotle's _Nicomachean Ethics_. Further, as Aristotle wrote both the + first three Eudemian and the first four Nicomachean books, there is no + reason why sometimes one, sometimes the other, should not be the best + introduction to the common books by the same author. Finally, the + common books are so integral a part of the Aristotelian system of + philosophy that they cannot be disengaged from it: the book on justice + (E.N. v.) quotes and is quoted in the _Politics_ (cf. 1130 b 28, 1280 + a 16, 1261 a 30); the book on intellectual virtues (E.N. vi.) quotes + (vi. 3) the _Posterior Analytics_, i. 2, and is quoted in the + _Metaphysics_ ([Alpha] 1); and we have seen that the book (E.N. vii.) + which defines pleasure as activity is simply stating an Aristotelian + commonplace. Thirdly, in order to prove that the _Eudemian Ethics_ was + by Eudemus, it is said that in its first part it contemplates that + there must be a limit ([Greek: oros]) for virtue as a mean (E.E. + [Beta] 5, 1222 b 7-8), in its middle part it criticizes the + _Nicomackean Ethics_ for not being clear about this limit (E.E. + [Epsilon] 1), and in the end it alone assigns this limit, in the + service and contemplation of God (E.E. [Eta] 15, 1249 b 16 seq.). This + argument is subtle, but over-subtle. The _Eudemian_ and the + _Nicomachean_ treatments of this subject do not really differ. In the + _Nicomachean_ as in the _Eudemian Ethics_ the limit above moral virtue + is right reason, or prudence, which is right reason on such matters; + and above prudence wisdom, for which prudence gives its orders; while + wisdom is the intelligence and science of the most venerable objects, + of the most divine, and of God. After this agreement, there is a shade + of difference. While the _Eudemian Ethics_ in a more theological vein + emphasizes God, the object of wisdom as the end for which prudence + gives its orders, the Nicomachean Ethics in a more humanizing spirit + emphasizes wisdom itself, the speculative activity, as that end, and + afterwards as the highest happiness, because activity of the divine + power of intellect, because an imitation of the activity of God, + because most dear to God. This is too fine a distinction to found a + difference of authorship. Beneath it, and behind the curious + hesitation which in dealing with mysteries Aristotle shows between the + divine and the human, his three moral treatises agree that wisdom is a + science of things divine, which the _Nicomachean Ethics_ (vi. 7) + defines as science and intelligence of the most venerable things, the + _Magna Moralia_ (i. 35) regards as that which is concerned with the + eternal and the divine, and the _Eudemian Ethics_ ([Eta] 15) elevates + into the service and contemplation of God. + +Aristotle then wrote three moral treatises, which agree in the +fundamental doctrines that happiness requires external fortune, but is +activity of soul according to virtue, rising from morality through +prudence to wisdom, or that science of the divine which constitutes the +theology of his _Metaphysics_. Surely, the harmony of these three moral +gospels proves that Aristotle wrote them, and wrote the _Eudemian +Ethics_ and the _Magna Moralia_ as preludes to the Nicomachean Ethics. +When did he begin? We do not know; but there is a pathetic +suggestiveness in a passage in the _Magna Moralia_ (i. 35), where he +says, "Clever even a bad man is called; as Mentor was thought clever, +but prudent he was not." Mentor was the treacherous contriver of the +death of Hermias (345-344 B.C.). Was this passage written when Aristotle +was mourning for his friend? + +4. _The Rhetoric to Alexander._--This is one of a series of works +emanating from Aristotle's early studies in rhetoric, beginning with the +_Gryllus_, continuing in the _Theodectea_ and the _Collection of Arts_, +all of which are lost except some fragments; while among the extant +Aristotelian writings as they stand we still possess the _Rhetoric to +Alexander_ ([Greek: Rhaetorikae pros Alexandron]) and the _Rhetoric_ +([Greek: Techyn Rhaetorikae]). But the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ was +considered spurious by Erasmus, for the inadequate reasons that it has a +preface and is not mentioned in the list of Diogenes Laertius, and was +assigned by Petrus Victorius, in his preface to the _Rhetoric_, to +Anaximenes. It remained for Spengel to entitle the work _Anaximenis Ars +Rhetorica_ in his edition of 1847, and thus substitute for the name of +the philosopher Aristotle that of the sophist Anaximenes on his +title-page. We have therefore to ask, first who was the author, and +secondly what is the relation of the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ to the +_Rhetoric_, which nowadays alone passes for genuine. + +After a dedicatory epistle to Alexander (chap, 1) the opening of the +treatise itself (chap. 2) is as follows:--"There are three genera of +political speeches; one deliberative, one declamatory, one forensic: +their species are seven; hortative, dissuasive, laudatory, vituperative, +accusatory, defensive, critical." This brief sentence is enough to prove +the work genuine, because it was Aristotle who first distinguished the +three genera (cf. _Rhet_. i. 3; Quintilian iii. 4, 1. 7, 1), by +separating the declamatory ([Greek: epideiktikon]) from the deliberative +([Greek: daempaegorikon, symbouleutikon]) and judicial ([Greek: +dikanikon]); whereas his rival Isocrates had considered that laudation +and vituperation, which Aristotle elevated into species of declamation, +run through every kind (Quintilian iv. 4), and Anaximenes recognized +only the deliberative and the judicial (Dionys. H. _de Isaeo_, 19). In +order, however, to impute the whole work to Anaximenes, Spengel took one +of the most inexcusable steps ever taken in the history of scholarship. +Without any manuscript authority he altered the very first words "three +genera" ([Greek: tria genae]) into "two genera" ([Greek: duo genae]), +and omitted the words "one declamatory" ([Greek: to de epideiktikon]). +Quintilian (iii. 4) imputes to Anaximenes two genera, deliberative and +judicial, and seven species, "hortandi, dehortandi, laudandi, +vituperandi, accusandi, defendendi, exquirendi, quod [Greek: +exetastikon] dicit." But the author of this rhetoric most certainly +recognized three genera ([Greek: tria genae]), since, besides the +deliberative and judicial, the declamatory genus constantly appears in +the work (chaps. 2 _init._, 4, 7, 18, 36, cf. [Greek: oyk agonos all +epideixeos eneka] 1440 b 13); and, if the terms for it are not always +the same, this is just what one would expect in a new discovery. +Moreover, he could recognize seven species in the _Rhetoric to +Alexander_, though he recognized only six in the _Rhetoric_, provided +the two works were not written at the same time; and as a matter of fact +even in the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ the seventh or critical species +([Greek: exetastikon]) is in process of disappearing (cf. chap. 37). As +then Anaximenes did not, but Aristotle did, recognize three genera, and +as Aristotle could as well as Anaximenes recognize seven species, the +evidence is overwhelming that the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ is the work +not of Anaximenes, but of Aristotle; on the condition that its date is +not that of Aristotle's confessedly genuine _Rhetoric_. + +There is a second and even stronger evidence that the _Rhetoric to +Alexander_ is a genuine work of Aristotle. It divides (chap. 8) +evidences ([Greek: pisteis]) into two kinds (1) evidence from arguments, +actions and men ([Greek: ai men ex auton ton logon kai ton praxeon kai +ton anthropon]); (2) adventitious evidences ([Greek: ai d' epithetoi +tois legomenois kai tois prattomenois]). The former are immediately +enumerated as probabilities ([Greek: eikota]), examples ([Greek: +paradeigmara]), proofs ([Greek: tekmaeria]), considerations ([Greek: +enthomaemata]), maxims ([Greek: gnomai]), signs ([Greek: saemeia]), +refutations ([Greek: elenchoi]); the latter as opinion of the speaker +([Greek: doxa ton legontos]), witnesses ([Greek: martyriai]), tortures +([Greek: basanoi]), oaths ([Greek: orkoi]). It is confessed by Spengel +himself that these two kinds of evidences are the two kinds recognized +in Aristotle's _Rhetoric_ as (1) artificial ([Greek: entechnoi pisteis]) +and (2) inartificial ([Greek: atechnoi pisteis]). Now, from the outset +of his _Rhetoric_ Aristotle himself claims to be the first to +distinguish between artificial evidences from arguments and other +evidences which he regards as mere additions; and he complains that the +composers of arts of speaking had neglected the former for the latter. +In particular, rhetoricians appeared to him to have neglected argument +in comparison with passion. No doubt, rational evidences had appeared in +books of rhetoric, as we see from Plato's _Phaedrus_, 266-267, where we +find proofs, probabilities, refutation and maxim, but mixed up with +other evidences. The point of Aristotle was to draw a line between +rational and other evidences, to insist on the former, and in fact to +found a logic of rhetoric. But if in the _Rhetoric to Alexander_, not +he, but Anaximenes, had already performed this great achievement, +Aristotle would have been the meanest of mankind; for the logic of +rhetoric would have been really the work of Anaximenes the sophist, but +falsely claimed by Aristotle the philosopher. As we cannot without a +tittle of evidence accept such a consequence, we conclude that +Aristotle formulated the distinction between argumentative and +adventitious, artificial and inartificial evidences, both in the +_Rhetoric to Alexander_ and in the _Rhetoric_; and that the former as +well as the latter is a genuine work of Aristotle, the founder of the +logic of rhetoric. + + What is the relation between these two genuine Rhetorics? The last + event mentioned in the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ occurred in 340, the + last in the _Rhetoric_ is the common peace ([Greek: koinae eiraenae]) + made between Alexander and the Greeks in 336 (_Rhet_. ii. 23, 1399 b + 12). The former treatise (chap. 9), under the head of examples + ([Greek: paradeigmata]), gives historical examples of the unexpected + in war for the years 403, 371, 358, concluding with the year 340, in + which the Corinthians, coming with nine triremes to the assistance of + the Syracusans, defeated the Carthaginians who were blockading + Syracuse with 150 ships. Spengel, indeed, tries to bring the latest + date in the book down to 330; but it is by absurdly supposing that the + author could not have got the commonplace, "one ought to criticize not + bitterly but gently," except from Demosthenes, _De Corona_ (S 265). We + may take it then that the last date in the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ is + 340; and by a curious coincidence 340 was the year when, on Philip's + marching against Byzantium, Alexander was left behind as regent and + keeper of the seal, and distinguished himself so greatly that Philip + was only too glad that the Macedonians called Alexander king + (Plutarch, _Alexander_, 9). It is possible then that Aristotle may + have written the dedication to Alexander about 340 and treated him as + if he were king in the dedicatory epistle. At the same time, as such + prefaces are often forgeries, not prejudicing the body of the + treatise, it does not really matter whether Aristotle actually + dedicated his work to Alexander in that epistle about that year or + not. If he did, then the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ in 340 was at least + four years prior to the _Rhetoric_, which was as late as 336. If he + did not, the question still remains, what is the internal relation + between these two genuine Rhetorics? It will turn out most important. + + The relation between the two Rhetorics turns on their treatment of + rational, argumentative, artificial evidences. Each of them, the + probability (chap. 8), the example (chap. 9), the proof (chap. 10), + the consideration (chap, 11), the maxim (chap. 12), the sign (chap. + 13), the refutation (chap. 14), though very like what it is in the + _Rhetoric_, receives in the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ a definition + slightly different from the definition in the _Rhetoric_, which it + must be remembered is also the definition in the _Prior Analytics_. + Strange as this point is, it is still stranger that not one of these + internal evidences is brought into relation with induction and + deduction. Example ([Greek: paradeigma]) is not called rhetorical + induction, and consideration ([Greek: enthymaema]) is not called + rhetorical syllogism, as they are in the _Rhetoric_, and in the + _Analytics_. Induction ([Greek: epagogae]) and syllogism ([Greek: + syllogismos]), the general forms of inference, do not occur in the + _Rhetoric to Alexander_. In fact, this interesting treatise contains a + rudimentary treatment of rational evidences in rhetoric and is + therefore earlier than the _Rhetoric_, which exhibits a developed + analysis of these rational evidences as special logical forms. + Together, the earlier and the later _Rhetoric_ show us the logic of + rhetoric in the making, going on about 340, the last date of the + _Rhetoric to Alexander_, and more developed in or after 336 B.C., the + last date of the _Rhetoric_. + + Nor is this all: the earlier _Rhetoric to Alexander_ and the later + _Rhetoric_ show us logic itself in the making. We have already said + that Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician. He gradually became a + logician out of his previous studies: out of metaphysics, for with him + being is always the basis of thinking, and common principles, such as + that of contradiction, are axioms of things before axioms of thought, + while categories are primarily things signified by names; out of the + mathematics of the Pythagoreans and the Platonists, which taught him + the nature of demonstration; out of the physics, of which he imbibed + the first draughts from his father, which taught him induction from + sense and the modification of strict demonstration to suit facts; out + of the dialectic between man and man which provided him with beautiful + examples of inference in the Socratic dialogues of Xenophon and Plato; + out of the rhetoric addressed to large audiences, which with dialectic + called his attention to probable inferences; out of the grammar taught + with rhetoric and poetics which led him to the logic of the + proposition. We cannot write a history of the varied origin of logic, + beyond putting the rudimentary logic of the proposition in the _De + Interpretatione_ before the less rudimentary theory of categories as + significant names capable of becoming predicates in the _Categories_, + and before the maturer analysis of the syllogism in the _Analytics_. + But at any rate the process was gradual; and Aristotle was advanced in + metaphysics, mathematics, physics, dialectics, rhetoric and poetics, + before he became the founder of logic. + + +V. ORDER OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS + +Some of Aristotle's philosophical writings then are earlier than others; +because they show more Platonic influence, and are more rudimentary; +e.g. the _Categories_ earlier than some parts of the _Metaphysics_, +because under the influence of Platonic forms it talks of inherent +attributes, and allows secondary substances which are universal; the _De +Interpretatione_ earlier than the _Analytics_, because in it the +Platonic analysis of the sentence into noun and verb is retained for the +proposition; the _Eudemian Ethics_ and the _Magna Moralia_ earlier than +the _Nicomachean Ethics_, because they are rudimentary sketches of it, +and the one written rather in the theological spirit, the other rather +in the dialectical style, of Plato; and the _Rhetoric to Alexander_ +earlier than the _Rhetoric_, because it contains a rudimentary theory of +the rational evidences afterwards developed into a logic of rhetoric in +the _Rhetoric_ and _Analytics_. + +It is tempting to think that we can carry out the chronological order of +the philosophical writings in detail. But in the gradual process of +composition, by which a work once begun was kept going with the rest, +although a work such as the _Politics_ (begun in 357) was begun early, +and some works more rudimentary came earlier than others, the general +body of writings was so kept together in Aristotle's library, and so +simultaneously elaborated and consolidated into a system that it soon +becomes impossible to put one before another. + + Zeller, indeed, has attempted an exact order of succession:-- + + 1. The logical treatises. + 2. The _Physics, De Coelo, De Generatione et Corruptione, + Meteorologica_. + 3. _Historia Animalium, De Anima, Parva Naturalia, De Partibus + Animalium, De Animalium Incessu, De Generatione Animalium_. + 4. _Ethics_ and _Politics_. + 5. _Poetics_ and _Rhetoric_. + 6. _Metaphysics_ (unfinished). + + But Zeller does not give enough weight either to the evidence of early + composition contained in the _Politics_ and _Meteorology_, or to the + evidence of subsequent contemporaneous composition contained in the + cross-references, e.g. between the _Physics_ and the _Metaphysics_. On + the other hand he gives too much weight to the references from one + book to another, which Aristotle could have entered into his + manuscripts at any time before his death. Moreover, the arrangement + sometimes breaks down: for example, though on the whole the logical + books are quoted without quoting the rest, the _De Interpretatione_ + (chap. 1) quotes the _De Anima_, and therefore is falsely taken by + Zeller against its own internal evidence to be subsequent to it and + consequently to the other logical books. Again, the _Meteorologica_ + (iii. 2, 372 b 9) quotes the _De Sensu_ (c. 3), and therefore, on + Zeller's arguments, ought to follow one of the _Parva Naturalia_. + Lastly, though the _Metaphysics_ often quotes the _Physics_, and is + therefore regarded as being subsequent, it is itself quoted in the + _Physics_ (i. 8, 191 b 29), and therefore ought to be regarded as + antecedent. Zeller tries to get over this difficulty of + cross-reference by detaching _Metaphysics_, Book [Delta], from the + rest and placing it before the _Physics_. But this violent and + arbitrary remedy is only partial. The truth is that the _Metaphysics_ + both precedes and follows the _Physics_, because it had been all along + occupying Aristotle ever since he began to differ from Plato's + metaphysical views and indeed forms a kind of presupposed basis of his + whole system. So generally, the references backwards and forwards, and + the cross-references, are really evidences that Aristotle mainly wrote + his works not successively but simultaneously, and entered references + as and when he pleased, because he had not published them. + + There are two kinds of quotations in Aristotle's extant works, the + quotation of another book, and the quotation of a historical fact. + While the former is useless to determine the sequence of books written + simultaneously, the latter is insufficient to determine a complete + chronological order. When Aristotle, e.g. in the _Politics_, quotes an + event as now ([Greek: nun]), he was writing about it at that time; and + when he quotes another event as lately ([Greek: neosti]) he was + writing about it shortly after that time; but he might have been + writing the rest of the _Politics_ both before and after either event. + When he quotes the last event mentioned in the book, e.g. in the + _Rhetoric_ (ii. 23, 1399 b 12) the "common peace" of Greece under + Alexander in 336, he was writing as late as that date, but he might + also have been writing the _Rhetoric_ both before it and after it. + When he quotes what persons used to say in the past, e.g. Plato and + Speusippus in the _Ethics_, Eudoxus and Callippus in the + _Metaphysics_, he was writing these passages after the deaths of these + persons; but he might have been also writing the _Ethics_ and the + _Metaphysics_ both beforehand and afterwards. Lastly, when he is + silent about a historical fact, the argument from silence is evidence + only when he could not have failed to mention it; as, for example, in + the _Constitution of Athens_, when he could not have failed to mention + quinqueremes and other facts after 325-324. But this is in a + historical work; whereas the argument from silence about historical + facts in a philosophical work can seldom apply. + + The chronological order therefore is not sufficiently detailed to be + the real order of Aristotelian writings. Secondly, the traditional + order, which for nearly 2000 years has descended from the edition of + Andronicus to the Berlin edition, is satisfactory in details, but + unsatisfactory in system. It gives too much weight to Aristotle's + logic, and too little to his metaphysics, on account of two prejudices + of the commentators which led them to place both logic and physics + before metaphysics. Aristotle rightly used all the sciences of his + day, and especially his own physics, as a basis of his metaphysics. + For example, at the very outset he refers to the _Physics_ (ii. 2)for + his use of the four causes, material, efficient, formal and final, in + the _Metaphysics_ ([Alpha] 2). This and other applications of the + science of nature to the science of all being induced the commentators + to adopt this order, and entitle the science of being the _Sequel to + the Physics_ ([Greek: ta meta ta physica]). But Aristotle knew nothing + of this title, the first known use of which was by Nicolaus + Damascenus, a younger contemporary of Andronicus, the editor of the + Aristotelian writings, and Andronicus was probably the originator of + the title, and of the order. On the other hand, Aristotle entitles the + science of all being "Primary Philosophy" ([Greek: protae + philosophia]), and the science of physical being "Secondary + Philosophy" ([Greek: deutera philosophia]), which suggests that his + order is from Metaphysics to Physics, the reverse of his editor's + order from Physics to Metaphysics. Thus the traditional order puts + Physics before Metaphysics without Aristotle's authority. With some + more show of authority it puts Logic before Metaphysics. Aristotle, on + introducing the principle of contradiction (_Met._ [Gamma] 3), which + belongs to Metaphysics as an axiom of being, says that those who + attempt to discuss the question of accepting this axiom, do so on + account of their ignorance of _Analytics_, which they ought to know + beforehand ([Greek: proepistamenous]). He means that the logical + analysis of demonstration in the _Analytics_ would teach them + beforehand that there cannot be demonstration, though there must be + induction, of an axiom, or any other principle; whereas, if they are + not logically prepared for metaphysics, they will expect a + demonstration of the axiom, as Heraclitus, the Heraclitean Cratylus + and the Sophist Protagoras actually did,--and in vain. Acting on this + hint, not Aristotle but the Peripatetics inferred that all logic is an + instrument ([Greek: organon]) of all sciences; and by the time of + Andronicus, who was one of them and sometimes called "the eleventh + from Aristotle," the order, Logic-Physics-Metaphysics, had become + established pretty much as we have it now. It is, however, not the + real order for studying the philosophy of Aristotle, because there is + more Metaphysics in his Physics than Physics in his Metaphysics, and + more Metaphysics in his Logic than Logic in his Metaphysics. The + commentators themselves were doubtful about the order: Boethus + proposed to begin with Physics, and some of the Platonists with Ethics + or Mathematics; while Andronicus preferred to put Logic first as + Organon (_Scholia_, 25 b 34 seq.). None of the parties to the dispute + had the authority of Aristotle. What do we find in his works? Primary + philosophy, Metaphysics, the science of being, is the solid foundation + of all parts of his philosophical system; not only in the _Physics_, + but also in the _De Coelo_ (i. 8, 277 b 10), in the _De Generatione_ + (i. 3, 318 a 6; ii. 10, 336 b 29), in the _De Anima_ (i. 1, 403 a 28, + cf. b 16), in the _De Partibus Animalium_ (i. 1, 641 a 35), in the + _Nicomachean Ethics_ (i. 6, 1096 b 30), in the _De Interpretatione_ + (5, 17 a 14); and in short throughout his extant works. The reason is + that Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician half for and half against + Plato, occupied himself with metaphysics all his philosophical life, + made the science of things the universal basis of all sciences without + destroying their independence, and so gradually brought round + philosophy from universal forms to individual substances. The + traditional order of the Aristotelian writings, still continued in the + Berlin edition, beginning with the logical writings on page 1, + proceeding to the physical writings on page 184, and postponing the + Metaphysics to page 980, is not the real order of Aristotle's + philosophy. + +The real order of Aristotle's philosophy is that of Aristotle's mind, +revealed in his writings, and by the general view of thinking, science, +philosophy and all learning therein contained. He classified thinking +(_Met._ [Epsilon] 1) and science (_Topics_, vi. 6) by the three +operations of speculation ([Greek: theoria]), practice ([Greek: praxis]) +and production ([Greek: poiaesis]), and made the following +subdivisions:-- + + I. Speculative: about things; subdivided (_Met._ [Epsilon] 1; _De An._ + i. 1) into:-- + i. Primary Philosophy, Theology, also called Wisdom, about things + as things. + ii. Mathematical Philosophy, about quantitative things in the + abstract. + iii. Physical Philosophy, about things as changing, and therefore + about natural substances or bodies, composed of matter and + essence. + + II. Practical or Political Philosophy, or philosophy of things human + (cf. E.N. x. 9-fin.): about human good; subdivided (E.N. vi. + 8, cf. E.E. [Alpha] 8, 1218 b 13) into:-- + i. Ethics, about the good of the individual. + ii. Economics, about the good of the family. + iii. Politics, about the general good of the state. + + III. Productive, or Art ([Greek: technae]): about works produced; + subdivided (_Met._ A. 1, 981 b 17-20) into:-- + i. Necessary ([Greek: pros tanagkaia]), e.g. medicine. + ii. Fine ([Greek: pros diagogaen]), e.g. poetry. + +Aristotle calls all these investigations sciences ([Greek: epistaemai]): +but he also uses the term "sciences" in a narrower sense in consequence +of a classification of their objects, which pervades his writings, into +things necessary and things contingent, as follows.-- + + (A) The necessary ([Greek: to mae endechomenon allos echein]), what + must be; subdivided into:-- + (1) Absolutely ([Greek: haplos]), e.g. the mathematical. + (2) Hypothetically ([Greek: ex hypotheseus]), e.g. matter necessary + as means to an end. + + (B) The contingent ([Greek: to endechomenon allos echein]), what may + be; subdivided into:-- + (1) The usual ([Greek: to hos epi to polu]) or natural ([Greek: to + physikon]), e.g. a man grows grey. + (2) The accidental ([Greek: to kata symbebaekos]), e.g. a man sits or + not. + +Now, according to Aristotle, science in the narrow sense is concerned +only with the absolutely necessary (E.N. iii. 3), and in the +classification would stop at mathematics, which we still call exact +science: in the wide sense, on the other hand, it extends to the whole +of the necessary and to the usual contingent, but excludes the +accidental (_Met._ [Epsilon] 2), and would in the classification include +not only metaphysics and mathematics, but also physics, ethics, +economics, politics, necessary and fine art; or in short all +speculative, practical and productive thinking of a systematic kind. +Hence the _Posterior Analytics_, which is Aristotle's authoritative +logic of science, is of peculiar interest because, after beginning by +defining science as investigating necessary objects from necessary +principles (i. 4), it proceeds to say that it is either of the necessary +or of the usual though not of the accidental (i. 29), and to admit that +its principles are some necessary and some contingent (i. 32, 88 b 7). +Philosophy ([Greek: philosophia]) also is used by him in a similar +manner. Though occasionally he means by it primary philosophy (_Met._ +[Gamma] 2-3, [Kappa] 3), more frequently he extends it to all three +speculative philosophies ([Epsilon] 1, 1026 a 18, [Greek: treis an eien +philosophiai theoraetikai, mathaematikae, physikae, theologikae]), and +to all three practical philosophies, as we see from the constant use of +the phrase "political philosopher" in the _Ethics_; and in short applies +it to all sciences except productive science or art. With him, as with +the Greeks generally, the problems of philosophy are the nature and +origin of being and of good: it is not as with too many of us a mere +science of mind. + +Aristotle's view of thinking in science and philosophy is essentially +comprehensive; but it is not so wide as to become indefinite. According +to him, science at its widest selects a special subject, e.g. number in +arithmetic, magnitude in geometry, stars in astronomy, a man's good in +ethics; concentrates itself on the causes and appropriate principles of +its subject, especially the definition of the subject and its species by +their essences or formal causes; and after an inductive intelligence of +those principles proceeds by a deductive demonstration from definitions +to consequences: philosophy is simply a desire of this definite +knowledge of causes and effects. Beyond philosophy, not beyond science, +there is art; and beyond philosophy and science there is history, the +description of facts preparatory to philosophy, the investigation of +causes (cf. _Pr. An._ i. 30); and this may be natural history, +preparatory to natural philosophy, as in the _History of Animals_ +preparatory to the _De Partibus Animalium_, or what we call civil +history, preparatory to political philosophy, as in the 158 +Constitutions more or less preparatory to the _Politics_. + +Wide as is all his knowledge of facts and causes, it does not appear to +Aristotle to be the whole of learning and the show of it. Beyond +knowledge lies opinion, beyond discovery disputation, beyond philosophy +and science dialectic between man and man, which was much practised by +the Greeks in the dialogues of Socrates, Plato, the Megarians and +Aristotle himself in his early manhood. With Plato, who thought that the +interrogation of man is the best instrument of truth, dialectic was +exaggerated into a universal science of everything that is. Aristotle, +on the other hand, learnt to distinguish dialectic ([Greek: +dialektikae]) from science ([Greek: epotaemae]); in that it has no +definite subject, else it would not ask questions (_Post. An._ i. 11, 77 +a 31-33); in that for appropriate principles it substitutes the +probabilities of authority ([Greek: ta hendoxa]) which are the opinions +of all, or of the majority, or of the wise (_Top._ i. 1, 100 b 21-23); +and in that it is not like science a deduction from true and primary +principles of a definite subject to true consequences, but a deduction +from opinion to opinion, which may be true or false. Sophistry appeared +to him to be like it, except that it is a fallacious deduction either +from merely apparent probabilities in its matter or itself merely +apparently syllogistic in its form (cf. _Topics_, i. 1). Moreover, he +compared dialectic and sophistry, on account of their generality, with +primary philosophy in the _Metaphysics_ ([Gamma] 2, 1004 b 17-26); to +the effect that all three concern themselves with all things, but that +about everything metaphysics is scientific, dialectic tentative, +sophistry apparent, not real. He means that a sophist like Protagoras +will teach superficially anything as wisdom for money; and that even a +dialectician like Plato will write a dialogue, such as the _Republic_, +nominally about justice, but really about all things from the generality +of the form of good, instead of from appropriate moral principles; but +that a primary philosopher selects as a definite subject all things as +such without interfering with the special sciences of different things +each in its kind (_Met._ [Gamma] 1), and investigates the axioms or +common principles of things as things (_ib._ 3), without pretending, +like Plato, to deduce from any common principle the special principles +of each science (_Post. An._ i. 9, 32). Aristotle at once maintains the +primacy of metaphysics and vindicates the independence of the special +sciences. He is at the same time the only Greek philosopher who clearly +discriminated discovery and disputation, science and dialectic, the +knowledge of a definite subject from its appropriate principles and the +discussion of anything whatever from opinions and authority. On one side +he places science and philosophy, on the other dialectic and sophistry. + +Such is the great mind of Aristotle manifested in the large map of +learning, by which we have now to determine the order of his extant +philosophical writings, with a view to studying them in their real +order, which is neither chronological nor traditional, but philosophical +and scientific. Turning over the pages of the Berlin edition, but +passing over works which are perhaps spurious, we should put first and +foremost speculative philosophy, and therein the primary philosophy of +his _Metaphysics_ (980 a 21-1093 b 29); then the secondary philosophy of +his _Physics_, followed by his other physical works, general and +biological, including among the latter the _Historia Animalium_ as +preparatory to the _De Partibus Animalium_, and the _De Anima_ and +_Parva Naturalia_, which he called "physical" but we call +"psychological" (184 a 10-967 b 27); next, the practical philosophy of +the _Ethics_, including the _Eudemian Ethics_ and the _Magna Moralia_ as +earlier and the _Nicomachean Ethics_ as later (1094-1249 b 25), and of +the _Politics_ (1252-1342), with the addition of the newly discovered +_Athenian Constitution_ as ancillary to it; finally, the productive +science, or art, of the _Rhetoric_, including the earlier _Rhetoric to +Alexander_ and the later _Rhetorical Art_, and of the _Poetics_, which +was unfinished (1354-end). This is the real order of Aristotle's system, +based on his own theory and classification of sciences. + +But what has become of Logic, with which the traditional order of +Andronicus begins Aristotle's works (1-148 b 8)? So far from coming +first, Logic comes nowhere in his classification of science. Aristotle +was the founder of Logic; because, though others, and especially Plato, +had made occasional remarks about reason ([Greek: logos]), Aristotle was +the first to conceive it as a definite subject of investigation. As he +says at the end of the _Sophistical Elenchi_ on the syllogism, he had no +predecessor, but took pains and laboured a long time in investigating +it. Nobody, not even Plato, had discovered that the process of deduction +is a combination of premisses ([Greek: syllogomos]) to produce a new +conclusion. Aristotle, who made this great discovery, must have had +great difficulty in developing the new investigation of reasoning +processes out of dialectic, rhetoric, poetics, grammar, metaphysics, +mathematics, physics and ethics; and in disengaging it from other kinds +of learning. He got so far as gradually to write short discourses and +long treatises, which we, not he, now arrange in the order of the +_Categories_ or names; the _De Interpretatione_ on propositions; the +_Analytics_, _Prior_ on syllogism, _Posterior_ on scientific syllogism; +the _Topics_ on dialectical syllogism; the _Sophistici Elenchi_ on +eristical or sophistical syllogism; and, except that he had hardly a +logic of induction, he covered the ground. But after all this original +research he got no further. First, he did not combine all these works +into a system. He may have laid out the sequence of syllogisms from the +_Analytics_ onwards; but how about the _Categories_ and the _De +Interpretatione_? Secondly, he made no division of logic. In the +_Categories_ he distinguished names and propositions for the sake of the +classification of names; in the _De Interpretatione_ he distinguished +nouns and verbs from sentences with a view to the enunciative sentence: +in the _Analytics_ he analysed the syllogism into premisses and +premisses into terms and copula, for the purpose of syllogism. But he +never called any of these a division of all logic. Thirdly, he had no +one name for logic. In the _Posterior Analytics_ (i. 22, 84 a 7-8) he +distinguishes two modes of investigation, analytically ([Greek: +analytikos]) and logically ([Greek: logikos]). But "analytical" means +scientific inference from appropriate principles, and "logical" means +dialectical inference from general considerations; and the former gives +its name to the _Analytics_, the latter suits the _Topics_, while +neither analytic nor logic is a name for all the works afterwards called +logic. Fourthly, and consequently, he gave no place to any science +embracing the whole of those works in his classification of science, but +merely threw out the hint that we should know analytics before +questioning the acceptance of the axioms of being (_Met._ [Gamma] 3). + +It is a commentator's blunder to suppose that the founder of logic +elaborated it into a system, and then applied it to the sciences. He +really left the Peripatetics to combine his scattered discourses and +treatises into a system, to call it logic, and logic _Organon_, and to +put it first as the instrument of sciences; and it was the Stoics who +first called logic a science, and assigned it the first place in their +triple classification of science into logic, physics, ethics. Would +Aristotle have consented? Would he not rather have given the first place +to primary philosophy? + + Dialectic was distinguished from science by Aristotle. Is logic, then, + according to him, not science but dialectic? The word logically + ([Greek: logikos]) means the same as dialectically ([Greek: + dialektikos]). But the general discussion of opinions, signified by + both words, is only a subordinate part of Aristotle's profound + investigation of the whole process of reasoning. The _Analytics_, the + most important part, so far from being dialectic or logic in that + narrow sense, is called by him not logic but analytic science ([Greek: + analytickae elistaemae], _Rhet._ i. 4, 1359 b 10; cf, 1356 b 9, 1357 a + 30, b 25); and in the _Metaphysics_ he evidently refers to it as "the + science which considers demonstration and science," which he + distinguishes from the three speculative sciences, mathematics, + physics and primary philosophy (Met. [Kappa] 1, 1059 b 9-21). The + _Analytics_ then, which from the beginning claims to deal with + science, is a science of sciences, without however forming any part of + the classification. On the other hand, it does not follow that + Aristotle would have regarded the _Topics_, which he calls "the + investigation" and "the investigation of dialectic" ([Greek: hae + pralmateia], _Top_, i. 1, [Greek: hae pralmateia hae peri taen + dialektikaen], Pr. _An._ i. 30, 46 a 30), or the _De Interpretatione_, + which he calls "the present theory" ([Greek: taes nun theorias], _De + Int._ 6, 17 a 7), as science. In fact, as to the _Categories_ as well + as the _De Interpretatione_, we are at a complete loss. But about the + _Topics_ we may venture to make the suggestion that, as in describing + consciousness Aristotle says we perceive that we perceive, and + understand that we understand, and as he calls _Analytics_ a science + of sciences, so he might have called the _Topics_ a dialectical + investigation of dialectic. Now, this suggestion derives support from + his own description of the allied art of Rhetoric. "Rhetoric is + counterpart to dialectic" is the first sentence of the _Rhetoric_; and + the reason is that both are concerned with common objects of no + definite science. Afterwards dialectic and rhetoric are said to differ + from other arts in taking either side of a question (i. 1, 1355 a + 33-35); rhetoric, since its artificial evidences involve characters, + passions and reasoning, is called a kind of offshoot of dialectic and + morals, and a copy of dialectic, because neither is a science of + anything definite, but both faculties ([Greek: dynameis]) of providing + arguments (i. 2, 1356 a 33); and, since rhetorical arguments are + examples and enthymemes analysed in the _Analytics_, rhetoric is + finally regarded as a compound of analytic science and of morals, + while it is like dialectical and sophistic arguments (i. 4, 1359 b + 2-17). + + As then Aristotle himself regarded rhetoric as partly science and + partly dialectic, perhaps he would have said that his works on + reasoning are some science and others not, and that, while the + investigation of syllogism with a view to scientific syllogism in the + _Analytics_ is analytic science, the investigation of dialectical + syllogism, in the _Topics_, with its abuse, eristical syllogism, in + the _Sophistici Elenchi_, is dialectic. At any rate, these + miscellaneous works on reasoning have no right to stand first in + Aristotle's writings under any one name, logic or _Organon_. As he + neither put them together, nor on any one definite plan, we are left + to convenience; and the most convenient place is with the psychology + of the _De Anima_. + + As for dialectic itself, it would have been represented by Aristotle's + early dialogues, had they not been lost except a few fragments. But + none of his extant writings is so much dialectic, like a Platonic + dialogue. They contain however many relics of dialectic. The + _Rhetoric_ is declared by him to be partly dialectic. The _Topics_ is + at least an investigation of dialectic, which has had an immense + influence on the method of argument. The _Magna Moralia_ almost runs + into dialogue. Besides, all the extant works, though apparently + didactic, are full of dialectical matter in the way of opinions + [Greek: legomena], difficulties and doubts ([Greek: + aporaemata],[Greek: aporiai]), solutions ([Greek: luseis]), and of + dialectical style in the way of conversational expressions. It is + probable also that the "extraneous discourses" ([Greek: oi exoterikoi + logoi]) sometimes mentioned in them here mean dialectical discussions + of a subject from opinions extraneous to its nature, as opposed to + scientific deduction from its appropriate principles. From the eight + passages, which refer to the extraneous discourses, we find (1) that + Platonic forms were made by them matters of common talk ([Greek: + tethrulaetai], _Met._ [Mu] 1, 1076a 28); (2) that time was made by + them matter of doubts, which in this case are Aristotle's own doubts + (_Phys._ iv. 10, 217 b 31-218 a 30); (3) that the discussions of + Platonic forms in them and in philosophical discourses were different + (E.E. i. 8, 1217 b 22); (4) that the ordinary distinction between + goods of mind, body and estate is one which we make ([Greek: + diaironmetha]) in them (E.E. ii. 1, 1218 b 34); (5) that in them + appeared the division of soul into irrational and rational, used by + Aristotle (E.N. i. 13, 1102 a 26), and attributed to Plato; (6) that + the distinction between action and production accepted by Aristotle + appeared in them (E.N. vi. 4, 1140 a 3); (7) that a distinction + between certain kinds of rule is one which we make often ([Greek: + diorizometha] ... [Greek: pollakis]) in them (_Pol._ 16, 1278 b 31); + (8) that a discussion about the best life, used by Aristotle, was made + in them (_Pol._ [Eta] 1, 1323 a 22). On the whole, the interpretation + which best suits all the passages is that extraneous discourses mean + any extra-scientific dialectical discussions, oral or written, + occurring in dialogues by Plato, or by Aristotle, or by anybody else, + or in ordinary conversation, on any subject under the sun. + + Among all the eight passages mentioned above, the most valuable is + that from the _Eudemian Ethics_ ([Alpha] 8), which discriminates + extraneous discourses and philosophical ([Greek: kai en tois + ezoterikois logois kai en tois kata philosophian], 1217 b 22-23); and + it is preceded ([Alpha] 6, 1216 b 35-37 a 17), by a similar + distinction between foreign discourses ([Greek: allotrioi logoi]) and + discourses appropriate to the thing ([Greek: oikeioi logoi tou + pragmatos]), which marks even better the opposition intended between + dialectic and philosophy. Now, as in all eight passages Aristotle + speaks, somewhat disparagingly, of "even ([Greek: kai]) extraneous + discourses," and as these include his own early dialogues, they must + be taken to mean that though he might quote them, he no longer wished + to be judged by his early views, and therefore drew a strong line of + demarcation between his early dialogues and the mature treatises of + his later philosophical system. Now, both were in the hands of his + readers in the time of Andronicus. Therefore his contemporary, Cicero, + who knew the early dialogues on _Philosophy_, the _Eudemus_ and the + _Protrepticus_, and also among the mature scientific writings the + _Topics_, _Rhetoric_, _Politics_, _Physics_ and _De Coelo_, to some + extent, was justified by Aristotle's example and precept in drawing + the line between two kinds of books, one written popularly, called + exoteric, the other more accurately (Cic. _De Finibus_, v. 5). But + there was no doubt a tendency to extend the term "exoteric" from the + dialectical to the more popular of the scientific writings of + Aristotle, to make a new distinction between exoteric and acroamatic + or esoteric, and even to make out that Aristotle was in the habit of + teaching both exoterically and acroamatically day by day as head of + the Peripatetic school at Athens. Aulus Gellius in the 2nd century + A.D. supplies the best proof of this growth of tradition in his + _Noctes Atticae_ (xx. 5). He says that Aristotle (1) divided his + _commentationes_ and arts taught to his pupils into [Greek: exoterika] + and [Greek: akroatika]; (2) taught the latter in the morning walk + ([Greek: eothinon peripaton]), the former in the evening walk ([Greek: + deilinon peripaton]); (3) divided his books in the same manner; (4) + defended himself against Alexander's letter, complaining that it was + not right to his pupils to have published his acroamatic works, by + replying in a letter that they were published and not published, + because they are intelligible only to those who heard them. Gellius + then quotes this correspondence, also given by Plutarch, and quotes it + _ex Andronici philosophi libro_. The answer to the first three points + is that Aristotle did not make any distinction between exoteric and + acroamatic, and was not likely to have any longer taught his exoteric + dialogues when he was teaching his mature philosophy at Athens, but + may have alternated the teaching of the latter between the more + abstruse and the more popular parts which had gradually come to be + called "exoteric." As regards the last point, the authority of + Andronicus proves that he at all events did not exaggerate his own + share in publishing Aristotle's works; but it does not prove either + that this correspondence between Alexander and Aristotle took place, + or that Aristotle called his philosophical writings acroamatic, or + that he had published them wholesale to the world. + +The literary career of Aristotle falls into three periods, (1) The early +period; when he was writing and publishing exoteric dialogues, but also +tending to write didactic works, and beginning his scientific writings, +e.g. the _Politics_ in 357, the _Meteorologica_ in 356. (2) The immature +period; when he was continuing his didactic and scientific works, and +composing first drafts, e.g. the _Categories_, the _Eudemian Ethics_, +the _Magna Moralia_, the _Rhetoric to Alexander_. (3) The mature period; +when he was finishing his scientific works, completing his system, and +not publishing it but teaching it in the Peripatetic school; when he +would teach not his early dialogues, nor his immature writings and first +drafts, but mature works, e.g. the _Metaphysics_, the _Nicomachean +Ethics_, the _Rhetoric_; and above all teach his whole system as far as +possible in the real order of his classification of science. + + +VI. THE ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY + +We have now (1) sketched the life of Aristotle as a reader and a writer +from early manhood; (2) have watched him as a Platonist, partly +imitating but gradually emancipating himself from his master to form a +philosophy of his own; (3) have traced the gradual composition of his +writings from Plato's time onwards; (4) have distinguished earlier, more +Platonic and rudimentary, from later, more independent and mature, +writings; (5) have founded the real order of his writings, not on +chronology, nor on tradition, but on his classification of science and +learning. It remains to answer the final question:--What is the +Aristotelian philosophy, which its author gradually formed with so much +labour? Here we have only room for its spirit, which we shall try to +give as if he were himself speaking to us, as head of the Peripatetic +school at Athens, and holding no longer the early views of his +dialogues, or the immature views of such treatises as the _Categories_, +but only his mature views, such as he expresses in the _Metaphysics_. +Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician, a philosopher of things, who +uses the objective method of proceeding from being to thinking. We shall +begin therefore with that primary philosophy which is the real basis of +his philosophy, and proceed in the order of his classification of +science to give his chief doctrines on:-- + +(1) Speculative philosophy, metaphysical and physical, including his +psychology, and with it his logic. + +(2) Practical philosophy, ethics and politics. + +(3) Productive science, or art. + +_Things are substances_ ([Greek: ousiai]), each of which is a separate +individual ([Greek: choriston tode ti, kath ekaston]) and is variously +affected as quantified, qualified, related, active, passive and so +forth, in categories of things which are attributes ([Greek: +sumbebaekota]), different from the category of substance, but real only +as predicates belonging to some substance, and are in fact only the +substance itself affected ([Greek: auto peponthos]). The essence of each +substance, being what it is ([Greek: to tiest, to ti aen einai]), is +that substance; e.g. this rational animal, Socrates. Substances are so +similar that the individuals of a species are even the same in essence +or substance, e.g. Callias and Socrates differ in matter but are the +same in essence, as rational animals. The universal ([Greek: to +katholoy]) is real only as one predicate belonging to many individual +substances: it is therefore not a substance. There are then no separate +universal forms, as Plato supposed. There are attributes and universals, +real as belonging to individual substances, whose being is their being. +The mind, especially in mathematics, abstracts numbers, motions, +relations, causes, essences, ends, kinds; and it over-abstracts things +mentally separate into things really separate. But reality consists only +of individual substances, numerous, moving, related, active as efficient +causes, passive as material causes, essences as formal causes, ends as +final causes, and in classes which are real universals only as real +predicates of individual substances. Such is Aristotle's realism of +individuals and universals, contained in his primary philosophy, as +expressed in the _Metaphysics_, especially in Book Z, his authoritative +pronouncement on being and substance. + +The individual substances, of which the universe is composed, fall into +three great irreducible kinds: nature, God, man. + +I. Nature.--The obvious substances are natural substances or bodies +([Greek: physikai ousiai, somata]), e.g. animals, plants, water, earth, +moon, sun, stars. Each natural substance is a compound ([Greek: +syntheton, synthetae, ousia]) of essence and matter; its essence +([Greek: eldos, morphae, to ti esti, to ti aen einai]) being its actual +substance, its matter ([Greek: ulae]) not; its essence being +determinate, its matter not; its essence being immateriate, its matter +conjoined with the essence; its essence being one in all individuals of +a species, its matter different in each individual; its essence being +cause of uniformity, its matter cause of accident. At the same time, +matter is not nothing, but something, which, though not substance, is +potentially substance; and it is either proximate to the substance, or +primary; proximate, as a substance which is potentially different, e.g. +wood potentially a table; primary, as an indeterminate something which +is a substratum capable of becoming natural substances, of which it is +always one; and it is primarily the matter of earth, water, air, fire, +the four simple bodies ([Greek: apla somata]) with natural rectilineal +motions in the terrestrial world (_De Gen. et Cor_. ii. I seq.); while +aether ([Greek: aithaer]) is a fifth simple body, with natural circular +motion, being the element of the stars ([Greek: to ton astron +stoicheion]) in the celestial world. Each natural substance is a formal +cause, as being what it is; a material cause, as having passive power to +be changed; an efficient cause, as having active power to change, by +communicating the selfsame essence into different matter so as to +produce therein a homogeneous effect in the same species; and a final +cause, as an end to be realized. Moreover, though each natural substance +is corruptible ([Greek: phtharton]), species is eternal ([Greek: +aidion]), because there was always some individual of it to continue its +original essence (expressed by the imperfect tense in [Greek: to ti aen +einai]), which is ungenerated and incorruptible; the natural world +therefore is eternal; and nature is for ever aiming at an eternal +propagation, by efficient acting on matter, of essence as end. For even +nature does nothing in vain, but aims at final causes, which she +uniformly realizes, except so far as matter by its spontaneity ([Greek: +apo tou automatou]) causes accidental effects; and the ends of nature +are no form of good, nor even the good of man, but the essences of +natural substances themselves, and, above them all, the good God +Himself. Such is Aristotle's natural realism, pervading his metaphysical +and physical writings. + +II. _God._--Nature is but one kind of being ([Greek: en gar ti genos tou +ontos ae physis], _Met._ [Gamma] 3, 1005 a 34). Above all natural +substances, the objects of natural science, there stands a supernatural +substance, the object of metaphysics as theology. Nature's boundary is +the outer sphere of the fixed stars, which is eternally moved day after +day in a uniform circle round the earth. Now, an actual cause is +required for an actual effect. Therefore, there must be a prime mover of +that prime movable, and equally eternal and uniform. That prime mover is +God, who is not the creator, but the mover directly of the heavens, and +indirectly through the planets of sublunary substances. But God is no +mechanical mover. He moves as motive ([Greek: kinei de os eromenon], +_Met._ [Lambda] 7, 1072 b 3); He is the efficient only as the final +cause of nature. For God is a living being, eternal, very good ([Greek: +zoov aision ariston], _ib._ 1072 b 29). While nature aims at Him as +design, as an end, a motive, a final cause, God's occupation ([Greek: +diagogae]) is intelligence ([Greek: noaesis]); and since essence, not +indeed in all being, but in being understood, becomes identical with +intelligence, God in understanding essence is understanding Himself; and +in short, God's intelligence is at once intelligence of Himself, of +essence and of intelligence,--[Greek: kai estin ae noaesis noaeseos +noaesis] (_Met._ [Lambda] 7, 1074 b 34). But at the same time the +essence of good exists not only in God and God's intelligence on the one +hand, but also on the other hand on a declining scale in nature, as both +in a general and in his army; but rather in God, and more in some parts +of nature than in others. Thus even God is a substance, a separate +individual, whose differentiating essence is to be a living being, +eternal and very good; He is however the only substance whose essence is +entirely without matter and unconjoined with matter; and therefore He is +a substance, not because He has or is a substratum beneath attributes, +but wholly because He is a separate individual, different both from +nature and men, yet the final good of the whole universe. Such is +Aristotle's theological realism without materialism and the origin of +all spiritualistic realism, contained in his _Metaphysics_ ([Lambda] +6-end). + +III. _Man._--There is a third kind of substance, combining something +both of the natural and of the divine: we men are that privileged +species. Each man is a substance, like any other, only because he is a +separate individual. Like any natural substance, he is composed of +matter and immateriate essence. But natural substances are inorganic and +organic; and a man is an organic substance composed of an organic body +([Greek: organikon soma]) as matter, and a soul ([Greek: psychae]) as +essence, which is the primary actuality of an organic body capable of +life ([Greek: zoae]). Still a man is not the only organism; and every +organism has a soul, whose immediate organ is the spirit ([Greek: +pneuma]), a body which--analogous to a body diviner than the four +so-called elements, namely the aether, the element of the stars--gives +to the organism its non-terrestrial vital heat, whether it be a plant or +an animal. In an ascending scale, a plant is an organism with a +nutritive soul; an animal is a higher organism with a nutritive, +sensitive, orectic and locomotive soul; a man is the highest organism +with a nutritive, sensitive, orectic, locomotive and rational soul. What +differentiates man from other natural and organic substances, and +approximates him to a supernatural substance, God, is reason ([Greek: +logos]), or intellect ([Greek: nous]). Now, though only one of the +powers of the soul, intellect alone of these powers has no bodily organ; +it alone is immortal: it alone is divine. While the soul is propagated, +like any other essence, by the efficient, which is the seed, to the +matter, which is the germ, of the embryo man, intellect alone enters +from without ([Greek: thurathen]), and is alone divine ([Greek: theion], +not [Greek: theos]), because its activity communicates with no bodily +activity (_De Gen._ ii. 3, 736-737). A man then is a third kind of +substance, like a natural substance in bodily matter, like a +supernatural substance in divine reason or intellect. Such is +Aristotle's dual, or rather triple, realism, continued in his _De Anima_ +and other biological writings, especially _De Generatione Animalium_, +ii. + +There are three points about a man's life which both connect him with, +and distinguish him from, God. God's occupation is speculative; man's is +speculation, practice and production. + + I. _Speculation_ ([Greek: theoria]).--Since things are individuals, + and there is nothing, and nothing universal, beyond them, there are + two kinds of knowledge ([Greek: gnosis]), sense ([Greek: aisthaesis]) + of individuals, intellect ([Greek: nous]) of universals. Both powers + know by being passively receptive of essence propagated by an + efficient cause; but, while in sense the efficient cause is an + external object ([Greek: exothen]), in intelligence it is active + intellect ([Greek: nous to poiein]) propagating its essence in passive + intellect ([Greek: nous pathaetikos]). Nevertheless, without sense + there is no knowledge. Sense receives from the external world an + essence, e.g. of white, which is really universal as well as + individual, but apprehends it only as individual, e.g. this white + substance: intellect thereupon discovers the universal essence but + only in the individuals of sense. This intellectual discovery requires + sensation and retention of sensation; so that sense ([Greek: + aisthaesis]) receives impressions, imagination ([Greek: phantasia]) + retains them as images, intellect ([Greek: nous]) generalizes the + universal, and, when it is intelligence of essence, is always true. + + This is the origin of knowledge, psychologically regarded (in the _De + Anima_). Logically regarded, the origin of all teaching and learning + of an intellectual kind is a process of induction ([Greek: epagogae]) + from particulars to universal, and of syllogism ([Greek: syllogismos]) + from universal to further particulars; induction, whenever it starts + from sense, becomes the origin of scientific knowledge ([Greek: + epiostaemae]); while there is also a third process of example ([Greek: + paradeigma]) from particular to particular, which produces only + persuasion. In acquiring scientific knowledge, syllogism cannot start + from universals without induction, nor induction acquire universals + without sense. At the same time, there are three species of syllogism, + scientific, dialectical and eristical or sophistical; and in + consequence there are different ways of acquiring premisses. In order + to acquire the knowledge of the true and primary principles of + scientific knowledge, and especially the intelligence of the + universal essence of the subject, which is always true, the process of + knowledge consists of (1) sense ([Greek: aisthaesis]), which receives + the essence as individual, (2) memory ([Greek: mnaemae]), which is a + retention of sensible impression, (3) experience ([Greek: empeiria]), + which consists of a number of similar memories, (4) induction ([Greek: + epagogae]), which infers the universal as a fact ([Greek: to oti]), + (5) intellect ([Greek: nous]), which apprehends the principle ([Greek: + archae]); because it is a true apprehension that the universal induced + is the very essence and formal cause of the subject: thereupon, + scientific syllogism ([Greek: epistaemonikos syllogismos]), making the + definition ([Greek: horismos]) of this essence the middle term + ([Greek: to meson]), becomes a demonstration ([Greek: apodeixis]) of + the consequences which follow from the essence in the conclusion. Such + then is science. In order to acquire the probabilities ([Greek: ta + endoxa]) of opinion ([Greek: doxa]), which are the premisses of + dialectical syllogism, the process is still induction, as in science, + but dialectical induction by interrogation from the opinions of the + answerers until the universal is conceded: thereupon the dialectical + syllogism ([Greek: dialektikos syllogismos]) deduces consequent + opinions in the conclusion. Nor does the process of acquiring the + premisses of eristical syllogism, which is fallacious either in its + premisses or in its process, differ, except that, when the premisses + are fallacious, the dialectical interrogations must be such as to + cause this fallacy. Hence, as science and dialectic are different, so + scientific induction and syllogism must be distinguished from + dialectical induction and syllogism. Dialectic is useful, for + exercise, for conversation and for philosophical sciences, where by + being critical it has a road to principles. But it is by a different + process of sense, memory, experience, induction, intelligence, + syllogism, that science becomes knowledge of real causes, of real + effects, and especially of real essences from which follow real + consequences, not beyond, but belonging to real substances. So can we + men, not, as Plato thought, by having in our souls universal + principles innate but forgotten, but by acquiring universal principles + from sense, which is the origin of knowledge, arrive at judgments + which are true, and true because they agree with the things which we + know by sense, by inference and by science. Such is Aristotle's + psychological and logical realism, contained in the _De Anima_ and + logical treatises. + + 2. _Practice_ ([Greek: praxis]).--In this natural world of real + substances, human good is not an imitation of a supernatural universal + form of the good, but is human happiness; and this good is the same + both of the individual as a part and of the state as a whole. Ethics + then is a kind of Politics. But in Ethics a man's individual good is + his own happiness; and his happiness is no mere state, but an activity + of soul according to virtue in a mature life, requiring as conditions + moderate bodily and external goods of fortune; his virtue is (1) moral + virtue, which is acquired by habituation, and is a purposive habit of + performing actions in the mean determined by right reason or prudence; + requiring him, not to exclude, but to moderate his desires; and (2) + intellectual virtue, which is either prudence of practical, or wisdom + of speculative intellect; and his happiness is a kind of ascending + scale of virtuous activities, in which moral virtue is limited by + prudence, and prudence by wisdom; so that the speculative life of + wisdom is the happiest and most divine, and the practical life of + prudence and moral virtue secondary and human. Good fortune in + moderation is also required as a condition of his happiness. Must we + then, on account of misfortunes, look with Solon at the end, and call + no man happy till he is dead? Or is this altogether absurd for us who + say that happiness is an activity? Virtuous activities determine + happiness, and a virtuous man is happy in this life, in spite of + misfortunes unless they be too great; while after death he will not + feel the misfortunes of the living so much as to change his happiness. + Still, for perfect happiness a man should prefer the speculative life + of divine intellect, and immortalize ([Greek: athanatizein]) as far as + possible. For intellect is what mainly makes a man what he is, and is + divine and immortal. + + To turn from Ethics to Politics, the good of the individual on a small + scale becomes on a large scale the good of the citizen and the state, + whose end should be no far-off form of good, and no mere guarantee of + rights, but the happiness of virtuous action, the life according to + virtue, which is the general good of the citizen. Hence, the citizen + of the best state is he who has the power and the purpose to be + governed and govern for the sake of the life according to virtue. + + A right government is one which aims at the general good, whereas any + government which aims at its own good is a deviation. Hence + governments are to be arranged from best to worst in the following + order:-- + + I. Right governments ([Greek: orthai politeiai]), aiming at the + general good:-- + i. Monarchy, of one excelling in virtue: + ii. Aristocracy, of a class excelling in virtue: + iii. Commonwealth, of the majority excelling in virtue. + + II. Deviations ([Greek: parekbaseis]), aiming at the good of the + government:-- + i. Democracy, aiming at the good of the majority: + ii. Oligarchy, aiming at the good of the few: + iii. Tyranny, aiming at the good of one. + + Such is Aristotle's practical philosophy, contained in his matured + _Nicomachean Ethics_, and his unfinished _Politics_. + + 3. _Production_ ([Greek: poiaesis]).--Production differs from practice + in being an activity ([Greek: enirgeia]; e.g. building) which is + always a means to a work ([Greek: ergon]; e.g. a house) beyond itself. + Productive science, or art, is an intellectual habit of true reasoning + from appropriate principles, acquired from experiences, and applied to + the production of the work which is the end of the art. All the arts + are therefore at once rational and productive. They are either for + necessity (e.g. medicine) or for occupation (e.g. poetry), the former + being inferior to the latter. Rhetoric is a faculty on any subject of + investigating what may be persuasive ([Greek: pithanon]), which is the + work of no other art; its means are artificial and inartificial + evidences ([Greek: pisteis]), and, among artificial evidences, + especially the logical arguments of example and enthymeme. Poetry is + the art of producing representations; (1) in words, rhythm and harmony + ([Greek: harmonia], "harmony" in the original sense); (2) of men like + ourselves, or better as in tragedy, or worse as in comedy; (3) by + means of narrative as in epic, or by action as in the drama. The cause + of poetry is man's instinct of representation and his love of + representations caused by the pleasure of learning. Comedy is + representation of men inferior in being ludicrous: epic is like + tragedy a representation of superior men, but by means of narrative + and unlimited in time: tragedy is a representation of an action + superior and complete, in a day if possible, by means of action, and + accomplishing by pity and fear the purgation of such passions + (_Poetics_, 1449 b 24). Music is a part of moral education; and for + this end we should use the most moral harmonies. But music has also + other ends and uses, and on the whole four; namely amusement, virtue, + occupation and purgation of the affections; for some men are liable + more than others to pity and fear and enthusiasm, but from sacred + melodies we see them, when they have heard those which act + orgiastically on the soul, becoming settled by a kind of medicine and + purgation ([Greek: katharsis]), and being relieved with pleasure. + Finally, art is not morality, because its end is always a work of art, + not virtuous action: on the other hand, art is subordinate to + morality, because all the ends of art are but means to the end of + life, and therefore a work of art which offends against morality is + opposed to the happiness and the good of man. Such is Aristotle's + productive science or art, contained in his _Rhetoric_ and _Poetics_, + compared with his _Ethics_ and _Politics_. + +Aristotle, even in this sketch of his system, shows himself to be the +philosopher of facts, who can best of all men bear criticism; and indeed +it must be confessed that he retained many errors of Platonism and laid +himself open to the following objections. Two substances, being +individuals, e.g. Socrates and Callias, are in no way the same, but only +similar, even in essence, e.g. Socrates is one rational animal, Callias +another. A universal, e.g. the species man, is not predicate of many +individuals ([Greek: en kata pollon], _Post. An._ i. II), but a whole +number of similar individuals, e.g. all men; and not a whole species, +but only an individual, is a predicate of such individual, e.g. Socrates +is a man, not all men, and one white thing, not all white things. +Consequently, a species or genus is not a substance, as Aristotle says +it is in the _Categories_ (inconsistently with his own doctrine of +substances), but a whole number of substances, e.g. all men, all +animals. Similarly, the universal essence of a species is not one and +the same as each individual essence, but is the whole number of similar +individual essences of the similar individuals of the species, e.g. all +rational animals. Consequently, the universal essence of a species of +substances is not one and the same eternal essence in all the +individuals of a species but only similar, and is not substance as +Aristotle calls it in the _Metaphysics_, inconsistently with his own +doctrine of substance, but is a whole number of similar substances, e.g. +all rational animals which are what all men are. Hence again, the +natural world of species and essences is not eternal, but only endures +as long as there are individual substances. Hence, moreover, a natural +substance or body as an efficient cause or force causes an effect on +another, not by propagating one eternal essence of a species into the +matter of the other, but so far as we really understand force, by their +reciprocally preventing one another from occupying the same place at the +same moment on account of the mutual resistance of any two bodies. The +essence of a natural substance, e.g. wood, is not immateriate, but is +the whole body as what it is. The matter of a natural substance is not a +primary matter which is one indeterminate substratum of all natural +substances, but is only one body as able to be changed by a force which +is another substance able to change it, e.g. a seed becoming wood, wood +becoming coal, &c. A natural substance or body, therefore, is not a +heterogeneous compound of essence and matter, but is essence as what it +is, matter as able passively to be changed, force as able actively to +change. The simple bodies which are the matter of the rest are not +terrestrial earth, water, air, fire, and a different celestial aether, +but whatever elementary bodies natural science, starting anew from +mechanics and chemistry, may determine to be the matter of all other +bodies whatever. Nature does not aim at God as end, but God, thinking +and willing ends, produces and acts on nature. Soul is not an +immateriate essence of an organic body capable, but an immateriate +conscious substance within an organic body. Sensation is not the +reception of the selfsame essence of an external body, but one's +perception of one's sentient organism as affected, and especially of its +organs resisting one another, e.g. one's lips, hands, &c., preventing +one another from occupying the same place at the same moment within +one's organism. Intelligence does not differ from sense by having no +bodily organ, but the nervous system is the bodily organ of both. +Intelligence is not active intellect propagating universal essence in +passive intellect, but only logical inference starting from sense, and +both requiring nervous body and conscious soul. It is not always a true +apprehension of essence, but often, especially in physical matter, such +as sound or heat or light, takes superficial effects to be the essence +of the thing. Aristotle did not altogether solve the question, What is, +and scarcely solved at all the question, How do we know the external +world? + +We might continue to object. But at bottom there remains the fundamental +position of Aristotelianism, that all things are substances, individuals +separate though related; that some things are attributes, real only as +being some individual substance somehow affected, or, as we should say, +modified or determined; and that without individual substances there is +nothing, and nothing universal apart from individuals. There remains too +the consequence that there are different substances, separate from but +related to one another; and these substances of three irreducible kinds, +natural, supernatural, human. Aristotelianism has to be considered +against the philosophy which preceded it and against the philosophy +which has since followed it. Platonism preceded it, and was the +metaphysical doctrine that all things are supernatural--forms, gods, +souls. Idealism has since followed it, and is the metaphysical doctrine +that all things are mind and states of mind. Aristotelianism intervenes +between ancient Platonism and modern Idealism, and is the metaphysical +doctrine that all things are substances, natural and supernatural and +human. It is a philosophy of substantial things, standing as a _via +media_ between a philosophy of the supernatural and a philosophy of +mind. There are three alternatives, which may be put as questions which +every thinker must ask himself. Are the things which surround me in what +I call the environment,--the men, the animals, the plants, the ground, +the stones, the water, the air, the moon, the sun, the stars and +God--are they shadows, unsubstantial things, as formerly Platonism made +all things to be except the supernatural world of forms, gods and souls? +Or are they, as modern Idealism says, mind and states of mind? Or are +they really substances separate from, though related to, myself, who am +also a substance? The Aristotelian answer is--"Yes, all things are +substances, but not all supernatural, nor all mental; for some are +natural substances, or bodies"; and by that answer Aristotelianism +stands or falls. + + LITERATURE.--The Aristotelian philosophy is to be studied first in + Aristotle's works, which are the best commentaries on one another; the + best complete edition is the Berlin edition (1831-1870), by Bekker and + Brandis, in which also are the fragments collected by V. Rose, the + scholia collected by Brandis, and the index compiled by Bonitz. After + reading the remains of the Peripatetic school, the Greek commentators + should be further studied in this edition. The Latin commentators, the + Arabians and the schoolmen show how Aristotle has been the chief + author of modern culture; while the vindication of modern independence + comes out in his critics, the greatest of whom were Roger and Francis + Bacon. Since the modern discovery of the science of motion by Galileo + which changed natural science, and the modern revolution of philosophy + by Descartes which changed metaphysics, the study of Aristotle has + become less universal; but it did not die out, and received a fresh + stimulus especially from Julius Pacius, who going back through G. + Zabarella to the Arabians, and himself gifted with great logical + powers, always deserves study in his editions of the _Organon_ and the + _Physics_ and in his _Doctrinae Peripateticae_. In more recent times, + as part of the growing conviction of the essentiality of everything + Greek, Aristotle has received marked attention. In France there are + the works of Cousin (1835), Felix Ravaisson, who wrote on the + _Metaphysics_ (1837-1846), and Barthelemy St Hilaire, who translated + the _Organon_ and other works (1844 seq.). In Germany there has been a + host of commentaries, among which we may mention the _Organon_ edited + (1844-1846) by F. Th. Waitz (not so well as by Pacius), the _De Anima_ + edited (1833) by F.A. Trendelenburg and later by A. Torstrik, the + _Historia Animalium_ by H. Aubert and F. Wimmer (1868), the _Ethics_ + by K.L. Michelet (1827), the _Metaphysics_ by A. Schwegler (1847) and + (best of all) by H. Bonitz (1848), who is the most faithful of all + commentators, because to great industry and acumen he adds the rare + gift of confessing when he does not understand, and when he does not + know what Aristotle might have thought. With Aristotle's works before + one, with the _Index Aristotelicus_, and the edition and translation + of the _Metaphysics_ by Bonitz on one side, and Zeller's _Die + Philosophie der Griechen_, ii. 2, "Aristoteles" (trans. by Costelloe + and Muirhead), on the other side, one can go a considerable way + towards understanding the foundations of Aristotelianism. + + In England scholars tend to take up certain parts of Aristotle's + philosophy. Grote indeed intended to write a general account of + Aristotle like that of Plato; but his _Aristotle_ went little further + than the logical writings. From Cambridge we have J.W. Blakesley's + _Life of Aristotle_, E.M. Cope's _Rhetoric_, Dr Henry Jackson's + _Nicomachean Ethics_, v., S.H. Butcher's _Poetics_, Hicks's _De + Anima_, J.E. Sandys's _Athenian Constitution_, Jebb's _Rhetoric_ (ed. + Sandys). Oxford in particular, since the beginning of the 19th + century, has kept alive the study of Aristotle. E. Cardwell in his + edition of the _Nicomachean Ethics_ (1828) had the wisdom to found his + text on the Laurentian Manuscript (Kb); E. Poste wrote translations of + the _Posterior Analytics_ and _Sophistici Elenchi_; R. Congreve edited + the _Politics_; A. Grant edited the _Nicomachean Ethics_; E. Wallace + translated and annotated the _De Anima_; B. Jowett translated the + _Politics_; W.L. Newman has edited the _Politics_ in four volumes; Dr + Ogle has translated the _De Partibus Animalium_, with notes; R. Shute + wrote a _History of the Aristotelian Writings_; Professor J.A. + Stewart has written _Notes on the Nicomachean Ethics_; Professor J. + Burnet has issued an annotated edition of the _Nicomachean Ethics_, + and W.D. Ross has translated the _Metaphysics_. All these are, or + were, Oxford men; and it remains to mention two others: I. Bywater, + who as an Aristotelian scholar has done much for the improvement of + Bekker's text, especially of the _Nicomachean Ethics_ and the + _Poetics_; and F.G. Kenyon, who has the proud distinction of having + been the first modern editor of the [Greek: Athaenaion politeia]. + (T. Ca.) + + + + +ARISTOXENUS, of Tarentum (4th century B.C.), a Greek peripatetic +philosopher, and writer on music and rhythm. He was taught first by his +father Spintharus, a pupil of Socrates, and later by the Pythagoreans, +Lamprus of Erythrae and Xenophilus, from whom he learned the theory of +music. Finally he studied under Aristotle at Athens, and was deeply +annoyed, it is said, when Theophrastus was appointed head of the school +on Aristotle's death. His writings, said to have numbered four hundred +and fifty-three, were in the style of Aristotle, and dealt with +philosophy, ethics and music. The empirical tendency of his thought is +shown in his theory that the soul is related to the body as harmony to +the parts of a musical instrument. We have no evidence as to the method +by which he deduced this theory (cf. T. Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, Eng. +trans. 1905, vol. iii. p. 43). In music he held that the notes of the +scale are to be judged, not as the Pythagoreans held, by mathematical +ratio, but by the ear. The only work of his that has come down to us is +the three books of the _Elements of Harmony_ ([Greek: rythmika +stoicheia]), an incomplete musical treatise. Grenfell and Hunt's +_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_ (vol. i., 1898) contains a five-column fragment of +a treatise on metre, probably this treatise of Aristoxenus. + + The best edition is by Paul Marquard, with German translation and full + commentary, _Die harmonischen Fragmente des Aristoxenus_ (Berlin, + 1868). The fragments are also given in C.W. Muller, _Frag. Hist. + Graec._, ii. 269 sqq.; and R. Westphal, _Melik und Rhythmik d. klass. + Hellenenthums_ (2nd vol. edited by F. Saran, Leipzig, 1893). Eng. + trans. by H.S. Macran (Oxford, 1902). See also W.L. Mahne, _Diatribe + de Aristoxeno_ (Amsterdam, 1793); B. Brill, _Aristoxenus' rhythmische + und metrische Messungen_ (1871); R. Westphal, _Griechische Rhythmik + und Harmonik_ (Leipzig, 1867); L. Laloy, _Aristoxene de Tarente et la + musique de l'antiquite_ (Paris, 1904); See PERIPATETICS, PYTHAGORAS + (_Music_) and art. "Greek Music" in Grove's _Dict. of Music_ (1904). + For the Oxyrhynchus fragment see _Classical Review_ (January 1898), + and C. van Jan in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, civ. (1901). + + + + +ARISUGAWA, the name of one of the royal families of Japan, going back to +the seventh son of the mikado Go-Yozei (d. 1638). After the revolution +of 1868, when the mikado Mutsu-hito was restored, his uncle, Prince +Taruhito Arisugawa (1835-1895), became commander-in-chief, and in 1875 +president of the senate. After his suppression of the Satsuma rebellion +he was made a field-marshal, and he was chief of the staff in the war +with China (1894-95). His younger brother, Prince Takehito Arisugawa (b. +1862), was from 1879 to 1882 in the British navy, serving in the Channel +Squadron, and studied at the Naval College, Greenwich. In the +Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 he was in command of a cruiser, and +subsequently became admiral-superintendent at Yokosuka. Prince Arisugawa +represented Japan in England together with Marquis Ito at the Diamond +Jubilee (1897), and in 1905 was again received there as the king's +guest. + + + + +ARITHMETIC (Gr. [Greek: arithmaetikae], sc. [Greek: technae], the art of +counting, from [Greek: arithmos], number), the art of dealing with +numerical quantities in their numerical relations. + +1. Arithmetic is usually divided into _Abstract Arithmetic_ and +_Concrete Arithmetic_, the former dealing with numbers and the latter +with concrete objects. This distinction, however, might be misleading. +In stating that the sum of 11d. and 9d. is 1s. 8d. we do not mean that +nine pennies when added to eleven pennies produce a shilling and eight +pennies. The sum of money corresponding to 11d. may in fact be made up +of coins in several different ways, so that the symbol "11d." cannot be +taken as denoting any definite concrete objects. The arithmetical fact +is that 11 and 9 may be regrouped as 12 and 8, and the statement "11d. + +9d. = 1s. 8d." is only an arithmetical statement in so far as each of +the three expressions denotes a numerical quantity (S 11). + +2. The various stages in the study of arithmetic may be arranged in +different ways, and the arrangement adopted must be influenced by the +purpose in view. There are three main purposes, the practical, the +educational, and the scientific; i.e. the subject may be studied with a +view to technical skill in dealing with the arithmetical problems that +arise in actual life, or for the sake of its general influence on mental +development, or as an elementary stage in mathematical study. + +3. The practical aspect is an important one. The daily activities of the +great mass of the adult population, in countries where commodities are +sold at definite prices for definite quantities, include calculations +which have often to be performed rapidly, on data orally given, and +leading in general to results which can only be approximate; and almost +every branch of manufacture or commerce has its own range of +applications of arithmetic. Arithmetic as a school subject has been +largely regarded from this point of view. + +4. From the educational point of view, the value of arithmetic has +usually been regarded as consisting in the stress it lays on accuracy. +This aspect of the matter, however, belongs mainly to the period when +arithmetic was studied almost entirely for commercial purposes; and even +then accuracy was not found always to harmonize with actuality. The +development of physical science has tended to emphasize an exactly +opposite aspect, viz. the impossibility, outside a certain limited range +of subjects, of ever obtaining absolute accuracy, and the consequent +importance of not wasting time in attempting to obtain results beyond a +certain degree of approximation. + +5. As a branch of mathematics, arithmetic may be treated logically, +psychologically, or historically. All these aspects are of importance to +the teacher: the logical, in order that he may know the end which he +seeks to attain; the psychological, that he may know how best to attain +this end; and the historical, for the light that history throws on +psychology, + +The logical arrangement of the subject is not the best for elementary +study. The division into abstract and concrete, for instance, is +logical, if the former is taken as relating to number and the latter to +numerical quantity (S 11). But the result of a rigid application of this +principle would be that the calculation of the cost of 3 lb. of tea at +2s. a lb. would be deferred until after the study of logarithms. The +psychological treatment recognizes the fact that the concrete precedes +the abstract and that the abstract is based on the concrete; and it also +recognizes the futility of attempting a strictly continuous development +of the subject. + +On the other hand, logical analysis is necessary if the subject is to be +understood. As an illustration, we may take the elementary processes of +addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These are still +called in text-books the "four simple rules"; but this name ignores +certain essential differences. (i) If we consider that we are dealing +with numerical quantities, we must recognize the fact that, while +addition and subtraction might in the first instance be limited to such +quantities, multiplication and division necessarily introduce the idea +of pure number. (ii) If on the other hand we regard ourselves as dealing +with pure number throughout, then, as multiplication is continued +addition, we ought to include in our classification involution as +continued multiplication. Or we might say that, since multiplication is +a form of addition, and division a form of subtraction, there are really +only two fundamental processes, viz. addition and subtraction. (iii) The +inclusion of the four processes under one general head fails to indicate +the essential difference between addition and multiplication, as direct +processes, on the one hand, and subtraction and division, as inverse +processes, on the other (S 59). + +6. The present article deals mainly with the principles of the subject, +for which a logical arrangement is on the whole the more convenient. It +is not suggested that this is the proper order to be adopted by the +teacher. + + +I. NUMBER + +7. _Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers._--One of the primary distinctions in +the use of number is between ordinal and cardinal numbers, or rather +between the ordinal and the cardinal aspects of number. The usual +statement is that _one, two, three_, ... are cardinal numbers, and +_first, second, third_, ... are ordinal numbers. This, however, is an +incomplete statement; the words one, two, three, ... and the +corresponding symbols 1, 2, 3, ... or I, II, III, ... are used sometimes +as ordinals, i.e. to denote the place of an individual in a series, and +sometimes as cardinals, i.e. to denote the total number since the +commencement of the series. + +On the whole, the ordinal use is perhaps the more common. Thus "100" on +a page of a book does not mean that the page is 100 times the page +numbered 1, but merely that it is the page after 99. Even in commercial +transactions, in dealing with sums of money, the statement of an amount +often has reference to the last item added rather than to a total; and +geometrical measurements are practically ordinal (S 26). + +For ordinal purposes we use, as symbols, not only figures, such as 1, 2, +3, ... but also letters, as a, b, c, ... Thus the pages of a book may be +numbered 1, 2, 3, ... and the chapters I, II, III, ... but the sheets +are lettered A, B, C, ... Figures and letters may even be used in +combination; thus 16 may be followed by 16a and 16b, and these by 17, +and in such a case the ordinal 100 does not correspond with the total +(cardinal) number up to this point. + +Arithmetic is supposed to deal with cardinal, not with ordinal numbers; +but it will be found that actual numeration, beyond about three or four, +is based on the ordinal aspect of number, and that a scientific +treatment of the subject usually requires a return to this fundamental +basis. + +One difference between the treatment of ordinal and of cardinal numbers +may be noted. Where a number is expressed in terms of various +denominations, a cardinal number usually begins with the largest +denomination, and an ordinal number with the smallest. Thus we speak of +one thousand eight hundred and seventy-six, and represent it by +MDCCCLXXVI or 1876; but we should speak of the third day of August 1876, +and represent it by 3. 8. 1876. It might appear as if the writing of +1876 was an exception to this rule; but in reality 1876, when used in +this way, is partly cardinal and partly ordinal, the first three figures +being cardinal and the last ordinal. To make the year completely +ordinal, we should have to describe it as the 6th year of the 8th decade +of the 8th century of the 2nd millennium; i.e. we should represent the +date by 3. 8. 6. 8. 9. 2, the total number of years, months and days +completed being 1875. 7. 2. + +In using an ordinal we direct our attention to a term of a series, while +in using a cardinal we direct our attention to the interval between two +terms. The total number in the series is the sum of the two cardinal +numbers obtained by counting up to any interval from the beginning and +from the end respectively; but if we take the ordinal numbers from the +beginning and from the end we count one term twice over. Hence, if there +are 365 days in a year, the 100th day from the beginning is the 266th, +not the 265th, from the end. + +8. _Meaning of Names of Numbers._--What do we mean by any particular +number, e.g. by _seven_, or by _two hundred and fifty-three_? We can +define _two_ as _one and one_, and _three_ as _one and one and one_; but +we obviously cannot continue this method for ever. For the definition of +large numbers we may employ either of two methods, which will be called +the _grouping_ method and the _counting_ method. + +(i) _Method of Grouping._--The first method consists in defining the +first few numbers, and forming larger numbers by groups or aggregates, +formed partly by multiplication and partly by addition. Thus, on the +denary system (S 16) we can give independent definitions to the numbers +up to ten, and then regard (e.g.) fifty-three as a composite number made +up of five tens and three ones. Or, on the quinary-binary system, we +need only give independent definitions to the numbers up to five; the +numbers _six, seven_, ... can then be regarded as _five and one, five +and two_, ..., a fresh series being started when we get to _five and +five_ or _ten._ The grouping method introduces multiplication into the +definition of large numbers; but this, from the teacher's point of view, +is not now such a serious objection as it was in the days when children +were introduced to millions and billions before they had any idea of +elementary arithmetical processes. + +(ii) _Method of Counting._--The second method consists in taking a +series of names or symbols for the first few numbers, and then repeating +these according to a regular system for successive numbers, so that each +number is defined by reference to the number immediately preceding it in +the series. Thus _two_ still means _one and one_, but _three_ means _two +and one_, not _one and one and one._ Similarly _two hundred and +fifty-three_ does not mean two hundreds, five tens and three ones, but +_one_ more than _two hundred and fifty-two_; and the number which is +called one hundred is not defined as ten tens, but as one more than +ninety-nine. + +9. _Concrete and Abstract Numbers._--Number is concrete or abstract +according as it does or does not relate to particular objects. On the +whole, the grouping method refers mainly to concrete numbers and the +counting method to abstract numbers. If we sort objects into groups of +ten, and find that there are five groups of ten with three over, we +regard the five and the three as names for the actual sets of groups or +of individuals. The three, for instance, are regarded as a whole when we +name them _three._ If, however, we count these three as one, two, three, +then the number of times we count is an abstract number. Thus number in +the abstract is the number of times that the act of counting is +performed in any particular case. This, however, is a description, not a +definition, and we still want a definition for "number" in the phrase +"number of times." + +10. _Definition of "Number."_--Suppose we fix on a certain sequence of +names "one," "two," "three," ..., or symbols such as 1, 2, 3, ...; this +sequence being always the same. If we take a set of concrete objects, +and name them in succession "one," "two," "three," ..., naming each once +and once only, we shall not get beyond a certain name, e.g. "six." Then, +in saying that the number of objects is six, what we mean is that the +name of the last object named is six. We therefore only require a +definite law for the formation of the successive names or symbols. The +symbols 1, 2, ... 9, 10, ..., for instance, are formed according to a +definite law; and in giving 253 as the _number_ of a set of objects we +mean that if we attach to them the symbols 1, 2, 3, ... in succession, +according to this law, the symbol attached to the last object will be +253. If we say that this act of attaching a symbol has been performed +253 times, then 253 is an _abstract_ (or _pure_) _number._ + +Underlying this definition is a certain assumption, viz. that if we take +the objects in a different order, the last symbol attached will still be +253. This, in an elementary treatment of the subject, must be regarded +as axiomatic; but it is really a simple case of mathematical induction. +(See ALGEBRA.) If we take two objects A and B, it is obvious that +whether we take them as A, B, or as B, A, we shall in each case get the +sequence 1, 2. Suppose this were true for, say, eight objects, marked 1 +to 8. Then, if we introduce another object anywhere in the series, all +those coming after it will be displaced so that each will have the mark +formerly attached to the next following; and the last will therefore be +9 instead of 8. This is true, whatever the arrangement of the original +objects may be, and wherever the new one is introduced; and therefore, +if the theorem is true for 8, it is true for 9. But it is true for 2; +therefore it is true for 3; therefore for 4, and so on. + +11. _Numerical Quantities._--If the term _number_ is confined to number +in the abstract, then number in the concrete may be described as +_numerical quantity_. Thus L3 denotes L1 taken 3 times. The L1 is termed +the _unit._ A numerical quantity, therefore, represents a certain unit, +taken a certain number of times. If we take L3 twice, we get L6; and if +we take 3s. twice, we get 6s., i.e. 6 times 1s. Thus arithmetical +processes deal with numerical quantities by dealing with numbers, +provided the unit is the same throughout. If we retain the unit, the +arithmetic is concrete; if we ignore it, the arithmetic is abstract. But +in the latter case it must always be understood that there is some unit +concerned, and the results have no meaning until the unit is +reintroduced. + + +II. NOTATION, NUMERATION AND NUMBER-IDEATION + +12. _Terms used._--The representation of numbers by spoken sounds is +called _numeration_; their representation by written signs is called +_notation_. The systems adopted for numeration and for notation do not +always agree with one another; nor do they always correspond with the +idea which the numbers subjectively present. This latter presentation +may, in the absence of any accepted term, be called _number-ideation_; +this word covering not only the perception or recognition of particular +numbers, but also the formation of a number-concept. + +13. _Notation of Numbers._--The system which is now almost universally +in use amongst civilized nations for representing cardinal numbers is +the Hindu, sometimes incorrectly called the Arabic, system. The +essential features which distinguish this from other systems are (1) the +limitation of the number of different symbols, only ten being used, +however large the number to be represented may be; (2) the use of the +_zero_ to indicate the absence of number; and (3) the principle of local +value, by which a symbol in effect represents different numbers, +according to its position. The symbols denoting a number are called its +_digits_. + +A brief account of the development of the system will be found under +NUMERAL. Here we are concerned with the principle, the explanation of +which is different according as we proceed on the grouping or the +counting system. + +(i) On the grouping system we may in the first instance consider that we +have separate symbols for numbers from "one" to "nine," but that when we +reach ten objects we put them in a group and denote this group by the +symbol used for "one," but printed in a different type or written of a +different size or (in teaching) of a different colour. Similarly when we +get to ten tens we denote them by a new representation of the figure +denoting one. Thus we may have: + + ones 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + tens 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + hundreds,\ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + &c. / &c. &c. + +On this principle 24 would represent twenty-four, 24 two hundred and +forty, and 24 two hundred and four. To prevent confusion the _zero_ or +"nought" is introduced, so that the successive figures, beginning from +the right, may represent ones, tens, hundreds, ... We then have, e.g., +240 to denote two hundreds and four tens; and we may now adopt a uniform +type for all the figures, writing this 240. + + 1 2 3 .. .. .. .. 8 9 10 1 2 3 .. .. .. .. + o o o .. .. .. .. o o o o o o .. .. .. .. + +(ii) On the counting system we may consider that we have a series of +objects (represented in the adjoining diagram by dots), and that we +attach to these objects in succession the symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, +8, 9, 0, repeating this series indefinitely. There is as yet no +distinction between the first object marked 1 and the second object +marked 1. We can, however, attach to the 0's the same symbols, 1, 2, ... +0 in succession, in a separate column, repeating the series +indefinitely; then do the same with every 0 of this new series; and so +on. Any particular object is then defined completely by the combination +of the symbols last written down in each series; and this combination of +symbols can equally be used to denote the number of objects up to and +including the last one (S 10). + +In writing down a number in excess of 1000 it is (except where the +number represents a particular year) usual in England and America to +group the figures in sets of three, starting from the right, and to mark +off the sets by commas. On the continent of Europe the figures are taken +in sets of three, but are merely spaced, the comma being used at the end +of a number to denote the commencement of a decimal. + +The zero, called "nought," is of course a different thing from the +letter O of the alphabet, but there may be a historical connexion +between them (S 79). It is perhaps interesting to note that the +latter-day telephone operator calls 1907 "nineteen O seven" instead of +"nineteen nought seven." + +14. _Direction of the Number-Series._--There is no settled convention as +to the direction in which the series of symbols denoting the successive +numbers one, two, three, ... is to be written. + +(i) If the numbers were written down in succession, they would naturally +proceed from left to right, thus:--1, 2, 3,... This system, however, +would require that in passing to "double figures" the figure denoting +tens should be written either above or below the figure denoting ones, +e.g. + + 1 + 1, 2, ..., 8, 9, 0, 1, 2, ... or 1, 2, ..., 8, 9, 0, 1, 2, ... + 1 + +The placing of the tens-figure to the left of the ones-figure will not +seem natural unless the number-series runs either up or down. + +(ii) In writing down any particular number, the successive powers of ten +are written from right to left, e.g. 5,462,198 is + + (6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) (0) + 5 4 6 2 1 9 8 + +the small figures in brackets indicating the successive powers. On the +other hand, in writing decimals, the sequence (of negative powers) is +from left to right. + +(iii) In making out lists, schedules, mathematical tables (e.g. a +multiplication-table), statistical tables, &c., the numbers are written +vertically downwards. In the case of lists and schedules the numbers are +only ordinals; but in the case of mathematical or statistical tables +they are usually regarded as cardinals, though, when they represent +values of a continuous quantity, they must be regarded as ordinals (SS +26, 93). + +(iv) In graphic representation measurements are usually made upwards; +the adoption of this direction resting on certain deeply rooted ideas (S +23). + + 200 + 50 + 3 + --- + 253 + === + +This question of direction is of importance in reference to the +development of useful number-forms (S 23); and the existence of the two +methods mentioned under (iii) and (iv) above produces confusion in +comparing numerical tabulation with graphical representation. It is +generally accepted that the horizontal direction of increase, where a +horizontal direction is necessary, should be from left to right; but +uniformity as regards vertical direction could only be attained either +by printing mathematical tables upwards or by taking "downwards," +instead of "upwards," as the "positive" direction for graphical +purposes. The downwards direction will be taken in this article as the +normal one for succession of numbers (e.g. in multiplication), and, +where the arrangement is horizontal, it is to be understood that this is +for convenience of printing. It should be noticed that, in writing the +components of a number 253 as 200, 50 and 3, each component beneath the +next larger one, we are really adopting the downwards principle, since +the figures which make up 253 will on this principle be successively 2, +5 and 3 (S 13 (ii)). + +15. _Roman Numerals._--Although the Roman numerals are no longer in use +for representing cardinal numbers, except in certain special cases (e.g. +clock-faces, milestones and chemists' prescriptions), they are still +used for ordinals. + +The system differs completely from the Hindu system. There are no single +symbols for two, three, &c.; but numbers are represented by combinations +of symbols for one, five, ten, fifty, one hundred, five hundred, &c., +the numbers which have single symbols, viz. I, V, X, L, C, D, M, +proceeding by multiples of five and two alternately. Thus 1878 is +MDCCCLXXVIII, i.e. thousand five-hundred hundred hundred hundred fifty +ten ten five one one one. + +The system is therefore essentially a cardinal and grouping one, i.e. it +represents a number as the sum of sets of other numbers. It is therefore +remarkable that it should now only be used for ordinal purposes, while +the Hindu system, which is ordinal in its nature, since a single series +is constantly repeated, is used almost exclusively for cardinal numbers. +This fact seems to illustrate the truth that the counting principle is +the fundamental one, to which the interpretation of grouped numbers must +ultimately be referred. + +The normal process of writing the larger numbers on the left is in +certain cases modified in the Roman system by writing a number in front +of a larger one to denote subtraction. Thus _four_, originally written +IIII, was later written IV. This may have been due to one or both of two +causes; a primitive tendency to refer numbers, in numeration, to the +nearest large number (S 24 (iv)), and the difficulty of perceiving the +number of a group of objects beyond about three (S 22). Similarly IX, XL +and XC were written for nine, forty and ninety respectively. These, +however, were later developments. + +16. _Scales of Notation._--In the Hindu system the numbering proceeds by +tens, tens of tens, &c.; thus the figure in the fifth place, counting +from the right, denotes the product of the corresponding number by four +tens in succession. The notation is then said to be in the _scale_ of +which ten is the _base_, or in the _denary scale._ The Roman system, +except for the use of symbols for five, fifty, &c., is also in the +denary scale, though expressed in a different way. The introduction of +these other symbols produces a compound scale, which may be called a +_quinary-binary_, or, less correctly, a _quinary-denary_ scale. + +The figures used in the Hindu notation might be used to express numbers +in any other scale than the denary, provided new symbols were introduced +if the base of the scale exceeded ten. Thus 1878 in the quinary-binary +scale would be 1131213, and 1828 would be 1130213; the meaning of these +is seen at once by comparison with MDCCCLXXVIII and MDCCCXXVIII. +Similarly the number which in the denary scale is 215 would in the +quaternary scale (base 4) be 3113, being equal to 3.4.4.4 + 1.4.4 + 1.4 ++ 3. + +The use of the denary scale in notation is due to its use in numeration +(S 18); this again being due (as exemplified by the use of the word +_digit_) to the primitive use of the fingers for counting. If mankind +had had six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot, we should be +using a _duodenary scale_ (base twelve), which would have been far more +convenient. + +17. _Notation of Numerical Quantities._--Over a large part of the +civilized world the introduction of the metric system (S 118) has caused +the notation of all numerical quantities to be in the denary scale. In +Great Britain and her colonies, however, and in the United States, other +systems of notation still survive, though there is none which is +consistently in one scale, other than the denary. The method is to form +quantities into groups, and these again into larger groups; but the +number of groups making one of the next largest groups varies as we +proceed along the scale. The successive groups or units thus formed are +called _denominations._ Thus twelve pennies make a shilling, and twenty +shillings a pound, while the penny is itself divided into four farthings +(or two halfpennies). There are, therefore, four denominations, the +bases for conversion of one denomination into the next being +successively four (or two), twelve and twenty. Within each denomination, +however, the denary notation is employed exclusively, e.g. "twelve +shillings" is denoted by 12s. + +The diversity of scales appears to be due mainly to four causes: (i) the +tendency to group into scores (S 20); (ii) the tendency to subdivide +into twelve; (in) the tendency to subdivide into two or four, with +repetitions, making subdivision into sixteen or sixty-four; and (iv) the +independent adoption of different units for measuring the same kind of +magnitude. + +Where there is a division into sixteen parts, a binary scale may be +formed by dividing into groups of two, four or eight. Thus the weights +ordinarily in use for measuring from 1/4 oz. up to 2 lb. give the basis +for a binary scale up to not more than eight figures, only 0 and 1 being +used. The points of the compass might similarly be expressed by numbers +in a binary scale; but the numbers would be ordinal, and the expressions +would be analogous to those of decimals rather than to those of whole +numbers. + +In order to apply arithmetical processes to a quantity expressed in two +or more denominations, we must first express it in terms of a single +denomination by means of a varying scale of notation. Thus L254, 13S. +6d. may be written + + (20) (12) + L254 " 13s. " 6d.; + +each of the numbers in brackets indicating the number of units in one +denomination that go to form a unit in the next higher denomination. To +express the quantity in terms of L, it ought to be written + + (20) (12) + L254 " 13 " 6; + +this would mean L254 13(6/12)/20 or L(254 + 13/20 + 6/(20.12)), and +therefore would involve a fractional number. + +A quantity expressed in two or more denominations is usually called a +_compound number_ or _compound quantity_. The former term is obviously +incorrect, since a quantity is not a number; and the latter is not very +suggestive. For agreement with the terminology of fractional numbers (S +62) we shall describe such a quantity as a _mixed quantity_. The letters +or symbols descriptive of each denomination are visually placed after or +(in actual calculations) above the figures denoting the numbers of the +corresponding units; but in a few cases, e.g. in the case of L, the +symbol is placed before the figures. There would be great convenience in +a general adoption of this latter method; the combination of the two +methods in such an expression as L123, 16s. 4-1/2d. is especially +awkward. + +18. _Numeration._--The names of numbers are almost wholly based on the +denary scale; thus eighteen means eight and ten, and twenty-four means +twice ten and four. The words _eleven_ and _twelve_ have been supposed +to suggest etymologically a denary basis (see, however, NUMERAL). + +Two exceptions, however, may be noted. + +(i) The use of _dozen, gross_ (= dozen dozen), and _great gross_ (= +dozen gross) indicates an attempt at a duodenary basis. But the system +has never spread; and the word "dozen" itself is based on the denary +scale. + +(ii) The _score_ (twenty) has been used as a basis, but to an even more +limited extent. There is no essential difference, however, between this +and the denary basis. As the latter is due to finger-reckoning, so the +use of the fingers and the toes produced a vigesimal scale. Examples of +this are given in S 20; it is worthy of notice that the vigesimal (or, +rather, quinary-quaternary) system was used by the Mayas of Yucatan, and +also, in a more perfect form, by the Nahuatl (Aztecs) of Mexico. + +The number ten having been taken as the basis of numeration, there are +various methods that might consistently be adopted for naming large +numbers. + +(i) We might merely name the figures contained in the number. This +method is often adopted in practical life, even as regards mixed +quantities; thus L57,593, 16s. 4d. would be read as _five seven, five +nine three, sixteen and four pence._ + +(ii) The word _ten_ might be introduced, e.g. 593 would be _five ten ten +ninety_ (= nine ten) _and three._ + +(iii) Names might be given to the successive powers of ten, up to the +point to which numeration of ones is likely to go. Partial applications +of this method are found in many languages. + +(iv) A compromise between the last two methods would be to have names +for the series of numbers, beginning with ten, each of which is the +"square" of the preceding one. This would in effect be analysing numbers +into components of the form a. 10^b where a is less than 10, and the +index b is expressed in the binary scale, e.g. 7,000,000 would be +7 . 10^4 . 10^2, and 700,000 would be 7 . 10^4 . 10^1. + +The British method is a mixture of the last two, but with an index-scale +which is partly ternary and partly binary. There are separate names for +ten, ten times ten (= _hundred_), and ten times ten times ten +(= _thousand_); but the next single name is _million_, representing a +thousand times a thousand. The next name is _billion_, which in Great +Britain properly means a million million, and in the United States (as +in France) a thousand million. + +19. _Discrepancies between Numeration and Notation._--Although +numeration and notation are both ostensibly on the denary system, they +are not always exactly parallel. The following are a few of the +discrepancies. + +(i) A set of written symbols is sometimes read in more than one way, +while on the other hand two different sets of symbols (at any rate if +denoting numerical quantities) may be read in the same way. Thus 1820 +might be read as _one thousand eight hundred and twenty_ if it +represented a number of men, but it would be read as _eighteen hundred +and twenty_ if it represented a year of the Christian era; while 1s. 6d. +and 18d. might both be read as _eighteenpence_. As regards the first of +these two examples, however, it would be more correct to write 1,820 for +the former of the two meanings (cf. S 13). + +(ii) The symbols 11 and 12 are read as _eleven_ and _twelve_, not +(except in elementary teaching) as _ten-one_ and _ten-two_. + +(iii) The names of the numbers next following these, up to 19 inclusive, +only faintly suggest a _ten_. This difficulty is not always recognized +by teachers, who forget that they themselves had to be told that +_eighteen_ means _eight-and-ten_. + +(iv) Even beyond twenty, up to a hundred, the word _ten_ is not used in +numeration, e.g. we say _thirty-four_, not _three ten four_. + +(v) The rule that the greater number comes first is not universally +observed in numeration. It is not observed, for instance, in the names +of numbers from 13 to 19; nor was it in the names from which _eleven_ +and _twelve_ are derived. Beyond twenty it is usually, but not always, +observed; we sometimes instead of _twenty-four_ say _four and twenty_. +(This latter is the universal system in German, up to 100, and for any +portion of 100 in numbers beyond 100.) + +20. _Other Methods of Numeration and Notation._--It is only possible +here to make a brief mention of systems other than those now ordinarily +in use. + +(i) _Vigesimal Scale._--The system of counting by twenties instead of by +tens has existed in many countries; and, though there is no +corresponding notation, it still exhibits itself in the names of +numbers. This is the case, for instance, in the Celtic languages; and +the Breton or Gaulish names have affected the Latin system, so that the +French names for some numbers are on the vigesimal system. This system +also appears in the Danish numerals. In English the use of the word +_score_ to represent twenty--e.g. in "threescore and ten" for +seventy--is superimposed on the denary system, and has never formed an +essential part of the language. The word, like _dozen_ and _couple_, is +still in use, but rather in a vague than in a precise sense. + +(ii) _Roman System._--The Roman notation has been explained above (S +15). Though convenient for exhibiting the composition of any particular +number, it was inconvenient for purposes of calculation; and in fact +calculation was entirely (or almost entirely) performed by means of the +abacus (q.v.). The numeration was in the denary scale, so that it did +not agree absolutely with the notation. The principle of subtraction +from a higher number, which appeared in notation, also appeared in +numeration, but not for exactly the same numbers or in exactly the same +way; thus XVIII was two-from-twenty, and the next number was +one-from-twenty, but it was written XIX, not IXX. + +(iii) _Other Systems of Antiquity._--The Egyptian notation was purely +denary, the only separate signs being those for 1, 10, 100, &c. The +ordinary notation of the Babylonians was denary, but they also used a +sexagesimal scale, i.e. a scale whose base was 60. The Hebrews had a +notation containing separate signs (the letters of the alphabet) for +numbers from 1 to 10, then for multiples of 10 up to 100, and then for +multiples of 100 up to 400, and later up to 1000. + +The earliest Greek system of notation was similar to the Roman, except +that the symbols for 50, 500, &c., were more complicated. Later, a +system similar to the Hebrew was adopted, and extended by reproducing +the first nine symbols of the series, preceded by accents, to denote +multiplication by 1000. + +On the island of Ceylon there still exists, or existed till recently, a +system which combines some of the characteristics of the later Greek (or +Semitic) and the modern European notation; and it is conjectured that +this was the original Hindu system. + + For a further account of the above systems see NUMERAL, and the + authorities quoted at the end of the present article. + +21. _The Number-Concept._--It is probable that very few people have any +definite mental presentation of individual numbers (i.e. numbers +proceeding by differences of _one_) beyond 100, or at any rate beyond +144. Larger numbers are grasped by forming numbers into groups or by +treating some large number as a unit. A person would appreciate the +difference between 93,000,000 m. and 94,000,000 m. as the distance of +the centre of the sun from the centre of the earth at a particular +moment; but he certainly would not appreciate the relative difference +between 93,000,000 m. and 93,000,001 m. In order to get an idea of +93,000,000, he must take a million as his unit. Similarly, in the metric +system he cannot mentally compare two units, one of which is 1000 times +the other. The metre and the kilometre, for instance, or the metre and +the millimetre, are not directly comparable; but the metre can be +conceived as containing 100 centimetres. + +On the other hand, it would seem that, for most educated people, sixteen +and seventeen or twenty-six and twenty-seven, and even eighty-six and +eighty-seven, are single numbers, just as six and seven are, and are not +made up of groups of tens and ones. In other words, the denary scale, +though adopted in notation and in numeration, does not arise in the +corresponding mental concept until we get beyond 100. + +Again, in the use of decimals, it is unusual to give less than two +figures. Thus 3.142 or 3.14 would be quite intelligible; but 3.1 does +not convey such a good idea to most people as either 3(1/10) or 3.10, +i.e. as an expression denoting a fraction or a percentage. + +There appears therefore to be a tendency to use some larger number than +ten as a basis for grouping into new units or for subdivision into +parts. The Babylonians adopted 60 for both these purposes, thus giving +us the sexagesimal division of angles and of time. + +This view is supported, not only by the intelligibility of percentages +to ordinary persons, but also by the tendency, noted above (S 19), to +group years into centuries, and to avoid the use of thousands. Thus 1876 +is not 1 thousand, 8 hundred, 7 tens and 6, but 18 hundred and 76, each +of the numbers 18 and 76 being named as if it were a single number. It +is also in accordance with what is so far known about number-forms (S +23). + +If there is this tendency to adopt 100 as a basis instead of 10, the +teaching of decimals might sometimes be simplified by proceeding from +percentages to percentages of percentages, i.e. by commencing with +_centesimals_ instead of with _decimals._ + +22. _Perception of Number._--In using material objects as a basis for +developing the number-concept, it must be remembered that it is only +when there are a few objects that their number can be perceived without +either counting or the performance of some arithmetical process such as +addition. If four coins are laid on a table, close together, they can +(by most adults) be seen to be four, without counting; but seven coins +have to be separated mentally into two groups, the numbers of which are +added, or one group has to be seen and the remaining objects counted, +before the number is known to be seven. + +The actual limit of the number that can be "seen"--i.e. seen without +counting or adding--depends for any individual on the shape and +arrangement of the objects, but under similar conditions it is not the +same for all individuals. It has been suggested that as many as six +objects can be seen at once; but this is probably only the case with few +people, and with them only when the objects have a certain geometrical +arrangement. The limit for most adults, under favourable conditions, is +about four. Under certain conditions it is less; thus IIII, the old +Roman notation for _four_, is difficult to distinguish from III, and +this may have been the main reason for replacing it by IV (S 15). + +In the case of young children the limit is probably two. That this was +also the limit in the case of primitive races, and that the +classification of things was into one, two and many, before any definite +process of counting (e.g. by the fingers) came to be adopted, is clear +from the use of the "dual number" in language, and from the way in which +the names for three and four are often based on those for one and two. +With the individual, as with the race, the limit of the number that can +be seen gradually increases up to four or five. + +The statement that a number of objects can be seen to be three or four +is not to be taken as implying that there is a simultaneous perception +of all the objects. The attention may be directed in succession to the +different objects, so that the perception is rhythmical; the distinctive +rhythm thus aiding the perception of the particular number. + +In consequence of this limitation of the power of perception of number, +it is practically impossible to use a pure denary scale in elementary +number-teaching. If a quinary-binary system (such as would naturally fit +in with counting on the fingers) is not adopted, teachers unconsciously +resort to a binary-quinary system. This is commonly done where cubes are +used; thus seven is represented by three pairs of cubes, with a single +cube at the top. + +23. _Visualization of the Series._--A striking fact, in reference to +ideas of number, is the existence of number-forms, i.e. of definite +arrangements, on an imagined plane or in space, of the mental +representations of the successive numbers from 1 onwards. The proportion +of persons in whom number-forms exist has been variously estimated; but +there is reason to believe that the forms arise at a very early stage of +childhood, and that they did at some time exist in many individuals who +have afterwards forgotten them. Those persons who possess them are also +apt to make spatial arrangements of days of the week or the month, +months of the year, the letters of the alphabet, &c.; and it is +practically certain that only children would make such arrangements of +letters of the alphabet. The forms seem to result from a general +tendency to visualization as an aid to memory; the letter-forms may in +the first instance be quite as frequent as the number-forms, but they +vanish in early childhood, being of no practical value, while the +number-forms continue as an aid to arithmetical work. + +The forms are varied, and have few points in common; but the following +tendencies are indicated. + +(i) In the majority of cases the numbers lie on a continuous (but +possibly zigzag) line. + +(ii) There is nearly always (at any rate in English cases) a break in +direction at 12. From 1 to 12 the numbers sometimes lie in the +circumference of a circle, an arrangement obviously suggested by a +clock-face; in these cases the series usually mounts upwards from 12. In +a large number of cases, however, the direction is steadily upwards from +1 to 12, then changing. In some cases the initial direction is from +right to left or from left to right; but there are very few in which it +is downwards. + +(iii) The multiples of 10 are usually strongly marked; but special +stress is also laid on other important numbers, e.g. the multiples of +12. + +(iv) The series sometimes goes up to very high numbers, but sometimes +stops at 100, or even earlier. It is not stated, in most cases, whether +all the numbers within the limits of the series have definite positions, +or whether there are only certain numbers which form an essential part +of the figure, while others only exist potentially. Probably the latter +is almost universally the case. + +These forms are developed spontaneously, without suggestion from +outside. The possibility of replacing them by a standard form, which +could be utilized for performing arithmetical operations, is worthy of +consideration; some of the difficulties in the way of standardization +have already been indicated (S 14). The general tendency to prefer an +upward direction is important; and our current phraseology suggests that +this is the direction which increase is naturally regarded as taking. +Thus we speak of counting _up_ to a certain number; and similarly +mathematicians speak of _high_ and _ascending_ powers, while engineers +speak of high pressure, high speed, high power, &c. This tendency is +probably aided by the use of bricks or cubes in elementary +number-teaching. + +24. _Primitive Ideas of Number._--The names of numbers give an idea of +the way in which the idea of number has developed. Where civilization is +at all advanced, there are usually certain names, the origin of which +cannot be traced; but, as we go farther back, these become fewer, and +the names are found to be composed on certain systems. The systems are +varied, and it is impossible to lay down any absolute laws, but the +following seem to be the main conclusions. + +(i) Amongst some of the lowest tribes, as (with a few exceptions) +amongst animals, the only differentiation is between one and many, or +between one, two and many, or between one, two, three and many. As it +becomes necessary to use higher but still small numbers, they are formed +by combinations of one and two, or perhaps of three with one or two. +Thus many of the Australasian and South American tribes use only one and +two; seven, for instance, would be two two two one. + +(ii) Beyond ten, and in many cases beyond five, the names have reference +to the use of the fingers, and sometimes of the toes, for counting; and +the scale may be quinary, denary or vigesimal, according as one hand, +the pair of hands, or the hands and feet, are taken as the new unit. +_Five_ may be signified by the word for hand; and either _ten_ or +_twenty_ by the word for _man_. Or the words signifying these numbers +may have reference to the completion of some act of counting. Between +five and ten; or beyond ten, the names may be due to combinations, e.g. +16 may be 10 + 5 + 1; or they may be the actual names of the fingers +last counted. + +(iii) There are a few, but only a few, cases in which the number 6 or 8 +is named as twice 3 or twice 4; and there are also a few cases in which +7, 8 and 9 are named as 6 + 1, 6 + 2 and 6 + 3. In the large majority of +cases the numbers 6, 7, 8 and 9 are 5 + 1, 5 + 2, 5 + 3 and 5 + 4, being +named either directly from their composition in this way or as the +fingers on the second hand. + +(iv) There is a certain tendency to name 4, 9, 14 and 19 as being one +short of 5, 10, 15 and 20 respectively; the principle being thus the +same as that of the Roman IV, IX, &c. It is possible that at an early +stage the number of the fingers on one hand or on the two hands together +was only thought of vaguely as a large number in comparison with 2 or 3, +and that the number did not attain definiteness until it was linked up +with the smaller by insertion of the intermediate ones; and the linking +up might take place in both directions. + +(v) In a few cases the names of certain small numbers are the names of +objects which present these numbers in some conspicuous way. Thus the +word used by the Abipones to denote 5 was the name of a certain hide of +five colours. It has been suggested that names of this kind may have +been the origin of the numeral words of different races; but it is +improbable that direct visual perception would lead to a name for a +number unless a name based on a process of counting had previously been +given to it. + +25. _Growth of the Number-Concept._--The general principle that the +development of the individual follows the development of the race holds +good to a certain extent in the case of the number-concept, but it is +modified by the existence of language dealing with concepts which are +beyond the reach of the child, and also, of course, by the direct +attempts at instruction. One result is the formation of a number-series +as a mere succession of names without any corresponding ideas of number; +the series not being necessarily correct. + +When numbering begins, the names of the successive numbers are attached +to the individual objects; thus the numbers are originally ordinal, not +cardinal. + +The conception of number as cardinal, i.e. as something belonging to a +group of objects as a whole, is a comparatively late one, and does not +arise until the idea of a whole consisting of its parts has been formed. +This is the _quantitative_ aspect of number. + +The development from the name-series to the quantitative conception is +aided by the numbering of material objects and the performance of +elementary processes of comparison, addition, &c., with them. It may +also be aided, to a certain extent, by the tendency to find rhythms in +sequences of sounds. This tendency is common in adults as well as in +children; the strokes of a clock may, for instance, be grouped into +fours, and thus eleven is represented as two fours and three. +Finger-counting is of course natural to children, and leads to grouping +into fives, and ultimately to an understanding of the denary system of +notation. + + 1 2 3 + o o o ... + + FIG. 1. + + 1 2 3 1 2 3 + o o o ... o I o II o III ... + I \___/ / / + \____/ \_________/ / + II \__________________/ + \_____________/ + III + + FIG. 2. FIG. 3. + +26. _Representation of Geometrical Magnitude by Number._--The +application of arithmetical methods to geometrical measurement presents +some difficulty. In reality there is a transition from a cardinal to an +ordinal system, but to an ordinal system which does not agree with the +original ordinal system from which the cardinal system was derived. To +see this, we may represent ordinal numbers by the ordinary numerals 1, +2, 3, ... and cardinal numbers by the Roman I, II, III, ... Then in the +earliest stage each object counted is indivisible; either we are +counting it as a whole, or we are not counting it at all. The symbols 1, +2, 3, ... then refer to the individual objects, as in fig. 1; this is +the primary ordinal stage. Figs. 2 and 3 represent the cardinal stage; +fig. 2 showing how the I, II, III, ... denote the successively larger +groups of objects, while fig. 3 shows how the name II of the whole is +determined by the name 2 of the last one counted. + +When now we pass to geometrical measurement, each "one" is a thing which +is itself divisible, and it cannot be said that at any moment we are +counting it; it is only when one is completed that we can count it. The +names 1, 2, 3, ... for the individual objects cease to have an +intelligible meaning, and measurement is effected by the cardinal +numbers I, II, III, ..., as in fig. 4. These cardinal numbers have now, +however, come to denote individual points in the line of measurement, +i.e. the points of separation of the individual units of length. The +point III in fig. 4 does not include the point II in the same way that +the number III includes the number II in fig. 2, and the points must +therefore be denoted by the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3, ... as in fig. 5, +the zero 0 falling into its natural place immediately before the +commencement of the first unit. + + 1 2 3 _____ _____ _____ + _____ _____ _____ ... 0 1 2 3 ... + I II III + \____/ / / FIG. 5 + \____________/ / + \_____________________/ + + FIG. 4 + +Thus, while arithmetical numbering refers to units, geometrical +numbering does not refer to units but to the intervals between units. + + +III. ARITHMETIC OF INTEGRAL NUMBERS + +(i.) _Preliminary_ + +27. _Equality and Identity._--There is a certain difference between the +use of words referring to equality and identity in arithmetic and in +algebra respectively; what is an _equality_ in the former becoming an +_identity_ in the latter. Thus the statement that 4 times 3 is equal to +3 times 4, or, in abbreviated form, 4 X 3 = 3 X 4 (S 28), is a statement +not of identity but of equality; i.e. 4 X 3 and 3 X 4 mean different +things, but the operations which they denote produce the same result. +But in algebra a X b = b X a is called an identity, in the sense that it +is true whatever a and b may be; while n X X = A is called an equation, +as being true, when n and A are given, for one value only of X. +Similarly the numbers represented by 6/12 and 1/2 are not identical, but +are equal. + +28. _Symbols of Operation._--The failure to observe the distinction +between an identity and an equality often leads to loose reasoning; and +in order to prevent this it is important that definite meanings should +be attached to all symbols of operation, and especially to those which +represent elementary operations. The symbols - and [:] mean respectively +that the first quantity mentioned is to be reduced or divided by the +second; but there is some vagueness about + and X. In the present +article a + b will mean that a is taken first, and b added to it; but a +X b will mean that b is taken first, and is then multiplied by a. In the +case of numbers the X may be replaced by a dot; thus 4.3 means 4 times +3. When it is necessary to write the multiplicand before the multiplier, +the symbol [X] will be used, so that b [X] a will mean the same as a X +b. + +29. _Axioms._--There are certain statements that are sometimes regarded +as axiomatic; e.g. that if equals are added to equals the results are +equal, or that if A is greater than B then A + X is greater than B + X. +Such statements, however, are capable of logical proof, and are +generalizations of results obtained empirically at an elementary stage; +they therefore belong more properly to the laws of arithmetic (S 58). + +(ii.) _Sums and Differences._ + +30. _Addition and Subtraction._--_Addition_ is the process of expressing +(in numeration or notation) a whole, the parts of which have already +been expressed; while, if a whole has been expressed and also a part or +parts, _subtraction_ is the process of expressing the remainder. + +Except with very small numbers, addition and subtraction, on the +grouping system, involve analysis and rearrangement. Thus the sum of 8 +and 7 cannot be expressed as ones; we can either form the whole, and +regroup it as 10 and 5, or we can split up the 7 into 2 and 5, and add +the 2 to the 8 to form 10, thus getting 8 + 7 = 8 + (2 + 5) = (8 + 2) + +5 = 10 + 5 = 15. For larger numbers the rearrangement is more extensive; +thus 24 + 31 = (20 + 4) + (30 + 1) = (20 + 30) + (4 + 1) = 50 + 5 = 55, +the process being still more complicated when the ones together make +more than ten. Similarly we cannot subtract 8 from 15, if 15 means 1 ten ++ 5 ones; we must either write 15 - 8 = (10 + 5) - 8 = (10 - 8) + 5 = 2 ++ 5 = 7, or else resolve the 15 into an inexpressible number of ones, +and then subtract 8 of them, leaving 7. + +Numerical quantities, to be added or subtracted, must be in the same +denomination; we cannot, for instance, add 55 shillings and 100 pence, +any more than we can add 3 yards and 2 metres. + +31. _Relative Position in the Series._--The above method of dealing with +addition and subtraction is synthetic, and is appropriate to the +grouping method of dealing with number. We commence with processes, and +see what they lead to; and thus get an idea of sums and differences. If +we adopted the counting method, we should proceed in a different way, +our method being analytic. + +One number is less or greater than another, according as the symbol (or +ordinal) of the former comes earlier or later than that of the latter in +the number-series. Thus (writing ordinals in light type, and cardinals +in heavy type) 9 comes after 4, and therefore 9 is greater than 4. To +find how much greater, we compare two series, in one of which we go up +to 9, while in the other we stop at 4 and then recommence our counting. +The series are shown below, the numbers being placed horizontally for +convenience of printing, instead of vertically (S 14):-- + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 + +This exhibits 9 as the sum of 4 and 5; it being understood that the sum +of 4 and 5 means that we add 5 to 4. That this gives the same result as +adding 4 to 5 may be seen by reckoning the series backwards. + +It is convenient to introduce the zero; thus + + 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + 0 1 2 3 4 5 + +indicates that after getting to 4 we make a fresh start from 4 as our +zero. + +To subtract, we may proceed in either of two ways. The subtraction of 4 +from 9 may mean either "What has to be added to 4 in order to make up a +total of 9," or "To what has 4 to be added in order to make up a total +of 9." For the former meaning we count forwards, till we get to 4, and +then make a new count, parallel with the continuation of the old series, +and see at what number we arrive when we get to 9. This corresponds to +the concrete method, in which we have 9 objects, take away 4 of them, +and recount the remainder. The alternative method is to retrace the +steps of addition, i.e. to count backwards, treating 9 of one (the +standard) series as corresponding with 4 of the other, and finding which +number of the former corresponds with 0 of the latter. This is a more +advanced method, which leads easily to the idea of negative quantities, +if the subtraction is such that we have to go behind the 0 of the +standard series. + +32. _Mixed Quantities._--The application of the above principles, and of +similar principles with regard to multiplication and division, to +numerical quantities expressed in any of the diverse British +denominations, presents no theoretical difficulty if the successive +denominations are regarded as constituting a varying scale of notation +(S 17). Thus the expression 2 ft. 3 in. implies that in counting inches +we use 0 to eleven instead of 0 to 9 as our first repeating series, so +that we put down 1 for the next denomination when we get to twelve +instead of when we get to ten. Similarly 3 yds. 2 ft. means + + yds. 0 1 2 3 + ft. 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 + +The practical difficulty, of course, is that the addition of two numbers +produces different results according to the scale in which we are for +the moment proceeding; thus the sum of 9 and 8 is 17, 15, 13 or 11 +according as we are dealing with shillings, pence, pounds (avoirdupois) +or ounces. The difficulty may be minimized by using the notation +explained in S 17. + +(iii.) _Multiples, Submultiples and Quotients._ + +33. _Multiplication_ and _Division_ are the names given to certain +numerical processes which have to be performed in order to find the +result of certain arithmetical operations. Each process may arise out of +either of two distinct operations; but the terminology is based on the +processes, not on the operations to which they belong, and the latter +are not always clearly understood. + +34. _Repetition and Subdivision._--_Multiplication_ occurs when a +certain number or numerical quantity is treated as a _unit_ (S 11), and +is taken a certain _number_ of times. It therefore arises in one or +other of two ways, according as the unit or the number exists first in +consciousness. If pennies are arranged in groups of five, the total +amounts arranged are successively once 5d., twice 5d., three times 5d., +...; which are written 1 X 5d., 2 X 5d., 3 X 5d., ... (S 28). This +process is _repetition_, and the quantities 1 X 5d., 2 X 5d., 3 X 5d., +... are the successive _multiples_ of 5d. If, on the other hand, we have +a sum of 5s., and treat a shilling as being equivalent to twelve pence, +the 5s. is equivalent to 5 X 12d.; here the multiplication arises out of +a _subdivision_ of the original unit 1s. into 12d. + +Although multiplication may arise in either of these two ways, the +actual process in each case is performed by commencing with the unit and +taking it the necessary number of times. In the above case of +subdivision, for instance, each of the 5 shillings is separately +converted into pence, so that we do in fact find in succession once +12d., twice 12d., ...; i.e. we find the multiples of 12d. up to 5 +times. + +The result of the multiplication is called the _product_ of the unit by +the number of times it is taken. + +35. _Diagram of Multiplication._--The process of multiplication is +performed in order to obtain such results as the following:-- + + If 1 boy receives 7 apples, + then 3 boys receive 21 apples; + +or + + If 1s. is equivalent to 12d., + then 5s. is equivalent to 60d. + +The essential portions of these statements, from the arithmetical point +of view, may be exhibited in the form of the diagrams A and B:-- + + A B + +--------+-----------+ +-----+------+ + | 1 boy | 7 apples | | 1s. | 12d. | + +--------+-----------+ +-----+------+ + | 3 boys | 21 apples | | 5s. | 60d. | + +--------+-----------+ +-----+------+ + +or more briefly, as in C or C' and D or D':-- + + C C' D D' + +---+-----------+ | +---+------+ | + | 1 | 7 apples | | 7 apples | 1 | 12d. | | 12d. + +---+-----------+ ---+----------- +---+------+ ---+------ + | 3 | 21 apples | 3 | 21 apples | 5 | 60d. | 5 | 60d. + +---+-----------+ | +---+------+ | + +the general arrangement of the diagram being as shown in E or E':-- + + E E' + +--------+---------+ | + | 1 | Unit | | Unit + +--------+---------+ --------+--------- + | Number | Product | Number | Product + +--------+---------+ | + +Multiplication is therefore equivalent to completion of the diagram by +entry of the product. + +36. _Multiple-Tables._--The diagram C or D of S 35 is part of a complete +table giving the successive multiples of the particular unit. If we take +several different units, and write down their successive multiples in +parallel columns, preceded by the number-series, we obtain a +_multiple-table_ such as the following:-- + + +---+---+----+----+----------+---------------+-------+----- + | 1 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 1s. 5d. | 3 yds. 2 ft. | 17359 | ... + +---+---+----+----+----------+---------------+-------+----- + | 2 | 2 | 4 | 18 | 2s. 10d. | 7 yds. 1 ft. | 34718 | ... + +---+---+----+----+----------+---------------+-------+----- + | 3 | 3 | 6 | 27 | 4s. 3d. | 11 yds. 0 ft. | 52077 | ... + +---+---+----+----+----------+---------------+-------+----- + | 4 | 4 | 8 | 36 | 5s. 8d. | 14 yds. 2 ft. | 69436 | ... + +---+---+----+----+----------+---------------+-------+----- + | 5 | 5 | 10 | 45 | 7s. 1d. | 16 yds. 1 ft. | 86795 | ... + +---+---+----+----+----------+---------------+-------+----- + | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | ... + | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | ... + | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | ... + | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | ... + +It is to be considered that each column may extend downwards +indefinitely. + +37. _Successive Multiplication._--In multiplication by repetition the +unit is itself usually a multiple of some other unit, i.e. it is a +product which is taken as a new unit. When this new unit has been +multiplied by a number, we can again take the product as a unit for the +purpose of another multiplication; and so on indefinitely. Similarly +where multiplication has arisen out of the subdivision of a unit into +smaller units, we can again subdivide these smaller units. Thus we get +successive multiplication; but it represents quite different operations +according as it is due to repetition, in the sense of S 34, or to +subdivision, and these operations will be exhibited by different +diagrams. Of the two diagrams below, A exhibits the successive +multiplication of L3 by 20, 12 and 4, and B the successive reduction of +L3 to shillings, pence and farthings. The principle on which the +diagrams are constructed is obvious from S 35. It should be noticed that +in multiplying L3 by 20 we find the value of 20.3, but that in reducing +L3 to shillings, since each L becomes 20s., we find the value of 3.20. + + A B + +----+-------+ +-------+--------+ + | 1 | L3 | | 1d. | 4f. | + +-----+----+-------+ +------+-------+--------+ + | 1 | 20 | L60 | | 1s. | 12d. | | + +---+-----+----+-------+ +----+------+-------+--------+ + | 1 | 12 | | L720 | | L1 | 20s. | | | + +---+-----+----+-------+ +----+------+-------+--------+ + | 4 | | | L2880 | | L3 | 60s. | 720d. | 2880f. | + +---+-----+----+-------+ +----+------+-------+--------+ + + +38. _Submultiples._--The relation of a unit to its successive multiples +as shown in a multiple-table is expressed by saying that it is a +submultiple of the multiples, the successive submultiples being +_one-half, one-third, one-fourth_, ... Thus, in the diagram of S 36, 1s. +5d. is one-half of 2s. 10d., one-third of 4s. 3d., one-fourth of 5s. +8d., ...; these being written "1/2 of 2s. 10d.," "1/3 of 4s. 3d.," "1/4 +of 5s. 8d,"... + +The relation of submultiple is the converse of that of multiple; thus if +a is 1/5 of b, then b is 5 times a. The determination of a submultiple +is therefore equivalent to completion of the diagram E or E' of S 35 by +entry of the unit, when the number of times it is taken, and the +product, are given. The operation is the converse of repetition; it is +usually called _partition_, as representing division into a number of +equal shares. + +39. _Quotients._--The converse of subdivision is the formation of units +into groups, each constituting a larger unit; the number of the groups +so formed out of a definite number of the original units is called a +_quotient_. The determination of a quotient is equivalent to completion +of the diagram by entry of the number when the unit and the product are +given. There is no satisfactory name for the operation, as distinguished +from partition; it is sometimes called measuring, but this implies an +equality in the original units, which is not an essential feature of the +operation. + +40. _Division._--From the commutative law for multiplication, which +shows that 3 X 4d. = 4 X 3d. = 12d., it follows that the number of pence +in one-fourth of 12d. is equal to the quotient when 12 pence are formed +into units of 4d.; each of these numbers being said to be obtained by +_dividing_ 12 by 4. The term _division_ is therefore used in text-books +to describe the two processes described in SS 38 and 39; the product +mentioned in S 34 is the _dividend_, the number or the unit, whichever +is given, is called the _divisor_, and the unit or number which is to be +found is called the _quotient_. The symbol [:] is used to denote both +kinds of division; thus A [:] n denotes the unit, n of which make up A, +and A [:] B denotes the number of times that B has to be taken to make +up A. In the present article this confusion is avoided by writing the +former as 1/n of A. + +Methods of division are considered later (SS 106-108). + +41. _Diagrams of Division._--Since we write from left to right or +downwards, it may be convenient for division to interchange the rows or +the columns of the multiplication-diagram. Thus the uncompleted diagram +for partition is F or G, while for measuring it is usually H; the vacant +compartment being for the unit in F or G, and for the number in H. In +some cases it may be convenient in measuring to show both the units, as +in K. + + F G H K + +--------+---------+ +--------+---------+ +---------+---+ +------+-----+ + | 1 | | | Number | Product | | Unit | 1 | | 12d. | 1s. | + +--------+---------+ +--------+---------+ +---------+---+ +------+-----+ + | Number | Product | | 1 | | | Product | | | 60d. | | + +--------+---------+ +--------+---------+ +---------+---+ +------+-----+ + +42. _Successive Division_ may be performed as the converse of successive +multiplication. The diagrams A and B below are the converse (with a +slight alteration) of the corresponding diagrams in S 37; A +representing the determination of 1/20 of 1/12 of 1/4 of 2880 farthings, +and B the conversion of 2880 farthings into L. + + A B + +---+--------+ +------+----+ + | 4 | 2880f. | | 20s. | L1 | + +----+---+--------+ +-------+------+----+ + | 12 | 1 | 720f. | | 12d. | 1s. | | + +----+----+---+--------+ +--------+-------+------+----+ + | 20 | 1 | | 60f. | | 4f. | 1d. | | | + +----+----+---+--------+ +--------+-------+------+----+ + | 1 | | | 3f. | | 2880f. | 720d. | 60s. | L3 | + +----+----+---+--------+ +--------+-------+------+----+ + +(iv.) _Properties of Numbers._ + +(A) Properties not depending on the Scale of Notation. + +43. _Powers, Roots and Logarithms._--The standard series 1, 2, 3, ... is +obtained by successive additions of 1 to the number last found. If +instead of commencing with 1 and making successive additions of 1 we +commence with any number such as 3 and make successive multiplications +by 3, we get a series 3, 9, 27, ... as shown below the line in the +margin. The first member of the series is 3; the second is the product +of two numbers, each equal to 3; the third is the product of three +numbers, each equal to 3; and so on. These are written 3^1 (or 3), 3^2, +3^3, 3^4, ... where n^p denotes the product of p numbers, each equal to +n. If we write n^p = N, then, if any two of the three numbers n, p, N +are known, the third is determinate. If we know n and p, p is called the +_index_, and n, n^2, ... n^p are called the _first power, second power, +... pth power_ of n, the series itself being called the _power-series_. +The _second power_ and _third power_ are usually called the _square_ and +_cube_ respectively. If we know p and N, n is called the _pth root_ of +N, so that n is the _second_ (or _square_) _root_ of n^2, the _third_ +(or _cube_) _root_ of n^3, the _fourth root_ of n^4, ... If we know n +and N, then p is the _logarithm_ of N to _base_ n. + + 0 1 = 3^0 n^0 + ------------------ + 1 3 = 3^1 n^1 + 2 9 = 3^2 n^2 + 3 27 = 3^3 n^3 + 4 81 = 3^4 n^4 + : : : : + : : : : + +The calculation of powers (i.e. of N when n and p are given) is +_involution_; the calculation of roots (i.e. of n when p and N are +given) is _evolution_; the calculation of logarithms (i.e. of p when n +and N are given) has no special name. + +Involution is a direct process, consisting of successive +multiplications; the other two are inverse processes. The calculation of +a logarithm can be performed by successive divisions; evolution requires +special methods. + +The above definitions of logarithms, &c., relate to cases in which n and +p are whole numbers, and are generalized later. + +44. _Law of Indices._--If we multiply n^p by n^q, we multiply the +product of p n's by the product of q n's, and the result is therefore +n^(p + q). Similarly, if we divide n^p by n^q, where q is less than p, +the result is n^(p - q). Thus multiplication and division in the +power-series correspond to addition and subtraction in the index-series, +and vice versa. + +If we divide n^p by n^p, the quotient is of course 1. This should be +written n^0. Thus we may make the power-series commence with 1, if we +make the index-series commence with 0. The added terms are shown above +the line in the diagram in S 43. + +45. _Factors, Primes and Prime Factors._--If we take the successive +multiples of 2, 3, ... as in S 36, and place each multiple opposite the +same number in the original series, we get an arrangement as in the +adjoining diagram. If any number N occurs in the vertical series +commencing with a number n (other than 1) then n is said to be a +_factor_ of N. Thus 2, 3 and 6 are factors of 6; and 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 +are factors of 12. + + 1 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. + 2 2 .. .. .. .. .. .. + 3 .. 3 .. .. .. .. .. + 4 4 .. 4 .. .. .. .. + 5 .. .. .. 5 .. .. .. + 6 6 6 .. .. 6 .. .. + 7 .. .. .. .. .. 7 .. + 8 8 .. 8 .. .. .. 8 + 9 .. 9 .. .. .. .. .. + 10 10 .. .. 10 .. .. .. + 11 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. + 12 12 12 12 .. 12 .. .. + : : : : : : : : + : : : : : : : : + +A number (other than 1) which has no factor except itself is called a +_prime number_, or, more briefly, a _prime_. Thus 2, 3, 5, 7 and 11 are +primes, for each of these occurs twice only in the table. A number +(other than 1) which is not a prime number is called a _composite_ +number. + +If a number is a factor of another number, it is a factor of any +multiple of that number. Hence, if a number has factors, one at least of +these must be a prime. Thus 12 has 6 for a factor; but 6 is not a prime, +one of its factors being 2; and therefore 2 must also be a factor of 12. +Dividing 12 by 2, we get a submultiple 6, which again has a prime 2 as a +factor. Thus any number which is not itself a prime is the product of +several factors, each of which is a prime, e.g. 12 is the product of 2, +2 and 3. These are called _prime factors_. + +The following are the most important properties of numbers in reference +to factors:-- + +(i) If a number is a factor of another number, it is a factor of any +multiple of that number. + +(ii) If a number is a factor of two numbers, it is a factor of their sum +or (if they are unequal) of their difference. (The words in brackets are +inserted to avoid the difficulty, at this stage, of saying that every +number is a factor of 0, though it is of course true that 0.n = 0, +whatever n may be.) + +(iii) A number can be resolved into prime factors in one way only, no +account being taken of their relative order. Thus 12 = 2 X 2 X 3 = 2 X 3 +X 2 = 3 X 2 X 2, but this is regarded as one way only. If any prime +occurs more than once, it is usual to write the number of times of +occurrence as an index; thus 144 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 3 X 3 = 2^4 . 3^2. + +The number 1 is usually included amongst the primes; but, if this is +done, the last paragraph requires modification, since 144 could be +expressed as 1 . 2^4 . 3^2, or as 1^2 . 2^4 . 3^2, or as 1^p . 2^4 . +3^2, where p might be anything. + +If two numbers have no factor in common (except 1) each is said to be +_prime to_ the other. + +The multiples of 2 (including 1.2) are called _even_ numbers; other +numbers are _odd_ numbers. + +46. _Greatest Common Divisor._--If we resolve two numbers into their +prime factors, we can find their _Greatest Common Divisor_ or _Highest +Common Factor_ (written G.C.D. or G.C.F. or H.C.F.), i.e. the greatest +number which is a factor of both. Thus 144 = 2^4 . 3^2, and 756 = 2^2 . +3^3 . 7, and therefore the G.C.D. of 144 and 756 is 2^2 . 3^2 = 36. If +we require the G.C.D. of two numbers, and cannot resolve them into their +prime factors, we use a process described in the text-books. The process +depends on (ii) of S 45, in the extended form that, if x is a factor of +a and b, it is a factor of pa - qb, where p and q are any integers. + +The G.C.D. of three or more numbers is found in the same way. + +47. _Least Common Multiple._--The _Least Common Multiple_, or L.C.M., of +two numbers, is the least number of which they are both factors. Thus, +since 144 = 2^4 . 3^2, and 756 = 2^2 . 3^3 . 7, the L.C.M. of 144 and +756 is 2^4 . 3^3 . 7. It is clear, from comparison with the last +paragraph, that the product of the G.C.D. and the L.C.M. of two numbers +is equal to the product of the numbers themselves. This gives a rule for +finding the L.C.M. of two numbers. But we cannot apply it to finding the +L.C.M. of three or more numbers; if we cannot resolve the numbers into +their prime factors, we must find the L.C.M. of the first two, then the +L.C.M. of this and the next number, and so on. + +(B) Properties depending on the Scale of Notation. + +48. _Tests of Divisibility._--The following are the principal rules for +testing whether particular numbers are factors of a given number. The +number is divisible-- + +(i) by 10 if it ends in 0; + +(ii) by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5; + +(iii) by 2 if the last digit is even; + +(iv) by 4 if the number made up of the last two digits is divisible by 4; + +(v) by 8 if the number made up of the last three digits is divisible by 8; + +(vi) by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9; + +(vii) by 3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3; + +(viii) by 11 if the difference between the sum of the 1st, 3rd, 5th, ... +digits and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, ... is zero or divisible by +11. + +(ix) To find whether a number is divisible by 7, 11 or 13, arrange the +number in groups of three figures, beginning from the end, treat each +group as a separate number, and then find the difference between the sum +of the 1st, 3rd, ... of these numbers and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, ... +Then, if this difference is zero or is divisible by 7, 11 or 13, the +original number is also so divisible; and conversely. For example, 31521 +gives 521 - 31 = 490, and therefore is divisible by 7, but not by 11 or +13. + +49. _Casting out Nines_ is a process based on (vi) of the last +paragraph. The remainder when a number is divided by 9 is equal to the +remainder when the sum of its digits is divided by 9. Also, if the +remainders when two numbers are divided by 9 are respectively a and b, +the remainder when their product is divided by 9 is the same as the +remainder when a.b is divided by 9. This gives a rule for testing +multiplication, which is found in most text-books. It is doubtful, +however, whether such a rule, giving a test which is necessarily +incomplete, is of much educational value. + +(v.) _Relative Magnitude._ + +50. _Fractions._--A _fraction_ of a quantity is a submultiple, or a +multiple of a submultiple, of that quantity. Thus, since 3 X 1s. 5d. = +4s. 3d., 1s. 5d. may be denoted by 1/3 of 4s. 3d.; and any multiple of +1s. 5d., denoted by n X 1s. 5d., may also be denoted by n/3 of 4s. 3d. +We therefore use "n/a of A" to mean that we find a quantity X such that +a X X = A, and then multiply X by n. + +It must be noted (i) that this is a definition of "n/a of," not a +definition of "n/a," and (ii) that it is not necessary that n should be +less than a. + +51. _Subdivision of Submultiple._--By 5/7 of A we mean 5 times the unit, +7 times which is A. If we regard this unit as being 4 times a lesser +unit, then A is 7.4 times this lesser unit, and 5/7 of A is 5.4 times +the lesser unit. Hence 5/7 of A is equal to (5.4)/(7.4) of A; and, +conversely, (5.4)/(7.4) of A is equal to 5/7 of A. Similarly each of +these is equal to (5.3)/(7.3) of A. Hence the value of a fraction is not +altered by substituting for the numerator and denominator the +corresponding numbers in any other column of a multiple-table (S 36). If +we write (5.4)/(7.4) in the form (4.5)/(4.7) we may say that the value +of a fraction is not altered by multiplying or dividing the numerator +and denominator by any number. + +52. _Fraction of a Fraction._--To find 11/4 of 5/7 of A we must convert +5/7 of A into 4 times some unit. This is done by the preceding +paragraph. For 5/7 of A = (5.4)/(7.4) of A = (4.5)/(7.4) of A; i.e. it +is 4 times a unit which is itself 5 times another unit, 7.4 times, which +is A. Hence, taking the former unit 11 times instead of 4 times, + + 11/4 of 5/7 of A = (11.5)/(7.4) of A + +A fraction of a fraction is sometimes called a _compound fraction._ + +53. _Comparison, Addition and Subtraction of Fractions._--The quantities +3/4 of A and 5/7 of A are expressed in terms of different units. To +compare them, or to add or subtract them, we must express them in terms +of the same unit. Thus, taking 1/28 of A as the unit, we have (S 51) + + 3/4 of A = 21/28 of A; 5/7 of A = 20/28 of A. + +Hence the former is greater than the latter; their sum is 41/28 of A; +and their difference is 1/28 of A. + +Thus the fractions must be reduced to a _common denominator_. This +denominator must, if the fractions are in their lowest terms (S 54), be +a multiple of each of the denominators; it is usually most convenient +that it should be their L.C.M. (S 47). + +54. _Fraction in its Lowest Terms._--A fraction is said to be _in its +lowest terms_ when its numerator and denominator have no common factor; +or to be reduced to its lowest terms when it is replaced by such a +fraction. Thus 8/22 of A is said to be reduced to its lowest terms when +it is replaced by 4/11 of A. It is important always to bear in mind that +4/11 of A is not the _same_ as 8/22 of A, though it is _equal_ to it. + + +------+-----------+ + | 1 | 7d. | + +------+-----------+ + | 10 | 5s.10d. | + +------+-----------+ + | 24 | 14s. | + +------+-----------+ + +55. _Diagram of Fractional Relation._--To find 10/24 of 14s. we have to +take 10 of the units, 24 of which make up 14s. Hence the required amount +will, in the multiple-table of S 36, be opposite 10 in the column in +which the amount opposite 24 is 14s.; the quantity at the head of this +column, representing the unit, will be found to be 7d. The elements of +the multiple-table with which we are concerned are shown in the diagram +in the margin. This diagram serves equally for the two statements that +(i) 10/24 of 14s. is 5s. 10d., (ii) 24/10 of 5s. 10d. is 14s. The two +statements are in fact merely different aspects of a single relation, +considered in the next section. + + A + +------+-----------+ + | 10 | 5s. 10d. | + +------+-----------+ + | 24 | 14s. | + +------+-----------+ + + B + +------+-----------+ + | 5 | 5s. 10d. | + +------+-----------+ + | 12 | 14s. | + +------+-----------+ + +56. _Ratio._--If we omit the two upper compartments of the diagram in +the last section, we obtain the diagram A. This diagram exhibits a +relation between the two amounts 5s. 10d. and 14s. on the one hand, and +the numbers 10 and 24 of the standard series on the other, which is +expressed by saying that 5s. 10d. is to 14s. in the _ratio_ of 10 to 24, +or that 14s. is to 5s. 10d. in the ratio of 24 to 10. If we had taken +1s. 2d. instead of 7d. as the unit for the second column, we should have +obtained the diagram B. Thus we must regard the ratio of a to b as being +the same as the ratio of c to d, if the fractions a/b and c/d are equal. +For this reason the ratio of a to b is sometimes written a/b, but the +more correct method is to write it a:b. + +If two quantities or numbers P and Q are to each other in the ratio of p +to q, it is clear from the diagram that p times Q = q times P, so that Q += q/p of P. + +57. _Proportion._--If from any two columns in the table of S 36 we +remove the numbers or quantities in any two rows, we get a diagram such +as that here shown. The pair of compartments on either side may, as +here, contain numerical quantities, or may contain numbers. But the two +pairs of compartments will correspond to a single pair of numbers, e.g. +2 and 6, in the standard series, so that, denoting them by M, N and P, Q +respectively, M will be to N in the same ratio that P is to Q. + + +----------+---------------+ + | 2s. 10d. | 7 yds. 1 ft. | + +----------+---------------+ + | 8s. 6d. | 22 yds. | + +----------+---------------+ + +This is expressed by saying that M is to N as P to Q, the relation being +written M : N :: P : Q; the four quantities are then said to be _in +proportion_ or to be _proportionals_. + + +---+---+ + | M | P | + +---+---+ + | N | Q | + +---+---+ + +This is the most general expression of the relative magnitude of two +quantities; i.e. the relation expressed by proportion includes the +relations expressed by multiple, submultiple, fraction and ratio. + +If M and N are respectively m and n times a unit, and P and Q are +respectively p and q times a unit, then the quantities are in proportion +if mq = np; and conversely. + + +IV. LAWS OF ARITHMETIC + +58. _Laws of Arithmetic._--The arithmetical processes which we have +considered in reference to positive integral numbers are subject to the +following laws:-- + +(i) _Equalities and Inequalities._--The following are sometimes called +_Axioms_ (S 29), but their truth should be proved, even if at an early +stage it is assumed. The symbols ">" and "<" mean respectively "is +greater than" and "is less than." The numbers represented by a, b, c, x +and m are all supposed to be positive. + + (a) If a = b, and b = c. then a = c; + (b) If a = b, then a + x = b + x, and a - x = b - x; + (c) If a > b, then a + x > b + x, and a - x > b - x; + (d) If a < b, then a + b < b + x, and a - x < b - x; + (e) If a = b, then ma = mb, and a [:] m = b [:] m; + (f) If a > b, then ma > mb, and a [:] m > b [:] m; + (g) If a < b, then ma < mb, and a [:] m < b [:] m. + +(ii) _Associative Law for Additions and Subtractions._--This law +includes the _rule of signs_, that a - (b - c) = a - b + c; and it +states that, subject to this, successive operations of addition or +subtraction may be grouped in sets in any way; e.g. a - b + c + d + e - +f = a - (b - c) + (d + e - f). + +(iii) _Commutative Law for Additions and Subtractions_, that additions +and subtractions may be performed in any order; e.g. a - b + c + d = a + +c - b + d = a - b + c - b. + +(iv) _Associative Law for Multiplications and Divisions._--This law +includes a rule, similar to the rule of signs, to the effect that +a[:](b[:]c) = a [:] b [X] c; and it states that, subject to this, +successive operations of multiplication or division may be grouped in +sets in any way; e.g. a b [X] c [X] d [X] e [:] f = a [:] (b [:] c) [X] +(d [X] e [:] f). + +(v) _Commutative Law for Multiplications and Divisions_, that +multiplications and divisions may be performed in any order: e.g. a [:] +b [X] c [X] d = a [X] c [:] b [X] d = a [X] d [X] c [:] b. + +(vi) _Distributive Law_, that multiplications and divisions may be +distributed over additions and subtractions, e.g. that m(a + b - c) = +m.a + m.b - m.c, or that (a + b - c) [:] n = (a [:] n) + (b [:] n) + (c +[:] n). + +In the case of (ii), (iii) and (vi), the letters a, b, c, ... may denote +either numbers or numerical quantities, while m and n denote numbers; in +the case of (iv) and (v) the letters denote numbers only. + +59. _Results of Inverse Operations._--Addition, multiplication and +involution are direct processes; and, if we start with positive +integers, we continue with positive integers throughout. But, in +attempting the inverse processes of subtraction, division, and either +evolution or determination of index, the data may be such that a process +cannot be performed. We can, however, denote the result of the process +by a symbol, and deal with this symbol according to the laws of +arithmetic. In this way we arrive at (i) negative numbers, (ii) +fractional numbers, (iii) surds, (iv) logarithms (in the ordinary sense +of the word). + +60. _Simple Formulae._--The following are some simple formulae which +follow from the laws stated in S 58. + +(i) (a + b + c + ...)(p + q + r + ...) = (ap + aq + ar + ...) + (bp + bq ++ br + ...) + (cp + cq + cr + ...)+ ...; i.e. the product of two or more +numbers, each of which consists of two or more parts, is the sum of the +products of each part of the one with each part of the other. + +(ii) (a + b)(a - b) = a^2 - b^2; i.e. the product of the sum and the +difference of two numbers is equal to the difference of their squares. + +(iii) (a + b)^2 = a^2 + 2ab + b^2 = a^2 + (2a + b)b. + + +V. NEGATIVE NUMBERS + +61. _Negative Numbers_ may be regarded as resulting from the commutative +law for addition and subtraction. According to this law, 10 + 3 + 6 - 7 += 10 + 3 - 7 + 6 = 3 + 6 - 7 + 10 = &c. But, if we write the expression +as 3 - 7 + 6 + 10, this means that we must first subtract 7 from 3. This +cannot be done; but the result of the subtraction, if it could be done, +is something which, when 6 is added to it, becomes 3 - 7 + 6 = 3 + 6 - 7 += 2. The result of 3 - 7 is the same as that of 0 - 4; and we may write +it "-4," and call it a _negative number_, if by this we mean something +possessing the property that -4 + 4 = 0. + +This, of course, is unintelligible on the grouping system of treating +number; on the counting system it merely means that we count backwards +from 0, just as we might count inches backwards from a point marked 0 on +a scale. It should be remembered that the counting is performed with +something as unit. If this unit is A, then what we are really +considering is -4A; and this means, not that A is multiplied by -4, but +that A is multiplied by 4, and the product is taken negatively. It would +therefore be better, in some ways, to retain the unit throughout, and to +describe -4A as a _negative quantity_, in order to avoid confusion with +the "negative numbers" with which operations are performed in formal +algebra. + +The positive quantity or number obtained from a negative quantity or +number by omitting the "-" is called its _numerical value_. + + +VI. FRACTIONAL AND DECIMAL NUMBERS + +62. _Fractional Numbers._--According to the definition in S 50 the +quantity denoted by 3/6 of A is made up of a number, 3, and a unit, +which is one-sixth of A. Similarly p/n of A, q/n of A, r/n of A, ... +mean quantities which are respectively p times, q times r times, ... the +unit, n of which make up A. Thus any arithmetical processes which can be +applied to the numbers p, q, r, ... can be applied to p/n, q/n, r/n, ..., +the denominator n remaining unaltered. + +If we denote the unit 1/n of A by X, then A is n times X, and p/n of n +times X is p times X; i.e. p/n of n times is p times. + +Hence, so long as the denominator remains unaltered, we can deal with +performed on the numerators. The expressions p/n, q/n, r/n, ... are then +_fractional numbers_, their relation to ordinary or _integral_ numbers +being that p/n times n times is equal to p times. + +This relation is of exactly the same kind as the relation of the +successive digits in numbers expressed in a scale of notation whose base +is n. Hence we can treat the fractional numbers which have any one +denominator as constituting a number-series, as shown in the adjoining +diagram. The result of taking 13 sixths of A is then seen to be the same +as the result of taking twice A and one-sixth of A, so that we may +regard 13/6 as being equal to 2(1/6). A fractional number is called a +_proper fraction_ or an _improper fraction_ according as the numerator +is or is not less than the denominator; and an expression such as 2(1/6) +is called a mixed number. An improper fraction is therefore equal either +to an integer or to a mixed number. It will be seen from S 17 that a +mixed number corresponds with what is there called a _mixed quantity_. +Thus L3, 17s. is a mixed quantity, being expressed in pounds and +shillings; to express it in terms of pounds only we must write it +L3(17/20). + + Ones. Sixths. + 0 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 2 0 + 1 + : + : + +63. _Fractional Numbers with different Denominators._--If we divided the +unit into halves, and these new units into thirds, we should get sixths +of the original unit, as shown in A; while, if we divided the unit into +thirds, and these new units into halves, we should again get sixths, but +as shown in B. The series of halves in the one case, and of thirds in +the other, are entirely different series of fractional numbers, but we +can compare them by putting each in its proper position in relation to +the series of sixths. Thus 3/2 is equal to 9/6, and 5/3 is equal to +10/6, and conversely; in other words, any fractional number is +equivalent to the fractional number obtained by multiplying or dividing +the numerator and denominator by any integer. We can thus find +fractional numbers equivalent to the sum or difference of any two +fractional numbers. The process is the same as that of finding the sum +or difference of 3 sixpences and 5 fourpences; we cannot subtract 3 +sixpenny-bits from 5 fourpenny-bits, but we can express each as an +equivalent number of pence, and then perform the subtraction. Generally, +to find the sum or difference of two or more fractional numbers, we must +replace them by other fractional numbers having the same denominator; it +is usually most convenient to take as this denominator the L.C.M. of the +original fractional numbers (cf. S 53). + + A B + Ones. Halves. Sixths. Ones. Thirds. Sixths. + 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 1 1 + 2 1 0 + 1 0 1 + 1 2 0 + 2 1 + 1 0 0 1 0 0 + : : + : : + +64. _Complex Fractions._--A fraction (or fractional number), the +numerator or denominator of which is a fractional number, is called a +_complex_ fraction (or fractional number), to distinguish it from a +_simple_ fraction, which is a fraction having integers for numerator and +denominator. Thus 5(2/3)/11(1/3) of A means that we take a unit X such +that 11(1/3) times X is equal to A, and then take 5(2/3) times X. To +simplify this, we take a new unit Y, which is 1/3 of X. Then A is 34 +times Y, and 5(2/3)/11(1/3) of A is 17 times Y, i.e. it is 1/2 of A. + +65. _Multiplication of Fractional Numbers._--To multiply 8/3 by 5/7 is +to take 5/7 times 8/3. It has already been explained (S 62) that 5/7 +times is an operation such that 5/7 times 7 times is equal to 5 times. +Hence we must express 8/3, which itself means 8/3 times, as being 7 +times something. This is done by multiplying both numerator and +denominator by 7; i.e. 8/3 is equal to (7.8)/(7.3), which is the same +thing as 7 times 8/(7.3). Hence 5/7 times 8/3 = 5/7 times 7 times +8/(7.3) = 5 times 8/(7.3) = (5.8)/(7.3). The rule for multiplying a +fractional number by a fractional number is therefore the same as the +rule for finding a fraction of a fraction. + +66. _Division of Fractional Numbers._--To divide 8/3 by 5/7 is to find a +number (i.e. a fractional number) x such that 5/7 times x is equal to +8/3. But 7/5 times 5/7 times x is, by the last section, equal to x. +Hence x is equal to 7/5 times 8/3. Thus to divide by a fractional number +we must multiply by the number obtained by interchanging the numerator +and the denominator, i.e. by the _reciprocal_ of the original number. + +If we divide 1 by 5/7 we obtain, by this rule, 7/5. Thus the reciprocal +of a number may be defined as the number obtained by dividing 1 by it. +This definition applies whether the original number is integral or +fractional. + +By means of the present and the preceding sections the rule given in S +63 can be extended to the statement that a fractional number is equal to +the number obtained by multiplying its numerator and its denominator by +any fractional number. + +67. _Negative Fractional Numbers._--We can obtain negative fractional +numbers in the same way that we obtain negative integral numbers; thus +-(5/7) or -(5/7)A means that 5/7 or (5/7)A is taken negatively. + +68. _Genesis of Fractional Numbers._--A fractional number may be +regarded as the result of a measuring division (S 39) which cannot be +performed exactly. Thus we cannot divide 3 in. by 11 in. exactly, i.e. +we cannot express 3 in. as an integral multiple of 11 in.; but, by +extending the meaning of "times" as in S 62, we can say that 3 in. is +3/11 times 11 in., and therefore call 3/11 the quotient when 3 in. is +divided by 11 in. Hence, if p and n are numbers, p/n is sometimes +regarded as denoting the result of dividing p by n, whether p and n are +integral or fractional (mixed numbers being included in fractional). + +The idea and properties of a fractional number having been explained, we +may now call it, for brevity, a _fraction_. Thus "2/3 of A" no longer +means two of the units, three of which make up A; it means that A is +multiplied by the fraction 2/3, i.e. it means the same thing as "2/3 +times A." + +69. _Percentage._--In order to deal, by way of comparison or addition or +subtraction, with fractions which have different denominators, it is +necessary to reduce them to a common denominator. To avoid this +difficulty, in practical life, it is usual to confine our operations to +fractions which have a certain standard denominator. Thus (S 79) the +Romans reckoned in twelfths, and the Babylonians in sixtieths; the +former method supplied a basis for division by 2, 3, 4, 6 or 12, and the +latter for division by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, or 60. The +modern method is to deal with fractions which have 100 as denominator; +such fractions are called _percentages_. They only apply accurately to +divisions by 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25 or 50; but they have the convenience of +fitting in with the denary scale of notation, and they can be extended +to other divisions by using a mixed number as numerator. One-fortieth, +for instance, can be expressed as (2-1/2)/100, which is called 2-1/2 +_per cent._, and usually written 2-1/2%. Similarly 3(1/3)% is equal to +one-thirtieth. + +If the numerator is a multiple of 5, the fraction represents twentieths. +This is convenient, e.g. for expressing _rates in the pound_; thus 15% +denotes the process of taking 3s. for every L1, i.e. a rate of 3s. in +the L. + +In applications to money "per cent." sometimes means "per L100." Thus +"L3, 17s. 6d. per cent." is really the complex fraction + + 17(6/12) + 3 ------- + 20 + ------------ . + 100 + +70. _Decimal Notation of Percentage._--An integral percentage, i.e. a +simple fraction with 100 for denominator, can be expressed by writing +the two figures of the numerator (or, if there is only one figure, this +figure preceded by 0) with a dot or "point" before them; thus .76 means +76%, or 76/100. If there is an integral number to be taken as well as a +percentage, this number is written in front of the point; thus 23.76 X A +means 23 times A, with 76% of A. We might therefore denote 76% by 0.76. + +If as our unit we take X = 1/100 of A = 1% of A, the above quantity +might equally be written 2376 X = 2376/100 of A; i.e. 23.76 X A is equal +to 2376% of A. + +71. _Approximate Expression by Percentage._--When a fraction cannot be +expressed by an integral percentage, it can be so expressed +approximately, by taking the _nearest_ integer to the numerator of an +equal fraction having 100 for its denominator. Thus 1/7 = 14(2/7)/100, +so that 1/7 is approximately equal to 14%; and 2/7 = 28(4/7)/100, which +is approximately equal to 29%. The difference between this approximate +percentage and the true value is less than 1/2%, i.e. is less than +1/200. + +If the numerator of the fraction consists of an integer and 1/2--e.g. in +the case of 3/8 = (37-1/2)/100--it is uncertain whether we should take +the next lowest or the next highest integer. It is best in such cases to +retain the 1/2; thus we can write 3/8 = 37-1/2 % = .37-1/2. + +72. _Addition and Subtraction of Percentages._--The sum or difference of +two percentages is expressed by the sum or difference of the numbers +expressing the two percentages. + +73. _Percentage of a Percentage._--Since 37% of 1 is expressed by 0.37, +37% of 1% (i.e. of 0.01) might similarly be expressed by 0.00.37. The +second point, however, is omitted, so that we write it 0.0037 or .0037, +this expression meaning 37/100 of 1/100 = 37/10000. + +On the same principle, since 37% of 45% is equal to 37/100 of 45/100 = +1665/10000 = 16/100 + (65/100 of 1/100), we can express it by .1665; and +3% of 2% can be expressed by .0006. Hence, to find a percentage of a +percentage, we multiply the two numbers, put 0's in front if necessary +to make up four figures (not counting fractions), and prefix the point. + +74. _Decimal Fractions._--The percentage-notation can be extended to any +fraction which has any power of 10 for its denominator. Thus 153/1000 +can be written .153 and 15300/100000 can be written .15300. These two +fractions are equal to each other, and also to .1530. A fraction written +in this way is called a _decimal fraction_; or we might define a decimal +fraction as a fraction having a power of 10 for its denominator, there +being a special notation for writing such fractions. + +A mixed number, the fractional part of which is a decimal fraction, is +expressed by writing the integral part in front of the point, which is +called the _decimal point_. Thus 27(1530/10000) can be written +27.1530. This number, expressed in terms of the fraction 1/10000 or +.0001, would be 271530. Hence the successive figures after the decimal +point have the same relation to each other and to the figures before the +point as if the point did not exist. The point merely indicates the +_denomination_ in which the number is expressed: the above number, +expressed in terms of 1/16, would be 271.530, but expressed in terms of +100 it would be .271530. + +Fractions other than decimal fractions are usually called _vulgar +fractions_. + +75. _Decimal Numbers._--Instead of regarding the .153 in 27.153 as +meaning 153/1000, we may regard the different figures in the expression +as denoting numbers in the successive orders of submultiples of 1 on a +denary scale. Thus, on the grouping system, 27.153 will mean 2.10 + 7 + +1/10 + 5/10^2 + 3/10^3, while on the counting system it will mean the +result of counting through the tens to 2, then through the ones to 7, +then through tenths to 1, and so on. A number made up in this way may be +called a _decimal number_, or, more briefly, a _decimal_. It will be +seen that the definition includes integral numbers. + +76. _Sums and Differences of Decimals._--To add or subtract decimals, we +must reduce them to the same denomination, i.e. if one has more figures +after the decimal point than the other, we must add sufficient 0's to +the latter to make the numbers of figures equal. Thus, to add 5.413 to +3.8, we must write the latter as 3.800. Or we may treat the former as +the sum of 5.4 and .013, and recombine the .013 with the sum of 3.8 and +5.4. + +77. _Product of Decimals._--To multiply two decimals exactly, we +multiply them as if the point were absent, and then insert it so that +the number of figures after the point in the product shall be equal to +the sum of the numbers of figures after the points in the original +decimals. + +In actual practice, however, decimals only represent approximations, and +the process has to be modified (S 111). + +78. _Division by Decimal._--To divide one decimal by another, we must +reduce them to the same denomination, as explained in S 76, and then +omit the decimal points. Thus 5.413 [:] 3.8 = (5413/1000) [:] +(3800/1000) = 5413 [:] 3800. + +79. _Historical Development of Fractions and Decimals._--The fractions +used in ancient times were mainly of two kinds: unit-fractions, i.e. +fractions representing aliquot parts (S 103), and fractions with a +definite denominator. + +The Egyptians as a rule used only unit-fractions, other fractions being +expressed as the sum of unit-fractions. The only known exception was the +use of 2/3 as a single fraction. Except in the case of 2/3 and 1/2, the +fraction was expressed by the denominator, with a special symbol above +it. + +The Babylonians expressed numbers less than 1 by the numerator of a +fraction with denominator 60; the numerator only being written. The +choice of 60 appears to have been connected with the reckoning of the +year as 360 days; it is perpetuated in the present subdivision of +angles. + +The Greeks originally used unit-fractions, like the Egyptians; later +they introduced the sexagesimal fractions of the Babylonians, extending +the system to four or more successive subdivisions of the unit +representing a degree. They also, but apparently still later and only +occasionally, used fractions of the modern kind. In the sexagesimal +system the numerators of the successive fractions (the denominators of +which were the successive powers of 60) were followed by ', ", "', "", +the denominator not being written. This notation survives in reference +to the minute (') and second (") of angular measurement, and has been +extended, by analogy, to the foot (') and inch ("). Since [xi] +represented 60, and [omicron] was the next letter, the latter appears to +have been used to denote absence of one of the fractions; but it is not +clear that our present sign for zero was actually derived from this. In +the case of fractions of the more general kind, the numerator was +written first with ', and then the denominator, followed by ", was +written twice. A different method was used by Diophantus, accents being +omitted, and the denominator being written above and to the right of the +numerator. + +The Romans commonly used fractions with denominator 12; these were +described as _unciae_ (ounces), being twelfths of the _as_ (pound). + +The modern system of placing the numerator above the denominator is due +to the Hindus; but the dividing line is a later invention. Various +systems were tried before the present notation came to be generally +accepted. Under one system, for instance, the continued sum 4/5 + 1/(7 X +5) + 3/(8 X 7 X 5) would be denoted by (3 1 4)/(8 7 5); this is somewhat +similar in principle to a decimal notation, but with digits taken in the +reverse order. + +Hindu treatises on arithmetic show the use of fractions, containing a +power of 10 as denominator, as early as the beginning of the 6th century +A.D. There was, however, no development in the direction of decimals in +the modern sense, and the Arabs, by whom the Hindu notation of integers +was brought to Europe, mainly used the sexagesimal division in the ' " +"' notation. Even where the decimal notation would seem to arise +naturally, as in the case of approximate extraction of a square root, +the portion which might have been expressed as a decimal was converted +into sexagesimal fractions. It was not until A.D. 1585 that a decimal +notation was published by Simon Stevinus of Bruges. It is worthy of +notice that the invention of this notation appears to have been due to +practical needs, being required for the purpose of computation of +compound interest. The present decimal notation, which is a development +of that of Stevinus, was first used in 1617 by H. Briggs, the computer +of logarithms. + +80. _Fractions of Concrete Quantities._--The British systems of coinage, +weights, lengths, &c., afford many examples of the use of fractions. +These may be divided into three classes, as follows:-- + +(i) The fraction of a concrete quantity may itself not exist as a +concrete quantity, but be represented by a token. Thus, if we take a +shilling as a unit, we may divide it into 12 or 48 smaller units; but +corresponding coins are not really portions of a shilling, but objects +which help us in counting. Similarly we may take the farthing as a unit, +and invent smaller units, represented either by tokens or by no material +objects at all. Ten marks, for instance, might be taken as equivalent to +a farthing; but 13 marks are not equivalent to anything except one +farthing and three out of the ten acts of counting required to arrive at +another farthing. + +(ii) In the second class of cases the fraction of the unit quantity is a +quantity of the same kind, but cannot be determined with absolute +exactness. Weights come in this class. The ounce, for instance, is +one-sixteenth of the pound, but it is impossible to find 16 objects such +that their weights shall be exactly equal and that the sum of their +weights shall be exactly equal to the weight of the standard pound. + +(iii) Finally, there are the cases of linear measurement, where it is +theoretically possible to find, by geometrical methods, an exact +submultiple of a given unit, but both the unit and the submultiple are +not really concrete objects, but are spatial relations embodied in +objects. + +Of these three classes, the first is the least abstract and the last the +most abstract. The first only involves number and counting. The second +involves the idea of _equality_ as a necessary characteristic of the +units or subunits that are used. The third involves also the idea of +_continuity_ and therefore of unlimited subdivision. In weighing an +object with ounce-weights the fact that it weighs more than 1 lb. 3 oz. +but less than 1 lb. 4 oz. does not of itself suggest the necessity or +possibility of subdivision of the ounce for purposes of greater +accuracy. But in measuring a distance we may find that it is "between" +two distances differing by a unit of the lowest denomination used, and a +subdivision of this unit follows naturally. + + +VII. APPROXIMATION + +81. _Approximate Character of Numbers._--The numbers (integral or +decimal) by which we represent the results of arithmetical operations +are often only approximately correct. All numbers, for instance, which +represent physical measurements, are limited in their accuracy not only +by our powers of measurement but also by the accuracy of the measure we +use as our unit. Also most fractions cannot be expressed exactly as +decimals; and this is also the case for surds and logarithms, as well as +for the numbers expressing certain ratios which arise out of geometrical +relations. Even where numbers are supposed to be exact, calculations +based on them can often only be approximate. We might, for instance, +calculate the exact cost of 3 lb. 5 oz. of meat at 9-1/2 d. a lb., but +there are no coins in which we could pay this exact amount. + +When the result of any arithmetical operation or operations is +represented approximately but not exactly by a number, the excess +(positive or negative) of this number over the number which would +express the result exactly is called the _error_. + +82. _Degree of Accuracy._--There are three principal ways of expressing +the degree of accuracy of any number, i.e. the extent to which it is +equal to the number it is intended to represent. + +(i) A number can be _correct to_ so many _places of decimals_. This +means (cf. S 71) that the number differs from the true value by less +than one-half of the unit represented by 1 in the last place of +decimals. For instance, .143 represents 1/7 correct to 3 places of +decimals, since it differs from it by less than .0005. The final figure, +in a case like this, is said to be _corrected_. + +This method is not good for comparative purposes. Thus .143 and 14.286 +represent respectively 1/7 and 100/7 to the same number of places of +decimals, but the latter is obviously more exact than the former. + +(ii) A number can be correct to so many _significant figures_. The +significant figures of a number are those which commence with the first +figure other than zero in the number; thus the significant figures of +13.027 and of .00013027 are the same. + +This is the usual method; but the relative accuracy of two numbers +expressed to the same number of significant figures depends to a certain +extent on the magnitude of the first figure. Thus .14286 and .85714 +represent 1/7 and 6/7 correct to 5 significant figures; but the latter +is relatively more accurate than the former. For the former shows only +that 1/7 lies between .142855 and .142865, or, as it is better +expressed, between .14285-1/2 and .14286-1/2; but the latter shows that +6/7 lies between .85713-1/2 and .85714-1/2, and therefore that 1/7 lies +between .14285-7/12 and .14285-9/12. + +In either of the above cases, and generally in any case where a number +is known to be within a certain limit on each side of the stated value, +the _limit of error_ is expressed by the sign [+-]. Thus the former of +the above two statements would give 1/7 = .14286 [+-] .000005. It should +be observed that the numerical value of the error is to be subtracted +from or added to the stated value according as the error is positive or +negative. + +(iii) The limit of error can be expressed as a fraction of the number as +stated. Thus 1/7 = .143 [+-] .0005 can be written 1/7 = 143(1 [+-] +1/286). + +83. _Accuracy after Arithmetical Operations._--If the numbers which are +the subject of operations are not all exact, the accuracy of the result +requires special investigation in each case. + +Additions and subtractions are simple. If, for instance, the values of a +and b, correct to two places of decimals, are 3.58 and 1.34, then 2.24, +as the value of a-b, is not necessarily correct to two places. The limit +of error of each being [+-].005, the limit of error of their sum or +difference is [+-].01. + +For multiplication we make use of the formula (S 60 (i)) (a' [+-] +[alpha])(b' [+-] [beta]) = a'b' + [alpha][beta] [+-] (a'[beta] + +b'[alpha]). If a' and b' are the stated values, and [+-][alpha] and +[+-][beta] the respective limits of error, we ought strictly to take +a'b' + [alpha][beta] as the product, with a limit of error [+-](a'[beta] ++ b'[alpha]). In practice, however, both [alpha][beta] and a certain +portion of a'b' are small in comparison with a'[beta] and b'[alpha], and +we therefore replace a'b' + [alpha][beta] by an approximate value, and +increase the limit of error so as to cover the further error thus +introduced. In the case of the two numbers given in the last paragraph, +the product lies between 3.575 X 1.335 = 4.772625 and 3.585 X 1.345 = +4.821825. We might take the product as (3.58 X 1.34) + (.005)^2 = +4.797225, the limits of error being [+-].005(3.58 + 1.34) = [+-].0246; +but it is more convenient to write it in such a form as 4.797 [+-] .025 +or 4.80 [+-] .03. + +If the number of decimal places to which a result is to be accurate is +determined beforehand, it is usually not necessary in the actual working +to go to more than two or three places beyond this. At the close of the +work the extra figures are dropped, the last figure which remains being +corrected (S 82 (i)) if necessary. + + +VIII. SURDS AND LOGARITHMS + +84. _Roots and Surds._--The pth root of a number (S 43) may, if the +number is an integer, be found by expressing it in terms of its prime +factors; or, if it is not an integer, by expressing it as a fraction in +its lowest terms, and finding the pth roots of the numerator and of the +denominator separately. Thus to find the cube root of 1728, we write it +in the form 2^6 . 3^3, and find that its cube root is 2^2 . 3 = 12; or, +to find the cube root of 1.728, we write it as 1728/1000 = 216/125 = +(2^3 . 3^3)/5^3, and find that the cube root is (2.3)/5 = 1.2. Similarly +the cube root of 2197 is 13. But we cannot find any number whose cube is +2000. + +It is, however, possible to find a number whose cube shall approximate +as closely as we please to 2000. Thus the cubes of 12.5 and of 12.6 are +respectively 1953.125 and 2000.376, so that the number whose cube +differs as little as possible from 2000 is somewhere between 12.5 and +12.6. Again the cube of 12.59 is 1995.616979, so that the number lies +between 12.59 and 12.60. We may therefore consider that there is some +number x whose cube is 2000, and we can find this number to any degree +of accuracy that we please. + +A number of this kind is called a _surd_; the surd which is the pth root +of N is written [root p]N, but if the index is 2 it is usually omitted, +so that the square root of N is written [root]N. + +85. _Surd as a Power._--We have seen (SS 43, 44) that, if we take the +successive powers of a number N, commencing with 1, they may be written +N^0, N^1, N^2, N^3, ..., the series of indices being the standard +series; and we have also seen (S 44) that multiplication of any two of +these numbers corresponds to addition of their indices. Hence we may +insert in the power-series numbers with fractional indices, provided +that the multiplication of these numbers follows the same law. The +number denoted by N^(1/3) will therefore be such that N^(1/3) X N^(1/3) +X N^(1/3) = N^(1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3) = N; i.e. it will be the cube root of N. +By analogy with the notation of fractional numbers, N^(2/3) will be +N^(1/3 + 1/3) = N^(1/3) X N^(1/3); and, generally, N^(p/q) will mean the +product of p numbers, the product of q of which is equal to N. Thus +N^(2/6) will not mean the _same_ as N^(1/3), but will mean the square of +N^(1/6); but this will be _equal_ to N^(1/3), i.e. ([root 6]N)^2 = [root +3]N. + +86. _Multiplication and Division of Surds._--To add or subtract +fractional numbers, we must reduce them to a common denominator; and +similarly, to multiply or divide surds, we must express them as +power-numbers with the same index. Thus ([root 3]2) X ([root]5) = +2^(1/3) X 5^(1/2) = 2^(2/6) X 5^(3/6) = 4^(1/6) X 125^(1/6) = 500^(1/6) += [root 6]500. + +87. _Antilogarithms._--If we take a fixed number, e.g. 2, as base, and +take as indices the successive decimal numbers to any particular number +of places of decimals, we get a series of _antilogarithms_ of the +indices to this base. Thus, if we go to two places of decimals, we have +as the integral series the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, ... which are the values +of 2^0, 2^1, 2^2, ... and we insert within this series the successive +powers of x, where x is such that x^100 = 2. We thus get the numbers +2^.01, 2^.02, 2^.03, ..., which are the antilogarithms of .01, .02, .03, +... to base 2; the first antilogarithm being 2^.00 = 1, which is thus +the antilogarithm of 0 to this (or any other) base. The series is formed +by successive multiplication, and any antilogarithm to a larger number +of decimal places is formed from it in the same way by multiplication. +If, for instance, we have found 2^(.31), then the value of 2^(.316) is +found from it by multiplying by the 6th power of the 1000th root of 2. + +For practical purposes the number taken as base is 10; the convenience +of this being that the increase of the index by an integer means +multiplication by the corresponding power of 10, i.e. it means a +shifting of the decimal point. In the same way, by dividing by powers of +10 we may get negative indices. + +88. _Logarithms._--If N is the antilogarithm of p to the base a, i.e. if +N = a^p, then p is called the logarithm of N to the base a, and is +written log_a N. As the table of antilogarithms is formed by successive +multiplications, so the logarithm of any given number is in theory +found by successive divisions. Thus, to find the logarithm of a number +to base 2, the number being greater than 1, we first divide repeatedly +by 2 until we get a number between 1 and 2; then divide repeatedly by +[root 10]2 until we get a number between 1 and [root 10]2; then divide +repeatedly by [root 100]2; and so on. If, for instance, we find that the +number is approximately equal to 2^3 X ([root 10]2)^5 X ([root 100]2)^7 +X ([root 1000]2)^4, it may be written 2^(3.574), and its logarithm to +base 2 is 3.574. + +For a further explanation of logarithms, and for an explanation of the +treatment of cases in which an antilogarithm is less than 1, see +LOGARITHM. + +For practical purposes logarithms are usually calculated to base 10, so +that log10 10 = 1, log10 100 = 2, &c. + + +IX. UNITS + +89. _Change of Denomination_ of a numerical quantity is usually called +_reduction_, so that this term covers, e.g., the expression of L153, 7s. +4d. as shillings and pence and also the expression of 3067s. 4d. as L, +s. and d. + +The usual statement is that to express L153, 7s. as shillings we +multiply 153 by 20 and add 7. This, as already explained (S 37), is +incorrect. L153 denotes 153 units, each of which is L1 or 20s.; and +therefore we must multiply 20s. by 153 and add 7s., i.e. multiply 20 by +153 (the unit being now 1s.) and add 7. This is the expression of the +process on the grouping method. On the counting method we have a scale +with every 20th shilling marked as a L; there are 153 of these 20's, and +7 over. + + A + +-------------+---------+ + | 1s. | 12d. | + +-------------+-------------+---------+ + |L1 | 20s. | | + +-------------+-------------+---------+ + |L153, 7s. 4d.| 3067s. 4d. | 36808d. | + +-------------+-------------+---------+ + + B + +-----------+---------------+ + | 20s. | L1 | + +---------+-----------+---------------+ + | 12d. | 1s. | | + +---------+-----------+---------------+ + | 36808d. | 3067s. 4d.| L153, 7s. 4d. | + +---------+-----------+---------------+ + +The simplest case, in which the quantity can be expressed as an integral +number of the largest units involved, has already been considered (SS +37, 42). The same method can be applied in other cases by regarding a +quantity expressed in several denominations as a fractional number of +units of the largest denomination mentioned; thus 7s. 4d. is to be taken +as meaning 7(4/12)s., but L0, 7s. 4d. as L0 (7(4/12))/20 (S 17). The +reduction of L153, 7s. 4d. to pence, and of 36808d. to L, s. d., on this +principle, is shown in diagrams A and B above. + +For reduction of pounds to shillings, or shillings to pounds, we must +consider that we have a multiple-table (S 36) in which the multiples of +L1 and of 20s. are arranged in parallel columns; and similarly for +shillings and pence. + +90. _Change of Unit._--The statement "L153 = 3060s." is not a statement +of _equality_ of the same kind as the statement "153 X 20 = 3060," but +only a statement of _equivalence_ for certain purposes; in other words, +it does not convey an absolute truth. It is therefore of interest to see +whether we cannot replace it by an absolute truth. + +To do this, consider what the ordinary processes of multiplication and +division mean in reference to concrete objects. If we want to give, to 5 +boys, 4 apples each, we are said to multiply 4 apples by 5. We cannot +multiply 4 apples by 5 boys, for then we should get 20 "boy-apples," an +expression which has no meaning. Or, again, to distribute 20 apples +amongst 5 boys, we are not regarded as dividing 20 apples by 5 boys, but +as dividing 20 apples by the number 5. The multiplication or division +here involves the omission of the unit "boy," and the operation is +incomplete. The complete operation, in each case, is as follows. + +(i) In the case of multiplication we commence with the conception of the +number "5" and the unit "boy"; and we then convert this unit into 4 +apples, and thus obtain the result, 20 apples. The conversion of the +unit may be represented as multiplication by a factor (4 apples)/(1 +boy), so that the operation is [(4 apples)/(1 boy)] X (5 boys) = 5 X [(4 +apples)/(1 boy)] X (1 boy) = 5 X 4 apples = 20 apples. Similarly, to +convert L153 into shillings we must multiply it by a factor 20s./L1, so +that we get + + (20s./L1) X L153 = 153 X (20s./L1) X L1 = 153 X 20s. = 3060s. + +Hence we can only regard L153 as being equal to 3060s. if we regard this +converting factor as unity. + +(ii) In the case of partition we can express the complete operation if +we extend the meaning of division so as to enable us to divide 20 apples +by 5 boys. We thus get (20 apples)/(5 boys) = (4 apples)/(1 boy), which +means that the distribution can be effected by distributing at the rate +of 4 apples per boy. The converting factor mentioned under (i) therefore +represents a _rate_; and partition, applied to concrete cases, leads to +a rate. + +In reference to the use of the sign X with the converting factor, it +should be observed that "(7 lb.)/(4 lb.) X" symbolizes the replacing of +so many times 4 lb. by the same number of times 7 lb., while "(7/4) X" +symbolizes the replacing of 4 times something by 7 times that something. + + +X. ARITHMETICAL REASONING + +91. _Correspondence of Series of Numbers._--In SS 33-42 we have dealt +with the parallelism of the original number-series with a series +consisting of the corresponding multiples of some unit, whether a number +or a numerical quantity; and the relations arising out of +multiplication, division, &c., have been exhibited by diagrams +comprising pairs of corresponding terms of the two series. This, +however, is only a particular case of the correspondence of two series. +In considering addition, for instance, we have introduced two parallel +series, each being the original number-series, but the two being placed +in different positions. If we add 1, 2, 3, ... to 6, we obtain a series +7, 8, 9, ... , the terms of which correspond with those of the original +series 1, 2, 3,... + +Again, in SS 61-75 and 84-88 we have considered various kinds of numbers +other than those in the original number-series. In general, these have +involved two of the original numbers, e.g. 5^3 involves 5 and 3, and +log2 8 involves 2 and 8. In some cases, however, e.g. in the case of +negative numbers and reciprocals, only one is involved; and there might +be three or more, as in the case of a number expressed by (a + b)^n. If +all but one of these constituent elements are settled beforehand, e.g. +if we take the numbers 5, 5^2, 5^3, ..., or the numbers [root 3]1, [root +3]2, [root 3]3, ... or log10 1.001, log10 1.002, log10 1.003 ... we +obtain a series in which each term corresponds with a term of the +original number-series. + + A B C + +---+-----+ +---+----+ +---+---------+ + | n |6 + n| | n | 4n | | n | [root]n | + +---+-----+ +---+----+ +---+---------+ + | 0 | 6 | | 0 | 0 | | 0 | .000 | + | 1 | 7 | | 1 | 4 | | 1 | 1.000 | + | 2 | 8 | | 2 | 8 | | 2 | 1.414 | + | 3 | 9 | | 3 | 12 | | 3 | 1.732 | + | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | + | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | + | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | + +---+-----+ +---+----+ +---+---------+ + +This correspondence is usually shown by _tabulation_, i.e. by the +formation of a table in which the original series is shown in one +column, and each term of the second series is placed in a second column +opposite the corresponding term of the first series, each column being +headed by a description of its contents. It is sometimes convenient to +begin the first series with 0, and even to give the series of negative +numbers; in most cases, however, these latter are regarded as belonging +to a different series, and they need not be considered here. The +diagrams, A, B, C are simple forms of tables; A giving a sum-series, B a +multiple-series, and C a series of square roots, calculated +approximately. + +92. _Correspondence of Numerical Quantities._--Again, in S 89, we have +considered cases of multiple-tables of numerical quantities, where each +quantity in one series is _equivalent_ to the corresponding quantity in +the other series. We might extend this principle to cases in which the +terms of two series, whether of numbers or of numerical quantities, +merely _correspond_ with each other, the correspondence being the result +of some relation. The volume of a cube, for instance, bears a certain +relation to the length of an edge of the cube. This relation is not one +of proportion; but it may nevertheless be expressed by tabulation, as +shown at D. + + D + +-----------+-------------+ + | Length of | Volume | + | edge in | of | + | inches. | cube. | + +-----------+-------------+ + | 0 | Nil. | + | 1 | 1 cub. in. | + | 2 | 8 cub. in. | + | 3 | 27 cub. in. | + | . | . | + | . | . | + | . | . | + +-----------+-------------+ + +93. _Interpolation._--In most cases the quantity in the second column +may be regarded as increasing or decreasing continuously as the number +in the first column increases, and it has intermediate values +corresponding to intermediate (i.e. fractional or decimal) numbers not +shown in the table. The table in such cases is not, and cannot be, +complete, even up to the number to which it goes. For instance, a cube +whose edge is 1-1/2 in. has a definite volume, viz. 3(3/8) cub. in. The +determination of any such intermediate value is performed by +_Interpolation_ (q.v.). + +In treating a fractional number, or the corresponding value of the +quantity in the second column, as intermediate, we are in effect +regarding the numbers 1, 2, 3, ..., and the corresponding numbers in the +second column, as denoting points between which other numbers lie, i.e. +we are regarding the numbers as _ordinal_, not cardinal. The transition +is similar to that which arises in the case of geometrical measurement +(S 26), and it is an essential feature of all reasoning with regard to +continuous quantity, such as we have to deal with in real life. + +94. _Nature of Arithmetical Reasoning._--The simplest form of +arithmetical reasoning consists in the determination of the term in one +series corresponding to a given term in another series, when the +relation between the two series is given; and it implies, though it does +not necessarily involve, the establishment of each series as a whole by +determination of its unit. A method involving the determination of the +unit is called a _unitary_ method. When the unit is not determined, the +reasoning is algebraical rather than arithmetical. If, for instance, +three terms of a proportion are given, the fourth can be obtained by the +relation given at the end of S 57, this relation being then called the +_Rule of Three_; but this is equivalent to the use of an algebraical +formula. + +More complicated forms of arithmetical reasoning involve the use of +series, each term in which corresponds to particular terms in two or +more series jointly; and cases of this kind are usually dealt with by +special methods, or by means of algebraical formulae. The old-fashioned +problems about the amount of work done by particular numbers of men, +women and boys, are of this kind, and really involve the solution of +simultaneous equations. They are not suitable for elementary purposes, +as the arithmetical relations involved are complicated and difficult to +grasp. + + +XI. METHODS OF CALCULATION + +(i.) _Exact Calculation._ + +95. _Working from Left._--It is desirable, wherever possible, to perform +operations on numbers or numerical quantities from the left, rather than +from the right. There are several reasons for this. In the first place, +an operation then corresponds more closely, at an elementary stage, with +the concrete process which it represents. If, for instance, we had one +sum of L3, 15s. 9d. and another of L2, 6s. 5d., we should add them by +putting the coins of each denomination together and commencing the +addition with the L. In the second place, this method fixes the +attention at once on the larger, and therefore more important, parts of +the quantities concerned, and thus prevents arithmetical processes from +becoming too abstract in character. In the third place, it is a better +preparation for dealing with approximate calculations. Finally, +experience shows that certain operations in which the result is written +down at once--e.g. addition or subtraction of two numbers or quantities, +and multiplication by some small numbers--are with a little practice +performed more quickly and more accurately from left to right. + +96. _Addition._--There is no difference in principle between addition +(or subtraction) of numbers and addition (or subtraction) of numerical +quantities. In each case the grouping system involves rearrangement, +which implies the commutative law, while the counting system requires +the expression of a quantity in different denominations to be regarded +as a notation in a varying scale (SS 17, 32). We need therefore consider +numerical quantities only, our results being applicable to numbers by +regarding the digits as representing multiples of units in different +denominations. + +When the result of addition in one denomination can be partly expressed +in another denomination, the process is technically called _carrying_. +The name is a bad one, since it does not correspond with any ordinary +meaning of the verb. It would be better described as _exchanging_, by +analogy with the "changing" of subtraction. When, e.g., we find that the +sum of 17s. and 18s. is 35s., we take out 20 of the 35 shillings, and +exchange them for L1. + +To add from the left, we have to look ahead to see whether the next +addition will require an exchange. Thus, in adding L3, 17s. 0d. to L2, +18s. 0d., we write down the sum of L3 and L2 as L6, not as L5, and the +sum of 17s. and 18s. as 15s., not as 35s. + +When three or more numbers or quantities are added together, the result +should always be checked by adding both upwards and downwards. It is +also useful to look out for pairs of numbers or quantities which make 1 +of the next denomination, e.g. 7 and 3, or 8d. and 4d. + +97. _Subtraction._--To subtract L3, 5s. 4d. from L9, 7s. 8d., on the +grouping system, we split up each quantity into its denominations, +perform the subtractions independently, and then regroup the results as +the "remainder" L6, 2s. 4d. On the counting system we can count either +forwards or backwards, and we can work either from the left or from the +right. If we count forwards we find that to convert L3, 5s. 4d. into L9, +7s. 8d. we must successively add L6, 2s. and 4d. if we work from the +left, or 4d., 2s. and L6 if we work from the right. The intermediate +values obtained by the successive additions are different according as +we work from the left or from the right, being L9, 5s. 4d. and L9, 7s. +4d. in the one case, and L3, 5s. 8d. and L3, 7s. 8d. in the other. If we +count backwards, the intermediate values are L3, 7s. 8d. and L3, 5s. 8d. +in the one case, and L9, 7s. 4d. and L9, 5s. 4d. in the other. + +The determination of each element in the remainder involves reference to +an addition-table. Thus to subtract 5s. from 7s. we refer to an +addition-table giving the sum of any two quantities, each of which is +one of the series 0s., 1s., ... 19s. + +Subtraction by counting forward is called _complementary addition_. + +To subtract L3, 5s. 8d. from L9, 10s. 4d., on the grouping system, we +must _change_ 1s. out of the 10s. into 12d., so that we subtract L3, 5s. +8d. from L9, 9s. 16d. On the counting system it will be found that, in +determining the number of shillings in the remainder, we subtract 5s. +from 9s. if we count forwards, working from the left, or backwards, +working from the right; while, if we count backwards, working from the +left, or forwards, working from the right, the subtraction is of 6s. +from 10s. In the first two cases the successive values (in direct or +reverse order) are L3, 5s. 8d., L9, 5s. 8d., L9, 9s. 8d. and L9, 10s. +4d.; while in the last two cases they are L9, 10s. 4d., L3, 10s. 4d., +L3, 6s. 4d. and L3, 5s. 8d. + +In subtracting from the left, we look ahead to see whether a 1 in any +denomination must be reserved for changing; thus in subtracting 274 from +637 we should put down 2 from 6 as 3, not as 4, and 7 from 3 as 6. + +98. _Multiplication-Table._--For multiplication and division we use a +_multiplication-table_, which is a multiple-table, arranged as explained +in S 36, and giving the successive multiples, up to 9 times or further, +of the numbers from 1 (or better, from 0) to 10, 12 or 20. The column +(vertical) headed 3 will give the multiples of 3, while the row +(horizontal) commencing with 3 will give the values of 3 X 1, 3 X 2,... +To multiply by 3 we use the row. To divide by 3, in the sense of +partition, we also use the row; but to divide by 3 as a unit we use the +column. + +99. _Multiplication by a Small Number._--The idea of a large multiple +of a small number is simpler than that of a small multiple of a large +number, but the calculation of the latter is easier. It is therefore +convenient, in finding the product of two numbers, to take the smaller +as the multiplier. + +To find 3 times 427, we apply the distributive law (S 58 (vi)) that +3.427 = 3(400 + 20 + 7) = 3.400 + 3.20 + 3.7. This, if we regard 3.427 +as 427 + 427 + 427, is a direct consequence of the commutative law for +addition (S 58 (iii)), which enables us to add separately the hundreds, +the tens and the ones. To find 3.400, we treat 100 as the unit (as in +addition), so that 3.400 = 3.4.100 = 12.100 = 1200; and similarly for +3.20. These are examples of the associative law for multiplication (S 58 +(iv)). + +100. _Special Cases._--The following are some special rules:-- + +(i) To multiply by 5, multiply by 10 and divide by 2. (And conversely, +to divide by 5, we multiply by 2 and divide by 10.) + +(ii) In multiplying by 2, from the left, add 1 if the next figure of the +multiplicand is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9. + +(iii) In multiplying by 3, from the left, add 1 when the next figures +are not less than 33 ... 334 and not greater than 66 ... 666, and 2 when +they are 66 ... 667 and upwards. + +(iv) To multiply by 7, 8, 9, 11 or 12, treat the multiplier as 10 - 3, +10 - 2, 10 - 1, 10 + 1 or 10 + 2; and similarly for 13, 17, 18, 19, &c. + +(v) To multiply by 4 or 6, we can either multiply from the left by 2 and +then by 2 or 3, or multiply from the right by 4 or 6; or we can treat +the multiplier as 5 - 1 or 5 + 1. + +101. _Multiplication by a Large Number._--When both the numbers are +large, we split up one of them, preferably the multiplier, into separate +portions. Thus 231.4273 = (200 + 30 + 1).4273 = 200.4273 + 30.4273 + +1.4273. This gives the _partial products_, the sum of which is the +complete products. The process is shown fully in A below,-- + + A B C + | | + | 4273 | 4273 1 - 04273 + -----+-------- ------+--------- 2 - 08546 + 200 | 854600 | 8546 3 - 12819 + 30 | 128190 231 | 12819 . . + 1 | 4273 | 4273 . . + -----+-------- +--------- . . + 231 | 987063 | 987063 10 - 042730 + ============== ========== + +and more concisely in B. To multiply 4273 by 200, we use the commutative +law, which gives 200.4273 = 2 X 100 X 4273 = 2 X 4273 X 100 = 8546 X 100 += 854600; and similarly for 30.4273. In B the terminal 0's of the +partial products are omitted. It is usually convenient to make out a +preliminary table of multiples up to 10 times; the table being checked +at 5 times (S 100) and at 10 times. + +The main difficulty is in the correct placing of the curtailed partial +products. The first step is to regard the product of two numbers as +containing as many digits as the two numbers put together. The table of +multiples will them be as in C. The next step is to arrange the +multiplier and the multiplicand above the partial products. For +elementary work the multiplicand may come immediately after the +multiplier, as in D; the last figure of each partial product then comes +immediately under the corresponding figure of the multiplier. A better +method, which leads up to the multiplication of decimals and of +approximate values of numbers, is to place the first figure of the +multipler under the first figure of the multiplicand, as in E; the first +figure of each partial product will then come under the corresponding +figure of the multiplier. + + D E + | | | 4273 + | 4273| 231 | 231 + ----+-----+----- ----+--------- + | 0854:6 | 08546 + 231 | 128:19 231 | 12819 + | 04:273 | 04273 + +-----:----- +--------- + | 0987:063 | 0987063 + ============= ========== + +102. _Contracted Multiplication._--The partial products are sometimes +omitted; the process saves time in writing, but is not easy. The +principle is that, e.g. (a.10^2 + b.10 + c)(p.10^2 + q^10 + r) = ap.10^4 ++ (aq + bp).10^3 + (ar + bq + cp).10^2 + (br + cq).10 + cr. Hence the +digits are multiplied in pairs, and grouped according to the power of 10 +which each product contains. A method of performing the process is shown +here for the case of 162.427. The principle is that 162.427 = 100.427 + +60.427 + 2.427 = 1.42700 + 6.4270 + 2.427; but, instead of writing down +the separate products, we (in effect) write 42700, 4270, and 427 in +separate rows, with the multipliers 1, 6, 2 in the margin, and then +multiply each number in each column by the corresponding multiplier in +the margin, making allowance for any figures to be "carried." Thus the +second figure (from the right) is given by 1 + 2.2 + 6.7 = 47, the 1 +being carried. + + +---+------- + | 1 | 427 + | 6 | 427 + | 2 | 427 + +---+------- + 69174 + ===== + +103. _Aliquot Parts._--For multiplication by a proper fraction or a +decimal, it is sometimes convenient, especially when we are dealing with +mixed quantities, to convert the multiplier into the sum or difference +of a number of fractions, each of which has 1 as its numerator. Such +fractions are called _aliquot parts_ (from Lat. _aliquot_, some, +several). This can usually be done in a good many ways. Thus 5/6 = 1 +-1/6, and also = 1/2 + 1/3; and 15% = .15 = 1/10 + 1/20 = 1/6 - 1/60 = +1/8 + 1/40. The fractions should generally be chosen so that each part +of the product may be obtained from an earlier part by a comparatively +simple division. Thus 1/2 + 1/20 - 1/60 is a simpler expression for 8/15 +than 1/2 + 1/30. + +The process may sometimes by applied two or three times in succession; +thus 8/15 = 4/5 . 2/3 = (1 - 1/5)(1 - 1/3), and 33/40 = 3/4 . 11/10 = (1 +-1/4)(1 + 1/10). + +104. _Practice._--The above is a particular case of the method called +_practice_, but the nomenclature of the method is confusing. There are +two kinds of practice, _simple practice_ and _compound practice_, but +the latter is the simpler of the two. To find the cost of 2 lb. 8 oz. of +butter at 1s. 2d. a lb., we multiply 1s. 2d. by 2(8/16) = 2-1/2. This +straightforward process is called "compound" practice. "Simple" practice +involves an application of the commutative law. To find the cost of n +articles at La, bs, cd. each, we express La, bs, cd. in the form L(a + +f), where f is a fraction (or the sum of several fractions); we then say +that the cost, being n X L(a + f), is equal to (a + f) X Ln, and apply +the method of compound practice, i.e. the method of aliquot parts. + +105. _Multiplication of a Mixed Number._--When a mixed quantity or a +mixed number has to be multiplied by a large number, it is sometimes +convenient to express the former in terms of one only of its +denominations. Thus, to multiply L7, 13s. 6d. by 469, we may express the +former in any of the ways L7.675, 307/40 of L1, 153-1/2s., 153.5s., 307 +sixpences, or 1842 pence. Expression in L and decimals of L1 is usually +recommended, but it depends on circumstances whether some other method +may not be simpler. + +A sum of money cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal of L1 unless it +is a multiple of 3/4d. A rule for approximate conversion is that 1s. = +.05 of L1, and that 2-1/2d.= .01 of L1. For accurate conversion we write +.1L for each 2s., and .001L for each farthing beyond 2s., their number +being first increased by one twenty-fourth. + +106. _Division._ Of the two kinds of division, although the idea of +partition is perhaps the more elementary, the process of measuring is +the easier to perform, since it is equivalent to a series of +subtractions. Starting from the dividend, we in theory keep on +subtracting the unit, and count the number of subtractions that have to +be performed until nothing is left. In actual practice, of course, we +subtract large multiples at a time. Thus, to divide 987063 by 427, we +reverse the procedure of S 101, but with intermediate stages. We first +construct the multiple-table C, and then subtract successively 200 +times, 30 times and 1 times; these numbers being the _partial +quotients_. The theory of the process is shown fully in F. Treating x as +the unknown quotient corresponding to the original dividend, we obtain +successive dividends corresponding to quotients x - 200, x - 230 and x - +231. The original dividend is written as 0987063, since its initial +figures are greater than those of the divisor; if the dividend had +commenced with (e.g.) 3 ... it would not have been necessary to insert +the initial 0. At each stage of the division the number of digits in the +reduced dividend is decreased by one. The final dividend being 0000, we +have x - 231 = 0, and therefore x = 231. + + F + +---------+----------+ + | | 4273 | + +=========+==========+ + | x | 0987063 | + +---------+----------+ + | 200 | 0854600 | + +---------+----------+ + | x - 200 | 132463 | + +---------+----------+ + | 30 | 128190 | + +---------+----------+ + | x - 230 | 04273 | + +---------+----------+ + | 1 | 04273 | + +---------+----------+ + | x - 231 | 0000 | + +---------+----------+ + +107. _Methods of Division._--What are described as different methods of +division (by a single divisor) are mainly different methods of writing +the successive figures occurring in the process. In _long division_ the +divisor is put on the left of the dividend, and the quotient on the +right; and each partial product, with the remainder after its +subtraction, is shown in full. In _short division_ the divisor and the +quotient are placed respectively on the left of and below the dividend, +and the partial products and remainders are not shown at all. The +_Austrian_ method (sometimes called in Great Britain the _Italian_ +method) differs from these in two respects. The first, and most +important, is that the quotient is placed above the dividend. The +second, which is not essential to the method, is that the remainders are +shown, but not the partial products; the remainders being obtained by +working from the right, and using complementary addition. It is doubtful +whether the brevity of this latter process really compensates for its +greater difficulty. + +The advantage of the Austrian arrangement of the quotient lies in the +indication it gives of the true value of each partial quotient. A +modification of the method, corresponding with D of S 101, is shown in +G; the fact that the partial product 08546 is followed by two blank +spaces shows that the figure 2 represents a partial quotient 200. An +alternative arrangement, corresponding to E of S 101, and suited for +more advanced work, is shown in H. + + G H + | | | 4273 + | 4273 | 2 | 2 + --+------+----- --+------------ + | 0987063 | 0987063 + | 08546 | 08546 + --+------------ --+------------ + | | + +108. _Division with Remainder._--It has so far been assumed that the +division can be performed exactly, i.e. without leaving an ultimate +remainder. Where this is not the case, difficulties are apt to arise, +which are mainly due to failure to distinguish between the two kinds of +division. If we say that the division of 41d. by 12 gives quotient 3d. +with remainder 5d., we are speaking loosely; for in fact we only +distribute 36d. out of the 41d., the other 5d. remaining undistributed. +It can only be distributed by a subdivision of the unit; i.e. the true +result of the division is 3(5/12)d. On the other hand, we can quite well +express the result of dividing 41d. by 1s (= 12d.) as 3 with 5d. (not +"5") over, for this is only stating that 41d. = 3s. 5d.; though the +result might be more exactly expressed as 3(5/12)s. + +Division with a remainder has thus a certain air of unreality, which is +accentuated when the division is performed by means of factors (S 42). +If we have to divide 935 by 240, taking 12 and 20 as factors, the result +will depend on the fact that, in the notation of S 17, + + (20) (12) + 935 = 3 " 17 " 11. + +In incomplete partition the quotient is 3, and the remainders 11 and 17 +are in effect disregarded; if, after finding the quotient 3, we want to +know what remainder would be produced by a direct division, the simplest +method is to multiply 3 by 240 and subtract the result from 935. In +complete partition the successive quotients are 77(11/12) and +3(17(11/12))/20 = 3(215/240). + +Division in the sense of measuring leads to such a result as 935d. = L3, +17s. 11d.; we may, if we please, express the 17s. 11d. as 215d., but +there is no particular reason why we should do so. + +109. _Division by a Mixed Number._--To divide by a mixed number, when +the quotient is seen to be large, it usually saves time to express the +divisor as either a simple fraction or a decimal of a unit of one of the +denominations. Exact division by a mixed number is not often required in +real life; where approximate division is required (e.g. in determining +the rate of a "dividend"), approximate expression of the divisor in +terms of the largest unit is sufficient. + +110. _Calculation of Square Root._--The calculation of the square root +of a number depends on the formula (iii) of S 60. To find the square +root of N, we first find some number a whose square is less than N, and +subtract a^2 from N. If the complete square root is a + b, the remainder +after subtracting a^2 is (2a + b) b. We therefore guess b by dividing +the remainder by 2a, and form the product (2a + b) b. If this is equal +to the remainder, we have found the square root. If it exceeds the +square root, we must alter the value of b, so as to get a product which +does not exceed the remainder. If the product is less than the +remainder, we get a new remainder, which is N - (a + b)^2; we then +assume the full square root to be c, so that the new remainder is equal +to (2a + 2b + c) c, and try to find c in the same way as we tried to +find b. + +An analogous method of finding cube root, based on the formula for (a + +b)^3, used to be given in text-books, but it is of no practical use. To +find a root other than a square root we can use logarithms, as explained +in S 113. + +(ii.) _Approximate Calculation._ + +111. _Multiplication._--When we have to multiply two numbers, and the +product is only required, or can only be approximately correct, to a +certain number of significant figures, we need only work to two or three +more figures (S 83), and then correct the final figure in the result by +means of the superfluous figures. + + | 2734 3 + | 3141 59 + -----+----------- + | 0820 29 + | 027 34 + | 10 94 + | 0 27 + | 14 + | 2 + -----+----------- + | 0859 + +A common method is to reverse the digits in one of the numbers; but this +is only appropriate to the old-fashioned method of writing down products +from the right. A better method is to ignore the positions of the +decimal points, and multiply the numbers as if they were decimals +between .1 and 1.0. The method E of S 101 being adopted, the +multiplicand and the multiplier are written with a space after as many +digits (of each) as will be required in the product (on the principle +explained in S 101); and the multiplication is performed from the left, +two extra figures being kept in. Thus, to multiply 27.343 by 3.1415927 +to one decimal place, we require 2 + 1 + 1 = 4 figures in the product. +The result is 085.9 = 85.9, the position of the decimal point being +determined by counting the figures before the decimal points in the +original numbers. + + | 3141 5927 + | 2734 + -----+------------ + | 0859 00 + | 0628 32 + | ------- + | 230 68 + | 219 91 + | ------- + | 10 77 + | 9 42 + | ------ + | 1 35 + | 1 26 + | ------ + +112. _Division._--In the same way, in performing approximate division, +we can at a certain stage begin to abbreviate the divisor, taking off +one figure (but with correction of the final figure of the partial +product) at each stage. Thus, to divide 85.9 by 3.1415927 to two places +of decimals, we in effect divide .0859 by .31415927 to four places of +decimals. In the work, as here shown, a 0 is inserted in front of the +859, on the principle explained in S 106. The result of the division is +27.34. + +113. _Logarithms._--Multiplication, division, involution and evolution, +when the results cannot be exact, are usually most simply performed, at +any rate to a first approximation, by means of a table of logarithms. +Thus, to find the square root of 2, we have log [root]2 = log (2^1/2) = +1/2 log 2. We take out log 2 from the table, halve it, and then find +from the table the number of which this is the logarithm. (See +LOGARITHM.) The _slide-rule_ (see CALCULATING MACHINES) is a simple +apparatus for the mechanical application of the methods of logarithms. + +When a first approximation has been obtained in this way, further +approximations can be obtained in various ways. Thus, having found +[root]2 = 1.414 approximately, we write [root]2 = 1.414 + [theta], +whence 2 = (1.414)^2 + (2.818)[theta] + [theta]^2. Since [theta]^2 is +less than 1/4 of (.001)^2, we can obtain three more figures +approximately by dividing 2 - (1.414)^2 by 2.818. + +114. _Binomial Theorem._--More generally, if we have obtained a as an +approximate value for the pth root of N, the binomial theorem gives as +an approximate formula [root p]N = a + [theta], where N = a^p + +pa^(p - 1)[theta]. + +115. _Series._--A number can often be expressed by a series of terms, +such that by taking successive terms we obtain successively closer +approximations. A decimal is of course a series of this kind, e.g. +3.14159 ... means 3 + 1/10 + 4/10^2 + 1/10^3 + 5/10^4 + 9/10^5 + ... A +series of aliquot parts is another kind, e.g. 3.1416 is a little less +than 3 + 1/7 - 1/800. + +_Recurring Decimals_ are a particular kind of series, which arise from +the expression of a fraction as a decimal. If the denominator of the +fraction, when it is in its lowest terms, contains any other prime +factors than 2 and 5, it cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal; but +after a certain point a definite series of figures will constantly +recur. The interest of these series is, however, mainly theoretical. + +116. _Continued Products._--Instead of being expressed as the sum of a +series of terms, a number may be expressed as the product of a series of +factors, which become successively more and more nearly equal to 1. For +example, + + 3.1416 = 3 X 10472/10000 = 3 X 1309/1250 = 3 X 22/21 X 2499/2500 = + 3(1 + 1/21)(1 - 1/2500). + +Hence, to multiply by 3.1416, we can multiply by 3(1/7), and subtract +1/2500 (= .0004) of the result; or, to divide by 3.1416, we can divide +by 3, then subtract 1/22 of the result, and then add 1/2499 of the new +result. + +117. _Continued Fractions._--The theory of _continued fractions_ (q.v.) +gives a method of expressing a number, in certain cases, as a continued +product. A continued fraction, of the kind we are considering, is an +expression of the form + + 1 + a + ------------- + 1 + b + --------- + 1 + c + ----- + d + &c. + +where b, c, d, ... are integers, and a is an integer or zero. The +expression is usually written, for compactness, a + 1/b+ 1/c+ 1/d+ &c. +The numbers a, b, c, d, ... are called the _quotients_. + +Any exact fraction can be expressed as a continued fraction, and there +are methods for expressing as continued fractions certain other numbers, +e.g. square roots, whose values cannot be expressed exactly as +fractions. + +The successive values, a/1, (ab + 1)/b, ..., obtained by taking account +of the successive quotients, are called _convergents_, i.e. convergents +to the true value. The following are the main properties of the +convergents. + +(i) If we precede the series of convergents by 0/1 and 1/0, then the +numerator (or denominator) of each term of the series 0/1, 1/0, a/1, (ab ++ 1)/b ..., after the first two, is found by multiplying the numerator +(or denominator) of the last preceding term by the corresponding +quotient and adding the numerator (or denominator) of the term before +that. If a is zero, we may regard 1/b as the first convergent, and +precede the series by 1/0 and 0/1. + +(ii) Each convergent is a fraction in its lowest terms. + +(iii) The convergents are alternately less and greater than the true +value. + +(iv) Each convergent is nearer to the true value than any other fraction +whose denominator is less than that of the convergent. + +(v) The difference of two successive convergents is the reciprocal of +the product of their denominators; e.g. (ab + 1)/b - a/1 = 1/(1.b), and +(abc + c + a)/(bc + 1) - (ab + 1)/b = (-1)/[b(bc + 1)]. + +It follows from these last three properties that if the successive +convergents are p1/1, p2/q2, p3/q3, ... the number can be expressed in +the form p1(1 + 1/p1q2)(1 - 1/p2q3)(1 + 1/p3q4) ..., and that if we go +up to the factor 1 [+-] 1/(p_n)(q_(n + 1)) the product of these factors +differs from the true value of the number by less than [+-][1/(q_n) +(q_(n + 1))]. + +In certain cases two or more factors can be combined so as to produce an +expression of the form 1 [+-] 1/k, where k is an integer. For instance, +3.1415927 = 3(1 + 1/3.7)(1 - 1/22.106)(1 + 1/333.113) ...; but the last +two of these factors may be combined as (1 - 1/22.113). Hence 3.1415927 += 3/1 . 22/21 . 2485/2486 ... + + +XII. APPLICATIONS + +(i.) _Systems of Measures._[1] + +118. _Metric System._--The metric system was adopted in France at the +end of the 18th century. The system is decimal throughout. The principal +units of length, weight and volume are the _metre, gramme_ (or _gram_) +and _litre_. Other units are derived from these by multiplication or +division by powers of 10, the names being denoted by prefixes. The +prefixes for multiplication by 10, 10^2, 10^3 and 10^4 are _deca-, +hecto-, kilo-_ and _myria-_, and those for division by 10, 10^2 and 10^3 +are _deci-, centi-_ and _milli-_; the former being derived from Greek, +and the latter from Latin. Thus _kilogramme_ means 1000 grammes, and +_centimetre_ means 1/100 of a metre. There are also certain special +units, such as the _hectare_, which is equal to a square hectometre, and +the _micron_, which is 1/1000 of a millimetre. + +The metre and the gramme are defined by standard measures preserved at +Paris. The litre is equal to a cubic decimetre. The gramme was intended +to be equal to the weight of a cubic centimetre of pure water at a +certain temperature, but the equality is only approximate. + +The metric system is now in use in the greater part of the civilized +world, but some of the measures retain the names of old disused +measures. In Germany, for instance, the _Pfund_ is 1/2 kilogramme, and +is approximately equal to 1(1/10) lb. English. + +119. _British Systems._--The British systems have various origins, and +are still subject to variations caused by local usage or by the usage of +particular businesses. The following tables are given as illustrations +of the arrangement adopted elsewhere in this article; the entries in any +column denote multiples or submultiples of the unit stated at the head +of the column, and the entries in any row give the expression of one +unit in term of the other units. + + LENGTH + + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + | Inch. | Foot. | Yard. | Chain. | Furlong. | Mile. | + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + | 1 | 1/12 | 1/36 | 1/792 | 1/7920 | 1/63360 | + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + | 12 | 1 | 1/3 | 1/66 | 1/660 | 1/5280 | + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + | 36 | 3 | 1 | 1/22 | 1/220 | 1/1760 | + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + | 792 | 66 | 22 | 1 | 1/10 | 1/80 | + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + | 7920 | 660 | 220 | 10 | 1 | 1/8 | + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + | 63360 | 5280 | 1760 | 80 | 8 | 1 | + +-------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+ + + WEIGHT (AVOIRDUPOIS) + + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + | Ounce. | Pound. | Stone. | Quarter. | Hundredweight. | Ton. | + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + | 1 | 1/16 | 1/224 | 1/448 | 1/1792 | 1/33840 | + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + | 16 | 1 | 1/14 | 1/28 | 1/112 | 1/2240 | + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + | 224 | 14 | 1 | 1/2 | 1/8 | 1/160 | + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + | 448 | 28 | 2 | 1 | 1/4 | 1/80 | + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + | 1792 | 112 | 8 | 4 | 1 | 1/20 | + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + | 33840 | 2240 | 160 | 80 | 20 | 1 | + +--------+--------+--------+----------+----------------+---------+ + (Also 7000 grains = 1 lb. avoirdupois.) + +120. _Change of System._--It is sometimes necessary, when a quantity is +expressed in one system, to express it in another, The following are +the ratios of some of the units; each unit is expressed approximately as +a decimal of the other, and their ratio is shown as a continued product +(S 116), a few of the corresponding convergents to the continued +fraction (S 117) being added in brackets. It must be remembered that the +number expressing any quantity in terms of a unit is _inversely +proportional_ to the magnitude of the unit, i.e. the number of new units +is to be found by multiplying the number of old units by the ratio of +the old unit to the new unit. + + Yard 9144 10000 11 884 8225 /11 32 8 4 235\ + ----- = ----- = ----- = -- . --- . ---- ... ( --,-- = -.-,--- ) + Metre 10000 10935 12 385 8224 \32 35 7 5 257/. + + Inch 25400 10000 5 66 1651 /5 33 127\ + ---------- = ----- = ----- = - . -- . ---- ... ( -, --, --- ) + Centimetre 10000 3937 2 65 1650 \2 13 50/. + + Mile 16093 10000 8 185 2369 /8 37 103\ + --------- = ----- = ----- = - . --- . ---- ... ( -, --, --- ) + Kilometre 10000 6214 5 184 2368 \5 23 64/. + + Square Yard 8361 10000 5 306 15250 /5 51 250\ + ------------ = ----- = ----- = - . --- . ----- ... ( -, --, --- ) + Square Metre 10000 11960 6 305 15249 \6 61 299/. + + Acre 4047 10000 2 85 5320 /2 17 380\ + ------- = ----- = ----- = - . -- . ---- ... ( -, --, --- ) + Hectare 10000 24711 5 84 5321 \5 42 939/. + + Quart 11365 10000 8 175 8976 /8 25 408\ + ----- = ----- = ----- = - . --- . ---- ...( -, --, --- ) + Litre 10000 8799 7 176 8975 \7 22 359/. + + Pound 4536 10000 1 10 484 29391 /1 5 44 303\ + ---------- = ----- = ----- = - . -- . --- . ----- .. ( -, --, --, --- ) + Kilogramme 10000 22046 2 11 485 29392 \2 11 97 668/. + +(ii.) _Special Applications._ + +121. _Commercial Arithmetic._--This term covers practically all dealings +with money which involve the application of the principle of proportion. +A simple class of cases is that which deals with equivalence of sums of +money in different currencies; these cases really come under S 120. In +other cases we are concerned with a proportion stated as a _numerical +percentage_, or as a _money percentage_ (i.e. a sum of money per L100), +or as a _rate_ in the L or the shilling. The following are some +examples. Percentage: _Brokerage, commission, discount, dividend, +interest, investment, profit and loss._ Rate in the L: _Discount, +dividend, rates, taxes._ Rate in the shilling: _Discount._ + +Text-books on arithmetic usually contain explanations of the chief +commercial transactions in which arithmetical calculations arise; it +will be sufficient in the present article to deal with interest and +discount, and to give some notes on percentages and rates in the L. +_Insurance_ and _Annuities_ are matters of general importance, which are +dealt with elsewhere under their own headings. + +122. _Percentages and Rates in the L._--In dealing with percentages and +rates it is important to notice whether the sum which is expressed as a +percentage of a rate on another sum is a part of or an addition to that +sum, or whether they are independent of one another. Income tax, for +instance, is calculated on income, and is in the nature of a deduction +from the income; but local rates are calculated in proportion to certain +other payments, actual or potential, and could without absurdity exceed +20s. in the L. + +It is also important to note that if the increase or decrease of an +amount A by a certain percentage produces B, it will require a different +percentage to decrease or increase B to A. Thus, if B is 20% less than +A, A is 25% greater than B. + +123. _Interest_ is usually calculated yearly or half-yearly, at a +certain rate per cent. on the principal. In legal documents the rate is +sometimes expressed as a certain sum of money "per centum per annum"; +here "centum" must be taken to mean "L100." + +_Simple interest_ arises where unpaid interest accumulates as a debt not +itself bearing interest; but, if this debt bears interest, the total, +i.e. interest and interest on interest, is called _compound interest._ +If 100r is the rate per cent. per annum, the simple interest on LA for n +years is LnrA, and the compound interest (supposing interest payable +yearly) is L[(1 + r)^n - 1]A. If n is large, the compound interest is +most easily calculated by means of logarithms. + +124. _Discount_ is of various kinds. Tradesmen allow discount for ready +money, this being usually at so much in the shilling or L. Discount may +be allowed twice in succession off quoted prices; in such cases the +second discount is off the reduced price, and therefore it is not +correct to add the two rates of discount together. Thus a discount of +20%, followed by a further discount of 25%, gives a total discount of +40%, not 45%, off the original amount. When an amount will fall due at +some future date, the _present value_ of the debt is found by deducting +discount at some rate per cent. for the intervening period, in the same +way as interest to be added is calculated. This discount, of course, is +not equal to the interest which the present value would produce at that +rate of interest, but is rather greater, so that the present value as +calculated in this way is less than the theoretical present value. + +125. Applications to _Physics_ are numerous, but are usually only of +special interest. A case of general interest is the measurement of +_temperature._ The graduation of a thermometer is determined by the +freezing-point and the boiling-point of water, the interval between +these being divided into a certain number of degrees, representing equal +increases of temperature. On the Fahrenheit scale the points are +respectively 32 deg. and 212 deg.; on the Centigrade scale they are 0 +deg. and 100 deg.; and on the Reaumur they are 0 deg. and 80 deg. From +these data a temperature as measured on one scale can be expressed on +either of the other two scales. + +126. _Averages_ occur in statistics, economics, &c. An average is found +by adding together several measurements of the same kind and dividing by +the number of measurements. In calculating an average it should be +observed that the addition of any numerical quantity (positive or +negative) to each of the measurements produces the addition of the same +quantity to the average, so that the calculation may often be simplified +by taking some particular measurement as a new zero from which to +measure. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the history of the subject, see W.W.R. Ball, + _Short History of Mathematics_ (1901), and F. Cajori, _History of + Elementary Mathematics_ (1896); or more detailed information in M. + Cantor, _Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Mathematik_ (1894-1901). L. + C. Conant, _The Number-Concept_ (1896), gives a very full account of + systems of numeration. For the latter, and for systems of notation, + reference may also be made to Peacock's article "Arithmetic" in the + _Encyclopaedia Metropolitana_, which contains a detailed account of + the Greek system. F. Galton, _Inquiries into Human Faculty_ (1883), + contains the first account of number-forms; for further examples and + references see D.E. Phillips, "Genesis of Number-Forms," _American + Journal of Psychology_, vol. viii. (1897). There are very few works + dealing adequately but simply with the principles of arithmetic. + Homersham Cox, _Principles of Arithmetic_ (1885), is brief and lucid, + but is out of print. _The Psychology of Number_, by J.A. McLellan and + J. Dewey (1895), contains valuable suggestions (some of which have + been utilized in the present article), but it deals only with number + as the measure of quantity, and requires to be read critically. This + work contains references to Grube's system, which has been much + discussed in America: for a brief explanation, see L. Seeley, _The + Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic_ (1890). On the teaching of + arithmetic, and of elementary mathematics generally, see J.W.A. + Young, _The Teaching of Mathematics in the Elementary and the + Secondary School_ (1907); D.E. Smith, _The Teaching of Elementary + Mathematics_ (1900), also contains an interesting general sketch; W. + P. Turnbull, _The Teaching of Arithmetic_ (1903), is more elaborate. + E.M. Langley, _A Treatise on Computation_ (1895), has notes on + approximate and abbreviated calculation. Text-books on arithmetic in + general and on particular applications are numerous, and any list + would soon be out of date. Recent English works have been influenced + by the brief _Report on the Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, + issued by the Mathematical Association (1905); but this is critical + rather than constructive. The Association has also issued a _Report on + the Teaching of Mathematics in Preparatory Schools_ (1907). In the + United States of America the _Report of the Committee of Ten_ on + secondary school studies (1893) and the _Report of the Committee of + Fifteen_ on elementary education (1893-1894), both issued by the + United States Bureau of Education, have attracted a good deal of + attention. Sir O. Lodge, _Easy Mathematics, chiefly Arithmetic_ + (1905), treats the subject broadly in its practical aspects. The + student who is interested in elementary teaching should consult the + annual bibliographies in the _Pedagogical Seminary_; an article by D. + E. Phillips in vol. v. (October 1897) contains references to works + dealing with the psychological aspect of number. For an account of + German methods, see W. King, _Report on Teaching of Arithmetic and + Mathematics in the Higher Schools of Germany_ (1903). (W. F. Sh.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See also WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. + + + + +ARIUS ([Greek: Areios]), a name celebrated in ecclesiastical history, +not so much on account of the personality of its bearer as of the +"Arian" controversy which he provoked. Our knowledge of Arius is scanty, +and nothing certain is known of his birth or of his early training. +Epiphanius of Salamis, in his well-known treatise against eighty +heresies (_Haer._ lxix. 3), calls him a Libyan by birth, and if the +statement of Sozomen, a church historian of the 5th century, is to be +trusted, he was, as a member of the Alexandrian church, connected with +the Meletian schism (see MELETIUS OF LYCOPOLIS), and on this account +excommunicated by Peter of Alexandria, who had ordained him deacon. +After the death of Peter (November 25, 311), he was received into +communion by Peter's successor, Achillas, elevated to the presbytery, +and put in charge of one of the great city churches, Baucalis, where he +continued to discharge his duties with apparent faithfulness and +industry after the accession of Alexander. This bishop also held him in +high repute. Theodoret (_Hist. Eccl._ i. 2) indeed does not hesitate to +say that Arius was chagrined because Alexander, instead of himself, had +been appointed to the see of Alexandria, and that the beginning of his +heretical attitude is, in consequence, to be attributed to discontent +and envy. But this must be rejected, for it is a common explanation of +heretical movements with the early church historians, and there is no +evidence for it in the original sources. However, Arius was ambitious. +Epiphanius, using older documents, describes him as a man inflamed with +his own opinionativeness, of a soft and smooth address, calculated to +persuade and attract, especially women: "in no time he had drawn away +seven hundred virgins from the church to his party." When the +controversy broke out, Arius was an old man. + +The real causes of the controversy lay in differences as to dogma. Arius +had received his theological education in the school of the presbyter +Lucian of Antioch, a learned man, and distinguished especially as a +biblical scholar. The latter was a follower of Paul of Samosata, bishop +of Antioch, who had been excommunicated in 269, but his theology differed +from that of his master in a fundamental point. Paul, starting with the +conviction that the One God cannot appear substantially ([Greek: +ousiodos]) on earth, and, consequently, that he cannot have become a +person in Jesus Christ, had taught that God had filled the man Jesus with +his Logos ([Greek: sophia]) or Power ([Greek: dynamis]). Lucian, on the +other hand, persisted in holding that the Logos became a person in +Christ. But since he shared the above-mentioned belief of his master, +nothing remained for him but to see in the Logos a second essence, +created by God before the world, which came down to earth and took upon +itself a human body. In this body the Logos filled the place of the +intellectual or spiritual principle. Lucian's Christ, then, was not +"perfect man," for that which constituted in him the personal element was +a divine essence; nor was he "perfect God," for the divine essence having +become a person was other than the One God, and of a nature foreign to +him. It is this idea which Arius took up and interpreted unintelligently. +His doctrinal position is explained in his letters to his patron +Eusebius, bishop of the imperial city of Nicomedia, and to Alexander of +Alexandria, and in the fragments of the poem in which he set forth his +dogmas, which bears the enigmatic title of "Thalia" ([Greek: Thaleia]), +used in Homer, in the sense of "a goodly banquet," most unjustly +ridiculed by Athanasius as an imitation of the licentious style of the +drinking-songs of the Egyptian Sotades (270 B.C.). From these writings it +can even nowadays be seen clearly that the principal object which he had +in view was firmly to establish the unity and simplicity of the eternal +God. However far the Son may surpass other created beings, he remains +himself a created being, to whom the Father before all time gave an +existence formed out of not being ([Greek: ex ouk onton]); hence the name +of _Exoukontians_ sometimes given to Arius's followers. On the other +hand, Arius affirmed of the Son that he was "perfect God, only-begotten" +([Greek: plaeraes theos monogenaes]); that through him God made the +worlds ([Greek: aiones], ages); that he was the product or offspring of +the Father, and yet not as one among things made ([Greek: gennaema all +ouch ton gegenaemenon]). In his eyes it was blasphemy when he heard that +Alexander proclaimed in public that "as God is eternal, so is his +Son,--when the Father, then the Son,--the Son is present in God without +birth ([Greek: agennaetos]), ever-begotten ([Greek: aeigenaes]), an +unbegotten-begotten ([Greek: agennaetogenaes])." He detected in his +bishop Gnosticism, Manichaeism and Sabellianism, and was convinced that +he himself was the champion of pure doctrine against heresy. He was quite +unconscious that his own monotheism was hardly to be distinguished from +that of the pagan philosophers, and that his Christ was a demi-god. + +For years the controversy may have been fermenting in the college of +presbyters at Alexandria. Sozomen relates that Alexander only interfered +after being charged with remissness in leaving Arius so long to disturb +the faith of the church. According to the general supposition, the +negotiations which led to the excommunication of Arius and his followers +among the presbyters and deacons took place in 318 or 319, but there are +good reasons for assigning the outbreak of the controversy to the time +following the overthrow of Licinius by Constantine, i.e. to the year +323. In any case, from this time events followed one another to a speedy +conclusion. Arius was not without adherents, even outside Alexandria. +Those bishops who, like him, had passed through the school of Lucian +were not inclined to let him fall without a struggle, as they recognized +in the views of their fellow-student their own doctrine, only set forth +in a somewhat radical fashion. In addressing to Eusebius of Nicomedia a +request for his help, Arius ended with the words: "Be mindful of our +adversity, thou faithful comrade of Lucian's school ([Greek: +sulloukianistaes])"; and Eusebius entered the lists energetically on his +behalf. But Alexander too was active; by means of a circular letter he +published abroad the excommunication of his presbyter, and the +controversy excited more and more general interest. + +It reached even the ears of Constantine. Now sole emperor, he saw in the +one Catholic church the best means of counteracting the movement in his +vast empire towards disintegration; and he at once realized how +dangerous dogmatic squabbles might prove to its unity. His letter, +preserved by the imperial biographer, Eusebius of Caesarea, is a state +document inspired by a wisely conciliatory policy; it made out both +parties to be equally in the right and in the wrong, at the same time +giving them both to understand that such questions, the meaning of which +would be grasped only by the few, had better not be brought into public +discussion; it was advisable to come to an agreement where the +difference of opinion was not fundamental. This well-meaning attempt at +reconciliation, betraying as it did no very deep understanding of the +question, came to nothing. No course was left for the emperor except to +obtain a general decision. This took, place at the fist oecumenical +council, which was convened in Nicaea (q.v.) in 325. After various turns +in the controversy, it was finally decided, against Arius, that the Son +was "of the same substance" ([Greek: homoousios]) with the Father, and +all thought of his being created or even subordinate had to be excluded. +Constantine accepted the decision of the council and resolved to uphold +it. Arius and the two bishops of Marmarica Ptolemais, who refused to +subscribe the creed, were excommunicated and banished to Illyria, and +even Eusebius of Nicomedia, who accepted the creed, but not its +anathemas, was exiled to Gaul. Alexander returned to his see triumphant, +but died soon after, and was succeeded by Athanasius (q.v.), his deacon, +with whose indomitable fortitude and strange vicissitudes the further +course of the controversy is bound up. + +It only remains for us here to sketch what is known of the future career +of Arius and the Arians. Although defeated at the council of Nicaea, the +Arians were by no means subdued. Constantine, while strongly disposed at +first to enforce the Nicene decrees, was gradually won to a more +conciliatory policy by the influence especially of Eusebius of Caesarea +and Eusebius of Nicomedia, the latter of whom returned from exile in 328 +and won the ear of the emperor, whom he baptized on his death-bed. In +330 even Arius was recalled from banishment. Athanasius, on the other +hand, was banished to Treves in 335. During his absence Arius returned +to Alexandria, but even now the people are said to have raised a fierce +riot against the heretic. In 336 the emperor was forced to summon him to +Constantinople. Bishop Alexander reluctantly assented to receive him +once more into the bosom of the church, but before the act of admission +was completed, Arius was suddenly taken ill while walking in the +streets, and died in a few moments. His death seems to have exercised no +influence worth speaking of on the course of events. His theological +radicalism had in any case never found many convinced adherents. It was +mainly the opposition to the Homoousios, as a formula open to heretical +misinterpretation, and not borne out by Holy Writ, which kept together +the large party known as Semiarians, who under the leadership of the two +Eusebiuses carried on the strife against the Nicenes and especially +Athanasius. Under the sons of Constantine Christian bishops in +numberless synods cursed one another turn by turn. In the western half +of the empire Arianism found no foothold, and even the despotic will of +Constantius, sole emperor after 351, succeeded only for the moment in +subduing the bishops exiled for the sake of their belief. In the east, +on the other hand, the Semiarians had for long the upper hand. They soon +split up into different groups, according as they came to stand nearer +to or farther from the original position of Arius. The actual centre was +formed by the _Homoii_, who only spoke generally of a likeness [Greek: +homoiotaes] of the Son to the Father; to the left of them were the +_Anomoii_, who, with Arius, held the Son to be unlike [Greek: anomoios] +the Father; to the right, the _Homoiousians_ who, taking as their +catchword "likeness of nature" [Greek: homoiotaes kat ousian], thought +that they could preserve the religious content of the Nicene formula +without having to adopt the formula itself. Since this party in the +course of years came more and more into sympathy with the +representatives of the Nicene party, the _Homoousians_, and notably with +Athanasius, the much-disputed formula became more and more popular, till +the council summoned in 381 at Constantinople, under the auspices of +Theodosius the Great, recognized the Nicene doctrine as the only +orthodox one. Arianism, which had lifted up its head again under the +emperor Valens, was thereby thrust out of the state church. It lived to +flourish anew among the Germanic tribes at the time of the great +migrations. Goths, Vandals, Suebi, Burgundians and Langobardi embraced +it; here too as a distinctive national type of Christianity it perished +before the growth of medieval Catholicism, and the name of Arian ceased +to represent a definite form of Christian doctrine within the church, or +a definite party outside it. + + The best account of the proceedings, both political and theological, + may be found in the following books:--H.M. Gwatkin, _Studies of + Arianism_ (2nd edit., Cambridge, 1900); A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ + (Eng. trans., 1894-1899); J.F. Bethune-Baker, _An Introduction to the + Early History of Christian Doctrine_ (London, 1903); W. Bright, _The + Age of the Fathers_ (London, 1903). Cardinal Newman's celebrated + _Arians of the Fourth Century_ is interesting more from the + controversial than from the historical point of view. See also Paavo + Snellman, _Der Anfang des arianischen Streites_ (Helsingfors, 1904); + Sigismund Rogala, _Die Anfange des arianischen Streites_ (Paderborn, + 1907). (G. K.) + + + + +ARIZONA (from the Spanish-Indian _Arizonac_, of unknown +meaning,--possibly "few springs,"--the name of an 18th-century mining +camp in the Santa Cruz valley, just S. of the present border of +Arizona), a state on the S.W. border of the United States of America, +lying between 31 deg. 20' and 37 deg. N. lat. and 109 deg. 2' and 114 +deg. 45' W. long. It is bounded N. by Utah, E. by New Mexico, S. by +Mexico and W. by California and Nevada, the Colorado river separating it +from California and in part from Nevada. On the W. is the Great Basin. +Arizona itself is mostly included in the great arid mountainous uplift +of the Rocky Mountain region, and partly within the desert plain region +of the Gulf of California, or Open Basin region. The whole state lies on +the south-western exposure of a great roof whose crest, along the +continental divide in western New Mexico, pitches southward. Its +altitudes vary from 12,800 ft. to less than 100 ft. above the sea. Of +its total area of 113,956 sq. m. (water surface, 116 sq. m.), +approximately 39,000 lie below 3000 ft., 27,000 from 3000 to 5000 ft., +and 47,000 above 5000 ft. + +_Physical Features._--Three characteristic physiographic regions are +distinctly marked: first the great Colorado Plateau, some 45,000 sq. m. +in area, embracing all the region N. and E. of a line drawn from the +Grand Wash Cliffs in the N.W. corner of the state to its E. border near +Clifton; next a broad zone of compacted mountain ranges with a southern +limit of similar trend; and lastly a region of desert plains, occupying +somewhat more than the S.W. quarter of the state. The plateau region has +an average elevation of 6000-8000 ft. eastward, but it is much broken +down in the west. The plateau is not a plain. It is dominated by high +mountains, gashed by superb canyons of rivers, scarred with dry gullies +and washes, the beds of intermittent streams, varied with great shallow +basins, sunken deserts, dreary levels, bold buttes, picturesque mesas, +forests and rare verdant bits of valley. In the N.W. there is a giddy +drop into the tremendous cut of the Grand Canyon (q.v.) of the Colorado +river. The surface in general is rolling, with a gentle slope northward, +and drains through the Little Colorado (or Colorado Chiquito), Rio +Puerco and other streams into the Grand Canyon. Along the Colorado is +the Painted Desert, remarkable for the bright colours--red, brown, blue, +purple, yellow and white--of its sandstones, shales and clays. Within +the desert is a petrified forest, the most remarkable in the United +States. The trees are of mesozoic time, though mostly washed down to the +foot of the mesas in which they were once embedded, and lying now amid +deposits of a later age. Blocks and logs of agate, chalcedony, jasper, +opal and other silicate deposits lie in hundreds over an area of 60 sq. +m. The forest is now protected as a national reserve against vandalism +and commercialism. Everywhere are evidences of water and wind erosion, +of desiccation and differential weathering. This is the history of the +mesas, which are the most characteristic scenic feature of the +highlands. The marks of volcanic action, particularly lava-flows, are +also abundant and widely scattered. + +Separating the plateau from the mountain region is an abrupt transition +slope, often deeply eroded, crossing the entire state as has been +indicated. In localities the slope is a true escarpment falling 150 and +even 250 ft. per mile. In the Aubrey Cliffs and along the Mogollon mesa, +which for about 200 m. parts the waters of the Gila and the Little +Colorado, it often has an elevation of 1000 to 2000 ft., and the ascent +is impracticable through long distances to the most daring climber. It +is not of course everywhere so remarkable, or even distinct, and +especially after its trend turns southward W. of Clifton, it is much +broken down and obscured by erosion and lava deposits. The mountain +region has a width of 70 to 150 m., and is filled with short parallel +ranges trending parallel to the plateau escarpment. Many of the +mountains are extinct volcanoes. In the San Francisco mountains, in the +north central part of the state, three peaks rise to from 10,000 to +12,794 ft.; three others are above 9000 ft.; all are eruptive cones, and +among the lesser summits are old cinder cones. The S.E. corner of +Arizona is a region of greatly eroded ranges and gentle aggraded +valleys. This mountain zone has an average elevation of not less than +4000 ft., while in places its crests are 5000 ft. above the plains +below. The line dividing the two regions runs roughly from Nogales on +the Mexican border, past Tucson, Florence and Phoenix to Needles +(California), on the W. boundary. These plains, the third or desert +region of the state, have their mountains also, but they are lower, and +they are not compacted; the plains near the mountain region slope toward +the Gulf of California across wide valleys separated by isolated ranges, +then across broad desert stretches traversed by rocky ridges, and +finally there is no obstruction to the slope at all. Small parts of the +desert along the Mexican boundary are shifting sand. + +[Illustration: Map of Arizona.] + +_Climate._--As may be inferred from the physical description, Arizona +has a wide variety of local climates. In general it is characterized by +wonderfully clear air and extraordinarily low humidity. The scanty +rainfall is distributed from July to April, with marked excess from July +to September and a lesser maximum in December. May and June are very +dry. Often during a month, sometimes for several months, no rain falls +over the greatest part of Arizona. Very little rain comes from the +Pacific or the Gulf of California, the mountains and desert, as well as +the adverse winds, making it impossible. Rain and snow fall usually from +clouds blown from the Gulf of Mexico and not wholly dried in Texas. The +mountainous areas are the only ones of adequate precipitation; the +northern slope of the Colorado Plateau is almost destitute of water; the +region of least precipitation is the "desert" region. The mean annual +rainfall varies from amounts of 2 to 5.5 in. at various points in the +lower gulf valley, and on the western border to amounts of 25 to 30 +in. in the mountains. The highest recorded maximum in Arizona is 35 in. +The proportion of perfectly clear days in the year varies at different +points from a half to two-thirds; of the rest not more than half are +without brilliant sunshine part of the day. Local thunderstorms and +cloud-bursts are a characteristic phenomenon, inundating limited areas +and transforming dried-up streams into muddy torrents carrying boulders +and debris. Often in the plateau country the dry under-air absorbs the +rain as it falls; and rarely in the Hopi Country do flooded gullies "run +through" to the Little Colorado. The country of the cliff-dwellers in +the N.E. is desert-like. Only points high in altitude catch much rain. +Mountain snows feed the Gila, the Little Colorado, and the Colorado +rivers. The Colorado, apart from the Gila, draws little water from +Arizona. The mountain zone W. of Prescott drains into the Colorado, and +to the S. and E. into the Gila; and the latter is by far the heavier +drainage in volume. The floods come in May and June, and during the wet +season the rivers, all with steep beds in their upper courses, wash +along detritus that lower down narrows, and on smaller streams almost +chokes, their courses. These gradients enable the inconstant streams +tributary to the Colorado to carve their canyons, some of which are in +themselves very remarkable, though insignificant beside the Grand +Canyon. Many streams that are turned in spring or by summer cloud-bursts +into torrents are normally mere water films or dry gulches. Even the +Gila is dry in its bed part of the year at its mouth near Yuma. From the +Gila to the southern boundary the parched land gives no water to the +sea, and the international boundary runs in part through a true desert. +In the hot season there is almost no surface water. Artesian wells are +used in places, as in the stock country of the Baboquivari valley. + +The temperature of Arizona is somewhat higher than that of points of +equal latitude on the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts. In the +mountains on the plateau it ranges from that of the temperate zone to +that of regions of perpetual snow; S. of the mountains it ranges from +temperate heats in the foothills to semi-tropic heat in the lower +valleys of the Gila and Colorado. The average annual temperature over +the region N. of 34' N. is about 55 deg.; that of the region S. is about +68 deg. The warmest region is the lower Gila valley. Here the hottest +temperature of the year hovers around 130 deg., the mean for the hottest +month (July) is about 98 deg., and the mean for the year is from 68.9 +deg.-74.4 deg. F. at different points. Some parts of the Santa Cruz +valley are equally hot. In the hottest (western) portions of the true +desert on the Mexican border the daily maximum temperature is about 110 +deg. F.; but owing to the rapid radiation in the dry, clear, cloudless +air the temperature frequently falls 40-50 deg. in the night. The +coldest points on the high plateau have annual means as low as 45-48 +deg., and a mean for the coldest month at times below 20 deg. F. The +range from high to low extreme on the plateau may be as great as 125 +deg., but in the S.W. it is only about 70-80 deg. F. The daily variation +(not uncommonly 60 deg. F.) is of course greatest in the most arid +regions, where radiation is most rapid. And of all Arizona it should be +said that owing to the extreme dryness of the air, evaporation from +moist surfaces is very rapid,[1] so that the high temperatures here are +decidedly less oppressive than much lower temperatures in a humid +atmosphere. The great difference between absolute and sensible +temperature is a very important climatic characteristic of Arizona. +Generally speaking, during two-thirds of the year the temperature is +really delightful; the nights are cool, the mornings bracing, the days +mild though splendid. Intense heat prevails in July, August and +September. In lowness of humidity (mean annual relative humidity at Yuma +about 39, at Phoenix 36.7, at Tucson 37.8) and clarity of atmosphere, +southern Arizona rivals Upper Egypt and other famous arid health +resorts. + +_Fauna and Flora._--Within the borders of Arizona are areas +representative of every life zone save the humid tropical. From the +summit of the San Francisco Mountains one may pass rapidly through all +these down into the Painted Desert. The Boreal-Canadian, Transition and +Upper Sonoran embrace the highlands. Coyotes are very common; wild cats +and mountain lions are fairly plentiful. Deer and antelope are +represented by various species. Prairie-dogs, jack-rabbits, crows and +occasional ravens, quail, grouse, pheasants and wild turkeys are also +noteworthy in a rather scant animal life. Characteristic forms of the +Upper Sonoran zone are the burrowing owl, Nevada sage-thrush, +sage-thrasher and special species of orioles, kangaroo rats, mice, +rabbits and squirrels. The Lower Sonoran covers the greatest part of +southern and western Arizona, as well as the immediate valleys of the +Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. Its animal life is in the main +distinguished in species only from that of the Upper Sonoran belt, +including among birds, the desert sparrow, desert thrasher, +mocking-bird, hooded oriole; and among mammals small nocturnal species +of kangaroo rats, pocket mice, mice and bats. Jaguars occasionally stray +into Arizona from Mexico. Lizards and toads are conspicuous in the more +desert areas. Snakes are not numerous. The Gila-monster, tarantula, the +scorpion and thelyphonus, scolopender and julus occur in some localities +in the rainy season. The Arid-Tropical zone is represented by a narrow +belt along the lower Colorado river, with a short arm extending into the +valley of the Gila. The country is so arid that it supports only desert +birds and mammals. Camels were very successfully employed as pack +animals on the Tule desert in the palmy days of Virginia City, Nevada, +before the advent of railways. + +The general conditions of distribution of the fauna of Arizona are shown +even more distinctly by the flora. There are firs and spruces on the +mountains, characteristic of the Boreal zone; pines characteristic of +the Transition zone; pinon juniper, greasewood and the universally +conspicuous sage-brush, characteristic of the Upper Sonoran zone. In the +Lower Sonoran belt, soapweed, acacias (Palo Verde or _Parkinsonia +torreyana_), agaves, yuccas and dasylirions, the creosote bush and +mesquite tree, candle wood, and about seventy-five species of +cactuses--among them omnipresent opuntiae and great columnar +"Chayas"--make up a striking vegetation, which in its colours of dull +grey and olive harmonizes well with the rigidity and forbidding +barrenness of the plains. It has exercised profound influence upon the +industries, arts, faiths and general culture of the Indians. In places +the giant cactus grows in groves, attaining a height of 40 and even 50 +ft. The mesquite varies in size from a tangled thorny shrub to a +spreading tree as much as 3 ft. in diameter and 50 ft. high; it is +normally perhaps half as high, and 6-8 in. in diameter. Enduring hardily +great extremes of heat and moisture, it is throughout the arid +South-west the most important, and in many localities the only +important, native tree. From the great juicy, leafless, branchless stalk +of the yucca, soap is prepared, and strong fibres useful in making +paper, rope and fabrics. The fibre of the agave is also made into rope +and its juice into pulque. The canaigre grows wild and is also +cultivated. It is easy to exaggerate greatly the barrenness of an arid +country. There are fine indigenous grasses that spring up over the mesas +after the summer rains, furnishing range for live-stock; some are +extraordinarily independent of the rainfall. In the most arid regions +there is a small growth of green in the rainy season, and a rich display +of small wild-flowers, as well as the enormous flower clusters of the +yucca, and blooms in pink and orange, crimson, yellow and scarlet of the +giant cactus and its fellows. Even in the Mexican border, desert oak, +juniper and manzanita cover the mountains, and there is a vigorous +though short-lived growth of grasses and flower from July to October. +The cliff-dweller country supports a scant vegetation--a few cottonwood +in the washes, a few cedars on the mesas. + +Continuous forest areas are scant. A fair variety of trees--cottonwood, +sycamore, ash, willow, walnut and cherry--grow in thickets in the +canyons, and each mountain range is a forest area. Rainfall varying with +the altitude, the lower timber line below which precipitation is +insufficient to sustain a growth of trees is about 7000 ft., and the +upper timber line about 11,500 ft. Oaks, juniper, pinon, cedars, yellow +pine, fir and spruce grow on the mountains and over large areas of the +plateau country.[2] The Coconino forest is one of the largest unbroken +pine forests (about 6000 sq. m.) in the United States. Since 1898 about +86% of the wooded lands have been made reservations, and work has been +done also to preserve the forest areas in the mountains in the +south-east, from which there are few streams of permanent flow to the +enclosing arid valleys. + +_Soil._--The soils in the southern part of Arizona are mainly sandy +loams, varying from light loam to heavy, close adobe; on the plateaus is +what is known as "mesa" soil; and along the rivers are limited overflow +plains of fine sediment--especially along the Colorado and the river +Verde. These soils are in general rich, but deficient in nitrogen and +somewhat in humus; and in limited areas white alkaline salts are +injuriously in excess. Virgin soils are densely compact. By far the most +useful crops are leguminous green manures, especially alfalfa, which +grows four to seven cuttings in a year and as a soil flocculator and +nitrogen-storer has proved of the greatest value. The greatest obstacle +to agriculture is lack of water. Artesian wells are much used in the +south-east. For the reservation of the water-partings--in the past +considerably denuded by lumbermen and ranchmen--the increase of the +forest areas, and the creation of reservoirs along the rivers, to +control their erratic flow[3] and impound their flood waste for purposes +of irrigation, much has been done by the national government. The +irrigated areas are only little spots along the permanent streams. In +1900 the farm area was only 2.7% of the total area of the state and only +0.31% was actually improved (including Indian reservations, 0.35%; in +1906, 0.92% was cultivated); of the land actually under crops, 88.5% was +irrigated. The improved acreage more than quintupled from 1880 to 1900. +The total irrigated area in 1900 was 185,000 acres and in 1902, 247,250 +acres. The increase in land values by irrigation from 1890 to 1900 is +estimated at $3,500,000. A reservoir was begun in 1904 just below the +junction of the Tonto and the Salt with capacity to store 1,330,000 +acre-ft. for irrigation, and develop also an electric power sufficient +to pump underground water for an additional 50,000 acres at the lowest +estimate[4] of lands lying too high for supply by gravity. Another +important undertaking begun about the same time was the throwing of an +East Indian weir dam (the only one in the United States) across the +Colorado near Yuma, and the confinement of both sides of the lower Gila +and Colorado with levees. + +_Agriculture._--Strawberries and Sahara dates; alfalfa, wheat, barley, +corn and sorghum; oranges, lemons, wine grapes, limes, olives, figs, +dates, peanuts and sweet potatoes; yams and sugar beets, show the range +of agricultural products. The date palm fruits well; figs grow +luxuriantly, though requiring much irrigation; almonds do well if +protected from spring frosts; sea-island cotton grows in the finest +grades, but is not of commercial importance. The country about Yuma is +particularly suited to subtropical fruits. Temperate fruits--peaches, +pears, apples, apricots and small fruits--do excellently; as do all +important vegetables. The fruit industry is becoming more and more +important. Farming is very intensive, and crop follows crop in swift +succession; in 1905 the yield of barley per acre, 44 bushels, was +greater than in any other state or territory, as was the farm price per +bushel on the 1st of December, 81 cents; the average yield per acre of +hay was the highest in the Union in 1903, 3.46 tons, the general average +being 1.54 tons, was fourth in 1904, 2.71 tons (Utah 3.54, Idaho 3.07, +Nevada 3.04), the general average being 1.52 tons, and was highest in +1905, 3.75 tons, the general average for the country being 1.54 tons; +and in the same three years the average value per acre of hay was +greater in Arizona than in any other state of the Union, being $35.78 in +1903, $40.22 in 1904, and $46.39 in 1905, the general averages for the +country being $13.93, $13.23 and $13.11 respectively, for the three +years. Of the total farm acreage of the state 97.6% were held in 1900 by +the whites; and of these 80.2% owned in whole or in part the land they +cultivated. + +Stock-raising is a leading industry, but it has probably attained its +full development. The over-stocking of the ranges has caused much loss +in the past, and the almost total eradication of fine native grasses +over extended areas. Of the neat cattle (7,042,635) almost 98%, and of +the sheep (861,761) almost 100%, were in 1900 pastured wholly or in part +upon the public domain. The extension of national forest reserves and +the regulations enforced by the United States government for the +preservation of the ranges have put limits to the industry. In 1900 the +value of live-stock represented 15.7% of the capital invested in +agriculture; the value of animals sold or slaughtered for food +($3,204,758) was half the total value of all farm products ($6,997,097). +Ostrich farms have been successfully established in the Salt river +valley since 1893; in 1907 there were six farms in the Salt river +valley, on which there were about 1354 birds; the most successful food +for the ostrich is alfalfa. + +_Minerals._--Mining is the leading industry of Arizona. Contrary to +venerable traditions there is no evidence that mining was practised +beyond the most inconsiderable extent by aborigines, Spanish +_conquistadores_, or Jesuits. In 1738 an extraordinary deposit of silver +nuggets, quickly exhausted (1741), was discovered at Arizonac. At the +end of the 18th century the Mexicans considerably developed the mines in +the south-east. The second half of the 19th century witnessed several +great finds; first, of gold placers on the lower Gila and Colorado +(1858-1869); later, of lodes at Tombstone, which flourished from +1879-1886, then decayed, but in 1905 had again become the centre of +important mining interests; and still later the development of copper +mines at Jerome and around Bisbee. Several of the Arizona copper mines +are among the greatest of the world. The Copper Queen at Bisbee from +1880-1902 produced 378,047,210 lb. of crude copper, which was +practically the total output of the territory till after 1900, when +other valuable mines were opened; the Globe, Morenci and Jerome +districts are secondary to Bisbee. Important mines of gold and silver, +considerable deposits of wolframite, valuable ores of molybdenum and +vanadium, and quarries of onyx marble, are also worked. Low-grade coal +deposits occur in the east central part of the state and near the +junction of the Gila and San Pedro rivers. Some fine gems of peridot, +garnet and turquoise have been found. The mineral products of Arizona +for 1907 were valued at $56,753,650; of which $51,355,687 (more than +that of any other state) was the value of copper; $2,664,000, gold; and +$1,916,000, silver. In 1907 the legislature passed an elaborate act +providing for the taxation of mines, its principal clause being that the +basis of valuation for taxation in each year be one-fourth of the output +of the mines in question for the next preceding year. + +_Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries are of relatively slight +importance, though considerable promise attends the experiments with +canaigre as a source of tannin. The Navaho and Moqui Indians make +woollen blankets and rugs and the Pimas baskets. Onyx marbles of local +source are polished at Phoenix. The capital invested in manufacturing +industries increased from $9,517,573 in 1900 to $14,395,654 in 1905, or +51.3%, and the value of products from $20,438,987 in 1900 to $28,083,192 +in 1905, or 37.4%. Of the total product in 1905 the product of the +principal industry, the smelting and refining of copper ($22,761,981), +represented 81.1%; it was 9.4% of all the smelting and refining of +copper done in the United States in that year. The other manufactures +were of much less importance, the principal ones being cars and general +shop construction, including repairs by steam railway companies +($1,329,308), lumber and timber products ($960,778), and flour and grist +mill products ($743,124). + +Two transcontinental railway systems, the Southern Pacific and Santa Fe, +were built across Arizona in 1878-1883. They are connected by one line, +and a feeder runs S. into Sonora. The railway mileage of Arizona on the +1st of January 1908 was 1935.35 m. + +_Population._--The population of Arizona in 1880 was 40,440; in 1890, +59,620; in 1900, 122,931 (including 28,623 reservation Indians not +counted before); in 1910, 204,354. The native population is of the most +diverse origin; the foreign element is equally heterogeneous, but more +than half (in 1900, 14,172 out of 24,283 foreign-born) are Mexicans, +many of whom are not permanent residents; after 1900, immigrants were +largely mine labourers, and included Slavonians and Italians. The +largest towns in 1900 were Tucson, Phoenix, which is the capital, +Prcscott (pop. 3559), Jerome (pop. 1890, 250; in 1900, 2861); Winslow +(pop. 1890, 363; in 1900, 1305), Nogales (pop. 1900, 1761), and Bisbee. +The last was an insignificant mining camp in 1880, still unincorporated +in 1900, but with an estimated population of 6000 in 1904. It is crowded +picturesquely into several narrow confluent ravines. Railway connexion +with El Paso was established in 1902. Douglas is another growing camp. + +Over thirty Indian tribes are represented in the Indian schools of +Arizona. The more important are the Hualapais or Apache-Yumas; the +Mohaves; the Yavapais or Apache-Mohaves; the Yumas, whose lesser +neighbours on the lower Colorado are the most primitive Indians of the +United States in habits; the Maricopas; the Pimas and Papagoes, who +figure much in early Arizona history, and who are superior in +intelligence, adaptability, application and character; the Hopis or +Moquis, possessed of the same good qualities and notably temperate and +provident, famous for their prehistoric culture (Tusuyan); the Navaho, +and the kindred Apaches, perhaps the most relentless and savage of +Indian warriors. All the Indians of Arizona live on reservations save +the few non-tribal Indians taxed and treated as active citizens. Even +the Apaches after being whipped by relentless war into temporary +submission have been bound by treaties which the gifts, vices and +virtues of the reservation system have tempted them to observe. The +Pimas and Papagoes were early converted by the Spaniards, and retain +to-day a smattering of Christianity plentifully alloyed with paganism. +Apaches, Pimas, Papagoes have been employed by the United States on +great irrigation works, and have proved industrious and faithful +labourers. In 1900 there were 1836 taxed Indians, 26,480 reservation +Indians not taxed, and in addition many friendly Papagoes unenumerated. + +In 1906 the Indian population was estimated as being 14% of the whole +population of Arizona, and that they are singularly law-abiding is +argued from the fact that in the same year the Indians furnished only 3% +of the convicts in the territorial prison. + +_Government and Education._--Arizona became a territory of the first (or +practically autonomous) class in 1863. Her organic law thereafter until +1910 consisted of various sections of the Revised Statutes of the United +States. From the beginning she had a territorial legislature. Congress +retained ultimately direct control of all government, administration +being in the hands of resident officials appointed by the president and +Senate. Special mention must be made of the secret police, the Arizona +Rangers, organized in 1901 to police the cattle ranges; they are +"fearless men, trained in riding, roping, trailing and shooting," a +force whose _personnel_ is not known to the general public. The +legislature repealed the law licensing public gambling in 1907; enacted +a law requiring the payment of $300 per annum as licence fee by retail +liquor dealers; and provided for juvenile courts and probationary +control of children. In 1907 the total tax valuation of property was +$77,705,251; the net debt of the territory $1,022,972, and that of +counties and towns $3,123,275. The receipts of the territorial treasury +for the year ending on the 30th of June 1907 were $687,386, and the +disbursements for the same period were $601,568. A homestead provision +(1901) exempts from liability for debts (except mortgages or liens +placed before the homestead claim) any homestead belonging to the head +of a family, existing in one compact body and valued at not more than +$2500; such a homestead a married man may not sell, lease or put a lien +on without his wife's consent. Personal property to the value of $500 is +exempt from the same liability. The public school system was established +in 1871. A compulsory attendance law applies to children between 6 and +14 years of age, but it is not generally obeyed by the Mexican element +of population. In 1907 there was an enrolment of 24,962 out of 33,167 +children of school age; there were six high schools--three new in 1906; +and the average number of school days was 128.4. In the fiscal year +ending June 1907, the total receipts for schools were $697,762, and the +expenditures were $701,102. Illiteracy is high, amounting in 1900 to +23.1% of native males, above 21 years of age, and 30.5% of foreign +males, principally because of the large number of Indians, Chinese, +Japanese and Mexicans in the state. There are two normal schools at +Tempe (1886) and Flagstaff (1899), a university at Tucson with an +agricultural experiment station that has done much for the industries of +Arizona; there is a considerable number of Indian schools, the largest +of which are maintained by the national government, and the funds of the +university come largely from the same source. The first juvenile reform +school, called the Territorial Industrial school, was opened in 1903 at +Benson. The territorial prison, formerly at Yuma, was abandoned for a +modern building at Florence, Pinal county; and a hospital for the insane +is 3 m. from Phoenix. + +_History._--The history of the South-west is full of interest to the +archaeologist. A prehistoric culture widely distributed has left +abundant traces. Pueblo ruins are plentiful in the basins of the Gila +and Colorado rivers and their tributaries. Geographical conditions and a +hard struggle against nature fixed the character of this "aridian" +culture, and determined its migrations; the onslaughts of nomad Indians +determined the sedentary civilization of the cliff dwellers. A +co-operative social economy is evidenced by the traces of great public +works, such as canals many miles in length. The pueblos of the Gila +valley are held to be older than those of the Colorado. Casa Grande, 15 +m. S.E. of a railway station of the same name on the Southern Pacific +railway, is the most remarkable of plain ruins in the South-west, the +only one of its type in the United States. It resembles the Casa Grande +ruin of Chihuahua, Mexico, with its walls of sun-dried puddled clay, and +its area of rooms, courts and plazas, surrounded by a wall. It was +already a ruin when discovered in 1694 by the Jesuit father Kino. John +Russel Bartlett described it in 1854, and in 1889 Congress voted that it +be protected as a government reservation; in 1892 it was set apart by +the government. Excavations were made there in 1906-1907 by Dr J. Walter +Fewkes. Migration was northward. The valleys of the Salt river and its +affluents, the Agua Fria, Verde and Tonto, are strewn with aboriginal +remains; but especially important in migrations of culture was the +Little Colorado. A very considerable population must have lived once in +this valley. It is represented to-day by the still undeserted habitats +of Zuni (in New Mexico) and Tusayan; the Moquis, after the Zunis, are in +customs and traditions the best survival of the ancient civilization. + +Arizona north of the Gila, save for a very limited and intermittent +missionary effort and for scant exploring expeditions, was practically +unknown to the whites until well after the beginning of American rule. +The Santa Cruz valley, however, has much older annals of a past that +charms by its picturesque contrasts with the present. Arizona history +begins with the arrival in Sonora in 1536 of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, +who, although he had not entered Arizona or New Mexico, had heard of +them, and by his stories incited the Spaniards to explore the unknown +north in hope of wealth. Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan friar to whom the +first reconnaissance was entrusted, was the first Spaniard to enter the +limits of Arizona. He crossed the south-eastern corner to Zuni in 1539, +passing through the Santa Cruz valley; and F.V. de Coronado (q.v.) was +led by Fray Marcos over the same route in 1540; while Hernando Alarcon +explored the Gulf of California and the lower Colorado river. Members of +Coronado's expedition explored the Moqui country and reached the Grand +Canyon, and after this a succession of remarkable and heroic +explorations followed through the century; which however accomplished +little for geography, further confusing and embellishing rather than +clearing up its mysteries. All this has left traces in still living +myths about the early history of the South-west. Early in the 17th +century considerable progress had been made in Christianizing the Pimas, +Papagoes and Moquis. Following 1680 came a great Indian revolt in New +Mexico and Arizona, and thereafter the Moquis remained independent of +Spanish and Christian domination, although visited fitfully by rival +Jesuits and Franciscans. In 1732 (possibly in 1720) regular Jesuit +missions were founded at Bac (known as an Indian rancheria since the +17th century) and at Guevavi. The region south of the Gila had already +been repeatedly explored. In the second half of the century there was a +presidio at Tubac (whose name first appears 1752) and some half-dozen +pueblos de visita, including the Indian settlement of Tucson. + +A few errors should be corrected and some credit given with reference to +this early period. The Inquisition never had any jurisdiction whatever +over the Indians; compulsory labour by the Indians was never legalized +except on the missions, and the law was little violated; they were never +compelled to work mines; of mining by the Indians for precious metals +there is no evidence; nor by the Jesuits (expelled in 1767, after which +their missions and other properties were held by the Franciscans), +except to a small extent about the presidio of Tubac, although they did +some prospecting. Persistent traditions have greatly exaggerated the +former prosperity of the old South-west. The Spaniards probably provoked +some inter-tribal intercourse among the Indians, and did something among +some tribes for agriculture. Their own farms and settlements, save in +the immediate vicinity of the presidio, were often plundered and +abandoned, and such settlement as there was was confined to the Santa +Cruz valley. From about 1790 to 1822 was a period of peace with the +Apaches and of comparative prosperity for church and state. The fine +Indian mission church at Bac, long abandoned and neglected, dates from +the last decade of the 18th century. The establishment of a presidio at +Tucson in 1776 marks its beginning as a Spanish settlement. + +The decay of the military power of the presidios during the Mexican war +of independence, the expulsion of loyal Spaniards--notably friars--and +the renewal of Apache wars, led to the temporary abandonment of all +settlements except Tubac and Tucson. The church practically forsook the +field about 1828. + +American traders and explorers first penetrated Arizona in the first +quarter of the 19th century. As a result of the Mexican War, New Mexico, +which then included all Arizona north of the Gila, was ceded to the +United States. California gold discoveries drew particular attention to +the country south of the Gila, which was wanted also for a +transcontinental railway route. This strip, known as the "Gadsden +Purchase" (see GADSDEN, JAMES), was bought in 1854 by the United States, +which took possession in 1856. This portion was also added to New +Mexico. The Mexicans, pressed by the Apaches, had, in 1848, abandoned +even Tubac and Tamacacori, first a visita of Guevavi, and after 1784 a +mission. The progress of American settlement was interrupted by the +Civil War, which caused the withdrawal of the troops and was the +occasion for the outbreak of prolonged Indian wars. + +Meanwhile a convention at Tucson in 1856 sent a delegate to Congress and +petitioned for independent territorial government. This movement and +others that followed were ignored by Congress owing to its division over +the general slavery question, and especially the belief of northern +members that the control of Arizona was an object of the pro-slavery +party. A convention held in April 1860 at Tucson undertook to "ordain +and establish," of its own motion, a provisional constitution until +Congress should "organize a territorial government." This provisional +territory constituted all New Mexico south of 34 deg. 40' N. Officials +were appointed and New Mexican legislation for the Arizona counties +ignored, but nothing further was done. In 1861 it was occupied by a +Texan force, declared for the Confederacy, and sent a delegate (who was +not admitted) to the Confederate congress. That body in January 1862 +passed a formal act organizing the territory, including in it New +Mexico, but in May 1862 the Texans were driven out by a Union force from +California. By act of the 24th of February 1863 Congress organized +Arizona territory as the country west of 109 deg. W. long. In December +an itinerant government sent out complete from Washington crossed the +Arizona line and effected a formal organization. The territorial capital +was first at Prescott (1863-1867), then at Tucson (1867-1877), again at +Prescott (1877-1889), and finally at Phoenix (since 1889). + +There have been boundary difficulties with every contiguous state or +territory. The early period of American rule was extremely unsettled. +The California gold discoveries and overland travel directed many +prospecting adventurers to Arizona. For some years there was +considerable sentiment favouring filibustering in Sonora. The Indian +wars, breeding a habit of dependence on force, and the heterogeneous +elements of cattle thieves, Sonoran cowboys, mine labourers and +adventurers led to one of the worst periods of American border history. +But since about 1880 there is nothing to chronicle but a continued +growth in population and prosperity. Agitation for statehood became +prominent in territorial politics for some years. In accordance with an +act of Congress, approved on the 16th of June 1906, the inhabitants of +Arizona and New Mexico voted on the 6th of November 1906 on the question +of uniting the territories into a single state to be called Arizona; the +vote of New Mexico was favourable to union and statehood, but these were +defeated by the vote of Arizona (16,265 against, and 3141 for +statehood). In June 1910 the President approved an enabling act +providing for the admission of Arizona and New Mexico as separate +states. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Colorado river and the Grand Canyon see those + articles; for the Sonoran boundary region, _Report of the Boundary + Commission upon the Boundaries between the United States and Mexico_ + (3 vols., Washington, 1898-1899, also as Senate Document No. 247, + vols. 23-25, 55 Congress, 2 Session); for the petrified forest of the + Painted Desert, L.F. Ward in _Smithsonian Institution_ Annual Rep., + 1899; for the rest of the area, various reports in the U.S. Geological + Survey publications, bibliography in _Bulletin_ Nos. 100, 177.--FAUNA + and FLORA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, _North American Fauna_, No. + 3 (1890), No. 7 (1893); _U.S. Biological Survey, Bulletin_ No. 10 + (1898); publications of the Desert Botanical Laboratory at Tucson; + also titles under archaeology below, particularly Bandelier's "Final + Report."--CLIMATE, SOIL, AGRICULTURE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, + _Climate and Crop Service, Arizona_, monthly reports, annual + summaries; Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, + _Bulletins._--MINERAL INDUSTRIES: U.S. Geological Survey publications, + consult bibliographies; _The Mineral Industry_, annual (New York and + London).--GOVERNMENT: _Arizona Revised Statutes_ (Phoenix, 1887); + _Report of the Governor of Arizona Territory to the Secretary of the + Interior_, annual.--ARCHAEOLOGY: An abundance of materials in the + _Annual Report, U.S. Bureau of Ethnology_ for different years; consult + also especially A.F.A. Bandelier, "Contributions to the History of + the South-western Portion of the United States," in _Archaeological + Institute of America, Papers, American Series_, vol. 5 (Cambridge, + 1890); "Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the + South-western United States," _ib._ vols. 3 and 4 (Cambridge, + 1890-1892); other material may be found in Smithsonian Institution, + _Annual Report_, 1896, 1897, &c., and many important papers by J.W. + Fewkes, F.W. Hodge, C. Mendeleff and others in the _American + Anthropologist_ and _Journal of American Ethnology._--HISTORY: H.H. + Bancroft, _History of Arizona and New Mexico_ (San Francisco, 1887); + A.F.A. Bandelier, "Historical Introduction to Studies among the + Sedentary Indians of New Mexico," in _Archaeological Institute of + America, Papers, American Series_, vol. 1 (Boston, 1881); _The Gilded + Man (El Dorado) and other Papers_ (New York, 1893); G.P. Winship, + "The Coronado Expedition," in _U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, 14th Annual + Report_ (1892-1893), pp. 339-613, with an abundant literature to which + this may be the guide. The traditional errors respecting the early + history of the Spanish South-west are fully exposed in the works of + Bancroft and Bandelier, whose conclusions are supported by E. Coues, + _On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer, Francisco Garces_ (2 vols. New + York, 1900). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] At Yuma, Phoenix and Tucson, the records of twenty-six, eighteen + and fifteen years respectively show a rate of evaporation 35.2, 12.7, + and 7.7 times as great as the mean annual rainfall, which was 2.84 + in., 7.06 in. and 11.7 in. for the places named. + + [2] The San Francisco yellow pine forest, with an area of some 4700 + sq. m., is the finest forest of the arid south-west. + + [3] The combined flow of the Salt and Verde varies from 100 to more + than 10,000 cub. ft. per second. + + [4] The dam locks a narrow canyon. The height is 284 ft., the water + rising 230 ft. against it. The storage capacity is exceeded by + probably but one reservoir in the world--the Wachusett reservoir near + Boston. + + + + +ARJUNA, in Hindu mythology, a semi-divine hero of the _Mahabharata_. He +was the third son of Pandu, son of Indra, His character as sketched in +the great epic is of the noblest kind. He is the central figure of that +portion of the epic known as the _Bhagwad-gita_, where he is represented +as horrified at the impending slaughter of a battle and as being +comforted by Krishna. + + + + +ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _Arche_, adapted from +the Lat. _arca_, chest, cf. _arcere_, to shut up, enclose), a chest, +basket or box. The Hebrew word _tebah_, translated in the A.V. by "ark," +is used in the Old Testament (1) of the box made of bulrushes in which +Pharaoh's daughter found the infant Moses (Exodus ii. 3), and (2) of the +great vessel or ship in which Noah took refuge during the flood (Genesis +vi.-ix.). + +_Noah's Ark._--According to the story in Genesis, Noah's ark was large +enough to contain his family and representatives of each kind of animal. +Its dimensions are given as 300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad and 30 +cubits high (cubit = 18-22 in.). It was made of "gopher" wood, which has +been variously identified with cypress, pine and cedar. Before the days +of the "higher criticism" and the rise of the modern scientific views as +to the origin of species, there was much discussion among the learned, +and many ingenious and curious theories were advanced, as to the number +of the animals and the space necessary for their reception, with +elaborate calculations as to the subdivisions of the ark and the +quantities of food, &c., required to be stored. It may be interesting to +recall the account given in the first edition of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_ (1771), which contained a summary of some of these various +views (substantially repeated up to the publication of the eighth +edition, 1853). "Some have thought the dimensions of the ark as given by +Moses too scanty ... and hence an argument has been drawn against the +authority of the relation. To solve this difficulty many of the ancient +Fathers and the modern critics have been put to miserable shifts. But +Buteo and Kircher have proved geometrically that, taking the cubit of a +foot and a half, the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals +supposed to be lodged in it. Snellius computes the ark to have been +above half an acre in area ... and Dr Arbuthnot computes it to have been +81,062 tuns ... if we come to a calculation the number of species of +animals will be found much less than is generally imagined, not +amounting to a hundred species of quadrupeds, nor to two hundred of +birds.... Zoologists usually reckon but an hundred and seventy species +in all." The progress of the "higher criticism," and the gradual +surrender of attempts to square scientific facts with a literal +interpretation of the Bible, are indicated in the shorter account given +in the eighth edition, which concludes as follows:--"the insuperable +difficulties connected with the belief that all the existing species of +animals were provided for in the ark, are obviated by adopting the +suggestion of Bishop Stillingfleet, approved by Matthew Poole, Pye +Smith, le Clerc, Rossenmuller and others, that the deluge did not extend +beyond the region of the earth then inhabited, and that only the animals +of that region were preserved in the ark." The first edition also gives +an engraving of the ark (repeated in the editions up to the fifth), in +shape like a long roofed box, floating on the waters; the animals are +seen in separate stalls. By the time of the ninth edition (1875) precise +details are no longer considered worthy of inclusion; and the age of +scientific comparative mythology has been reached. + + For a comparative study of the occurrence of the ark in the various + deluge myths, in the present edition, see DELUGE; COSMOGONY; BABYLONIA + AND ASSYRIA. + +The _Ark of the Law_, in the Jewish synagogue, is a chest or cupboard +containing the scrolls of the Torah (Pentateuch), and is placed against +or in the wall in the direction of Jerusalem. It forms one of the most +decorative features of the synagogue, and often takes an architectural +design, with columns, arches and a dome. There is a fine example in the +synagogue at Great St Helens, London. (X.) + +_Ark of the Covenant, Ark of the Revelation, Ark of the Testimony_, are +the full names of the sacred chest of acacia wood overlaid with gold +which the Israelites took with them on their journey into Palestine. The +Biblical narratives reveal traces of a considerable development in the +traditions regarding this sacred object, and those which furnish the +most complete detail are of post-exilic date when the original ark had +been lost. The fuller titles of the ark originate in the belief that it +contained the "covenant" (berith) or "testimony" ('eduth), the technical +terms for the Decalogue (q.v.); primarily, however, it would seem to +have been called "the ark of Yahweh" (or "Elohim"), or simply "the ark." +The word itself (aron) designates an ordinary chest (cp. Gen. i. 26; 2 +Kings xii. 10), and the (late) description of its appearance represents +it as an oblong box 2-1/2 cubits long, 1-1/2 cubits in breadth and height +(roughly 1.2 by .75 metres). It was lined within and without with gold, +and through four golden rings were placed staves of acacia wood, by +means of which it was carried. A slab of the same metal (the so-called +"mercy-seat," _kapporeth_, Gr. _hilasterion_) covered the top, and this +was surmounted by two Cherubim (Ex. xxv. 10-22, xxxvii. 1-9). The +latter, however, are not mentioned in earlier passages (Deut. x. 1, 3), +and would naturally increase the weight of the ark, which, according to +2 Sam. xv. 29, could be carried by two men. + +The ark was borne by the Levites (Deut. x. 8), and the latest narratives +amplify the statement with a wealth of detail characteristic of the +post-exilic interest in this order. (See LEVITES.) An interesting +passage relating the commencement of an Israelite journey vividly +illustrates the power of the sacred object. As the ark started, it was +hailed with the cry,"Arise, Yahweh, let thine enemies be scattered, let +them that hate thee flee from before thee," and when it came to rest, +the cry again rang out,"Return, O Yahweh, to the myriads of families of +Israel" (Num. x. 33-36). This saying appears to imply a settled life in +Canaan, but both affirm the warlike significance of Yahweh and the ark. +Thus it is the permanent pledge of Yahweh's gracious presence; it guides +the people on their journey and leads them to victory. It is no mere +receptacle, but a sacrosanct object as much to be feared as Yahweh +himself. To presume to fight without it was to invite defeat, and on one +notable occasion the Israelites attempted to attack their enemy north of +Kadesh without its aid, and were defeated (Num. xiv. 44 sq.). There are +many gaps in its history, and although at the crossing of the Jordan and +at the fall of Jericho the ark figures prominently (Josh. iii. sq., vi. +sq.), it is unaccountably missing in stories of greater national moment. +Once it is found at Bethel (Judges xx. 27 sq.). It is met with again at +Shiloh, where it is under the care of Eli and his sons, descendants of +an ancient family of priests (1 Sam. ii. 28; cp. Josh. xviii. 1). After +a great defeat of Israel by the Philistines it was brought into the +field, but was captured by the enemy. The trophy was set up in the +Philistine temple of Ashdod, but vindicated its superiority by +overthrowing the god Dagon. A plague smote the city, and when it was +removed to Ekron, pestilence followed in its wake. After taking counsel +the Philistines placed the ark with a votive offering upon a new cart +drawn by two cows. The beasts went of their own accord to Beth-shemesh, +where it remained in the field of a certain Joshua. Again a disaster +happened through some obscure cause, and seventy of the sons of Jeconiah +were smitten (1 Sam. vi. 19, R.V., margin). Thence it was removed to the +house of Abinadab of Kirjath-jearim, who consecrated his son to its +service (1 Sam. iv.-vii. 1). For many years the ark remained +untouched--apparently forgotten. Shiloh disappears from history; neither +Saul nor even Samuel, whose youth had been spent with it, takes any +further thought of it. After a remarkable period of obscurity, the ark +enters suddenly into the history of David (2 Sam. vi.). Some time after +the capture of Jerusalem the ark was brought from Baal-Judah, but at the +threshing-floor of Nacon (an unintelligible name) Abinadab's son Uzzah +laid hands upon it and was struck down for his impiety. On this account +the place is said to have received the name Perez-Uzzah ("breach of +Uzzah"). It was taken into the house of Obed-edom the Gittite (i.e. of +Gath), and brought a blessing upon his house during the three months +that it remained there. Finally the king had it conveyed to the city of +David, where a tent was prepared to shelter it. Once at Jerusalem, it +seems to have lost its unique value as the token of Yahweh's presence; +its importance was apparently merged with that of the Temple which +Solomon built. The foundation of the capital would pave the way for the +belief that the national god had taken a permanent dwelling-place in the +royal seat. The prophets themselves lay no weight upon the ark as the +central point of Jerusalem's holiness. The real Deuteronomic code does +not mention it, and to Jeremiah (iii. 16) it was a thing of no +consequence. Later, in the age of the priestly schools, the ark received +much attention, although it must obviously be very doubtful how far a +true recollection of its history has survived. But nowhere is any light +thrown upon its fate. The invasion of Shishak, the capture of Jerusalem +by Joash (2 Kings xiv. 13, 14), the troublous reign of Manasseh, the +destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar, have found each its +supporters. The wild legends of its preservation at the taking of +Jerusalem (2 Macc. ii. and elsewhere) only show that the popular mind +was unable to share the view that the ark was an obsolete relic. More +poetical is the tradition that the ark was raised to heaven, there to +remain till the coming of the Messiah, a thought which embodies the +spiritual idea that a heavenly pledge of God's covenant and faithfulness +had superseded the earthly symbol.[1] + +A critical examination of the history of the Israelite ark renders it +far from certain that the object was originally the peculiar possession +of all Israel. Many different traditions have gathered around the story +of the Exodus, and the ark was not the only divinely sent guide or +forerunner which led the Israelites. Its presence at Shiloh, and its +prominence in the life of Joshua, support the view that it was the +palladium of the Joseph tribes, but the traditions in question conflict +with others. The account of the commencement of the ark's journey +associates it with Moses and his kin (Num. x. 29 sqq.)--that is, with +the south Palestinian clans with which the term "Levites" appears to be +closely connected. (See LEVITES.) A distinct movement direct into Judah +is implied by certain old traditions (see CALEB), but this is +subordinated to the more comprehensive account of the journey round by +the east of the Jordan. (See EXODUS, THE.) The narratives in 1 Sam. +iv.-vi. stand on a plane by themselves, and the gap between them and 2 +Sam. vi. has not been satisfactorily fixed. But it is not certain that +the two belong to the same cycle of tradition; Kirjath-jearim and +Baal-Judah are identified only in later writings, and the behaviour of +Saul's daughter (2 Sam. vi. 15 sqq.) may conceivably imply that the ark +was an unknown object to Benjamites. It is of course possible that the +ark was originally the sacred shrine of the clans which came direct to +Judah, and that the traditions in 1 Sam. iv.-vi., Josh. iii. sqq. are of +secondary origin, and are to be associated with its appearance at +Shiloh, the fall of which place, although attributed to the time of +Samuel, is apparently regarded by Jeremiah (xxvi. 6) as a recent event. +Of these two divergent traditions, it would seem that the one which +associates it with the kin of Moses and David may be traced farther in +those late narratives which connect the ark closely with the Levites and +even attribute its workmanship to Bezalel, a Calebite (Ex. xxxi. 2; 1 +Chron. ii. 19 sqq.). The tradition in Psalms cxxxii. 6 of the search for +the ark at Jaar (Kirjath-jearim) and Ephratah is not clear; but a +comparison with 1 Chron. ii. 50 seems to show that it recognized the +"Calebite" origin of the ark. + + See, on this, S.A. Cook, _Critical Notes on 0. T. History (Index_ + s.v.), and, for other views, Kosters, _Theol. Tijd_. xxvii. 361 sqq.; + Cheyne, _Encyc. Bib._ "Ark"; G. Westphal, _Yahwes Wohnstatten_, pp. 55 + sqq., 85 sqq. (Giessen, 1908). + +Whether the ark originally contained some symbol of Yahweh or not has +been the subject of much discussion. Thus, it has been held that it +contained stone fetishes (meteoric stones and the like) from Yahweh's +original abode on Sinai or Horeb. As the palladium of the Joseph tribes, +it has even been suggested that the bones of Joseph were treasured in +the ark. Others have regarded it as an empty portable throne,[2] or as a +receptacle for sacred serpents (analogies in Frazer, _Pausanias_, iv. +pp. 292, 344). That it contained the tables of the law (Deut. x. 2; 1 +Kings viii. 9) was the later Israelite view, and the subsequent +development is illustrated in Heb. ix. 4. It is enough to decide that +the ark represented in some way or other the presence of Yahweh and that +the safety of his followers depended upon its security (analogies in +Frazer, _Paus._ x. p. 283). The Semitic world affords many examples of +the belief that a man's religion was part of his political connexion and +that the change of nationality involved change of cult. He who leaves +his land to enter another, leaves his god and is influenced by the +religion of his new home (1 Sam. xxvi. 19; Ruth i. 16 sqq.), but +strangers know not "the cult of the God of the land" (2 Kings xvii. 26). +No nation willingly changes its god (Jer. ii. 11), and there are means +whereby the follower of Yahweh may continue his worship even when +outside Yahweh's land (2 Kings v. 17). When a people migrate they may +take with them their god, and if they conceive him to be a spiritual +being who cannot be represented by an image, they may desire a +symbolical expression of or, rather, a substitute for his presence. +Accordingly the conception of the ark must be based in the first +instance upon the beliefs of the particular clans or tribes whose sacred +object it was. + + See further, W.R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, p. 37; Schwally, + _Kriegsaltertumer_, i. p. 9; _Revue biblique_ (1903), pp. 249 sqq.; + and on the ark, generally, in addition to the literature already + cited, Kautzsch, Hastings' _Dict. Bible_, v. p. 628; A.R.S. Kennedy, + _Century Bible: Samuel_ (_Appendix_); E. Meyer, _Die Israeliten, Index + s.v. "Lade,"_; and R.H. Kennett, _Enc. of Rel. and Ethics_. + (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cp. Rev. xi. 19, and W.R. Smith, _Old Test. in Jew. Church, + Index_. For later traditional material, see Buxtorf, _De Arca + Foederis_ (Basel, 1659). + + [2] But see Budde, _Expos. Times_ (1898), pp. 398 sqq.; _Theolog. + Stud. u. Krit._ (1906), pp. 489-507. The possibility must be conceded + that there were several arks in the course of Hebrew history and that + separate tribes or groups of tribes had their own sacred object. + + + + +ARKANSAS, a river of the United States of America, rising in the +mountains of central Colorado, near Leadville, in lat. 39 deg. 20' N., +long. 106 deg. 15' W., and emptying into the Mississippi, at Napoleon, +Arkansas, in lat. 33 deg. 40' N. Its total length is about 2000 m., and +its drainage basin (greater than that of the Upper Mississippi) about +185,000 sq. m. It is the greatest western affluent of the +Missouri-Mississippi system. It rises in a pocket of lofty peaks at an +altitude of 10,400 ft. on a sharply sloping plateau, down which it +courses as a mountain torrent, dropping 4625 ft. in 120 m. At Canyon +City it passes out of the Rockies through the Grand Canyon of the +Arkansas; then turning eastward, and soon a turbid, shallow stream, +depositing its mountain detritus, it flows with steadily lessening +gradient and velocity in a broad, meandering bed across the prairies and +lowlands of eastern Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas, shifting +its direction sharply to the south-east in central Kansas. The Arkansas +ordinarily receives little water from its tributaries save in time of +floods. In topography and characteristics and in the difficulties of its +regulation the Arkansas is in many ways typical of the rivers in the +arid regions of the western states. The gradient below the mountains +averages 7.5 ft. per mile between Canyon City and Wichita, Kansas (543 +m.), about 1.5 ft. between Wichita and Little Rock (659 m.), and 0.65 of +a foot from Little Rock to the mouth (173 m.). The shores are sand, clay +or loam throughout some 1300 m., with very rare rock ridges or rapids, +and the banks rise low above ordinary water. The waters are constantly +rising and falling, and almost never is the discharge at any point +uniform. Every year there are, normally, two distinct periods of high +water; one an early freshet due mainly to the heavy winter rainfall on +the lower river, when the upper river is still frozen hard; the other in +the late spring, due to the setting in of rains along the upper courses +also, and to the melting of the snow in the mountains. The lowest waters +are from August to December. In the summer there are sometimes violent +floods due to cloud-bursts. Everywhere along the river there is a +never-ending variation of velocity and discharge, and an equally +ceaseless transformation of the river's bed and contour. These changes +become revolutionary in times of flood. All these characteristics are +accentuated below Little Rock. The depth of water at this point has been +known to vary from 27 ft. to only half-a-foot, and the discharge to fall +to 1170 cub. ft. per second. There is often no more than 1.5 ft. of +water, and far below Little Rock a depth of 3 ft. on crossings is not +infrequent. In many places there are different channels for high and low +water, the latter being partly filled by each freshet, and recut after +each subsidence; and the river meanders tortuously through the alluvial +bottom in scores of great bends, loops and cut-offs. It is estimated +that the eating and caving of the shore below Little Rock averages 7.64 +acres per mile every year (as against 1.99 acres above Little Rock). By +way of the White river cut-off the Arkansas finds an additional outlet +through the valley of that river in times of high water, and the White, +when the current in its natural channel is deadened by the backwaters of +the Mississippi, finds an outlet by the same cut-off through the valley +of the Arkansas. This backwater, where it meets and checks the current +of the Arkansas, occasions the precipitation of enormous alluvial +deposits, and vast quantities of snags. The banks are disintegrated +along this part of the river and built up again on the opposite side to +their original height in the extraordinarily short time of two or three +years, the channel remaining all the while narrow. At the mouth of the +White, the Arkansas and the Mississippi the level of recurrent floods is +6 or 8 ft. above the timber-bearing soil along the banks, and all along +the lower river the country is liable to overflow; and as the land +backward from the stream slopes downward from the banks heaped up by +successive flood-deposits, each overflow creates along the river a +fringe of swamps. These features, although exaggerated in the portion of +the river now in question, are qualitatively characteristic of its +entire course below the mountains. + +Up to the 30th of June 1907 the government of the United States expended +$2,384,557 on improvements along the Arkansas. Almost half of this sum +was required for snagging operations alone. There is a considerable +traffic on the river within the borders of Arkansas in miscellaneous +freights, and a slight passenger movement. The river is rarely navigable +above Fort Smith, and during a considerable part of the year not above +Pine Bluff. Steamer service is maintained the year round between this +point and Memphis. Ordinarily there are some 400 m. of channel open to +steamers part of the year, and in time of high flood considerably more. +To the mouth of the Grand river (460 m.) the river is open about four +months in a year for vessels of 4 ft. draft and about eight months for +vessels of 2 ft. draft. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General descriptions of different portions of the river + are indicated in the Index to the _Reports of the Chief of Engineers, + U.S. Army_ (many volumes, 1879-1900). See also H. Gannett, _Profiles + of Rivers in the U.S._ (U.S. Geolog. Survey, 1901); Greenleaf, + "Western Floods," in _Engin. Mag._ xii. 945-958; U.S. Geolog. Survey, + _Bull._ 140; I.C. Russell, _Rivers of North America_ (1898); T.J. + Vivian, _Transportation, Rivers of the Miss. Valley_ (U.S. Census, + 1890, special Rp.). + + + + +ARKANSAS, one of the South Central states of the United States of +America, situated between 89 deg. 40' N. and 94 deg. 42' W., bounded N. +by Missouri, E. by the Mississippi river, separating it from Tennessee +and Mississippi, and W. by Texas and Oklahoma. Its area is 53,335 sq. +m., of which 810 are water surface. + +Arkansas lies in the drainage basin of the lower Mississippi, and has a +remarkable river system. The Arkansas bisects the state from W. to E.; +along its valley lie the oldest and largest settlements of the state. +Nine other considerable streams drain the state; of these, the Red, the +Ouachita, the White and the St Francis are the most important. There are +a number of swamps and bayous in the eastern part. + +_Physical Features._--The surface of Arkansas is the most diversified of +that of any state in the central Mississippi valley. It rises, sloping +upward toward the N.W., from an average elevation of less than 300 ft. +in the south-east to heights of 2000 ft. and more in the north-western +quarter. There are four physiographic regions: two of highlands; one of +river valley plain separating the two highland areas; while the fourth +is a region of hills, lowlands and scanty prairie. The last covers the +E. half of the state, and is part of the Gulf or coastal plain province +of the United States. If a line be drawn from the point where the Red +river cuts the western boundary to where the Black cuts the northern, E. +of it is the Gulf plain and W. of it are the highlands (over 500 ft.) +and the mineral regions of the state. They are divided by the valley of +the Arkansas river into two regions, which are also structurally +different. South of the river are the Ouachita Mountains, and north of +it are the Boston Mountains. The Ouachita Mountains are characterized by +close folding and faulting. Their southern edge is covered with +cretaceous deposits, and their eastern edge is covered as well with the +tertiary deposits of the Gulf plains. The Arkansas valley is marked by +wide and open folding. The Boston Mountains are substantially a +continuation of the Ozark dome of Missouri. Their northern border is +marked by an escarpment of 500 to 700 ft. in height. The trend is from +E. to W. between Batesville and Wagoner, Oklahoma. In structure they are +monoclinical, their rocks--sandstones and shales--being laid southward +and blending on that side with the Arkansas valley region. The entire +region is very much dissected by streams, and the topography is +characteristically of a terrace and escarpment type. In the highlands N. +of the Arkansas the country is very irregularly broken; S. of the river +the hills lie less capriciously in short, high ranges, with low, fertile +valleys between them. The Ouachitas extend 200 m., from within Oklahoma +(near Atoka) to central Arkansas, near Little Rock. They are +characterized by long, low ridges bearing generally W.-E., with wide, +flat valleys. Near the western boundary of the state they attain a +maximum altitude of 2900 ft. above the sea, and 2000 ft. above the +valleys of the Arkansas and Red river; falling in elevation eastward (as +westward) to 500-700 ft. at their eastern end. Five peaks rise above +2000 ft. Magazine Mountain, 2833 ft. above the sea-level and 2350 ft. +above the surrounding country, is the highest point between the +Alleghanies and the Rockies. Altitudes of 2250 ft. are attained in the +Boston Mountains, which are the highest portion of the Ozark uplift, and +the most picturesque. The streams are vigorous, and in their lower +courses flow in deep-cut gorges, 500 to 1000 ft. deep, almost deserving +the name of canyons. The main streams are tortuous, and their dendritic +tributaries have cut the region into ridges. The mountains do not fill +the N.W. quarter of the state, and are separated from a lower, greatly +eroded highland region on their N. by a bold escarpment 500 to 1000 ft. +in height. Along the upper course of the White river in the Bostons and +in the country about Hot Springs in the Ouachitas is found the most +beautiful scenery of the highlands; few regions are more beautiful. The +valley region embraces the bottom-lands along the Mississippi, and up +the Arkansas as far as Pine Bluff, and the cypress swamp country of the +St Francis. + +_Climate._--The climate of the state is "southern," owing to the +influence of the Gulf of Mexico. The mean temperatures for the different +seasons are normally about 41.6 deg., 61.1 deg., 78.8 deg. and 61.9 deg. +F. for winter, spring, summer and autumn respectively. The normal mean +precipitations are about 11.7, 14.5, 10.5 and 10.2 in. for the same +seasons. The extreme range of the monthly isotherms crossing the state +is from about 35 deg. in winter to 81 deg. F. in summer, and the range +of annual isotherms from about 54 deg. to 60 deg. F. That is, the +variation of mean annual temperatures for different parts of the state +is only 6 deg. F. The variation of the mean annual temperature for the +entire state is only 4 deg. (from 59 deg. to 63 deg. F.). The variation +of precipitation is as great as 30 in. (from 34 to 64 in.) according to +locality. There is little snow, no severe winter cold, and no summer +drought. Sheltered valleys in the interior produce spring crops three or +four weeks earlier than is usual in Kansas. The climate is generally +healthy. + +_Flora._--Arkansas lies in the humid, or Austroriparian, area of the +Lower Austral life-zone, except the highlands of the Ozark uplift and +Ouachita Mountains, which belong to the humid, or Carolinian, area of +the Upper Austral. The state possesses a rich fauna and flora. From an +economic standpoint its forests deserve special mention. The forest +lands of the state include four-fifths of its area, and three-fourths +are actually covered by standing timber. Valuable trees are of great +variety: cottonwood, poplar, catalpa, red cedar, sweet-gum, birch-eye, +sassafras, persimmon, ash, elm, sycamore, maple, a variety of pines, +pecan, locust, dogwood, hickory, various oaks, beech, walnut and cypress +are all abundant. There are one hundred and twenty-nine native species +of trees. The yellow pine, the white oak and the cypress are the most +valuable growths. The northern woods are mainly hard; the yellow pine is +most characteristic of the heavy woods of the south central counties; +and magnificent cypress abounds in the north-east. Hard woods grow even +on the alluvial lands. "The hard-wood forests of the state are hardly +surpassed in variety and richness, and contain inestimable bodies of the +finest oak, walnut, hickory and ash timber" (U.S. Census, 1870 and +1900). The growth on the alluvial bottoms and the lower uplands in the +E. is extraordinarily vigorous. The leading species of the Appalachian +woodland maintain their full vigour of growth nearer to the margin of +forest growth in this part of the Mississippi valley than in any other +part of the United States; and some species, such as the holly, the +osage orange and the pecan, attain their fullest growth in Arkansas +(Shaler). There are two Federal forest reserves (4968 sq. m.). + +_Soil._--The soils of Arkansas are of peculiar variety. That of the +highlands is mostly but a thin covering, and their larger portion is +relatively poorly fitted for agriculture. The uplands are generally +fertile. Their poor soils are distinctively sandy, those of the lowlands +clayey; but these elements are usually found combined in rich loams +characterized by the predominance of one or the other constituent. +Finally the alluvial bottoms are of wonderful richness. + +_Agriculture._--This variety of soils, a considerable range of moderate +altitudes and favourable factors of heat and moisture promote a rich +diversity in agriculture. Arkansas is predominantly an agricultural +state. The farm area of 1860 was only 28.2% of the whole area of the +state, that of 1900 (16,636,719 acres) was 49%; and while only a fifth +of this farm area was actually improved in 1860, two-fifths were +improved in 1900; thus, the part of the state's area actually cultivated +approximately quadrupled in four decades. The value of products in 1900 +($79.6 millions) was 44% of the total farm values ($181.4 millions). The +rise in average value of farm lands since 1870 has not been a fifth of +the increase of the aggregate value of all farm property. + +The Civil War wrought a havoc from which a full recovery was hardly +reached before 1890. The economic evolution of the state since +Reconstruction has been in the main that common to all the old slave +states developing from the plantation system of ante-bellum days, +somewhat diversified and complicated by the special features of a young +and border community. The farms of Arkansas increased in number 357.8%, +in area 73.7% and in total true (as distinguished from tax) valuation +about 53.8% between 1860 and 1900; the decade of most extraordinary +growth being that of 1870-1880. Thus Arkansas has shared that fall in +the average size of farms common to all sections of the Union (save the +north central) since 1850, but especially marked since the Civil War in +the "Cotton States," owing to the subdivision of large holdings with the +introduction of the tenant system. The rapidity of the movement has not +been exceptional in Arkansas, but the size of its average farm, less in +1850 than that of the other cotton states, was in 1900, 93.1 acres +(108.8 for white farmers alone, 49.0 for blacks alone), which was even +less than that of the North Atlantic states (96.5 acres, the smallest +sectional unit of the Union). The percentage of farms worked by owners +fell from 69.1% in 1880 to 54.6% in 1900; the difference of the balances +or 14.5% indicates the increase of tenant holdings, two-thirds of these +being for shares. + +It is interesting to compare in this matter the whites and the negroes. +In actual numbers the white farmers heavily predominate, whether as +owners, tenants for cash or tenants on shares; but if we look at the +numbers within each race holding by these respective tenures (65.0, 8.7 +and 26.3% respectively for whites; 25.6, 33.7 and 40.7% for negroes, in +1900), we see the lesser independence of the negro farmer. The cotton +counties, which are the counties of densest coloured habitancy, +exemplify this fact with great clearness. The few negroes in the white +counties of the uplands are much better off than those in the cotton +lowlands; more than three times as large a part of them owners; the +poorer element is segregated in the cotton region. In Arkansas, as +elsewhere in the south, negro tenants, like white tenants, are more +efficient than owners working their own lands. The black farmer is in +bondage to cotton; for him still "Cotton is King." He gives it +four-fifths of his land; while his white rival allows it only a quarter +of his, less by half than the area he gives to live-stock, dairying, hay +and grains. At Sunnyside, on the west bank of the Mississippi, negro +tenant farmers have been practically forced out of business by Italians, +who produced in 1899-1904 more than twice as much lint cotton per +working hand, and 70% more per acre. The general place of the negro in +agriculture is shown also by the fact that more than four-fifths of the +farm acreage and farm values of the state are in the hands of the +whites. The white farmer gives an outlay in labour and fertilizers on +his farm greater by 61.4% than the black, gathers a produce greater by +22.5%, and possesses a farm of a value 53.5% greater (Census, 1900). + +Cotton is the leading product. It absorbs about a third of the area +under crops, and its returns ($28,000,000 in 1899) are about a half of +the value of all crops. A part of the cotton lands of Arkansas are among +the richest in the south. Other distinctively southern products +(tobacco, &c.) are of no importance in Arkansas. Cereals are given more +than twice as much acreage as cotton, but yield only a third as great +aggregate returns, Indian corn being much the most remunerative; about +three-fourths of the cereal acreage are given to its cultivation, and it +ranks after cotton in value of harvest.[1] For all the other staple +agricultural products of the central states the showing of Arkansas is +uniformly good, but not noteworthy. But its rank as a fruitgrowing +country is exceptional. Plums, prunes, peaches, pears and grapes are +cultivated very generally over the western half of the state (grapes in +the east also), but with greatest success in the south-west; apples +prosper best in the north-west. Small berries are a very important +product. All fruits are of the finest quality. For apples the state +makes probably a finer showing than that of any other state except +Oregon. About ninety varieties are habitually entered in national +competitions. The fruit industry generally has developed with extreme +rapidity. + +_Manufactures._--Although Arkansas is rich in minerals and in forests, +in 1900 only 2% of its population were engaged in manufacturing. But the +development has been rapid; the value of products multiplied seven +times, the wages paid nine, and the capital invested twelve, in the +years 1880-1900; and the increase in the same categories from 1900-1905 +was 35, 42.8 and 82.4% respectively.[2] It must be noted as +characteristic of the state that of the total manufactures in 1905, +80.3% were produced in rural districts (83.7 in 1900). About two-thirds +of the increase between 1890 and 1900 was in the lumber industry which +was of slight importance before the former year; it represented more +than half the total value of the manufactures of the state in 1905 +(output, 1905, $28,065,171 and of mill products $3,786,772 additional); +in the value of lumber and timber products the state ranked sixth among +the states of the United States in 1900, and seventh in 1905. After the +lumber and timber industry ranked in 1905 the manufacture of cotton-seed +oil and cake ($4,939,919) and flour and grist milling. Cotton ginning +increased 739% from 1890 to 1900. + +[Illustration: Map of Arkanas.] + +_Minerals._--The progress of coal-mining has been a striking feature of +the state's economy since 1880. The field extends from Oklahoma eastward +to central Arkansas, along both sides of the Arkansas river. A +production of 5000 tons (short) in 1882 became 542,000 tons in 1891 and +2,229,172 tons in 1903--a maximum for the state up to 1905; in 1907 the +yield was 2,670,438 tons, valued at $4,473,693; the value of the product +increased more than eight-fold in 1886-1900. The United States +Geological Survey estimates that three-fourths of the coal area (over +1700 sq. m.) can made commercially productive. Apart from coal the great +and varied mineral wealth of the state has been only slightly utilized. +The great zinc and lead area along the northern border in the plateau +portion of the Ozark region has proved a disappointment in development; +the iron areas have hardly been touched, and the product of the +exceptionally promising deposits of manganese lost ground after 1890 +before the output of Virginia and Georgia. Among the products of the +rich stone quarries of the state, only that of abrasive stones is +important in the markets of the Union; the novaculites of Arkansas are +among the finest whetstones in the world. Deposits of true chalk are +utilized in the manufacture of Portland cement for local markets. The +chalk region lies in the S. E. part of the state, S. of the Ouachita +Mountains. Bauxite was discovered in the state in 1887, and the product +increased from 5045 long tons in 1899 to 50,267 long tons in 1906, the +production for the whole country in 1899 being 35,280 long tons and in +1906 75,332 long tons. The only other states in which bauxite was +produced during the period were Alabama and Georgia, which in this +respect have greatly declined in importance relatively to Arkansas. +Extremely valuable and varied marls, kaolins and clays, fuller's earth, +asphaltum and mineral waters show special promise in the state's +industry. In 1906 diamonds were found in a peridotite dike in Pike +county 2-1/2 m. S. E. of Murfreesboro; this is the first place in North +America where diamonds have been found _in situ_, and not in glacial +deposit or in river gravel. + +_Communications._--The rivers afford for light craft (of not over 3 ft. +draft) about 3000 m. of navigable waters, a river system unequalled in +extent by that of any other state. The labours of the United States +government have much extended and very greatly improved this navigation, +materially lessening also the frequency and havoc of floods along the +rich bottom-lands through which the rivers plough a tortuous way in the +eastern and southern portions of the state. As a result of these +improvements land and timber values have markedly risen, and great +impetus has been given to traffic on the rivers, which carry a large +part of the cotton, lumber, coal, stone, hay and miscellaneous freights +of the state. The greatest of these internal improvements is the St +Francis levee, from New Madrid, Missouri, to the mouth of the St +Francis, 212 m. along the Mississippi; an area of 3500 sq. m., of +exceptional fertility, is here reclaimed at a cost of about $1500 per +sq. m. (as compared with $10,000 per sq. m. for the 2500 sq. m. +reclaimed by the Nile works at Assuan and Assiut). Whether with regard +to area or population, Arkansas is also relatively well supplied with +railways (4,472.8 m. at the end of 1907). A state railway commission +controls transportation rates, which are also somewhat checked by the +competition of river freights. There is also a considerable passenger +traffic on the Arkansas. + +_Population._--The population in 1910 was 1,574,449. The growth in +1880-1900 is shown by the following table:-- + + +------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+---------------------+ + | | | | | |% Increase by decades| + |Census| Total |% White|% Negro| Average +------+------+-------+ + | Year.| Pop. | Pop. | Pop. |per sq. m.|Total |White | Negro | + +------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+------+------+-------+ + | 1880 | 802,525 | 73.7 | 26.3 | 15.1 | 65.6 | 63.3 | 72.4 | + | 1890 | 1,128,211 | 72.6 | 27.4 | 21.5 | 40.6 | 38.4 | 46.6 | + | 1900 | 1,311,561 | 72.0 | 28.0 | 25.0 | 16.3 | 15.4 | 18.7 | + +------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+------+------+-------+ + +In 1900 the rank of the state in total population was twenty-fifth, and +in negro population tenth. The proportion of the coloured element +steadily rose from 11% in 1820 to 28% in 1900, at which time there were +more than a dozen counties along the border of the Mississippi and lower +Arkansas in which the negroes numbered 50 to 89% of the total. They have +never been a large element in the highland counties; it was these +counties which were most strongly Unionist at the time of the Civil War, +and which to-day are the region of diversified industry. About a ninth +of the state's population is gathered into towns of more than 2000 +inhabitants. Fort Smith (pop. 11,587 in 1900), Little Rock, the state +capital (38,307), and Pine Bluff (11,496) lie in the valley of the +Arkansas. In 1900 a dozen other towns had a population exceeding 2500, +the most important being Hot Springs (9973), Helena (5550), Texarkana +(4914), Jonesboro (4508), Fayetteville (4061), Eureka Springs (3572), +Mena (3423) and Paragould (3324). Foreign blood has only very slightly +permeated the state; negroes and native whites of native parents make up +more than 95% of its population. Immigration is almost entirely from +other southern states. The strongest religious sects are the Methodists +and Baptists. + +_Government._--The present constitution of the state dates from 1874 +(with amendments). Few features mark it off from the usual type of such +documents. The governor holds office for two years; he has the pardoning +and veto power, but his veto may be overridden by a simple majority in +each house of the whole number elected to that house (a provision +unusual among the state constitutions of the Union). There is no +lieutenant-governor. The legislature is bicameral, senators holding +office for four years, representatives (about thrice as numerous) for +two. The length of the regular biennial legislative sessions is limited +to sixty days, but by a vote of two-thirds of the members elected to +each house the length of any session may be extended. Special sessions +may be called by the governor. A majority of the members elected to each +of the two houses suffices to propose a constitutional amendment, which +the people may then accept by a mere majority of all votes cast at an +election for the legislature (an unusually democratic provision); no +more than three amendments, however, can be proposed or submitted at the +same time. The supreme court has five members, elected by the people for +eight years; they are re-eligible. The population of the state entitles +it to seven representatives in the national House of Representatives, +and to nine votes in the Electoral College (census of 1900). Elections +of members of the state legislature and of Congress are not held at the +same time--a very unusual provision. Elections are by Australian ballot; +the constitution prescribes that no law shall "be enacted whereby the +right to vote at any election shall be made to depend upon any previous +registration of the elector's name" (extremely unusual). The +qualifications for suffrage include one year's residence in the state, +six months in the county, and one month in the voting district, next +before election; idiots, insane persons, convicts, Indians not taxed, +minors and women are disqualified; aliens who have declared their +intention to become citizens of the United States vote on the same terms +as actual citizens. An amendment of 1893 requires the exhibition of a +poll-tax receipt by every voter (except those "who make satisfactory +proof that they have attained the age of twenty-one years since the time +of assessing taxes next preceding" the election). There is nothing in +the constitution or laws of Arkansas with any apparent tendency to +disfranchise the negroes; there are statutory provisions (1866-1867) +against intermarriage of the races and constitutional and statutory +(1886-1887) provisions for separate schools, a "Jim Crow" law (1891) +requires railways to provide separate cars for negroes, and a law (1893) +provides for separate railway waiting-rooms for negroes. Giving or +accepting a challenge to a duel bars from office, but this survival of +the ante-bellum social life is to-day only reminiscent. Declared +atheists are similarly disqualified. There is no constitutional +provision for a census. Marriage is pronounced a civil contract. A law +for compulsory education was passed in 1909. + +_Finance._--The constitution makes 1% on the assessed valuation of +property a maximum limit of state taxation for ordinary expenses, but by +an amendment of 1906 the legislature may levy three mills on the dollar +per annum for common schools; and may "authorize school districts to +levy by a vote of the qualified electors of such district a tax not to +exceed seven mills on the dollar in any year for school purposes." The +state debt in 1874 was $12,108,247, of which about $9,370,000 was +incurred after the Civil War for internal improvement schemes. This new +debt was practically repudiated in 1875 by a decision of the supreme +court, and completely set aside in 1884 by constitutional amendment. +Until 1900, when an adjustment of the matter was reached, there was also +another disputed debt to the national government, owing to the collapse +in 1839 of a so-called Real Estate Bank of Arkansas, in which the state +had invested more than $500,000 paid to it by the United States in +exchange for Arkansas bonds to be held as an investment for the +Smithsonian Institution, on which bonds the state defaulted after 1839. +If the unacknowledged debt be included (as it often is; and hence the +necessity of reference to it), very few states--and those all western or +southern--have a heavier burden per capita. But the acknowledged debt +was in 1907 only $1,250,500, and this is not a true debt, being a +permanent school fund that is not to be paid off; of this total in 3% +bonds, $1,134,500 is held by the common schools and $116,000 by the +state university. In net combined state and local debt, Arkansas ranks +very low among the states of the Union. The hired labourer suffers from +the "truck" system, taking his pay in board and living, in goods, in +trade on his employer's credit at the village store; the independent +farmer suffers in his turn from unlimited credit at the same store, +where he secures everything on the credit of his future crops; and if he +is reduced to borrow money, he secures it by vesting the title to his +property temporarily in his creditor. His legal protections under such +"title bonds" are much slighter than under mortgages. Homesteads +belonging to the head of a family and containing 80 to 160 acres +(according to value) if in the country, or a lot of 1/4 to one acre +(according to value), if in town, village or city, are exempt from +liability for debts, excepting liens for purchase money, improvements or +taxes. A married man may not sell or mortgage a homestead without his +wife's consent. + +_Education._--The legal beginnings of a public school system date from +1843; in 1867 the first tax was imposed for its support. Only white +children were regarded by the laws before Reconstruction days. There are +now separate race schools, with terms of equal length, and offering like +facilities; the number of white and coloured teachers employed is +approximately in the same proportion to the number of attending children +of the respective races; in negro districts two out of three school +directors are usually negroes. "The coloured race as a whole go to the +schools as regularly and as numerously in proportion as do the whites" +(Shinn). Of the current expenses of the common schools about +three-fourths is borne by the localities; the state distributes its +contribution annually among the counties. There is also a permanent +school fund derived wholly from land grants from the national +government. The total expenditure for the schools is creditable to the +state; but before 1909 hardly half the school population attended; and +in general the rural conditions of the state, the shortness of the +school terms and the dependence of the schools primarily upon local +funds and local supervision, make the schools of inadequate and quite +varying excellence. The average expenditure in 1906 for tuition per +child enrolled was $4.93, and the average length of the school term was +only eighty-one days. In June 1906 there were 1102 school houses in the +state valued at $100 or less. In 1905-1906 the Peabody Board gave $2000 +to aid rural schools, and in general it has done much for the +improvement of country public schools throughout the state. In 1906 an +amendment to the state constitution, greatly increasing the tax +resources available for educational work, was passed by a large popular +vote. The University of Arkansas was opened at Fayetteville in 1872. The +law and medical faculties are at Little Rock. A branch normal school, +established 1873-1875 at Pine Bluff, provides for coloured students, who +enjoy the same opportunities for work, and are accorded the same +degrees, as the students at Fayetteville; they are about a fourth as +numerous. In 1905-1906 there were 497 students in the college of liberal +arts, sciences and engineering, 548 in the preparatory school and 26 in +the conservatory of music and arts, all in Fayetteville; 171 in the +medical school and 46 in the law school in Little Rock; and 240 in the +branch normal college at Pine Bluff. The university and the normal +school are supported by the Morrill Fund and by state appropriations. +The state still suffered in 1906 from the lack of a separate and special +training school for teachers; but in 1907 the legislature voted to +establish a state normal school. Of the Morrill Fund (see MORRILL, +JUSTIN SMITH), three-elevenths goes to the normal school. The +agricultural experiment station of the university dates from 1887. The +financial support of the university has been light, about three-fifths +coming from the United States government. Besides the university there +are about a score of denominational colleges or academies, of which +half-a-dozen are for coloured students. Among the large denominational +colleges are Philander Smith College, Little Rock (Methodist Episcopal, +1877); Ouachita College, Arkadelphia (Baptist, 1886); Hendrix College, +Conway (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1884); and Arkansas College, +Batesville (Presbyterian, 1872). There are few libraries in Arkansas. In +this matter her showing has long been among the very poorest in the +Union relatively to her population. Daily papers are few in number. The +state charitable institutions--insane asylum, deaf-mute and blind +institutes--and the penitentiary, are at Little Rock. + +Local government is of the ordinary southern county type, without +noteworthy variations. Municipal corporations rest upon a general state +law, not upon individual charters. The liquor question is left by the +state to county (i.e. including "local," or town) option, and +prohibition is the most common county law, the alternative being +high-licence. + +_History._--The first settlement by Europeans in Arkansas was made in +1686 by the French at Arkansas Post (later the residence of the French +and Spanish governors, important as a trading post in the earlier days +of the American occupation, and the first territorial capital, +1819-1820). In 1720 a grant on the Arkansas was made to John Law. In +1762 the territory passed to Spain, in 1780 back to France, and in 1803 +to the United States as a part of the "Louisiana Purchase." Save in the +beginnings of western frontier trade, and in a great mass of litigation +left to the courts of later years by the curious and uncertain methods +of land delimitation that prevailed among the French and Spanish +colonists, the pre-American period of occupation has slight connexions +with the later period, and scant historical importance. + +From 1804 to 1812 what is now Arkansas was part of the district (and +then the territory) of Louisiana, and from 1812 to 1819 of the territory +of Missouri. Its earliest county organizations date from this time. It +was erected successively into a territory of the first and second class +by acts of Congress of the 2nd of March 1819 and the 21st of April 1820. +By act of the 15th of June 1836 it was admitted into the Union as a +slave state. + +There is little of general interest in the history of ante-bellum days. +Economic life centred in the slave plantation, and there was remarkable +development up to the Civil War. The decade 1819-1829 saw the first +newspaper (1819), the beginning of steamboating on Arkansas rivers, and +the first weekly mail from the east. Trade was largely confined to the +rivers and freighting for Sante Fe and Salt Lake before the war, but the +first railway entered the state in 1853. Social life was sluggish in +some ways and wild in others. An unhappy propensity to duelling, the +origin in Arkansas of the bowie-knife,--from an alleged use of which +Arkansas received the nickname, which it has always retained, of the +"toothpick state,"--and other backwoods associations gave the state a +reputation which to some extent has survived in spite of many years of +sober history. The questions of the conduct of territorial affairs do +not seem to have been contested systematically on national party lines +until about 1825. The government of Arkansas before the Civil War was +always in the hands of a few families closely intermarried. From the +beginning the state has been unswervingly Democratic, save in the +Reconstruction years, though often with heavy Whig or Republican +minorities. + +In February 1861 the people of Arkansas voted to hold a convention to +consider the state of public affairs. The convention assembled on the +4th of March. Secession resolutions were defeated, and it was voted to +submit to the people the question whether there should be "co-operation" +through the Lincoln government, or "secession." The plan was endorsed of +holding a convention of all the states to settle the slavery question, +and delegates were chosen to the proposed Border State Convention that +was to meet at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 27th of May. Then came the +fall of Fort Sumter and the proclamation of President Lincoln calling +for troops to put down rebellion. The governor of Arkansas curtly +refused its quota. A quick surge of ill-feeling, all the bitterer on +account of the divided sentiments of the people, chilled loyalty to the +Union. The convention reassembled on call of the governor, and on the +6th of May, with a single dissentient voice, passed an ordinance of +secession. It then repealed its former vote submitting the question of +secession to the people. On the 16th of May Arkansas became one of the +Confederate States of America. + +In the years of war that followed, a very large proportion of the +able-bodied men of the state served in the armies of the Confederacy; +several regiments, some of coloured troops, served the Union. Union +sentiment was strongest in the north. In 1862-1863 various victories +threw more than half the state, mainly the north and east, under the +Federal arms. Accordingly, under a proclamation of the president, +citizens within the conquered districts were authorized to renew +allegiance to the Union, and a special election was ordered for March +1864, to reorganize the state government. But meanwhile, a convention of +delegates chosen mainly at polls opened at the army posts, assembled in +January 1864, abolished slavery, repudiated secession and the secession +war debt, and revised in minor details the constitution of 1836, +restricting the suffrage to whites. This new fundamental law was +promptly adopted by the people, i.e. by its friends, who alone voted. +But the representatives of Arkansas under this constitution were never +admitted to Congress. + +The Federal and Confederate forces controlled at this time different +parts of the state; there was some ebb and flow of military fortune in +1864, and for a short time two rival governments. Chaotic conditions +followed the war. The fifteenth legislature (April 1864 to April 1865) +ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, and passed laws against +"bush-whacking," a term used in the Civil War for guerilla warfare, +especially as carried on by pretended neutrals. Local militia, +protecting none who refused to join in the common defence, and all +serving "not as soldiers but as farmers mutually pledged to protect each +other from the depredations of outlaws who infest the state," strove to +secure such public order as was necessary to the gathering of crops, so +as "to prevent the starvation of the citizens" (governor's circular, +1865). Struggling in these difficulties, the government of the state was +upset by the first Reconstruction Act. The governor in these years +(1865-1868) was a Republican, the caster of the single Union vote in the +convention of 1861; but the sixteenth legislature (1866-1867) was +largely Democratic. It undertook to determine the rights of persons of +African descent, and regrettable conflicts followed. The first +Reconstruction Act having declared that "no legal state government or +adequate protection for life or property" existed in the "rebel states," +Arkansas was included in one of the military districts established by +Congress. A registration of voters, predominantly whites, was at once +carried through, and delegates were chosen for another constitutional +convention, which met at Little Rock in January 1868. The secessionist +element was voluntarily or perforce excluded. This convention ratified +the Fourteenth Amendment, and framed the third constitution of the +state, which was adopted by a small majority at a popular election, +marred by various irregularities, in March 1868. By its provisions +negroes secured full political rights, and all whites who had been +excluded from registration for the election of delegates to the +convention were now practically stripped of political privileges. The +organization of Arkansas being now acceptable to Congress, a bill +admitting it to the Union was passed over President Johnson's veto, and +on the 22nd of June 1868 the admission was consummated. + +Arkansas now became for several years Republican, and suffered +considerably from the rule of the "carpet-baggers." The debt of the +state was increased about $9,375,000 from 1868 to 1874, largely for +railroad and levee schemes; much of the money was misappropriated, and +in a case involving the payment of railway aid bonds the action of the +legislature in pledging the credit of the state was held nugatory by the +state supreme court in 1875 on the ground that, contrary to the +constitution, the bond issue had never been referred to popular vote. An +amendment to the constitution approved by a popular vote in 1884 +provided that the General Assembly should "have no power to levy any +tax, or make any appropriation, to pay" any of the bonds issued by +legislative action in 1868, 1869 and 1871. The current expenses of the +state in the years of Reconstruction were also enormously increased. The +climax of the Reconstruction period was the so-called Baxter-Brooks war. + +Elisha Baxter (1827-1899) was the regular Republican candidate for +governor in 1872. He was opposed by a disaffected Republican faction +known as "brindletails," or as they called themselves, "reformers," led +by Joseph Brooks (1821-1877), and supported by the Democrats. Baxter was +irregularly elected. The election was contested, and his choice was +confirmed by the legislature, the court of last resort in such cases. He +soon showed a willingness to rule as a non-partisan, and favoured the +re-enfranchisement of white citizens. This would have put the Democrats +again in power, and they rallied to Baxter, while the Brooks party now +assumed the name of "regulars," and received the support of the +"carpet-bag" and negro elements. After Baxter had been a year in office +Brooks received a judgment of _ouster_ against him from a state circuit +judge, and got possession of the public buildings (April 1874). The +state flew to arms. The legislature called for Federal intervention (May +1874), and Federal troops maintained neutrality while investigations +were conducted by a committee sent out by Congress. As a result, +President Grant pronounced for Baxter, and the Brooks forces disbanded. + +The chief result was another convention. In 1873 the article of the +constitution which had disfranchised the whites was repealed, and the +Democrats thus regained power. By an overwhelming majority the people +now voted for another convention, which (July to October 1874) framed +the present constitution. It removed all disfranchisement, and embraced +equitable amnesty and exemption features. It also took away all +patronage from the governor, reduced his term to two years, forbade him +to proclaim martial law or suspend the writ of _habeas corpus_, and +abolished all registration laws: all these provisions being reflections +of Reconstruction struggles. The people ratified the new constitution on +the 13th of October 1874. After Reconstruction the state again became +Democratic, and the main interest of its history has been the progress +of economic development. + +The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of +Arkansas:-- + + _Territorial._ + + James Miller[3] 1819-1825 + George Izard 1825-1828 + John Pope[4] 1829-1835 + William S. Fulton 1835-1836 + + _State._ + + James S. Conway 1836-1840 Democrat + Archibald Yell[5] 1840-1844 " + Thomas S. Drew[6] 1844-1849 " + John S. Roane 1849-1852 " + Elias N. Conway 1852-1860 " + Henry M. Rector[7] 1860-1862 " + Harris Flannigan[8] 1862-1865 " + Isaac Murphy[9] 1864-1868 Republican + C.H. Smith[10] 1867-1868 " + Powell Clayton 1868-1871 " + Ozra A. Hadley[11] 1871-1873 " + Elisha Baxter 1873-1874 " + August H. Garland 1874-1877 Democrat + William R. Miller 1877-1881 " + Thomas J. Churchill 1881-1883 " + James H. Berry 1883-1885 " + Simon P. Hughes 1885-1889 " + James P. Eagle 1889-1893 " + William M. Fishback 1893-1895 " + James P. Clarke 1895-1897 " + Daniel W. Jones 1897-1901 " + Jefferson Davis 1901-1907 " + John S. Little 1907-1908 " + X.O. Pindall, Acting Gov. 1908 " + George W. Donaghey 1909 " + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Information regarding the resources, climate, + population and industries of Arkansas should be sought in the volumes + of the United States Census, United States Department of Agriculture + and the United States Geological Survey (for the last two there are + various bibliographical guides); consult also the publications of the + Arkansas (Agricultural) Experiment Station (at Fayetteville), the + reports of the state horticulturist, the biennial reports of the state + treasurer, of the auditor, and of the Bureau of Mines, Manufactures + and Agriculture (all published at Little Rock). + + The constitutional documents may best be consulted in the latest + compiled _Statutes_ of the state. See also J.H. Shinn, _Education in + Arkansas_ (U.S. Bur. of Education, 1900); W.F. Pope, _Early Days in + Arkansas_ (Little Rock, 1895); and F. Hempstead, _Pictorial History of + Arkansas_ (St Louis, 1890). Similar to the last in popular character, + vast in bulk and loose in method, are a series of _Biographical and + Pictorial Histories_, covering the different sections of the state (1 + vol. by J. Hallum, Albany, 1887; four others compiled anonymously, + Chicago, 1889-1891). For the Reconstruction period see especially the + Poland Report in House Rp. No. 2, 43 Cong. 2 Sess., vol. i. (1874), + and John M. Harrell's _The Brooks and Baxter War: A History of the + Reconstruction Period in Arkansas_ (St Louis, Missouri, 1893), which + is frankly in favour of Baxter; also a paper by B.S. Johnson in vol. + ii. (1908) of the _Publications of the Arkansas Historical + Association_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For 1906 the _Yearbook_ of the U.S. Department of Agriculture + reported the following statistics for Arkansas:--Indian corn, + 52,802,659 bu., valued at $24,817,207; oats 3,783,706 bu., valued at + $1,589,157; wheat, 1,915,250 bu., valued at $1,436,438; rice, 131,440 + bu., valued at $111,724; rye, 23,652 bu., valued at $19,631; + potatoes, 1,666,960 bu., valued at $1,116,863; hay, 113,491 tons, + valued at $1,123,561. + + [2] The special census of the manufacturing industry for 1905 was + concerned only with the establishment conducted under the so-called + "factory system"; for purposes of comparison the figures for 1900 + have been reduced to the same standard, and this fact should be borne + in mind with regard to the percentages of increase given above. + + [3] During this period Robert Crittenden, the secretary of the + territory, was frequently the acting governor. + + [4] Robert Crittenden was acting governor in 1828-1829. + + [5] Samuel Adams was acting governor from the 29th of April to the + 9th of November 1844. + + [6] R.C. Byrd was acting governor from the 11th of January to the 19th + of April 1849. + + [7] Thomas Fletcher was acting governor from the 4th to the 15th of + November 1862. + + [8] Confederate governor. + + [9] Union governor. + + [10] United States military (sub) governor. + + [11] Acting governor. + + + + +ARKANSAS CITY, a city of Cowley county, Kansas, U.S.A., situated near +the S. boundary of the state, in the fork of the Arkansas and Walnut +rivers. Pop. (1890) 8347; (1900) 6140, of whom 302 were negroes; (1905) +7634; (1910) 7508. The city is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa +Fe, the Missouri Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland +Valley and the Kansas South-Western railways. To the south is the +Chilocco Indian school (in Key county, Oklahoma), established by the +U.S. government in 1884. A canal joining the Arkansas and Walnut rivers +furnishes good water power. The manufactories include flour mills, +packing establishments, a creamery and a paint factory. The city is +situated in the midst of a rich agricultural region and is a supply +centre for southern Kansas and Oklahoma, with large jobbing interests. +The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Arkansas City, first +known as Creswell, was settled in 1870, was chartered as a city under +its present name in 1872 and was rechartered in 1880. + + + + +ARKLOW, a seaport and market town of Co. Wicklow, Ireland, in the east +parliamentary division, 49 m. S. of Dublin, by the Dublin & +South-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4944. Sea-fisheries are prosecuted, +and there are oyster-beds on the coast, but the produce requires to be +freed from a peculiar flavour by the purer waters of the Welsh and +English coast before it is fit for food. The produce of the copper and +lead mines of the Vale of Avoca is shipped from the port. There are +cordite and explosives works, established by Messrs Kynoch of +Birmingham, England. In 1882 an act was passed providing for the +improvement of the harbour and for the appointment of harbour +commissioners. The town hall and the Protestant church (1899) were gifts +of the earl of Carysfort, in whose property the town is situated. There +are slight ruins of an ancient castle of the Ormondes, demolished in +1649 by Cromwell. On the 9th of June 1798 the Irish insurgents, +attacking the town, were defeated by the royal troops near Arklow +Bridge, and their leader, Father Michael Murphy, was killed. + + + + +ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD (1732-1792), English inventor, was born at +Preston in Lancashire, on the 23rd of December 1732, of parents in +humble circumstances. He was the youngest of thirteen children, and +received but a very indifferent education. After serving his +apprenticeship in his native town, he established himself as a barber at +Bolton about 1750, and later amassed a little property from dealing in +human hair and dyeing it by a process of his own. This business he gave +up about 1767 in order to devote himself to the construction of the +spinning frame. The spinning jenny, which was patented by James +Hargreaves (d. 1778), a carpenter of Blackburn, Lancashire, in 1770, +though he had invented it some years earlier, gave the means of spinning +twenty or thirty threads at once with no more labour than had previously +been required to spin a single thread. The thread spun by the jenny +could not, however, be used except as weft, being destitute of the +firmness or hardness required in the longitudinal threads or warp. +Arkwright supplied this deficiency by the invention of the +spinning-frame, which spins a vast number of threads of any degree of +fineness and hardness. + +The precise date of the invention is not known; but in 1767 he employed +John Kay, a watchmaker at Warrington, to assist him in the preparation +of the parts of his machine, and he took out a patent for it in 1769. +The first model was set up in the parlour of the house belonging to the +free grammar school at Preston. This invention having been brought to a +fairly advanced stage, he removed to Nottingham in 1768, accompanied by +Kay and John Smalley of Preston, and there erected his first spinning +mill, which was worked by horses. But his operations were at first +greatly fettered by want of capital, until Jedediah Strutt (q.v.), +having satisfied himself of the value of the machines, entered with his +partner, Samuel Need, into partnership with him, and enabled him in 1771 +to build a second factory, on a much larger scale, at Cromford in +Derbyshire, the machinery of which was turned by a water-wheel. A fresh +patent, taken out in 1775, covered several additional improvements in +the processes of carding, roving and spinning. As the value of his +processes became known, he began to be troubled with infringements of +his patents, and in 1781 he took action in the courts to vindicate his +rights. In the first case, against Colonel Mordaunt, who was supported +by a combination of manufacturers, the decision was unfavourable to him, +on the sole ground that the description of the machinery in the +specification was obscure and indistinct. In consequence he prepared a +"case," which he at one time intended to lay before parliament, as the +foundation of an application for an act for relief. But this intention +was subsequently abandoned; and in a new trial (_Arkwright_ v. +_Nightingale_) in February 1785, the presiding judge having expressed +himself favourably with respect to the sufficiency of the specification, +a verdict was given for Arkwright. On this, as on the former trial, +nothing was stated against the originality of the invention. + +In consequence of these conflicting verdicts, the whole matter was +brought, by a writ of _scire facias_, before the court of King's Bench, +to have the validity of the patent finally settled, and it was not till +this third trial, which took place in June 1785, that Arkwright's claim +to the inventions which formed the subject of the patent was disputed. +To support this new allegation, Arkwright's opponents brought forward, +for the first time, Thomas Highs, or Hayes, a reed-maker at Bolton, who +stated that he had invented a machine for spinning by rollers previously +to 1768, and that he had employed the watchmaker Kay to make a model of +that machine. Kay himself was produced to prove that he had communicated +that model to Arkwright, and that this was the real source of all his +pretended inventions. Having no idea that any attempt was to be made to +overturn the patent on this new ground, Arkwright's counsel were not +prepared with evidence to repel this statement, and the verdict went +against him. On a motion for a new trial on the 10th of November of the +same year it was stated that he was furnished with affidavits +contradicting the evidence that had been given by Kay and others with +respect to the originality of the invention; but the court refused to +grant a new trial, on the ground that, whatever might be the fact as to +the question of originality, the deficiency in the specification was +enough to sustain the verdict, and the cancellation of the patents was +ordered a few days afterwards. His fortunes, however, were not thereby +seriously affected, for by this time his business capacity and +organizing skill had enabled him to consolidate his position, in spite +of the difficulties he had encountered not only from rival manufacturers +but also from the working classes, who in 1779 displayed their antipathy +to labour-saving appliances by destroying a large mill he had erected +near Chorley. + +Though a man of great personal strength, Arkwright never enjoyed good +health, and throughout his career of invention and discovery he +laboured under a severe asthmatic affection. A complication of disorders +at length terminated his life on the 3rd of August 1792, at his works at +Cromford. He was knighted in 1786 when he presented a congratulatory +address from the wapentake of Wirksworth to George III., on his escape +from the attempt on his life by Margaret Nicholson. + + + + +ARLES, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 54 m. N.W. of Marseilles by rail. +Pop. (1906) 16,191. A canal unites Arles with the harbour of Bouc on the +Mediterranean. Arles stands on the left bank of the Rhone, just below +the point at which the river divides to form its delta. A tubular bridge +unites it with the suburb of Trinquetaille on the opposite bank. The +town is hemmed in on the east by the railway line from Lyons to +Marseilles, on the south by the Canal de Craponne. Its streets are +narrow and irregular, and, away from the promenades which border it on +the south, there is little animation. In the centre of the town stand +the Place de la Republique, a spacious square overlooked by the hotel de +ville, the museum, and the old cathedral of St Trophime, the finest +Romanesque church in Provence. Founded in the 7th century, St Trophime +has been several times rebuilt, and was restored in 1870. Its chief +portal, which dates from the 12th century, is a masterpiece of graceful +arrangement and rich carving. The interior, plain in itself, contains +interesting sculpture. The choir opens into a beautiful cloister, the +massive vaulting of which is supported on heavy piers adorned with +statuary, between which intervene slender columns arranged in pairs and +surmounted by delicately carved capitals. Two of the galleries are +Romanesque, while two are Gothic. Arles has two other churches of the +Romanesque period, and others of later date. The hotel de ville, a +building of the 17th century, contains the library. Its clock tower, +surmounted by a statue of Mars, dates from the previous century. The +museum, occupying an old Gothic church, is particularly rich in Roman +remains and in early Christian sarcophagi; there is also a museum of +Provencal curiosities. The tribunal of commerce and the communal college +are the chief public institutions. Arles is not a busy town and its port +is of little importance. There are, however, flour mills, oil and soap +works, and the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee Railway Company have large +workshops. Sheep-breeding is a considerable industry in the vicinity. +The women of Arles have long enjoyed a reputation for marked beauty, but +the distinctive type is fast disappearing owing to their intermarriage +with strangers who have immigrated to the town. + +Arles still possesses many monuments of Roman architecture and art, the +most remarkable being the ruins of an amphitheatre (the _Arenes_), +capable of containing 25,000 spectators, which, in the 11th and 12th +centuries, was flanked with massive towers, of which three are still +standing. There are also a theatre, in which, besides the famous Venus +of Arles, discovered in 1651, many other remains have been found; an +ancient obelisk of a single block, 47 ft. high, standing since 1676 in +the Place de la Republique; the ruins of the palace of Constantine, the +forum, the thermae and the remains of the Roman ramparts and of +aqueducts. There is, besides, a Roman cemetery known as the Aliscamps +(_Elysii Campi_), consisting of a short avenue once bordered by tombs, +of which a few still remain. + +The ancient town, _Arelate_, was an important place at the time of the +invasion of Julius Caesar, who made it a settlement for his veterans. It +was pillaged in A.D. 270, but restored and embellished by Constantine, +who made it his principal residence, and founded what is now the suburb +of Trinquetaille. Under Honorius, it became the seat of the prefecture +of the Gauls and one of the foremost cities in the western empire. Its +bishopric founded by St Trophimus in the 1st century, was in the 5th +century the primatial see of Gaul; it was suppressed in 1790. After the +fall of the Roman empire the city passed into the power of the +Visigoths, and rapidly declined. It was plundered in 730 by the +Saracens, but in the 10th century became the capital of the kingdom of +Arles (see below). In the 12th century it was a free city, governed by a +_podesta_ and _consuls_ after the model of the Italian republics, which +it also emulated in commerce and navigation. In 1251 it submitted to +Charles I. of Anjou, and from that time onwards followed the fortunes of +Provence. A number of ecclesiastical synods have been held at Arles, as +in 314 (see below), 354, 452 and 475. + + See V. Clair, _Monuments d'Arles_ (1837); J.J. Estrangin, + _Description de la ville d'Arles_ (1845); F. Beissier, _Le Pays + d'Arles_ (1889); Roger Peyre, _Nimes, Arles, Orange_ (1903). + (R. Tr.) + +_Synod of Arles (314)._--As negotiations held at Rome in October 313 had +failed to settle the dispute between the Catholics and the Donatists, +the emperor Constantine summoned the first general council of his +western half of the empire to meet at Arles by the 1st of August +following. The attempt of Seeck to date the synod 316 presupposes that +the emperor was present in person, which is highly improbable. +Thirty-three bishops are included in the most authentic list of +signatures, among them three from Britain,--York, London and "Colonia +Londinensium" (probably a corruption of Lindensium, or Lincoln, rather +than of Legionensium or Caerleon-On-Usk). The twenty-two canons deal +chiefly with the discipline of clergy and people. Husbands of adulterous +wives are advised not to remarry during the lifetime of the guilty +party. Reiteration of baptism in the name of the Trinity is forbidden. +For the consecration of a bishop at least three bishops are required. It +is noteworthy that British representatives assented to Canon I., +providing that Easter be everywhere celebrated on the same day: the +later divergence between Rome and the Celtic church is due to +improvements in the _supputatio Romana_ adopted at Rome in 343 and +subsequently. + + For the canons see Mansi ii. 471 ff.; Bruns ii. 107 ff.; Lauchert 26 + ff. See also W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian + Antiquities_ (Boston, 1875), i. 141 ff. (contains also notices of + later synods at Arles); W. Bright, _Chapters of Early English Church + History_ (2nd edition, Oxford, 1888), 9 f.; Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd edition), ii. 59, x. 238 ff.; W. Moller, + _Kirchengeschichte_ (2nd edition by H. von Schubert, Tubingen, 1902), + i. 417. For full titles see COUNCIL. (W. W. R.*) + + + + +ARLES, KINGDOM OF, the name given to the kingdom formed about 933 by the +union of the old kingdoms of Provence (q.v.) or Cisjurane Burgundy, and +Burgundy (q.v.) Transjurane, and bequeathed in 1032 by its last +sovereign, Rudolph III., to the emperor Conrad II. It comprised the +countship of Burgundy (_Franche-Comte_), part of which is now +Switzerland (the dioceses of Geneva, Lausanne, Sion and part of that of +Basel), the Lyonnais, and the whole of the territory bounded by the +Alps, the Mediterranean and the Rhone; on the right bank of the Rhone it +further included the Vivarais. It is only after the end of the 12th +century that the name "kingdom of Arles" is applied to this district; +formerly it was known generally as the kingdom of Burgundy, but under +the Empire the name of Burgundy came to be limited more and more to the +countship of Burgundy, and the districts lying beyond the Jura. The +authority of Rudolph III. over the chief lords of the land, the count of +Burgundy and the count of Maurienne, founder of the house of Savoy, was +already merely nominal, and the Franconian emperors (1039-1125), whose +visits to the country were rare and of short duration, did not establish +their power any more firmly. During the first fifty years of their +domination they could rely on the support of the ecclesiastical +feudatories, who generally favoured their cause, but the investiture +struggle, in which the prelates of the kingdom of Arles mostly sided +with the pope, deprived the Germanic sovereigns even of this support. +The emperors, on the other hand, realized early that their absence from +the country was a grave source of weakness; in 1043 Henry III. conferred +on Rudolph, count of Rheinfelden (afterwards duke of Swabia), the title +of _dux et rector Burgundiae_, giving him authority over the barons of +the northern part of the kingdom of Arles. Towards the middle of the +12th century Lothair II. revived this system, conferring the rectorate +on Conrad of Zahringen, in whose family it remained hereditary up to the +death of the last representative of the house, Berthold V., in 1218; and +it was the lords of Zahringen who were foremost in defending the cause +of the Empire against its chief adversaries, the counts of Burgundy. In +the time of the Swabian emperors, the Germanic sovereignty in the +kingdom of Arles was again, during almost the whole period, merely +nominal, and it was only in consequence of fortuitous circumstances that +certain of the heads of the Empire were able to exercise a real +authority in these parts. Frederick I., by his marriage with Beatrix +(1156), had become uncontested master of the countship of Burgundy; +Frederick II., who was more powerful in Italy than his predecessors had +been, and was extending his activities into the countries of the Levant, +found Provence more accessible to his influence, thanks to the +commercial relations existing between the great cities of this country +and Italy and the East. Moreover, the heretics and enemies of the +church, who were numerous in the south, upheld the emperor in his +struggle against the pope. Henry VII. also, thanks to his good relations +with the princes of Savoy, succeeded in exercising a certain influence +over a part of the kingdom of Arles. The emperors further tried to make +their power more effective by delegating it, first to a viceroy, William +of Baux, prince of Orange (1215), then to an imperial vicar, William of +Montferrat (1220), who was succeeded by Henry of Revello and William of +Manupello. In spite of this, the history of the kingdom of Arles in the +13th century, and still more in the 14th, is distinguished particularly +by the decline of the imperial authority and the progress of French +influence in the country. In 1246 the marriage of Charles, the brother +of Saint Louis, with Beatrice, the heiress to the countship of Provence, +caused Provence to pass into the hands of the house of Anjou, and many +plans were made to win the whole of the kingdom for a prince of this +house. At the beginning of the 14th century the bishops of Lyons and +Viviers recognized the suzerainty of the king of France, and in 1343 +Humbert II., dauphin of Viennois, made a compact with the French king +Philip VI. that on his death his inheritance should pass to a son or a +grandson of the French king. Humbert, who was perhaps the most powerful +noble in Arles, was induced to take this step as he had just lost his +only son, and Philip had already cast covetous eyes on his lands. Then +in 1349, being in want of money, he agreed to sell his possessions +outright, and thus Viennois, or Dauphine, passed into the hands of +Philip's grandson, afterwards King Charles V. The emperor Charles IV. +took an active part in the affairs of the kingdom, but without any +consistent policy, and in 1378 he, in turn, ceded the imperial vicariate +of the kingdom to the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VI. This date may +be taken as marking the end of the history of the kingdom of Arles, +considered as an independent territorial area. + + See the monumental work of P. Fournier, _Le Royaume d'Arles et de + Vienne_ (Paris, 1890); Leroux, _Recherches critiques sur les relations + politiques de la France avec l'Allemagne de 1292 a 1378_ (Paris, + 1882). For the early history of the kingdom, L. Jacob, _Le Royaume de + Bourgogne sous les empereurs franconiens_ (_1038-1129_), (Paris, + 1906). The question of the nature and extent of the rights of the + Empire over the kingdom of Arles has given rise, ever since the 16th + century, to numerous juridical polemics; the chief dissertations + published on this subject are indicated in A. Leroux, _Bibliographie + des conflits entre la France et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1902). (R. Po.) + + + + +ARLINGTON, HENRY BENNET, EARL OF (1618-1685), English statesman, son of +Sir John Bennet of Dawley, Middlesex, and of Dorothy Crofts, was +baptized at Little Saxham, Suffolk, in 1618, and was educated at +Westminster school and Christ Church, Oxford. He gained some distinction +as a scholar and a poet, and was originally destined for holy orders. In +1643 he was secretary to Lord Digby at Oxford, and was employed as a +messenger between the queen and Ormonde in Ireland. Subsequently he took +up arms for the king, and received a wound in the skirmish at Andover in +1644, the scar of which remained on his face through life.[1] And after +the defeat of the royal cause he travelled in France and Italy, joined +the exiled royal family in 1650, and in 1654 became official secretary +to James on Charles's recommendation, who had already been attracted by +his "pleasant and agreeable humour."[2] In March 1657 he was knighted, +and the same year was sent as Charles's agent to Madrid, where he +remained, endeavouring to obtain assistance for the royal cause, till +after the Restoration. On his return to England in 1661 he was made +keeper of the privy purse, and became the prime favourite. One of his +duties was the procuring and management of the royal mistresses, in +which his success gained him great credit. Allying himself with Lady +Castlemaine, he encouraged Charles's increasing dislike to Clarendon; +and he was made secretary of state in October 1662 in spite of the +opposition of Clarendon, who had to find him a seat in parliament. He +represented Callington from 1661 till 1665, but appears never to have +taken part in debate. He served subsequently on the committees for +explaining the Irish Act of Settlement and for Tangiers. In 1663 he +obtained a peerage as Baron Arlington of Arlington, or Harlington, in +Middlesex, and in 1667 was appointed one of the postmasters-general. The +control of foreign affairs was entrusted to him, and he was chiefly +responsible for the attack on the Smyrna fleet and for the first Dutch +War. In 1665 he advised Charles to grant liberty of conscience, but this +was merely a concession to gain money during the war; and he showed +great activity later in oppressing the nonconformists. On the death of +Southampton, whose administration he had attacked, his great ambition, +the treasurership, was not satisfied; and on the fall of Clarendon, +against whom he had intrigued, he did not, though becoming a member of +the Cabal ministry, obtain the supreme influence which he had expected; +for Buckingham first shared, and soon surpassed him, in the royal +favour. With Buckingham a sharp rivalry sprang up, and they only +combined forces when endeavouring to bring about some evil measure, such +as the ruin of the great Ormonde, who was an opponent of their policy +and their schemes. Another object of jealousy to Arlington was Sir +William Temple, who achieved a great popular success in 1668 by the +conclusion of the Triple Alliance; Arlington endeavoured to procure his +removal to Madrid, and entered with alacrity into Charles's plans for +destroying the whole policy embodied in the treaty, and for making terms +with France. He refused a bribe from Louis XIV., but allowed his wife to +accept a gift of 10,000 crowns;[3] in 1670 he was the only minister +besides the Roman Catholic Clifford to whom the first secret treaty of +Dover (May 1670), one clause of which provided for Charles's declaration +of his conversion to Romanism, was confided (see CHARLES II.); and he +was the chief actor in the deception practised upon the rest of the +council.[4] He supported several other pernicious measures--the scheme +for rendering the king's power absolute by force of arms; the "stop of +the exchequer," involving a repudiation of the state debt in 1672; and +the declaration of indulgence the same year, "that we might keep all +quiet at home whilst we are busy abroad."[5] On the 22nd of April 1672 +he was created an earl, and on the 13th of June obtained the Garter; the +same month he proceeded with Buckingham on a mission, first to William +at the Hague, and afterwards to Louis at Utrecht, endeavouring to force +upon the Dutch terms of peace which were indignantly refused. But +Arlington's support of the court policy was entirely subordinate to +personal interests; and after the appointment of Clifford in November +1672 to the treasurership, his jealousy and mortification, together with +his alarm at the violent opposition aroused in parliament, caused him to +veer over to the other side. He advised Charles in March 1673 to submit +the legality of the declaration of indulgence to the House of Lords, and +supported the Test Act of the same year, which compelled Clifford to +resign. He joined the Dutch party, and in order to make his peace with +his new allies, disclosed the secret treaty of Dover to the staunch +Protestants Ormonde and Shaftesbury.[6] Arlington had, however, lost the +confidence of all parties, and these efforts to procure support met with +little success. On the 15th of January 1674 he was impeached by the +Commons, the specific charges being "popery," corruption and the +betrayal of his trust--Buckingham in his own defence having accused him +the day before of being the chief instigator of the French and +anti-Protestant policy, of the scheme of governing by the army, of +responsibility for the Dutch War, and of embezzlement. But the motion +for his removal, owing chiefly to the influence of his brother-in-law, +the popular Lord Ossory, was rejected by 166 votes to 127. His escape +could not, however, prevent his fall, and he resigned the secretaryship +on the 11th of September 1674, being appointed lord chamberlain instead. +In 1675 he made another attempt to gain favour with the parliament by +supporting measures against France and against the Roman Catholics, and +by joining in the pressure put upon Charles to remove James from the +court. In November he went on a mission to the Hague, with the popular +objects of effecting a peace and of concluding an alliance with William +and James's daughter Mary. In this he entirely failed, and he returned +home completely discredited. He had again been disappointed of the +treasurership when Danby succeeded Clifford; Charles having declared +"that he had too much kindness for him to let him have it, for he was +not fit for the office."[7] His intrigues with discontented persons in +parliament to stir up an opposition to his successful rival came to +nothing. From this time, though lingering on at court, he possessed no +influence, and was treated with scanty respect. It was safe to ridicule +his person and behaviour, and it became a common jest for "some courtier +to put a black patch upon his nose and strut about with a white staff in +his hand in order to make the king merry at his expense."[8] He was +appointed a commissioner of the treasury in March 1679, was included in +Sir William Temple's new modelled council the same year, and was a +member of the inner cabinet which was almost immediately formed. In 1681 +he was made lord lieutenant of Suffolk. He died on the 28th of July +1685, and was buried at Euston, where he had bought a large estate and +had carried out extensive building operations. His residence in London +was Goring House, on the site of which was built the present Arlington +Street. + +Arlington was a typical statesman of the Restoration, possessing +outwardly an attractive personality, and according to Sir W. Temple "the +greatest skill of court and the best turns of art in particular +conversation,"[9] but thoroughly unscrupulous and self-seeking, without +a spark of patriotism, faithless even to a bad cause, and regarding +public office solely as a means of procuring pleasure and profit. His +knowledge of foreign affairs and of foreign languages, gained during his +residence abroad, was considerable, but long absence from England had +also taught him a cosmopolitan indifference to constitutions and +religions, and a careless disregard for English public opinion and the +essential interests of the country. According to Clarendon, he "knew no +more of the constitution and laws of England than he did of China, nor +had he in truth a care or tenderness for church or state, but believed +France was the best pattern in the world."[10] He was one of the chief +promoters of the attempt to reintroduce into England arbitrary +government after the French model, not because he imagined an absolute +monarchy essential to the well-being and security of the state, but +because under such an administration the favourites of a king enjoyed +far greater privileges and profits than under a constitutional +government. Of the same egotistical character was his religion, towards +which his attitude was similar to that of Charles II. himself. He was +credited with having inclined the king towards Romanism. Before the +Restoration he had attended mass with the king abroad, and in opposition +to Lord Bristol had urged Charles to declare publicly his conversion in +order to obtain the long-expected succour from the foreign powers. But +his religion sat lightly upon him as it did upon his master, and it was +often convenient to disguise it. Like the king he continued to profess +and practise Protestantism, and spent large sums in restoring the church +at Euston; and, unlike Clifford, he took the Test in 1673 and remained +in office, successfully concealing his faith till on his deathbed, when +he declared himself an adherent of Roman Catholicism.[11] + +He married Isabella of Beerwaert, daughter of Louis of Nassau, by whom +he had one daughter, Isabella, who married Henry, duke of Grafton, the +natural son of Charles II. and Lady Castlemaine. + + AUTHORITIES.--In addition to those mentioned above, see _Biographia + Britannica_ (Kippis), accurate and careful, but too partial, and + written without complete knowledge of Arlington's career; Wood's + _Fasti Oxonienses_ (Bliss), ii. 274; _Hist. of Great Britain_ by J. + Macpherson (1776), i. 132-133; _Lauderdale Papers_ (Camden Soc. N.S., + vols. 34, 36, 38), and MSS. in Brit. Mus.; _Original Letters of Sir R. + Fanshaw_ (1724); _Letters from the Secretaries of State to Francis + Parry_ (1817); _Add. MSS. Brit. Mus._ indexes; _Cat. of State Pap. + Dom._, and _Hist. MSS. Comm.--MSS. of Marquis of Ormonde, and Duke of + Buccleugh at Montagu House_, ii. 49. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See his portrait in the earl of Arlington's _Letters to Sir W. + Temple_, by Tho. Babington (1701). + + [2] Clarendon's _Life and Continuation_, 397. + + [3] _Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland_, by Sir John Dalrymple + (1790), i. 125. + + [4] _Ibid._ 114 et seq. + + [5] Arlington to Sir B. Gascoyn, in J.T. Brown's _Miscellanea Aulica_ + (1702), 66. + + [6] On the authority of Colbert, 20th November 1673; Dalrymple's + _Memoirs_, i. 131. + + [7] James's statement in Macpherson's _Orig. Pap._ i. 67. + + [8] Eachard's _History of England_ (1720), 911. + + [9] _Memoirs of W. Temple_, ed. by T.P. Courtenay, ii. 27. + + [10] _Life and Con._ 404. + + [11] Cf. North's _Examen_, 26; Dalrymple's _Mem._ (1790) i. 40; + Pepys's _Diary_ (Feb. 17, 1663); _Cat. of Clarendon St. Pap._ iii. + 295; T. Carte's _Life of the Duke of Ormonde_ (1851), iv. 109. + + + + +ARLINGTON, a township of Middlesex county in E. Massachusetts, U.S.A. +Pop. (1890) 5629; (1900) 8603, of whom 2387 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 11,187. Area, 5-1/2 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine +railway. It has pleasant residential villages (Arlington, Arlington +Heights, &c.) with attractive environs, and there is an excellent public +library (the Robbins library). At Arlington Heights there are several +well-known sanatoriums. Spy Pond (about 100 acres) is one of the +prettiest bodies of water in the vicinity of Boston. Arlington is an +important centre for market-gardening (in hot-houses), and along Mill +Brook, in the township, are several factories, including chrome works, a +large mill and a manufactory of pianoforte cases. In 1762 Arlington was +made a "precinct" of Cambridge (of which it was a part from 1635 to +1807) under the name of Menotomy. In 1807 it became a separate township +under the name (retained until 1867) of West Cambridge. + + See B. and W.R. Cutter, _History of the Town of Arlington ... + 1637-1879_ (Boston, 1880); and C.S. Parker, _The Town of Arlington, + Past and Present_ (Arlington, 1907). + + + + +ARLON, the chief town of the Belgian province of Luxemburg, situated on +a hill about 1240 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1904) 10,894. It is a very +ancient town, and in the time of the Romans was called Orolaunum, being +a station on the Antoninian way connecting Reims and Treves. Authorities +dispute as to the origin of the name, some tracing it to _Ara Lunae_, a +temple of Diana having been erected here, while others more plausibly +derive it from the Celtic words _ar_ (mount) and _lun_ (wooded). +Nowadays the woods have disappeared, and Arlon is chiefly notable for +the extensive views obtainable from the church of St Donat which crowns +the peak. Arlon is no longer fortified. When Vauban by order of Louis +XIV. turned it into a fortress in 1671 great damage was done to the old +Roman wall, the foundations of which were practically intact. In the +local museum are many Roman antiquities collected on the spot, including +several large sculptural stones similar to the celebrated monument at +Igel near Treves. In the middle ages Arlon was the seat of a powerful +countship (later marquisate), held after 1235 by the dukes of Luxemburg. +As an important strategic position it was several times seized by the +French, e.g. in 1647 and 1651. + + + + +ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is _ar_, to join or +fit; cf. the Lat. _armus_, shoulder, and the plural word _arma_, +weapons, Gr. [Greek: armos], joint, and the reduplicated [Greek: +arariskein], to join), the human upper limb from the shoulder to the +wrist, and the fore limb of an animal. (See ANATOMY: _Superficial and +Artistic_, and SKELETON: _Appendicular._) The word is also used of any +projecting limb, as of a crane, or balance, of a branch of a tree, and +so, in a transferred sense, of the branch of a river or a nerve. Through +the Fr. _armes_, from the Lat. _arma_, and so in English usually in the +plural "arms," comes the use of the word for weapons of offence and +defence, and in many expressions such as "men-at-arms," +"assault-at-arms," and the like, and for the various branches, +artillery, cavalry, infantry, of which an army is composed, the "arms of +the service." "Arms" or "armorial bearings" are the heraldic devices +displayed by knights in battle on the defensive armour or embroidered on +the surcoat worn over the armour and hence called "coats of arms." These +became hereditary and thus are borne by families, and similar insignia +are used by nations, cities, episcopal sees and corporations generally. +(See HERALDRY.) + + + + +ARMADA, THE. The Spanish or Invincible Armada was the great fleet (in +Spanish, _armada_) sent against England by Philip II. in 1588. The +marquis of Santa Cruz, to whom the command had first been given, died on +the 9th of February 1588 (according to the Gregorian calendar then used +by Spain; on the 31st of January by the Julian calendar used in England; +the other dates given in this article will be in Old Style, or Julian +calendar). Santa Cruz was succeeded by Don Alonso Perez de Guzman, duke +of Medina Sidonia, a noble of large estate, but of no experience or +capacity, who took the command unwillingly, and only on the reiterated +order of the king. The fleet was collected at Lisbon, after many delays, +and sailed on the 20th of May 1588. Its nominal strength was 132 +vessels, of 59,190 tons, carrying 21,621 soldiers and 8066 sailors. But +from a third to a half of the vessels were transports, galleys or very +small boats, and some of them never reached the Channel. The effective +force was far below the paper strength. On the 10th of June, when the +Armada had rounded Cape Finisterre, it was scattered by squalls. Some of +the vessels went on to the appointed rendezvous at the Scilly Isles, but +the majority anchored on the north coast of Spain. Medina Sidonia, who +found many defects in his fleet, did not finally sail till the 12th of +July. On the English side all the royal navy, and such armed merchant +ships as could be obtained from the ports, had been collected under the +command of the lord high admiral Howard of Effingham, who had with him +Hawkins, Drake and Frobisher as subordinate admirals. The number of +vessels is put at 197, but the majority were very small. It is +impossible to state with confidence what were the relative numbers of +guns carried by the two fleets. The Spaniards had more pieces, but their +gunnery was inferior. The English fleet carried 16,000 or 17,000 men, of +whom the large majority were sailors. About 100 of their ships were at +Plymouth with the lord high admiral. The others were in the Downs with +Lord Henry Seymour and Sir William Winter, to co-operate with a Dutch +squadron under Justinus of Nassau in blockading the Flemish ports, then +occupied by the Spanish army of the duke of Parma. The object was to +prevent the proposed junction of the forces of Medina Sidonia and Parma. +On the 20th of July the Armada was seen off the Lizard. It sailed past +Plymouth, and was followed by the English fleet. The Spaniards, who were +heavy sailers, and were hampered by the transports, were much harassed +by the more active English, and were defeated in all their attempts to +board, which it was their wish to do in order to make use of their +superior numbers of men. The flagship of the squadron of Andalucia, +"Nuestra Senora del Rosario," commanded by Don Pedro de Valdes, was +crippled, fell behind and had to surrender. On the 25th of July, when +the fleets were near the Isle of Wight, a shift of the wind offered the +Spaniards a chance of bringing on a close action, but it soon changed +again. The English fleet, of which part had been in some danger, escaped +uninjured, and the Spaniards stood on. They anchored on the 26th of July +at Calais. The duke of Medina Sidonia now sent an officer to Parma, +calling on him to come to sea and join in a landing on the shore of +England. But Parma could not leave port in face of Justinus of Nassau's +squadron. While these messages were going and coming, Lord Howard had +been joined by Lord Henry Seymour and Sir William Winter from the Downs. +A council of war was held, to decide on the measures to be taken to +assail the Spaniards at Calais. The course taken was to send fireships +among them. On the night of the 28th of July the fireships were sent in, +and produced an utter panic in the Armada. Most of the Spanish vessels +slipped their cables and ran to sea. Others weighed anchor, and escaped +in a more orderly style. One great vessel ran ashore and was taken +possession of by the English, who were however compelled to give her up +by the French governor of Calais. On the 29th of July the scattered +Spaniards, who were quite unable to restore order, were attacked by the +English off Gravelines. The engagement was hot, and, though the English +did not succeed in taking any of the Spaniards, they destroyed some of +them, and their superiority in sailing force and gunnery was now so +obvious that the duke of Medina Sidonia lost heart. His large vessels +were indeed so helpless that only a timely shift of the wind saved many +of them from drifting on to the banks of Flanders. Officers and men +alike were completely discouraged. It was now recognized that an +invasion of England could not be carried out in face of the more active +English fleet and the proved impossibility of bringing about the +proposed union with Parma's army. Suggestions were made that the Armada +should sail to Hamburg, refit there, and renew the attack. But by this +time the Spanish force was incapable of energetic action. Medina Sidonia +and his council could think of nothing but of a return to Spain. As the +wind was westerly, and the English fleet barred the way, it was +impossible to sail down the Channel. The only alternative was to take +the route between the north of Scotland and Norway. So the Armada sailed +to the north. Lord Howard followed, after detaching Lord Henry Seymour +to remain in the Downs. He watched the Spaniards to the Firth of Forth. +The English had at that time little knowledge of the seas beyond the +Firth, and they were beginning to run short of food and ammunition. On +the 2nd of August, therefore, they gave up the pursuit. Medina Sidonia +continued to the north, till his pilots told him that it was safe to +turn to the west. Up to this time the loss of the Spaniards in ships had +not been considerable. If the weather had been that of a normal summer, +they would probably have reached home with no greater loss of men than +was usually inflicted on all fleets of the age by scurvy and fever. But +the summer of 1588 was marked by a succession of gales of unprecedented +violence. The damaged and weakened Spanish ships, which were from the +first greatly undermanned in sailors, were unable to contend with the +storms. It is not possible to give the details of the disasters which +overtook them. Nineteen of them are known to have been wrecked on the +coasts of Scotland and Ireland. The crews who fell into the hands of the +English officers in Ireland were put to the sword. Many more of them +disappeared at sea. Of the total number of the vessels originally +collected for the invasion of England one-half, if not more, perished, +and the crews of those which escaped were terribly diminished by scurvy +and starvation. + +The failure of the Armada was mainly due to its own interior weakness, +and as a military operation the English victory was less glorious than +some other less renowned achievements of the British fleet. But the +repulse of the great Spanish armament was an event of the first +historical importance. It marked the final failure of King Philip II. of +Spain to establish the supremacy of the Habsburg dynasty and of the +Church of Rome, which he considered as being in a peculiar sense his +charge, in Europe. From that time forward no serious attempt to invade +England was, or could be, made. It became therefore the unconquerable +supporter of that part of Europe which had thrown off the authority of +the pope. The Armada had much of the character of a crusade. Though +Philip II. had political reasons for hostility to Queen Elizabeth, they +were so intimately bound up with the struggle between the Reformation +and the Counter Reformation that the secular and the religious elements +of the conflict cannot be separated from one another. The struggle was +therefore not one between armed forces in national rivalry alone. It was +a trial of strength between two widely different conceptions of life and +of the state--between the medieval and the modern worlds. The volunteers +of all ranks who came forward in large numbers on both sides were +fighting for a religious cause as well as for the interests of their +respective peoples. + + AUTHORITIES.--The English side of the story of the Armada can best be + studied in the _State Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish + Armada_, edited by Sir J.K. Laughton, and printed for the Navy + Records Society (London, 1894). The Spanish side will be found in _La + Armada Invencible_, by Captain Cesareo Fernandez Duro (Madrid, 1884). + Froude summarized the work of Captain Fernandez Duro in his brilliant + _Spanish Story of the Armada_ (London, 1892). (D. H.) + + + + +ARMADILLO, the Spanish designation for the small mail-clad Central and +South American mammals of the order Edentata, constituting the family +_Dasypodidae_. The armature consists of a bony case, partly composed of +solid buckler-like plates, and partly of movable transverse bands, the +latter differing in number with the species, and giving to the body a +considerable degree of flexibility. The bony plates are overlain by +horny scales. Armadillos are omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, +worms, reptiles and carrion, and are mostly, though not universally, +nocturnal. They are harmless and inoffensive creatures, offering no +resistance when caught; their principal means of escape being the +extraordinary rapidity with which they burrow in the ground, and the +tenacity with which they retain their hold in their subterranean +retreats. Notwithstanding the shortness of their limbs they run with +rapidity. Most of the species are esteemed good eating by the natives of +the countries in which they live. They are all inhabitants of the open +plains or the forests of the tropical and temperate parts of South +America, with the exception of a few species which range as far north as +Texas. The largest species is the giant armadillo (_Priodon gigas_), +measuring nearly a yard long, from the forests of Surinam and Brazil; +while one of the smallest is _Dasypus minutus_, a near ally of the +larger _D. sexcinctus_. The peba (_Tatusia novemcincta_) represents a +group with a large number of movable bands in the armour; while the apar +(_Tolypeutes tricinctus_) and the other members of the same genus are +remarkable for their power of rolling themselves up into balls. For the +distinctive characters of these and the other genera see EDENTATA. + +[Illustration: Peba Armadillo (_Tatusia novemcincta_).] + + + + +ARMAGEDDON, a name occurring in the Authorized Version of the English +Bible in Rev. xvi. 16. The Revised Version has Harmagedon. The form is +commonly regarded as the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew _har megiddon_, +the mountain district of Megiddo. The writer is describing the place +where the last decisive battle was to be fought at the Day of Judgment, +and Harmagedon may have been chosen as the name because the district +about Megiddo had been on several occasions the scene of great battles +(cf. Judg. iv. 6 ff., v. 19). It has, however, been suggested in the +_Zeitschrift fur die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft_, vii. 170 (1887), +that the name is for _har migdo_, "his fruitful mountain"--the mountain +land of Israel. Prof. Cheyne (_Encyc. Bibl._ s.v.) again, following +suggestions of H. Gunkel, H. Zimmern and P. Jensen, compares the dragon +of the Apocalypse with the Babylonian Tiamat, thinks that some myth is +referred to, and finds the [Greek: magedon] of [Greek: Harmagedon] in +the divine name [Greek: Yesemmigadon], a Babylonian god of the +underworld. The name of the place where Tiamat was defeated by Marduk +perhaps included that of a god of the underworld. (See ANTICHRIST.) From +the application of the word Armageddon to the great battle of the End of +Time comes the use of the phrase "an Armageddon" to express any great +slaughter or final conflict. + + + + +ARMAGH, an inland county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bounded +N. by Lough Neagh, E. by Co. Down, S. by Louth and W. by Monaghan and +Tyrone. The area is 327,704 acres, or about 512 sq. m. The general +surface of the county is gently undulating and pleasantly diversified; +but in the northern extremity, on the borders of Lough Neagh, there is a +considerable tract of low, marshy land, and the southern border of the +county is occupied by a barren range of hills, the highest of which, +Slieve Gullion, attains an elevation of 1893 ft. In the western portion +of the county are the Few Mountains, a chain of abrupt hills mostly +incapable of cultivation. The county is well watered by numerous +streams. The principal are the Callan, the Tynan and the Tallwater, +flowing into the Blackwater, which, after forming the boundary between +this county and Tyrone, empties itself into the south-western angle of +Lough Neagh. The Tara and Newtown-Hamilton, the Creggan and the Fleury, +flow into the bay of Dundalk. The Cam or Camlin joins the Bann, which, +crossing the north-western corner of the county, falls into Lough Neagh +to the east of the Blackwater. The Newry Canal, communicating with +Carlingford Lough at Warrenpoint, 6 m. below Newry, proceeds northward +through Co. Armagh for about 21 m., joining the Bann at Whitecoat. The +Ulster Canal begins at Charlemont on the river Blackwater, near its +junction with Lough Neagh, proceeding through the western border of the +county, and passing thence to the south-west by Monaghan and Clones into +Upper Lough Erne, after a course of 48 m. Part of Lough Neagh is in the +county, and there are many small loughs, such as Gullion, Cam and Ross. + +_Geology._--The flat shore of Lough Neagh in the north is due to the +thick deposit of pale-coloured clays with lignites, which are probably +of Pliocene age, and indicate a reduction of the area of the lake in +still later times. Between this lowland and Armagh city, the early +Cainozoic basalts form slightly higher ground, while on the west a strip +of Trias appears, overlying Carboniferous Limestone. A rough +conglomerate containing blocks of this latter rock forms the hills on +which Armagh itself is built; this outlier is probably Permian. The +Carboniferous Limestone beneath it and around it is red-brown instead of +grey, and is famous for its richness in fish remains. A hummocky +irregular country spreads southward, where the Silurian axis is +encountered, in continuation of the southern uplands of Scotland. Slates +and fine-grained sandstones appear here freely through the glacial +drift. In the south the granite core of this upland is revealed, and is +quarried extensively about Bessbrook. It is penetrated by far younger +intrusive masses at Slieve Gullion and Forkill. These rocks, which +include some highly siliceous lavas, form part of the Eocene series that +is so conspicuously displayed above Carlingford in Co. Louth. Lead-veins +have been worked in various parts of the county from time to time. + +_Industries._--The soil of the northern portion of the county is a rich +brown loam, on a substratum of clay or gravel. Towards Charlemont there +is much reclaimable bog resting on a limestone substratum. The eastern +portion of the county is generally of a light friable soil; the southern +portion rocky and barren, with but little bog except in the +neighbourhood of Newtown-Hamilton. The climate of Armagh is considered +to be one of the most genial in Ireland, and less rain is supposed to +fall in this than in any other county. Only about one-twentieth of the +land is naturally barren, and Armagh offers a relatively large area of +cultivable soil. Agriculture, however, is not far advanced, yet owing to +the linen industry the inhabitants are generally in circumstances of +comparative comfort. The principal crops are oats and potatoes, but all +grain crops are decreasing, and flax, formerly grown to a considerable +extent, is now practically neglected. The acreage under pasture slightly +exceeds that of tillage. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry show a general +increase in numbers. The principal manufacture, and that which has given +a peculiar tone to the character of the population, is that of linen, +though it has somewhat declined in modern times. It is not necessary to +the promotion of this manufacture that the spinners and weavers should +be congregated in large towns, or united in crowded and unwholesome +factories. On the contrary, most of its branches can be carried on in +the cottages of the peasantry. The men devote to the loom those hours +which are not required for the cultivation of their little farms; the +women spin and reel the yarn during the intervals of their other +domestic occupations. Smooth lawns, pure springs and the open sky are +necessary for perfecting the bleaching process. Hence the numerous +bleachers dwell in the country with their assistants and machinery. Such +is the effect of this combination of agricultural occupations with +domestic manufactures that the farmers are more than competent to supply +the resident population of the county with vegetable, though not with +animal food; and some of the less crowded and less productive parts of +Ulster receive from Armagh a considerable supply of oats, barley and +flour. Apples are grown in such quantities as to entitle the county to +the title applied to it, the orchard of Ireland. + +Communications are monopolized by the Great Northern railway company, +whose main line from Belfast divides at Portadown, sending off lines to +Omagh, to Clones and to Dublin. A branch from Omagh joins the Dublin +line to Goraghwood, and from this line there is a branch to Newry in Co. +Down. An electric tram-way connects Bessbrook, a town with important +linen manufactures and granite quarries, with Newry. + +_Population and Administration._--The population (72,286 in 1891; 65,619 +in 1901) shows a heavy decrease, though emigration affects it less +seriously than the majority of Irish counties. Of the total about 45% +are Roman Catholics, 32% Protestant Episcopalians, and 16% +Presbyterians, the Roman Catholic faith prevailing in the mountainous +districts and the Protestant in the towns and lowlands. About 74% of the +whole constitutes the rural population. The chief towns are Armagh (a +city and the county town, pop. 7588), Lurgan (11,782), Portadown +(10,092), Tanderagee (1427), Bessbrook (2977) and Keady (1466). Armagh +is divided into eight baronies, and contains twenty-five parishes and +parts of parishes, the greater number of which are in the Protestant and +Roman Catholic dioceses of Armagh, and a few in the Roman Catholic +diocese of Dromore. The constabulary has its headquarters at Armagh, the +county being divided into five districts. Assizes are held at Armagh, +and quarter sessions at Armagh, Ballybot, Lurgan, Markethill and +Newtown-Hamilton. The parliamentary divisions are three: mid, north and +south, each returning one member. + +_History and Antiquities._--Armagh, together with Louth, Monaghan and +some smaller districts, formed part of a territory called Orgial or +Urial, which was long subject to the occasional incursions of the Danes. +The county was made shire ground in 1586, and called Armagh after the +city by Sir John Perrott. When James I. proceeded to plant with English +and Scottish colonists the vast tracts escheated to the crown in Ulster, +the whole of the arable and pasture land in Armagh, estimated at 77,800 +acres, was to have been allotted in sixty-one portions. Nineteen of +these, comprising 22,180 acres, were to have been allotted to the +church, and forty-two, amounting to 55,620 acres, to English and +Scottish colonists, servitors, native Irish and four corporate +towns--the swordsmen to be dispersed throughout Connaught and Munster. +This project was not strictly adhered to in Co. Armagh, nor were the +Irish swordsmen or soldiers transplanted into Connaught and Munster from +this and some other counties. The antiquities consist of cairns and +tumuli; the remains of the fortress of Emain near the city of Armagh +(q.v.), once the residence of the kings of Ulster; and Danes Cast, an +extensive fortification in the south-east of the county, near +Poyntzpass, extending into Co. Down. Spears, battle-axes, collars, +rings, amulets, medals of gold, ornaments of silver, jet and amber, &c., +have also been found in various places. The religious houses were at +Armagh, Killevy, Kilmore, Stradhailloyse and Tahenny. Of military +antiquities the most remarkable are Tyrone's ditches, near Poyntzpass; +and the pass of Moyry, the entry into the county from the south, which +was fiercely contested by the Irish in 1595 and 1600, is defended by a +castle. The summit of Slieve Gullion is crowned by a large cairn, which +forms the roof of a singular cavern of artificial construction, probably +an early burial-place. + + + + +ARMAGH, a city and market town, and the county town of Co. Armagh, +Ireland, in the mid parliamentary division, 89-1/2 m. N.N.W. of Dublin +by the Great Northern railway, at the junction of the Belfast-Clones +line. Pop. (1901) 7588. It is said to derive its name of _Ard-macha_, +the Hill of Macha, from Queen Macha of the Golden Hair, who flourished +in the middle of the 4th century B.C. but earlier it was named from its +situation on the sides of a steep hill called Drumsailech, or the Hill +of Sallows, which rises in the midst of a fertile plain near the Callan +stream. Of high antiquity, and, like many other Irish towns, claiming +(with considerable probability) to have been founded by St Patrick in +the 5th century, it long possessed the more important distinction of +being the metropolis of Ireland; and, as the seat of a flourishing +college, was greatly frequented by students from other lands, among whom +the English and Scots were said to have been so numerous as to give the +name of Trian-Sassanagh, or Saxon Street, to one of the quarters of the +city. St Patrick's bell, long preserved at Armagh, the oldest Irish +relic of its kind, is now, with its shrine of the year 1091, preserved +in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. Of a synod that was +held at Armagh as early as 448, there is an interesting memorial in the +_Book of Armagh_, an Irish MS. dating about A.D. 800. Exposed to the +successive calamities of the Danish incursions, the English conquest and +the English wars, and at last deserted by its bishops, who retired to +Drogheda, the venerable city sank into an insignificant collection of +cabins, with a dilapidated cathedral. From this state of decay, however, +it was raised, in the second half of the 18th century, by the unwearied +exertions of Archbishop Richard Robinson, 1st Lord Rokeby (1709-1794), +which, seconded by similar devotion on the part of succeeding +archbishops of the Beresford family, notably Archbishop Lord John George +Beresford (1773-1862), made of Armagh one of the best built and most +respectable towns in the country. As the ecclesiastical metropolis and +seat of an archbishop (Primate of all Ireland) in both the Protestant +and Roman organizations, it possesses two cathedrals and two +archiepiscopal palaces. As the county town Armagh has a court-house, a +prison, a lunatic asylum and a county infirmary. Besides these there is +a fever hospital, erected by Lord John George Beresford; a college, +which Primate Robinson was anxious to raise to the rank of a university; +a public library founded by him, an observatory, which has become famous +from the efficiency of its astronomers; a number of churches and +schools, and barracks. Almost all the buildings are built of the +limestone of the district, but the Anglican cathedral is of red +sandstone. It stands boldly on the top of the hill, a cruciform +structure dating from the 13th, but practically rebuilt in the 18th +century, in accordance with its original plan. The Roman Catholic +cathedral is in the Decorated style, and was consecrated in 1873. Armagh +was a parliamentary borough until 1885; and, having been incorporated in +1613, so remained until 1835. The administration is in the hands of an +urban district council. Two miles W. of Armagh is Emain, Emania, or +Navan Fort, with large entrenchments and mounds, the site of a royal +palace of Ulster, founded by that Queen Macha who gave her name to the +city. In A.D. 335 it was destroyed during the inroad on the defeat of +the king of Ulster by the three brothers Colla, cousins of Muredach, +king of Ireland. Armagh itself fell before the king Brian Boroime, who +was buried here; and before Edward Bruce in 1315, while previous to the +English war after the Reformation, it had witnessed the struggles of +Shane O'Neill (1564). + + + + +ARMAGNAC, formerly a province of France and the most important fief of +Gascony, now wholly comprised in the department of Gers (q.v.). In the +15th century, when it attained its greatest extent, it included, besides +Armagnac, the neighbouring territories of Fezensac, Fezensaguet, +Pardiac, Pays de Gaure, Riviere Basse, Eauzan and Lomagne, and stretched +from the Garonne to the Adour. Armagnac is a region of hills ranging to +a height of 1000 ft., watered by the river Gers and other rivers which +descend fanwise from the plateau of Lannemezan. On the slope of its +hills grow the grapes from which the famous Armagnac brandy is made. In +Roman Gaul this territory formed part of the diocese of Auch (_civitas +Ausciorum_), which corresponded roughly with the later duchy of Gascony +(q.v.). About the end of the 9th century Fezensac (_comitatus +Fedentiacus_), in circumstances of which no trustworthy record remains, +was erected into an hereditary countship. This latter was in its turn +divided, the south-western portion becoming, about 960, the countship of +Armagnac (_pagus Armaniacus_). The domain of this countship, at first +very limited in extent, continued steadily to increase in size, and +about 1140 Count Gerald III. added the whole of Fezensac to his +possessions. Under the English rule the counts of Armagnac were +turbulent and untrustworthy vassals; and the administration of the Black +Prince, tending to favour the towns of Aquitaine at the expense of the +nobles, drove them to the side of France. The complaint against the +English prince which Count John I., in defiance of the treaty of +Bretigny, himself carried to Paris, was the principal cause of the +resumption of hostilities of 1369, and of the incessant defeats +sustained by the English until the accession of their king Henry V. + +At that moment Count Bernard VII. was all-powerful at the French court; +and Charles of Orleans, in order to be able to avenge his father, Louis +of Orleans, who had been assassinated in 1407 by John the Fearless, duke +of Burgundy, married Bonne, Bernard's daughter. This was the origin of +the political party known as "the Armagnacs." With the object of +combating the duke of Burgundy's preponderant influence, a league was +formed at Gien, including the duke of Orleans and his father-in-law, the +dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, the count of Alencon and all the +other discontented nobles. Bernard VII. ravaged the environs of Paris; +and the treaty of Bicetre (November 2, 1410) only suspended hostilities +for a few months, war breaking out afresh in the spring of 1411. Paris +sided with the duke of Burgundy, and at his instigation Charles VII. +collected an army to besiege the allies in Bourges. The peace of +Bourges, confirmed at Auxerre on the 22nd of August, put an end to the +war. Paris was dominated at that time by the party of the "butchers," or +_Cabochiens_, which had been organized and armed by the count of +Saint-Pol, brother-in-law of John the Fearless. But their excesses, and +in particular the Cabochien ordinance of the 25th of May 1413, aroused +public indignation; a reaction took place, and in the month of August +the Armagnacs in their turn became masters of the government and of the +king. The duke of Burgundy, besieged in Arras, only obtained peace +(treaty of Arras, September 4, 1414), on condition of not returning to +Paris. + +Several months later Henry V. declared war against France; and when, in +August 1415, the English landed in Normandy, the Armagnacs and +Burgundians united against them, but were defeated in the battle of +Agincourt (October 25, 1415). John the Fearless then began negotiations +with the English, while Bernard VII., appointed constable in place of +the count of Saint-Pol, who had been killed at Agincourt, returned to +defend Paris. However, the excesses committed by the Armagnacs incensed +the populace, and John the Fearless, who was ravaging the surrounding +districts, re-entered the capital on the 29th of May 1418, in +consequence of the treason of Perrinet Leclerc. On the 12th of June +Bernard VII. and the members of his party were massacred. From this time +onward the Armagnac party, with the dauphin, afterwards King Charles +VII., at its head, was the national party, while the Burgundians united +with the English. This division in France continued until the treaty of +Arras, on the 21st of September 1435. The rivalry of the Burgundians and +Armagnacs brought terrible disasters upon France, and for many years +afterwards the name of "Armagnacs" was bestowed upon the bands of +adventurers who were as much to be feared as the _Grandes Compagnies_ of +the preceding age. + +In 1444-45 the emperor Frederick III. of Germany obtained from Charles +VII. a large army of Armagnacs to enforce his claims in Switzerland, +and the war which ensued took the name of the Armagnac war +(_Armagnakenkrieg_). In Germany the name of the foreigners, who were +completely defeated in the battle of St Jakob on the Birs, not far from +Basel, was mockingly corrupted into _Arme Jacken_, Poor Jackets, or +_Arme Gecken_, Poor Fools. + +On the death of Charles of Armagnac, in 1497, the countship was united +to the crown by King Charles VII., but was again bestowed on Charles, +the nephew of that count, by Francis I., who at the same time gave him +his sister Margaret in marriage. After the death of her husband, by whom +she had no children, she married Henry of Albret, king of Navarre; and +thus the countship of Armagnac came back to the French crown along with +the other dominions of Henry IV. In 1645 Louis XIV. erected a countship +of Armagnac in favour of Henry of Lorraine, count of Harcourt, in whose +family it continued till the Revolution. James of Armagnac, grandson of +Bernard VII., was made duke of Nemours in 1462, and was succeeded in the +dukedom by his second son, John, who died without issue, and his third +son, Louis, in whom the house of Armagnac became extinct in 1503. + +In 1789 Armagnac was a province forming part of the +_Gouvernement-general_ of Guienne and Gascony; it was divided into two +parts, High or White Armagnac, with Auch for capital, and Low or Black +Armagnac. At the Revolution the whole of the original Armagnac was +included in the department of Gers. + + For authorities see U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist, du + moyen age_, s. Armagnac (Montbeliard, 1894). For the Armagnacs see + Paul Dognon, "Les Armagnacs et les Bourguignons, le comte de Foix et + le dauphin en Languedoc" (1416-1420) in _Annales du Midi_ (1889); + Rameau, "Guerre des Armagnacs dans le Maconnais" (1418-1435) in the + _Rev. soc. lit. de l'Ain_ (1884); Berthold Zeller, _Les Armagnacs et + les Bourguignons, la Commune de 1413_; E. Wulcker, _Urkunden und + Schreiben betreffend den Zug der Armagnaken_ (Frankfort, 1873); Witte, + _Die Armagnaken im Elsass, 1439-1445_ (Strassburg, 1889). + + + + +ARMATOLES (Gr. [Greek: armatolos], a man-at-arms), the name given to +some Greeks who discharged certain military and police functions under +the Turkish government. When the Turks under Sultan Mahommed II. +conquered Greece in the 15th century, many of the Greeks fled into the +mountainous districts of Macedonia and northern Greece, and maintained a +harassing warfare with the conquerors of their country. These men were +called _Klephts_ (modern Gr. [Greek: klephtaes], ancient [Greek: +kleptaes], a thief, a brigand), and during the 16th century the Turkish +pashas came to terms with some of them, and these men were allowed to +retain their local customs, and were confirmed in the possession of +certain districts, while in return they undertook some duties, such as +the custody of the highroads. Those who accepted these terms were called +_armatoles_, and the districts in which they lived _armatoliks_. +Strengthened by a considerable number of Christian Albanians, they +rendered good service in defending Greece, and to some extent repressed +the ravages of the _Klephts_; but their power and independence were +disliked by the Turks. After the peace of Belgrade in 1739 (between +Austria and Turkey), the Turkish government sought to weaken the +position of the _armatoles_. Their privileges were restricted, +Mahommedan Albanians were introduced into the _armatoliks_, and towards +the end of the 18th century their numbers were seriously reduced. +Irritated by this policy the _armatoles_ rendered considerable service +to Ali Pasha of Iannina in his struggle with the Turks in 1820-22, and +afforded valuable assistance to their countrymen during the Greek war of +independence in 1830. + + + + +ARMATURE (from Lat. _armatura_, armour), a covering for defence. In +zoology the word is used of the bony shell of the armadillo. In +architecture it is applied to the iron stays by which the lead lights +are secured in windows. (See STANCHION and SADDLE: _Saddle-Bars_.) In +magnetism Dr William Gilbert applied the term to the piece of soft iron +with which he "armed" or capped the lodestone in order to increase its +power. It is also used for the "keeper" or piece of iron which is placed +across the poles of a horse-shoe magnet, and held in place by magnetic +attraction, in order to complete the magnetic circuit and preserve the +magnetism of the steel; and hence, in dynamo-electric machinery, for the +portion which is attracted by the electromagnet, as the moving part of +an electric motor, or, by extension, the moving part of a dynamo (q.v.). + + + + +ARMAVIR, (1) The ruins of the old capital of Armenia, on the S.E. slope +of the extinct volcano Ala-geuz, according to legend, built by Armais, a +grandson of Haik, in 1980 B.C., and the capital of the Armenian kings +till the 2nd century A.D. Now a small village, Tapadibi, occupies its +seat. (2) A district town of Russia, northern Caucasia, province of +Kuban, on Kuban river, and on the main line of the Caucasian railway, 40 +m. by rail west of Stavropol, built in 1848 for the settlement of +Armenian mountaineers, and now a well-built, growing town with 8000 +inhabitants, the merchants of which carry on a lively trade. + + + + +ARMENIA (old Persian _Armina_, Armenian _Hayasdan_, or _Hayq_), the +popular modern name of a district south of the Caucasus and Black Sea, +which formed part of the ancient Armenian kingdom. The name, which first +occurs in the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius Hystaspis, supplanted the +earlier Urardhu, or Ararat, but its origin is unknown. In its widest +extent Armenia stretched from 37 deg. to 49 deg. E. long., and from +37-1/2 deg. to 41-1/2 deg. N. lat.; but this area was never, or only for +a brief period, united under one king. Armenia is now divided between +Persia, Russia and Turkey, and the three boundaries have a common point +on Little Ararat. + +Geographically, Armenia is a continuation westward of the great Iranian +plateau. On the north it descends abruptly to the Black Sea; on the +south it breaks down in rugged terraces to the lowlands of Mesopotamia; +and on the east and west it sinks more gradually to the lower plateaus +of Persia and Asia Minor. Above the general level of the plateau, 6000 +ft., rise bare ranges of mountains, which run from north-east to +south-west at an altitude of 8000-12,000 ft., and culminate in Ararat, +17,000 ft. Between the ranges are broad elevated valleys, through which +the rivers of the plateau flow before entering the rugged gorges that +convey their waters to lower levels. Geologically, Armenia consists of +archaic rocks upon which, towards the north, are superimposed +Palaeozoic, and towards the south later sedimentary rocks. The last have +been pierced by volcanic outbursts that extend southward to Lake Van. +Amongst the higher mountains are the two Ararats; Ala-geuz Dagh, north +of the Aras; Bingeul Dagh, south of Erzerum; and the peaks near Lake +Van. The rivers are the Euphrates, Tigris, Aras, Churuk Su (Chorokh) and +Kelkit Irmak, all rising on the plateau. The more important lakes are +Van, 5100 ft., about twice the size of the Lake of Geneva, and Urmia, +4000 ft., both salt; Gokcha or Sevan, 5870 ft., discharging into the +Aras; and Chaldir, into the Kars Chai. The aspect of the plateau is +dreary and monotonous. The valleys are wide expanses of arable land, and +the hills are for the most part grass-covered and treeless. But the +gorges of the Euphrates and Tigris, and their tributaries, cannot be +surpassed in wildness and grandeur. The climate is varied. In the higher +districts the winter is long and the cold severe; whilst the summer is +short, dry and hot. In Erzerum the temperature ranges from -22 deg. to +84 deg. F., and snow sometimes falls in June. In the valley of the Aras, +and in the western and southern districts, the climate is more moderate. +Most of the towns lie high, from 4000 to 6000 ft. The villages are +usually built on gentle slopes, in which the houses are partially +excavated as a protection against the severity of the weather. Many of +the early towns were on or near the Araxes, and amongst their ruins are +the remains of churches which throw light on the history of Christian +architecture in the East. Armenia is rich in mineral wealth, and there +are many hot and cold mineral springs. The vegetation varies according +to the locality. Cereals and hardy fruits grow on the higher ground, +whilst rice is cultivated in the hot, well-watered valley of the Araxes. +The summer is so hot that the vine grows at much higher altitudes than +it does in western Europe, and the cotton tree and all southern fruit +trees are cultivated in the deeper valleys. On the fine pasture lands +which now support the flocks of the Kurds, the horses and mules, so +celebrated in ancient times, were reared. Trout are found in the rivers, +and a small herring in Lake Van. The country abounds in romantic +scenery; that of the district of Ararat especially has been celebrated +by patriotic historians like Moses of Chorene and Lazarus of Pharb. + +_Population._--Accurate statistics cannot be obtained; but it is +estimated that in the nine vilayets, which include Turkish Armenia, +there are 925,000 Gregorian, Roman Catholic and Protestant Armenians, +645,000 other Christians, 100,000 Jews, Gypsies, &c., and 4,460,000 +Moslems. The Armenians, taking the most favourable estimate, are in a +majority in nine kazas or sub-districts only (seven near Van, and two +near Mush) out of 159. In Russian Armenia there are 960,000 Armenians, +and in Persian Armenia 130,000. According to an estimate made by General +Zelenyi for the Caucasus Geographical Society (_Zapiski_, vol. xviii., +Tiflis, 1896, with map), the population of the nine Turkish vilayets, +Erzerum, Van, Bitlis, Kharput (Mamuret-el-Aziz). Diarbekr, Sivas, +Aleppo, Adana and Trebizond, was 6,000,000 (Armenians, 913,875, or 15%; +other Christians, 632,875, or 11%; and Moslems, 4,453,250, or 74%). In +the first five vilayets which contain most of the Armenians, the +population was 2,642,000 (Armenians, 633,250, or 24%; other Christians, +179,875, or 7%; and Moslems, 1,828,875, or 69%); and in the seven +Armenian kazas the population was 282,375 (Armenians, 184,875, or 65%; +other Christians, 1000, or 0.3%; and Moslems, 96,500, or 34.7%). In 1897 +there were 970,656 Armenians in Russia, of whom 827,634 were in the +provinces of Erivan, Elisavetpol and Tiflis. + +The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000 (in Turkey, +1,500,000; Russia, 1,000,000; Persia, 150,000; Europe, America and East +Indies, 250,000). + +_History._--The history of Armenia has been largely influenced by its +physical features. The isolation of the valleys, especially in winter, +encouraged a tendency to separation, which invariably showed itself when +the central power was weak. The rugged mountains have always been the +home of hardy mountaineers impatient of control, and the sanctuary to +which the lowlanders fled for safety in times of invasion. The country +stands as an open doorway between the East and the West. Through its +long valleys run the roads that connect the Iranian plateau with the +fertile lands and protected harbours of Asia Minor, and for its +possession nations have contended from the remotest past. + + + Ethnology. + +The original inhabitants of Armenia are unknown, but, about the middle +of the 9th century B.C., the mass of the people belonged to that great +family of tribes which seems to have been spread over western Asia and +to have had a common non-Aryan language. Mixed with these +proto-Armenians, there was an important Semitic element of Assyrian and +Hebrew origin. In the 7th century B.C., between 640 and 600, the country +was conquered by an Aryan people, who imposed their language, and +possibly their name, upon the vanquished, and formed a military +aristocracy that was constantly recruited from Persia and Parthia. +Politically the two races soon amalgamated, but, except in the towns, +there was apparently little intermarriage, for the peasants in certain +districts closely resemble the proto-Armenians, as depicted on their +monuments. After the Arab and Seljuk invasions, there was a large +emigration of Aryan and Semitic Armenians to Constantinople and Cilicia; +and all that remained of the aristocracy was swept away by the Mongols +and Tatars. This perhaps explains the diversity of type and +characteristics amongst the modern Armenians. In the recesses of Mount +Taurus the peasants are tall, handsome, though somewhat sharp-featured, +agile and brave. In Armenia and Asia Minor they are robust, thick-set +and coarse-featured, with straight black hair and large hooked noses. +They are good cultivators of the soil, but are poor, superstitious, +ignorant and unambitious, and they live in semi-subterranean houses as +their ancestors did 800 years B.C. The townsmen, especially in the large +towns, have more regular features--often of the Persian type. They are +skilled artisans, bankers and merchants, and are remarkable for their +industry, their quick intelligence, their aptitude for business, and for +that enterprising spirit which led their ancestors, in Roman times, to +trade with Scythia, China and India. The upper classes are polished and +well educated, and many have occupied high positions in the public +service in Turkey, Russia, Persia and Egypt. The Armenians are +essentially an Oriental people, possessing, like the Jews, whom they +resemble in their exclusiveness and widespread dispersion, a remarkable +tenacity of race and faculty of adaptation to circumstances. They are +frugal, sober, industrious and intelligent, and their sturdiness of +character has enabled them to preserve their nationality and religion +under the sorest trials. They are strongly attached to old manners and +customs, but have also a real desire for progress which is full of +promise. On the other hand they are greedy of gain, quarrelsome in small +matters, self-seeking and wanting in stability; and they are gifted with +a tendency to exaggeration and a love of intrigue which has had an +unfortunate influence on their history. They are deeply separated by +religious differences, and their mutual jealousies, their inordinate +vanity their versatility and their cosmopolitan character must always +be an obstacle to the realization of the dreams of the nationalists. The +want of courage and self-reliance, the deficiency in truth and honesty +sometimes noticed in connexion with them, are doubtless due to long +servitude under an unsympathetic government. + +[Illustration: Map of Armenia.] + + + Ancient kingdom. + +The early history of Armenia, more or less mythical, is partly based on +traditions of the Biainian kings (see ARARAT), and is interwoven with +the Bible narrative, of which a knowledge was possibly obtained from +captive Jews settled in the country by Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs. +The legendary kings are but faint echoes of the kings of Biainas; the +story of Semiramis and Ara is but another form of the myth of Venus and +Adonis; and tradition has clothed Tigranes, the reputed friend of Cyrus, +with the transient glory of the opponent of Lucullus. The fall of the +Biainian kingdom, perhaps overthrown by Cyaxares, was apparently soon +followed by an immigration of Aryan (Medo-Persian) races, including the +progenitors of the Armenians. But they spread slowly, for the "Ten +Thousand," when crossing the plateau to Trebizond, 401-400 B.C., met no +Armenians after leaving the villages four days' march beyond the +Teleboas, now Kara Su. Under the Medes and Persians Armenia was a +satrapy governed by a member of the reigning family; and after the +battle of Arbela, 331 B.C., it was ruled by Persian governors appointed +by Alexander and his successors. Ardvates, 317-284 B.C., freed himself +from Seleucid control; and after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by +the Romans, 190 B.C., Artaxias (Ardashes), and Zadriades, the governors +of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor, became independent kings, with the +concurrence of Rome. (See TIGRANES.) Artaxias established his capital at +Artaxata on the Araxes, and his most celebrated successor was Tigranes +(Dikran), 94-56 B.C., the son-in-law of Mithradates VI., the Great. +Tigranes founded a new capital, Tigranocerta, in northern Mesopotamia, +which he modelled on Nineveh and Babylon, and peopled with Greek and +other captives. Here, and at Antioch, he played the part of "great king" +in Asia until his refusal to surrender his father-in-law involved him in +war with Rome. Defeated, 69 B.C., by Lucullus beneath the walls of his +capital, he surrendered his conquests to Pompey, 66 B.C., who had driven +Mithradates across the Phasis, and was permitted to hold Armenia as a +vassal state of Rome. + + + Under later Empire. + + Medieval Partition. + +The campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey brought Rome into delicate +relations with Parthia. Armenia, although politically dependent upon +Rome, was connected with Parthia by geographical position, a common +language and faith, intermarriage and similarity of arms and dress. It +had never been Hellenized, as the provinces of Asia Minor had been; the +Roman provincial system was never applied to it; and the policy of Rome +towards it was never consistent. The country became the field upon which +the East and West contended for mastery, and the struggle ended for a +time in the partition of Armenia, A.D. 387, between Rome and Persia. The +Roman portion was soon added to the Diocesis Pontica. The Persian +portion, Pers-Armenia, remained a vassal state under an Arsacid prince +until 428. It was afterwards governed by Persian and Armenian noblemen +selected by the "great king," and entitled _marzbans_. Before the +partition, Tiridates, converted by St Gregory, "the Illuminator," had +established Christianity as the religion of the state, and set an +example followed later by Constantine. After the partition, the +invention of the Armenian alphabet, and the translation of the Bible +into the vernacular, 410, drew the Armenians together, and the +discontinuance of Greek in the Holy Offices relaxed the ecclesiastical +dependence on Constantinople, which ceased entirely when the Patriarch, +491, refused to accept the decrees of the council of Chalcedon. The rule +of the _marzbans_ was marked by relentless persecution of the +Christians, forced conversions to Magism, frequent insurrections and the +rise to importance of the great families founded by men of Assyrian, +Parthian, Persian, Syrian and Jewish origin, and in some cases of royal +blood, who had been governors of districts, or holders of fiefs under +the Arsacids. Amongst the _marzbans_ were Jewish Bagratids and Persian +Mamegonians; and one of the latter family, Vartan, made himself +independent (571-578), with Byzantine aid. In 632 the victories of +Heraclius restored Armenia to the Byzantines; but the war that followed +the Arab invasion, 636, left the country in the hands of the caliphs, +who set over it Arab and Armenian governors (_ostikans_). One of the +governors, the Bagratid Ashod I., was crowned king of Armenia by the +caliph Motamid, 885, and founded a dynasty which ended with Kagig II. in +1079. A little later the Ardzrunian Kagig, governor of Vaspuragan or +Van, was crowned king of that province by the caliph Moktadir, 908, and +his descendants ruled at Van and Sivas until 1080. The Bagratids founded +dynasties at Kars, 962-1080, and in Georgia, which they held until its +absorption, 1801, by Russia. From 984 to 1085 the country from Diarbekr +to Melasgerd was ruled under the suzerainty first of Arabs then of +Byzantines and Seljuks, by the Mervanid dynasty of Kurds, called princes +of Abahuni ([Greek: Apachouvaes]). The Arab invasion drove many Armenian +noblemen to Constantinople, where they intermarried with the old Roman +families or became soldiers of fortune. Artavasdes, an Arsacid, usurped +the Byzantine throne for two years; Leo V., an Ardzrunian, and John +Zimisces, became emperors; whilst Manuel, the Mamegonian, and others +were amongst the best generals of the empire. In 991, and again in 1021, +Basil II. invaded Armenia, and in the latter year Senekherim, king of +Vaspuragan, exchanged his kingdom for Sivas and its territory, where he +settled down with many Armenian emigrants. Basil's policy was to make +the great Armenian fortresses, garrisoned by imperial troops, the first +line of defence on his eastern frontier; but it failed in the hands of +his feeble successors, who thought more of converting heretical Armenia +than of defending its frontier. The king of Ani, Kagig II., was +compelled to exchange his kingdom for estates in Cappadocia. The country +was raided by Seljuks and harried by Byzantine soldiers, and the +miseries of the people were regarded as gain to the Orthodox church. +After the defeat and capture of Romanus IV. by Alp Arslan, 1071, Armenia +formed part of the Seljuk empire until it split up, 1157, into petty +states, ruled by Arabs, Kurds and Seljuks, who were in turn swept away +by the Mongol invasion, 1235. For more than three centuries after the +appearance of the Seljuks, Armenia was traversed by a long succession of +nomad tribes whose one aim was to secure good pasturage for their flocks +on their way to the richer lands of Asia Minor. The cultivators were +driven from the plains, agriculture was destroyed, and the country was +seriously impoverished when its ruin was completed by the ravages and +wholesale butcheries of Timur. Many Armenians fled to the mountains, +where they embraced Islam, and intermarried with the Kurds, or purchased +security by paying blackmail to Kurdish chiefs. Others migrated to +Cappadocia or to Cilicia, where the Bagratid Rhupen had founded, 1080, a +small principality which, gradually extending its limits, became the +kingdom of Lesser Armenia. This Christian kingdom in the midst of Moslem +states, hostile to the Byzantines, giving valuable support to the +leaders of the crusades, and trading with the great commercial cities of +Italy, had a stormy existence of about 300 years. Internal disorders, +due to attempts by the later Lusignan kings to make their subjects +conform to the Roman Church, facilitated its conquest by Egypt, 1375. +The memory of Kiligia (Cilicia) is enshrined in a popular song, and at +Zeitun, in the recesses of Mount Taurus, a small Armenian community has +hitherto maintained almost complete independence. After the death of +Timur, Armenia formed part of the territories of the Turkoman dynasties +of Ak- and Kara-Kuyunli, and under their milder rule the seat of the +Catholicus, which, during the Seljuk invasion, had been moved first to +Sivas, and then to Lesser Armenia, was re-established, 1441, at +Echmiadzin. + + + Under Turkey. + +In 1514, the Persian campaign of Selim I. gave Armenia to the Osmanli +Turks, and its reorganization was entrusted to Idris, the historian, who +was a Kurd of Bitlis. Idris found the rich arable lands almost deserted, +and the mountains bristling with the castles of independent chieftains, +of Kurd, Arab and Armenian descent, between whom there were +long-standing feuds. He compelled the Kurds to settle on the vacant +lands, and divided the country into small sanjaks which in the plains +were governed by Turkish officials, and in the mountains by local +chiefs. This policy gave rest to the country, but favoured the growth of +Kurd influence and power, which by 1534 had spread westwards to Angora. +Armenia was invaded by the Persians in 1575, and again in 1604, when +Shah Abbas transplanted many thousand Armenians from Julfa to his new +capital Isfahan. In 1639, the province of Erivan, which included +Echmiadzin, was assigned by treaty to Persia, and it remained in her +hands until it passed to Russia, 1828, under the treaty of Turkman-chai. +The Turko-Russian War of 1828-29, which advanced the Russian frontier to +the Arpa Chai, was followed by a large emigration of Armenians from +Turkish to Russian territory, and a smaller exodus took place after the +war of 1877-78, which gave Batum, Ardahan and Kars to Russia. In 1834 +the independent power of the Kurds in Armenia was greatly curtailed; and +risings under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843, and Sheik Obeidullah in 1880, were +firmly suppressed. + + + Gregorian Armenians. + +After the capture of Constantinople, 1453, Mahommed II. organized his +non-Moslem subjects in communities, or _millets_, under ecclesiastical +chiefs to whom he gave absolute authority in civil and religious +matters, and in criminal offences that did not come under the Moslem +religious law. Under this system the Armenian bishop of Brusa, who was +appointed patriarch of Constantinople by the sultan, became the civil, +and practically the ecclesiastical head of his community (_Ermeni +millet_), and a recognized officer of the imperial government with the +rank of vizier. He was assisted by a council of bishops and clergy, and +was represented in each province by a bishop. This _imperium in imperio_ +secured to the Armenians a recognized position before the law, the free +enjoyment of their religion, the possession of their churches and +monasteries, and the right to educate their children and manage their +municipal affairs. It also encouraged the growth of a community life, +which eventually gave birth to an intense longing for national life. On +the other hand it degraded the priesthood. The priests became political +leaders rather than spiritual guides, and sought promotion by bribery +and intrigue. Education was neglected and discouraged, servility and +treachery were developed, and in less than a century the people had +become depraved and degraded to an almost incredible extent. After the +issue, 1839, of the _hatt-i-skerif_ of Gul-khaneh, the tradesmen and +artisans of the capital freed themselves from clerical control. Under +regulations, approved by the sultan in 1862, the patriarch remained the +official representative of the community, but all real power passed into +the hands of clerical and lay councils elected by a representative +assembly of 140 members. The "community," which excluded Roman Catholics +and Protestants, was soon called the "nation," "domestic" became +"national" affairs, and the "representative" the "national" assembly. + + + Roman Catholics. + +The connexion of "Lesser Armenia" with the Western powers led to the +formation, 1335, of an Armenian fraternity, "the Unionists," which +adopted the dogmas of the Roman church, and at the council of Florence, +1439, was entitled the "United Armenian Church." Under the millet system +the unionists were frequently persecuted by the patriarchs, but this +ended in 1830, when, at the intervention of France, they were made a +community (_Katoluk millet_), with their own ecclesiastical head. The +Roman Catholics, through the works issued by the Mechitharists at +Venice, have greatly promoted the progress of education and the +development of Armenian literature. They are most numerous at +Constantinople, Angora and Smyrna. + + + Protestants. + +The Protestant movement, initiated at Constantinople by American +missionaries in 1831, was opposed by the patriarchs and Russia. In 1846 +the patriarch anathematized all Armenians with Protestant sympathies, +and this led to the formation of the "Evangelical Church of the +Armenians," which was made, after much opposition from France and +Russia, a community (_Protestant millet_), at the instance of the +British ambassador. The missionaries afterwards founded colleges on the +Bosporus, at Kharput, Marsivan and Aintab, to supply the needs of higher +university education, and they opened good schools for both sexes at all +their stations. Everywhere they supplied the people with pure, wholesome +literature, and represented progress and religious liberty. + + + Modern Armenian question. + +When Abd-ul-Hamid came to the throne of Turkey in 1876, the condition of +the Armenians was better than it had ever been under the Osmanlis; but +with the close of the war of 1877-78 came the "Armenian Question." By +the treaty of San Stefano, Turkey engaged to Russia to carry out reforms +"in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to guarantee their +security against the Kurds and Circassians." By the treaty of Berlin, +13th of July 1878, a like engagement to the six signatory powers was +substituted for that to Russia. By the Cyprus convention, 4th of June +1878, the sultan promised Great Britain to introduce necessary reforms +"for the protection of the Christians and other subjects of the Porte" +in the Turkish territories in Asia. The Berlin treaty encouraged the +Armenians to look to the powers, and not to Russia for protection; and +the convention, which did not mention the Armenians, was regarded as +placing them under the special protection of Great Britain. This +impression was strengthened by the action of England at Berlin in +insisting that Russia should evacuate the occupied territory before +reforms were introduced, and so removing the only security for their +introduction. The presentation of identic and collective notes to the +Porte by the powers, in 1880, produced no result, and in 1882 it was +apparent that Turkey would only yield to compulsion. In 1881 a circular +note from the British ministry to the five powers was evasively +answered, and in 1883 Prince Bismarck intimated to the British +government that Germany cared nothing about Armenian reforms and that +the matter had better be allowed to drop. Russia had changed her policy +towards the Armenians, and the other powers were indifferent. The +so-called "Concert of Europe" was at an end, but British ministries +continued to call the attention of the sultan to his obligations under +the treaty of Berlin. + + + Russian policy. + +Russia began to interest herself in the Armenians when she acquired +Georgia in 1801; but it was not until 1828-1829 that any appreciable +number of them became her subjects. She found them necessary to the +development of her new territories, and allowed them much freedom. They +were permitted, within certain limits, to develop their national life; +many became wealthy, and many rose to high positions in the military and +civil service of the state. After the war of 1877-78 the Russian consuls +in Turkey encouraged the formation of patriotic committees in Armenia, +and a project was formed to create a separate state, under the supremacy +of Russia, which was to include Russian, Persian and Turkish Armenia. +The project was favoured by Loris-Melikov, then all-powerful in Russia, +but in 1881 Alexander II. was assassinated, and shortly afterwards a +strongly anti-Armenian policy was adopted. The schools were closed, the +use of the Armenian language was discouraged, and attempts were made to +Russify the Armenians and bring them within the pale of the Russian +Church. All hope of practical self-government under Russian protection +now ceased, and the Armenians of Tiflis turned their attention to +Turkish Armenia. They had seen the success of the Slav committees in +treating disturbances in the Balkans, and became the moving spirit in +the attempts to produce similar troubles in Armenia. Russia made no real +effort to check the action of her Armenian subjects, and after 1884 she +steadily opposed any active interference by Great Britain in favour of +the Turkish Armenians. When Echmiadzin passed to Russia, in 1828, the +Catholicus began to claim spiritual jurisdiction over the whole Armenian +Church, and the submission of the patriarch of Constantinople was +obtained by Russia when she helped the sultan against Mehemet Ali. +Subsequently Russia secured the submission of the independent catholicus +of Sis, and thus acquired a power of interference in Armenian affairs in +all parts of the world. During 1900 Russia showed renewed interest in +Turkish Armenia by securing the right to construct all railways in it, +and in the Armenians by pressing the Porte to restore order and +introduce reforms. + + + Revolutionary movement. + +The Berlin treaty was a disappointment to the Gregorian Armenians, who +had hoped that Armenia and Cilicia would have been formed into an +autonomous province administered by Christians. But the formation of +such a province was impossible. The Gregorians were scattered over the +empire, and, except in a few small districts, were nowhere in a +majority. Nor were they bound together by any community of thought or +sentiment. The Turkish-speaking Armenians of the south could scarcely +converse with the Armenian-speaking people of the north; and the +ignorant mountaineers of the east had nothing in common, except +religion, with the highly educated townsmen of Constantinople and +Smyrna. After the change in Russian policy and the failure of the powers +to secure reforms, the advanced party amongst the Armenians, some of +whom had been educated in Europe and been deeply affected by the free +thought and Nihilistic tendencies of the day, determined to secure their +object by the production of disturbances such as those that had given +birth to Bulgaria. Societies were formed at Tiflis and in several +European capitals for the circulation of pamphlets and newspapers, and +secret societies, such as the Huntchagist, were instituted for more +revolutionary methods. An active propaganda was carried on in Turkish +Armenia by emissaries, who tried to introduce arms and explosives, and +represented the ordinary incidents of Turkish misrule to Europe as +serious atrocities. The revolutionary movement was joined by some of the +younger men, who formed local committees on the Nihilist plan, but it +was strongly opposed by the Armenian clergy and the American +missionaries, who saw the impossibility of success; and its irreligious +tendency and the self-seeking ambition of its leaders made it +unacceptable to the mass of the people. Exasperated at their failure, +the emissaries organized attacks on individuals, wrote threatening +letters, and at last posted revolutionary placards, 5th of January 1893, +at Yuzgat, and on the walls of the American College at Marsivan. In the +last case the object of the Huntchagists was to compromise the +missionaries, and in this they succeeded. The Americans were accused of +issuing the placards; two Armenian professors were imprisoned; and the +girls' school was burned down. Outbreaks, easily suppressed, followed at +Kaisarieh and other places. + +One of the revolutionary dreams was to make the ancient Daron the centre +of a new Armenia. But the movement met with no encouragement, either +amongst the prosperous peasants on the rich plain of Mush or in the +mountain villages of Sasun. In the summer of 1893, an emissary was +captured near Mush, and the governor, hoping to secure others, ordered +the Kurdish Irregular Horse to raid the mountain district. The Armenians +drove off the Kurds,[1] and, when attacked in the spring of 1894, again +held their own. The vali now called up regular troops from Erzingan; and +the sultan issued a firman calling upon all loyal subjects to aid in +suppressing the revolt. A massacre of a most brutal character, in which +Turkish soldiers took part, followed; and aroused deep indignation in +Europe. In November 1894 a Turkish commission of inquiry was sent to +Armenia, and was accompanied by the consular delegates of Great Britain, +France and Russia, who elicited the fact that there had been no attempt +at revolt to justify the action of the authorities. Throughout 1894 the +state of the country bordered upon anarchy, and during the winter of +1894-1895 the British government, with lukewarm support from France and +Russia, pressed for administrative reforms in the vilayets of Erzerum, +Van, Bitlis, Sivas, Memuret-el-Aziz (Kharput) and Diarbekr. The Porte +made counter-proposals, and officials concerned in the Sasun massacres +were decorated and rewarded. On the 11th of May 1895 the three powers +presented to the sultan a complicated scheme of reforms which was more +calculated to increase than to lessen the difficulties connected with +the government of Armenia; but it was the only one to which Russia would +agree. The sultan delayed his answer. Great Britain was in favour of +coercion, but Russia, when sounded, replied that she "would certainly +not join in any coercive measures" and she was supported by France. At +this moment, 21st of June 1895, Lord Rosebery's cabinet resigned, and +when Lord Salisbury's government resumed the negotiations in August, the +sultan appealed to France and Russia against England. During the +negotiations the secret societies had not been inactive. Disturbances +occurred at Tarsus; Armenians who did not espouse the "national" cause +were murdered; the life of the patriarch was threatened; and a report +was circulated that the British ambassador wished some Armenians killed +to give him an excuse for bringing the fleet to Constantinople. On the +1st of October 1895 a number of Armenians, some armed, went in +procession with a petition to the Porte and were ordered by the police +to disperse. Shots were fired, and a riot occurred in which many +Armenian and some Moslem lives were lost. The British ambassador now +pressed the scheme of reforms upon the sultan, who accepted it on the +17th of October. Meanwhile there had been a massacre at Trebizond +(October 8), in which armed men from Constantinople took part, and it +had become evident that no united action on the part of the powers was +to be feared. The sultan refused to publish the scheme of reforms, and +massacre followed massacre in Armenia in quick succession until the 1st +of January 1896. Nothing was done. Russia refused to agree to any +measure of coercion, and declared (December 19) that she would take no +action except such as was needed for the protection of foreigners. Great +Britain was not prepared to act alone. In the summer of 1896 (June +14-22) there were massacres at Van, Egin, and Niksar; and on the 26th of +August the Imperial Ottoman Bank at Constantinople was seized by +revolutionists as a demonstration against the Christian powers who had +left the Armenians to their fate. The project was known to the Porte, +and the rabble, previously armed and instructed, were at once turned +loose in the streets. Two days' massacre followed, during which from +6000 to 7000 Gregorian Armenians perished. + + + The massacres. + +The massacres were apparently organized and carried out in accordance +with a well-considered plan. They occurred, except in six places, in the +vilayets to which the scheme of reforms was to apply. At Trebizond they +took place just before the sultan accepted that scheme, and after his +acceptance of it they spread rapidly. They were confined to Gregorian +and Protestant Armenians. The Roman Catholics were protected by France, +the Greek Christians by Russia. The massacre of Syrians, Jacobites and +Chaldees at Urfa and elsewhere formed no part of the original plan. +Orders were given to protect foreigners, and in some cases guards were +placed over their houses. The damage to the American buildings at +Kharput was due to direct disobedience of orders. The attacks on the +bazars were made without warning, during business hours, when the men +were in their shops and the women in their houses. Explicit promises +were given, in some instances, that there would be no danger to those +who opened their shops, but they were deliberately broken. Nearly all +those who, from their wealth, education and influence, would have had a +share in the government under the scheme of reforms, were killed and +their families ruined by the destruction of their property. Where any +attempt at defence was made the slaughter was greatest. The only +successful resistance was at Zeitun, where the people received +honourable terms after three months' fighting. In some towns the troops +and police took an active part in the massacres. At Kharput artillery +was used. In some the slaughter commenced and ended by bugle-call, and +in a few instances the Armenians were disarmed beforehand. Wherever a +superior official or army officer intervened the massacre at once +ceased, and wherever a governor stood firm there was no disturbance. The +actual perpetrators of the massacres were the local Moslems, aided by +Lazis, Kurds and Circassians. A large majority of the Moslems +disapproved of the massacres, and many Armenians were saved by Moslem +friends. But the lower orders were excited by reports that the +Armenians, supported by the European powers, were plotting the overthrow +of the sultan; and their cupidity was aroused by the prospect of wiping +out their heavy debts to Armenian pedlars and merchants. No one was +punished for the massacres, and many of those implicated in them were +rewarded. In some districts, especially in the Kharput vilayet, the cry +of "Islam or death" was raised. Gregorian priests and Protestant pastors +were tortured, but preferred death to apostasy. Men and women were +killed in prison and in churches in cold blood. Churches, monasteries, +schools and houses were plundered and destroyed. In some places there +was evidence of the previous activity of secret societies, in others +none. The number of those who perished, excluding Constantinople, was +20,000 to 25,000.[2] Many were forced to embrace Islam, and numbers were +reduced to poverty. The destruction of property was enormous, the +hardest-working and best tax-paying element in the country was +destroyed, or impoverished, and where the breadwinners were killed the +women and children were left destitute. Efforts by Great Britain and the +United States to alleviate the distress were opposed by the authorities, +but met with some success. After the massacres the number of students in +the American schools and colleges increased, and many Gregorian +Armenians became Roman Catholics in order to obtain the protection of +France. + +The Armenian revolutionary societies continued their propaganda down to +the granting of the Turkish constitution in 1908; and meanwhile further +massacres occurred here and there, notably at Mush (1904) and Van +(1908). + + See Abich, _Geologie d. armenischen Hochlandes_ (Wien, 1882); Bishop, + _Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan_ (Lond., 1891); Bliss, _Turkey and + the Armenian Atrocities_ (Lond., 1896); Bryce, _Transcaucasia and + Ararat_ (4th ed., Lond., 1896); De Coursous, _La Rebellion armenienne_ + (Paris, 1895); Lepsius, _Armenia and Europe_ (Lond., 1897); Murray, + _Handbook for Asia Minor_ (Lond., 1895); Parly. Papers, _Turkey_, I. + (1895); _Turkey_, I., II. (1896); Supan, "Die Verbreitung d. Armenier + in der asiatischen Turkei, u. in Transkaukasien," in Pet. _Mitt_. vol. + xlii. (1896); Tozer, _Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor_ (Lond., + 1881); Cholet, _Armenie, Kurdistan, et Mesopotamie_ (1892); Lynch, + _Armenia_ (2 vols., 1901). (C. W. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The Armenians and Kurds have lived together from the earliest + times. The adoption of Islam by the latter, and by many Armenians, + divided the people sharply into Christian and Moslem, and placed the + Christian in a position of inferiority. But the relations between the + two sects were not unfriendly previously to the Russian campaigns in + Persia and Turkey. After 1829 the relations became less friendly; and + later, when the Armenians attracted the sympathies of the European + powers after the war of 1877-78, they became bitterly hostile. + + [2] According to some estimates the number killed was 50,000 or more. + + + + +ARMENIAN CHURCH. No trustworthy account exists of the evangelization of +Armenia, for the legend of King Abgar's correspondence with Christ, even +if it contained any historical truth, only relates to Edessa and Syriac +Christianity. That the Armenians appropriated from the Syrians this, as +well as the stories of Bartholomew and Thaddeus (the Syriac _Addai_), +was merely an avowal on their part that Edessa was the centre from which +the faith radiated over their land. In the 4th century and later the +liturgy was still read in Syriac in parts of Armenia, and the New +Testament, the history of Eusebius, the homilies of Aphraates, the works +of St Ephraem and many other early books were translated from Syriac, +from which tongue most of their ecclesiological terms were derived. The +earliest notice of an organized church in Armenia is in Eusebius, _H. +E_. vi. 46, to the effect that Dionysius of Alexandria c. 250 sent a +letter to Meruzanes, bishop of the brethren in Armenia. There were many +Christians in Melitene at the time of the Decian persecution in A.D. +250, and two bishops from Great Armenia were present at the council of +Nice in 325. King Tiridates (c. A.D. 238-314) had already been baptized +some time after 261 by Gregory the Illuminator. The latter was ordained +priest and appointed _catholicus_ or exarch of the church of Great +Armenia by Leontius, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. This one fact is +certain amidst the fables which soon obscured the history of this great +missionary. Thus the church of Great Armenia began as a province of the +Cappadocian see. But there was a tradition of a line of bishops earlier +than Gregory in Siuniq, a region east of Ararat along the Araxes (Aras), +which in early times claimed to be independent of the catholicus. The +Adoptianist bishop Archelaus, who opposed the entry of Mani into Armenia +under Probus c. 277, was also perhaps a Syriac-speaking bishop of +Pers-Armenia. Almost the earliest document revealing anything of the +inner organization and condition of the Armenian church in the Nicene +age is the epistle of Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, to the Armenian +bishop Verthanes, written between 325 and 335 and preserved in Armenian. +Its genuineness has been unreasonably suspected. It insists on the +erection of fonts; on distinction of grades among the ordained clergy; +on not postponing baptism too long; on bishops and priests alone, and +not deacons, being allowed to baptize and lay hands on or confirm the +baptized; on avoiding communion with Arians; on the use of unleavened +bread in the Sacrament, &c. We learn from it that the bishop of Basen +and Bagrevand was an Arian at that time. By the year 450 these two +districts already had separate bishops of their own. The letter of +Macarius, therefore, if a forgery, must be a very early one.[1] The +Armenians must, like the Georgians a little later, have set store by the +opinion of the bishop of Jerusalem, or they would not have sent to +consult him. It was equally from Jerusalem that they subsequently +adopted their lectionary and arrangement of the Christian year; and a +9th-century copy of this lectionary in the Paris library preserves to us +precious details of the liturgical usages of Jerusalem in the 4th +century. We can trace the presence of Armenian convents on the Mount of +Olives as early as the 5th century. + +Tradition represents the conversion of Great Armenia under Gregory and +Tiridates as a sort of triumphant march, in which the temples of the +demons and their records were destroyed wholesale, and their undefended +sites instantly converted into Christian churches. The questions arise: +how was the transition from old to new effected? and what was the type +of teaching dominant in the new church? Armenian tradition, confirmed by +nearly contemporary Greek sources, answers the first question. The old +order went on, but under new names. The priestly families, we learn, +hearing that the God preached by Gregory needed not sacrifice, sent to +the king a deputation and asked how they were to live, if they became +Christians; for until then the priests and their families had lived off +the portions of the animal victims and other offerings reserved to them +by pagan custom. Gregory replied that, if they would join the new +religion, not only should the sacrifices continue, but they should have +larger perquisites then ever. The priestly families then went over _en +masse_. How far the older sacrificial rules resembled the levitical law +we do not know, but in the canons of Sahak, c. 430, the priests already +receive the levitical portions of the victims; and we find that animals +are being sacrificed every Sunday, on the feast days which at first were +few, in fulfilment of private vows, in expiation of the sins of the +living, and still more of those of the dead. No one might kill his own +meat and deprive the priest of his due; but this rule did not apply to +the chase. The earliest Armenian rituals contain ample services for the +conduct of an _agape_ (q.v.) or love feast held in the church off +sacrificial meat. The victim was slaughtered by the priest in the church +porch before the crucifix, after it had been ritually wreathed and given +the holy salt, by licking which it appropriated a sacramental purity or +efficacy previously conveyed into the salt by exorcisms and +consecration. In the canons of Sahak the priest is represented as eating +the sins of the people in these repasts. + +It is easy to underrate the importance in religion of a change of names. +The old sacrificial hymns were probably obscene and certainly +nonsensical, and the substitution for them of the psalms, and of +lections of the prophets and New Testament, was an enormous gain. We do +not know precisely how the eucharistic rite was adjusted to these +sacrificial meals; but, in the canons of Sahak, 1 Cor. xi. 17-34 is +interpreted of these meals, which were known as the Dominical (suppers). +The Eucharist was, therefore, long associated with the _matal_ or animal +victim, and only in the 8th century do we hear of an interval of time +being left between the fleshly and the spiritual sacrifices, as the two +rites were then called. The Basilian service of the Eucharist was used +in the 5th century, but superseded later on by a Byzantine rite which +will be found translated in F.E. Brightman's _Eastern Liturgies_. The +Eucharist was no doubt the one important sacrifice in the minds of the +clergy who had attended the schools of Constantinople and Alexandria; +yet the heart of the people remained in their ancient blood-offerings, +and as late as the 12th century they were prone to deny that the mass +could expiate the sins of the dead unless accompanied by the sacrifice +of an animal. Perhaps even to-day the worst fate that can befall a +villager after death is to be deprived, not of commemoration in the +mass, but of the victim slain for his sins. The keenest spiritual weapon +of the Armenian priest was ever a threat not to offer the _matal_ for a +man when he died. + +Another survival in the Armenian church was the hereditary priesthood. +None but a scion of a priestly family could become a deacon, elder or +bishop. Accordingly the primacy remained in the family of Gregory until +about 374, when the king Pap or Bab murdered Nerses, who had been +ordained by Eusebius of Caesarea (362-370) and was over-zealous in +implanting in Armenia the canons about celibacy, marriage, fasting, +hospices and monastic life which Basil had established in Cappadocia. It +may be remarked that Gregory's own family was a cadet branch of the +Arsacid kin which had occupied the thrones of Persia, Bactria, Armenia +and Georgia. His primacy therefore was in itself a survival of an +earlier age when king and priest were one. He was in fact a _rex +sacrificulus_, and later on, when the Arsacid dynasty fell in Armenia c. +A.D. 428, the Armenian catholicus became the symbol of national unity +and the rallying-point of patriotism. The line of Gregory was restored +in 390 in the person of Isaac or Sahak, son of Nerses, and his +patriarchate was the golden age of Armenian literature. But by this time +the autonomy of the Armenian church was thoroughly established. On the +death of Nerses the right of saying grace at the royal meals, which was +the essence of the catholicate, was transferred by the king, in despite +of the Greeks, to the priestly family of Albianus, and thenceforth no +Armenian catholicus went to Caesarea for ordination. The ties with Greek +official Christendom were snapped for ever, and in subsequent ages the +doctrinal preferences of the Armenians were usually determined more by +antagonism to the Greeks than by reflection. If they accepted the +council of Ephesus in 430 and joined in the condemnation of Nestorius, +it was rather because the Sassanid kings of Persia, who thirsted for the +reconquest of Armenia, favoured Nestorianism, a form of doctrine current +in Persia and rejected in Byzantium. But later on, about 480, and +throughout the following centuries, the Armenians rejected the decrees +of Chalcedon and held that the assertion of two natures in Christ was a +relapse into the heresy of Nestor. From the close of the 5th century the +Armenians have remained monophysite, like the Copts and Abyssinians, and +have only broken the record with occasional short interludes of +orthodoxy, as when in 633 the emperor Heraclius forced reunion on them, +under a catholicus named Esdras, at a council held in Erzerum. Even then +all parties were careful not to mention Chalcedon. The march of Arab +conquest kept the Armenians friendly to Byzantium for a few years; but +in 718 the catholicus John of Odsun ascended the throne and at the +council of Manazkert in 728 repeated and confirmed the anathemas against +Chalcedon and the tome of Leo, that had been first pronounced by the +catholicus Babken in 491 at a synod held in Valarshapat by the united +Armenian, Georgian or Iberian, and Albanian churches. The Armenians +marked their complete disruption with the Greeks by starting an era of +their own at the synod of Dvin. The era began on the 11th of July 552, +and their year is vague, that is to say, it does not intercalate a day +in February every fourth year, like the Julian calendar. + +The two churches of Iberia and Albania at first depended on the Armenian +for ordination of their primates or _catholici_, and in large part owed +their first constitution to Armenian missionaries sent by Gregory the +Illuminator. The Iberians still reverence as saints the Armenian doctors +of the 5th century, but as early as 552 they began to resent the +dictatorial methods of the Armenians, as well might a proud race of +mountaineers who never wholly lost their political independence; and +they broke off their allegiance to the Armenian see very soon +afterwards, accepted Chalcedon and joined the Byzantine church. The +Albanians of the Caucasus were also converted in the age of Gregory, +early in the 4th century, and were loyal to the Armenians in the great +struggle against Mazdaism in the 5th; but broke away for a time towards +600, and chose a patriarch without sending him to Armenia for +ordination. Eventually this interesting church was engulfed by the +rising tide of Mahommedan conquest, but not before one of their bishops, +named Israel, had converted (677-703) the Huns who lay to the north of +the Caspian and had translated the Bible and liturgies into their +language. If the Albanian and Hunnish versions could be found, they +would be of the greatest linguistic importance. + +The mother church of Armenia was established by Gregory at Ashtishat in +the province of Taron, on the site of the great temple of Wahagn, whose +festival on the seventh of the month Sahmi was reconsecrated to John the +Baptist and Athenogenes, an Armenian martyr and Greek hymn writer. The +first of Navasard, the Armenian new year's day, was the feast of a god +Vanatur or Wanadur (who answered to [Greek: Zeus xenios]) in the holy +pilgrim city of Bagawan. His day was reconsecrated to the Baptist, whose +relics were brought to Bagawan. The feast of Anahite, the Armenian Venus +and spouse of the chief god Aramazd, was in the same way rededicated to +the Virgin Mary, who for long was not very clearly distinguished by the +Armenians from the virgin mother church. The old cult of sacred stones +and trees by an easy transition became cross-worship, but a cross was +not sacred until the Christ had been, by priestly prayer and invocation, +transferred into it. + +What was the earliest doctrine of the churches of Armenia? If we could +believe the fathers of the 5th and succeeding centuries Nicene orthodoxy +prevailed in their country from the first; and in the 5th century they +certainly chose for translation the works of orthodox fathers alone, +such as Chrysostom, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory Nazianzen, Cyril +of Jerusalem and Cyril of Alexandria, Athanasius, Julius of Rome, +Hippolytus, Irenaeus, avoiding Origen and other fathers who were +becoming suspect. However, we do hear of versions of Nestorian writers +like Diodore of Tarsus being in circulation, and the _Disputation_ of +Archelaus proves that the current orthodoxy of eastern Armenia was +Adoptianist, if not Ebionite in tone. The Persian Armenians as late as +the 6th century had not heard of the faith of Nicaea, and only then +received it from the catholicus Babken. They sent a copy of their old +creed to Babken, and it closely resembles the Adoptianist creed of +Archelaus, the gist of which was that Jesus, until his thirtieth year, +was a man mortal like other men; then, because he was righteous above +all others, he was promoted to the honour and name of Son of God. He +received the title by grace, but was not equal to God the Father. +Because the Spirit worked with him, he was able to vanquish Satan and +all desires, and because of his righteousness and good works he was made +worthy of grace and became a Temple of God the Word, which came down +from heaven in Jordan, dwelt in him and through him wrought miracles. +From such a standpoint the baptism of Jesus was the moment of the divine +incarnation. The man righteous above all others was then reborn of the +Spirit, was illuminated, was spiritually anointed, became the Christ and +Son of God. In effect the fathers of the Armenian church often fell back +into such language, far removed as it is from orthodoxy; and they +emphasized the importance of the baptismal feast of the Epiphany on the +6th of January by refusing to accept the feast of the physical birth of +the 25th of December. As late as 1165 their patriarch Nerses defends the +Armenian custom of keeping Christmas on the 6th of January on the +express ground that as he was born after the flesh from the Virgin, _so +he was born by way of baptism from the Jordan_. The custom from the +first, he says, had been to feast on one and the same day the two +births, much as they differed in sacramental import and in point of +time. We see how deep the early Adoptianism had struck its roots, when a +primate of the 12th century could still appeal to the baptismal +regeneration of Jesus. The same Nerses held that the second Adam, Jesus +Christ, received a new body and nature and the sevenfold grace of the +Spirit _in the Jordan_. The Armenian doctors also taught that John by +laying hands on Jesus and ordaining him at his baptism sacramentally +transferred to him the three graces or _charismata_ of kingship, +prophecy and priesthood which had belonged to ancient Israel. After +baptism, if not before, the flesh of Christ was incorruptible. It +consisted of ethereal fire, and he was not subject to the ordinary +phenomena of digestion, secretions and evacuations. + +Monastic institutions were hardly introduced in Armenia before the 5th +century, though Christian rest-houses had been erected along the +high-roads long before and are mentioned in the _Disputation_ of +Archelaus. The Armenians called them _wanq_, and out of them grew the +monasteries. The monks were, strictly speaking, penitents wearing the +cowl, and not allowed to take a part in church government. This belonged +to the elders. At first there was no separate episcopal ordination, and +the one rite of elder or priest (Armen. _Qahanay_, Heb. _cohen_) +sufficed. There were also deacons, half-deacons and readers. Besides +these there was a class of _wardapets_ or teachers, answering to the +_didascalos_ of the earliest church, whose province it was to guard the +doctrine and for whom no rite of ordination is found in the older +rituals. + +A few other peculiarities of Armenian church usage or belief deserve +notice. In baptism the rubric ordains that the baptized be plunged three +times in the font in commemoration of the entombment during three days +of the Lord. In the West trine immersion was generally held to be +symbolic of the triune name of "Father, Son and Holy Ghost." This name +the Armenians have used, at least since the year 700; before which date +their fathers often speak of baptism into the death of Christ as the one +essential. As late as about 1300 a traveller hostile to the Armenians +reported to the pope that he had witnessed baptisms without any +trinitarian invocation in as many as three hundred parish churches. + +The paschal lamb is now eaten on Sunday, but until the 11th century, and +even later, it was eaten with the Eucharist at a Lord's Supper +celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday after the rite of +_pedilavium_ or washing of feet. On the morning of the same day the +penitents were released from their fast. + +The rite of extreme unction was introduced in the crusading epoch, +although it was already usual to anoint the bodies of dead priests. The +worship of images never seems to have taken root among Armenians; indeed +they supplied the Greek world with iconoclast soldiers and emperors. The +worship of crosses into which the Spirit or Christ had been inserted by +the priest must have satisfied the religious needs of a people who, save +in architecture, showed little artistic faculty. In their older rituals +we find a rite for blessing a painted church, but no word of statues. +Frescoes in their churches are rare, and mostly too high up for +veneration to be paid to them. + +On certain days the cross was washed, and the water in which it had been +washed was a sovereign charm for curing sickness in men and animals and +for bringing fertility to the land. + +In the older rituals we find a rite of _exhomologesis_, for restoring +those who had sinned after baptism. It was a medicine of sin that could +only be used once and not a second time. In form it is a rehearsal of +the first baptismal rite, but with omission of the water. It involved +like the first rite open confession and repentance, and absolution by +the church. In a later and less rigorous age this rite was abridged and +adjusted to constant repetition, in such wise that a sinner could be +restored to grace not once only, but as often as the clergy chose to +accept his repentance and confession. Thus the whole development of the +penitentiary system is traceable in the MSS. + +The confession of a dying man might be taken by any layman present, and +written down in order to be shown to the priest when he arrived. It then +was the duty of the latter to supplicate for his forgiveness, and +administer to him the Eucharist. + +The clergy of all grades were originally married. The parish priests, or +white clergy, are so still, except some of the Latinizing ones. But +since the 12th century, or even earlier, the higher clergy, i.e. +patriarchs and bishops, have taken monkish vows and worn the cowl. + +There were abortive attempts to unite the Armenian church with the +Byzantine in the 9th century under the patriarch Photius, and again late +in the 12th under the emperor Manuel Comnenus, when a joint council met +at Romkla, near Tarsus, but ended in nothing (A.D. 1179). Neither could +the Armenians keep on good terms even with the Syriac monophysites. From +the age of the crusades on, the Armenians of Cilicia, whose patriarch +sat at Sis, improved their acquaintance with Rome; and more than one of +their patriarchs adopted the Roman faith, at least in words. Dominican +missions went to Armenia, and in 1328 under their auspices was formed a +regular order called the United Brethren, the forerunners of the Uniats +of the present day, who have convents at Venice and Vienna, a college in +Rome and a numerous following in Turkey. They retain their Armenian +liturgies and rites, pruned to suit the Vatican standards of orthodoxy, +and they recognize the pope as head of the church. + +The patriarchs of Great Armenia first resided at Ashtishat, on the +Araxes. From 478 to 931 they occupied Dvin in the same neighbourhood, +then Aghthamar, an island in the Lake of Van, 931-967, the city of Ani, +992-1054, where are still visible the magnificent ruins of their +churches and palaces. Since 1441 the chief catholicus has sat at +Echmiadzin, the convent of Valarshapat, now part of Russian Armenia. A +rival catholicus, with a small following, still has his cathedral and +see at Sis. The catholicus of Valarshapat is nominally chosen by all +Armenians. A synod of bishops, monks and doctors meets regularly to +transact under his eye the business of the convent and the oecumenical +affairs of the church; but its decisions are subject to the veto of a +Russian procurator. There are Armenian patriarchs, subject to the +spiritual jurisdiction of Echmiadzin, in Constantinople and Jerusalem. +In the latter place the Armenians occupy a convent on Mount Sion, and +keep up in the churches of the Sepulchre and of Bethlehem their own +distinct rites and feasts, the only ones there which at all resemble +those of the 4th century. + +The following list of councils was compiled by John, catholicus about +the year 728, and read at the council of Manazkert, when the dogmatic +and disciplinary attitude of the Armenian church was defined once and +for all:-- + +1. In twentieth year of catholicate of Gregory and thirty-seventh of +Trdat, the king, on return of Aristaces from council of Nice, bringing +the Nicene creed and canons. + +2. Council held by St Nerses on his return from the council of the 150 +fathers at Constantinople against Macedonius. + +3. Held by St Sahak and Mesrop on receipt of letters from Proclus and +Cyril after the council of Ephesus, when the "Glory in the Highest" was +adopted. Held against Nestorianism. + +4. Held by Joseph, disciple of Mashdotz (Mesrop) and St Sahak, in +Shahapiwan in the sixth year of King Yazkert (i.e. Yazdegerd) of Persia, +for the regulation of the church. Forty bishops present. (The Massalians +were anathematized.) + +5. Held by Babken, catholicus, in the City-plain (i.e. Dvin), in the +18th year of King Kavat (i.e. Kavadh), against the heresy of Acacius and +Barsuma (Bar-sauma), the friends of Nestorius. The true (Nicene) faith +was sent to the Armenians of the farther East (shortly afterwards a +slightly different creed was adopted, identical with a pseudo-Athanasian +symbol used by Evagrius of Pontus and given in Greek in Patr. Gr. xxvi. +Col. 1232). + +6. At the beginning of the Armenian era, held by Nerses in Dvin, in the +fourth year of his catholicate, in the fourteenth of Chosroes' reign and +in the fourteenth of Justinian Caesar. Held against Chalcedon, uniting +the Baptism and Christmas feasts on the 6th of January (Epiphany), +declaring for mono-physitism, and adopting in the _Trisagion_ the words +"who wast crucified for us." This settlement lasted for about +seventy-four years. + +7. After the retaking of Jerusalem and recovery of the Cross from the +Persians in the eighteenth year of his reign, Heraclius called a mixed +council at Karin (Theodosiopolis) of Greeks and Armenians under Ezr +(Esdras), catholicus, at which the preceding council of Dvin was cursed, +its reforms repudiated and the confession of Chalcedon adopted. This +remained the official attitude of the Armenian church until the +catholicate of Elias (703-717). John, catholicus, denies to Ezr's +meeting the name of council, and so makes his own the seventh. + +8. Under John, catholicus, in Manazkert, in the one hundred and +seventieth year of the Armenian era (= A.D. 728) under the presidency of +Gregory Asharuni Chorepiscopos (Gregory Asheruni). All the Armenian +bishops attended, as also the metropolitan of Urhha (Edessa), Jacobite +bishops of Gartman, of Nfrkert, Amasia, by command of the archbishop of +Antioch. Chalcedon was repudiated afresh, union with the Jacobites +instituted, use of water and leaven in the Eucharist condemned, the five +days' preliminary fast before Lent restored, Saturday as well as Sunday +made a day of feasting and synaxis, any but the orthodox excluded from +the Maundy Thursday Communion, the first communion of the new +catechumens; union of the Baptismal and Christmas feasts was restored, +and the faithful forbidden to fast on Fridays from Easter until +Pentecost. In general these rules have been observed in the Armenian +church ever since. + + For list of authorities on the Armenian church see the works + enumerated at the end of ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. For the + relations of the Armenian church to the Persian kings see PERSIA: + _Ancient History_, section viii. SS 2 and 3. (F. C. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] If a forgery, why should this letter have been assigned to + Macarius, a comparatively obscure person whose name is not even found + in the menaea of the Eastern church? But convincing proof of its + authenticity lies in Macarius' reference to himself as merely + archbishop of Jerusalem, and his avowal that he was unwilling to + advise the Armenians, "being oppressed by the weakness of the + authority conceded him by the weighty usages of the church." + Jerusalem was only allowed to rank as a patriarchate in 451, and the + seventh canon of Nice subordinated the see to that of Caesarea in + Palestine. To this decree Macarius somewhat bitterly alludes. + + + + +ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. + + Language. + +The Armenian language belongs to the group called Indo-European, of +which the Iranic and Indic tongues formed one branch, and Greek, +Albanian, Italian, Celtic, Germanic and Baltic-Slavonic dialects the +other great branch. Unlike most of these, Armenian lost its genders long +before the year A.D. 400, when the existing literature begins. Modern +Persian similarly has lost gender; and in both cases the liberation must +have been due to attrition of other tongues which had a different system +of gender or none at all. So the Armenians were ever in contact on the +north with the Iberians of the Caucasus who had none, and with the +Semitic races on the south and east which had other ways of forming +genders than the Indo-European tongues. + +From the original Armenian stock can be readily distinguished a mass of +Old and Middle Persian loan-words. These are so numerous that for a time +Armenian was classed as an Iranian tongue. For more than a thousand +years, say until A.D. 640, Armenia was an appanage of the realm of the +Persians and Parthians. Until A.D. 428 the Armenian throne was occupied +by a younger branch of the Arsacid dynasty that ruled in Persia until +the advent of the Sassanids (c. A.D. 226), and the internal polity and +court administration of Armenia were modelled on the Persian or +Parthian. Accordingly over 200 proper and personal names in Armenia were +Old Persian, as well as 700 names of things. If we count in the +derivative forms of these words we get at least 2000 Old Persian words. +Often the same Persian word was borrowed twice over in an earlier and +later form at an interval of centuries, just as in English we inherit a +word direct or have taken it from Latin, and have also assimilated from +French a later form of the same. The Persian influence in Armenian was +already strong as early as 400 B.C., when Xenophon used a Persian +interpreter to converse. In some of the Armenian villages they answered +him in Persian. The Persian loan-words already present in Armenian as +early as A.D. 400 mirror the earlier political and social life of +Armenia. Thus many of their kings and nobles had Persian names; Persian +also were most words used in connexion with horses and the chase, with +war and army, with dress, trade and coinage, calendar, weights and +measures, with court and political institutions, with music, medicine, +school, education, literature and the arts. Many everyday words were of +the same origin, e.g. the words for village, desert, building and build, +need, rich or liberal, arm (of body), rod or goad, face, opposite, +wicked, unfriendly, discontented, difficult, daughter, eulogy, a youth, +wary, enjoy, unhappy, volition, voluntary, unwilling, blind, cautious, +blood-kin, coquet with, slumber, humble, mad, grace or favour, memory or +attention, grandfather, old woman, prepared, duty, necessary, end, +endless, superior, confident, mistake, warmth, heat, glory. The language +of their old religion was mainly Persian, but in the 4th century they +derived numerous ecclesiological words from the Syrians, from whom by +way of Edessa and Nisibis Christianity penetrated eastern Armenia. The +language of the garden and the names of plants were also Persian. They +had their own numerals, but the words for one thousand and for ten +thousand are Persian. + +Yet more indicative of the extent of the Persian influence is the +adoption of the adjectival ending -_akan_ and -_zan_, added to purely +Armenian words; also of the preposition _ham_, answering to _con_ in +"conjoin," "conspire," added to purely Armenian words, as in +_hambarnam_, I take away, and _hamboir_, a kiss, a word which, strange +to say, the Iberians in turn borrowed from the Armenians. From Persia +also the Armenians took their names for surrounding races, e.g. +_Tatshik_ or _Tajik_, first for Arab and then for Turk, _Ariq_ for +Persians, _Kapkoh_ for Caucasus, _Hrazdan_, _Vaspuragan_, &c. The +Armenians call themselves _Hay_, plural _Hayq_; their country +_Hayasdan_. The Iberians they called _Virq_ or _Wirq_ (where q marks the +plural), the Medes _Marq_, the Cappadocians _Gamirq_ (Cimmerians), the +Greeks Yunes or Ionians; Ararat they call _Masis_, the Euphrates the +_Aradsan_, the Tigris _Teglath_, Erzerum is _Karin_, Edessa _Urhha_, +Nisibis _Mdsbin_, Ctesiphon _Tizbon_, &c. + +When the Persian and other loan-words are removed, a stock remains of +native words and forms governed by other phonetic laws than those which +govern the Aryan, i.e. Indian and Iranic, branch of the Indo-European +tongues. Armenian appears to be a half-way dialect between the Aryan +branch and Slavo-lettic. Much, however, in Armenian philology remains +unexplained. For example the plural of nouns, pronouns and the first and +second persons plural of verbs are all formed by adding a q or k, which +has no parallel in any Indo-Germanic tongue. The genitive plural again +is formed by adding a _tz_ or c, and the same consonant characterizes +the composite aorist and the conjunctive. In all three cases it is +unexplained. In the verbs the termination m for the first singular at +once explains itself, and the n of the third plural is the Indo-Germanic +_nti_. But not so the second person singular ending in s, e.g. _berem_, +I bear, _beres_, thou bearest. This has a superficial likeness to the +I.-G. _esi_ in _bheresi_, "thou bearest." Yet we should expect the s +between vowels to vanish, and give us in Armenian _bere_. Perhaps, +therefore, an old variant of _esi_, similar to the [Greek: essi], lies +behind the Armenian _es_, thou art, and the _es_ in _beres_, thou +bearest. In any case it is clear that many of the oldest forms which +Armenian shared with other Indo-Germanic dialects were lost and replaced +by forms of which the origin is obscure. Perhaps a closer study of +Mingrelian and Georgian will explain some of these peculiarities, for +these and their cognate tongues must have had a wider range in the 7th +and 8th centuries B.C. than they had later when clear history begins. +The attempts made by S. Bugge to assimilate Old Armenian to Etruscan, +and by P. Jensen to explain from it the Hittite inscriptions, appear to +be fanciful. There is a large Semitic influence traceable in Armenian +due to their early contact with the Syriac-speaking peoples to the south +and east of them, and later to the Arab conquest. Much remains to be +done in the way of collecting Armenian dialects, for which task there +are written materials as far back as the 12th century over and above the +work to be done by an intelligent traveller armed with a phonograph. Two +main dialects of Armenian are distinguishable to-day, that of Ararat and +Tiflis, and that of Stambul and the coast cities of Asia Minor. The +latter is much overlaid with Tatar or Turkish words, and the Tatar order +of words distinguishes the modern Armenian sentence from the ancient. + +It remains to say that classical Armenian resembles rather the modern +idiom of Van than of western Armenia. It was a plastic and noble +language, capable of rendering faithfully, yet not servilely, the Greek +Bible and Greek fathers. Often the Armenian translators, and especially +after the 5th century, rendered word for word, preserving the order of +the Greek. This literalness, though unpleasing from a literary +standpoint, gives to many of their ancient versions the value almost of +a Greek codex of the age in which the version was made. The same +literalness also characterizes their translations from Syriac. + + + Literature. + +The Armenians had a temple literature of their own, which was destroyed +in the 4th and 5th centuries by the Christian clergy, so thoroughly that +barely twenty lines of it survive in the history of Moses of Khoren +(Chorene). Their Christian literature begins about 400 with the +invention of the Armenian alphabet by Mesrop. This was probably an older +alphabet to which Mesrop merely added vowels; but, in order to pacify +the Greek ecclesiastics and the emperor Theodosius the Less, the +Armenians concocted a story that it had been divinely revealed. Once +their alphabet perfected, the catholicus Sahak formed a school of +translators who were sent to Edessa, Athens, Constantinople, Alexandria, +Antioch, Caesarea in Cappadocia, and elsewhere, to procure codices both +in Syriac and Greek and translate them. From Syriac were made the first +version of the New Testament, the version of Eusebius' History and his +Life of Constantine (unless this be from the original Greek), the +homilies of Aphraates, the Acts of Gurias and Samuna, the works of +Ephrem Syrus (partly published in four volumes by the Mechitharists of +Venice). They include the commentaries on the _Diatessaron_ and the +Paulines, Laboubna and History of Addai, the Syriac canons of the +Apostles. + +From the original Greek were rendered in the 5th century the following +authors and works. An asterisk is prefixed to those which have been +printed:--*Eusebius' _Chronicon_; *Philo's lost commentaries on Genesis +and Exodus, and his lost treatises on Providence and Animals, as well as +a great number of his works still preserved in Greek; *the entire Bible +(the New Testament is a recension after Antiochene Greek texts of an +older version made from the oldest Syriac text); *the Alexander romance +of the pseudo-Callisthenes; *_Epistles_ and _Acts_ of Ignatius of +Antioch; *many homilies of Gregory Thaumaturgus; *Athanasius (a large +number of works, many of them wrongly attributed); Irenaeus, _Adversus +Haereses_ and _Ad Marcianum_ (recently found); *Hippolytus' commentaries +on the Song of Songs and Daniel, and many fragments; *Timotheus' life of +Athanasius; Theophilus of Alexandria, various homilies; *Eusebius of +Gabala or Severianus, fifteen Homilies; *Cyril of Jerusalem, +_Catecheses_ and Letter to Constantine; *_Wisdom of Ahikar_; *the +_Apology_ of Aristides; Gregory of Nazianzus, thirty-four Homilies; +*Nonnus' work on Gregory (perhaps a version of 6th century); Basil of +Caesarea, *_Hexaemeron_, fifteen Homilies on faith, epistle to +Terentius, ascetic writings and canons, on the Holy Spirit, to +Cledonius, &c. Helladius of Caesarea's life of Basil; Gregory of Nyssa's +treatise on the Beatitudes, and many other homilies, Commentaries on +Song of Songs, *On Human Nature (Nemesius), panegyrics on sundry +Martyrs, and other works (but some of these versions belong to the +beginning of the 8th century); Epiphanius of Salamis, Commentary on the +Gospels, *_On weights and measures_, *_Physiologus_, canons and many +homilies; Evagrius of Pontus, Homilies and Ascetic works, Letters to +Melania, &c.; John Chrysostom, *Homilies and Prayers, in very beautiful +language; *Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople, many homilies; *Nilus +the Ascete, _On the Eight Spirits of Evil_; *Josephus, _On the Jewish +War_; Dionysius of Alexandria, *_Against Paul of Samosata_ and other +fragments; Acacius, bishop of Melitene, *_Letters_ to Sahak; Julius of +Rome (fragments); Zenobius, Homilies (? from Syriac); the _History_ of +Julius Africanus was perhaps also translated in this century, but it is +lost. To the 5th century belong the versions of the Nicene canons, of +which the Armenian text as preserved is barely intelligible, of the +eucharistic rites called of *Basil, *Chrysostom, *Ignatius and others; +also the *Hours or Breviary, the *Rites of Ordination, Baptism, of the +making and release of Penitents, of Epiphany, and perhaps the many rites +of animal sacrifice, for these are partly originals, partly versions of +lost Greek texts. A mass of martyrs' acts were also rendered in this +century, including parts of the lost collection made by Eusebius. Among +these the *_Acts and Apology_ of Apollonius restore a lost 2nd-century +text. The *_Canons_ of Sahak also purport to be translated from a Greek +original about the year 330. + +The Armenians were so busy in this century translating Greek and Syriac +fathers that they have left little that is original. Still a number of +historical works survive: *Faustus of Byzantium relates the events of +the period A.D. 344-392 in a work instinct with life and racy of the +soil. It was perhaps first composed in Greek, but it gives a faithful +picture of the court of the petty sovereigns of Armenia, of the +political organization, of the blood feuds of the clans, of the planting +of Christianity. Procopius preserves some fragments of the Greek. + +The *_History of Taron_, by Zenobius of Glak, is a somewhat legendary +account of Gregory the Illuminator, and may have been written in Syriac +in the 5th, though it was only Armenized in a later century. + +*Elisaeus Wardapet wrote a history of Wardan (Vardan), and of the war +waged for their faith by the Armenians against the Sassanids. He was an +eye-witness of this struggle, and gives a good account of the +contemporary Mazdaism which the Persians tried to force on the +Armenians. *Lazar of Pharp wrote a history embracing the events of the +5th century up to the year 485, as a continuation of the work of +Faustus. + +*A history of St Gregory and of the conversion of Armenia by +Agathangelus is preserved in Greek, Armenian and Arabic. The Arabic +edited by Professor Marr of St Petersburg seems to be the oldest form of +text. The Greek is a rendering of the Armenian. It is a compilation, and +the second part which contains the _Acts_ of Gregory and of St Rhipsima +seems wholly legendary. The Greek and Armenian texts were edited +together by Lagarde. + +*The _History of Armenia_ by Moses of Khoren (Chorene) relates events up +to about the year 450. It is a compilation, devoid of historical method, +value or veracity, from all sorts of previous authors, mostly from those +which already existed in an Armenian dress. Some critics put down the +date of composition as low as about 700, and it was certainly retouched +in the late 6th century. + +*A long volume of rhetorical exercises, based on Aphthonius, is also +ascribed to Moses of Khoren, and appears to be of the 5th century. The +*geography which passes under his name may belong to the 7th century. +Various homilies of Moses survive, as also of Elisaeus. + +Gorium wrote in this century a *_Life of Mesrop_, and Eznik a +*_Refutation of the Sects_, based largely on antecedent Greek works. The +sects in question are Paganism, Mazdaism, Greek Philosophy and +Manicheism. A volume of *homilies under the name of Gregory the +Illuminator, but not his, also belongs to this century, and a series of +ascetic discourses attributed to John Mandakuni, who was patriarch +478-500. + +Of the 6th and 7th centuries few works survive except anonymous versions +of the *_Acts of Thomas_ (perhaps from the Syriac), of the *_Acts of +Peter and Paul_, *of John (pseudo-Prochorus), *of Bartholomew, and of +other apostles; also of *the Acts of Paul and Thekla, *of Titus, *of the +Protevangel, *of the Testaments of the patriarchs, of the *_Gospel of +Nicodemus_, or _Acts of Pilate_, of the *_Book of Adam_, of the *_Deaths +of the Prophets_, of the *_History of Baruch_, of the *Apocalypses of +Paul and of the Virgin Mary, of the *Acts of Sylvester, and of an +enormous number of other similar apocryphs. Some of these may be of the +5th century. Two volumes of these apocryphs of the Old and New +Testaments have recently been published at Venice. To these centuries +belong also the versions of the Acts of the council of Ephesus, of +Gangra, Laodicea and of other councils. To the late 7th century belong +the *calendarial works of Ananiah of Shirak, who also has left a +*_chronicon_ compiled from Eusebius, Andreas of Crete, Hippolytus and +other sources. In the *_Letter-book of the Patriarchs_, lately printed +at Tiflis, are to be found a number of controversial monophysite tracts +of these and the succeeding three centuries, important for church +history. It includes a mass of documents relative to the churches of +Iberia and Albania. The chief literary monument of the 7th century is +the history of the wars of Heraclius and of the early Mahommedan +conquests in Asia Minor, by the bishop Sebeos, who was an eye-witness. +The *history of the Albanians of the Caucasus, by Moses Kalankatuatzi, +also belongs to the end of this century. To the middle of the 7th +century also belong the translations of Aristotle's treatises *_On the +Categories_, and *_On Interpretation_, and of *Porphyry's _Isagoge_, as +well as of voluminous Greek commentaries on these books; the version of +the *Grammar of Dionysius Thrax and an incomplete Euclid. The translator +was one David called the Invincible, who also wrote monophysite tracts. +At the end of this 7th century one Philo of Tirak is supposed to have +made the version of the *History of Socrates, unless indeed it was made +earlier. To this century also seems to belong the Armenian version of a +*history of the Iberians, by Djuansher, a work full of valuable +information. + +The early 8th century was a time of great literary activity. Gregory +Asheruni wrote an important *commentary on the Jerusalem Lectionary, and +his friend *John the catholicus (717-728) commentaries on the other +liturgical works of his church; he also collected all existing canon +law, Greek or Armenian, respected in his church, wrote *against the +Paulicians and Docetae, and composed many beautiful hymns. *Leoncius the +priest has left a history of the first caliphs, and Stephanus, bishop of +Siunik, translated the *controversial works of Cyril of Alexandria +(whose _Glaphyra_ and commentaries, however, seem to have been +translated at an earlier period). He also translated the works of +Dionysius the Areopagite, commented on the Armenian breviary and wrote +hymns. + +In the 9th century Zachariah, catholicus, the correspondent of Photius, +wrote many eloquent homilies for the various church feasts. Shapuh +Bagratuni wrote a history of his age, now lost. Mashtotz, catholicus, +collected in one volume the Armenian rituals. + +In the 10th century (c. 925) the catholicus John VI. issued his *history +of Armenia, and Thomas Artsruni a *history of his clan carried up to the +year 936. Ananias of Mok (943-965) wrote a great work against the +Paulicians, unfortunately lost. Chosroes wrote a *commentary on the +eucharistic rites and breviary, *Mesrop a history of Nerses the Great; +*Stephen of Asolik wrote a history of the world, and a commentary on +Jeremiah; *Gregory of Narek his famous meditations and hymns; Samuel +Kamrdjtsoretzi a commentary on the Lectionary based on Gregory Asheruni. + +In the 11th century the catholicus Gregory translated many Acts of +Martyrs, and John Kozerhn wrote a history, now lost, as well as a work +on the Armenian calendar; Stephen Asolik a *history of Armenia up to the +year 1004; *Aristaces of Lastiverd a valuable history of the conquest of +Armenia by the Seljuk caliphs. We may also mention a *monophysite work +against the Greek doctor Theopistus by Paul of Taron; *letters and poems +of Gregory Magistros, who also was the translator of the *_Laws, +Timaeus_ and other dialogues of Plato. + +The 12th century saw many remarkable writers, mostly in Cilician +Armenia, viz. Nerses the Graceful (d. 1165), author of an *_Elegy_ on +the taking of Edessa, of *voluminous hymns, of long *Pastoral Letters +and Synodal orations of value for the historian of eastern churches. +*Samuel of Ani composed a chronicle up to 1179. Nerses of Lambron, +archbishop of Tarsus, left a *Synodal oration, a *Commentary on the +liturgy, &c., and his contemporary Gregory of Tlay an *_Elegy_ on the +capture of Jerusalem, and various *dogmatic works. In this century the +*history of Michael the Syrian was translated; Ignatius and Sargis +composed *commentaries on Luke and *the catholic epistles, and *Matthew +of Edessa a valuable history of the years 952-1136, continued up to +1176 by Gregory the priest. Mechithar (Mekhitar) Kosh (d. 1207) wrote an +elegant *_Book of Fables_, and compiled a *corpus of civil and canon law +(partly from Byzantine codes). + +In the 13th century the following works or authors are to be +noticed:--*history of Kiriakos of Ganzak, which contains much about the +Mongols, Georgians and Albanians; *Malakia the monk's history of the +Tatars up to 1272; *Chronicle of Mechithar of Ani (fragmentary); +*Vahram's rhymed chronicle of the kings of Lesser Armenia; *history of +the world, by Vartan, up to 1269. In this century mostly falls the +redaction of a large fable literature, recently edited in three volumes +by Professor Marr of St Petersburg. + +14th century: *history of Siunik, by Stephen Orbelian, archbishop of +that province 1287-1304; *Sempat's chronicle of Lesser Armenia +(952-1274), carried on by a continuator to 1331; *Mechithar of Airivanq, +a chronography; *Hethoum's account of the Tatars, and chronography of +the years 1076-1307. John of Orotn (d. 1388) compiled commentaries on +John's gospel and the Paulines, and wrote homilies and monophysite +works; his disciple Gregory of Dathev (b. 1340) compiled a *_Summa +theologiae_ called the _Book of Questions_, in the style of the _Summa_ +of Aquinas, which had been translated into Armenian c. 1330, as were a +little later the *_Summa_ of Albertus and works of other schoolmen. + +15th century: *_History of Tamerlane_, by Thomas of Medsoph, carried up +to 1447. + +17th century, Araqel of Tabriz wrote a *history of the Persian invasions +of Armenia in the years 1602-1661. + +In the above list are not included a number of medical, astrological, +calendarial and philological or lexicographic works, mostly written +during or since the Cilician or crusading epoch. The hymns used in +Armenian worship rarely go back to the 5th century; and they were still +few in number and brief in length when Nerses the Graceful and his +contemporaries more than doubled their number and bulk in the 12th +century. Most Armenian poems embody acrostics, and their poets began to +rhyme in the 8th century or thereabouts. Since the 15th century a +certain number of profane poets have arisen, whose work is less jejune +on the whole than that of the hymn and canticle writers of an earlier +age. Gregory Magistros (d. 1058) abridged the whole of the Old and New +Testaments in a *rhyming poem, and set a fashion to later writers. Such +works as *_Barlaam and Josaphat_. the *_History of the Seven Sages_, the +*_Wisdom of Ahikar_, the *_Tale of the City of Bronze_, were freely +turned into verse in the 13th and following centuries. + +It will be realized from the above enumeration of works written in each +century that Armenian literature was purely monkish. There was no epic +or romance literature; although this was not lacking in the contiguous +country of Georgia, where there seem to have always been knights and +ladies willing to read and keep alive a literature of poetry and +narrative, not altogether suitable for monks, and more akin to Persian +literature. + +Other forms of faith than the orthodox had a hold in Armenia, +particularly the Nestorian and the Manichean. Sundry works of Mani were +translated in the year 588, but are lost. Perhaps certain works of +Diodore of Tarsus survive, but the orthodox monks were so vigilant that +there is little chance of finding any other monuments than those of the +stereotyped orthodoxy. + +The 16th century saw the first books printed in Armenian. A press was +set up at Venice in 1565, and the psalms and breviary were printed. In +1584 the Roman propaganda began its issue of Armenian books with a +Gregorian calendar. In the 17th century presses were working at +Lembourg, Milan, Paris, Isfahan (where in 1640 a large folio of the +_Lives of the Fathers of the Desert_ appeared), in Leghorn, Amsterdam +(where in 1664 the first edition of the Hymn-book, in 1666 the first +Bible, and in 1667 the first Ritual were printed), Marseilles, +Constantinople, Leipzig and Padua. + +The press which has done most in printing Armenian authors is that of +the Mechitharists of Venice. Here in 1836 was issued a magnificent +thesaurus of the Armenian language, with the Latin and Greek equivalents +of each word. At that time there was no dictionary of any language and +literature to be compared with this for exhaustiveness and accuracy. +There are now Armenian presses all over the world, reprinting old books +or issuing new works, often translations of modern writers, English, +French, Russian and German. + +The chief collections of old Armenian MSS. are: at the convent of +*Echmiadzin at Valarshapat; at Stambul in the library of the fathers of +St Anthony; at Venice in the Mechitharist convent of San Lazaro; at the +*Mechitharist convent in Vienna; in the *Royal library at Vienna; in the +*Paris Bibliotheque Nationale; in the Vatican library; in the British +Museum; in the *Bodleian; in the Rylands library; in the *Berlin and +*Munich libraries; *in Tubingen; in St Petersburg, and in the *Lazarev +institute at Moscow; at New Joulfa, the Armenian suburb of Isfahan. +Private collections have been made by Mr Rendel Harris in Birmingham +(presented to the university of Leiden); at Parham and elsewhere. A +printed catalogue exists of those marked with an asterisk. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Combefis, _Historia Monothelitarum_ (Paris, 1648); + Arshak Ter Mikelian, _Die armen. Kirche, iv. bis zum xiii. + Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1892); H. Gelzer, "Die Anfange der armenischen + Kirche" in the _Berichte der Koniglich. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der + Wissenschaften: Historisch-philologische Classe_ (1895), p. 171; + Gutschmid, _Kleine Schriften_ (Leipzig, 1892), t. iii.; Langlois, + _Collection d'historiens armeniens_ (Paris, 1867) (the translations + often careless); E.W. Brooks, _The Syriac Chronicle_ known as + _Zachariah of Mitylene_ (London, 1899), p. 24; Dulaurier, _Recherches + sur la chronologie armenienne_ (Paris, 1859); Agop Manandian, + _Beitrage zur albanischen Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1897); G. Owsepian, + _Die Entstehungsgeschichte des Monotheletismus_ (Leipzig, 1897); + Cardinal Angelo Mai, _Nova SS. patrum bibliotheca_, 6 vols. (Rome, + 1844-1871), vol. ii. contains Latin version of Armenian canons; + Hergenrother, _Photius_ (Regensburg, 1867); Tchamchian, _History of + Armenia_ (in Armenian at Venice and English abridged translation + entitled _M. Chamich_ by John Audall, Calcutta, 1827); Domini Joannis + Onziensis, _Opera Latine_ (Venice, 1834); Nersetis Clajensis, _Opera + omnia Latine_ (Venice, 1833); A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus in the _Recueil + de la societe orthodoxe de Palestine_ (St Petersburg, 1892) (Armenian + correspondence with Photius translated); Enthymius Zigabenus, + _Panoplia, Patrol. Gr._ vol. 130, col. 1173; E. Dulaurier, _Histoire + de l'eglise armen._ (Paris, 1857); le Quien, _Oriens christianus_; + Mansi, _Concilia_, vol. 25; Steph. Azarian, _Ecclesiae Armenae + Traditio_ (Rome, 1870); A. Balgy, _Historia doctrinae catholicae inter + Armenos_ (Vienna, 1878); Clemens Galanus, _Conciliatio Ecclesiae + Armenae cum Romana_ (Rome, 1690); L. Alishan, _Sissouan, contree de + l'Armenie_ (Venice, 1893), in Armenian, but also in French + translation; _Recueil d'actes relatifs aux Armeniens_ (3 vols., + Moscow, 1833); St Martin, _Memoires historiques sur l'Armenie_ (Paris, + 1818); V. Langlois, _Voyage dans la Cilicie_ (Paris, 1861); H.G.O. + Dwight, _Christianity in Turkey_ (London, 1854); De Damas, _Coup + d'oeil sur l'Armenie_ (Lyon, 1887); H.F.B. Lynch, _Armenia_ (2 + vols., London, 1902); J. Issaverdens, _Armenia, Ecclesiastical + History_ (Venice, 1875); E. Dulaurier, _Historiens armeniens des + Croisades_ (Paris); Giovanni de Serpos, _Compendio Storico_ (Venice, + 1786); Garabed Chahnazarian, _Esquisse de l'histoire de l'Armenie_ + (Paris, 1856); Gelzer, "Armenien" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie + fur protestantische Theologie_ (ed. 3, Leipzig, 1897); Hefele, _Hist. + of Councils_, vols. 3 and 9; F. Neve, _L'Armenie chretienne_ (Paris); + P. Hunanian, _Histoire des canciles d'Orient_ (Vienna, 1847); Gr. + Chalathianz, _Apocryphes_ (Moscow, 1897), and other works; Brosset, + _Collection d'historiens armeniens_ (St Petersburg, 1874), and + numerous other works by the same author; J. Catergian, _De fidei + symbolo quo Armenii utuntur_ (Vienna, 1893); Ricaut, _The present + state of the Greek and Armenian Churches_ (London, 1679); H. + Denzinger, _Ritus orientalium_ (Wurzburg, 1863); Fred. C. Conybeare, + _Rituale Armenorum_ (Oxford, 1905); F.E. Brightman, _Eastern + Liturgies_ (Oxford, 1896); P. Vetter, _Chosroae magni explicatio + missae_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1880); L. Petit, articles on Armenian + religious history, councils, literature, creed and discipline in + _Diction. de theologie catholique_, cols. 1888-1968; F.C. Conybeare, + "The Armenian canons of St Sahak" in the _American Journal of + Theology_ (Chicago, 1898), p. 828; C.F. Neumann, _Geschichte der + armenischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1836); Simon Weber, _Die katholische + Kirche in Armenien_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1903); Sukias Somal, + _Quadro della Storia Letteraria di Armenia_ (Venice, 1829); M.V. + Ermoni, "L'Armenie" in _Revue de l'orient chretien_ (for year 1896); + F. Tournebize, "Histoire de l'Armenie" (_ib._ 1902-3-4-5); R.P.D. + Girard, "Les Madag" (_ib._ for year 1902); H. Hubschmann, _Armenische + Studien_ and _Grammatik_ (Leipzig, 1883 and 1895). Grammars by + Petermann (in _Porta Orientalium Linguarum_ series), by Prof. Meillet + of Paris, by Prof. N. Marr of St Petersburg (in Russian), by Joseph + Karst (of the Cilician dialect). Texts of most of the Armenian fathers + and historians have been printed by the Mechitharists of San Lazaro, + Venice, and are readily procurable at their convent. (F. C. C.) + + + + +ARMENTIERES, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on +the Lys, 13 m. W.N.W. of Lille on the Northern railway from that city to +Dunkirk. Pop. (1906) 25,408. The chief building is the hotel de ville +with a 17th-century belfry. There are communal colleges for girls and +boys, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a national +technical school. The town is an important centre for the spinning and +weaving of flax and cotton; bleaching, dyeing and the manufacture of +machinery are among the other industries. Its industrial prosperity +dates from the middle ages, when, however, woollen, not cotton, goods +were the staple product. + + + + +ARMET (diminutive of Fr. _arme_), a form of helmet, which was developed +out of existing forms in the latter part of the 15th century. It was +round in shape, and often had a narrow ridge or comb along the top. It +had a pivoted or hinged vizor and nosepiece, and complete chin, neck and +cheek protection, closely connected with the gorget. It is distinguished +from the basinet by its roundness, and by the fact that it protects the +neck and chin by strong plates, instead of a "camail" or loose collar of +mail; from the salade and heaume by its close fit and skull-cap shape; +and from the various forms of vizored burgonets by the absence of the +projecting brim. It remained in use until the final abandonment of the +complete closed head-piece. + + + + +ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ, COUNT (1757-1814), son of Charles II.'s +general, Carl Gustaf Armfelt, was born in Finland on the 31st of March +1757. In 1774 he became an ensign in the guards, but his frivolity +provoked the displeasure of Gustavus III. and he thought it prudent to +go abroad. Subsequently, however, (1780) he met the king again at Spa +and completely won the monarch's favour by his natural amiability, +intelligence and brilliant social gifts. Henceforth his fortune was +made. At first he was the _maitre des plaisirs_ of the Swedish court, +but it was not long before more serious affairs were entrusted to him. +He took part in the negotiations with Catherine II. (1783) and with the +Danish government (1787), and during the Russian war of 1788-90 he was +one of the king's most trusted and active counsellors. He also displayed +great valour in the field. In 1788 when the Danes unexpectedly invaded +Sweden and threatened Gothenburg, it was Armfelt who under the king's +directions organized the Dalecarlian levies and led them to victory. He +remained absolutely faithful to Gustavus when nearly the whole of the +nobility fell away from him; brilliantly distinguished himself in the +later phases of the Russian war; and was the Swedish plenipotentiary at +the conclusion of the peace of Verela. During the last years of Gustavus +III. his influence was paramount, though he protested against his +master's headstrong championship of the Bourbons. On his deathbed +Gustavus III. (1792) committed the care of his infant son to Armfelt and +appointed him a member of the council of regency; but the anti-Gustavian +duke-regent Charles sent Armfelt as Swedish ambassador to Naples to get +rid of him. From Naples Armfelt communicated with Catherine II., urging +her to bring about by means of a military demonstration a change in the +Swedish government in favour of the Gustavians. The plot was discovered +by the regent's spies, and Armfelt only escaped from the man-of-war sent +to Naples to seize him, with the assistance of Queen Caroline. He now +fled to Russia, where he was interned at Kaluga, while at home he was +condemned to confiscation and death as a traitor, and his unjustly +accused mistress Magdalena Rudenschold was publicly whipped to gratify +an old grudge of the regent's. When Gustavus IV. attained his majority, +Armfelt was completely rehabilitated and sent as Swedish ambassador to +Vienna (1802), but was obliged to quit that post two years later for +sharply attacking the Austrian government's attitude towards Bonaparte. +From 1805 to 1807 he was commander-in-chief of the Swedish forces in +Pomerania, where he displayed great ability and retarded the conquest of +the duchy as long as it was humanly possible. On his return home, he was +appointed commander-in-chief on the Norwegian frontier, but could do +nothing owing to the _ordres, contre-ordres et desordres_ of his lunatic +master. He would have nothing to say to the revolutionaries who in 1809 +deposed Gustavus IV. and his whole family. Armfelt was the most +courageous of the supporters of the crown prince Gustavus, and when +Bernadotte was elected resolved to retire to Finland. His departure was +accelerated by a decree of expulsion as a conspirator (1811). Over the +impressionable Alexander I. of Russia, Armfelt exercised almost as great +an influence as Czartoryski, especially as regards Finnish affairs. He +contributed more than any one else to the erection of the grand-duchy +into an autonomous state, and was its first and best governor-general. +The plan of the Russian defensive campaigns is, with great probability, +also attributed to him, and he gained Alexander over to the plan of +uniting Norway with Sweden. He died at Tsarskoe Selo on the 19th of +August 1814. + + See Robert Nisbet Bain, _Gustavus III._ vol. ii. (London, 1895); Elof + Tegner, _Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt_ (Stockholm, 1883-1887). (R. N. B.) + + + + +ARMIDALE, a town in Sandon county, New South Wales, Australia, 313 m. by +rail N. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 4249. It lies at an elevation of 3313 +ft., in a picturesque mountainous district, for the most part pastoral +and agricultural, though it contains some alluvial gold diggings. +Antimony is found in large quantities near the town. Armidale is a +cathedral town, being the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and belonging +to the joint Anglican diocese of Grafton; Armidale St Peter's, the +Anglican cathedral, and St Mary's, the Roman Catholic, are both fine +buildings. The town is the centre of great educational activity, its +schools including the New England girls' school, St Patrick's college, +the high school, the Ursuline convent and state schools. Armidale became +a municipality in 1863. + + + + +ARMILLA, ARMIL or ARMILLARY SPHERE (from the Lat. _armilla_, a +bracelet), an instrument used in astronomy. In its simplest form, +consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, the _armilla_ is +one of the most ancient of astronomical instruments. Slightly developed, +it was crossed by another ring fixed in the plane of the meridian. The +first was an equinoctial, the second a solstitial armilla. Shadows were +used as indices of the sun's position, in combination with angular +divisions. When several rings or circles were combined representing the +great circles of the heavens, the instrument became an armillary sphere. +Armillae are said to have been in early use in China. Eratosthenes +(276-196 B.C.) used most probably a solstitial armilla for measuring the +obliquity of the ecliptic. Hipparchus (160-125 B.C.) probably used an +armillary sphere of four rings. Ptolemy (c. A.D. 107-161) describes his +instrument in the _Syntaxis_ (book v. chap, i.), and it is of great +interest as an example of the armillary sphere passing into the +spherical astrolabe. It consisted of a graduated circle inside which +another could slide, carrying two small tubes diametrically opposite, +the instrument being kept vertical by a plumb-line. + +[Illustration: From M. Blundeville's _Treatise of the first principles +of Cosmography and specially of the Spheare._ + +Armillary Sphere. A.D. 1636.] + +No material advance was made on Ptolemy's instrument until Tycho Brahe, +whose elaborate armillary spheres passing into astrolabes are figured in +his _Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica_. The armillary sphere survives +as useful for teaching, and may be described as a skeleton celestial +globe, the series of rings representing the great circles of the +heavens, and revolving on an axis within a horizon. With the earth as +centre such a sphere is known as Ptolemaic; with the sun as centre, as +Copernican. + +The designer of the instrument shown no doubt thought that the north +pole might suitably have the same ornament as was used to mark N. on the +compass card, and so surmounted it with the _fleur-de-lys_, +traditionally chosen for that purpose on the compass by Flavio Gioja in +honour of Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily and Naples. + +Armillary spheres occur in many old sculptures, paintings and +engravings; and from these sources we know that they were made for +suspension, for resting on the ground or on a table, for holding by a +short handle, or either for holding or for resting on a stand. + + AUTHORITIES.--Tycho Brahe, _Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica; M. + Blundeville, his Exercises_; N. Bion, _Traite des instrumens de + mathematique_; also _L'Usage des globes celestes_; Sedillot, _Memoire + sur les instrumens_; J.B. Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie + ancienne_; R. Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_. (M. L. H.) + + + + +ARMINIUS, the Latinized form of the name of HERMANN, or more probably +ARMIN (17 B.C.-A.D. 21), the German national hero. He was a son of a +certain Segimer, a prince of the tribe of the Cherusci, and in early +life served with distinction as an officer in the Roman armies. +Returning to his own people he found them chafing under the yoke of the +Roman governor, Quintilius Varus; he entertained for them hopes of +freedom, and cautiously inducing neighbouring tribes to join his +standard he led the rebellion which broke out in the autumn of A.D. 9. +Heavily laden with baggage the troops of Varus were decoyed into the +fastnesses of the Teutoburger Wald, and there attacked, the completeness +of the barbarian victory being attested by the virtual annihilation of +three legions, by the voluntary death of Varus, and by the terror which +reigned in Rome when the news of the defeat became known, a terror which +found utterance in the emperor's despairing cry: "Varus, give me back my +legions!" Then in A.D. 15 Germanicus Caesar led the Romans against +Arminius, and captured his wife, Thusnelda. An indecisive battle was +fought in the Teutoburger Wald, where Germanicus narrowly escaped the +fate of Varus, and in the following year Arminius was defeated. The +hero's later years were spent in fighting against Marbod, prince of the +Marcomanni, and in disputes with his own people occasioned probably by +his desire to found a powerful kingdom. He was murdered in A.D. 21. + +In 1875 a great monument to Arminius was completed. This stands on the +Grotenburg mountain near Detmold. Klopstock and other poets have used +his exploits as material for dramas. + + Much discussion has taken place with regard to the exact spot in the + Teutoburger Wald where the great battle between Arminius and Varus was + fought. There is an immense literature on this subject, and the + following may be consulted:--T. Mommsen, _Die Ortlichkeit der + Varusschlacht_ (1885); E. Meyer, _Untersuchungen uber die Schlacht im + Teutoburger Walde_ (1893); A. Wilms, _Die Schlacht im Teutoburger + Walde_ (1899); F. Knoke, _Das Schlachtfeld im Teutoburger Walde_ + (1899); E. Dunzelmann, _Der Schauplatz der Varusschlacht_ (1889); and + P. Hofer, _Die Varusschlacht_ (1888). For more general accounts of + Arminius see: Tacitus, _Annals_, edited by H. Furneaux (1884-1891); O. + Kemmer, _Arminius_ (1893); F.W. Fischer, _Armin und die Romer_ + (1893); W. Uhl, _Das Portrait des Arminius_ (1898); and F. Knoke, _Die + Kriegszuge des Germanicus in Deutschland_ (1887). + + + + +ARMINIUS, JACOBUS (1560-1609), Dutch theologian, author of the modified +reformed theology that receives its name of Arminian from him, was born +at Oudewater, South Holland, on the 10th of October 1560. Arminius is a +Latinized form of his patronymic Hermanns or Hermansen. His father, +Hermann Jakobs, a cutler, died while he was an infant, leaving a widow +and three children. Theodorus Aemilius, a priest, who had turned +Protestant, adopting Jakob, sent him to school at Utrecht, but died when +his charge was in his fifteenth year. Rudolf Snellius (Snel van Roijen, +1546-1613), the mathematician, a native of Oudewater, then a professor +at Marburg, happening at the time to visit his early home, met the boy, +saw promise in him and undertook his maintenance and education. But +hardly was he settled at Marburg when the news came that the Spaniards +had besieged and taken Oudewater, and murdered its inhabitants almost +without exception. Arminius hurried home, but only to find all his +relatives slain. In February the same year (1575), the university of +Leiden had been founded, and thither, by the kindness of friends, +Arminius was sent to study theology. The six years he remained at Leiden +(1576-1582) were years of active and innovating thought in Holland. The +War of Independence had started conflicting tendencies in men's minds. +To some it seemed to illustrate the necessity of the state tolerating +only one religion, but to others the necessity of the state tolerating +all. Dirck Coornhert argued, in private conferences and public +disputations, that it was wrong to punish heretics, and his great +opponents were, as a rule, the ministers, who maintained that there was +no room for more than one religion in a state. Caspar Koolhaes, the +heroic minister of Leiden--its first lecturer, too, in divinity--pleaded +against a too rigid uniformity, for such an agreement on "fundamentals" +as had allowed Reformed, Lutherans and Anabaptists to unite. Leiden had +been happy, too, in its first professors. There taught in theology +Guillaume Feuguieres or Feuguereius (d. 1613), a mild divine, who had +written a treatise on persuasion in religion, urging that as to it "men +could be led, not driven"; Lambert Danaeus, who deserves remembrance as +the first to discuss Christian ethics scientifically, apart from +dogmatics; Johannes Drusius, the Orientalist, one of the most +enlightened and advanced scholars of his day, settled later at Franeker; +Johann Kolmann the younger, best known by his saying that high Calvinism +made God "both a tyrant and an executioner." Snellius, Arminius's old +patron, now removed to Leiden, expounded the Ramist philosophy, and did +his best to start his students on the search after truth, unimpeded by +the authority of Aristotle. Under these men and influences, Arminius +studied with signal success; and the promise he gave induced the +merchants' gild of Amsterdam to bear the further expenses of his +education. In 1582 he went to Geneva, studied there awhile under +Theodore Beza, but had soon, owing to his active advocacy of the Ramist +philosophy, to remove to Basel. After a short but brilliant career there +he turned to Geneva, studied for three years, travelled, in 1586, in +Italy, heard Giacomo Zarabella (1533-1589) lecture on philosophy in +Padua, visited Rome, and, open-minded enough to see its good as well as +its evil, was suspected by the stern Dutch Calvinists of "popish" +leanings. Next year he was called to Amsterdam, and there, in 1588, was +ordained. He soon acquired the reputation of being a good preacher and +faithful pastor. He was commissioned to organize the educational system +of the city, and is said to have done it well. He greatly distinguished +himself by fidelity to duty during a plague that devastated Amsterdam in +1602. In 1603 he was called, in succession to Franz Junius, to a +theological professorship at Leiden, which he held till his death on the +19th of October 1609. + +Arminius is best known as the founder of the anti-Calvinistic school in +Reformed theology, which created the Remonstrant Church in Holland (see +REMONSTRANTS), and contributed to form the Arminian tendency or party in +England. He was a man of mild and liberal spirit, broadened by varied +culture, constitutionally averse from narrow views and enforced +uniformity. He lived in a period of severe systematizing. The Reformed +strengthened itself against the Roman Catholic theology by working +itself, on the one hand, into vigorous logical consistency, and +supporting itself, on the other, on the supreme authority of the +Scriptures. Calvin's first principle, the absolute sovereignty of God, +had been so applied as to make the divine decree determine alike the +acts and the destinies of men; and his formal principle had been so +construed as to invest his system with the authority of the source +whence it professed to have been drawn. Calvinism had become, towards +the close of the 16th century, supreme in Holland, but the very rigour +of the uniformity it exacted provoked a reaction. Coornhert could not +plead for the toleration of heretics without assailing the dominant +Calvinism, and so he opposed a conditional to its unconditional +predestination. The two ministers of Delft, who had debated the point +with him, had, the better to turn his arguments, descended from the +supralapsarian to the infralapsarian position, i.e. made the divine +decree, instead of precede and determine, succeed the Fall. This seemed +to the high Calvinists of Holland a grave heresy. Arminius, fresh from +Geneva, familiar with the dialectics of Beza, appeared to many the man +able to speak the needed word, and so, in 1589, he was simultaneously +invited by the ecclesiastical court of Amsterdam to refute Coornhert, +and by Martin Lydius, professor at Franeker, to combat the two +infralapsarian ministers of Delft. Thus led to confront the questions of +necessity and free will, his own views became unsettled, and the further +he pursued his inquiries the more he was inclined to assert the freedom +of man and limit the range of the unconditional decrees of God. This +change became gradually more apparent in his preaching and in his +conferences with his clerical associates, and occasioned much +controversy in the ecclesiastical courts where, however, he successfully +defended his position. The controversy was embittered and the +differences sharpened by his appointment to the professorship at Leiden. +He had as colleague Franz Gomarus, a strong supralapsarian, perfervid, +irrepressible; and their collisions, personal, official, political, +tended to develop and define their respective positions. + +Arminius died, worn out by uncongenial controversy and ecclesiastical +persecution, before his system had been elaborated into the logical +consistency it attained in the hands of his celebrated successor, Simon +Episcopius; but though inchoate in detail, it was in its principles +clear and coherent enough. These may be thus stated: + +1. The decree of God is, when it concerns His own actions, absolute, but +when it concerns man's, conditional, i.e. the decree relative to the +Saviour to be appointed and the salvation to be provided is absolute, +but the decree relative to the persons saved or condemned is made to +depend on the acts--belief and repentance in the one case, unbelief and +impenitence in the other--of the persons themselves. + +2. The providence or government of God, while sovereign, is exercised in +harmony with the nature of the creatures governed, i.e. the sovereignty +of God is so exercised as to be compatible with the freedom of man. + +3. Man is by original nature, through the assistance of divine grace, +free, able to will and perform the right; but is in his fallen state, of +and by himself, unable to do so; he needs to be regenerated in all his +powers before he can do what is good and pleasing to God. + +4. Divine grace originates, maintains and perfects all the good in man, +so much so that he cannot, though regenerate, conceive, will or do any +good thing without it. + +5. The saints possess, by the grace of the Holy Spirit, sufficient +strength to persevere to the end in spite of sin and the flesh, but may +so decline from sound doctrine as to cause divine grace to be +ineffectual. + +6. Every believer may be assured of his own salvation. + +7. It is possible for a regenerate man to live without sin. + +Arminius's works are mostly occasional treatises drawn from him by +controversial emergencies, but they everywhere exhibit a calm, +well-furnished, undogmatic and progressive mind. He was essentially an +amiable man, who hated the zeal for an impossible orthodoxy that +constrained "the church to institute a search after crimes which have +not betrayed an existence, yea, and to drag into open contentions those +who are meditating no evil." His friend Peter Bertius, who pronounced +his funeral oration, closed it with these words: "There lived a man whom +it was not possible for those who knew him sufficiently to esteem; those +who entertained no esteem for him are such as never knew him well enough +to appreciate his merits." + + The works of Arminius (in Latin) were published in a single quarto + volume at Leiden in 1629, at Frankfort in 1631 and 1635. Two volumes + of an English translation, with copious notes, by James Nichols, were + published at London, 1825-1828; three volumes (complete) at Buffalo, + 1853. A life was written by Caspar Brandt, son of Gerard Brandt, the + historian of the Dutch reformation, and published in 1724; republished + and annotated by J.L. Mosheim in 1725; and translated into English by + the Rev. John Guthrie, 1854. James Nichols also wrote a life (London, + 1843). + + + + +ARMISTICE (from Lat. _arma_, arms, and _sistere_, to stop), a suspension +of hostilities by mutual agreement between two nations at war, or their +respective forces. An armistice may be either general or particular; in +the first case there is a complete cessation of hostile operations in +every part of the dominions of the belligerent powers; in the second +there is merely a temporary truce between two contending armies, or +between a besieged fortress and the force besieging it. Such a temporary +truce, when for a very limited period and for a special purpose, e.g. +the collection of the wounded and the burial of the dead, is termed a +_suspension of arms_. A general armistice cannot be concluded by the +commanders-in-chief unless special authority has been previously +delegated to them by their respective governments; otherwise any +arrangement entered into by them requires subsequent ratification by the +supreme powers of the states. A partial truce may be concluded by the +officers of the respective powers, without any special authority from +their governments, wherever, from the nature and extent of the commands +they exercise, their duties could not be efficiently discharged without +their possession of such a power. The conduct of belligerent parties +during an armistice is usually regulated in modern warfare by express +agreement between the parties, but where this is not the case the +following general conditions may be laid down. (1) Each party may do, +within the limits prescribed by the truce, whatever he could have done +in time of peace. For example, he can raise troops, collect stores, +receive reinforcements and fortify places that are not actually in a +state of siege. (2) Neither party can take advantage of the armistice to +do what he could not have done had military operations continued. Thus +he cannot throw provisions or reinforcements into a besieged town, and +neither besiegers nor besieged are at liberty to repair their +fortifications or erect new works. (3) All things contained in places +the possession of which was contested, must remain in the state in which +they were before the armistice began. Any infringement by either party +of the conditions of the truce entitles the other to recommence hostile +operations without previous intimation. + + + + +ARMOIRE, the French name (cf. ALMERY) given to a tall movable cupboard, +or "wardrobe," with one or more doors. It has varied considerably in +shape and size, and the decoration of its doors and sides has faithfully +represented mutations of fashion and modifications of use. It was +originally exceedingly massive and found its chief decoration in +elaborate hinges and locks of beaten iron. The finer ecclesiastical +armoires or aumbries which have come down to us--used in churches for +the safe custody of vestments, eucharistic vessels, reliquaries and +other precious objects--are usually painted, sometimes even upon the +interior, with sacred subjects or with incidents from the lives of the +saints. The cathedrals of Bayeux and Noyon contain famous examples; the +most typical English one is in York minster. By the end of the 14th +century, when the carpenter and the wood-carver had acquired a better +mastery of their material, the taste for painted surfaces appears to +have given place to the vogue of carving, and the simple rectangular +panels gradually became sculptured with a simple motive, such as the +linen-fold or parchment patterns. In the treasury of St Germain +l'Auxerrois the ends of the 15th-century armoires are treated in this +way. In that and the two following centuries the keys and the +escutcheons of the locks became highly ornamental; usually in forged +iron, they were occasionally made of more precious metals. By slow +degrees the shape of this receptacle changed--from breadth was evolved +height, and the tall form of armoire became characteristic. The +Renaissance exercised a notable effect upon this, as upon so many other +varieties of furniture. It became less obviously and aggressively a +thing of utility; its proportions shrank from the massive to the +elegant; its artistic effectiveness was vastly enhanced by its division +into an upper and a lower part. Enriched with columns and pilasters, its +panels carved with mythology, its canopied niches filled with sculptured +statuettes, and terminating with a rich cornice and perhaps a broken +pediment, it was widely removed in appearance, if not in purpose, from +the uncompromising iron-mounted receptacle of earlier generations. +During the 16th century, when the surging impulses of the Renaissance +had died away, the armoire relapsed into plainness, its proportions +increased, and it was again constructed in one piece. Ere long, however, +it grew more sumptuous than ever. Boulle encrusted it with marqueterie +from designs by Berain; it glowed with _amorini_, with the torches and +arrows of Cupid, with the garlands which he weaves for his captives, and +when allusiveness left a corner vacant, it was filled with arabesques in +ebony or ivory, in brass or white metal. While the royal palaces and the +hotels of the great nobility were filled with those costly splendours, +the ordinary cabinetmaker continued to construct his modest pieces, and +by the middle of the 18th century the armoire was found in every French +house, ample in width and high in proportion to the lofty rooms of the +period. It is not to be supposed that so useful a piece of furniture was +confined to France. It was used, more or less, throughout a considerable +part of Europe, but it was distinctively Gallic nevertheless, and never +became thoroughly acclimatized elsewhere until about the beginning of +the 19th century, when it developed into the glass-fronted wardrobe +which is now an essential detail in the plenishing of the bed-chamber, +not merely in France and England, but in many other countries. The +_armoire a glace_ was known and occasionally made in France as far back +as the middle of the 18th century, and almost the earliest mention of it +connects it with the scandalous relations of the Marechal de Richelieu +and the beautiful _fermiere generale_, Mme de la Popeliniere, who had +one made to mask a secret door. In the conventional and not very +attractive wardrobe of commerce it is difficult to descry the gracious +characteristics of the armoire of the Renaissance or the 17th century, +and it is not altogether surprising that Theodore de Banville should +have condemned one of the most solidly useful of household necessaries +as a "hideous monster." + + + + +ARMORICA (AREMORICA), the Roman name, derived from two Celtic words +meaning the "seaside" (_ar_, on, and _mor_, sea), for the land of the +Armorici, roughly the peninsula of Brittany. At the time of the Roman +advance on Gaul there were five principal tribes in Armorica, the +Namneti, the Veneti, the Osismii, the Curiosolitae and the Redones. It +was subdued by Caesar, who entirely destroyed the seafaring tribe of its +south coast, the Veneti. Under the Empire it formed part of the province +of Gallia Lugudunensis (Lugdunensis). It contained hardly any towns, +though many large country houses, and was perhaps less Romanized than +the rest of Gaul. In and after the later part of the 5th century it +received many Celtic immigrants from the British Isles, fleeing (it is +said) from the Saxons; and the Celtic dialect which the Bretons still +speak is thought to owe its origin to these immigrants. (See further +BRITTANY.) + + + + +ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901), American merchant and +philanthropist, was born in Stockbridge, New York, on the 16th of May +1832. He was educated at Cazenovia Academy, Cazenovia, N.Y., worked for +several years on his father's farm, and in 1852 with a small party went +overland to California, a large part of the journey being made on foot. +Here during the next four years he laid the foundations of his fortune. +In 1856 he became associated with his friend, Frederick S. Miles, in a +wholesale grocery and commission business at Milwaukee. In 1863 he +became the head of the firm of Armour, Plankington & Co., pork packers, +whose headquarters were at Milwaukee. He also obtained a large interest +in the firm H.O. Armour & Co., which was founded by his brother, Herman +Ossian Armour (1837-1901), and which, starting as a grain commission +business, in 1868 established also a large pork-packing plant. Of this +firm, the name of which was changed to Armour & Co. in 1870, he became +the head in 1875, and thereafter the business made such rapid progress +that in 1901 as many as 11,000 hands were employed. Besides contributing +to many charitable enterprises, Armour founded the Armour Institute of +Technology at Chicago in 1892 and the Armour Flats in Chicago, built for +the purpose of supplying at a low rental good homes for working men and +their families. He also contributed liberally to the Armour Mission in +Chicago, which was founded in 1881 by his brother, Joseph Armour. At the +time of his death, on the 6th of January 1901, Philip D. Armour's +private fortune was supposed to exceed $50,000,000. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2 SLICE 5 *** + +***** This file should be named 34116.txt or 34116.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/1/1/34116/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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