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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 5 + "Arculf" to "Armour, Philip" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 22, 2010 [EBook #34116] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2 SLICE 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME II SLICE V<br /><br /> +Arculf to Armour, Philip</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ARCULF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">ARIMASPI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ARDASHIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">ARIMINUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ARDEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">ARIOBARZANES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ARDEBIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">ARION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ARDÈCHE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">ARIOSTO, LODOVICO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ARDEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">ARISTAENETUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ARDEN, FOREST OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">ARISTAEUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ARDENNES</a> (district)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">ARISTAGORAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ARDENNES</a> (department of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">ARISTANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ARDGLASS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">ARISTARCHUS</a> (of Samos)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ARDITI, LUIGI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">ARISTARCHUS</a> (of Samothrace)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ARDMORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">ARISTEAS</a> (Greek mythical personage)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ARDRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">ARISTEAS</a> (author of “Letter”)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ARDROSSAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">ARISTIDES</a> (Athenian statesman)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">AREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">ARISTIDES</a> (of Miletus)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ARECIBO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">ARISTIDES</a> (of Thebes)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">AREMBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">ARISTIDES, AELIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ARENA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ARENDAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ARENIG GROUP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">ARISTIPPUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">AREOI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">ARISTO</a> (of Chios)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">AREOPAGUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">ARISTO</a> (of Pella)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">AREQUIPA</a> (department of Peru)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">ARISTOBULUS</a> (of Cassandreia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">AREQUIPA</a> (city of Peru)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">ARISTOBULUS</a> (of Paneas)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ARES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">ARISTOCRACY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ARETAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">ARISTODEMUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ARETAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">ARISTOLOCHIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">ARÊTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">ARISTOMENES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">ARETHAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">ARISTONICUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">ARETHUSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">ARISTOPHANES</a> (Greek dramatist)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ARETINO, PIETRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">ARISTOPHANES</a> (of Byzantium)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">AREZZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">ARISTOTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">ARGALI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">ARISTOXENUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ARGAO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">ARISUGAWA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">ARGAUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">ARITHMETIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">ARGEI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">ARIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">ARIZONA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">ARJUNA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">ARK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ARGENSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">ARKANSAS</a> (river of the U.S.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ARGENTAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">ARKANSAS</a> (state)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ARGENTEUIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">ARKANSAS CITY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ARGENTINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">ARKLOW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ARGENTINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ARGENTITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">ARLES</a> (town of France)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ARGENTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">ARLES</a> (kingdom)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">ARGHANDAB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">ARLINGTON, HENRY BENNET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">ARGHOUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">ARLINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">ARGOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">ARLON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ARGON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">ARM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">ARGONAUTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">ARMADA, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ARGONNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">ARMADILLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ARGOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">ARMAGEDDON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">ARGOSTOLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">ARMAGH</a> (county of Ireland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">ARGOSY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">ARMAGH</a> (city)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">ARGUIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">ARMAGNAC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">ARGUMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">ARMATOLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">ARGUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">ARMATURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">ARMAVIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">ARGYLLSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">ARMENIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">ARGYRODITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">ARMENIAN CHURCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">ARGYROKASTRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">ARGYROPULUS, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">ARMENTIÈRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">ARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">ARMET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">ARIADNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">ARIANO DI PUGLIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">ARMIDALE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">ARIAS MONTANO, BENITO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">ARMILLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">ARICA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">ARMINIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">ARICIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">ARMINIUS, JACOBUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">ARICINI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">ARMISTICE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">ARIÈGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">ARMOIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">ARIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">ARMORICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">ARIKARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">ARCULF,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a Gallican bishop and pilgrim-traveller, who +visited the Levant about 680, and was the earliest Christian +traveller and observer of any importance in the Nearer East +after the rise of Islam. On his return he was driven by contrary +winds to Britain, and so came to Iona, where he related his +experiences to his host, the abbot Adamnan (679-704). This +narrative, as written out by Adamnan, was presented to Aldfrith +the Wise, last of the great Northumbrian kings, at York about +701, and came to the knowledge of Bede, who inserted a +brief summary of the same in his <i>Ecclesiastical History of the +English Nation</i>, and also drew up a separate and longer digest +which obtained great popularity throughout the middle ages as +a standard guide-book (the so-called <i>Libellus de locis sanctis</i>) +to the Holy Places of Syria. Arculf is the first to mention the +column at Jerusalem, which claimed to mark the exact centre of +the Inhabited Earth, and later became one of the favourite +Palestine wonders. Besides a valuable account of the principal +sacred sites of Judaea, Samaria and Galilee as they existed in the +7th century, he also gives important information as to Alexandria +and Constantinople, briefly describes Damascus and Tyre, the +Nile and the Lipari volcanoes, and refers to the caliph Moawiya I. +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 661-680), whom he pictures as befriending Christians and +rescuing the “sudarium” of Christ from the Jews. Arculf’s +record is especially useful from its plans, drawn from personal +observation by the traveller himself, of the churches of the Holy +Sepulchre and of Mount Sion in Jerusalem, of the Ascension +on Olivet and of Jacob’s well at Sichem. It is also a useful +witness to the prosperity and trade of Alexandria after the +Moslem conquest: it tells us how the Pharos was still lit up every +night; and it gives us (from Constantinople) the first form of the +story of St George which ever seems to have attracted notice in +Britain.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Thirteen MSS, of the original Arculf-Adamnan narrative exist, +and fully 100 of Bede’s abridgment: of the former, the most important, +containing all the plans, are (1) Bern, Canton Library, 582, of +9th cent.; (2) Paris, National Library, Lat. 13,048, of 9th cent.; a third +MS., London, B. Mus., Cotlon, Tib. D. V., of 8th-9th cents., though +damaged by fire and lacking the illustrations, is of value for the +text, being the oldest of all. Among editions the first is of 1619, +by Gretser; the best, that of 1877, by Tobler, in <i>Itinera et Descriptiones +Terrae Sanctae</i>; we may also mention that of 1870, by +Delpit, in his <i>Essai sur les anciens pelerinages à Jérusalem</i>; see also +Delpit’s remarks upon Arculf in the same work, pp. 260-304; +Beazley, <i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, i. 131-40 (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDASHIR,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> the modern form of the Persian royal name +<span class="sc">Artaxerxes</span> (<i>q.v.</i>), “he whose empire is excellent.” After the +three Achaemenian kings of this name, it occurs in Armenia, in +the shortened form Artaxias (Armenian, Artashes or Artaxes), +and among the dynasts of Persia who maintained their independence +during the Parthian period (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persis</a></span>). One of these, +(1) Artaxerxes or <span class="sc">Ardashir I</span>. (in his Greek inscriptions he calls +himself Artaxares, and the same form occurs in Agathias II. 25, +iv. 24), became the founder of the New-Persian or Sassanian +empire. Of his reign we have only very scanty information, as +the Greek and Roman authors mention only his victory over the +Parthians and his wars with Rome. A trustworthy tradition +about the origin of his power, from Persian sources, has been +preserved by the Arabic historian Tabari (Th. Nöldeke, <i>Geschichte +der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden, aus der +arabischen Chronik des Tabari</i>, 1879). He was the second son of +Pāpak (Bābek), the offspring of Sassan (Sāsān), after whom the +dynasty is named. Pāpak had made himself king of the district +of Istakhr (in the neighbourhood of Persepolis, which had fallen +to ruins). After the death of Pāpak and his oldest son Shapur +(Shāhpuhr, Sapores), Ardashir made himself king (probably +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 212), put his other brothers to death and began war against +the neighbouring dynasts of Persis. When he had conquered a +great part of Persis and Carmania, the Parthian king Artabanus +IV. interfered. But he was defeated in three battles and at last +killed (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 236). Ardashir now considered himself sovereign of +the whole empire of the Parthians and called himself “King of +Kings of the Iranians.” But his aspirations went farther. In +Persis the traditions of the Achaemenian empire had always been +alive, as the name of Ardashir himself shows, and with them the +national religion of Zoroaster. Ardashir, who was a zealous +worshipper of Ahuramazda and in intimate connexion with the +magian priests, established the orthodox Zoroastrian creed as the +official religion of his new kingdom, persecuted the infidels, and +tried to restore the old Persian empire, which under the Achaemenids +had extended over the whole of Asia from the Aegean Sea +to the Indus. At the same time he put down the local dynasts +and tried to create a strong concentrated power. His empire is +thus quite different in character from the Parthian kingdom of the +Arsacids, which had no national and religious basis but leant +towards Hellenism, and whose organization had always been very +loose. Ardashir extirpated the whole race of the Arsacids, with +the exception of those princes who had found refuge in Armenia, +and in many wars, in which, however, as the Persian tradition +shows, he occasionally suffered heavy defeats, he succeeded in +subjugating the greater part of Iran, Susiana and Babylonia. +The Parthian capital Ctesiphon (<i>q.v.</i>) remained the principal +residence of the Sassanian kingdom, by the side of the national +metropolis Istakhr, which was too far out of the way to become +the centre of administration. Opposite to Ctesiphon, on the +right bank of the Tigris, Ardashir restored Seleucia under the +name of Weh-Ardashir. The attempt to conquer Mesopotamia, +Armenia and Cappadocia led to a war with Rome, in which he +was repelled by Alexander Severus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 233). Before his death +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 241) Ardashir associated with himself on the throne his son +Shapur, who successfully continued his work.</p> + +<p>Under the tombs of Darius I. at Persepolis, on the surface of +the rock, Ardashir has sculptured his image and that of the god +Ahuramazda (Ormuzd or Ormazd). Both are on horseback; +the god is giving the diadem to the king. Under the horse of the +king lies a defeated enemy, the Parthian king Artaban; under +the horse of Ormuzd, the devil Ahriman, with two snakes rising +from his head. In the bilingual inscription (Greek and Pahlavi), +Ardashir I. calls himself “the Mazdayasnian [<i>i.e.</i> “worshipper of +Ahuramazda”] god Artaxares, king of the kings of the Arianes +(Iranians), of godly origin, son of the god Pāpak the king.” +(See Sir R. Ker Porter, <i>Travels</i> (1821-1822), i. 548 foll.; Flandin +et Coste, <i>Voyage en Perse</i>, iv. 182; F. Stolze and J.C. Andreas, +<i>Persepolis</i>, pl. 116; Marcel Diculafoy, <i>L’Art antique de la Perse</i>, +1884-1889, v. pl. 14). A similar inscription and sculpture is on a +rock near Gur (Firuzabad) in Persia. On his coins he has the +same titles (in Pahlavi). We see that he, like his father and his +successors, were worshipped as gods, probably as incarnations of a +secondary deity of the Persian creed.</p> + +<p>Like the history of the founder of the Achaemenian empire, +that of Ardashir has from the beginning been overgrown with +legends; like Cyrus he is the son of a shepherd, his future +greatness is predicted by dreams and visions, and by the calculations +of astronomers he becomes a servant at the court of King +Artabanus and then flies to Persia and begins the rebellion; he +fights with the great dragon, the enemy of god, &amp;c. A Pahlavi +text, which contains this legend, has been translated by Nöldeke +(<i>Geschichte des Artachshīr i Pāpakān</i>, 1879). On the same +tradition the account of Firdousi in the Shahnama is based; it +occurs also, with some variations, in Agathias ii. 26 f. Another +work, which contained religious and moral admonitions which +were put into the mouth of the king, has not come down to us. +On the other hand the genealogy of Ardashir has of course been +connected with the Achaemenids, on whose behalf he exacts +vengeance from the Parthians, and with the legendary kings of +old Iran.</p> + +<p>(2) <span class="sc">Ardashir II</span>. (379-383). Under the reign of his brother +Shapur II. he had been governor (king) of Adiabene, where he +persecuted the Christians. After Shapur’s death, he was raised to +the throne by the magnates, although more than seventy years +old. Having tried to make himself independent from the court, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span> +and having executed some of the grandees, he was deposed after a +reign of four years.</p> + +<p>(3) <span class="sc">Ardashir III</span>. (628-630), son of Kavadh II., was raised to +the throne as a boy of seven years, but was killed two years +afterwards by his general, Shahrbaraz.</p> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDEA,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a town of the Rutuli in Latium, 3 m. from the S.W. +coast, where its harbour (<i>Castrum Inui</i>) lay, at the mouth of +the stream now known as Fosso dell’ Incastro, and 23 m. S. +of Rome by the Via Ardeatina. It was founded, according to +legend, either by a son of Odysseus and Circe, or by Danae, +the mother of Perseus. It was one of the oldest of the coast +cities of Latium, and a place of considerable importance; according +to tradition the Ardeatines and Zacynthians joined in the +foundation of Saguntum in Spain. It was the capital of Turnus, +the opponent of Aeneas. It was conquered by Tarquinius +Superbus, and appears as a Roman possession in the treaty with +Carthage of 509 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though it was later one of the thirty cities +of the Latin league. In 445 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> an unfair decision by the Romans +in a frontier dispute with Aricia led, according to the Roman +historians, to a rising; the town became a Latin colony 442 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and shortly afterwards it appears as the place of exile of Camillus. +It had the charge of the common shrine of Venus in Lavinium. +It was devastated by the Samnites, was one of the 12 Latin +colonies that refused in 209 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to provide more soldiers, and +was in 186 used as a state prison, like Alba and Setia. In imperial +times the unhealthiness of the place led to its rapid decline, +though it remained a colony. In the forests of the neighbourhood +the imperial elephants were kept. A road, the Via Ardeatina, +led to Ardea direct from Rome; the gate by which it left the +Servian wall was the Porta Naevia; a large tomb behind the +baths of Caracalla lay on its course. The gate by which it left +the Aurelian wall has been obliterated by the bastion of Antonio +da Sangallo (Ch. Hülsen in <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1894, 320).</p> + +<p>The site of the primitive city, which later became the citadel, +is occupied by the modern town; it is situated at the end of a +long plateau between two valleys, and protected by perpendicular +tufa cliffs some 60 ft. high on all sides except the north-east, +where it joins the plateau. Here it is defended by a fine wall +of <i>opus quadratum</i> of tufa, in alternate courses of headers and +stretchers. Within its area are scanty remains of the podium +of a temple and of buildings of the imperial period. The road +entering it from the south-west is deeply cut in the rock. The +area of the place was apparently twice extended, a further +portion of the narrow plateau, which now bears the name of +Civita Vecchia, being each time taken in and defended by a mound +and ditch; the nearer and better-preserved is about ½ m. from +the city and measures some 2000 ft. long, 133 ft. wide and 66 ft. +high, the ditch being some 80 ft. wide. The second, ½ m. farther +north-east, is smaller. In the cliffs below the plateau to the +north are early rock habitations, and upon the plateau primitive +Latin pottery has been found. In 1900 a group of tombs cut in +the rock was examined; they are outside the farther mound +and ditch, and belong, therefore, to the period after the second +extension of the city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O. Richter, in <i>Annali dell’ Istituto</i> (1884), 90; J.H. Parker +in <i>Archaeologia</i>, xlix. 169 (1885); A. Pasqui, in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, +(1900) 53.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDEBIL,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ardabil</span>, chief town of a district, or sub-province, +of same name, of the province of Azerbaijan in north-western +Persia, in lat. 38° 14′ N., and long. 48° 21′ E., and at +an elevation of 4500 ft. It is situated on the Baluk Su (Fish +river), a tributary of the Kara Su (Black river), which flows +northwards to the Aras, and in a fertile plain bounded on the +west by Mount Savelan, a volcanic cone with an altitude of +15,792 ft. (Russian triangulation), and on the east by the Talish +mountains (9000 ft.). Ardebil has a population of about 10,000, +and post and telegraph offices. Its trade, principally in the +hands of Armenians, is still important, but is chiefly a transit +trade between Russia and Persia by way of Astara, a port on +the Caspian 30 m. north-east of Ardebil. It is surrounded by a +ruinous mud wall flanked by towers; a quarter of a mile east of +it stands a mud fort, 180 yds. square, constructed according +to European system of fortification. Inside the city are the +famous sepulchres and shrines of Shaikh Safi ud-din and his +descendant Shah Ismail I. (1502-1524) the first Shiah shah of +Persia and founder of the Safavi dynasty. Plans and photographs +of the shrines were taken in 1897 by Dr F. Sarre of Berlin +and published in 1901 (<i>Denkmäler Persischer Baukunst</i>; 65 large +folio plates).</p> + +<p>European and Chinese merchants resided at Ardebil in the +middle ages, and for a long time the city was a great emporium +for central Asian and Indian merchandise, which was forwarded +to Europe via Tabriz, Trebizond and the Black Sea, and also +by way of the Caucasus and the Volga. Since the beginning of +the 16th century, when Persia fell under the sway of the Safavis, +the place has been much frequented by pilgrims who come to +pay their devotions at the shrine of Shaikh Safi. This shrine +is a richly endowed establishment with mosques and college +attached, and had a fine library containing many rare and +valuable MSS. presented by Shah Abbas I. at the beginning +of the 17th century, and mostly carried off by the Russians in +1828 and placed in the library at St Petersburg. The grand +carpet which had covered the floor of one of the mosques for +three centuries was purchased by a traveller about 1890 for +100 pounds, and was finally acquired by the South Kensington Museum +for many thousands. This beautiful carpet measures 34 ft. by +17 ft. 6 in., and contains 380 hand-tied knots in the square inch, +which gives over 32,500,000 knots to the whole carpet (W. Griggs, +<i>Asian Carpet Designs</i>).</p> +<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDÈCHE,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> an inland department of south-eastern France, +formed in 1790 from the Vivarais, a district of Languedoc. +Pop. (1906) 347,140. Area, 2145 sq. m. It is bounded N.W. +by the department of Loire, E. by the Rhone which divides it +from Isère and Drôme, S. by Gard and W. by Lozère and Haute-Loire. +The surface of Ardèche is almost entirely covered by +the Cévennes mountains, the main chain, continued in the +Boutières mountains, forming its western boundary. Its centre +is traversed from south-east to north-west by the Coiron range +which extends from the Rhone to the Mont Mézenc (5755 ft.), +the highest point in the department, and the oldest of its many +volcanoes. These mountains separate the southern half of the +department, which comprises the basin of the Ardèche, from the +northern half which is watered by numerous smaller tributaries +of the Rhone, the chief of which are the Érieux and the Doux. +A few rivers belong to the Atlantic side of the watershed, the chief +being the Loire, which rises on the western borders of the department, +and the Allier, which for a short distance separates it +from Lozère. Nearly all the rivers of the department are of +torrential swiftness and subject to sudden floods. The scenery +through which they flow is often of great beauty and grandeur. +Natural curiosities are the Pont d’Arc, over the Ardèche, and +the Chaussée des Géants, near Vals. The climate in the valley +of the Rhone is, in general, warm, and sometimes very hot; +but westward, as the elevation increases, the cold becomes more +intense and the winters longer. Some districts, especially in +summer, are liable to sudden alterations in the temperature. +Rye, wheat and potatoes are the chief crops cultivated. Good +red and white wines are grown in the hilly region bordering the +Rhone valley, the white wine of St Péray being highly esteemed. +The principal fruits are the chestnut, which is largely exported, +the olive and the walnut. In the rearing of silk-worms, Ardèche +ranks second to Gard among French departments, and great +numbers of mulberry trees are grown for the purposes of this +industry. The many goats and sheep of Ardèche make it one +of the chief sources of supply of skins for glove-making. Mines +of coal, iron, lead and zinc are worked, and the quarries furnish +hydraulic lime (Le Teil) and other products. Besides flour-mills, +distilleries and saw-mills, there are important silk-mills and +leather-works and paper-factories. Annonay is the principal +industrial town. The department exports wine, cattle, lime, +mineral waters, silk, paper, &c. Hot springs are numerous, +and some of them, as those of Vals, St Laurent-les-Bains, +Celles and Neyrac, are largely resorted to. Ardèche is served +by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway and has some 43 m. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> +of navigable waterway. The department is divided into the +arrondissements of Privas, Largentière and Tournon, with 31 +cantons and 342 communes. It forms the diocese of Viviers +and part of the archiepiscopal province of Avignon. It is in the +region of the XV. army corps, and within the circumscription +of the <i>académie</i> (educational division) of Grenoble. Its court +of appeal is at Nimes. Privas, the capital, Annonay, Aubenas, +Largentière and Tournon are the principal towns. Bourg-St +Andéol, Thines, Mélas and Cruas have interesting Romanesque +churches. Mazan has remains of a Cistercian abbey founded +in the 12th century to which its vast church belongs. Viviers +is an old town with a church of various styles of architecture +and several old houses.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDEE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a market-town of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south +parliamentary division, on the river Dee, 48 m. N. by W. from +Dublin on a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. +(1901) 1883. It has some trade in grain and basket-making. +The town is of high antiquity, and its name (Ather-dee) is taken +to signify the ford of the Dee. A form Ath-Firdia, however, is +connected with the ancient story of the warrior Cuchullain of +Ulster, who, while defending the ford against the men of Connaught, +was forced to slay many with whom he was on friendly +terms, and among them the warrior Firdia, whom he regarded +with special affection. A castle of the lords of the manor was +built early in the 14th century, and remains, as does another +adjacent fortified building of the same period. Roger de Peppart, +lord of the manor early in the 13th century, founded the present +Protestant church and a house of Crutched Friars. There was +also a house of Carmelite Friars, but neither of these remains. +Ardee received its first recorded charter in 1377. It had a full +share in the several Irish wars, being sacked by Edward Bruce +(1315) and by O’Neill (1538); and it was taken by the Irish and +recaptured by the English in the wars of 1641, and was occupied +later by the forces of James II. and of William III. It returned two +members to the Irish parliament. A large rath, or encampment, +with remains of fortifications, stands to the south of the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDEN, FOREST OF,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a district in the north of Warwickshire, +England, the “woodland” as opposed to the “felden,” or +“fielden,” <i>i.e.</i> open country, in the south, the river Avon +separating the two. Originally it was part of a forest tract of far +wider extent than that within the confines of the county, and +now, though lacking the true character of a forest, it is still +unusually well wooded. The undulating surface ranges for the +most part from 250 to 500 ft. in elevation. Wide lands in this +district were held in the time of Edward the Confessor by Alwin, +whose son Thurkill of Warwick, or “of Arden,” founded the +family of the Warwickshire Ardens who in Queen Elizabeth’s +time still held several of the manors ascribed to Thurkill in +<i>Domesday</i>. Shakespeare, whose mother Mary Arden claimed to +be of this family, knew the district well, living as he did at +Stratford; and its natural characteristics, then still unchanged, +inspired his pictures of forest life in <i>As You Like It</i>. The name +of the Forest of Arden, besides remaining a convenient designation +of a well-marked physical area, is preserved in such place-names +as Henley-in-Arden and Hampton-in-Arden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDENNES,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a district covering some portion of the ancient +forest of Ardenne, and extending over the Belgian province of +Luxemburg, part of the grand duchy, and the French department +of Ardennes. Bruzen Lamartinière states in his <i>Dictionnaire +Géographique</i> that the Gauls and Bretons called it by a +word signifying “the forest,” which was turned into Latin as +<i>Arduenna silva</i>, and he thinks it quite probable that the name +was really derived from the Celtic word <i>ardu</i> (dark, obscure). +The Arduenna Silva was the most extensive forest of Gaul, and +Caesar (<i>Bello Gallico</i>, lib. vi. cap. 29) describes it as extending +from the Rhine and the confines of the Treviri as far as the +limits of the Nervii. In book v. the Roman conqueror describes +his campaign against Indutiomarus and the Treviri in the +Ardenne forest. Strabo gave it still greater extent, treating it +as covering the whole region from the Rhine to the North Sea. +It is safer to give it the more reasonable dimensions of Caesar, +and to accept the verdict of later commentators that it never +extended west of the Scheldt. At the division of the empire +of Charlemagne between the three sons of Louis the Débonnaire, +effected by the pact of Verdun in 843, the forest had become a +district and is called therein <i>pagus Arduensis</i>. It was part of +the division that fell to Lothair, and several of the charters +of 843 expressly specify certain towns as being situated in this +<i>pagus</i>. In the 10th century the district had become a <i>comitatus</i>, +subject to the powerful count of Verdun, who changed his style +to that of count of Ardenne.</p> + +<p>The Belgian Ardennes may be said now to extend from the +Meuse above Dinant on the west to the grand duchy of Luxemburg +and Rhenish Prussia as far north as the Baraque de +Michel on the east, and from a line drawn eastward from Dinant +through Marche, Durbuy and Stavelot to the Hautes Fagnes +on the north, to the French frontier roughly marked by the +Semois valley in the south. Within these limits there are still +some of the finest woods in Europe, which seem to have come +down to us almost intact from the days of the Arduenna of +Caesar. Notable among these portions of the great forest are +the woods of St Hubert, the woods round La Roche, and those +of the Amerois, Herbeumont, and Chiny on the Semois. In the +grand duchy the forest has almost entirely disappeared, but +owing to the compulsory law of replanting in Belgium this fate +does not seem likely to attend the Belgian Ardennes.</p> + +<p>In addition to being a forest the Ardennes is a plateau, and +it offers to the geologist a most interesting field of investigation. +The greater part of the Ardennes is occupied by a large area of +Devonian beds, through which rise the Cambrian masses of +Rocroi and Stavelot, and a few others of smaller size. Upon +the folded slates and schists which constitute these inliers the +Devonian rests with marked unconformity; but north of the +ridge of Condroz Ordovician and Silurian beds make their +appearance. Near Dinant carboniferous beds are infolded +among the Devonian. Along the northern margin lies the +intensely folded belt which constitutes the coalfield of Namur, +and, beneath the overlying Mesozoic beds, is continued to the +Boulonnais, Dover and beyond. The southern boundary of this +belt is formed by a great thrust-plane, the <i>faille du midi</i>, along +which the Devonian beds of the south have been thrust over the +carboniferous beds of the coalfield.</p> + +<p>The Ardennes are the holiday ground of the Belgian people, +and much of this region is still unknown except to the few +persons who by a happy chance have discovered its remoter +and hitherto well-guarded charms. There is still an immense +quantity of wild game to be found in the Ardennes, including +red and roe deer, wild boar, &c. The shooting is preserved +either by the few great landed proprietors left in the country, +or by the communes, who let the right of shooting to individuals. +Occasionally it is still stated in the press that wolves have been +seen in the Ardennes, but this is a mere fiction. The last wolf +was destroyed there in the 18th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDENNES,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a department of France on the N.E. frontier, +deriving its name from that of the forest, and formed in 1790 +from parts of Champagne, Picardy and Hainault. Pop. (1906) +317,505. Area, 2028 sq. m. It is bounded N. and N.E. by +Belgium, E. by the department of Meuse, S. by that of Marne, +and W. by that of Aisne. In shape it is quadrilateral with a +cape-like prolongation into Belgium on the north. The slope +of the department is from north-east to south-west, though its +longest river, the Meuse, entering it in the south-east, pursues +a winding course of 111 m. in a north-westerly, and afterwards +through deep gorges in a northerly, direction. The other +principal river, the Aisne, crosses the southern border and takes +a northerly, then a westerly course, separating the region known +as Champagne Pouilleuse from the more elevated plateau of +Argonne which forms the central zone of the department and +stretches to the left bank of the Meuse. The highest points of +the department are found in the wooded highlands of the +Ardennes which, with an altitude varying between 980 and 1640 +ft., cover the north and north-east. The climate is comparatively +mild in the south-west, but becomes colder and more rainy +towards the north and north-east. Agriculture is carried on to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +most advantage in the Champagne and Argonne. Wheat and +oats are the predominant cereals. Potatoes, rye, lucerne and +other kinds of forage are also important crops. Pasturage is +found chiefly on the banks of the Aisne and Meuse and on the +plateau of Rocroi in the north. Horse-raising is carried on in +the neighbourhood of Buzancy in the south, and at Bourg-Fièele +in the north. Fruit-growing is confined to the west and +central districts. The working of slate is very important, +especially in the neighbourhood of Fumay, and quarries producing +freestone, lime-stone and other minerals are found in several places. Flour-mills, saw-mills, sugar-works, distilleries +and leather-works are scattered over the department, +but iron-founding and various branches of metal-working which +are active along the valley of the Meuse (Nouzon, &c.) are the +chief industries. To these may be added wool-weaving, centred +at Sedan, and minor industries such as the manufacture of +basket-work, wooden shoes, &c. Coal and raw wool are prominent +imports, while iron goods, cloth, timber, live-stock, +alcohol and the products of the soil are exported. Various +branches of the Eastern railway traverse the department. The +Meuse is canalized within the department, and the Canal des +Ardennes, uniting that river with the Aisne, and the lateral canal +of the Aisne are together about 65 m. long. Ardennes is divided +into five arrondissements: Mézières, Rocroi, Rethel, Vouziers +and Sedan, with 31 cantons and 503 communes. The department +forms part of the ecclesiastical province of Reims and of the +circumscriptions of the appeal-court of Nancy and the VI. army +corps. In educational matters, it is included in the <i>academic</i> +(educational area) of Lille. Mézières, the capital, Charleville, +Rocroi, Sedan and Rethel are the chief towns. Outside them +its finest examples of architecture are the churches of Mouzon +(13th century) and Vouziers (15th century).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDGLASS<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (“Green Height”): a small town of Co. Down, +Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, at the head of a +rocky bay, in a picturesque situation between two hills, 32 m. +S. by E. of Belfast on a branch of the Belfast & Co. Down +railway. Pop. (1901) 501. Soon after the Norman invasion it +became of the first importance as a port, a fact attested by the +remains of no fewer than five castles in close proximity, which +give the town a picturesque aspect. There are also an ancient +church crowning the eastern hill, and a curious fortified warehouse +(called the New Works), dating probably from the 14th +century, when a trading company was established here under a +grant from Henry IV. Ardglass was a royal burgh and sent +a representative to the Irish parliament. The chief industry is +the herring fishery. Ships of 500 tons may enter the harbour at +all times. In summer Ardglass is a frequented resort of visitors; +good bathing and a golf links contribute to its attractions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDITI, LUIGI<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1822-1903), Italian musical composer and +conductor, was born in Piedmont, and studied music at the +Conservatoire in Milan, starting professionally as a violinist, +and touring with Bottesini, the double-bass player, in the +United States in 1847. He began composing at an early age, +and in 1840 produced an overture, followed by an opera +<i>I Briganti</i> in 1841, and other works. He paid frequent visits to America, conducting the opera in New York, where he produced +his <i>La Spia</i> in 1856. In 1858 he became conductor of the opera +at Her Majesty’s theatre in London, and both in London and +abroad he became famous in this capacity, having the reputation +of being Madame Patti’s favourite conductor. His vocal waltz +<i>Il Bacio</i> was often sung by her. In 1896 he published his +<i>Reminiscences</i>, and after a long and active musical life he died at Brighton on the 1st of May 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDMORE,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a township and the county-seat of Carter county, +Oklahoma, U.S.A., just S. of the Arbuckle Mountains, about +120 m. S. by E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 5681; (1907) 8759 +(2122 being negroes, and 108 Indians); (1910) 8618. It +is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the St Louis & +San Francisco, and the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé railways. +Ardmore is the market-town and distributing point for the +surrounding agricultural region, which is the home of a large +part of the Chickasaw and Choctaw nations. It is situated +890 ft. above the sea in a cotton and grain producing region, in +which cattle are raised and fruit and vegetables grown; coal, +oil, natural gas and rock asphalt (which is used for paving the +streets of Ardmore) are found in the vicinity. Ardmore is an +important cotton market, and has cotton gins, a cotton compress, +machine shops, bridge works, foundries, bottling works and +manufactories of cotton-seed oil, brick, concrete, flour, brooms, +mattresses and dressed lumber. At Ardmore are the Saint +Agnes Academy, a Catholic school for girls, and Saint Agnes +College for boys, a conservatory of music, Hargrove College, +and the Selvidge Commercial College. Near Ardmore is a +summer school on the Chautauqua (<i>q.v.</i>) system. Ardmore was +founded in 1887, and was incorporated in 1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDRES,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department of +Pas-de-Calais, 10½ m. by rail S.S.E. of Calaís’, with which it is also connected by a canal. Pop. (1906) 1269. The “Field of the +Cloth of Gold,” where Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. +of France met in 1520, was at Balinghem in the immediate +neighbourhood. The town is an important market for cattle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARDROSSAN,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a seaport, burgh of barony, and police burgh +of Ayrshire, Scotland, 32 m. from Glasgow by the Glasgow +& South-Western railway, and 29½ m. by the Lanarkshire +& Ayrshire branch of the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) +6077. The rise of Ardrossan was due to the enterprise of Hugh, +12th earl of Eglinton, who began the construction of the present +town and harbour in 1806. The harbour was intended to be +in connexion with a canal from Glasgow to Ardrossan, but this +was only completed as far as Johnstone. Owing to the costliness +of the undertaking, and the death of the earl in 1819, the works +were suspended after an outlay of £100,000, but his successor +completed the scheme on a reduced scale at an expense of another +£100,000. The dock accommodation has since been considerably +extended, and the town enjoys great prosperity. Steamers +run every week-day to Arran and Belfast, and during summer +there is a service also to Douglas in the Isle of Man. The exports +consist principally of coal and iron from collieries and ironworks +in the neighbourhood; and the imports of timber, ores +and general goods. Shipbuilding thrives and the fisheries are +important. The town is governed by a provost and council.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Saltcoats</span> (pop. 8120), a mile to the south, is a popular seaside +resort, with a brisk trade, due to its proximity to Ardrossan +and Stevenston; the making of salt, once a leading industry, +has ceased.</p> + +<p>Ardrossan dates from an early period. The name Arthur +of Ardrossan is found in connexion with a charter dated 1226; +and Sir Fergus of Ardrossan accompanied Edward Bruce in his +Irish expedition in 1316, and in 1320 signed the appeal to the +pope, made by the barons of Scotland, against the aggressions +of England. The family of Ardrossan is now merged, by +marriage, in that of the earl of Eglinton and Winton. The castle +where Wallace surprised the English garrison and threw their +corpses into the dungeon, grimly styled “Wallace’s Larder,” +was finally destroyed by Cromwell, who is said to have used +part of its masonry for the construction of the fort at Ayr; but +its ruins still exist.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AREA,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a Latin word, originally meaning a threshing-floor, +namely a raised space in a field exposed on all sides to the +wind; now applied in English (1) to a plot of ground on which a +structure is to be erected, (2) to the court or sunk space in the +front or rear of a building, (3) to the superficial space covered +by a district, country, &c., or by a building or court.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARECIBO,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a city and port on the north coast of Porto Rico, +at the mouth of a small stream called the Rio Grande de Arecibo, +and contiguous to one of the most fertile regions of the island. +Pop. (1899) 8008; of the tributary district, about 30,000; (1910) +9612. It is connected with San Juan, Mayaguezand Ponce by +railway. It is a well-built and active commercial city, and has +a large export trade in coffee and sugar. The harbour is an open +roadstead, very dangerous to shipping in northerly winds, and +the discharge and loading of cargoes is effected by means of +lighters at considerable risk and expense. Arecibo was founded +in 1788.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">AREMBERG,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Arenberg</span>, formerly a German duchy of +the Holy Roman Empire in the circle of the Rhine Palatinate, +between Julich and Cologne, and now belonging to the Prussian +administrative district of Coblenz. The hamlet of Aremberg +is at the foot of a basalt hill 2067 ft. high, on the summit of +which are the ruins of the castle which was the original seat of +the family of Aremberg.</p> + +<p>The lords of Aremberg first appear early in the 12th century, +but had died out in the male line by 1279. From the marriage +of the heiress Mathilda (1282-1299) with Engelbert II., count +of La Marck (d. 1328), sprang two sons. The elder of these, +Adolf II, (d. 1347), inherited the countship of La Marck; the +second, Engelbert III. (d. 1387), the lordship of Aremberg, +which he increased by his marriage with Marie de Looz, heiress +of Lumain. The lordship of Aremberg remained in his family +till 1547, when it passed, by his marriage with Margaret, sister +of the childless Robert III., to John of Barbancon, of the great +house of Ligne, who assumed the name and arms of Aremberg, +and was created a count of the Empire by Charles V. He was +governor of Friesland, and for a while commanded the Spanish +and Catholic forces against the “beggars,” falling at the battle +of Heiligerlee in 1568. His son Charles (d. 1618) greatly increased +the possessions of the house by his marriage with Ann of +Croy, heiress of Croy and of Chimay-Aerschot, and in 1576 was +made prince of the Empire by Maximilian II. His grandson, +Philip Francis, was made duke in 1644 by the emperor +Ferdinand III., and was succeeded by his brother Charles +Eugene (d. 1681), who married Marie Henriette de Vergy de +Cusance, heiress of Perwez (d. 1700). Their son, Duke Philip +Charles Francis, was killed in 1691 fighting against the Turks, +and was succeeded by Leopold (1754), a distinguished soldier +of the War of the Spanish Succession, and patron of Rousseau +and Voltaire. His son Charles (d. 1778) was an Austrian field-marshal +during the Seven Years’ War, and married Louise +Margaret of La Marck-Lumain, heiress of the countship of +Schleiden and lordship of Saffenberg. By the peace of Luneville +(February 1801), the next duke, Louis Engelbert, lost the greater +part of his ancestral domain, but received in compensation +Meppen and Recklinghausen. On the establishment of the confederation +of the Rhine, his son Prosper Louis (to whom, +becoming blind, he had ceded his domains in 1803) became a +member (1806), and showed great devotion to the interests of +France; but in 1810 he lost his sovereignty, Napoleon incorporating +Meppen with France and Recklinghausen with the +grand-duchy of Berg, and indemnifying him by a rent of +240,702 francs. In 1815 he received back his possessions, which +were mediatized by the congress of Vienna, Recklinghausen +falling to Prussia and Meppen to Hanover. On account of the +one portion he became a peer of the Westphalian estates, and +by the other a member of the upper house in Hanover. +George IV. of England (9th May 1826) elevated the duke’s +Hanoverian possessions to a dukedom under the title of Aremberg +Meppen. His brother Auguste Raymond, Comte de la Marck +(1753-1833), became famous during the early stages of the +French Revolution for his friendship with Mirabeau (<i>q.v.</i>). +Duke Prosper Louis died in 1861, and was succeeded by his son +Engelbert (d. 1875), who was followed in his turn by his son +Engelbert (b. 1872).</p> + +<p>The duke of Aremberg is one of the wealthiest of the great +continental nobles. His feudal domain in Germany covers an +area of over 1100 sq. m., besides which he has large estates in +Belgium and France. The duke has residences in Brussels, +where he has a famous collection of pictures, and at the château +of Klemenswerth near Meppen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARENA<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (Lat. for “sand”), the central area of an amphitheatre +on which the gladiatorial displays took place, its name being +derived from the sand with which it was covered. The word +is applied sometimes to any level open space on which spectacles +take place.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARENDAL,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a seaport of Norway, in Nedenaes <i>amt</i> (county), +on the south coast, 46 m. N.E. from Christiansand. Pop. (1900) +11,155. It rises picturesquely above the mouth of the river Nid, +with a good harbour protected by an island from the open waters +of the Skagerrack. The town itself occupies several islets, and +some of the houses are supported above the water on piles. The +chief exports are timber (very largely exported to Great Britain), +wood-pulp, sealskins and felspar. In 1879 Arendal ranked +second (after Christiania) as a ship-owning port; in 1899 it had +dropped to the fifth place. In and near the town are factories +for wood-pulp, paper, cotton and joinery; and at Fevig, 8 m. +north-east, a shipbuilding yard and engineering works. The +neighbourhood is remarkable for the number of beautiful and +rare minerals found there; one of these, a variety of epidote, +was formerly called Arendalite. Louis Philippe stayed here for +some time during his exile.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARENIG GROUP,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> in geology, the name now applied by British +geologists to the lowest stage of the Ordovician System in +Britain. The term was first used by Adam Sedgwick in 1847 +with reference to the “Arenig Ashes and Porphyries” in the +neighbourhood of Arenig Fawr, in Merioneth, North Wales.</p> + +<p>The rock-succession in the Arenig district has been recognized +by W.G. Fearnsides (“On the Geology of Arenig Fawr and Moel +Llanfnant,” <i>Q.J.G.S.</i> vol. lxi., 1905, pp. 608-640, with maps) +as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl" style="vertical-align: middle;" rowspan="7">Ordovician</td> + +<td class="tcl bb1" style="vertical-align: middle;">Caradoc</td> <td class="tcl bb1"><i>Dicranograptus</i>—shales.<br /> + Defrel or <i>Orthis</i></td> + <td class="bb1"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl bb1" style="vertical-align: middle;" rowspan="3">Llandeilo Group</td> <td class="tcl bb2">Rhyolitic ashes   = Upper<br /> + Massive ashes   = Middle<br /> + Acid andesitic ashes = Lower</td> + <td class="tcl bb2" style="vertical-align: middle;">Upper Ashes<br />of Arenig.</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tcl bb2">Daerfawr Shales.</td> + <td class="tcl bb2" style="vertical-align: middle;">Zone of <i>Didymograptus Murchisoni</i>.</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tcl bb1">Platy ashes<br /> + Great Agglomerate</td> + <td class="tcl bb1" style="vertical-align: middle;">Lower Ashes of Arenig<br /> (Hypersthene Andesites).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" style="vertical-align: middle;" rowspan="3">Arenig Group</td> <td class="tcl bb2">Olchfa or <i>Bifidus</i>—shales</td> + <td class="tcl bb2" style="vertical-align: middle;">(<i>Didymograptus bifidus</i>).</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tcl bb2">Filltirgerig or <i>Hirundo</i> Beds<br /> + Erewnt or <i>Ogygia</i>—limestone</td> + <td class="tcl bb2" style="vertical-align: middle;"><i>Didymograptus Hirundo.</i></td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tcl">Henllan or <i>Calymene</i>—ashes<br /> + Llyfnant or <i>Extensus</i> flags<br /> + Basal Grit</td> + <td class="tcl" style="vertical-align: middle;"><i>Didymograptus extensus.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="4"><img style="width:267px; height:17px" src="images/img452.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="4">(unconformity)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The above succession is divisible into: (1) a lower series of +gritty and calcareous sediments, the “Arenig Series,” as it is +now understood; (2) a middle series, mainly volcanic, with +shales, the “Llandeilo Series”; and (3) the shales and limestones +of the Bala or Caradoc Stage. It was to the middle series +(2) that Sedgwick first applied the term “Arenig.”</p> + +<p>In the typical region and in North Wales generally the Arenig +series appears to be unconformable upon the Cambrian rocks; +this is not the case in South Wales. The Arenig series is represented +in North Wales by the Garth grit and Ty-Obry beds, by the Shelve +series of the Corndon district, the Skiddaw slates of the Lake +District, the Ballantrae group of Ayrshire, and by the Ribband +series of slates and shales in Wicklow and Wexford. It may be +mentioned here that the “Llanvirn” Series of H. Hicks was +equivalent to the bifidus-shales and the Lower Llandeilo Series.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References</span>.—Adam Sedgwick, <i>Synopsis of the Classification +of the British Palaeozoic Rocks</i> (1885); Sir A. Ramsay, “North +Wales,” <i>Geol. Survey Memoir</i>, vol. iii.; C. Lapworth, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat, +Hist.</i> vol. vi., 1880; G.A.J. Cole and C.V. Jennings, <i>Q.J.G.S.</i> +vol. xlv., 1889; C.V. Jennings and G.J. Williams, <i>ibid.</i> vol. xlvii., +1891; Messrs Crosfield and Skeat, <i>ibid</i>. vol. lii., 1896; G.L. Elles, +<i>Geol. Mag.</i>, 1904; J.E. Marr and T. Roberts, <i>Q.J.G.S.</i>, 1885; +H. Hicks, <i>ibid.</i> vol. xxxi., 1875. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordovician</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AREOI,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Areoiti</span>, a secret society which originated in +Tahiti and later extended its influence to other South Pacific +islands. To its ranks both sexes were admitted. The society +was primarily of a religious character. Members styled themselves +descendants of Oro-Tetifa, the Polynesian god, and were +divided into seven or more grades, each having its characteristic +tattooing. Chiefs were at once qualified for the highest grade, +but ordinary members attained promotion only through initiatory +rites. The Areois enjoyed great privileges, and were considered +as depositaries of knowledge and as mediators between God and +man. They were feared, too, as ministers of the taboo and were +entitled to pronounce a kind of excommunication for offences +against its rules. The chief religious purpose of the society was +the worship of the generative powers of nature, and the ritual +and ceremonies of initiation were grossly licentious. But the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +Areois were also a social force. They aimed at communism in +all things. The women members were common property; the +period of cohabitation was limited to three days, and the female +Areois were bound by oath at initiation to strangle at birth any +child born to them. If, however, the infant was allowed to +survive half an hour only, it was spared; but to have the right +of keeping it the mother must find a male Areoi willing to adopt +it. The Areois travelled about, devoting their whole time to +feasting, dancing (the chief dance of the women being the grossly +indecent <i>Timorodee</i> mentioned by Captain Cook), and debauchery, +varied by elaborate realistic stage presentments of the lives and +loves of gods and legendary heroes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AREOPAGUS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Hareios Pagos">Ἄρειος Πάγος</span>), a bare, rocky hill, 370 ft. +high, immediately west of the northern rim of the acropolis of +Athens. The ancients interpreted the name as “Hill of Ares.” +Though accepted by some modern scholars, this derivation of +the word is rendered improbable by the fact that Ares was not +worshipped on the Areopagus. A more reasonable explanation +connects the name with <i>Arae</i>, “Curses,” commonly known as +<i>Semnae</i>, “Awful Goddesses,” whose shrine was a cave at the +foot of the hill, of which they were the guardian deities (Aeschyl. +Eumen. 417, 804; Schol. on Lucian, vol. iii. p. 68, ed. Jacobitz; +Paus. i. 28. 6).</p> + +<p>The Boulē, or Council, of the Areopagus (<span class="grk" title="he en Harehio Pago boule">ἡ ἐν Ἀρείῳ Πἀγῳ βουλή</span>), +named after the hill, is to be compared in origin and fundamental +character with the council of chiefs or elders which +we find among the earliest Germans, Celts, Romans, and other +primitive peoples. Under the kings of Athens it must have +closely resembled the Boule of elders described by Homer; and +there can be no doubt that it was the chief factor in the work +of transforming the kingship into an aristocracy, in which it +was to be supreme. It was composed of ex-archons. Aristotle +attributes to it for the period of aristocracy the appointment +to all offices (<i>Ath. Pol</i>. viii. 2), the chief work of administration, +and the right to fine or otherwise punish in cases, not only of +violation of laws, but also of immorality (<i>ibid.</i> iii. 6; cf. Isoc. vii. +46; Androtion and Philochorus, in Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec</i>. +i. 387. 17, 394 60).<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> This evidence is corroborated +by the remnants of political power left to it in later time, after +its importance had been greatly curtailed, and by the designation +Boule, which in itself indicates that the body so termed was once +a state council. In a passage bearing incidentally upon the +early constitution of Athens, Thucydides (i. 126. 8) informs us +that at the time of the Cylonian insurrection the Athenians, we +may suppose in their assembly (<span class="grk" title="Hekklesia">Ἐκκλησία</span>), commissioned the +archons with absolute power to deal with the trouble at their +discretion. From this passage, if we accept the Aristotelian view +as to the early supremacy of the Areopagitic council, we must +infer that a modification of the aristocracy in a popular direction +had at that time already taken place.</p> + +<p>In addition to its political functions, the council from the +time of Draco, if not earlier, exercised jurisdiction in certain +cases of homicide (see below, <i>ad fin</i>.). The assumption that in +their criminal jurisdiction the Areopagites were called Ephetae +till after the legislation of Draco (of. Philoch. 58, in Müller, +<i>ibid</i>. 394) would explain the otherwise obscure circumstances +that, according to Plutarch (<i>Sol</i>. 19), Draco (<i>q.v.</i>) +in his laws mentioned only the Ephetae, and that Pollux (viii. 125) +included the Areopagus among the localities in which sat the +Ephetae.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The same assumption would supply a reason for the notion +entertained by many writers of later time that the Areopagitic council +was instituted by Solon (<i>q.v.</i>)—a notion partly explained also by the +desire of political thinkers to ascribe to Solon the making of a +complete constitution. Conformably with the view here presented we may +suppose that the name “Boule of the Areopagus” developed from the simple +term “Boulē” in order to distinguish it from the new Boulē (<i>q.v.</i>), or +Council of Four Hundred. The popular reforms of Solon (594 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), so far +as they were carried into effect, tended practically to limit the +Council of the Areopagus, though constitutionally it retained all its +earlier powers and functions, augmented by the right to try persons +accused of conspiracy against the state (Arist. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> viii. 4). In +the exercise of its duty as the protector of the laws it must have had +power to inhibit in the Four Hundred, or in the Ecclesia, a measure +which it judged unconstitutional or in any way prejudicial to the state, and in +the levy of fines for violation of law or moral usage it remained +irresponsible. As censor of the conduct of citizens it inquired +into every man’s source of income and punished the idle (Plut. +<i>Sol.</i> 22).</p> + +<p>The tyrants (560-510 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) left to the council its cognizance +of murder cases (Demosth. xxiii. 66; Arist. <i>Ath. Pol</i>. xvi. 8) +and probably the nominal enjoyment of all its prerogatives; +but their method of filling the archonship with their own kinsmen +and creatures gradually converted the Areopagites into willing +supporters of tyranny. Though hostile, therefore, to the policy +of Cleisthenes, their council seems to have suffered no direct +abridgment of power from his reforms. After his legislation +it gradually changed character and political sentiment by the +annual admission of ex-archons who had held office under a +popular constitution. In 487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, however, the introduction +of the lot as a part of the process of filling the archonship (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>) began to undermine its ability. This deterioration +was necessarily slow; it could not have advanced far in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +when on the eve of the battle of Salamis, as we are informed +(Arist. <i>Polit.</i> viii. 4, p. 1304a, 17; <i>Ath. Pol.</i> xxiii. 25; Plut. +<i>Them.</i> 10; Cic. <i>Off.</i> i. 22, 75), the council of the Areopagus +succeeded in manning the fleet by providing pay for the seamen, +thereby regaining the confidence and respect of the people. +The patriotic action of the council and its attendant popularity +enabled it to recover considerable administrative control, which +it continued to exercise for the next eighteen years, although +its deterioration in ability, becoming every year more noticeable, +as well as the rapid rise of democratic ideas, prevented it from +fully re-establishing the supremacy which Aristotle, with some +exaggeration, attributes to it for this period. Its prestige was +seriously undermined by the conduct of individual members, +whose corrupt use of power was exposed and punished by +Ephialtes, the democratic leader. Following up this advantage, +Ephialtes (462 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and less prominently Archestratus and +Pericles (<i>q.v.</i>), proposed and carried measures for the transfer +of most of its functions to the Council of Five Hundred, the +Ecclesia, and the popular courts of law (Arist. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> xxv. 2, +xxvii. 1, xxxv. 2; Plut. <i>Per</i>. 9). Among these functions were +probably jurisdiction in cases of impiety, the supervision of +magistrates and the censorship of the morals of citizens, the +inhibition of illegal and unconstitutional resolutions in the +Five Hundred and the Ecclesia, the examination into the fitness +of candidates for office, and the collection of rents from the sacred +property (of. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, <i>Arist. u. Ath.</i> ii. 186-197; +Busolt, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> (2nd ed.) iii. 269-294; G. Gilbert, <i>Const. +Antiq. of Sparta and Athens</i>, Eng. trans., 154 f.). It retained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span> +jurisdiction in cases of homicide and the care of sacred olive +trees. From this time to the establishment of the Thirty (462-404 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the Areopagitic council, degraded still further by the +opening of the archonship to the Zeugitae (457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and by the +absolute use of the lot in filling the office, was a political nullity. +The first indication of a revival of its prestige is to be traced in +the action attributed to it by Lysias during the siege of Athens +(404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) (in <i>Eratosth.</i> 69: <span class="grk" title="prattousês men tês en Areiô Pagô boulês sôtêria">πραττούσης μὲν τῆς ἐν Ἀρείῳ Πάγῳ βουλῆς σωτηρία</span>). After the surrender of Athens and the +appointment of the Thirty, the repeal of the laws of Ephialtes +and Archestratus prepared the way for the rehabilitation of the +council as guardian of the constitution by the restored democracy +(Arist. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> xxxv. 2; decree of Tisamenus, in Andoc. i. 84; +cf. Din. i. 9). Although under the new conditions the Areopagites +could not hope to recover their full supremacy, they did exercise +considerable political influence, especially in crises. In the time +of Demosthenes, accordingly, we find them annulling the election +of individuals to offices for which they were unfit (Plut. <i>Phoc</i>. 16), +exercising during a crisis a disciplinary power extending to life +and death over all the Athenians “in conformity with ancestral +law,” procuring the banishment of one, the racking of another, +and the infliction of capital punishment on several of the citizens. +This authority seems to have been delegated to them by the +assembly with reference either to individual cases or temporarily +to the whole body of Athenians (Din. i. 10, 62 f.; Aeschin. +iii. 252; Lye. <i>Leoc</i>. 52; Demosth. xviii. 132 f.; Plut. <i>Demosth</i>. +14). Religion, too, was their care (Pseud. Demosth. lix. 80 f.). +Lycurgus (<i>ibid</i>.) even goes so far as to claim chat by their action +during the crisis after Chaeroneia they had saved the state. +After the period of the great orators their influence continued +to grow. Demetrius of Phalerum empowered them to assist +the <i>gynaeconomi</i> in supervising festivals held in private houses +(<i>Philoch</i>. in Müller, <i>ibid</i>. i. 408. 143). Under Roman supremacy +in addition to earlier functions they had jurisdiction in cases +of forgery, tampering with the standard measures, and probably +other high crimes, the supervision of buildings, and the care of +religion and of education (Cic. <i>Fam</i>. xiii. i; <i>Att</i>. v. 9; Tac. +<i>Ann</i>. ii. 55; Plut. <i>Cic</i>. 24; <i>C.I.G.</i> i. 123. 9; <i>C.I.A.</i> ii. 476; +iii. 703, 714, 716; Acts xvii. 19). Their council acquired, too, +in conjunction with the assembly, with or without the cooperation +of the Five Hundred (or Six Hundred), the right to +pass decrees and to represent their city in foreign relations +(<i>C.I.A.</i> iii. 10, 31, 40, 41, 454, 457, 458). From the overthrow +of the Thirty to the end of their history they enjoyed a high +reputation for ability and integrity (Isoc. vii.; Demosth. xxiii. +65 f.; Val. Max. viii. 1. <i>Amb</i>. 2; Gell. xii. 7; Lucian, <i>Bis Acc.</i> +iv. 12. 14). About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 their council came to an end (Theodoret, +<i>Curat</i>. ix. 55).</p> + +<p>With regard to the jurisdiction of the council in cases of +homicide, the procedure, so far as it may be gathered from the +orators and other sources, was as follows:—accusations were +brought by relatives within the circle of brothers’ and sisters’ +children, supported by the wider kin and the phratry (Demosth. +xliii. 57). On receiving the accusation the king-archon by +proclamation warned the accused to keep away from temples +and other places forbidden to such persons. He made three +investigations of the case in the three successive months, and +brought it to trial in the fourth month. As he was forbidden to +hand a case over to his successor, it resulted that in the last three +months of the year no accusations of homicide could be brought +(Ant. vi. 42). After the examination he assigned the case to +the proper court, and presided over it during the trial, which +took place in the open air, that the judges and the accuser might +not be polluted by being brought under the same roof with the +offender (Ant. v. 11). The accuser and the accused, standing +on two white stones termed “Relentlessness” (<span class="grk" title="Anaideia">Ἀναίδεια</span>) and +“Outrage” (<span class="grk" title="Hubois">Ὕβοις</span>) respectively (Paus. i. 28. 5), bound themselves +to the truth by most solemn oaths (Demosth. xxiii. 68). +Each was allowed two speeches, and the trial lasted three days. +After the first speech the accused, unless charged with parricide, +was at liberty to withdraw into exile (Poll. viii. 117). If condemned, +he lost his life, and his property was confiscated. A +tie vote acquitted (Aeschyl. <i>Eumen</i>. 735; Ant. v. 51; Aeschin. +iii. 252). See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Among other works may be mentioned E. Dugit, +<i>Étude sur I’Areopage athenien</i> (Paris, 1867); E. Caillemer, “Areopagus,” +in Daremberg et Saglio, <i>Dict. d. Antiq. grecq. et rom.</i> (Paris, +1873) i. 395-404; A. Philippi, <i>Areopag und Epheten</i> (Berlin, 1874). +The discovery of the Aristotelian “Constitution of Athens” (<i>Ath. +Pol.</i>) has largely rendered obsolete all works published before 1891. +See Hermann-Thumser, <i>Griechische Staatsaltertumer</i> (6th ed., Freiburg, +1892), 365-371, 387-391, 788; U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, +<i>Aristoteles und Athen</i> (Berlin, 1893), ii. 186-200; J.J. Terwen, <i>De +Areopago Atheniensium Quaestiones Variae</i> (Utrecht, 1894); G. +Gilbert, <i>Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta</i> (Eng. trans., +London and New York, 1895), 114, 122, 137, 154, 282; F. Cauer, +“Aischylos und der Areopag,” in <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> (1895), N.F. i. 348-356; +Wachsmuth and Thalheim, s.v. “Areios pagos” in Pauly-Wissowa, +<i>Realencycl. d. kl. Altertumswiss</i>. (Stuttgart, 1896), ii. 627-633; +G. de Sanctis,<span class="grk" title="Attis">Ἀτθίς</span>, <i>Storia delta Repubblica Ateniese</i> (Rome, +1898); L. Ziehen, “Drakontische Gesetzgebung,” in <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> +(1899), N.F. liv. 321-344. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Neither Herodotus nor Thucydides tells us anything as to its powers; +but their silence on this point need not surprise us, as they had no +especial occasion for referring to the subject, and in general it may be +said that before the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> writers took little interest in +the constitutional history of the remote past. The statement of +Thucydides (i. 126. 8) that at the time of the Cylonian insurrection the +nine archons attended to a great part of the business of government does +not contradict the Aristotelian view, for their administration may well +have been under Areopagitic supervision (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>); and, as is +stated in the text, the supremacy of the council may have already +suffered considerable limitation. <i>The Eumenides of Aeschylus</i> is a +glorification of the institution, though for obvious reasons it is there +represented as an essentially judicial body.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is possible also to explain the alleged absence +of reference to the Areopagitic council in the Draconian laws by the +supposition that Solon, while leaving untouched the Draconian laws +concerned with the cases of homicide which came before the Ephetae, +substituted a law of his own regarding wilful murder, which fell within +the jurisdiction of the Areopagites. This view finds strong support in +the circumstance that the copy of the Draconian laws (<i>C.I.A.</i> i. 61), +made in pursuance of a decree of the people of the year 409-408 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +does not contain the provision for cases of premeditated homicide; cf. +G. de Sanctis, <span class="grk" title="Attis">Ἀτθίς</span>, 135. The relation of the Ephetae to +the court of the Areopagus is obscure; cf. Philippi, <i>Der Areopag und +die Epheten</i> (Berlin, 1874); Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i> (2nd ed.), +ii. 138 ff.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AREQUIPA,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a coast department of southern Peru, bounded +N. by the departments of Ayacucho and Cuzco, E. by Puno and +Moquegua, S. and W. by Moquegua and the Pacific. It is +divided into seven provinces. Area, 21,947 sq. m.; pop. (1896) +229,007. It is traversed by an important railway line from +Mollendo (Islay) to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, 325 m. long, with +extensions to Santa Rosa, Peru and La Paz, Bolivia. The +highest point reached by this line is 14,660 ft. The department +includes an arid, sand-covered region on the coast traversed +by deep gorges formed by river courses, and a partly barren, +mountainous region inland composed of the high Cordillera +and its spurs toward the coast, between which are numerous +highly fertile valleys watered by streams from the snow-clad +peaks. These produce cotton, rice, sugar-cane, wheat, coffee, +Indian corn, barley, potatoes and fruit. The mountainous +region is rich in minerals, and there is a valuable deposit of +borax near the capital, Arequipa.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AREQUIPA,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a city of southern Peru, capital of the department +of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. by N. of its seaport +Mollendo (107 m. by rail), and near the south-west foot of the +volcano Misti which rises to a height of 19,029 ft. above sea-level. +The population was estimated at 35,000 in 1896. The city is +provided with a tram line, and is connected with the coast at +Mollendo (Islay) by a railway 107 m. long, and with Puno, on +Lake Titicaca, by an extension of the same line 218 m. long. +The city occupies a green, fertile valley of the Rio Chile, 7753 ft. +above the sea, surrounded by an arid, barren desert. It is built +on the usual rectangular plan and the streets are wide and well +paved. The edifices in general are low, and are massively built +with thick walls and domed ceilings to resist earthquakes, and +lessen the danger from falling masonry. The material used is +a soft, porous magnesian limestone, which is well adapted to +the purpose in view. Arequipa is the seat of a bishopric created +in 1609-1612, and possesses a comparatively modern cathedral, +its predecessor having been destroyed by fire in 1849. It has +several large churches, and formerly possessed five monasteries +and three nunneries, which have been closed and their edifices +devoted to educational and other public purposes. The religious +element has always been a dominating factor in the life of the +city. A university, founded in 1825, three colleges, one of them +dating from colonial times, a medical school, and a public library, +founded in 1821, are distinguishing features of the city, which +has always taken high rank in Peru for its learning and liberalism, +as well as for its political restlessness. The city’s water-supply +is derived from the Chile river and is considered dangerous +to new arrivals because of the quantity of saline and organic +matter contained. The climate is temperate and healthy, and +the fertile valley (10 m. long by 5 m. wide) surrounding the city +produces an abundance of cereals, fruits and vegetables common +to both hot and temperate regions. Pears and strawberries +grow side by side with oranges and granadillas, and are noted +for their size and flavour. The trade of the city is principally +in Bolivian products—mineral ores, alpaca wool, &c.—but it +also receives and exports the products of the neighbouring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span> +Peruvian provinces, and the output of the borax deposits in the +neighbourhood. Arequipa was founded by Pizarro in 1540, +and has been the scene of many events of importance in the +history of Peru. It was greatly damaged in the earthquakes of +1582, 1609, 1784 and 1868, particularly in the last. It was +captured by the Chileans in 1883, near the close of the war +between Chile and Peru.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARES,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> in ancient Greek mythology, the god of war, or rather +of battle, son of Zeus and Hera. (For the Roman god, identified +with Ares, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mars</a></span>.) As contrasted with Athena, who added +to her other attributes that of being the goddess of well-conducted +military operations, he personifies brute strength and +the wild rage of conflict. His delight is in war and bloodshed; +he loves fighting for fighting’s sake, and takes the side of the +one or the other combatant indifferently, regardless of the justice +of the cause. His quarrelsomeness was regarded as inherited +from his mother, and it may have been only as an illustration +of the perpetual strife between Zeus and Hera that Ares was +accounted their son. According to a later tradition, he was the +son of Hera (Juno) alone, who became pregnant by touching +a certain flower (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, v. 255). All the gods, even Zeus, +hate him, but his bitterest enemy is Athena, who fells him to +the ground with a huge stone. Splendidly armed, he goes to +battle, sometimes on foot, sometimes in the war chariot made +ready by his sons Deimos and Phobos (Panic and Fear) by whom +he is usually accompanied. In his train also are found Enyo, the +goddess of war who delights in bloodshed and the destruction +of cities; his sister, Eris, goddess of fighting and strife; and +the Keres, goddesses of death, whose function it is especially +to roam the battle-field, carrying off the dead to Hades. In +later accounts (and even in the <i>Odyssey</i>) Ares’ character is somewhat +toned down; thus, in the “Homeric” hymn to Ares +he is addressed as the assistant of Themis (Justice), the enemy +of tyrants, and leader of the just. It is to be noted, however, that +in this little poem he is to some extent confounded with the +planet named after him (Ares, or Mars).</p> + +<p>The primitive character of Ares has been much discussed. +He is a god of storms; a god of light or a solar god; a chthonian +god, one of the deities of the subterranean world, who could +bring prosperity as well as ruin upon men, although in time his +destructive qualities obscured the others. In this last aspect +he was one of the chief gods of the Thracians, amongst whom +his home was placed even in the time of Homer. In Scythia +an old iron sword served as the symbol of the god, to which +yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses were made, and in earlier +times (as apparently also at Sparta) human victims, selected +from prisoners of war, were offered. Thus Ares developed into +the god of war, in which character he made his way into Greece. +This theory may have been nothing more than an instance of +the Greek tendency to assign a northern or “hyperborean” +home to deities in whose character something analogous to the +stormy elements of nature was found. But it appears that the +Thracians and Scythians in historical times (Herodotus i. 59) +worshipped chiefly a war god, and that certain Thracian settlements, +formed in Greece in prehistoric times, left behind them +traces of the worship of a god whom the Greeks called Ares. +The story of his imprisonment for thirteen months by the +Aloïdae (<i>Iliad</i>, v. 385) points to the conquest of this chthonian +destroyer of the fields by the arts of peace, especially agriculture, +of which the grain-fed sons of Aloeus (the thresher) are the +personification.</p> + +<p>In Homer Ares is the lover of Aphrodite, the wife of Hephaestus, +who catches them together in a net and holds them up to the +ridicule of the gods. In what appears to be a very early development +of her character, Aphrodite also was a war goddess, known +under the name of Areia; and in Thebes, the most important +seat of the worship of Ares, she is his wife, and bears him Eros +and Anteros, Deimos and Phobos, and Harmonia, wife of Cadmus, +the founder of the city (Hesiod, <i>Theog.</i> 933). In the legend of +Cadmus and his family Ares plays a prominent part. His +worship was not so widely spread over Greece as that of other +gods, although he was honoured here and there with festivals +and sacrifices. Thus, at Sparta, under the name of Theritas, +he was offered young dogs and even human beings. The Dioscuri +were said to have brought his image from Colchis to Laconia, +where it was set up in an old sanctuary on the road from Sparta +to Therapnae. At Athens, he had a temple at the foot of the +Areopagus, with a statue by Alcamenes. It was here, according +to the legend, that he was tried and acquitted by a council of +the gods for the murder of Halirrhothius, who had violated +Alcippe, the daughter of Ares by Agraulos. The figure of Ares +appears in various stories of ancient mythology. Thus, he +engages in combat with Heracles on two occasions to avenge the +death of his son Cycnus; once Zeus separates the combatants +by a flash of lightning, but in the second encounter he is severely +wounded by his adversary, who has the active support of Athena; +maddened by jealousy, he changes himself into the boar which +slew Adonis, the favourite of Aphrodite; and stirs up the war +between the Lapithae and Centaurs. His attributes were the +spear and the burning torch, symbolical of the devastation +caused by war (in ancient times the hurling of a torch was the +signal for the commencement of hostilities). The animals sacred +to him were the dog and the vulture.</p> + +<p>The worship of Ares being less general throughout Greece than +that of the gods of peace, the number of statues of him is small; +those of Ares-Mars, among the Romans, are more frequent. +Previous to the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was represented as full-bearded, +grim-featured and in full armour. From that time, +apparently under the influence of Athenian sculptors, he was +conceived as the ideal of a youthful warrior, and was for a time +associated with Aphrodite and Eros. He then appears as a +vigorous youth, beardless, with curly hair, broad head and +stalwart shoulders, with helmet and chlamys. In the Villa +Ludovisi statue (after the style of Lysippus) he appears seated, +in an attitude of thought; his arms are laid aside, and Eros +peeps out at his feet. In the Borghese Ares (also taken for +Achilles) he is standing, his only armour being the helmet on his +head. He also appears in many other groups, with Aphrodite, +in marble and on engraved gems of Roman times. But before +this grouping had recommended itself to the Romans, with their +legend of Mars and Rhea Silvia, the Greek Ares had again +become under Macedonian influence a bearded, armed and +powerful god.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—H.D. Müller, Ares (1848), H.W. Stoll, <i>Über die +ursprungliche Bedeutung des A. und der Athene</i> (1881); F.A. Voigt, +“Beiträge zur Mythologie des Ares und Athena” in <i>Leipziger +Studien</i>, iv. 1881; W.H. Roscher, <i>Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie</i>, +i., 1873; C. Tümpel, <i>Ares und Aphrodite</i> (1880); articles in +Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, +and Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des Antiquités</i> (s.v. +<span class="sc">Mars</span>); Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARETAEUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> of Cappadocia, a Greek physician, who lived at +Rome in the second half of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> We possess +two treatises by him, each in four books, in the Ionic dialect: +<i>On the Causes and Indications of Acute and Chronic Diseases, +and On their Treatment</i>. His work was founded on that of +Archigenes; like him, he belonged to the eclectic school, but +did not ignore the theories of the “Pneumatics,” who made the +heart the seat of life and of the soul.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions by Kühn (1828), Ermerius (1848). English translations: +Wigan (1723); Moffat (1786); Reynolds (1837); Adams (1856). +See Locher, <i>Aretaeus aus Kappadocien</i> (1847).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARETAS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Arab. Hāritha), the Greek form of a name borne by +kings of the Nabataeans resident at Petra in Arabia, (i) A +king in the time of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (2 Mace. v. 8). +(2) The father-in-law of Herod Antipas (Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xviii. 5. 1, 3), +In 2 Cor. xi. 32 he is described as ruler of Damascus (<i>q.v.</i>) at the +time of Paul’s conversion. Herod Antipas had married a +daughter of Aretas, but afterwards discarded her in favour of +Herodias. This led to a war with Aretas in which Antipas was +defeated.</p> + +<p>An Aretas is mentioned in 1 Macc. xv. 22, but the true +reading is probably Ariarathes (king of Cappadocia). See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nabataeans</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARÊTE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>areste</i>, Lat. <i>arista</i>, ear of corn, fish-bone or +spine), a ridge or sharp edge; a French term used in Switzerland +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span> +to denote the sharp bayonet-like edge of a mountain (such as the +Matterhorn), that slopes steeply upward with two precipitous +sides meeting in a long ascending ridge. Hence the word has +passed into common use to denote any sharp mountain edge +denuded by frost action above the snowline, where the consequent +angular ridges give the characteristic “house-roof +structure” of these altitudes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARETHAS<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 860-940), Byzantine theological writer and +scholar, archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, was born at +Patrae. He was the author of a Greek commentary on the +Apocalypse, avowedly based upon that of Andrew, his predecessor +in the archbishopric. In spite of its author’s modest +estimate, Arethas’s work is by no means a slavish compilation; +it contains additions from other sources, and especial care has +been taken in verifying the references. His interest was not, +however, confined to theological literature; he annotated the +margins of his classical texts with numerous scholia (many of +which are preserved), and had several MSS. copied at his own +expense, amongst them the Codex Clarkianus of Plato (brought +to England from the monastery of St John in Patmos), and the +Dorvillian MS. of Euclid (now at Oxford).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Most divergent opinions have been held as to the time in which +Arethas lived; the reasons for the dates given above will be found +succinctly stated in the article “Aretas,” by A. Jülicher in +Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopadie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i> +(1896). The text of the commentary is given in Migne, <i>Patrologia +Graeca</i>, cvi.; see also O. Gebhardt and A. Harnack, <i>Texte und +Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litt.</i> i. pp. 36-46 +(1882), and <i>Vita Euthymii</i> (patriarch of Constantinople, d. 917), ed. +C. de Boor (1888); H. Wace, <i>Dictionary of Christian Biography</i>, i.; C. +Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897); G. +Heinrici in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARETHUSA,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> in Greek mythology, a nymph who gave her name to a spring in +Elis and to another in the island of Ortygia near Syracuse. According to +Pausanias (v. 7. 2), Alpheus, a mighty hunter, was enamoured of +Arethusa, one of the retinue of Artemis; Arethusa fled to Ortygia, where +she was changed into a spring; Alpheus, in the form of a river, made his +way beneath the sea, and united his waters with those of the spring. In +Ovid (<i>Metam.</i> v. 572 foll.), Arethusa, while bathing in the Alpheus, +was seen and pursued by the river god in human form; Artemis changed her +into a spring, which, flowing underground, emerged at Ortygia. In the +earlier form of the legend, it is Artemis, not Arethusa, who is the +object of the god’s affections, and escapes by smearing her face with +mire, so that he fails to recognize her (see L.R. Farnell, <i>Cults of +the Greek States</i>, ii. p. 428). The probable origin of the story is the +part traditionally taken in the foundation of Syracuse by the Iamidae of +Olympia, who identified the spring Arethusa with their own river +Alpheus, and the nymph with Artemis Alpheiaia, who was worshipped at +Ortygia. The subterranean passage of the Alpheus in the upper +part of its course (confirmed by modern explorers), and the +freshness of the water of Arethusa in spite of its proximity to +the sea, led to the belief that it was the outlet of the river. +Further, according to Strabo (vi. p. 270), during the sacrifice of +oxen at Olympia the waters of Arethusa were disturbed, and a +cup thrown into the Alpheus would reappear in Ortygia. In +Virgil (<i>Ecl</i>. x. 1) Arethusa is addressed as a divinity of poetical +inspiration, like one of the Muses, who were themselves originally +nymphs of springs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Arethusa on Syracusan coins, see B.V. Head, <i>Historia +Numorum</i>, pp. 151, 155.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARETINO, PIETRO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1492-1556), Italian author, was born in +1492 at Arezzo in Tuscany, from which place he took his name. +He is said to have been the natural son of Luigi Bacci, a gentleman +of the town. He received little education, and lived for some years poor +and neglected, picking up such scraps of information as he could. When +very young he was banished from Arezzo on account of a satirical sonnet +which he composed against indulgences. He went to Perugia, where for +some time he worked as a bookbinder, and continued to distinguish +himself by his daring attacks upon religion. After some years’ wandering +through parts of Italy he reached Rome, where his talents, wit and +impudence commended him to the papal court. This +favour, however, he lost in 1523 by writing a set of obscene +sonnets, to accompany an equally immoral series of drawings +by the great painter, Giulio Romano. He left Rome and was +received by Giovanni de’ Medici, who introduced him at Milan +to Francis I. of France. He gained the good graces of that +monarch, and received handsome presents from him. Shortly +after this Aretino attempted to regain the favour of the pope, +but, having come to Rome, he composed a sonnet against a +rival in some low amour, and in return was assaulted and severely +wounded. He could obtain no redress from the pope, and +returned to Giovanni de’ Medici. On the death of the latter in +December 1526, he withdrew to Venice, where he afterwards +continued to reside. He spent his time here in writing comedies, +sonnets, licentious dialogues, and a few devotional and religious +works. He led a profligate life, and procured funds to satisfy +his needs by writing sycophantish letters to all the nobles and +princes with whom he was acquainted. This plan proved +eminently successful, for large sums were given him, apparently +from fear of his satire. So great did Aretino’s pride grow, that +he styled himself the “divine,” and the “scourge of princes.” +He died in 1556, according to some accounts by falling from his +chair in a fit of laughter caused by hearing some indecent story +of his sisters. The reputation of Aretino in his own time rested +chiefly on his satirical sonnets or burlesques; but his comedies, +five in number, are now considered the best of his works. His +letters, of which a great number have been printed, are also +commended for their style. The dialogues and the licentious +sonnets have been translated into French, under the title +<i>Académie des Dames</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AREZZO<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (anc. <i>Arretium</i>), a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, +Italy, the capital of the province of Arezzo, 54 m. S.E. of Florence +by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 16,780; commune, 46,926. It is an +attractive town, situated on the slope of a hill 840 to 970 ft. above +sea-level, in a fertile district. The walls by which it is surrounded +were erected in 1320 by Guido Tarlati di Pietramala, its warlike +bishop, who died in 1327, and is buried in the cathedral; they +were reconstructed by Cosimo I. de Medici between 1541 and +1568, on which occasion the bronze statues of Pallas and the +Chimaera, now at Florence, were discovered. The town itself is +fan-shaped, the streets, which contain some fine old houses with +projecting eaves and many towers, radiating from the citadel +(Fortezza), which was constructed in 1502, and dismantled by +the French in 1800. The cathedral, close by, is a fine specimen of +Italian Gothic begun in 1277, but not completed internally until +1511, while the façade was not begun until 1880. The interior is +spacious and contains some fine 14th-century sculptures, those of +the high altar, which contains the tomb of St Donatus, the patron +saint of Arezzo, being the best; very good stained-glass windows +of the beginning of the 16th century by Guillaume de Marcillat, +and some terra-cotta reliefs by Andrea della Robbia. Another +fine church is S. Maria della Pieve, having a campanile and a +façade of 1216, the latter with three open colonnades running for +its whole length above the doors. The interior was restored to its +original style in 1863-1865. The Romanesque choir and apse +belong to the 11th century, the rest of the interior is contemporary +with the façade. In the square behind the church is a +colonnade designed by Vasari. In the cloisters of S. Bernardo, on +the site of the ancient amphitheatre, is a remarkable view of +medieval Rome. S. Francesco contains famous frescoes by Piero +de’ Franceschi, representing scenes from the legend of the Holy +Cross, and others by Spinello Aretino, a pupil of Giotto. There +are several other frescoes by the latter in S. Domenico. Among +the Renaissance buildings the churches of S. Maria delle Grazie +and the Santissima Annunziata may be noted. The collection of +majolica in the municipal museum is very fine, and so is that of +the Funghini family. In the middle ages Arezzo was generally on +the Ghibelline side; it succumbed to Florence in 1289 at the +battle of Campaldino, but at the end of the century recovered its +strength under the Tarlati family. In 1336 it became subject to +Florence for six years, and after intestine struggles, finally came +under her rule in 1384. Among the natives of Arezzo the most +famous are the Benedictine monk Guido of Arezzo, the inventor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span> +of the modern system of musical notation (died <i>c</i>. 1050), the poet +Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, the satirist (1492-1556), and Vasari, famous +for his lives of Italian painters. The town never possessed a distinct +school of artists.</p> + +<p>See C. Signorini, <i>Arezzo, Città y Provincia, Guida illustrata</i> +(Arezzo,1904).</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGALI,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the Tatar name of the great wild sheep, <i>Ovis ammon</i>, of the +Altai and other parts of Siberia. Standing as high as a large donkey, +the argali is the finest of all the wild sheep, the horns of the rams, +although of inferior length, being more massive than those of <i>Ovis +poli</i> of the Pamirs. There are several local races of argali, among +which <i>O. ammon hodgsoni</i> of Ladak and Tibet is one of the best known. +There are likewise several nearly related central Asian species, such as +<i>O. sairensis</i> and <i>O. littledalei</i>. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheep</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGAO,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a town on the east coast of Cebu, Philippine Islands, 36 m. +S.S.W. of the town of Cebu. Pop. (1903) 35,448. Large quantities of a +superior quality of cacao are produced in the vicinity, and rice and +Indian corn are other important products. A limited amount of cotton is +raised and woven into cloth. The language is Cebu-Visayan. Argao was +founded in 1608.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGAUM,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a village of British India in the Akola district of the Central +Provinces, 32 m. north of Akola. The village is memorable for an action +which took place on the 28th of November 1803 between the British army, +commanded by Major-General Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington), +and the Mahrattas under Sindhia and the raja of Berar, in which the +latter were defeated with great loss. A medal struck in England in 1851 +commemorates the victory.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGEI,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name given by the ancient Romans to a number of rush puppets +(24 or 27 according to the reading of Varro, <i>de Ling</i>. <i>lat</i>. vii. 44, +or 30 according to Dionysius i. 38) resembling men tied hand and foot, +which were taken down to the ancient bridge over the Tiber (<i>pans +sublicius</i>) on the 14th of May by the pontifices and magistrates, with +the flaminica Dialis in mourning guise, and there thrown into the Tiber +by the Vestal virgins. There were also in various parts of the four +Servian regions of the city a number of <i>sacella Argeorum</i> (chapels), +round which a procession seems to have gone on the 17th of March (Varro, +<i>L.L.</i> v. 46-54; Jordan, <i>Rom. Topogr.</i> vol. ii. 603), and it has been +conjectured that the puppets were kept in these chapels until the time +came for them to be cast into the river. The Romans had no historical +explanation of these curious rites, and neither the theories of their +scholars nor the beliefs of the common people, who fancied that the +puppets were substitutes for old men who used at one time to be +sacrificed to the river, are worth serious consideration. Recently two +explanations have been given: (1) that of W. Mannhardt, who by comparing +numerous examples of similar customs among other European peoples +arrived at the conclusion that the rite was of extreme antiquity and of +dramatic rather than sacrificial character, and that its object was +possibly to procure rain; (2) that of Wissowa, who refuses to date it +farther back than the latter half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and sees in +it the yearly representation of an original sacrifice of twenty-seven +captive Greeks (taking Argei as a Latin form of <span class="grk" title="Argeioi">Ἀργεῖοι</span>) by +drowning in the Tiber. This second theory is, however, not borne out by +any Roman historical record.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wissowa’s arguments in the article “Argei” in his edition of Pauly’s +<i>Realencydopadie</i>. For the other view see W. Mannhardt, <i>Antike Wald und +Feldkulte</i>, 178 foll.; W.W. Fowler, <i>Roman Festivals</i>, pp. 111 foll.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. F.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1799-1875), German astronomer, +’was born at Memel on the 22nd of March 1799. He studied at the +university of Konigsberg, and was attracted to astronomy by F.W. +Bessel, whose assistant he became (October 1, 1820). His treatise on the +path of the great comet of 1811 appeared in 1822; he was, in 1823, +entrusted with the direction of the observatory at Åbo; and he exchanged +it for a similar charge at Helsingfors in 1832. His admirable +investigation of the sun’s motion in space was published in 1837; and in +the same year he was appointed professor of astronomy in the university +of Bonn, where he died on the 17th of February 1875. He also published +<i>Observations Astronomicae Aboae Factae</i> (3 vols., 1830-1832); <i>DLX +Stellarum Fixarum Positiones Mediae</i> (1835); and the first seven volumes +of <i>Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Benn</i> (1846-1869), +containing his observations of northern and southern star-zones, and his +great <i>Durchmusterung</i> (vols, iii,-v., 1859-1862) of 324,198 stars, +from the north pole to -2° Dec. The corresponding atlas was issued in +1863. His observations (begun in 1838) and discussions of variable stars +were embodied in vol. vii. of the same series.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Schönfeld in <i>Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen +Gesellschaft</i>, x. pp. 150-178.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis d’</span> (1704-1771), was born at Aix +in Provence on the 24th of June 1704. He entered the army at the age of +fifteen, and after a dissipated and adventurous youth settled for a time +at Amsterdam, where he wrote some historical compilations and began his +more famous <i>Lettres juives</i> (The Hague, 6 vols., 1738-1742), <i>Lettres +chinoises</i> (The Hague, 6 vols., 1730-1472), and <i>Lettres cabalistiques</i> +(2nd ed., 7 vols., 1769); also the <i>Mémoires secrets de la république +des lettres</i> (7 vols., 1743-1478), afterwards revised and augmented as +<i>Histoire de l’esprit humain</i> (Berlin, 14 vols., 1765-1768). He was +invited by Prince Frederick (afterwards Frederick the Great) to Potsdam, +and received high honours at court; but Frederick was bitterly offended +by his marrying a Berlin actress, Mlle Cochois. Argens returned to +France in 1769, and died near Toulon on the 11th of January 1771.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1559-1613), Spanish dramatist and poet, +was baptized at Barbastro on the 14th of December 1559. He was educated +at the universities of Huesca and Saragossa, becoming secretary to the +duke de Villahermosa in 1585. He was appointed historiographer of Aragon +in 1599, and in 1610 accompanied the count de Lemos to Naples, where he +died in March 1613. His tragedies—<i>Filis, Isabela</i> and <i>Alejandra</i>—are +said by Cervantes to have “filled all who heard them with admiration, +delight and interest”; <i>Filis</i> is lost, and <i>Isabela</i> and <i>Alejandra</i>, +which were not printed till 1772, are ponderous imitations of Seneca. +Argensola’s poems were published with those of his brother in 1634; they +consist of excellent translations from the Latin poets, and of original +satires. His “echoing sonnets”—such as <i>Después que al mundo el rey +divino vino</i>—lend themselves to parody; but his diction is singularly +pure.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola</span> (1562-1631), Spanish poet +and historian, was baptized at Barbastro on the 26th of August 1562, +studied at Huesca, took orders, and was presented to the rectory of +Villahermosa in 1588. He was attached to the suite of the count de +Lemos, viceroy of Naples, in 1610, and succeeded his brother as +historiographer of Aragon in 1613. He died at Saragossa on the 4th of +February 1631. His principal prose works are the <i>Conquista de las Islas +Molucas</i> (1609), and a supplement to Zurita’s <i>Anales de Aragón</i>, which +was published in 1630. His poems (1634), like those of his elder +brother, are admirably finished examples of pungent wit. His +commentaries on contemporary events, and his <i>Alteraciones populares</i>, +dealing with a Saragossa rising in 1591, are lost. An interesting life +of this writer by Father Miguel Mir precedes a reprint of the <i>Conquista +de las Islas Molucas</i>, issued at Saragossa in 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENSON,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> the name, derived from an old hamlet situated in what is now +the department of Indre-et-Loire, of a French family which produced some +prominent statesmen, soldiers and men of letters.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">René de Voyer</span>, seigneur d’Argenson (1596-1651), French statesman, was +born on the 21st of November 1596. He was a lawyer by profession, and +became successively <i>avocat</i>, councillor at the parlement of Paris, +<i>maître des requêtes</i>, and councillor of state. Cardinal Richelieu +entrusted him with several missions as inspector and intendant of the +forces. In 1623 he was appointed intendant of justice, police and +finance in Auvergne, and in 1632 held similar office in Limousin, where +he remained till 1637. After the death of Louis XIII. (1643) he retained +his administrative posts, was intendant of the forces at Toulon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +(1646), commissary of the king at the estates of Languedoc +(1647), and intendant of Guienne (1648), and showed great +capacity in defending the authority of the crown against the +rebels of the Fronde. After his wife’s death he took orders +(February 1651), but did not cease to take part in affairs of +state. In 1651 he was appointed by Mazarin ambassador at +Venice, where he died on the 14th of July 1651.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Marc René de Voyer</span>, comte d’Argenson (1623-1700), +was born at Blois on the 13th of December 1623. He +also was a lawyer, being councillor at the parlement of Rouen +(1642) and <i>maître des requêtes</i>. He attended his father in all his +duties and succeeded him at the embassy at Venice. In 1655 he +returned from his embassy, ruined, and lost favour with Mazarin, +who removed him from his office of councillor of state. He then +gave up public affairs and retired to his estates, where he occupied +himself with good works. In September 1656 he entered the +Company of the Holy Sacrament, a secret society for the diffusion +of the Catholic religion. Besides writing the <i>Annals</i> of the +society, he composed many pious works, which were destroyed +in the fire at the Louvre in 1871. Some of his correspondence +with the once famous letter-writer, Jean Louis Guez de Balzac +(1597-1654), has been published. He died in May 1700, leaving +two sons, Marc René (see below), and François Élie (1656-1728), +who became archbishop of Bordeaux.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fr. Rabbe, “Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement,” in the <i>Revue +historique</i> (Nov. 1899); Beaucher-Filleau, <i>Les Annales de la compagnie</i> +du Saint-Sacrement (Paris, 1900); R. Allier, <i>La Cobalt des +dévots</i> (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Marc René de Voyer</span>, marquis de Paulmy and marquis +d’Argenson (1652-1721), son of the preceding, was born at +Venice on the 4th of November 1652. He became <i>avocat</i> in 1669, +and lieutenant-general in the <i>sénéchaussée</i> of Angoulême (1679). +After the death of Colbert, who disliked his family, he went to +Paris and married Marguerite Lefèvre de Caomartin, a kinswoman +of the comptroller-general Pontchartrain. This was +the beginning of his fortunes. He became successively <i>maître des +requêtes</i> (1694), member of the <i>conseil des prises</i> (prize court) +(1695), <i>procureur-général</i> of the commission of inquest into +false titles of nobility (1696), and finally lieutenant-general +of police (1697). This last office, which had previously been +filled by N.G. de la Reynie, was very important. It not only +gave him the control of the police, but also the supervision of +the corporations, printing press, and provisioning of Paris. +All contraventions of the police regulations came under his +jurisdiction, and his authority was arbitrary and absolute. +Fortunately, he had, in Saint-Simon’s phrase, “a nice discernment +as to the degree of rigour or leniency required for every case that +came before him, being ever inclined to the mildest measures, +but possessed of the faculty of making the most innocent +tremble before him; courageous, bold, audacious in quelling +<i>êmeutes</i>, and consequently the master of the people.” During +the twenty-one years that he exercised this office he was a party +to every private and state secret; in fact, he had a share in every +event of any importance in the history of Paris. He was the +familiar friend of the king, who delighted in scandalous police +reports; he was patronized by the duke of Orleans; he was +supported by the Jesuits at court; and he was feared by all. +He organized the supply of food in Paris during the severe winter +of 1709, and endeavoured, but with little success, to run to +earth the libellers of the government. He directed the destruction +of the Jansenist monastery of Port Royal (1709), a proceeding +which provoked many protests and pamphlets. Under +the regency, the Chambre de Justice, assembled to inquire into +the malpractices of the financiers, suspected d’Argenson and +arrested his clerks, but dared not lay the blame on him. On +the 28th of January 1718 he voluntarily resigned the office of +lieutenant-general of police for those of keeper of the seals—in +the place of the chancellor d’Aguesseau—and president +of the council of finance. He was appointed by the regent to +suppress the resistance of the parlements and to reorganize +the finances, and was in great measure responsible for permitting +John Law to apply his financial system, though he soon quarrelled +with Law and intrigued to bring about his downfall. The regent +threw the blame for the outcome of Law’s schemes on d’Argenson, +who was forced to resign his position in the council of finance +(January 1720). By way of compensation he was created +inspector-general of the police of the whole kingdom, but had +to resign his office of keeper of the seals (June 1720). He died +on the 8th of May 1721, the people of Paris throwing taunts and +stones at his coffin and accusing him of having ruined the kingdom. +In 1716 he had been created an honorary member of the Académie +des Sciences and, in 1718, a member of the French Academy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the contemporary memoirs, especially those of Saint-Simon +(de Boislisle’s ed.), Dangeau and Math. Marais; Barbier’s <i>Journal</i>; +“Correspondance administrative sous Louis XIV.” in <i>Coll. des doc. +inéd. sur I’histoire de France</i>, edited by G.B. Depping (1850-1855); +<i>Correspondance des contrôleurs-généraux des finances</i>, pub. by de Bois-lisle +(1873-1900); <i>Correspondance de M. de Marville avec M. de +Maurepas</i> (1896-1897); <i>Rapports de police de René d’Argenson</i>, +pub. by P. Cottin (Paris, undated); P. Clément, <i>La police sous +Louis XIV</i>. (1873).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy</span>, marquis d’Argenson +(1694-1757), eldest son of the preceding, was a lawyer, and held +successively the posts of councillor at the parlement (1716), +<i>maître des requêtes</i> (1718), councillor of state (1719), and intendant +of justice, police and finance in Hainaut. During his five years’ +tenure of the last office he was mainly employed in provisioning +the troops, who were suffering from the economic confusion +resulting from Law’s system. He returned to court in 1724 +to exercise his functions as councillor of state. At that time +he had the reputation of being a conscientious man, but ill +adapted to intrigue, and was nicknamed “la bête.” He entered +into relations with the philosophers, and was won over to the +ideas of reform. He was the friend of Voltaire, who had been +a fellow-student of his at the Jesuit college Louis-le-grand, and +frequented the Club de l’Entresol, the history of which he wrote +in his memoirs. It was then that he prepared his <i>Considérations +sur le gouvernement de la France</i>, which was published posthumously +by his son. He was also the friend and counsellor of +the minister G.L. de Chauvelin. In May 1744 he was appointed +member of the council of finance, and in November of the same +year the king chose him as secretary of state for foreign affairs, +his brother, the comte d’Argenson (see below), being at the same +time secretary of state for war. France was at that time engaged +in the War of the Austrian Succession, and the government had +been placed by Louis XV. virtually in the hands of the two +brothers. The marquis d’Argenson endeavoured to reform the +system of international relations. He dreamed of a “European +Republic,” and wished to establish arbitration between nations +in pursuance of the ideas of his friend the abbé de Saint-Pierre. +But he failed to realize any part of his projects. The generals +negotiated in opposition to his instructions; his colleagues +laid the blame on him; the intrigues of the courtiers passed +unnoticed by him; whilst the secret diplomacy of the king +neutralized his initiative. He concluded the marriage of the +dauphin to the daughter of Augustus III., king of Poland, but +was unable to prevent the election of the grand-duke of Tuscany +as emperor in 1745. On the both of January 1747 the king +thanked him for his services. He then retired into private life, +eschewed the court, associated with Voltaire, Condillac and +d’Alembert, and spent his declining years in working at the +Academic des Inscriptions, of which he was appointed president +by the king in 1747, and revising his <i>Mémoires</i>. Voltaire, in +one of his letters, declared him to be “the best citizen that had +ever tasted the ministry.” He died on the 26th of January 1757.</p> + +<p>He left a large number of manuscript works, of which his son, +Antoine René (1722-1787), known as the marquis de Paulmy, +published the <i>Considérations sur le gouvernement de France</i> +(Amsterdam, 1764) and <i>Essais dans le gout de ceux de Montaigne</i> +(<i>ib.</i> 1785). The latter, which contains many useful biographical +notes and portraits of his contemporaries, was republished in +1787 as <i>Loisirs d’un ministre d’état</i>. Argenson’s most important +work, however, is his <i>Mémoires</i>, covering in great detail the +years 1725 to 1756, with an introductory part giving his recollections +since the year 1696. They are, as they were intended to be, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +valuable “materials for the history of his time.” There are two +important editions, the first, with some letters, not elsewhere +published, by the marquis d’Argenson, his great-grand-nephew +(5 vols., Paris, 1857 et seq.); the second, more correct, but less +complete, published by J.B. Rathery, for the Société de l’Histoire +de France (9 vols., Paris, 1859 et seq.). The other works of the +marquis d’Argenson, in MS., were destroyed in the fire at the +Louvre library in 1871.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i> (vols. xii. and xiv.); Levasseur. +“Le Marquis d’Argenson” in the <i>Mémoires de l’Academie +des Sciences Morales et Politiques</i> (vol. lxxxvii., 1868); and, especially, +E. Zevort, <i>Le Marquis d’Argenson et le ministère des affaires étrangères</i> +(Paris, 1880). See also G. de R. de Flassan, <i>Histoire de la diplomatie +française</i> (2nd ed., 1811); Voltaire, <i>Siècle de Louis XV</i>.; E. Boutaric, +<i>Correspondance secrète inédite de Louis XV</i>. (1866); E. Champion, +“Le Marquis d’Argenson,” in the <i>Révolution française</i> (vol. xxxvi., +1899); A. Alem, <i>D’Argenson économiste</i> (Paris, 1899); Arthur Ogle, +<i>The Marquis d’Argenson</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Marc Pieere de Voyer de Paulmy</span>, comte d’Argenson +(1696-1764), younger brother of the preceding, was born on the +16th of August 1696. Following the family tradition he studied +law and was councillor at the parlement of Paris. He succeeded +his father as lieutenant-general of police in Paris, but +held the post only five months (January 26 to June 30, 1720). +He then received the office of intendant of Tours, and resumed +the lieutenancy of police in 1722. On the 2nd of January 1724 +he was appointed councillor of state. He gained the confidence +of the regent Orleans, administering his fortune and living with +his son till 1737. During this period he opened his salon to the +philosophers Chaulieu, la Fare and Voltaire, and collaborated +in the legislative labours of the chancellor d’Aguesseau. In +March 1737 d’Argenson was appointed director of the censorship +of books, in which post he showed sufficiently liberal views to +gain the approval of writers—a rare thing in the reign of Louis +XV. He only retained this post for a year. He became president +of the grand council (November 1738), intendant of the <i>généralité</i> +of Paris (August 1740), was admitted to the king’s council +(August 1742), and in January 1743 was appointed secretary +of state for war in succession to the baron de Breteuil. As +minister for war he had a heavy task; the French armies +engaged in the War of the Austrian Succession were disorganized, +and the retreat from Prague had produced a disastrous effect. +After consulting with Marshal Saxe, he began the reform of the +new armies. To assist recruiting, he revived the old institution +of local militias, which, however, did not come up to his expectation. +In the spring of 1744 three armies were able to resume +the offensive in the Netherlands, Germany and Italy, and in +the following year France won the battle of Fontenoy, at which +d’Argenson was present. After the peace in 1748 he occupied +himself with the important work of recasting the French army +on the model of the Prussian. He unified the types of cannon, +grouped the grenadiers into separate regiments, and founded +the École Militaire for the training of officers (1751). An edict +of the 1st of November 1751 granted patents of nobility to all +who had the rank of general officer. In addition to his duties +as minister of war he had the supervision of the printing, postal +administration and general administration of Paris. He was +responsible for the arrangement of the promenade of the Champs +Elysées and for the plan of the present Place de la Concorde. +He was exceedingly popular, and, although the court favourites +hated him, he had the support of the king. Nevertheless, +after the attempt of R.F. Damiens to assassinate the king, +Louis abandoned d’Argenson to the machinations of the court +favourites and dismissed both him and his colleague, J.B. de +Machault d’Arnouville (February 1757). D’Argenson was exiled +to his estates at Les Ormes near Saumur, but he had previously +found posts for his brother, the marquis d’Argenson, as minister +of foreign affairs, for his son Marc René as master of the +horse, and for his nephew Marc Antoine René as commissary +of war. From the time of his exile he lived in the society of +savants and philosophers. He had been elected member of the +Académie des Inscriptions in 1749. Diderot and d’Alembert +dedicated the <i>Encyclopedie</i> to him, and Voltaire, C.J.F. Hénault, +and J.F. Marmontel openly visited him in his exile. After the +death of Madame de Pompadour he obtained permission to +return to Paris, and died a few days after his return, on the 22nd +of August 1764.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Marc Antoine René de Voyer</span>, marquis de Paulmy +d’Argenson (1722-1787), nephew of the preceding and son of +René Louis, was born at Valenciennes on the 22nd of November +1722. Appointed councillor at the parlement (1744), and <i>maître +des requêtes</i> (1747), he was associated with his father in the +ministry of foreign affairs and with his uncle in the ministry of +war, and, in recognition of this experience, was commissioned +to inspect the troops and fortifications and sent on embassy +to Switzerland (1748). In 1751 his uncle recognized him as his +deputy and made over to him the reversion of the secretariate +of war. He then worked on the great reform of the army, and +after the dismissal of his uncle became minister of war (February +1757). But the outbreak of the Seven Years’ War made this post +exceedingly difficult to hold, and he resigned on the 23rd of +March 1758. He was ambassador to Poland from 1762 to 1764, +but failed to procure the nomination of the French candidate +to that throne. From 1766 to 1770 he was ambassador at Venice. +Failing to obtain the embassy at Rome, he retired at the age of +forty-eight and devoted the rest of his life to indulging his tastes +for history and biography. He brought together a large library, +very rich in French poetry and romance, and undertook various +publications with the help of his librarian. In 1775 he began +his <i>Bibliothèque universelle des romans</i>, of which forty volumes +appeared within three years, but subsequently handed over the +publication to other editors. His great work, <i>Mélanges tirês +d’une grande bibliothèque</i>, was published in 65 volumes (Paris, +1779-1788). At his death he forbade his library to be dispersed: +it was bought by the comte d’Artois (afterwards Charles X.) and +formed the nucleus of the present Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal at +Paris (the marquis having been governor of the arsenal). He +died on the 13th of August 1787.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See contemporary memoirs; also Dacier’s eulogium in the +<i>Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</i> (November 1788); and +Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i> (vol. xii.).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Marc René</span>, marquis de Voyer de Paulmy d’Argenson +(1721-1782), known as the marquis de Voyer, son of Marc Pierre +de Voyer, the minister of war, was born in Paris on the 20th of +September 1721. He served in the army of Italy and the army +of Flanders in the War of the Austrian Succession, and was +<i>mestre de camp</i> (proprietary colonel) of the regiment of Berry +cavalry at the battle of Fontenoy (May 10, 1745), where he was +promoted brigadier. He was associated with his father in his +work of reorganizing the army, was made inspector of cavalry +and dragoons (1749), and succeeded his father as master of the +horse (1752). He introduced English horses into France. He +was lieutenant-general of Upper Alsace in 1753 and governor +of Vincennes in 1754, and served afterwards under Soubise in +the Seven Years’ War. He was wounded at Crefeld in 1758, and +was promoted lieutenant-general (1759). He followed his father +into exile at Les Ormes (1763), and in the last years of the reign +of Louis XV. sided with the malcontents headed by Choiseul; +but on the rupture with England he rejoined the service of the +king (1775). He was appointed inspector of the sea-board, and +put the roadstead of the island of Aix in a state of defence during +the American War of Independence. He caught marsh-fever +while attempting to drain the marshes of Rochefort, and died +at Les Ormes on the 18th of September 1782.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Marc René Marie de Voyer de Paulmy</span>, marquis d’Argenson +(1771-1842), son of the preceding, was born in Paris in +September 1771. He was brought up by his father’s cousin, +the marquis de Paulmy, governor of the arsenal, and was made +lieutenant of dragoons in 1789. Although, at the age of eighteen, +he had succeeded to several estates and a large fortune, he embraced +the revolutionary cause, joining the army of the North +as Lafayette’s aide-de-camp and remaining with it even after +Lafayette’s defection. Leaving France to take one of his sisters +to England, he was denounced on his return as a royalist conspirator, +on the charge of having in his possession portraits of +the royal family. He then went to live in Touraine, married +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span> +the widow of Prince Victor de Broglie, and saved her and her +children from proscription. He introduced new agricultural +instruments and processes on his estates, and installed +machinery imported from England in his ironworks in Alsace. +He was an enthusiastic adherent of Napoleon, by whom he was +appointed in May 1809 prefect of Deux-Nèthes. He helped +to repel the English invasion of the islands of South Beveland +and Walcheren (August 1809), and afterwards directed the +defence works of Antwerp, but resigned this post (March 1813) +in consequence of the complaints of the inhabitants and the +exacting demands of the emperor. In May 1814 he refused the +prefecture of Marseilles offered to him by the Bourbons, but +was elected deputy from Belfort in 1815 during the Hundred +Days. On the 5th of July 1815 he took part in the declaration +protesting against any tampering with the immutable rights of +the nation. He was a member of the <i>Chambre introuvable</i>, where +he became one of the orators of the democratic party. He was +one of the founders of the journal <i>Le censeur européen</i> and of +the <i>Club de la liberté de la presse</i>, and was an uncompromising +opponent of reaction. Not re-elected in 1824 on account of his +liberal ideas, he returned to the chamber under the Martignac +ministry (1828), and resolutely persisted in his championship +of the liberty of the press and of public worship. On the death +of his wife he voluntarily renounced his mandate (July 1829), +and hailed the revolution of 1830 with great satisfaction. On +the 3rd of November 1830 he was elected to the chamber as +deputy from Châtellerault, and took the oath, adding, however, +the reservation “subject to the progress of the public reason.” +His independent attitude resulted in his defeat in the following +year at the Châtellerault election, but he was returned for +Strassburg. He wished the incidence of the taxes to be arranged +according to social condition, and advocated a single tax proportionate +to income like the English income tax. He harped +incessantly on this idea in his speeches and articles (see his letters +in <i>La Tribune</i> of June 20, 1832). Although he was a proprietor +of ironworks he opposed the protectionist laws, which he considered +injurious to the workmen. He became the mouthpiece +of the advanced ideas; subsidized the opposition newspapers, +especially the <i>National</i>; received into his house F.M. Buonarroti, +who in 1796 had been implicated in the conspiracy of +“Gracchus” Babeuf (<i>q.v.</i>); and became a member of the +committee of the Society of the Rights of Man. He was even +sued in the courts for a pamphlet called <i>Boutade d’un homme +riche à sentiments populaires</i>, and delivered a speech to the +jury in which he displayed very daring social theories. But +he gradually grew discouraged and retired from public affairs, +refusing even municipal office, and living in seclusion at La +Grange in the forest of Guerche, where he devoted his inventive +faculty to devising agricultural improvements. He subsequently +returned to Paris, where he died on the 1st of August 1842.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Charles Marc René de Voyer</span>, marquis d’Argenson +(1796-1862), son of the preceding, was born at Boulogne-sur-Spine +on the 20th of April 1796. He concerned himself little +with politics. He was, however, a member of the council-general +of Vienne for six years, but was expelled from it in 1840 +in consequence of his advanced ideas and his relations with the +Opposition. In 1848 he was elected deputy from Vienne to the +Constituent Assembly by 12,000 votes. He was an active +member of the Archaeological Society of Touraine and the +Society of Antiquaries of the West, and wrote learned works +for these bodies. He collaborated in preparing the archives +of the scientific congress at Tours in 1847; brought out two +editions of the MSS. of his great-grand-uncle, the minister of +foreign affairs under Louis XV., under the title <i>Mémoires du +marquis d’Argenson</i>, one in 1825, and the other, in 5 vols., in 1857-1858; +and published <i>Discours et opinions de mon père, M. Voyer +d’Argenson</i> (2 vols., 1845). He died on the 31st of July,1862.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENTAN,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Orne, 27 m. N.N.W. of +Alençon on the railway from Le Mans to Caen. Pop. (1906) +5072. It is situated on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the +Orne at its confluence with the Ure. The town has remains of +old fortifications, among them the Tour Marguerite, and a +château, now used as a law-court, dating from the 15th century. +The church of St Germain (15th, 16th and 17th centuries) has +several features of architectural beauty, notably the sculptured +northern portal, and the central and western towers. The +church of St Martin, dating from the 15th century, has good +stained glass. The handsome modern town-hall contains among +other institutions the tribunal of commerce, the museum and +the library. Argentan is the seat of a sub-prefect, has a tribunal +of first instance and a communal college. Leather-working and +the manufacture of stained glass are leading industries. There are +quarries of limestone in the vicinity. Argentan was a viscounty +from the 11th century onwards; it was often taken and pillaged. +During the Religious Wars it remained attached to the Catholic +party. François Eudes de Mézeray, the historian, was born near +the town, and a monument has been erected to his memory.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENTEUIL,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department +of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 5 m. N.W. of the fortifications +of Paris by the railway from Paris to Mantes. Pop. (1906) +17,330. Argenteuil grew up round a monastery, which, dating +from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 656, was by Charlemagne changed into a nunnery; it +was afterwards famous for its connexion with Héloise (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abelard</a></span>), and on her expulsion in 1129 was again turned into +a monastery. Asparagus, figs, and wine of medium quality +are grown in the district; and heavy iron goods, chemical +products, clocks and plaster are among the manufactures.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENTINA,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> or the <span class="sc">Argentine Republic</span> (officially, <i>Republica +Argentina</i>), a country occupying the greater part of the +southern extremity of South America. It is of wedge shape, +extending from 21° 55′ S. to the most southerly point of the +island of Tierra del Fuego in 55° 2′ 30″ S., while its extremes of +longitude are 53° 40′ on the Brazilian frontier and 73° 17′ 30″ W. +on the Chilean frontier. Its length from north to south is 2285 +statute miles, and its greatest width about 930 m. It is the +second largest political division of the continent, having an area of +1,083,596 sq. m. (Gotha measurement). It is bounded N. by +Bolivia and Paraguay, E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay and the +Atlantic, W. by Chile, and S. by the converging lines of the +Atlantic and Chile.</p> + +<p><i>Boundaries</i>.—At different times Argentina has been engaged +in disputes over boundary lines with every one of her neighbours, +that with Chile being only settled in 1902. Beginning at the +estuary of the Rio de la Plata, the boundary line ascends the +Uruguay river, on the eastern side of the strategically important +island of Martin García, to the mouth of the Pequiry, thence +under the award of President Grover Cleveland in 1894 up that +small river to its source and in a direct line to the source of the +Santo Antonio, a small tributary of the Iguassú, thence down +the Santo Antonio and Iguassú to the upper Paraná, which forms +the southern boundary of Paraguay. From the confluence of the +upper Paraná and Paraguay the line ascends the latter to the +mouth of the Pilcomayo, which river, under the award of President +R.B. Hayes in 1878, forms the boundary between Argentina +and Paraguay from the Paraguay river north-west to the +Bolivian frontier. In accordance with the Argentine-Bolivian +treaty of 1889 the boundary line between these republics continues +up the Pilcomayo to the 22nd parallel, thence west to the +Tarija river, which it follows down to the Bermejo, thence up +the latter to its source, and westerly through the Quiaca ravine +and across to a point on the San Juan river opposite Esmoraca. +From this point it ascends the San Juan south and west to the +Cerro de Granadas, and thence south-west to Cerro Incahuasi +and Cerro Zapalegui on the Chilean frontier. The boundary +with Chile, extending across more than 32° lat., had been +the cause of disputes for many years, which at times led to +costly preparations for war. The debts of the two nations +resulted largely from this one cause. In 1881 a treaty was +signed which provided that the boundary line should follow +the highest crests of the Andes forming the watershed as far +south as the 52nd parallel, thence east to the 70th meridian and +south-east to Cape Dungeness at the eastern entrance to the +Straits of Magellan. Crossing the Straits the line should follow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +the meridian of 68° 44′, south to Beagle Channel, and thence east to +the Atlantic, giving Argentina the eastern part of the Tierra del +Fuego and Staten Island. By this agreement Argentina was +confirmed in the possession of the greater part of Patagonia, +while Chile gained control of the Straits of Magellan, much +adjacent territory on the north, the larger part of Tierra del +Fuego and all the neighbouring islands south and west.</p> + +<p>When the attempt was made to mark this boundary the +commissioners were unable to agree on a line across the Puna de +Atacama in the north, where parallel ranges enclosing a high arid +plateau without any clearly defined drainage to the Atlantic or +Pacific, gave an opportunity for conflicting claims. In the south +the broken character of the Cordillera, pierced in places by large +rivers flowing into the Pacific and having their upper drainage +basins on the eastern side of the line of highest crests, gave rise to +unforeseen and very difficult questions. Finally, under a convention +of the 17th of April 1896, these conflicting claims were +submitted to arbitration. In 1899 a mixed commission with +Hon. W.I. Buchanan, United States minister at Buenos Aires, +serving as arbitrator, reached a decision on the Atacama line +north of 26° 52′ 45″ S. lat., which was a compromise though it +gave the greater part of the territory to Argentina. The line +starts at the intersection of the 23rd parallel with the 67th +meridian and runs south-westerly and southerly to the +mountain and volcano summits of Rincón, Socompa, Llullaillaco, +Azufre, Aguas Blancas and Sierra Nevada, thence to the +initial point of the British award. (See <i>Geogr. Jour.</i>, 1899, xiv. +322-323.) The line south of 26° 52′ 45″ S. lat. had been located by +the commissioners of the two republics with the exception of +four sections. These were referred to the arbitration of Queen +Victoria, and, after a careful survey under the direction of Sir +Thomas H. Holdich, the award was rendered by King Edward +VII. in 1902. (See <i>Geogr. Jour.</i>, 1903, xxi. 45-50.) In the first +section the line starts from a pillar erected in the San Francisco +pass, about 26° 50′ S. lat., and follows the water-parting southward +to the highest peak of the Tres Cruces mountains in +27° 0′ 45″ S. lat., 68° 49′ 5″ W. long. In the second, the line runs +from 40° 2′ S. lat., 71° 40′ 36″ W. long., along the water-parting to +the southern termination of the Cerro Perihueico in the valley +of the Huahum river, thence across that river, 71° 40′ 36″ W. +long., and along the water-parting around the upper basin of the +Huahum to a junction with the line previously determined. In +the third and longest section, the line starts from a pillar erected +in the Perez Rosales pass, near Lake Nahuel-Huapi, and follows +the water-parting southward to the highest point of Mt. Tronador, +and thence in a very tortuous course along local water-partings +and across the Chilean rivers Manso, Puelo, Fetaleufu, Palena, +Pico and Aisen, and the lakes Buenos Aires, Pueyrredón and San +Martin, to avoid the inclusion of Argentine settlements within +Chilean territory, to the Cerro Fitzroy and continental water-parting +north-west of Lake Viedma, between 49° and 50° S. lat. +The northern half of this line does not run far from the 72nd +meridian, except in 44° 30′ S. where it turns eastward nearly a +degree to include the upper valley of the Frias river in Chilean +territory, but south of the 49th parallel it curves westward to +give Argentina sole possession of lakes Viedma and Argentino. +The fourth section, which was made particularly difficult of +solution by the extension inland of the Pacific coast inlets and +sounds and by the Chilean colonies located there, was adjusted +by running the line eastward from the point of divergence in +50° 50′ S. lat. along the Sierra Baguales, thence south and south-east +to the 52nd parallel, crossing several streams and following +the crests of the Cerro Cazador. The Chilean settlement of +Ultima Esperanza (Last Hope), over which there had been much +controversy, remains under Chilean jurisdiction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Geography</i>.—For purposes of surface description, Argentina +may be divided primarily into three great divisions—the +mountainous zone and tablelands of the west, extending the full +length of the republic; the great plains of the east, extending from +the Pilcomayo to the Rio Negro; and the desolate, arid steppes of +Patagonia. The first covers from one-third to one-fourth of the +width of the country between the Bolivian frontier and the Rio +Negro, and comprises the elevated Cordilleras and their plateaus, +with flanking ranges and spurs toward the east. In the extreme +north, extending southward from the great Bolivian highlands, +there are several parallel ranges, the most prominent of which are: +the Sierra de Santa Catalina, from which the detached Cachi, +Gulumpaji and Famatina ranges project southward; and the Sierra +de Santa Victoria, south of which are the Zenta, Aconquija, Ambato +and Ancaste ranges. These minor ranges, excepting the Zenta, are +separated from the Andean masses by comparatively low depressions +and are usually described as distinct ranges; topographically, however, +they seem to form a continuation of the ranges running southward +from the Santa Victoria and forming the eastern rampart of +the great central plateau of which the Puna de Atacama covers a +large part. The elevated plateaus between these ranges are semi-arid +and inhospitable, and are covered with extensive saline basins, +which become lagoons in the wet season and morasses or dry salt-pans +in the dry season. These saline basins extend down to the +lower terraces of Córdoba, Mendoza and La Pampa. Flanking this +great widening of the Andes on the south-east are the three short +parallel ranges of Córdoba, belonging to another and older formation. +North of them is the great saline depression, known as the “salinas +grandes,” 643 ft. above sea-level, where it is crossed by a railway; +north-east is another extensive saline basin enclosing the “Mar +Chiquita” (of Córdoba) and the morasses into which the waters of +the Rio Saladillo disappear; and on the north are the more elevated +plains, partly saline, of western Córdoba, which separate this isolated +group of mountains from the Andean spurs of Rioja and San Luis. +The eastern ranges parallel to the Andes are here broken into detached +extensions and spurs, which soon disappear in the elevated western +pampas, and the Andes contract south of Aconcagua to a single +range, which descends gradually to the great plains of La Pampa +and Neuquen. The lower terrace of this great mountainous region, +with elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 ft., is in reality the western +margin of the great Argentine plain, and may be traced from Oran +(1017 ft.) near the Bolivian frontier southward through Tucumán +(1476 ft.), Frias (1129 ft.), Córdoba (1279 ft.), Rio Cuarto (1358 ft.), +Paunero (1250 ft.), and thence westward and southward through +still unsettled regions to the Rio Negro at the confluence of the +Neuquen and Limay.</p> + +<p>The Argentine part of the great La Plata plain extends from the +Pilcomayo south to the Rio Negro, and from the lower terraces of +the Andes eastward to the Uruguay and Atlantic. In the north +the plain is known as the Gran Chaco, and includes the country +between the Pilcomayo and Salado del Norte and an extensive +depression immediately north of the latter river, believed to be the +undisturbed bottom of the ancient Pampean sea. The northern +part of the Gran Chaco is partly wooded and swampy, and as the +slope eastward is very gentle and the rivers much obstructed by +sand bars, floating trees and vegetation, large areas are regularly +flooded during rainy seasons. South of the Bermejo the land is +more elevated and drier, though large depressions covered with +marshy lagoons are to be found, similar to those farther north. +The forests here are heavier. Still farther south and south-west +there are open grassy plains and large areas covered with salt-pans. +The general elevation of the Chaco varies from 600 to 800 ft. above +sea-level. The Argentine “mesopotamia,” between the Paraná and +Uruguay rivers, belongs in great measure to this same region, being +partly wooded, flat and swampy in the north (Corrientes), but +higher and undulating in the south (Entre Rios). The Misiones +territory of the extreme north-east belongs to the older highlands +of Brazil, is densely wooded, and has ranges of hills sometimes rising +to a height of 1000 to 1300 ft.</p> + +<p>The remainder of the great Argentine plain is the treeless, grassy +<i>pampa</i> (Quichua for “level spaces”), apparently a dead level, but +in reality rising gradually from the Atlantic westward toward the +Andes. Evidence of this is to be found in the altitudes of the +stations on the Buenos Aires and Pacific railway running a little +north of west across the pampas to Mendoza. The average elevation +of Buenos Aires is about 65 ft.; of Mercedes, 70 m. westward, +132 ft.; of Junín (160 m.), 267 ft.; and of Paunero (400 m.) it is +1250 ft., showing an average rise of about 3 ft. in a mile. The +apparently uniform level of the pampas is much broken along its +southern margin by the Tandil and Ventana sierras, and by ranges +of hills and low mountains in the southern and western parts of the +territory of La Pampa. Extensive depressions also are found, some +of which are subject to inundations, as along the lower Salado in +Buenos Aires and along the lower courses of the Colorado and Negro. +In the extreme west, which is as yet but slightly explored and settled, +there is an extensive depressed area, largely saline in character, +which drains into lakes and morasses, having no outlet to the ocean. +The rainfall is under 6 in. annually, but the drainage from the +eastern slopes of the Andes is large enough to meet the loss from +evaporation and keep these inland lakes from drying up. At an +early period this depressed area drained southward to the Colorado, +and the bed of the old outlet can still be traced. The rivers belonging +to this inland drainage system are the Vermejo, San Juan and +Desaguadero, with their affluents, and their southward flow can be +traced from about 28° S. lat. to the great lagoons and morasses +between 36° and 37° S. lat. in the western part of La Pampa territory. +Some of the principal affluents are the Vinchina and Jachal, or +Zanjon, which flow into the Vermejo, the Patos, which flows into +the San Juan, and the Mendoza, Tunuyan and Diamante which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +flow into the Desaguadero, all of these being Andean snow-fed +rivers. The Desaguadero also receives the outflow of the Laguna +Bebedero, an intensely saline lake of western San Luis. The lower +course of the Desaguadero is known as the Salado because of the +brackish character of its water. Another considerable river flowing +into the same great morass is the Atuel, which rises in the Andes +not far south of the Diamante. (A description of the Patagonian +part of Argentina will be found under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Patagonia</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Rivers and Lakes</i>.—The hydrography of Argentina is of the +simplest character. The three great rivers that form the La Plata +system—the Paraguay, Paraná and Uruguay—have their sources +in the highlands of Brazil and flow southward through a great +continental depression, two of them forming eastern boundary lines, +and one of them, the Paraná, flowing across the eastern part of the +republic. The northern part of Argentina, therefore, drains eastward +from the mountains to these rivers, except where some great inland +depression gives rise to a drainage having no outlet to the sea, and +except, also, in the “mesopotamia” region, where small streams +flow westward into the Paraná and eastward into the Uruguay. +The largest of the rivers through which Argentina drains into the +Plata system are the Pilcomayo, which rises in Bolivia and flows +south-east along the Argentine frontier for about 400 m.; the +Bermejo, which rises on the northern frontier and flows south-east +into the Paraguay; and the Salado del Norte (called Rio del Jura-mento +in its upper course), which rises on the high mountain slopes +of western Salta and flows south-east into the Paraná. Another +river of this class is the Carcarañal, about 300 m. long, formed by +the confluence of the Tercero and Cuarto, whose sources are in the +Sierra de Córdoba; it flows eastward across the pampas, and discharges +into the Paraná at Gaboto, about 40 m. above Rosario. +Other small rivers rising in the Córdoba sierras are the Primero and +Segundo, which flow into the lagoons of north-east Córdoba, and the +Quinto, which flows south-easterly into the lagoons and morasses +of southern Córdoba. The Luján rises near Mercedes, province of +Buenos Aires, is about 150 m. long, and flows north-easterly into +the Paraná delta. Many smaller streams discharge into the Paraguay +and Paraná from the west, some of them wholly dependent upon the +rains, and drying up during long droughts. The Argentine “mesopotamia” +is well watered by a large number of small streams flowing +north and west into the Paraná, and east into the Uruguay. The +largest of these are the Corrientes, Feliciano and Gualeguay of the +western slope, and the Aguapey and Miriñay of the eastern. None +of the tributaries of the La Plata system thus far mentioned is +navigable except the lower Pilcomayo and Bermejo for a few miles. +These Chaco rivers are obstructed by sand bars and snags, which +could be removed only by an expenditure of money unwarranted +by the present population and traffic. In the southern pampa +region there are many small streams, flowing into the La Plata +estuary and the Atlantic; most of these are unknown by name +outside the republic. The largest and only important river is the +Salado del Sud, which rises in the north-west corner of the province +of Buenos Aires and flows south-east for a distance of 360 m. into +the bay of Samborombon. On the southern margin of the pampas +are the Colorado and Negro, both large, navigable rivers flowing +entirely across the republic from the Andes to the Atlantic. Many +of the rivers of Argentina, as implied by their names (Salado and +Saladillo), are saline or brackish in character, and are of slight use +in the pastoral and agricultural industries of the country. The lakes +of Argentina are exceptionally numerous, although comparatively +few are large enough to merit a name on the ordinary general map. +They vary from shallow, saline lagoons in the north-western plateaus, +to great, picturesque, snow-fed lakes in the Andean foothills of +Patagonia. The province of Buenos Aires has more than 600 lakes, +the great majority small, and some brackish. The La Pampa +territory also is dotted with small lakes. The Bebedero, in San +Luis, and Porongos, in Córdoba, and others, are shallow, saline lakes +which receive the drainage of a considerable area and have no outlet. +The large saline Mar Chiquita, of Córdoba, is fed from the Sierra de +Córdoba and has no outlet. In the northern part of Gorrientes +there is a large area of swamps and shallow lagoons which are +believed to be slowly drying up.</p> + +<p><i>Harbours</i>.—Although having a great extent of coast-line, Argentina +has but few really good harbours. The two most frequented +by ocean-going vessels are Buenos Aires and Ensenada (La Plata), +both of which have been constructed at great expense to overcome +natural disadvantages. Perhaps the best natural harbour of the +republic is that of Bahia Blanca, a large bay of good depth, sheltered +by islands, and 534 m. by sea south of Buenos Aires; here the +government is building a naval station and port called Puerto +Militar or Puerto Belgrano, and little dredging is needed to render +the harbour accessible to the largest ocean-going vessels. About +100 m. south of Bahia Blanca is the sheltered bay of San Bias, +which may become of commercial importance, and between the +42nd and 43rd parallels are the land-locked bays of San José +and Nueva (Golfo Nuevo)—the first as yet unused; on the latter +is Puerto Madryn, 838 m. from Buenos Aires, the outlet for +the Welsh colony of Chubut. Other small harbours on the lower +Patagonian coast are not prominent, owing to lack of population. +An occasional Argentine steamer visits these ports in the interests +of colonists. The beet-known among them are Puerto Deseado +(Port Desire) at the mouth of the Deseado river (1253 m.), Santa +Cruz, at the mouth of the Santa Cruz river (1481 m.), and Ushuaia, +on Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego. North of Buenos Aires, on +the Paraná river, is the port of Rosario, the outlet for a rich agricultural +district, ranking next to the federal capital in importance. +Other river ports, of less importance, are Concordia on the Uruguay +river, San Nicolás and Campana on the Paraná river, Santa Fé on +the Salado, a few miles from the Paraná, the city of Paraná on the +Paraná river, and Gualeguay on the Gualeguay river.</p> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The Pampas of Argentina are generally covered by +loess. The Cordillera, which bounds them on the west, is formed of +folded beds, while the Sierras which rise in their midst, consist mainly +of gneiss, granite and schist. In the western Sierras, which are +more or less closely attached to the main chain of the Cordillera, +Cambrian and Silurian fossils have been found at several places. +These older beds are overlaid, especially in the western part of the +country, by a sandstone series which contains thin seams of coal +and many remains of plants. At Bajo de Velis, in San Luis, the +plants belong to the “Glossopteris flora,” which is so widely spread +in South Africa, India and Australia, and the beds are correlated +with the Karharbári series of India (Permian or Permo-Carboni-ferous). +Elsewhere the plants generally indicate a higher horizon +and are considered to correspond with the Rhaetic of Europe. +Jurassic beds are known only in the Cordillera itself, and the Cretaceous +beds, which occur in the west of the country, are of fresh-water +origin. As far west, therefore, as the Cordillera, there is no evidence +that any part of the region was ever beneath the sea in Mesozoic +times, and the plant-remains indicate a land connexion with Africa. +This view is supported by Neumayr’s comparison of Jurassic faunas +throughout the world. The Lower Tertiary consists largely of +reddish sandstones resting upon the old rocks of the Cordillera and +of the Sierras. Towards the east they lie at a lower level; but in +the Andes they reach a height of nearly 10,000 ft., and are strongly +folded, showing that the elevation of the chain was not completed +until after their deposition. The marine facies of the later Tertiaries +is confined to the neighbourhood of the coast, and was probably +formed after the elevation of the Andes; but inland, fresh-water +deposits of this period are met with, especially in Patagonia. Contemporaneous +volcanic rocks are associated with the Ordovician +beds and with the Rhaetic sandstones in several places. During the +Tertiary period the great volcanoes of the Andes were formed, and +there were smaller eruptions in the Sierras. The principal rocks are +andesites, but trachytes and basalts are also common. Great masses +of granite, syenite and diorite were intruded at this period, and send +tongues even into the andesitic tuffs.</p> + +<p>Silver, gold, lead and copper ores occur in many localities. +They are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the eruptive masses +of the hilly regions. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Andes</a></span>.)<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The great extent of Argentina in latitude—about 33°—and +its range in altitude from sea-level westward to the permanently +snow-covered peaks of the Andes, give it a highly diversified climate, +which is further modified by prevailing winds and mountain barriers. +The temperature and rainfall are governed by conditions different +from those in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere. +Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, for instance, although +they correspond in latitude to Labrador, are made habitable and an +excellent sheep-grazing country by the southerly equatorial current +along the continental coast. The climate, however, is colder than +the corresponding latitudes of western Europe, because of the prevailing +westerly winds, chilled in crossing the Andes. In the extreme +north-west an elevated region, whose aridity is caused by the +“blanketing” influence of the eastern Andean ranges, extends +southward to Mendoza. The northern part of the republic, east +of the mountains, is subject to the oscillatory movements of the +south-east trade winds, which cause a division of the year into wet +and dry seasons. Farther south, in Patagonia, the prevailing wind +is westerly, in which case the Andes again “blanket” an extensive +region and deprive it of rain, turning it into an arid desolate steppe. +Below this region, where the Andean barrier is low and broken, the +moist westerly winds sweep over the land freely and give it a large +rainfall, good pastures and a vigorous forest growth. If the republic +be divided into sections by east and west lines, diversities of climate +in the same latitude appear. In the extreme north a little over a +degree and a half of territory lies within the torrid zone, extending +from the Pilcomayo about 500 m. westward to the Chilean frontier; +its eastern end is in the low, wooded plain of the Gran Chaco, where +the mean annual temperature is 73° F., and the annual rainfall is +63 in.; but on the arid, elevated plateau at its western extremity +the temperature falls below 57° F., and the rainfall has diminished +to 2 in. The character of the soil changes from the alluvial lowlands +of the Gran Chaco, covered with forests of palms and other tropical +vegetation, to the sandy, saline wastes of the Puna de Atacama, +almost barren of vegetation and overshadowed by permanently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +snow-crowned peaks. Between the 30th and 31st parallels, a region +essentially sub-tropical in character, the temperature ranges from +66° on the eastern plains to 62-5° in Córdoba and 64° F. on the +higher, arid, sun-parched tablelands of San Juan. The rainfall, +which varies between 39 and 47 in. in Entre Rios, decreases to 27 in. +in Córdoba and 2 in. in San Juan. The republic has a width of about +745 m. at this point, three-fourths of which is a comparatively level +alluvial plain, and the remainder an arid plateau broken by mountain +ranges. In the vicinity of Buenos Aires the climatic conditions vary +very little from those of the pampa region; the mean annual temperature +is about 63° (maximum 104°; minimum 32°), and the annual +rainfall is 34 in.; snow is rarely seen. South of the pampa region, +on the 40th parallel, the mean temperature varies only slightly +in the 370 m. from the mouth of the Colorado to the Andes, ranging +from 57° to 55°; but the rainfall increases from 8 in. on the coast +to 16 in. on the east slope of the Cordillera. This section is near the +northern border of the arid Patagonian steppes. In Tierra del +Fuego (lat. 53° to 55°), the climatic conditions are in strong contrast +to those of the north. Here the mean temperature is between 46° +and 48° in summer and 36° and 38° in winter, rains are frequent, +and snow falls every month in the year. The central and southern +parts of the island and the neighbouring Staten Island are exceptionally +rainy, the latter having 251½ rainy days in the year. The +precipitation of rain, snow and hail is about 55 in.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:820px; height:1215px" src="images/img462.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img462a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2">The prevailing winds through this southern region are westerly, +being moist below the 52nd parallel, and dry between it and the +40th parallel. In the north and on the pampas the north wind is +hot and depressing, while the south wind is cool and refreshing. +The north wind usually terminates with a thunderstorm or with a +<i>pampero</i>, a cold south-west wind from the Andes which blows with +great violence, causes a fall in temperature of 15° to 20°, and is most +frequent from June to November—the southern winter and spring. +In the Andean region, a dry, hot wind from the north or north-west, +called the <i>Zonda</i>, blows with great intensity, especially in September-October, +and causes much discomfort and suffering. It is followed +by a cold south wind which often lowers the temperature 25°. The +climate of the pampas is temperate and healthy, and is admirably +suited to agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Its greatest defect is +the cold southerly and westerly storms, which cause great losses in +cattle and sheep. The Patagonian coast-line and mountainous region +are also healthy, having a dry and bracing climate. In the north, however, +the hot lowlands are malarial and unsuited to north European +settlement, while the dry, elevated plateaus are celebrated for their +healthiness, those of Catamarca having an excellent reputation as a +sanatorium for sufferers from pulmonary and bronchial diseases.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The flora of Argentina should be studied according to +natural zones corresponding to the physical divisions of the country—the +rich tropical and sub-tropical regions of the north, the treeless +pampas of the centre, the desert steppes of the south, and the arid +plateaus of the north-west. The vegetation of each region has its +distinctive character, modified here and there by elevation, irrigation +from mountain streams, and by the saline character of the soil. +In the extreme south, where an Arctic vegetation is found, the +pastures are rich, and the forests, largely of the Antarctic beech +(<i>Fagus antarctica</i>), are vigorous wherever the rainfall is heavy. +The greater part of Patagonia is comparatively barren and has no +arboreal growth, except in the well-watered valleys of the Andean +foothills. The water-courses and depressions of the shingly steppts +afford pasturage sufficient for the guanaco, and in places support a +thorny vegetation of low growth and starved appearance. The +Antarctic beech and Winter’s bark (<i>Drimys Winteri</i>) are found at +intervals along the Andes to the northern limits of this zone. The +pampas, which cover so large a part of the republic, have no native +trees whatever, and no woods except the scrubby growth of the delta +islands of the Paraná, and a fringe of low thorn-bushes along the +Atlantic coast south to Mar Chiquita and south of the Tandil sierra, +which, strictly speaking, does not belong to this region. The great +plains are covered with edible grasses, divided into two classes, +<i>pasto duro</i> (hard grass) and <i>pasto blando</i>, or <i>tierno</i> (soft grass)—the +former tall, coarse, nutritious and suitable for horses and cattle, +and the latter tender grasses and herbs, including clovers, suitable +for sheep and cattle. The so-called “pampas-grass” (<i>Gynerium +argenteum</i>) is not found at all on the dry lands, but in the wet grounds +of the south and south-west. The <i>pasto duro</i> is largely composed +of the genera <i>Stipa</i> and <i>Melica</i>. In the dry, saline regions of the +west and north-west, where the rainfall is slight, there are large +thickets of low-growing, thorny bushes, poor in foliage. The predominating +species is the chañar (<i>Gurliaca decorticans</i>), which produces +an edible berry, and occurs from the Rio Negro to the northern +limits of the republic. Huge cacti are also characteristic of this +region. On the lower slopes of the Andes are found oak, beech, +cedar, Winter’s bark, pine (<i>Araucaria imbricata</i>), laurel and calden +(<i>Prosopis algarobilla</i>). The provinces of Santa Fé, Córdoba and +Santiago del Estero are only partially wooded; large areas of plains +are intermingled with scrubby forests of algarrobo (<i>Prosopis</i>), +quebracho-blanco (<i>Aspido-sperma quebracho</i>), tala (<i>Celtis tola</i>, +<i>Sellowiana</i>, <i>acuminata</i>), acacias and other genera. In Tucumán +and eastern Salta the same division into forests and open plains +exists, but the former are of denser growth and contain walnut, +cedar, laurel, tipa (<i>Machaerium fertile</i>) and quebracho-colorado +(<i>Loxopterygium Lorentzii</i>). The territories of the Gran Chaco, +however, are covered with a characteristic tropical vegetation, in +which the palm predominates, but intermingled south of the Bermejo +with heavy growths of algarrobo, quebracho-colorado, urunday +(<i>Astronium fraxinifolium</i>), lapacho (<i>Tecoma curialis</i>) and palosanto +(<i>Cuayacum officinalis</i>), all esteemed for hardness and fineness of +grain. Other palms abound, such as the pindo (<i>Cocos australis</i>), +mbocaya (<i>Cocos sclerocarpa</i>) and the yatai (<i>Cocos yatai</i>), but the +predominating species north of the Bermejo is the caranday or +Brazilian wax-palm (<i>Copernicia cerifera</i>), which has varied uses. +The forest habit in this region is close association of species, and +there are “palmares,” “algarrobales,” “chañarales,” &c,, and +among these open pasture lands, giving to a distant landscape a +park-like appearance. In the “mesopotamia” region the flora is +similar to that of the southern Chaco, but in the Misiones it approximates +more to that of the neighbouring Brazilian highlands. Among +the marvellous changes wrought in Argentina by the advent of +European civilization, is the creation of a new flora by the introduction +of useful trees and plants from every part of the world. +Indian corn, quinoa, mandioca, possibly the potato, cotton and +various fruits, including the strawberry, were already known to +the aborigines, but with the conqueror came wheat, barley, oats, +flax, many kinds of vegetables, apples, peaches, apricots, pears, +grapes, figs, oranges and lemons, together with alfalfa and new +grasses for the plains. The Australian eucalyptus is now grown +in many places, and there are groves of the paradise or paraiso tree +(<i>Melia azedarach</i>) on the formerly treeless pampa. The cereals of +Europe are a source of increasing wealth to the nation, and alfalfa +promises new prosperity for pastoral industries.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—The Argentine fauna, like its flora, has been greatly +influenced by the character and position of the pampas. Whatever +it may have been in remote geological periods, it is now extremely +limited both in size and numbers. Of the indigenous fauna, the +tapir of the north and the guanaco of the west and south are the +largest of the animals. The pampas were almost destitute of animal +life before the horses and cattle of the Spanish invaders were there +turned out to graze, and the puma and jaguar never came there until +the herds of European cattle attracted them. The timid viscacha +(<i>Lagostomus trichodactylus</i>), living in colonies, often with the burrowing +owl, and digging deep under ground like the American prairie +dog, was almost the only quadruped to be seen upon these immense +open plains. The fox, of which several species exist, probably never +ventured far into the plain, for it afforded him no shelter. Immense +flocks of gulls were probably attracted to it then as now by its insect +life, and its lagoons and streams teemed with aquatic birds. The +occupation of this region by Europeans, and the introduction of +horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine, have completely changed +its aspect and character. On the Patagonian steppes there are +comparatively few species of animals. Among them are the puma +(<i>Felis concolor</i>), a smaller variety of the jaguar (<i>Felis onça</i>), the +wolf, the fox, the Patagonian hare (<i>Dolichotis patagonica</i>) and two +species of wild cat. The huge glyptodon once inhabited this region, +which now possesses the smallest armadillo known, the “quir-quincho” +or <i>Dasypus minutus</i>. The guanaco (<i>Auchenia</i>), which +ranges from Tierra del Fuego to the Bolivian highlands, finds comparative +safety in these uninhabitable solitudes, and is still numerous. +The “ñandú” or American ostrich (<i>Rhea americana</i>), inhabiting the +pampas and open plains of the Chaco, has in Patagonia a smaller +counterpart (<i>Rhea Darwinii</i>), which is never seen north of the Rio +Negro. On the arid plateaus of the north-west, the guanaco and +vicuña are still to be found, though less frequently, together with a +smaller species of viscacha (<i>Lagidium cuvieri</i>). The greatest development +of the Argentine fauna, however, is in the warm, wooded +regions of the north and north-east, where many animals are of the +same species as those in the neighbouring territories of Brazil. +Several species of monkeys inhabit the forests from the Paraná to +the Bolivian frontier. Pumas, jaguars and one or two species of +wild cat are numerous, as also the Argentine wolf and two of three +species of fox. The coatí, marten, skunk and otter (<i>Lutra paranensis</i>) +are widely distributed. Three species of deer are common. +In the Chaco the tapir or anta (<i>Tapir americanus</i>) still finds a safe +retreat, and the peccary (<i>Dycotyles torquatus</i>) ranges from Córdoba +north to the Bolivian frontier. The capybara (<i>Hydrochoerus capybara</i>) +is also numerous in this region. Of birds the number of species +greatly exceeds that of the mammals, including the rhea of the +pampas and condor of the Andes, and the tiny, brilliant-hued +humming-birds of the tropical North. Vultures and hawks are well +represented, but perhaps the most numerous of all are the parrots, +of which there are six or seven species. The reptilians are represented +in the Paraná by the jacaré (<i>Alligator sclerpos</i>), and on land by the +“iguana” (<i>Teius teguexim, Podinema teguixin</i>), and some species of +lizard. Serpents are numerous, but only two are described as +poisonous, the cascavel (rattlesnake) and the “vibora de la cruz” +(<i>Trigonocephalus alternatus</i>).<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span></p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—In population Argentina ranks second among +the republics of South America, having outstripped, during the +last quarter of the 19th century, the once more populous states +of Colombia and Peru. During the first half of the 19th century +civil war and despotic government seriously restricted the natural +growth of the country, but since the definite organization of the +republic in 1860 and the settlement of disturbing political +controversies, the population had increased rapidly. Climate +and a fertile soil have been important elements in this growth. +According to the first national census of 1869 the population +was 1,830,214. The census of 1895 increased this total to +3,954,911, exclusive of wild Indians and a percentage for omissions +customarily used in South American census returns. In 1904 +official estimates, based on immigration and emigration returns +and upon registered births and deaths, both of which are admittedly +defective, showed a population increased to 5,410,028, +and a small diminution in the rate of annual increase from 1895 +to 1904 as compared with 1860-1895. The birth-rate is exceptionally +high, largely because of the immigrant population, +the greater part of which is concentrated in or near the large +cities. In the rural districts of the northern provinces, the +increase in population is much less than in the central provinces, +the conditions of life being less favourable. According to the +official returns,<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> the over-sea immigration for the forty-seven +years 1857-1903 aggregated 2,872,588, while the departure of +emigrants during the same period was 1,066,480, showing a net +addition to the population of 1,806,108. A considerable percentage +of these arrivals and departures represents seasonal +labourers, who come out from Europe solely for the Argentine +wheat harvest and should not be classed as immigrants. Unfavourable +political and economic conditions of a temporary +character influence the emigration movement. During the years +1880-1889, when the country enjoyed exceptional prosperity, +the arrivals numbered 1,020,907 and the departures only 175,038, +but in 1890-1899, a period of financial depression following the +extravagant Celman administration, the arrivals were 928,865 +and the departures 532,175. Another disturbing influence has +been the high protective tariffs, adopted during the closing years +of the century, which increased the costs of living more rapidly +than the wages for labour, and compelled thousands of immigrants +to seek employment elsewhere. The influence of such legislation +on unsettled immigrant labourers may be seen in the number +of Italians who periodically migrate from Argentina to Brazil, +and <i>vice versa</i>, seeking to better their condition. Of the immigrant +arrivals for the forty-seven years given, 1,331,536 were Italians, +414,973 Spaniards, 170,293 French, 37,953 Austrians, 35,435 +British, 30,699 Germans, 25,775 Swiss, 19,521 Belgians, and the +others of diverse nationalities, so that Argentina is in no danger +of losing her Latin character through immigration. This large +influx of Europeans, however, is modifying the population by +reducing the Indian and <i>mestizo</i> elements to a minority, although +they are still numerous in the mesopotamian, northern and +north-western provinces. The language is Spanish.</p> + +<p><i>Science and Literature</i>.—Though the university of Córdoba +is the oldest but one in South America, it has made no conspicuous +contribution to Argentine literature beyond the historical +works of its famous rector, Gregorio Funes (1749-1830). +This university was founded in 1621 and the university of +Buenos Aires in 1821, but although Bonpland and some other +European scientists were members of the faculty of Buenos Aires +in its early years, neither there nor at Córdoba was any marked +attention given to the natural sciences until President Sarmiento +(official term, 1868-1874) initiated scientific instruction at the +university of Córdoba under the eminent German naturalist, +Dr Hermann Burmeister (1807-1892), and founded the National +Observatory at Córdoba and placed it under the direction of +the noted American astronomer, Benjamin Apthorp Gould +(1824-1896). Both of these men made important contributions +to science, and rendered an inestimable service to the country, +not only through their publications but also through the interest +they aroused in scientific research. A bureau of meteorology +was afterwards created at Córdoba which has rendered valuable +service. Dr Burmeister was afterwards placed in charge of the +provincial museum of Buenos Aires, and devoted himself to the +acquisition of a collection of fossil remains, now in the La Plata +museum, which ranks among the best of the world. Not only has +scientific study advanced at the university of Buenos Aires, +but scientific research is promoting the development of the +country; examples are the geographical explorations of the +Andean frontier, and especially of the Patagonian Andes, by +Francisco P. Moreno. In literature Argentina is still under the +spell of Bohemianism and dilettanteism. Exceptions are the +admirable biographies of Manuel Belgrano (d. 1820) and San +Martin, important contributions to the history of the country +and of the war of independence, by ex-President Bartolomé +Mitre (1821-1906). Buenos Aires has some excellent daily +journals, but the tone of the press in general is sensational. +The number of newspapers published is large, especially in +Buenos Aires, where in 1902 the total, including sundry periodicals, +was 183.</p> + +<p><i>Political Divisions and Towns</i>.—The chief political divisions +of the republic consist of one federal district, 14 provinces and +10 territories, the last in great part dating from the settlement +of the territorial controversies with Chile. For purposes of local +administration the provinces are divided into departments. +The names, area and population of the provinces and territories +are as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Administrative Divisions.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.<br />1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop. est.<br />for 1904.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  <i>Provinces</i>—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Federal Capital</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">663,854</td> <td class="tcr rb">979,235</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Buenos Aires</td> <td class="tcr rb">117,778</td> <td class="tcr rb">921,168</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,312,953</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santa Fé</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,916</td> <td class="tcr rb">397,188</td> <td class="tcr rb">640,755</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Entre Rios</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,784</td> <td class="tcr rb">292,019</td> <td class="tcr rb">367,006</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Corrientes</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,580</td> <td class="tcr rb">239,618</td> <td class="tcr rb">299,479</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Córdoba</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">351,223</td> <td class="tcr rb">465,464</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">San Luis</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,535</td> <td class="tcr rb">81,450</td> <td class="tcr rb">97,458</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santiago del Estero</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,764</td> <td class="tcr rb">161,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">186,206</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mendoza</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">116,136</td> <td class="tcr rb">159,780</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">San Juan</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,715</td> <td class="tcr rb">84,251</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,933</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rioja</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,546</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,302</td> <td class="tcr rb">82,099</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Catamarca</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,531</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,161</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,082</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tucumán</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,926</td> <td class="tcr rb">215,742</td> <td class="tcr rb">263,079</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salta</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,184</td> <td class="tcr rb">118,015</td> <td class="tcr rb">136,059</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jujuy</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,977</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,713</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,430</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  <i>Territories</i>—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Misiones</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,282</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,163</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,755</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Formosa</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,402</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,829</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,094</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chaco</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,741</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,422</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,937</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pampa</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,320</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,914</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Neuquen</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,345</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,517</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,022</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rio Negro</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,924</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,241</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,648</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chobut</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,427</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,748</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santa Cruz</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,142</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,058</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,793</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tierra del Fuego</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,299</td> <td class="tcr rb">477</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,411</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Los Andes</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">21,989</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,095</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Total</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,135,840</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,954,911</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,410,028</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Gotha computations of 1902<br /> with corrections for boundary<br />  + changes.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb" style="vertical-align: bottom;">1,083,596</td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>The principal towns, with estimated population for 1905, +are as follows: Buenos Aires (1,025,653), Rosario (129,121), +La Plata (85,000), Tucumán (55,000), Córdoba (43.000), Sante Fé +(33,200), Mendoza (32,000), Paraná (27,000), Salta (18,000), +Corrientes (18,000), Chivilcoy (15,000), Gualeguaychú (13,300), +San Nicolás (13,000), Concordia (11,700), San Juan (11,500), +Río Cuarto (10,800), San Luis (10,500), Barracas al Sud (10,200).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Communications</i>.—The development of railways in Argentina, +which dates from 1857 when the construction of the Buenos Aires +Western was begun, was at first slow and hesitating, but after 1880 +it went forward rapidly. Official corruption and speculation have +led to some unsound ventures, but in the great majority of cases the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +lines constructed have been beneficial and productive. The principal +centres of the system are Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia Blanca, +with La Plata as a secondary centre to the former, and from these the +lines radiate westward and northward. The creation of a commercial +port at Bahia Blanca and the development of the territories +of La Pampa, Rio Negro and Neuquen, have given an impetus to +railway construction in that region, and new lines are being extended +toward the promising districts among the Andean foothills. Beginning +with 6 m. in 1857, the railway mileage of the republic increased +to 1563 m. in 1880, 5865 m. in 1890, 7752 m. in 1891, 10,304 m. in +1901, and 12,274 m. in 1906, with 1794 m. under construction. +The greater development of railway construction between 1885 and +1891 was due, principally, to the dubious concessions of interest +guarantees by the Celman administration, and also to the fever +of speculation. Some of these lines resulted disastrously. The +Transandine line, designed to open railway communication between +Buenos Aires and Valparaiso, was so far completed early in 1909 +that on the Argentine side only the summit tunnel, 2 m. 127 yds. +long, remained to be finished. The piercing was completed in Nov. +1909, but in the meantime passengers were conveyed by road over +the pass. The gauge is broken at Mendoza, the Buenos Aires and +Pacific having a gauge of 5 ft. 6 in. and the Transandine of one metre.</p> + +<p>Tramway lines, which date from 1870, are to be found in all +important towns. Those of Buenos Aires, Rosario and La Plata +are owned by public companies. According to the census returns of +1895, the total mileage was 496 m., representing a capital expenditure +of $84,044,581 paper. Electric traction was first used in Buenos +Aires in 1897, since when nearly all the lines of that city have been +reconstructed to meet its requirements, and subways are contemplated +to relieve the congested street traffic of the central districts; +the companies contribute 6% of their gross receipts to the municipality, +besides paying $50 per annum per square on each single track +in paved streets, 5 per thousand on the value of their property, and +33% of the cost of street repaving and renewals.</p> + +<p>The telegraph lines of Argentina are subject to the national +telegraph law of 1875, the international telegraph conventions, and +special conventions with Brazil and Uruguay. In 1902 the total +length of wires strung was 28,125 m.; in 1906 it had been increased +to 34,080 m. The national lines extend from Buenos Aires north to +La Quiaca on the Bolivian frontier (1180 m.), and south to Cape +Virgenes (1926 m.), at the entrance to the Straits of Magellan. +Telegraphic communication with Europe is effected by cables laid +along the Uruguayan and Brazilian coasts, and by the Brazilian +land lines to connect with transatlantic cables from Pernambuco. +Communication with the United States is effected by land lines to +Valparaiso, and thence by a cable along the west coast. The service +is governed by the international telegraph regulations, but is subject +to local inspection and interruption in times of political disorder.</p> + +<p>The postal and telegraph services are administered by the national +government, and are under the immediate supervision of the minister +of the interior. Argentina has been a member of the Postal Union +since 1878. Owing to the great distances which must be covered, +and also to the defective means of communication in sparsely settled +districts, the costs of the postal service in Argentina are unavoidably +high in relation to the receipts.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping</i>.—Although Argentina has an extensive coast-line, and +one of the great fluvial systems of the world, the tonnage of steamers +and sailing vessels flying her flag is comparatively small. In 1898 +the list comprised only 1416 sailing vessels of all classes, from 10 tons +up, with a total tonnage of 118,894 tons, and 222 steamships, of +36,323 tons. There has been but slight improvement since that date. +There are excellent fishing grounds on the coast, but they have had +no appreciable influence in developing a commerical marine. The +steamships under the national flag are almost wholly engaged in +the traffic between Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the river traffic, +and port services.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture</i>.—In 1878 the production of wheat was insufficient +for home consumption, the amount of Indian corn grown barely +covered local necessities, and the only market for live stock +was in the slaughtering establishments, where the meat +<span class="sidenote">Live stock, &c.</span> +was cut into strips and cured, making the so-called +“jerked beef” for the Brazilian and Cuban markets. But three +years later a new economic development began. In 1881 President +Roca offered for public purchase by auction the lands in the south-west +of the province of Buenos Aires, the Pampa Central, and the +Neuquen district, these lands having been rendered habitable after +the campaign of 1878 against the Indians. The upset (reserve) price +was £80 sterling per square league of 6669 acres, and, as the lands +were quickly sold, an expansion of the pastoral industry immediately +ensued. The demand for animals for stock-breeding purposes sent +up prices, and this acted as a stimulus to other branches of trade, +so that, as peace under the Roca regime seemed assured, a steady +flow of immigration from Italy set in. The development of the +pastoral industry of Argentina from that time to the end of the +century was remarkable. In 1878 the number of cattle was +12,000,000; of sheep, 65,000,000; and of horses, 4,000,000; in +1899 the numbers were—cattle, 25,000,000; sheep, 89,000,000; +and horses, about 4,500,000. Originally the cattle were nearly all +of the long-horned Spanish breed and of little value for their meat, +except to the saladero establishments. Gradually Durham, Shorthorn, +Hereford and other stock were introduced to improve the +native breeds, with results so satisfactory that now herds of three-quarters-bred cattle are to be found in all parts of the country. +Holstein, Jersey and other well-known dairy breeds were imported +for the new industries of butter- and cheese-making. Not only has +the breed of cattle been improved, but the system of grazing has +completely altered. Vast areas of land have been ploughed and +sown with lucerne (alfalfa); magnificent permanent pasturage has +been created where there were coarse and hard grasses in former +days, and Argentina has been able to add baled hay to her list of +exports. In 1889 the first shipment of Argentine cattle, consisting +altogether of 1930 steers, was sent to England. The results of these +first experiments were not encouraging, owing mainly to the poor +class of animals, but the exporters persevered, and the business +steadily grew in value and importance, until in 1898 the number of +live cattle shipped was 359,296, which then decreased to 119,189 +in 1901, because of the foot-and-mouth disease. In 1906 the export +of live stock was prohibited for that reason. Large quantities of +frozen and preserved meat are exported, profitable prices being +realized. Dairy-farming is making rapid strides, and the development +of sheep-farming has been remarkable. In 1878, 65,000,000 +sheep yielded 230,000,000 Ib weight of wool, or an average per sheep +of, about 3½ ℔ In the season of 1899-1900 the wool exports weighed +420,000,000 Ib, and averaged more than 5 ℔ per sheep. The extra +weight of fleece was owing to the large importation of better breeds. +The export, moreover, of live sheep and of frozen mutton to Europe +has become an important factor in the trade of Argentina. In 1892 +the number of live sheep shipped for foreign ports was 40,000; in +1898 the export reached a total of 577,813, which in 1901 fell off +to 25,746. In 1892 the frozen mutton exported was 25,500 tons, +and this had increased in 1901 to 63,013 tons.</p> + +<p>The advance made in agricultural industry also is of very great +importance. In 1872 the cultivated area was about 1,430,000 acres; +in 1895, 12,083,000 acres; in 1901, 17,465,973 acres. In +1899 the wheat exports exceeded 50,000,000 bushels, and +<span class="sidenote">Crops.</span> +the Indian corn 40,000,000 bushels. The area under wheat in +1901 was 8,351,843 acres; Indian corn, 3,102,140 acres; linseed, +1,512,340 acres; alfalfa, 3,088,929 acres. The farming industry is +not, however, on a satisfactory basis. No national lands in accessible +districts are available for the application of a homestead law, and +the farmer too often has no interest in the land beyond the growing +crops, a percentage of the harvest being the rent charged by the +owner of the property. This system is mischievous, since, if a few, +consecutive bad seasons occur, the farmer moves to some more +favoured spot; while, on the other hand, a succession of good years +tends to increase rents. The principal wheat and Indian corn producing +districts lie in the provinces of Santa Fé, Buenos Aires, +Córdoba and Entre Rios, and the average yield of wheat throughout +the country is about 12 bushels to the acre. Little attention is paid +to methods of cultivation, and the farmer has no resources to help +him if the cereal crops fail. In the Andean provinces of Mendoza, +San Juan, Catamarca and Rioja viticulture attracts much attention, +and the area in vineyards in 1901 was 109,546 acres, only 18% of +which was outside the four provinces named. Wine is manufactured +in large quantities, but the output is not sufficient to meet the home +demand. In the provinces of Tucumán, Salta and Jujuy the main +industry is sugar growing and manufacture. In 1901 the production +of sugar was 151,639 tons, of which 58,000 tons were exported. +The sugar manufacture, however, is a protected and bounty-fed +industry, and the 51 sugar mills in operation in 1901 are a +heavy tax upon consumers and taxpayers. Other products are +tobacco, olives, castor-oil, peanuts, canary-seed, barley, rye, fruit +and vegetables.</p> + +<p>The pastoral and agricultural industries have been hampered by +fluctuations in the value of the currency, farm products being sold +at a gold value for the equivalent in paper, while labourers are paid +in currency. The existing system of taxation also presses heavily +upon the provinces, as may be seen from the fact that the national, +provincial and municipal exactions together amount to £7 per head +of population, while the total value of the exports in 1898 was only +£6 in round numbers. The <i>guia</i> tax on the transport of stock from +one province to another, which has been declared unconstitutional +in the courts, is still enforced, and is a vexatious tax upon the +stock-raiser, while the consumption, or <i>octroi</i>, tax in Buenos Aires +and other cities is a heavy burden upon small producers.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures</i>.—Manufacturing enterprise in Argentina, favoured +by the protection of a high tariff, made noticeable progress in the +national capital during the closing years of the last century, especially +in those small industries which commanded a secure market. +The principal classes of products affected are foods, wearing apparel, +building materials, furniture, &c., chemical products, printing and +allied trades, and sundry others, such as cigars, matches, tanning, +paints, &c. In some manufactures the raw material is imported +partly manufactured, such as thread for weaving. The lack of coal +in Argentina greatly increases the difficulty and cost of maintaining +these industries, and high prices of the products result. Electric +power generated by steam is now commonly used in Buenos Aires +and other large cities for driving light machinery.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce</i>.—The rapid development of the foreign trade of the +republic since 1881 is due to settled internal conditions and to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span> +prime necessity to the commercial world of many Argentine products, +such as beef, mutton, hides, wool, wheat and Indian corn. Efforts +to hasten this development have created some serious financial +and industrial crises, and have burdened the country with heavy +debts and taxes. During the decade 1881-1890 great sums of +European capital were invested in railways and other undertakings, +encouraged by the grant of interest guarantees and by state mortgage +bank loans in the form of <i>cedulas</i>, nominally secured on landed +property. In 1890 the crisis came, the mortgage banks failed, credits +were contracted, the value of property declined, defaults were +common, imports decreased, and the losses to the country were +enormous. The constant fluctuations in the value of the currency, +then much depreciated, intensified the distress and complicated the +situation. Recovery required years, although made easier by the +sound and steady development of the pastoral and agricultural +industries, which were slightly affected by the crisis; and the steadily +increasing volume of exports, mainly foodstuffs and other staples, +saved the situation. There have been some changes in commercial +methods since 1890, the retailer, and sometimes the consumer, +importing direct to save intermediate commission charges. Such +transactions are made easy by the foreign banks established in all +the large cities of the republic. The conversion law of 1899, which +gave a fixed gold value to the currency (44 centavos gold for each 100 +centavos paper), has had beneficial influence on commercial transactions, +through the elimination of daily fluctuations in the value of +the currency, and the commercial and financial situation has been +steadily improved, notwithstanding heavy taxation and tariff restrictions. +The import trade shows the largest totals in foodstuffs, +wines and liquors, textiles and raw materials for their manufacture, +wood and its manufactures, iron and its manufactures, paper and +cardboard, glass and ceramic wares. The official valuation of +imports, which is arbitrary and incorrect, was $164,569,884 gold in +1889, fell off to $67,207,780 in 1891, but gradually increased to +$205,154,420 in 1905. The exports, which are almost wholly of +agricultural and pastoral products, increased from $103,219,000 in +1891 to $322,843,841 in 1905.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government</i>.—The present constitution of Argentina dates +from the 25th of September 1860. The legislative power is +vested in a congress of two chambers—the senate, composed of +30 members (two from each province and two from the capital), +elected by the provincial legislatures and by a special body of +electors in the capital for a term of nine years; and the chamber +of deputies, of 120 members (1906), elected for four years by +direct vote of the people, one deputy for every 33,000 inhabitants. +To the chamber of deputies exclusively belongs the initiation +of all laws relating to the raising of money and the conscription +of troops. It has also the exclusive right to impeach the +president, vice-president, cabinet ministers, and federal judges +before the senate. The executive power is exercised by the +president, elected by presidential electors from each province +chosen by direct vote of the people. The president and vice-president +are voted for by separate tickets. The system closely +resembles that followed in the United States. The president +must be a native citizen of Argentina, a Roman Catholic, not +under thirty years of age, and must have an annual income of at +least $2000. His term of office is six years, and neither he nor +the vice-president is eligible for the next presidential term. +All laws are sanctioned and promulgated by the president, who +is invested with the veto power, which can be overruled only by +a two-thirds vote. The president, with the advice and consent +of the senate, appoints judges, diplomatic agents, governors of +territories, and officers of the army and navy above the rank +of colonel. All other officers and officials he appoints and promotes +without the consent of the senate. The cabinet is composed +of eight ministers—the heads of the government departments +of the interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, marine, +justice, agriculture, and public works. They are appointed by +and may be removed by the president.</p> + +<p>Justice is administered by a supreme federal court of five +judges and an attorney-general, which is also a court of appeal, +four courts of appeal, with three judges each, located in Buenos +Aires, La Plata, Paraná and Córdoba, and by a number of +inferior and local courts. Each province has also its own +judicial system. Trial by jury is established by the constitution, +but never practised. Civil and criminal courts are both corrupt +and dilatory. In May 1899 the minister of justice stated in the +chamber of deputies that the machinery of the courts in the +country was antiquated, unwieldy and incapable of performing +its duties; that 50,000 cases were then waiting decision in the +minor courts, and 10,000 in the federal division; and that a +reconstruction of the judiciary and the judicial system had +become necessary. In June 1899 he sent his project for the +reorganization of the legal procedure to congress, but no action +was then taken beyond referring the bill to a committee for +examination and report. The proceedings are, with but few +exceptions, written, and the procedure is a survival of the antiquated +Spanish system.</p> + +<p>Under the constitution, the provinces retain all the powers not +delegated to the federal government. Each province has its +own constitution, which must be republican in form and in +harmony with that of the nation. Each elects its governor, +legislators and provincial functionaries of all classes, without +the intervention of the federal government. Each has its own +judicial system, and enacts laws relating to the administration +of justice, the distribution and imposition of taxes, and all +matters affecting the province. All the public acts and judicial +decisions of one province have full legal effect and authority +in all the others. In cases of armed resistance to a provincial +government, the national government exercises the right to +intervene by the appointment of an interventor, who becomes the +executive head of the province until order is restored. The territories +are under the direct control of the national government.</p> + +<p><i>Army</i>.—The military service of the republic was reorganized +in 1901, and is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of +20 and 45. The army consists of: (1) The Line, comprising +the Active and Reserve, in which all citizens 20 to 28 years +of age are obliged to serve; (2) the National Guard, comprising +citizens of 28 to 40 years; (3) the Territorial Guard, comprising +those 40 to 45 years. Conscripts of 20 years of age have to +serve two years, three months each year. The active or standing +army comprises 18 battalions of infantry, 12 regiments of +cavalry, 8 regiments of artillery, and 4 battalions of engineers. +A military school, with 125 cadets, is maintained at San Martin, +near the national capital, and a training school for non-commissioned +officers in the capital itself. Compulsory attendance +of young men at national guard drills is enforced for at least +two months of the year, under penalty of enforced service in the +Line. In 1906 the president announced that permission had +been given by the German emperor for 30 Argentine officers to +enter the German army each year and to serve eighteen months, +and also for five officers to attend the Berlin Military Academy. +The equipment of the standing army is thoroughly modern, the +infantry being provided with Mauser rifles and the artillery with +Krupp batteries.</p> + +<p><i>Navy</i>.—The disputes with Chile during the closing years of +the 19th century led to a large increase in the navy, but in 1902 +a treaty between the two countries provided for the restriction +of further armaments for the next four years. The naval vessels +then under construction were accordingly sold, but in 1906 both +countries, influenced apparently by the action of Brazil, gave +large orders in Europe for new vessels. At the time when further +armaments were suspended, the effective strength of the +Argentine navy consisted of 3 ironclads, 6 first-class armoured +cruisers, 2 monitors (old), 4 second-class cruisers, 2 torpedo +cruisers, 3 destroyers, 3 high-sea torpedo boats, 14 river torpedo +boats, 1 training ship, 5 transports, and various auxiliary +vessels. Two of these first-class cruisers were sold to Japan. +The armament included 394 guns of all calibres, 6 of which were +of 250 millimetres, 4 of 240, and 12 of 200. There are about +320 officers in active service, and the total personnel ranges +from 5000 to 6000 men. The service is not popular, and it is +recruited by means of conscription from the national guard, the +term of service being two years. These conscripts number +about 2000 a year. In addition, there is a corps of coast artillery +numbering 450 men, from which garrisons are drawn for the +military port, Zárate arsenal and naval prison. The government +maintains a naval school at Flores, a school of mechanics +in Buenos Aires, an artillery school on the cruiser “Patagonia,” +and a school for torpedo practice at La Plata. The +naval arsenal is situated on the “north basin” of the Buenos +Aires port, and the military port at Bahia Blanca is provided +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span> +with a dry dock of the largest size, and extensive repair shops. +There is also a dockyard and torpedo arsenal at La Plata, +an artillery depot at Zárate, above Buenos Aires, and naval +depots on the island of Martin Garcia and at Tigre, on the +Luján river.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—Primary education is free and secular, and is +compulsory for children of 6 to 14 years. In the national +capital and territories it is supervised by a national council +of education with the assistance of local school boards; in the +14 provinces it is under provincial control. Secondary instruction +is also free, but is not compulsory. It is under the +control of the national government, which in 1902 maintained +10 colleges. Of these colleges four are in Buenos Aires, one in +each province, and one in Conceptión del Uruguay. For the +instruction of teachers the republic has 28 normal schools, as +follows: three in the national capital; one in Paraná, three +(regional) in Corrientes, San Luis and Catamarca; 14 for +female teachers in the provincial capitals; and seven for either +sex in the larger towns of the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa +Fé, Córdoba and San Luis. The normal schools, maintained by +the state on a secular basis, were founded by President Sarmiento, +who engaged experienced teachers in the United States to direct +them; their work is excellent; notably, their model primary +schools. For higher and professional education there are two +national universities at Buenos Aires and Córdoba, and three +provincial universities, at La Plata, Santa Fé and Paraná, which +comprise faculties of law, medicine and engineering, in addition +to the usual courses in arts and science. To meet the needs +of technical and industrial education there are a school of mines +at San Juan, a school of viticulture at Mendoza, an agronomic +and veterinary school at La Plata, several agricultural and +pastoral schools, and commercial schools in Buenos Aires, +Rosario, Bahia Blanca and Concordia. Schools of art and +conservatories of music are also maintained in the large cities, +where there are, besides, many private schools. Secular education +has been vigorously opposed by strict churchmen, and +efforts have been made to maintain separate schools under +church control. The national government has founded several +scholarships (some in art) for study abroad. The total school +population of Argentina in 1900 (6 to 14 years) was 994,089, of +which 45% attended school, and 13% of those not attending +were able to read and write. The illiterate school population +was about 41%, and of those of 15 years and over 54% were +illiterate. Of the whole population over 6 years, 50.5% were +illiterate.</p> + +<p><i>Religion</i>.—The Argentine constitution recognizes the Roman +Catholic religion as that of the state, but tolerates all others. +The state controls all ecclesiastical appointments, decides on +the passing or rejection of all decrees of the Holy See, and +provides an annual subsidy for maintenance of the churches and +clergy. Churches and chapels are founded and maintained by +religious orders and private gift as well. At the head of the +Argentine hierarchy are one archbishop and five suffragan +bishops, who have five seminaries for the education of the +priesthood. From statistics of 1895 it appears that in each +1000 of population 991 are Roman Catholics, 7 Protestants, and +2 Jews, the Jews being entirely of Russian origin, sent into the +republic since 1891 by the Jewish Colonization Association +under the provisions of the Hirsch legacy; from 1895 to 1908 +the number of Jews in Argentina increased from 6085 to about +30,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Finance</i>.—The revenue of the republic is derived mainly from +customs and excise, and the largest item of expenditure is the service +of the public debt. Since 1891 the national budgets have been +calculated in both gold and currency, and both receipts and expenditures +have been carried out in this dual system. The collection +of a part of the import duties in gold has served to give the government +the gold it requires for certain expenditures, but it has complicated +returns and accounts and increased the burden of taxation. +According to a compilation of statistical returns published by Dr. +Francisco Latzina in 1901, the national revenues and expenditures +for the 37 years from 1864 to 1900, inclusive, reduced to a +common standard, show a total deficit for that period of $408,260,795 +gold, which has been met by external and internal loans, and by a +continued increase in the scope and rate of taxation. The growth +of the annual budget is shown by a comparison of the following +years:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">Total Revenue.</td> <td class="tcc">Total Expenditure.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc cl">1864</td> <td class="tcl cl">$7,005,328 gold.</td> <td class="tcl cl"> $7,119,931 gold.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcl">19,594,306  ”</td> <td class="tcl"> 26,919,295  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc cl">1890</td> <td class="tcl cl">73,150,856  ”</td> <td class="tcl cl"> 95,363,854  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" style="vertical-align: middle;" rowspan="2">1900</td> <td class="tcl">62,045,458 paper.</td> <td class="tcl">104,501,614 paper.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl">37,998,704 gold.</td> <td class="tcl"> 23,644,543 gold.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc cl" style="vertical-align: middle;" rowspan="2">1905</td> <td class="tcl cl">63,439,000 paper.</td> <td class="tcl cl">105,581,680 paper.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl cl">43,461,324 gold.</td> <td class="tcl cl"> 24,865,016 gold.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2">The bane of Argentine finance has been the extravagant and unscrupulous +use of national credit for the promotion of schemes +calculated to benefit individuals rather than the public. The large +increase in military expenditures during the disputes with Chile +also proved a heavy burden, and in the continued strife with Brazil +for naval superiority this burden could not fail to be increased greatly. +A very considerable percentage of Argentina’s population of five +to six millions is hopelessly poor and unprogressive, and cannot be +expected to bear its share of the burden. To meet these expenditures +there are a high tariff on imported merchandise, and excise and stamp +taxes of a far-reaching and often vexatious character. Nothing is +permitted to escape taxation, and duplicated taxes on the same thing +are frequent. In Argentina these burdens bear heavily upon the +labouring classes, and in years of depression they send away by +thousands immigrants unable to meet the high costs of living. +For the year 1900 the total expenditures of the national government, +14 provincial governments, and 16 principal cities, were estimated +to have been $208,811,925 paper, which is equivalent to $91,877,247 +gold, or (at $5.04 per pound stg.) to £18,229,612, 10s. The population +that year was estimated to be 4,794,149, from which it is +seen that the annual costs of government were no less than £3, 16s. +for each man, woman, and child in the republic. About 71% of +this charge was on account of national expenditures, and 29% +provincial and municipal expenditures. Had the expenses of all +the small towns and rural communities been included, the total would +be in excess of $20 gold, or £4, <i>per capita</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1889 the public debt of the republic amounted to about +£24,000,000, but the financial difficulties which immediately followed +that year, and the continuance of excessive expenditures, forced +the debt up to approximately £128,000,000 during the next ten +years. In the year 1905 the outstanding and authorized debt of the +republic was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">External debt (July 31, 1905):</td> <td class="tcr cl"> </td> <td class="tcr cl"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> National loans</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">£42,297,050</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Provincial loans and others, assumed</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">30,395,916</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> National cedulas</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">11,763,923</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">   Total</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr" style="text-decoration: overline;">£84,456,889</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Consolidated Internal debt (Dec. 31, 1904):</td> <td class="tcr cl"> </td> <td class="tcr cl"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> Gold</td> <td class="tcr">$16,544,000</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Paper</td> <td class="tcr">79,174,400</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td> <td class="tcr">£10,178,718 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> Total service on funded debt, 1905,</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  $24,375,067 gold, and $15,914,335 paper</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">£6,225,669</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Floating debt</td> <td class="tcr">£259,170</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Treasury bills (Apr. 30, 1905)</td> <td class="tcr">275,220</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Unpaid bills, $3,332,594, paper</td> <td class="tcr">288,560</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcr">£822,950</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The paper currency forms an important part of the internal debt, +and has been a fruitful source of trouble to the country. Few +countries have suffered more from a depreciated currency than +Argentina. During the era of so-called “prosperity” between +1881 and 1890 an enormous amount of bank notes were issued under +various authorizations, especially that of the “free banking law” +of 1887. During this period the bank-note circulation was increased +to $161,700,000, and two mortgage banks—the National Hypothecary +Bank and the Provincial Mortgage Bank (of Buenos Aires)—flooded +the country with $509,000,000 of <i>cedulas</i> (hypothecary +bonds). When the crash came and the national treasury was found +to be without resources to meet current expenses, further issues of +$110,000,000 in currency were made. The free-banking law which +permitted the issue of notes by provincial banks was primarily +responsible for this situation. Under the provisions of this law the +provinces were authorized to borrow specie abroad and deposit the +same with the national government as security for their issues. +These loans aggregated £27,000,000. The Celman administration, +in violation of the trust, then sold the specie and squandered the +proceeds, leaving the provincial bank notes without guarantee and +value. The national government has since assumed responsibility +for all these provincial loans abroad. As on previous occasions, the +great depreciation in the value of the currency has led to a repudiation +of part of its nominal value. This depreciation reached its +maximum in October 1891 ($460.82 paper for $100 gold), and +remained between that figure and $264 during the next six years. +To check these prejudicial fluctuations and to prevent too great +a fall in the price of gold (to repeat a popular misconception), a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span> +conversion law was adopted on the 31st of October 1899, which provided +that the outstanding circulation should be redeemed at the rate of +44 centavos gold for each 100 centavos paper, the official rate for +gold being 227.27. Provisions were also made for the creation of +a special conversion fund in specie to guarantee the circulation, +which fund reached a total of $100,000,000 in March 1906. These +measures have served to give greater stability to the value of the +circulating medium, and to prevent the ruinous losses caused by a +constant fluctuation in value, but the rate established prevents the +further appreciation of the currency. On the 18th of January 1906 +the currency in circulation amounted to $502,420,485, which is +more than $95 <i>per capita</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p>The first Europeans who visited the river Plate were a party +of Spanish explorers in search of a south-west passage to the +East Indies. Their leader, Juan Diaz de Solis, landing incautiously +in 1516 on the north coast with a few attendants to +parley with a body of Charrua Indians, was suddenly attacked +by them and was killed, together with a number of his followers. +This untoward disaster led to the abandonment of the expedition, +which forthwith returned to Spain, bringing with them the news +of the discovery of a fresh-water sea. Four years later (1520) +the Portuguese seaman, Ferdinand Magellan, entered the +estuary in his celebrated voyage round the world, undertaken +in the service of the king of Spain (Charles I., better known as +the emperor Charles V.). Magellan, as soon as he had satisfied +himself that there was no passage to the west, left the river +without landing.</p> + +<p>The first attempt to penetrate by way of the river Plate and +its affluents inland, with a view to effecting settlements in the +interior, was made in 1526 by Sebastian Cabot. This +great navigator had already won renown in the service +<span class="sidenote">Cabot.</span> +of Henry VII. of England by his voyage to the coast of North +America in company with his father, Giovanni Caboto or Cabot +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cabot, John</a></span>). Sebastian Cabot had in 1519 deserted +England for Spain, and had received from King Charles the post +of pilot-major formerly held by Juan de Solis. In 1526 he was +sent out in command of an expedition fitted out for the purpose +of determining by astronomical observations the exact line of +demarcation, under the treaty of Tordesillas, between, the colonizing +spheres of Spain and Portugal, and of conveying settlers +to the Moluccas. Arrived in the river Plate in 1527, rumours +reached Cabot of mineral wealth and a rich and civilized empire +in the far interior, and he resolved to abandon surveying for +exploration. He built a fort a short distance up the river +Uruguay, and despatched one of his lieutenants, Juan Alvarez +Ramon, with a separate party upon an expedition up stream. +This expedition was assailed by the Charruas and forced to +return on foot, their leader himself being killed. Cabot, with +a large following, entered the Paraná and established a settlement +just above the mouth of the river Carcarañal, to which +he gave the name of San Espiritù, among the Timbú Indians, with +whom he formed friendly relations. He continued the ascent +of the Paraná as far as the rapids of Apipé, and finding his course +barred in this direction, he afterwards explored the river Paraguay, +which he mounted as far as the mouth of the affluent +called by the Indians Lepeti, now the river Bermejo. His party +was here fiercely attacked by the Agaces or Payaguá Indians, +and suffered severely. Cabot in his voyage had seen many +silver ornaments in the possession of the Timbú and Guarani +Indians. Some specimens of these trinkets he sent back to +Spain with a report of his discoveries. The arrival of these +first-fruits of the mineral wealth of the southern continent +gained for the estuary of the Paraná the name which it has since +borne, that of Rio de la Plata, the silver river. As Cabot was +descending the stream to his settlement of San Espiritù, he +encountered an expedition which had been despatched from +Spain for the express purpose of exploring the river discovered +by Solis, under the command of Diego Garcia. Finding that +he had been forestalled, Garcia resolved to return home. Cabot +himself, after an absence of more than three years, came back +in 1530, and applied to Charles V. for means to open up communications +with Peru by way of the river Bermejo. The +emperor’s resources were, however, absorbed by his struggle +for European supremacy with Francis I. of France, and he was +obliged to leave the enterprise of South American discoveries +to his wealthy nobles. Cabot’s colony at San Espiritù did not +long survive his departure; an attempt of the chief of the Timbús +to gain possession of one of the Spanish ladies of the settlement +led to a treacherous massacre of the garrison.</p> + +<p>Two years after the return of Cabot, the news of Francisco +Pizarro’s marvellous conquest of Peru reached Europe (1532), +and stirred many an adventurous spirit to strive to +emulate his good fortune. Among these was Pedro +<span class="sidenote">Mendoza.</span> +de Mendoza, a Basque nobleman. He obtained from Charles V. +a grant (<i>asiento</i>) of two hundred leagues of the coast from the +boundary of the Portuguese possessions southward towards +the Straits of Magellan, and the inland country which lay behind +it. Mendoza undertook to conquer and settle the territory at +his own charges, certain profits being reserved to the crown. +In August 1534 the <i>adelantado</i>, or governor, sailed from San +Lucar, at the head of the largest and wealthiest expedition that +had ever left Europe for the New World. In January 1535 he +entered the river Plate, where he followed the northern shore to +the island of San Gabriel, and then crossing over he landed by +<span class="sidenote">Buenos Aires.</span> +a little stream, still called Riachuelo. The name of +Buenos Aires was given to the country by Sancho del +Campo, brother-in-law of the <i>adelantado</i>, who first +stepped ashore. Here, on the 2nd of February, Mendoza laid +the foundations of a settlement which in honour of the day +he named Santa Maria de Buenos Aires. Mendoza, after some +fierce encounters with the Indians, now proceeded up the Paraná, +and built a fort, which he called Corpus Christi, near the site of +Cabot’s former settlement of San Espiritù. The expedition, +which originally numbered 2500 men, was reduced by deaths at +the hands of the Indians, by disease and privation, within a year +to less than 500 men. From Corpus Christi, Mendoza sent +out various bodies to explore the interior in the direction of +Peru, but without much success, and at length, thoroughly +discouraged and broken in health, he abandoned his enterprise, +and returned to Spain in 1537.</p> + +<p>A portion of one of the expeditions he despatched, under Juan +de Ayolas, pushing up the Paraguay, is said to have reached +the south-east districts of Peru, but while returning laden with +booty, was attacked by the Payaguá Indians, and every man +<span class="sidenote">Asunción</span> +perished. The other portion, which had stayed behind as a reserve +under Domingos Iralá, had better fortunes. Finding their +comrades did not return, Iralá and his companions determined +to descend the river, and on their downward journey +opposite the mouth of the river Pilcomayo, finding +a suitable site for colonizing, they founded (1536) +what proved to be the first permanent Spanish settlement +in the interior of South America, the future city of Asunción +(15th August 1536).</p> + +<p>In the meantime the colony at Buenos Aires had been dragging +on a miserable existence, and after terrible sufferings from +famine and from the ceaseless attacks of the Indians, the remaining +settlers abandoned the place and made their way up +<span class="sidenote">Iralá</span> +the river first to Corpus Christi, then to Asunción. Here, by +the emperor’s orders, the assembled Spaniards proceeded to +the election of a captain-general, and their choice fell almost +unanimously on Domingos Martinez de Iralá, who +was proclaimed captain-general of the Rio de la Plata +(August 1538). In 1542 the settlement of Buenos Aires was +re-established by an expedition sent for the purpose from +Spain, under a tried <i>adelantado</i>, Cabeza de Vaca. This able +leader, eager to reach Asunción as quickly as possible, sent on +his ships to the river Plate, but himself with a small following +marched overland from Santa Catherina on the coast of Brazil +to join Iralá. His doings at Asunción belong, however, not to +the history of Argentina, but of Paraguay. Suffice it to say +that differences with Iralá eventually led to his arrest, and to his +being sent back to Spain to answer to the charges brought against +him for maladministration. The second settlement made by +his expedition at Buenos Aires was even less successful and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +long-lived than the first. Exposed to the incessant attacks of +the savages, the piace was a second time abandoned, February +1543.</p> + +<p>Forty years were now to elapse before any further efforts +were made by the Spaniards to colonize any part of the territory +of the river Plate and lower Paraná. In 1573 Juan +de Garay, at the head of an expedition despatched +<span class="sidenote">Juan de Garay.</span> +from Asunción, founded the city of Santa Fé near +the abandoned settlements of San Espiritù and Corpus Christi. +Seven years later (1580), when the new colony had been firmly +established, Juan de Garay proceeded southwards, and made +the third attempt to build a city on the site of Buenos Aires; +and despite the determined hostility of the Querendi Indians +he succeeded in finally gaining a complete mastery over them. +In a desperate battle, the natives were defeated with great +slaughter, and the territory surrounding the town was divided +into ranches, in which the conquered natives had to labour. +The new town received from Garay the name of <i>Ciudad de la +Santissima Trinidad</i>, while its port retained the old appellation +of Santa Maria de Buenos Aires. It was endowed by its founder +with a <i>cabildo</i> (corporation) and full Spanish municipal privileges. +Garay, when on his way to Santa Fé, was unfortunately murdered +by a party of Indians, Minuas (Mimas), three years later, while +incautiously sleeping on the river bank near the ruins of San +Espiritù. The new settlement, however, continued to prosper, +and the cattle and horses brought from Europe multiplied and +spread over the plains of the Pampas.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Spaniards had penetrated into the +interior of what is now the Argentine Republic, and established +themselves on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In 1553 an expedition +from Peru made their way through the mountain region +and founded the city of Santiago del Estero, that of Tucumán +in 1565, and that of Córdoba in 1573. Another expedition from +Chile, under Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, crossed the Cordillera +in 1559, and having defeated the Araucanian Indians, made +a settlement which from the name of the leader was called +Mendoza. In 1620 Buenos Aires was separated from the +authority of the government established at Asunción, and was +made the seat of a government extending over Mendoza, Santa +Fé, Entre Rios and Corrientes, but at the same time remained +like the government of Paraguay at Asunción, and that of the +province of Tucumán, which had Córdoba as its capital, subject +to the authority of the viceroyalty of Peru.</p> + +<p>Thus at the opening of the 17th century, after many adventurous +efforts, and the expenditure of many lives and much +treasure, the Spaniards found themselves securely +established on the river Plate, and had planted a +<span class="sidenote">Evils of Spanish colonial system.</span> +number of centres of trade and colonization in the +interior. Unfortunately, in no part of the Spanish +oversea possessions did the restrictive legislation of the home +government operate more harshly or disadvantageously to the +interests of the colony; it was a more effective hindrance to +the development of its resources and the spread of civilization +over the country, than the hostility of the Indians. Cabot had +urged the feasibility of opening an easier channel for trade with +the interior of Peru through the river Plate and its tributaries, +than that by way of the West Indies and Panama; and now +that his views were able to be realized, the interests of the +merchants of Seville and of Lima, who had secured a monopoly +of the trade by the route of the isthmus, were allowed to destroy +the threatened rivalry of that by the river Plate. Never in the +history of colonization has a mother country pursued so relentlessly +a policy more selfish and short-sighted. Spanish legislation +was not satisfied with endeavouring to exclude all European +nations except Spain from trading with the West Indies, +but it sought to limit all commerce to one particular route, and +it forbade any trade being transacted by way of the river Plate, +thus enacting the most flagrant injustice towards the people +it had encouraged to settle in the latter country. The strongest +protests were raised, but the utmost they could effect was that, +in 1618, permission was granted to export from Buenos Aires +two shiploads of produce a year. But the Spanish government +was not content with the prohibition of sea-borne commerce. +To prevent internal trade with Peru a custom-house was set up +at Córdoba to levy a duty of 50% on everything in transit to +and from the river Plate. In 1665 the relaxation of this system +was brought about by the continual remonstrances of the people, +<span class="sidenote">Asiento question.</span> +but for more than a century afterwards (until 1776) +the policy of exclusion was enforced. This naturally +led to a contraband trade of considerable dimensions. +The English, after the treaty of Utrecht (1715) held the contract +(<i>asiento</i>) for supplying the Spanish-American colonies with negro +slaves. Among other places the slave ships regularly visited +Buenos Aires, and despite the efforts of the Spanish authorities, +contrived both to smuggle in and carry away a quantity of +goods. This illicit commerce went on steadily till 1739, when +it led to an outbreak of war between England and Spain, which +put an end to the <i>asiento</i>. The Portuguese were even worse +offenders, for in 1680 they made a settlement on the north of the +river Plate, right opposite to Buenos Aires, named Colonia, +which with one or two short intervals, remained in their hands +till 1777. From this port foreign merchandise found its way +duty free into the Spanish provinces of Buenos Aires, Tucumán +and Paraguay, and even into the interior of Peru. The continual +encroachments of the Portuguese at length led the Spanish +government to take the important step of making Buenos Aires +the seat of a viceroyalty with jurisdiction over the territories +of the present republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and the +Argentine Confederation (1776). At the same time all this +country was opened to Spanish trade even with Peru, and the +development of its resources, so long thwarted, was allowed +comparatively free play. Pedro de Zeballos, the first viceroy, +took with him from Spain a large military force with which he +finally expelled the Portuguese from the banks of the river Plate.</p> + +<p>The wars of the French Revolution, in which Spain was allied +with France against Great Britain, interrupted the growing +prosperity of Buenos Aires. On the 17th of June 1806 +General William Beresford landed with a body of +<span class="sidenote">Effects of French war.</span> +troops from a British fleet under the command of Sir +Home Popham, and obtained possession of Buenos +Aires. But a French officer, Jacques de Liniers, gathered +together a large force with which he enclosed the British within +the walls, and finally, on the 12th of August, by a successful +assault, forced Beresford and his troops to surrender. In July +1807 another British force of eight thousand men under General +Whitelock endeavoured to regain possession of Buenos Aires, +but strenuous preparations had been made for resistance, and +after fierce street fighting the invading army, after suffering +severe losses, was compelled to capitulate. The colonists, +who had achieved their two great successes without any aid from +the home government, were naturally elated, and began to feel +a new sense of self-reliance and confidence in their own resources. +The successful defence of Buenos Aires accentuated the growing +feeling of dissatisfaction with the Spanish connexion, which was +soon to lead to open insurrection. The establishment of the +Napoleonic dynasty at Madrid was the actual cause which +brought about the disturbances which were to end in separation. +Liniers was viceroy on the arrival of the news of the crowning of +Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, but as a Frenchman he was +distrusted and was deposed by the adherents of Ferdinand VII. +The central junta at Seville, acting in the name of Ferdinand, +appointed Balthasar de Cisneros to be viceroy in his place. He +entered upon the duties of his office on the 19th of July 1809, +and at first he gained popularity by acceding to the urgent +appeals of the people and throwing open the trade of the country +to all nations. But his measures speedily gave dissatisfaction +to the Argentine or Creole party, who had long chafed under the +disabilities of Spanish rule, and who now felt themselves no longer +bound by ties of loyalty to a country which was in the possession +of the French armies.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of May 1810 a great armed assembly met at +Buenos Aires and a provisional junta was formed to supersede +the authority of the viceroy and carry on the government. The +acts of the new government ran in the name of Ferdinand VII., +<span class="sidenote">Struggle for independence.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span> +but the step taken was a revolutionary one, and the 25th +of May has ever since been regarded as the birthday of Argentine +independence. The most prominent leader of +the junta was its secretary Mariano Moreno (1778-1811), +who with a number of other active supporters +of the patriot cause succeeded in raising a considerable +force of Buenos Aireans to maintain, arms in hand, their nationalist +and anti-Spanish doctrines. An attempt of the Spanish +party to make Balthasar de Cisneros president of the junta +failed, and the ex-viceroy retired to Montevideo. A sanguinary +struggle between the party of independence and the adherents +of Spain spread over the whole country, and was carried on with +varying fortune. Foremost among the leaders of the revolutionary +armies were Manuel Belgrano, and after March 1812 General +José de San Martin, an officer who had gained experience against +the French in the Peninsular War. A state of disorder, almost +of anarchy, reigned in the provinces, but on the 25th of March +1816 a congress of deputies was assembled at Tucumán, who +named Don Martin Pueyrredón supreme director, and on the 9th +of July the separation of the united provinces of the Rio de la +Plata was formally proclaimed, and comparative order was +re-established in the country; Buenos Aires was declared the +seat of the government. The jealousy of the provinces, however, +against the capital led to a series of disturbances, and for many +years continual civil war devastated every part of the country. +Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay rose in armed revolt, and +finally established themselves as separate republics, whilst the +city of Buenos Aires itself was torn with faction and the scene +of many a sanguinary fight.</p> + +<p>From 1816, however, the independence of the Argentine +Republic was assured, and success attended the South Americans +in their contest with the royal armies. The combined +forces of Buenos Aires and Chile defeated the Spaniards +<span class="sidenote">Republic established.</span> +at Chacabuco in 1817, and at Maipú in 1818; and +from Chile the victorious general José de San Martin +led his troops into Peru, where on the 9th of July 1821, he made +a triumphal entry into Lima, which had been the chief stronghold +of the Spanish power, having from the time of its foundation +by Pizarro been the seat of government of a viceroyalty which +at one time extended to the river Plate. A general congress +was assembled at Buenos Aires on the 1st of March 1822, of +representatives from all the liberated provinces, and a general +amnesty was decreed, though the war was not over until the 9th +of December 1824, when the republican forces gained the final, +victory of Ayacucho, in the Peruvian border-land. The Spanish +government did not, however, formally acknowledge the independence +of the country until the year 1842. On the 23rd of +January 1825, a national constitution for the federal states, which +formed the Argentine Republic, was decreed; and on the 2nd of +February of the same year Sir Woodbine Parish, acting under +the instructions of George Canning, signed a commercial treaty +in Buenos Aires, by which the British government acknowledged +the independence of the country. It had already been recognized +by the United States of America two years previously.</p> + +<p>In 1826 Bernardo Rivadavia was elected president of the +confederation. His policy was to establish a strong central +government, and he became the head of a party known +as Unitarians in contradistinction to their opponents, +<span class="sidenote">Unitarians and Federalists.</span> +who were styled Federalists, their aim being to maintain +to the utmost the local autonomy of the various +provinces. Under the government of Rivadavia the people of +Buenos Aires became involved, practically single-handed, in a +war with Brazil in defence of the Banda Oriental, which had +been seized by the imperial forces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Uruguay</a></span>). The Brazilians +were defeated, notably at Ituzaingo, and in 1827 the war issued +in the independence of Uruguay. Rivadavia’s term of office was +likewise memorable for the constitution of the 24th of December +1826, passed by the constituent congress of all the provinces, +by which the bonds which united the confederated states of the +Argentine Republic were strengthened. This project of closer +union met, however, with much opposition both at Buenos Aires +and the provinces. Rivadavia resigned, and Vicente Lopez, +a Federalist, was elected to succeed him, but was speedily displaced +by Manuel Dorrego (1827), another representative of the +same party. The carrying out of Federalist principles led, +however, to the formation in the republic of a number of +quasi-independent military states, and Dorrego only ruled in Buenos +Aires. After the conclusion of the peace with Brazil, the Unitarians +placed themselves under the leadership of General +Juan de Lavalle, the victor of Ituzaingo. Lavalle, at the head of +a division of troops, drove Dorrego from Buenos Aires, pursued +him into the interior, and captured him. He was shot (December +9, 1828), by the order of Lavalle, and during the year 1828 the +country was given up to the horrors of civil war.</p> + +<p>On the death of Dorrego, a remarkable man, Juan Manuel de +Rosas, became the Federalist chief. In 1829 he defeated Lavalle, +made himself master of Buenos Aires, and in the course +of the next three years made his authority recognized +<span class="sidenote">Rosas dictator.</span> +after much fighting throughout the provinces. The +Unitarians were relentlessly hunted down and a veritable reign +of terror ensued. Rosas gradually concentrated all power in +his own hands, and was hailed by the populace as a saviour of +the state. In 1835, with the title of governor and captain-general, +he acquired dictatorial powers, and all public authority +passed into his hands. This dictatorship of Rosas continued +until 1852. In every department of administration and of +government he was supreme. He was exceedingly jealous of +foreign interference, and quarrelled with France on questions +connected with the rights of foreign residents. Buenos Aires was +in 1838 blockaded by a French fleet; but Rosas stood firm. +A formidable revolt took place in 1839 under General Lavalle, +who had returned to the country accompanied by a number +of banished Unitarians. In 1840 he invaded Buenos Aires at +the head of troops raised chiefly in the province of Entre Rios; +but he was defeated at Santa Fé, then at Luján, and finally was +captured in Jujuy and shot, 1841. The rule of Rosas was now +one of tyranny and almost incessant bloodshed in Buenos Aires, +while his partisans, foremost amongst whom was General Ignacio +Oribe, endeavoured to exterminate the Unitarians throughout +the provinces. The scene of slaughter was extended to the +Banda Oriental by the attempt of Oribe, with the support of +Rosas, and of Justo José de Urquiza, governor of Entre Rios, +to establish himself as president of that republic (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Uruguay</a></span>), +where the existing government was hostile to Rosas and sheltered +all political refugees from the country under his despotic rule. +The siege of Montevideo led to a joint intervention of England +and France. Buenos Aires was blockaded by the combined +English and French fleets, September 1845, which landed a force +to open the passage up the Paraná to Paraguay, which had been +declared closed to foreigners by Rosas. A convention was signed +in 1849, which secured the free navigation of the Paraná and +the independence of the Banda Oriental. The downfall of Rosas +was at last brought about by the instrumentality of Justo José de +Urquiza, who as governor of Entre Rios, had for many years +been one of his strongest supporters. The breach between the +two men which led to open collision took place in 1846. The +first efforts of Urquiza to rouse the country against the oppressor +were unsuccessful, but in 1851 he concluded an alliance with +Brazil, to which Uruguay afterwards adhered. A large army +of twenty-four thousand men was collected at Montevideo, and +on the 8th of January 1852 the allied forces crossed the Paraná +and the road to Buenos Aires lay open before them. Rosas met +the allies at the head of a body of troops fully equal in numbers +to their own, but was crushingly routed, February 3rd, at Monte +Caseros, about 10 m. from the capital. The dictator fled for +refuge to the British legation, from whence he was conveyed on +board H.B.M.S. “Locust,” which carried him into exile.</p> + +<p>A provisional government was formed under Urquiza, and the +Brazilian and Uruguayan troops withdrew. He summoned all +the provincial governors at San Nicolás in the province +of Buenos Aires, and on the 31st of May they proclaimed +<span class="sidenote">Urquiza president.</span> +a new constitution, with Urquiza as provisional +director of the Argentine nation. A constituent congress, +in which each province had equal representation, was duly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span> +elected, and in order to provide against the predominance of +Buenos Aires, it was determined that Sante Fé should be the +place of session. But this did not suit the <i>porteños</i>, as the +people of Buenos Aires were called, and the province refused +to take any part in the congressional proceedings. But Urquiza +<span class="sidenote">Buenos Aires and the provinces.</span> +was a man of different temperament from Rosas, and +when he found that Buenos Aires refused to submit +to his authority, he declined to use force. The congress +had (May 1, 1853) appointed Urquiza president +of the confederation, and he established the seat of government +at Paraná. The province of Buenos Aires was recognized as an +independent state, and under the enlightened administration +of Doctor Obligado made rapid strides in commercial prosperity. +The two sections of the Argentine nation contrived to exist as +separate governments without an open breach of the peace until +1859, when the long-continued tension led to the outbreak of +hostilities. The army of the <i>porteños</i>, commanded by Colonel +Bartolomé Mitre, was defeated at Cepeda by the confederate +forces under Urquiza, and Buenos Aires agreed to re-enter the +confederation (November 11, 1859). Urquiza at this juncture +resigned the presidency, and Doctor Santiago Derqui was elected +president of the fourteen provinces with the seat of government +at Paraná; while Urquiza became once more governor of Entre +Rios, and Mitre was appointed governor of Buenos Aires.</p> + +<p>The struggle for supremacy between Buenos Aires and the +provinces had, however, to be fought out, and hostilities once +more broke out in 1861. The armies of the opposing +parties, under Generals Mitre and Urquiza respectively, +<span class="sidenote">Mitre president.</span> +met at Pavón in the province of Santa Fé (September +17). The battle ended in the disastrous defeat of the provincial +forces; General Mitre used his victory in a spirit of moderation +and sincere patriotism. He was elected president of the +Argentine confederation and did his utmost to settle the questions +which had led to so many civil wars, on a permanent and sound +basis. The constitution of 1853 was maintained, but Buenos +Aires became the seat of federal government without ceasing +to be a provincial capital. Causes of friction still remained, +but they did not develop into open quarrels, for Mitre was content +to leave Urquiza in his province of Entre Rios, and the other +administrators (<i>caudillos</i>) in their several governments, a large +measure of autonomy, trusting that the position and growing +commercial importance of Buenos Aires would inevitably tend +to make the federal capital the real centre of power of the republic. +In 1865 the Argentines were forced into war with Paraguay +through the overbearing attitude of the president Francisco +Solano Lopez. The dictator of Paraguay had quarrelled with +Brazil for its intervention in the internal affairs of Uruguay, +<span class="sidenote">Paraguay war.</span> +and he demanded free passage for his troops across +the Argentine province of Corrientes. This Mitre +refused, and alliance was formed between Argentina, +Brazil and Uruguay, for joint action against Lopez. General +Mitre became commander-in-chief of the combined armies for +the invasion of Paraguay and was absent for several years in +the field. The struggle was severe and attended by heavy losses, +and it was not until 1870 that the Paraguayans were conquered, +Lopez killed, and peace concluded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paraguay</a></span>). Meanwhile, +disturbances had broken out in the interior of Argentina (1867), +which compelled Mitre to relinquish his command in Paraguay, +and to call back a large part of the Argentine forces to suppress +the insurrection. The rebels had hoped for assistance from +Urquiza, but the powerful governor of Entre Rios maintained the +peace in his province, which under his firm and beneficent rule +had greatly prospered, and the revolutionary movement was +quickly subdued.</p> + +<p>In 1868 the term of General Mitre came to an end, and Doctor +Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, a native of San Juan, was quietly +elected to succeed him. His conduct of affairs was +broad-minded and upright, and was characterized +<span class="sidenote">Sarmiento president.</span> +by earnest efforts to promote education and to develop +the resources of the country. His period of office was marked +by the rapid advance of Buenos Aires in population and prosperity, +and by an expansion of trade that was unfortunately +accompanied by financial extravagance. The war with Paraguay +left a legacy of disputes concerning boundaries which almost +led to war between the two victorious allies, Argentina and +Brazil, but by the exertions of Mitre, who was sent at the close +of 1872 as special envoy to Rio, a settlement was arrived at and +friendly relations restored. The month of April 1870 saw an +insurrection in Entre Rios headed by the <i>caudillo</i>, Lopez Jordan. +Urquiza was assassinated, and the provincial legislature, through +fear, at once proclaimed Lopez Jordan governor. The federal +government refused to acknowledge the new governor, and +troops were despatched by Sarmiento against Entre Rios. The +contest lasted with varying success for more than a year, but +finally Lopez Jordan was completely defeated and driven into +exile.</p> + +<p>The presidential election of 1874 resolved itself, as so often +before, into a struggle between the provincials and the <i>porteños</i> +(Buenos Aires). The candidate of the former, Dr +Nicolas Avellaneda, triumphed over General Mitre, +<span class="sidenote">Avellaneda president.</span> +not without suspicions of tampering with the returns; +and the unsuccessful party appealed to arms. The new +president, however, who was installed in office on the 12th +of October, took active steps to suppress the revolution, which +never assumed a really serious character. The government +troops gained two decisive victories over the insurgents under +Generals Mitre and Arredondo, and they were compelled to +surrender at discretion. But though peace was for a time +restored, the old causes of soreness and dissension remained +unappeased, and as the time for the next presidential election +began to draw near, it became more and more evident that a +critical struggle was at hand, and that the people of Buenos +Aires, supported by the province of Corrientes, were determined +to bring to an issue the question as to what position Buenos +Aires was to hold for the future with regard to the remaining +provinces of the confederation. It was evident that the president +intended to use all the influence which the party in power could +exercise, to secure the return of General Julio Roca, who had +distinguished himself in 1878 by a successful campaign against +the warlike Indian tribes bordering on the Andes. The <i>porteños</i> +on their part were determined to resist this policy to the utmost. +Mass meetings were held, and a committee was appointed for +the purpose of considering what action should be taken to +defeat the ambitious designs of the provincials. +<span class="sidenote">The Tiro Nacional.</span> +Under the direction of this committee, the association known +as the “Tiro Nacional” was formed, with the avowed +object of training the able-bodied citizens of Buenos +Aires in military exercises and creating a volunteer army, ready +for service if called upon, to withstand by force the pretensions +of their opponents. The establishment of the Tiro Nacional +was enthusiastically received by all classes in Buenos Aires, the +men turning out regularly to drill, and the women aiding the +movement by collecting subscriptions for the purpose of armament +and other necessaries. On the 13th of February 1880, the +minister of war, Dr Carlos Pellegrini, summoned the principal +officers connected with the Tiro Nacional, General Bartolomé +Mitre, his brother Emilio, Colonel Julio Campos, Colonel +Hilario Lagos and others, and warned them that as officers of +the national army they owed obedience to the national government, +and would be severely punished if concerned in any +revolutionary outbreak against the constituted authorities. The +reply to this threat was the immediate resignation of their commissions +by all the officers connected with the Tiro Nacional. +Two days later, the national government occupied, with a strong +force of infantry and artillery, the parade ground at Palermo +used by the Buenos Aires volunteers for drill purposes. A great +meeting of citizens was then called and marched through the +streets. President Avellaneda was frightened at the results of +his action, and to avoid a collision ordered the troops to be +withdrawn. Negotiations were now opened by the government +with the provincial authorities for the disarmament of the city +and province of Buenos Aires, but they led to nothing. Matters +became still further strained on account of the outrages committed +by the national troops, and such was the bitterness of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span> +feeling developed between the two factions, that an appeal to +arms became inevitable.</p> + +<p>In the month of June 1880, President Avellaneda and his +ministers left Buenos Aires, and this act was considered by the +<i>porteño</i> leaders equivalent to a declaration of war. +The national government and the twelve provinces +<span class="sidenote">Appeal to Arms.</span> +forming the Córdoba League, were ranged on one side; +the city and province of Buenos Aires and the province of +Corrientes on the other. The national troops were well armed +with Remington rifles, provided with abundant ammunition, +equipped with artillery and supported by the fleet. In the city +and province of Buenos Aires, plenty of volunteers offered their +services, and an army of some twenty-five thousand men was +quickly raised, but they were armed with old-fashioned weapons +and there was only a limited supply of ammunition. Feverish +attempts were made to remedy the lack of warlike stores, but +difficulty was experienced on account of the fleet blockading +the entrance to the river. After several skirmishes, the national +army commanded by General Roca, containing many troops +seasoned in Indian campaigns, assaulted the <i>porteños</i> posted +<span class="sidenote">Fall of Buenos Aires.</span> +before Buenos Aires, and after two days’ hard fighting +(20th and 21st July) forced its way into the town. +On 23rd July the surrender of the city was demanded +and obtained. The terms of the surrender were that +all the leaders of the revolution should be removed from positions +of authority, all government employees implicated in the +movement dismissed, and the force in the province and city +of Buenos Aires at once disarmed and disbanded. The power +of Buenos Aires was thus completely broken and at the mercy +of the Córdoba League. The <i>porteños</i> were no longer in a position +to nominate a candidate in opposition to General Julio Roca, +who was duly elected. He assumed office in October 1880.</p> + +<p>Hitherto General Roca had been regarded only in his capacity +as a soldier, and not from the point of view of an administrator. +In the campaigns against the Indians in the south-west +of the province of Buenos Aires and the valley of +<span class="sidenote">Roca president.</span> +the Rio Negro he had gained much prestige; the victory +over Buenos Aires added to his fame, and secured his authority +in the outlying provincial centres. One of the first notable acts +of the Roca administration was to declare the city of Buenos +Aires the property of the national government. This separation +of the city from the province, and its federalization had been +one of the chief aims of the Córdoba League, and was the natural +consequence of the crushing defeat inflicted on the <i>porteños</i>. As +a sequel to this step, in 1884 the town of La Plata was declared +to be the capital of the province of Buenos Aires, and the provincial +administration was moved to that place. This federalization +of the capital has proved to be a most important factor +in binding together the different parts of the confederation, and +in promoting the evolution of an Argentine nation out of a +loosely cemented union of a number of semi-independent states.</p> + +<p>Considering the circumstances in which General Roca assumed +office, it must be admitted that he showed great moderation +and used the practically absolute power that he possessed to +establish a strong central government, and to initiate a national +policy, which aimed at furthering the prosperity and development +of the whole country. He was able by the influence he +exerted to keep down the internal dissensions and insurrectionary +outbreaks which had so greatly impeded for many years the +development of the vast natural resources of the republic. +With this object he had promoted the extension of railways so +as to link the provinces with the great port of Buenos Aires, +and to provide at the same time facilities for the rapid despatch +of military forces to disturbed districts. Unfortunately the last +two years of Roca’s term of office were marked by two grave +errors, which subsequently caused widespread suffering and +distress throughout the country. The first of these mistakes +was a measure making (January 1885) the currency inconvertible +for a period of two years. This act, which was only decided +upon after much hesitation, had a most deleterious effect upon +the national credit. The second was the nomination of Dr Miguel +Juarez Celman for the presidential term commencing in October +1886. The nomination was brought about by the Córdoba +clique, and Roca lacked the moral courage to oppose the decision +of this group, though he was well aware that Celman, who was +his brother-in-law, was neither intellectually nor morally fitted +for the post.</p> + +<p>No sooner had President Juarez Celman come into power +towards the close of 1886, than the respectable portion of the +community began to feel alarmed at the methods +practised by the new president in his conduct of +<span class="sidenote">Celman president.</span> +public affairs. At first it was hoped that the influence +of General Roca would serve to check any serious extravagance +on the part of Celman. This hope, however, was doomed to +disappointment, and before many months had elapsed it was +clear that the president would listen to no prudent counsels +from Roca or from any one else. The men of the old Córdoba +League became dominant in all branches of the government, +and carpet-bagging politicians occupied every official post. In +their hurry to obtain wealth, this crowd of office-mongers from +the provinces lent themselves to all kinds of bribery and corruption. +The public credit was pledged at home and abroad to fill +the pockets of the adventurers, and the wildest excesses were +committed under the guise of administrative acts. What followed +in the second and third years of the Celman administration can +only adequately be described as a debauchery of the national +honour, of the national resources, of the rights of Argentines +as citizens of the republic. Buenos Aires was still prostrate +under the crushing blow of the misfortunes of 1880, and lacked +strength and power of organization necessary to raise any +effective protest against the proceedings of Celman and his +friends when the true character of these proceedings was first +understood. The conduct of public affairs, however, at length +became so scandalous, that action on the part of the more sober-minded +and conservative sections was seen to be absolutely +imperative if the country was to be saved from speedy and +certain ruin. In 1889 the association of the “Union Civica” +<span class="sidenote">The Union Civica.</span> +was founded, and the organization undertaken by +Dr Leandro Alem, Dr Aristobulo del Valle, Dr +Bernardo Irigoyen, Dr Vicente Lopez, Dr Lucio Lopez, +Dr Oscar Lilliedale and other leading citizens. The untiring +energy and zeal of Leandro Alem fitted him for being +the chief organizer of a movement into which he threw himself +heart and soul. Mass meetings were held in Buenos Aires, and +it fell specially to the lot of Dr del Valle, who was an able orator +as well as a sincere patriot, to expose the irresponsible and +corrupt character of the administration, and the terrible dangers +that threatened the republic through its reckless extravagance +and financial improvidence. Subsidiary clubs affiliated to the +central administration were formed throughout the length and +breadth of the country, and millions of leaflets and pamphlets +were distributed broadcast to explain the importance of the +movement. President Celman underrated the strength of the +new opposition, and relied upon his armed forces promptly to +suppress any signs of open hostility. No change was made in +official methods, and the condition of affairs drifted from bad +to worse, until the temper of the people, so long and so sorely +tried, showed plainly that the situation had become insufferable. +The Union Civica then decided to make a bold bid for freedom +by attempting forcibly to eject Celman and his clique from office.</p> + +<p>On the night of the 26th of July 1890 the Union Civica called +its members to arms. It was joined by some regiments of the +regular army and received the support of the fleet. Barricades +were thrown up in the principal streets, and the surrounding +houses were occupied by the insurgents. Two days of desultory +street fighting ensued, during which the fleet began to bombard +the city, but was compelled to desist by the interference of +foreign men-of-war, on the ground that the bombardment was +causing unnecessary damage to the life and property of non-combatants. +A suspension of hostilities then took place, and +negotiations were opened between the contending parties. +Celman, acting upon the advice of General Roca, who recognized +the strength of public opinion in the outbreak, placed his resignation +in the hands of congress on the 31st of July. A scene of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span> +intense enthusiasm followed, and Buenos Aires was <i>en fête</i> for +the following three days. The vice-president of the confederation, +Carlos Pellegrini, who had been minister of war under +presidents Avellaneda and Roca and had had much administrative +experience, succeeded without opposition to the vacant +post.</p> + +<p>Much satisfaction was shown in Europe at the fall of President +Celman, for investors had suffered heavily by the way in which +the resources of Argentina had been dissipated by +a corrupt government, and hopes were entertained +<span class="sidenote">Pellegrini president.</span> +that the uprising of public opinion against his financial +methods signified a more honest conduct of the national +affairs in the future. Great expectations were entertained +of the ability of President Pellegrini to establish a sound +administration, and he succeeded in forming a ministry which +gave general satisfaction throughout the country. General +Roca was induced to undertake the duties of minister of the +interior, and his influence in the provinces was sufficient to +check any attempts to stir up disturbances at Córdoba or elsewhere. +The most onerous post of all, that of minister of finance, +was confided to Dr Vicente Lopez, who, though he was not of +marked financial ability, was at least a man of untiring industry +and of a personal integrity that was above suspicion. But the +economic and financial situation was one of almost hopeless +embarrassment and confusion, and Pellegrini proved himself +incapable of grappling with it. Instead of facing the difficulties, +the president preferred to put off the day of reckoning by +flooding the country with inconvertible notes, with the result +that the financial crisis became more and more aggravated. +Through the rapid depreciation of Argentine credit, the great +firm of Baring Brothers, the financial agents of the government +in London, became so heavily involved that they were forced +into liquidation, November 1890. The consequences of this +catastrophe were felt far and wide, and in the spring of 1891 +both the Banco Nacional and the Banco de la provincia de +Buenos Aires were unable to meet their obligations. Amidst +this sea of financial troubles the government drifted helplessly +on, without showing any inclination or capacity to initiate a +strong policy of reform in the methods of administration which +had done so much to ruin the country.</p> + +<p>It is little wonder that, in these circumstances, the choice +of a successor to Pellegrini, whose term of office expired in 1892, +should have been felt to possess peculiar importance. General +Bartolomé Mitre was proposed by the <i>porteños</i> as their candidate. +He had been absent from Argentina on a journey to +Europe, and on his return in April 1891, a popular reception +was given to him at which 50,000 persons attended. A petition +was presented to him begging him to be a candidate for the +presidency, and with some reluctance the veteran leader gave +his consent. His partisans, however, found themselves confronted +by a compact provincial party, who proposed to put +forward the other strong man of the republic, General Roca, +to oppose him. But the two generals were equally averse to a +contest <i>à outrance</i>, which could only end in civil war. They +met accordingly at a conference known as <i>El Acuerdo</i>, and it +was arranged that both should withdraw, and that a non-party +candidate should be selected who should receive the support +of them both. The choice fell upon Dr Saenz Peña, a judge of +the supreme court, and a man universally respected, who had +never taken any part in political life. This compact aroused +the bitter enmity of Dr Leandro Alem, who did his utmost to +stir up the Union Civica to a campaign against the neutral +candidate. Finding that the more conservative section of the +union would not follow him, Alem formed a new association to +which he gave the name of Union Civica Radical. Such was his +energy, that soon a network of branches of the Union Civica +Radical was organized throughout the republic, and Dr Bernardo +Irigoyen was put forward as a rival candidate to Dr Saenz +Peña. But Alem was not content with constitutional opposition +to the Acuerdo, and his movement soon assumed the character +of a revolutionary propaganda against the national government. +His violence gave Pellegrini the opportunity of taking active +steps to preserve the peace. In April 1892 Alem and his chief +colleagues were arrested and sent into exile.</p> + +<p>In the following month (May), the presidential elections were +held; Dr Saenz Peña was declared duly elected, and Dr José +Uriburu, the minister in Chile, was chosen as vice-president.</p> + +<p>The idea of Dr Saenz Peña was to conduct the government +on common sense and non-partisan lines, in fact to translate +into practical politics the principles which underlay +the compromise of the Acuerdo. He was a straightforward +<span class="sidenote">Saenz Peña president.</span> +and honourable man, who tried his best to do +his duty in a position that had been forced upon him, +and was in no sense of the word his own seeking. No sooner, +however, was he installed in office than difficulties began to crop +up on all sides, and he quickly discovered that to attempt to +govern without the aid of a majority in congress was practically +impossible. He had had no experience of political life, and he +refused to create the support he needed by using his presidential +prerogative to build up a political majority. Obstruction met +his well-meant efforts to promote the general good, and before +twelve months of the presidential term had run public affairs +were at a deadlock. Dr Alem, who had been permitted to return +from exile, was not slow to profit by the occasion. Embittered +by his treatment in 1892, he openly preached the advisability +of an armed rising to overthrow the existing administration. +Public opinion had been outraged by the immunity with which +the governors of certain provinces, and more particularly Dr +Julio Costa, the governor of the province of Buenos Aires, +had been allowed to maintain local forces, by the aid of which +they exacted the payment of illegal taxes and exercised other +acts of injustice and oppression. A number of officers of the army +and navy agreed to lend assistance to a revolutionary outbreak, +and towards the end of July 1893 matters came to a head. +The population of Buenos Aires assembled in armed bodies with +the avowed intention of ejecting the governor from office, and +electing in his stead a man who would give them a just administration. +The president was for some time in doubt whether he +had any right to intervene in provincial affairs, but eventually +troops were despatched to La Plata. There was no serious +fighting. Negotiations were soon opened which quickly led to +the resignation of Costa, and the return of the insurgents to +their homes. While these disturbances were taking place in +the province of Buenos Aires, another revolutionary rising was +in progress in Santa Fé. Here the efforts of Dr Alem succeeded +in supplying a large body of rebels with arms and ammunition, +and he was able, by a bold attack, to seize the town of +Rosario and there establish the revolutionary headquarters. This +capture so alarmed the national government that a force was +sent under the command of Roca to put down the insurrection. +The revolt speedily collapsed before this redoubtable commander, +and Alem and the other leaders surrendered. They were sentenced +to banishment in Staten Island at the pleasure of the +federal government.</p> + +<p>But the suppression of disorder did not relieve the tension +between the congress and the executive. During the whole +of the 1894 session, the attitude of senators and deputies alike +was one of pronounced hostility to the president. All his acts +were opposed, legislation was at a standstill and every effort +was made to force Dr Saenz Peña to resign. But although he experienced +the utmost difficulty in forming a cabinet, the president +was obstinate in his determination to retain office without +identifying himself with any party. A definite issue was therefore +sought by the congress on which to join battle, and it arose out +of the death sentences which had been pronounced on certain +naval and military officers who had been implicated in the +Santa Fé outbreak. The president had made up his mind that +the sentence must be carried out; the congress by a great +majority were resolved not to permit the death penalty to be +inflicted. It was a one-sided struggle, for without the consent +of the congress the president could not raise any money for +supplies, and congress refused to vote the budget. But heavy +expenses had been incurred in putting down revolutionary +movements in various parts of the provinces, and war with Chile +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +was threatened upon the question of a dispute concerning the +boundaries between the two republics. In January 1895 a +special session of congress was summoned to take into consideration +the financial proposals of the government, which +included an increase in the naval and military estimates. Congress, +however, had now got their opportunity, and they used +the time of national stress to bring increased pressure to bear +upon the president. On the 21st of January Dr Saenz Peña +at last perceived that his position was untenable, and he handed +in his resignation. It was accepted at once by the chambers, +and the vice-president, Dr José Uriburu, became president of +the republic for the three years and nine months of Peña’s term +which remained unexpired.</p> + +<p>Uriburu was neither a politician nor a statesman, but had +spent the greater portion of his life abroad in the diplomatic +service. His knowledge of foreign affairs was, however, +peculiarly useful at a juncture when boundary questions +<span class="sidenote">Uriburu President.</span> +were the subjects that chiefly attracted public +attention. After disputes with Brazil, extending over fifteen +years, about the territory of “Misiones,” the matter had +been submitted to the arbitration of the president of the +United States. In March 1895 President Cleveland gave his +decision, which was wholly favourable to the contention of +Brazil. The Argentine government, though disappointed at +the result, accepted the award loyally. The boundary dispute +with Chile, to which reference has already been made, was of +a more serious character. The dispute was of old standing. +Already in 1884 a protocol had been signed between the contending +parties, by which it was agreed that the frontier +should follow the line where “the highest peaks of the Andine +ranges divide the watershed.” This definition unfortunately +ignored the fact that the Andes do not run from north to south +in one continuous line, but are separated into cordilleras with +valleys between them, and covering in their total breadth a +considerable extent of country. Difference of opinion, therefore, +arose as to the interpretation of the protocol, the Argentines +insisting that the boundary should run from highest peak to +highest peak, the Chileans that it should follow the highest +points of the watershed. The quarrel at length became acute, +and on both sides the populace clamoured from time to time +for an appeal to arms, and the resources of both countries were +squandered in military and naval preparations for a struggle. +Nevertheless despite these obstacles, President Uriburu did something +during his term of office to relieve the nation’s financial +difficulties. In 1896 a bill was passed by congress, which +authorized the state by the issue of national bonds to assume +the provincial external indebtedness. This proof of the desire +of the Argentine government to meet honestly all its obligations +did much to restore its credit abroad. Uriburu found in 1897 +the financial position so far improved that he was able to resume +cash payments on the entire foreign debt.</p> + +<p>In 1898 there was another presidential election. Public +opinion, excited by the prospect of a war with Chile, naturally +supported the candidature of General Roca, and he +was elected without opposition (12th October 1898). +<span class="sidenote">Roca President.</span> +The first question which he had to handle was the +Chilean boundary dispute. During the last months of President +Uriburu’s administration, matters had reached a climax, especially +in connexion with the delimitation in a district known as +the Puña de Atacama. In August an ultimatum was received +from Chile demanding arbitration. After some hesitation, on +the advice of Roca the Argentines agreed to the demand, and +peace was maintained. The principle of arbitration being +accepted, the conditions were quickly arranged. The question +of the Puña de Atacama was referred to a tribunal composed +of the United States minister to Argentina and of one Argentine +and one Chilean delegate; that of the southern frontier in +Patagonia to the British crown. One of the first steps of President +Roca, after his accession to office, was to arrange a meeting +with the president of Chile at the Straits of Magellan. At their +conference all difficulties were discussed and settled, and an +undertaking was given on both sides to put a stop to warlike +preparations. The decision of the representative of the United +States was given in April 1899. Although the Chileans professed +dissatisfaction, no active opposition was raised, and the +terms were duly ratified. In his message to congress, on the +1st of May 1899, General Roca spoke strongly of the immediate +necessity of a reform in the methods of administering justice, +the expediency of a revision of the electoral law, and the imperative +need of a reconstruction of the department of public +instruction. The administration of justice, he declared, had +fallen to so low an ebb as to be practically non-existent. By +the powerful influence of the president, government measures +were sanctioned by the legislature dealing with the abuses +which had been condemned. On the 31st of August of the same +year a series of proposals upon the currency question was +submitted to congress by the president, whose real object was to +counteract the too rapid appreciation of the inconvertible paper +money. The official value of the dollar was fixed at 44 cents +gold for all government purposes. The violent fluctuations +in the value of the paper dollar, which caused so much damage +to trade and industry, were thus checked. In October 1900 +Dr Manuel Campos Salles, president of Brazil, paid a visit to +Buenos Aires, and was received with great demonstrations +of friendliness. The aggressive attitude of Chile towards Bolivia +was causing considerable anxiety, and Argentina and Brazil +wished to show that they were united in opposing a policy which +aimed at acquiring an extension of territory by force of arms. +The feeling of enmity between Chile and Argentina was indeed +anything but extinct. The delay of the arbitration tribunal +in London in giving its decision in the matter of the disputed +boundary in Patagonia led to a crop of wild rumours being +disseminated, and to a revival of animosity between the two +peoples. In December 1901 warlike preparations were being +carried on in both states, and the outbreak of active hostilities +appeared to be imminent. At the critical moment the British +government, urged to move in the matter by the British residents +in both countries, who feared that war would mean the financial +ruin of both Chile and Argentina, used its utmost influence +both at Santiago and Buenos Aires to allay the misunderstandings; +and negotiations were set on foot which ended in +a treaty for the cessation of further armaments being signed, +June 1902. The award of King Edward VII. upon the delimitation +of the boundary was given a few months later, +and was received without controversy and ratified by both +governments.</p> + +<p>To the calm resourcefulness and level-headedness of President +Roca at a very difficult and critical juncture must be largely +ascribed the preservation of peace, and the permanent removal +of a dispute that had aroused so much irritation. His term +<span class="sidenote">Quintana and Alcorta Presidents.</span> +of office came to an end in 1904, when Dr Manuel Quintana +was elected president and Dr José Figueroa Alcorta +vice-president, both having Roca’s support. Dr +Quintana at the time of his election was sixty-four +years of age. He proved a hard-working progressive +president, who did much for the development of communications +and the opening up of the interior of the country. He died +amidst general regret in March 1906, and was succeeded by +Dr Alcorta for the remaining years of his term.</p> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—C.E. Akers, <i>Argentine, Patagonian and Chilian +Sketches</i> (London, 1893), and <i>A History of South America 1854-1904</i> +(New York, 1905); Theodore Child, <i>The Spanish-American Republics</i> +(London, 1891); Sir T.H. Holdich, <i>The Countries of the King’s Award</i> +(London, 1904); W.H. Hudson, <i>The Naturalist in La Plata</i> (London, +1892), and <i>Idle Days in Patagonia</i> (London, 1893); A.H. Keane +and C.R. Markham, <i>Central and South America</i>, in Stanford’s +“Compendium of Geography and Travel” (London, 1901); G. +E. Church, “Argentine Geography and the Ancient Pampean +Sea” (<i>Geogr. Journal</i>, xii. p. 386); “South America: an Outline of +its Physical Geography” (<i>Geogr. Journal</i>, xvii. p. 333); Dr Karl +Kärger, <i>Landwirtschaft und Kolonisation im spanischen Amerika</i> +(2 vols., Leipzig, 1901); F.P. Moreno, “Explorations in Patagonia” +(<i>Geogr. Journal</i>, xiv. pp. 241, 354); Carlos Lix Klett, <i>Estudios sobre +producción, comercio, finanzas e interesses generales de la Republica +Argentina</i> (2 vols., Buenos Aires, 1900); G. Carrasco, <i>El crecimiento +de la población de la Republica Argentina comparado con el de las +principales naciones 1890-1903</i> (Buenos Aires, 1904); C.M. Urien +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span> +and C. Colombo, <i>Geografia Argentina</i> (Buenos Aires, 1905); E. von +Rosen, <i>Archaeological Researches on the Frontier of Argentina and +Bolivia 1901-1902</i> (Stockholm, 1904); Arturo B. Carranza, <i>Constitución +Nacional y Constituciones Provinciales Vigentes</i> (Buenos +Aires, 1898); Angelo de Gubernatis, <i>L’Argentina</i> (Firenze, 1898); +Meliton Gonzales, <i>El Gran Chaco Argentino</i> (Buenos Aires, 1890); +John Grant & Sons, <i>The Argentine Year Book</i> (Buenos Aires, 1902 +et seq.); Francis Latzina, <i>Diccionario Geografico Argentino</i> (Buenos +Aires, 1891); <i>Géographie de la République Argentine</i> (Buenos Aires, +1890); <i>L’Agriculture et l’Elevage dans la République Argentine</i> +(Paris, 1889); Bartolomé Mitre, <i>Historia de San Martin y de la +Emancipatión Sud-Americana, según nuevos documentos</i> (3 vols., +Buenos Aires, 1887); <i>Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia +Argentina</i> (3 vols., Buenos Aires, 1883); Felipe Soldan, <i>Diccionario +Geografico Estadistico Nacional Argentino</i> (Buenos Aires, 1885); +Thomas A. Turner, <i>Argentina and the Argentines</i> (New York and +London, 1892); Estanislao S. Zeballos, <i>Descripción Amena de la +Republica Argentina</i> (3 vols., Buenos Aires, 1881); <i>Anuario de la +Direción General de Estadistica 1898</i> (Buenos Aires, 1899); Charles +Wiener, <i>La République Argentine</i> (Paris, 1899); <i>Segundo Censo +República Argentina</i> (3 vols., Buenos Aires, 1898); <i>Handbook of the +Argentine Republic</i> (Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, +1892-1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the geology of Argentina, see Stelzner, <i>Beiträge zur geologie +der argentinischen Republik</i> (Cassel and Berlin, 1885); Brackebusch, +<i>Mapa geológico del Interiore de la República Argentina</i> (Gotha, 1892); +Valentin, <i>Bosquejo geólogico de la Argentina</i> (Buenos Aires, 1897); +Hauthal, “Beiträge zur Geologie der argentinischen Provinz Buenos +Aires,” <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i> vol. 1., 1904, pp. 83-92, 112-117, pi. vi.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Interesting details of the Argentine fauna may be found in +Darwin’s <i>Voyage of the Beagle</i>; W.H. Hudson’s <i>Idle Days in Patagonia</i>, +and <i>Naturalist in the La Plata</i>; G. Pelleschi’s <i>Eight Months +on the Gran Chaco</i>; R. Napp’s <i>Argentine Republic</i>; and de Moussy’s +<i>Confédération argentine</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> There are two distinct statistical offices compiling immigration +returns and their totals do not agree, owing in part to the traffic +between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Another report gives the +arrivals in 1904 as 125,567 and the departures 38,923. Of the +arrivals 67,598 were Italians and 39,851 Spaniards. The total for +the years 1859-1904 was 3,166,073 and the departures 1,239,064, +showing a net gain of 1,927,009.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENTINE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a former city of Wyandotte county, Kansas, +U.S.A., since 1910 a part of Kansas City, on the S. bank +of the Kansas river, just above its mouth. Pop. (1890) 4732; +(1900) 5878, of whom 623 were foreign-born and 603 of negro +descent; (1905, state census) 6053. It is served by the +Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway, which maintains here +yards and machine shops. The streets of the city run irregularly +up the steep face of the river bluffs. Its chief industrial establishment +is that of the United Zinc and Chemical Company, +which has here one of the largest plants of its kind in the country. +There are large grain interests. The site was platted in 1880, +and the city was first incorporated in 1882 and again, as a city +of the second class, in 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENTITE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a mineral which belongs to the galena group, +and is cubic silver sulphide (Ag<span class="su">2</span>S). It is occasionally found as uneven +cubes and octahedra, but more often as dendritic or earthy +masses, with a blackish lead-grey colour and metallic lustre. +The cubic cleavage, which is so prominent a feature in galena, +is here present only in traces. The mineral is perfectly sectile +and has a shining streak; hardness 2.5, specific gravity 7.3. It +occurs in mineral veins, and when found in large masses, as in +Mexico and in the Comstock lode in Nevada, it forms an important +ore of silver. The mineral was mentioned so long ago +as 1529 by G. Agricola, but the name argentite (from the Lat. +<i>argentum</i>, “silver”) was not used till 1845 and is due to W. +von Haidinger. Old names for the species are Glaserz, silver-glance +and vitreous silver. A cupriferous variety, from Jalpa in +Tabasco, Mexico, is known as jalpaite. Acanthite is a supposed +dimorphous form, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, +but it is probable that the crystals are really distorted crystals +of argentite.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGENTON,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a town of western France, in the department of +Indre, on the Creuse, 19 m. S.S.W. of Châteauroux on the Orléans +railway. Pop. (1906) 5638. The river is crossed by two bridges, +and its banks are bordered by picturesque old houses. There +are numerous tanneries, and the manufacture of boots and shoes +and linen goods is carried on. The site of the ancient <i>Argentomagus</i> +lies a little to the north.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGHANDAB,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> a river of Afghanistan, about 250 m. in +length. It rises in the Hazara country north-west of Ghazni, +and flowing south-west falls into the Helmund 20 m. below +Girishk. Very little is known about its upper course. It is said +to be shallow, and to run nearly dry in height of summer; but +when its depth exceeds 3 ft. its great rapidity makes it a serious +obstacle to travellers. In its lower course it is much used for +irrigation, and the valley is cultivated and populous; yet the +water is said to be somewhat brackish. It is doubtful whether +the ancient Arachotus is to be identified with the Arghandab or +with its chief confluent the Tarnak, which joins it on the left +about 30 m. S.W. of Kandahar. The two rivers run nearly +parallel, inclosing the backbone of the Ghilzai plateau. The +Tarnak is much the shorter (length about 200 m.) and less copious. +The ruins at Ulân Robât, supposed to represent the city Arachosia, +are in its basin; and the lake known as Ab-i-Istâda, the +most probable representative of Lake Arachotus, is near the +head of the Tarnak, though not communicating with it. The +Tarnak is dammed for irrigation at intervals, and in the hot +season almost exhausted. There is a good deal of cultivation +along the river, but few villages. The high road from Kabul +to Kandahar passes this way (another reason for supposing the +Tarnak to be Arachotus), and the people live off the road to +avoid the onerous duties of hospitality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGHOUL,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> <span class="sc">Arghool</span>, or <span class="sc">Arghul</span> (in the Egyptian hieroglyphs, +<span class="sc">As</span> or <span class="sc">As-it</span>),<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> an ancient and modern Egyptian and Arab +wood-wind instrument, with cylindrical bore and single reed +mouthpiece of the clarinet type. The arghoul consists of two +reed pipes of unequal lengths bound together by means of waxed +thread, so that the two mouthpieces lie side by side, and can be +taken by the performer into his mouth at the same time. The +mouthpiece consists of a reed having a small tongue detached +by means of a longitudinal slit which forms the beating reed, +as in the clarinet mouthpiece. The shorter pipe has six holes +on which the melody is played; the three upper holes being +covered by the fingers of the right hand, and the lower by those +of the left hand. The longer pipe has no lateral holes; it is a +drone pipe with one note only, which, however, can be varied +by the addition of extra lengths of reed. In the illustration +all three lengths are shown in use. An arghoul belonging to the +collection of the Conservatoire Royal at Brussels, described by +Victor Mahillon in his catalogue<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (No. 113), gives the following +scale:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:111px" src="images/img475b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:482px; height:30px" src="images/img475a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Edward William Lane’s <i>An Account of the Manners and Customs of the +Modern Egyptians</i>.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Modern Arghoul, 3 ft. 2½ in. long.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The total length of the shorter pipe, including the mouthpiece, +is 0.435 m.; of the longer pipe, without additional joints, +0.555 m. An Egyptian arghoul,<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> presented by the khedive +to the Victoria and Albert Museum, measures 4 ft. 8½ in.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information see Victor Loret, <i>L’Egypte au temps des +Pharaons</i> (Paris, 1889), 8vo, pp. 139, 143, 144; G.A. Villoteau, +<i>Description historique technique et littéraire des instruments de +musique des orientaux</i> (<i>Description de l’Egypte</i>, Paris, 1823, tome xiii, +pp. 456-473).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Victor Loret. “Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,” <i>Journal +Asiatique</i>, 8ème série, tome xiv., Paris, 1889, pp. 129, 130 and 132.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Catalogue descriptif et analytique du musée du Conservatoire +Royal de Bruxelles</i> (Ghent, 1880), p. 141.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>A Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical Instruments in the South +Kensington Museum</i>, by Carl Engel (London, 1874), p. 143.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGOL,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the commercial name of crude tartar (<i>q.v.</i>). It is +a semi-crystalline deposit which forms on wine vats, and is +generally grey or red in colour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGON<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="a-">ἀ-</span>, privative, and <span class="grk" title="ergon">ἒργον</span>, work; hence +meaning “inert”), a gaseous constituent of atmospheric air. +For more than a hundred years before 1894 it had been supposed +that the composition of the atmosphere was thoroughly known. +Beyond variable quantities of moisture and traces of carbonic +acid, hydrogen, ammonia, &c., the only constituents recognized +were nitrogen and oxygen. The analysis of air was conducted +by determining the amount of oxygen present and assuming +the remainder to be nitrogen. Since the time of Henry +Cavendish no one seemed even to have asked the question +whether the residue was, in truth, all capable of conversion +into nitric acid.</p> + +<p>The manner in which this condition of complacent ignorance +came to be disturbed is instructive. Observations undertaken +mainly in the interest of Prout’s law, and extending over many +years, had been conducted to determine afresh the densities +of the principal gases—hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. In +the latter case, the first preparations were according to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +convenient method devised by Vernon Harcourt, in which air +charged with ammonia is passed over red-hot copper. Under +the influence of the heat the atmospheric oxygen, unites with +the hydrogen of the ammonia, and when the excess of the latter +is removed with sulphuric acid, the gas properly desiccated +should be pure nitrogen, derived in part from the ammonia, but +principally from the air. A few concordant determinations of +density having been effected, the question was at first regarded +as disposed of, until the thought occurred that it might be desirable +to try also the more usual method of preparation in which +the oxygen is removed by actual oxidation of copper without +the aid of ammonia. Determinations made thus were equally +concordant among themselves, but the resulting density was +about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span> part greater than that found by Harcourt’s method +(Rayleigh, <i>Nature</i>, vol. xlvi. p. 512, 1892). Subsequently when +<i>oxygen</i> was substituted for air in the first method, so that all +(instead of about one-seventh part) of the nitrogen was derived +from ammonia, the difference rose to ½%. Further experiment +only brought out more clearly the diversity of the gases hitherto +assumed to be identical. Whatever were the means employed +to rid air of accompanying oxygen, a uniform value of the density +was arrived at, and this value was ½% greater than that appertaining +to nitrogen extracted from compounds such as nitrous +oxide, ammonia and ammonium nitrite. No impurity, consisting +of any known substance, could be discovered capable of +explaining an excessive weight in the one case, or a deficiency +in the other. Storage for eight months did not disturb the +density of the chemically extracted gas, nor had the silent +electric discharge any influence upon either quality. (“On an +Anomaly encountered in determining the Density of Nitrogen +Gas,” <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, April 1894.)</p> + +<p>At this stage it became clear that the complication depended +upon some hitherto unknown body, and probability inclined +to the existence of a gas in the atmosphere heavier than nitrogen, +and remaining unacted upon during the removal of the oxygen—a +conclusion afterwards fully established by Lord Rayleigh +and Sir William Ramsay. The question which now pressed +was as to the character of the evidence for the universally +accepted view that the so-called nitrogen of the atmosphere +was all of one kind, that the nitrogen of the air was the same +as the nitrogen of nitre. Reference to Cavendish showed that +he had already raised this question in the most distinct manner, +and indeed, to a certain extent, resolved it. In his memoir of +1785 he writes:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“As far as the experiments hitherto published extend, we scarcely +know more of the phlogisticated part of our atmosphere than that +it is not diminished by lime-water, caustic alkalies, or nitrous air; +that it is unfit to support fire or maintain life in animals; and that +its specific gravity is not much less than that of common air; so +that, though the nitrous acid, by being united to phlogiston, is converted +into air possessed of these properties, and consequently, +though it was reasonable to suppose, that part at least of the phlogisticated +air of the atmosphere consists of this acid united to +phlogiston, yet it may fairly be doubted whether the whole is of this +kind, or whether there are not in reality many different substances +confounded together by us under the name of phlogisticated air. I +therefore made an experiment to determine whether the whole of a +given portion of the phlogisticated air of the atmosphere could be +reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there was not a part of a different +nature to the rest which would refuse to undergo that change. The +foregoing experiments indeed, in some measure, decided this point, +as much the greatest part of air let up into the tube lost its elasticity; +yet, as some remained unabsorbed, it did not appear for certain +whether that was of the same nature as the rest or not. For this +purpose I diminished a similar mixture of dephlogisticated [oxygen] +and common air, in the same manner as before [by sparks over +alkali], till it was reduced to a small part of its original bulk. I then, +in order to decompound as much as I could of the phlogisticated air +[nitrogen] which remained in the tube, added some dephlogisticated +air to it and continued the spark until no further diminution took +place. Having by these means condensed as much as I could of the +phlogisticated air, I let up some solution of liver of sulphur to absorb +the dephlogisticated air; after which only a small bubble of air +remained unabsorbed, which certainly was not more than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">120</span> of +the bulk of the dephlogisticated air let up into the tube; so that, +if there be any part of the dephlogisticated air of our atmosphere +which differs from the rest, and cannot be reduced to nitrous acid, +we may safely conclude that it is not more than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">120</span> part of the +whole.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Although, as was natural, Cavendish was satisfied with his +result, and does not decide whether the small residue was genuine, +it is probable that his residue was really of a different kind from +the main bulk of the “phlogisticated air,” and contained the +gas afterwards named argon.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:169px; height:379px" src="images/img476.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The announcement to the British Association in 1894 by +Rayleigh and Ramsay of a new gas in the atmosphere was +received with a good deal of scepticism. Some doubted the +discovery of a new gas altogether, while others denied that it +was present in the atmosphere. Yet there was nothing inconsistent +with any previously ascertained fact in the asserted +presence of 1% of a non-oxidizable gas about half as heavy again +as nitrogen. The nearest approach to a difficulty lay in the +behaviour of liquid air, from which it was supposed, as the event +proved erroneously, that such a constituent would separate +itself in the solid form. The evidence of the existence of a new +gas (named Argon on account of its chemical inertness), and a +statement of many of its properties, were communicated to the +Royal Society (see <i>Phil. Trans.</i> clxxxvi. p. 187) by the discoverers +in January 1895. The isolation of +the new substance by removal of nitrogen +from air was effected by two distinct +methods. Of these the first is merely a +development of that of Cavendish. The +gases were contained in a test-tube A (fig. 1) +standing over a large quantity of +weak alkali B, and the current was conveyed +in wires insulated by U-shaped glass +tubes CC passing through the liquid and +round the mouth of the test-tube. The +inner platinum ends DD of the wire may +be sealed into the glass insulating tubes, +but reliance should not be placed upon +these sealings. In order to secure tightness +in spite of cracks, mercury was placed +in the bends. With a battery of five +Grove cells and a Ruhmkorff coil of +medium size, a somewhat short spark, or +arc, of about 5 mm. was found to be more +favourable than a longer one. When the +mixed gases were in the right proportion, +the rate of absorption was about 30 c.c. per hour, about +thirty times as fast as Cavendish could work with the electrical +machine of his day. Where it is available, an alternating +electric current is much superior to a battery and break. +This combination, introduced by W. Spottiswoode, allows the +absorption in the apparatus of fig. 1 to be raised to about 80 c.c. +per hour, and the method is very convenient for the purification +of small quantities of argon and for determinations of the amount +present in various samples of gas, <i>e.g.</i> in the gases expelled from +solution in water. A convenient adjunct to this apparatus +is a small voltameter, with the aid of which oxygen or hydrogen +can be introduced at pleasure. The gradual elimination of the +nitrogen is tested at a moment’s notice with a miniature spectroscope. +For this purpose a small Leyden jar is connected as usual +to the secondary terminals, and if necessary the force of the +discharge is moderated by the insertion of resistance in the +primary circuit. When with a fairly wide slit the yellow line is +no longer visible, the residual nitrogen may be considered to have +fallen below 2 or 3%. During this stage the oxygen should be +in considerable excess. When the yellow line of nitrogen has +disappeared, and no further contraction seems to be in progress, +the oxygen maybe removed by cautious introduction of hydrogen. +The spectrum may now be further examined with a more powerful +instrument. The most conspicuous group in the argon spectrum +at atmospheric pressure is that first recorded by A. Schuster +(fig. 2). Water vapour and excess of oxygen in moderation do +not interfere seriously with its visibility. It is of interest to +note that the argon spectrum may be fully developed by operating +upon a miniature scale, starting with only 5 c.c. of air (<i>Phil. +Mag.</i> vol. i. p. 103, 1901).</p> + +<p>The development of Cavendish’s method upon a large scale +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span> +involves arrangements different from what would at first be +expected. The transformer working from a public supply should +give about 6000 volts on open circuit, although when the electric +flame is established the voltage on the platinums is only from +1600 to 2000. No sufficient advantage is attained by raising +the pressure of the gases above atmosphere, but a capacious +vessel is necessary. This may consist of a glass sphere of 50 litres’ +capacity, into the neck of which, presented downwards, the +necessary tubes are fitted. The whole of the interior surface is +washed with a fountain of alkali, kept in circulation by means +of a small centrifugal pump. In this apparatus, and with about +one horse-power utilized at the transformer, the absorption of +gas is 21 litres per hour (“The Oxidation of Nitrogen Gas,” +<i>Trans. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1897).</p> + +<p>In one experiment, specially undertaken for the sake of +measurement, the total air employed was 9250 c.c., and the +oxygen consumed, manipulated with the aid of partially de-aërated +water, amounted to 10,820 c.c. The oxygen contained +in the air would be 1942 c.c.; so that the quantities of atmospheric +nitrogen and of total oxygen which enter into combination +would be 7308 c.c. and 12,762 c.c. respectively. This corresponds +to N + 1.75 O, the oxygen being decidedly in excess of the proportion +required to form nitrous acid. The argon ultimately +found was 75.0 c.c., or a little more than 1% of the atmospheric +nitrogen used. A subsequent determination over mercury by +A.M. Kellas (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> lix. p. 66, 1895) gave 1.186 c.c. +as the amount of argon present in 100 c.c. of mixed atmospheric +nitrogen and argon. In the earlier stages of the inquiry, when +it was important to meet the doubts which had been expressed +as to the presence of the new gas in the atmosphere, blank +experiments were executed in which air was replaced by nitrogen +from ammonium nitrite. The residual argon, derived doubtless +from the water used to manipulate the gases, was but a small +fraction of what would have been obtained from a corresponding +quantity of air.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:142px" src="images/img477.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The other method by which nitrogen may be absorbed on a +considerable scale is by the aid of magnesium. The metal in +the form of thin turnings is charged into hard glass or iron tubes +heated to a full red in a combustion furnace. Into this air, +previously deprived of oxygen by red-hot copper and thoroughly +dried, is led in a continuous stream. At this temperature the +nitrogen combines with the magnesium, and thus the argon is +concentrated. A still more potent absorption is afforded by +calcium prepared <i>in situ</i> by heating a mixture of magnesium +dust with thoroughly dehydrated quick-lime. The density of +argon, prepared and purified by magnesium, was found by +Sir William Ramsay to be 19.941 on the O = 16 scale. The +volume actually weighed was 163 c.c. Subsequently large-scale +operations with the same apparatus as had been used for the +principal gases gave an almost identical result (19.940) for argon +prepared with oxygen.</p> + +<p>Argon is soluble in water at 12° C. to about 4.0%, that is, +it is about 2½ times more soluble than nitrogen. We should +thus expect to find it in increased proportion in the dissolved +gases of rain-water. Experiment has confirmed this anticipation. +The weight of a mixture of argon and nitrogen prepared from the +dissolved gases showed an excess of 24 mg. over the weight of true +nitrogen, the corresponding excess for the atmospheric mixture +being only 11 mg. Argon is contained in the gases liberated by +many thermal springs, but not in special quantity. The gas +collected from the King’s Spring at Bath gave only ½%, <i>i.e.</i> half +the atmospheric proportion.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable physical property of argon relates to +the constant known as the ratio of specific heats. When a gas +is warmed one degree, the heat which must be supplied depends +upon whether the operation is conducted at a constant volume +or at a constant pressure, being greater in the latter case. The +ratio of specific heats of the principal gases is 1.4, which, according +to the kinetic theory, is an indication that an important +fraction of the energy absorbed is devoted to rotation or vibration. +If, as for Boscovitch points, the whole energy is translatory, +the ratio of specific heats must be 1.67. This is precisely the +number found from the velocity of sound in argon as determined +by Kundt’s method, and it leaves no room for any sensible +energy of rotatory or vibrational motion. The same value had +previously been found for mercury vapour by Kundt and +Warburg, and had been regarded as confirmatory of the monatomic +character attributed on chemical grounds to the mercury +molecule. It may be added that helium has the same character +as argon in respect of specific heats (Ramsay, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> +l. p. 86, 1895).</p> + +<p>The refractivity of argon is .961 of that of air. This low +refractivity is noteworthy as strongly antagonistic to the view +at one time favoured by eminent chemists that argon was a +condensed form of nitrogen represented by N<span class="su">3</span>. The viscosity of +argon is 1.21, referred to air, somewhat higher than for oxygen, +which stands at the head of the list of the principal gases (“On +some Physical Properties of Argon and Helium,” <i>Proc. Roy. +Soc.</i> vol. lix. p. 198, 1896).</p> + +<p>The spectrum shows remarkable peculiarities. According to +circumstances, the colour of the light obtained from a Plücker +vacuum tube changes “from red to a rich steel blue,” to use the +words of Crookes, who first described the phenomenon. A third +spectrum is distinguished by J.M. Eder and Edward Valenta. +The red spectrum is obtained at moderately low pressures +(5 mm.) by the use of a Ruhmkorff coil without a jar or air-gap. +The red lines at 7056 and 6965 (Crookes) are characteristic. The +blue spectrum is best seen at a somewhat lower pressure (1 mm. +to 2.5 mm.), and usually requires a Leyden jar to be connected +to the secondary terminals. In some conditions very small +causes effect a transition from the one spectrum to the other. +The course of electrical events attending the operation of a +Ruhmkorff coil being extremely complicated, special interest +attaches to some experiments conducted by John Trowbridge +and T.W. Richards, in which the source of power was a secondary +battery of 5000 cells. At a pressure of 1 mm. the red glow of +argon was readily obtained with a voltage of 2000, but not with +much less. After the discharge was once started, the difference +of potentials at the terminals of the tube varied from 630 volts +upwards.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The introduction of a capacity between the terminals of the +Geissler tube, for example two plates of metal 1600 sq. cm. in area +separated by a glass plate 1 cm. thick, made no difference in the +red glow so long as the connexions were good and the condenser was +quiet. As soon as a spark-gap was introduced, or the condenser +began to emit the humming sound peculiar to it, the beautiful blue +glow so characteristic of argon immediately appeared. (<i>Phil. Mag.</i> +xliii. p. 77, 1897.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The behaviour of argon at low temperatures was investigated +by K.S. Olszewski (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1895, p. 253). The following +results are extracted from the table given by him:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Name.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Critical<br />Temperature,<br />Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Critical<br />Pressure,<br />Atmos.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Boiling<br />Point<br />Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Freezing<br />Point,<br />Cent.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">−146.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">−194.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">−214.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argon</td> <td class="tcc rb">−121.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">−187.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">−189.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−118.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">50.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−182.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">?</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The smallness of the interval between the boiling and freezing +points is noteworthy.</p> + +<p>From the manner of its preparation it was clear at an early +stage that argon would not combine with magnesium or calcium +at a red heat, nor under the influence of the electric discharge +with oxygen, hydrogen or nitrogen. Numerous other, attempts +to induce combination also failed. Nor does it appear that any +well-defined compound of argon has yet been prepared. It was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span> +found, however, by M.P.E. Berthelot that under the influence +of the silent electric discharge, a mixture of benzene vapour +and argon underwent contraction, with formation of a gummy +product from which the argon could be recovered.</p> + +<p>The facts detailed in the original memoir led to the conclusion +that argon was an element or a mixture of elements, but the +question between these alternatives was left open. The behaviour +on liquefaction, however, seemed to prove that in the latter +case either the proportion of the subordinate constituents +was small, or else that the various constituents were but little +contrasted. An attempt, somewhat later, by Ramsay and +J. Norman Collie to separate argon by diffusion into two parts, +which should have different densities or refractivities, led to +no distinct effect. More recently Ramsay and M.W. Travers +have obtained evidence of the existence in the atmosphere of +three new gases, besides helium, to which have been assigned +the names of neon, krypton and xenon. These gases agree with +argon in respect of the ratio of the specific heats and in being +non-oxidizable under the electric spark. As originally defined, +argon included small proportions of these gases, but it is now +preferable to limit the name to the principal constituent and to +regard the newer gases as “companions of argon.” The physical +constants associated with the name will scarcely be changed, +since the proportion of the “companions” is so small. Sir +William Ramsay considers that probably the volume of all of +them taken together does not exceed <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">400</span>th part of that of the +argon. The physical properties of these gases are given in the +following table (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> lxvii. p. 331, 1900):—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Helium.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Neon.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Argon.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Krypton.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Xenon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Refractivities (air = 1)</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .1238</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .2345</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .968</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 1.449</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 2.364</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Densities (O = 16)</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.98</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 9.97</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 19.96</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 40.88</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Boiling points at 760 mm.</td> <td class="tcl rb">c. 6°<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> abs.</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb">86.9° abs.</td> <td class="tcl rb">121.33° abs.</td> <td class="tcl rb">163.9° abs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Critical temperatures</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb">below 68° abs.</td> <td class="tcl rb">155.6° abs.</td> <td class="tcl rb">210.5° abs.</td> <td class="tcl rb">287.7° abs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Critical pressures</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 40.2 metres.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 41.24 metres.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 43.5 metres.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Weight of 1 c.c. of liquid</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">?</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 1.212 gm.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 2.155 gm.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 3.52 gm.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The glow obtained in vacuum tubes is highly characteristic, +whether as seen directly or as analysed by the spectroscope.</p> + +<p>Now that liquid air is available in many laboratories, it forms +an advantageous starting-point in the preparation of argon. +Being less volatile than nitrogen, argon accumulates relatively +as liquid air evaporates. That the proportion of oxygen increases +at the same time is little or no drawback. The following +analyses (Rayleigh, <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, June 1903) of the <i>vapour</i> arising +from liquid air at various stages of the evaporation will give +an idea of the course of events:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Percentage of<br />Oxygen.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Percentage of<br />Argon.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Argon as a Percentage<br />of the Nitrogen and<br />Argon.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 1.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 5.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">75</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">90</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="author">(R.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Sir James Dewar, <i>Compt. Rend.</i> (1904), 139, 261 and 241.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGONAUTS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Argonautai">Άργοναῦται</span>, the sailors of the “Argo”), in Greek +legend a band of heroes who took part in the Argonautic expedition +under the command of Jason, to fetch the golden fleece. +This task had been imposed on Jason by his uncle Pelias (<i>q.v.</i>), +who had usurped the throne of Iolcus in Thessaly, which +rightfully belonged to Jason’s father Aeson. The story of the +fleece was as follows. Jason’s uncle Athamas had two children, +Phrixus and Helle, by his wife Nephele, the cloud goddess. +But after a time he became enamoured of Ino, the daughter of +Cadmus, and neglected Nephele, who disappeared in anger. +Ino, who hated the children of Nephele, persuaded Athamas, +by means of a false oracle, to offer Phrixus as a sacrifice, as the +only means of alleviating a famine which she herself had caused +by ordering the grain to be secretly roasted before it was sown. +But before the sacrifice the shade of Nephele appeared to Phrixus, +bringing a ram with a golden fleece on which he and his sister +Helle endeavoured to escape over the sea. Helle fell off and was +drowned in the strait, which after her was called the Hellespont. +Phrixus, however, reached the other side in safety, and proceeding +by land to Aea in Colchis on the farther shore of the Euxine Sea, +sacrificed the ram, and hung up its fleece in the grove of Ares, +where it was guarded by a sleepless dragon.</p> + +<p>Jason, having undertaken the quest of the fleece, called upon +the noblest heroes of Greece to take part in the expedition. +According to the original story, the crew consisted of the chief +members of Jason’s own race, the Minyae. But when the legend +became common property, other and better-known heroes were +added to their number—Orpheus, Castor and Polydeuces +(Pollux), Zetes and Calais, the winged sons of Boreas, Meleager, +Theseus, Heracles. The crew was supposed to consist of fifty, +agreeing in number with the fifty oars of the “Argo,” so called +from its builder Argos, the son of Phrixus, or from <span class="grk" title="argos">ἀργός</span> +(swift). It was a larger vessel than had ever been seen before, built of +pine-wood that never rotted from Mount Pelion. The goddess +Athena herself superintended its construction, and inserted in +the prow a piece of oak from Dodona, which was endowed with +the power of speaking and delivering oracles. The outward +course of the “Argo” was the same as that of the Greek traders, +whose settlements as early as the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> dotted the +southern shores of the Euxine. The first landing-place was the +island of Lemnos, which was occupied only by women, who had +put to death their fathers, husbands and brothers. Here the +Argonauts remained some months, until they were persuaded +by Heracles to leave. It is known from Herodotus (iv. 145) +that the Minyae had formed settlements at Lemnos at a very +early date. Proceeding up the Hellespont, they sailed to the +country of the Doliones, by whose king, Cyzicus, they were +hospitably received. After their departure, being driven back +to the same place by a storm, they were attacked by the Doliones, +who did not recognize them, and in a battle which took place +Cyzicus was killed by Jason. After Cyzicus had been duly +mourned and buried, the Argonauts proceeded along the coast +of Mysia, where occurred the incident of Heracles and Hylas +(<i>q.v.</i>). On reaching the country of the Bebryces, they again +landed to get water, and were challenged by the king, Amycus, +to match him with a boxer. Polydeuces came forward, and in +the end overpowered his adversary, and bound him to a tree, or +according to others, slew him. At the entrance to the Euxine, +at Salmydessus on the coast of Thrace, they met Phineus, the +blind and aged king whose food was being constantly polluted +by the Harpies. He knew the course to Colchis, and offered +to tell it, if the Argonauts would free him from the Harpies. +This was done by the winged sons of Boreas, and Phineus now +told them their course, and that the way to pass through the +Symplegades or Cyanean rocks—two cliffs which moved on their +bases and crushed whatever sought to pass—was first to fly a +pigeon through, and when the cliffs, having closed on the pigeon, +began to retire to each side, to row the “Argo” swiftly through. +His advice was successfully followed, and the “Argo” made +the passage unscathed, except for trifling damage to the stern. +From that time the rocks became fixed and never closed again. +The next halting-places were the country of the Maryandini, +where the helmsman Tiphys died, and the land of the Amazons +on the banks of the Thermodon. At the island of Aretias they +drove away the Stymphalian birds, who used their feathers of +brass as arrows. Here they found and took on board the four +sons of Phrixus who, after their father’s death, had been sent +by Aeetes, king of Colchis, to fetch the treasures of Orchomenus, +but had been driven by a storm upon the island. Passing near +Mount Caucasus, they heard the groans of Prometheus and the +flapping of the wings of the eagle which gnawed his liver. They +now reached their goal, the river Phasis, and the following +morning Jason repaired to the palace of Aeetes, and demanded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> +the golden fleece. Aeetes required of Jason that he should first +yoke to a plough his bulls, given him by Hephaestus, which +snorted fire and had hoofs of brass, and with them plough the field +of Ares. That done, the field was to be sown with the dragons’ +teeth brought by Phrixus, from which armed men were to spring. +Successful so far by means of the mixture which Medea, daughter +of Aeetes, had given him as proof against fire and sword, Jason +was next allowed to approach the dragon which watched the +fleece; Medea soothed the monster with another mixture, and +Jason became master of the fleece. Then the voyage homeward +began, Medea accompanying Jason, and Aeetes pursuing them. +To delay him and obtain escape, Medea dismembered her young +brother Absyrtus, whom she had taken with her, and cast his +limbs about in the sea for his father to pick up. Her plan succeeded, +and while Aeetes was burying the remains of his son at +Tomi, Jason and Medea escaped. In another account Absyrtus +had grown to manhood then, and met his death in an encounter +with Jason, in pursuit of whom he had been sent. Of the homeward +course various accounts are given. In the oldest (Pindar) +the “Argo” sailed along the river Phasis into the eastern +Oceanus, round Asia to the south coast of Libya, thence to the +mythical lake Tritonis, after being carried twelve days over +land through Libya, and thence again to Iolcus. Hecataeus +of Miletus (Schol. Apollon. Rhod. iv. 259) suggested that from +the Oceanus it may have sailed into the Nile, and so to the +Mediterranean. Others, like Sophocles, described the return +voyage as differing from the outward course only in taking the +northern instead of the southern shore of the Euxine. Some +(pseudo-Orpheus) supposed that the Argonauts had sailed up +the river Tanaïs, passed into another river, and by it reached +the North Sea, returning to the Mediterranean by the Pillars of +Hercules. Again, others (Apollonius Rhodius) laid down the +course as up the Danube (Ister), from it into the Adriatic by a +supposed mouth of that river, and on to Corcyra, where a storm +overtook them. Next they sailed up the Eridanus into the +Rhodanus, passing through the country of the Celts and Ligurians +to the Stoechades, then to the island of Aethalia (Elba), finally +reaching the Tyrrhenian Sea and the island of Circe, who absolved +them from the murder of Absyrtus. Then they passed safely +through Scylla and Charybdis, past the Sirens, through the +Planctae, over the island of the Sun, Trinacria and on to Corcyra +again, the land of the Phaeacians, where Jason and Medea held +their nuptials. They had sighted the coast of Peloponnesus when +a storm overtook them and drove them to the coast of Libya, +where they were saved from a quicksand by the local nymphs. +The “Argo” was now carried twelve days and twelve nights to +the Hesperides, and thence to lake Tritonis (where the seer +Mopsus died), whence Triton conducted them to the +Mediterranean. At Crete the brazen Talos, who would not permit +them to land, was killed by the Dioscuri. At Anaphe, one of the +Sporades, they were saved from a storm by Apollo. Finally, +they reached Iolcus, and the “Argo” was placed in a groove +sacred to Poseidon on the isthmus of Corinth. Jason’s death, +it is said, was afterwards caused by part of the stern giving +way and falling upon him.</p> + +<p>The story of the expedition of the Argonauts is very old. +Homer was acquainted with it and speaks of the “Argo” as +well known to all men; the wanderings of Odysseus may have +been partly founded on its voyage. Pindar, in the fourth +Pythian ode. gives the oldest detailed account of it. In Greek, +there are also extant the <i>Argonautica</i> of Apollonius Rhodius +and the pseudo-Orpheus (4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), and the account in +Apollodorus (i. 9), based on the best extant authorities; in Latin, +the imitation of Apollonius (a free translation or adaptation of +whose <i>Argonautica</i> was made by Terentius Varro Atacinus in the +time of Cicero) by Valerius Flaccus. In ancient times the expedition +was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening +up of the Euxine to Greek commerce and colonization. Its +object was the acquisition of gold, which was caught by the +inhabitants of Colchis in fleeces as it was washed down the rivers. +Suidas says that the fleece was a book written on parchment, which +taught how to make gold by chemical processes. The rationalists +explained the ram on which Phrixus crossed the sea as the name +or ornament of the ship on which he escaped. Several interpretations +of the legend have been put forward by modern scholars. +According to C.O. Müller, it had its origin in the worship of +Zeus Laphystius; the fleece is the pledge of reconciliation; +Jason is a propitiating god of health, Medea a goddess akin to +Hera; Aeetes is connected with the Colchian sun-worship. +Forchhammer saw in it an old nature symbolism; Jason, the +god of healing and fruitfulness, brought the fleece—the fertilizing +rain-cloud—to the western land that was parched by the heat +of the sun. Others treat it as a solar myth; the ram is the light +of the sun, the flight of Phrixus and the death of Helle signify +its setting, the recovery of the fleece its rising again.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are numerous treatises on the subject: F. Vater, <i>Der +Argonautenzug</i> (1845); J. Stender, <i>De Argonautarum Expeditione</i> +(1874); D. Kennerknecht, <i>De Argonautarum Fabula</i> (1886); M. +Groeger, <i>De Argonautarum Fabularum Historia</i> (1889); see also +Grote, <i>History of Greece</i>, part i. ch. 13; Preller, <i>Griechische +Mythologie</i>; articles in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, Roscher’s +<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, and Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des Antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGONNE,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a rocky forest-clad plateau in the north-east of +France, extending along the borders of Lorraine and Champagne, +and forming part of the departments of Ardennes, Meuse +and Marne. The Argonne stretches from S.S.E. to N.N.W., a +distance of 63 m. with an average breadth of 19 m., and an average +height of 1150 ft. It forms the connecting-link between the +plateaus of Haute Marne and the Ardennes, and is bounded E. +by the Meuse and W. by the Ante and the Aisne, which rises in +its southern plateau. The valleys of the Aire and other rivers +traverse it longitudinally, a fact to which its importance as a +bulwark of north-eastern France is largely due. Of the numerous +forests which clothe both slopes of the plateau, the chief is that +of Argonne, which extends for 25 m. between the Aire and the +Aisne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Dumouriez’s Argonne campaign in 1792, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary +Wars</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGOS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> the name of several ancient Greek cities or districts, +but specially appropriated in historic times to the chief town in +eastern Peloponnese, whence the peninsula of Argolis derives +its name. The Argeia, or territory of Argos proper, consisted +of a shelving plain at the head of the Gulf of Argolis, enclosed +between the eastern wall of the Arcadian plateau and the central +highlands of Argolis. The waters of this valley (Inachus, Charadrus, +Erasinus), when properly regulated, favoured the growth +of excellent crops, and the capital standing only 3 m. from the +sea was well placed for Levantine trade. Hence Argos was +perhaps the earliest town of importance in Greece; the legends +indicate its high antiquity and its early intercourse with foreign +countries (Egypt, Lycia, &c.). Though eclipsed in the Homeric +age, when it appears as the seat of Diomedes, by the later +foundation of Mycenae, it regained its predominance after the +invasion of the Dorians (<i>q.v.</i>), who seem to have occupied this +site in considerable force. In accordance with the tradition +which assigned the portion to the eldest-born of the Heracleid +conquerors, Argos was for some centuries the leading power in +Peloponnesus. There is good evidence that its sway extended +originally over the entire Argolis peninsula, the land east of +Parnon, Cythera, Aegina and Sicyon. Under King Pheidon +the Argive empire embraced all eastern Peloponnesus, and its +influence spread even to the western districts.</p> + +<p>This supremacy was first challenged about the 8th century +by Sparta. Though organized on similar lines, with a citizen +population divided into three Dorian tribes (and one containing +other elements), with a class of Perioeci (neighbouring dependents) +and of serfs, the Argives had no more constant foe than +their Lacedaemonian kinsmen. In a protracted struggle for the +possession of the eastern seaboard of Laconia in spite of the +victory at Hysiae (apparently in 669), they were gradually +driven back, until by 550 they had lost the whole coast strip +of Cynuria. A later attempt to retrieve this loss resulted in +a crushing defeat near Tiryns at the hands of King Cleomenes I. +(probably in 495), which so weakened the Argives that they +had to open the franchise to their Perioeci. By this time they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span> +had also lost control over the other cities of Argolis, which they +never succeeded in recovering. Partly in consequence of its +defeat, partly out of jealousy against Sparta, Argos took no part +in the war against Xerxes. Indeed on this, as on later occasions, +its relations with Persia seem to have been friendly. About 470 +the conflict with Sparta was renewed in concert with the +Arcadians, but all that the Argives could achieve was to destroy +their revolted dependencies of Mycenae and Tiryns (468 or 464). +In 461 they contracted an alliance with Athens, thus renewing +a connexion established by Peisistratus (<i>q.v.</i>). In spite of this +league Argos made no headway against Sparta, and in 451 consented +to a truce. A more important result of Athenian +intervention was the substitution of the democratic government +for the oligarchy which had succeeded the early monarchy; at +any rate forty years later we find that Argos possessed complete +democratic institutions.</p> + +<p>During the early Peloponnesian War Argos remained neutral; +after the break-up of the Spartan confederacy consequent upon +the peace of Nicias the alliance of this state, with its unimpaired +resources and flourishing commerce, was courted on all sides. +By throwing in her lot with the Peloponnesian democracies and +Athens, Argos seriously endangered Sparta’s supremacy, but +the defeat of Mantineia (418) and a successful rising of the Argive +oligarchs spoilt this chance. The speedily restored democracy +put little heart into the conflict, and beyond sending mercenary +detachments, lent Athens no further help in the war (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian War</a></span>).</p> + +<p>At the outset of the 4th century, Argos, with a population +and resources equalling those of Athens, took a prominent part +in the Corinthian League against Sparta. In 394 the Argives +helped to garrison Corinth, and the latter state seems for a while +to have been annexed by them. But the peace of Antalcidas +(<i>q.v.</i>) dissolved this connexion, and barred Argive pretensions +to control all Argolis. After the battle of Leuctra Argos +experienced a political crisis; the oligarchs attempted a +revolution, but were put down by their opponents with such +vindictiveness that 1200 of them are said to have been executed +(370). The democracy consistently supported the victorious +Thebans against Sparta, figuring with a large contingent on the +decisive field of Mantineia (362). When pressed in turn by their +old foes the Argives were among the first to call in Philip of +Macedon, who reinstated them in Cynuria after becoming +master of Greece. In the Lamian War Argos was induced to +side with the patriots against Macedonia; after its capture +by Cassander from Polyperchon (317) it fell in 303 into the hands +of Demetrius Poliorcetes. In 272 the Argives joined Sparta in +resisting the ambition of King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose death +ensued in an unsuccessful night attack upon the city. They +passed instead into the power of Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, +who maintained his control by means of tyrants. After several +unavailing attempts Aratus (<i>q.v.</i>) contrived to win Argos for the +Achaean League (229), in which it remained save during a brief +occupation by the Spartans Cleomenes III. (<i>q.v.</i>) and Nabis +(224 and 196).</p> + +<p>The Roman conquest of Achaea enhanced the prosperity of +Argos by removing the trade competition of Corinth. Under +the Empire, Argos was the headquarters of the Achaean synod, +and continued to be a resort of Roman merchants. Though +plundered by the Goths in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 267 and 395 it retained some of +its commerce and culture in Byzantine days. The town was +captured by the Franks in 1210; after 1246 it was held in fief +by the rulers of Athens. In later centuries it became the scene +of frequent conflicts between the Venetians and the Turks, and +on two occasions (1397 and 1500) its population was massacred +by the latter. Repeopled with Albanian settlers, Argos was +chosen as seat of the Greek national assembly in the wars of +independence. Its citadel was courageously defended by the +patriots (1822); in 1825 the city was burnt to the ground by +Ibrahim Pasha. The present town of 10,000 inhabitants is +a purely agricultural settlement. The Argive plain, though not +yet sufficiently reclaimed, yields good crops of corn, rice and +tobacco.</p> + +<p>In the early days of Greece the Argives enjoyed high repute +for their musical talent. Their school of bronze sculpture, +whose first famous exponent was Ageladas (Hagelaidas), the +reputed master of Pheidias, reached its climax towards the end +of the 5th century in the atelier of Polyclitus (<i>q.v.</i>) and his +pupils. To this period also belongs the new Heraeum (see +below), one of the most splendid temples of Greece.</p> + +<p>Remains of the early city are still visible on the Larissa +acropolis, which towers 900 ft. high to the north-west of the +town. A few courses of the ancient ramparts appear under the +double enceinte of the surviving medieval fortress. An aqueduct +of Greek times is represented by some fragments on the +south-western edge. In the slope above the town was hewn a +theatre equalling that of Athens in size. The Aspis or smaller +citadel to the north-east has revealed traces of an early Mycenaean +settlement; the Deiras or ridge connecting the two heights +contains a prehistoric cemetery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon; Plutarch, +<i>Pyrrhus</i>, 30-34; Strabo pp. 373-374; Pausanias ii. 15-24; W.M. +Leake, <i>Travels in the Morea</i> (London, 1835), ii. chs. 19-22; E. Curtius, +<i>Peloponnesos</i> (Gotha, 1851), ii. 350-364; H.F. Tozer, <i>Geography +of Greece</i> (London, 1873), pp. 292-294; J.K. Kophiniotis, <span class="grk" title="Historia ton Argous">Ίστορία τοῦ ῎Αργους</span> +(Athens, 1892-1893); W. Vollgraff in <i>Bulletin de Correspondance +Hellénique</i> (1904, pp. 364-399; 1906, pp. 1-45; 1907, +pp. 139-184).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + +<p><i>The Argive Heraeum</i>.—Since 1892 investigation has added +considerably to our knowledge concerning the Argive Heraeum +or Heraion, the temple of Hera, which stood, according to +Pausanias, “on one of the lower slopes of Euboea.” The term +Euboea did not designate the eminence upon which the Heraeum +is placed, or the mountain-top behind the Heraeum only, but, +as Pausanias distinctly indicates, the group of foothills of the +hilly district adjoining the mountain. When once we admit that +this designated not only the mountain, which is 1730 ft. high, +but also the hilly district adjoining it, the general scale of distance +for this site grows larger. The territory of the Heraeum was +divided into three parts, namely Euboea, Acraea and Prosymna. +Pausanias tells us that the Heraeum is 15 stadia from Mycenae. +Strabo, on the other hand, says that the Heraeum was 40 stadia +from Argos and 10 from Mycenae. Both authors underestimate +the distance from Mycenae, which is about 25 stadia, or a little +more than 3 m., while the distance from Argos is 45 stadia, or a +little more than 5 m. The distance from the Heraeum to the +ancient Midea is slightly greater than to Mycenae, while that +from the Heraeum to Tiryns is about 6 m. The Argive Heraeum +was the most important centre of Hera and Juno worship in the +ancient world; it always remained the chief sanctuary of the +Argive district, and was in all probability the earliest site of +civilized life in the country inhabited by the Argive people. In +fact, whereas the site of Hissarlik, the ancient Troy, is not in +Greece proper, but in Asia Minor, and can thus not furnish the +most direct evidence for the earliest Hellenic civilization as such; +and whereas Tiryns, Mycenae, and the city of Argos, each +represent only one definite period in the successive stages of +civilization, the Argive Heraeum, holding the central site of +early civilization in Greece proper, not only retained its importance +during the three periods marked by the supremacy of +Tiryns, Mycenae and the city of Argos, but in all probability +antedated them as a centre of civilized Argive life. These conditions +alone account for the extreme archaeological importance +of this ancient sanctuary.</p> + +<p>According to tradition the Heraeum was founded by Phoroneus +at least thirteen generations before Agamemnon and the +Achaeans ruled. It is highly probable that before it became +important merely as a temple, it was the fortified centre uniting +the Argive people dwelling in the plain, the citadel which was +superseded in this function by Tiryns. There is ample evidence +to show that it was the chief sanctuary during the Tirynthian +period. When Mycenae was built under the Perseïds it was +still the chief sanctuary for that centre, which superseded Tiryns +in its dominance over the district, and which this temple clearly +antedated in construction. According to the <i>Dictys Cretensis</i>, +it was at this Heraeum that Agamemnon assembled the leaders +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span> +before setting out for Troy. In the period of Dorian supremacy, +in spite of the new cults which were introduced by these people, +the Heraeum maintained its supreme importance: it was here +that the tablets recording the succession of priestesses were kept +which served as a chronological standard for the Argive people, +and even far beyond their borders; and it was here that +Pheidon deposited the <span class="grk" title="obeliskoi">ὀβελίσκοι</span> when he introduced coinage +into Greece.</p> + +<p>We learn from Strabo that the Heraeum was the joint +sanctuary for Mycenae and Argos. But in the 5th century the +city of Argos vanquished the Mycenaeans, and from that time +onwards the city of Argos becomes the political centre of the +district, while the Heraeum remains the religious centre. And +when in the year 423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, through the negligence of the priestess +Chryseis, the old temple was burnt down, the Argives erected a +splendid new temple, built by Eupolemos, in which was placed the +great gold and ivory statue of Hera, by the sculptor Polyclitus, +the contemporary and rival of Pheidias, which was one of the +most perfect works of sculpture in antiquity. Pausanias +describes the temple and its contents (ii. 17), and in his time +he still saw the ruins of the older burnt temple above the +temple of Eupolemos.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:766px; height:466px" src="images/img481.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Plan of the Heraeum</span> (<i>surveyed and drawn by Edward L. Tilton</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>I. Old Temple.</p> +<p>II. Stoa.</p> +<p>III. Stoa.</p> +<p>IV. East Building.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>V. 5th-Century Temple.</p> +<p>VI. South Stoa.</p> +<p>VII. West Building.</p> +<p>VIII. North-West Building.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 34%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>IX. Roman Building.</p> +<p>X. Lower Stoa.</p> +<p>XI. Phylakeion.</p> +<p>A, B, C, D, E, F, Cisterns.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">All these facts have been verified and illustrated by the +excavations of the American Archaeological Institute and School +of Athens, which were carried on from 1892 to 1895. In 1854 +A.R. Rhangabé made tentative excavations on this site, digging +a trench along the north and east sides of the second temple. +Of these excavations no trace was to be seen when those of +1892 were begun. The excavations have shown that the +sanctuary, instead of consisting of but one temple with the ruins +of the older one above it, contained at least eleven separate +buildings, occupying an area of about 975 ft. by 325.</p> + +<p>On the uppermost terrace, defined by the great Cyclopean +supporting wall, exactly as described by Pausanias, the +excavations revealed a layer of ashes and charred wood, below which +were found numerous objects of earliest date, together with +some remains of the walls resting on a polygonal platform—all +forming part of the earliest temple. Immediately adjoining +the Cyclopean wall and below it were found traces of small +houses of the rudest, earliest masonry which are pre-Mycenaean, +if not pre-Cyclopean.</p> + +<p>We then descend to the second terrace, in the centre of which +the substructure of the great second temple was revealed, +together with so much of the walls, as well as the several +architectural members forming the superstructure, that it has been +possible for E.L. Tilton to design a complete restoration of the +temple. On the northern side of this terrace, between the second +temple and the Cyclopean supporting wall, a long stoa or colonnade +runs from east to west abutting at the west end in structures +which evidently contained a well-house and waterworks; while +at the eastern end of this stoa a number of chambers were erected +against the hill, in front of which were placed statues and +inscriptions, the bases for which are still extant. At the +eastern-most end of this second terrace a large hall with three rows +of columns in the interior, with a porch and entrance at the west +end facing the temple, is built upon elaborate supporting walls +of good masonry.</p> + +<p>Below the second terrace at the south-west end a large and +complicated building, with an open courtyard surrounded on three +sides by a colonnade and with chambers opening out towards the +north, may have served as a gymnasium or a sanatorium. It is +of good early Greek architecture, earlier than the second temple. +A curious, ruder building to the north of this and to the west of +the second terrace is probably of much earlier date, perhaps of +the Mycenaean period, and may have served as propylaea.</p> + +<p>Immediately below the second temple at the foot of the elevation +on which this temple stands, towards the south, and thus +facing the city of Argos, a splendid stoa or colonnade, to which +large flights of steps lead, was erected about the time of the +building of the second temple. It is a part of the great plan to +give worthy access to the temple from the city of Argos. To the +east of this large flights of steps lead up to the temple proper.</p> + +<p>At the western extremity of the whole site, immediately beside +the river-bed, we again have a huge stoa running round two sides +of a square, which was no doubt connected with the functions of +this sanctuary as a health resort, especially for women, the goddess +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span> +Hera presiding over and protecting married life and child-birth. +Finally, immediately to the north of this western stoa there is +an extensive house of Roman times also connected with baths.</p> + +<p>While the buildings give archaeological evidence for every +period of Greek life and history from the pre-Mycenaean period +down to Roman times, the topography itself shows that the +Heraeum must have been constructed before Mycenae and +without any regard to it. The foothills which it occupies form +the western boundary to the Argive plain as it stretches down +towards the sea in the Gulf of Nauplia. While it was thus +probably chosen as the earliest site for a citadel facing the sea, +its second period points towards Tiryns and Midea. It could not +have been built as the sanctuary of Mycenae, which was placed +farther up towards the north-west in the hills, and could not +be seen from the Heraeum, its inhabitants again not being able +to see their sanctuary. The west building, the traces of bridges +and roads, show that at one time it did hold some relation to +Mycenae; but this was long after its foundation or the building +of the huge Cyclopean supporting wall which is coeval with the +walls of Tiryns, these again being earlier than those of Mycenae. +There are, moreover, traces of still more primitive walls, built +of rude small stones placed one upon the other without mortar, +which are in character earlier than those of Tiryns, and have +their parallel in the lowest layers of Hissarlik.</p> + +<p>Bearing out the evidence of tradition as well as architecture, +the numerous finds of individual objects in terra-cotta figurines, +vases, bronzes, engraved stones, &c., point to organized civilized +life on this site many generations before Mycenae was built, +<i>a fortiori</i> before the life as depicted by Homer flourished—nay, +before, as tradition has it, under Proetus the walls of Tiryns +were erected. We are aided in forming some estimate of the +chronological sequence preceding the Mycenaean age, as suggested +by the finds of the Heraeum, in the new distribution which +Dörpfeld has been led to make of the chronological stratification +of Hissarlik. For the layer, which he now assigns to the +Mycenaean period, is the sixth stratum from below. Now, as some +of the remains at the Heraeum correspond to the two lowest layers +of Hissarlik, the evidence of the Argive temple leads us far beyond +the date assigned to the Mycenaean age, and at least into the +second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>). As to +its chronological relation to the Cretan sites—Cnossus, Phaestus, +&c., and the “Minoan” civilization as determined by Dr A. Evans, +see the discussion under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>.</p> + +<p>This sanctuary still holds a position of central importance as +illustrating the art of the highest period in Greek history, namely, +the art of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> under the great sculptor +Polyclitus. Though the excavations in the second temple have +clearly revealed the outlines of the base upon which the great +gold and ivory statue of Hera stood, it is needless to say that +no trace of the statue itself has been found. From Pausanias +we learn that “the image of Hera is seated and is of colossal +size: it is made of gold and ivory, and is the work of Polyclitus.” +Based on the computations made by the architect of the +American excavations, E.L. Tilton, on the ground of the height +of the nave, the total height of the image, including the base +and the top of the throne, would be about 26 ft., the seated figure +of the goddess herself about 18 ft. It is probable that the face, +neck, arms and feet were of ivory, while the rest of the figure +was draped in gold. Like the Olympian Zeus of Pheidias, Hera +was seated on an elaborately decorated throne, holding in her +left hand the sceptre, surmounted in her case by the cuckoo +(as that of Zeus had an eagle), and in her right, instead of an +elaborate figure of Victory (such as the Athena Parthenos and +the Olympian Zeus held), simply a pomegranate. The crown +was adorned with figures of Graces and the Seasons. A Roman +imperial coin of Antoninus Pius shows us on a reduced scale the +general composition of the figure; while contemporary Argive +coins of the 5th century give a fairly adequate rendering of the +head. A further attempt has been made to identify the head +in a beautiful marble bust in the British Museum hitherto +known as Bacchus (Waldstein, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, +vol. xxi., 1901, pp. 30 seq.)</p> + +<p>We also learn from Pausanias that the temple was decorated +with “sculptures over the columns, representing some the birth +of Zeus and the battle of the gods and giants, others the Trojan +War and the taking of Ilium.” It was formerly supposed that +the phrase “over the columns” pointed to the existence of +sculptured metopes, but no pedimental groups. Finds made in the +excavations, however, have shown that the temple also had +pedimental groups. Besides numerous fragments of nude and draped +figures belonging to pedimental statues, a well-preserved and +very beautiful head of a female divinity, probably Hera, as well +as a draped female torso of excellent workmanship, both +belonging to the pediments, have been discovered. Of the metopes +also a great number of fragments have been found, together +with two almost complete metopes, the one containing the torso +of a nude warrior in perfect preservation, as well as ten +well-preserved heads. These statues bear the same relation to the +sculptor Polyclitus which the Parthenon marbles hold to +Pheidias; and the excavations have thus yielded most important +material for the illustration of the Argive art of Polyclitus in +the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Waldstein, <i>The Argive Heraeum</i> (vol. i., Boston and New York, +1902; vol. ii., the Vases by J.C. Hoppin, the Bronzes by H.F. de +Cosa, 1905); <i>Excavations of the American School of Athens at the +Heraion of Argos</i> (1892); and numerous reports and articles in the +<i>American Archaeological Journal</i> since 1892.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. W.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGOSTOLI<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (anc. <i>Cephallenia</i>), the capital of Cephalonia +(one of the Ionian islands), and the seat of a bishop of the Greek +church. Pop. about 10,000. It possesses an excellent harbour, +a quay a mile in length, and a fine bridge. Shipbuilding and +silk-spinning are carried on. Near at hand are the ruins of +Cranii, which afford fine examples of Greek military architecture; +and at the west side of the harbour there is a curious stream, +flowing <i>from</i> the sea, and employed to drive mills before losing +itself in caverns inland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir C. Fellows’s <i>Journal of an Excursion in Asia Minor</i> in +1838, and Wiebel’s <i>Die Insel Kephalonia und die Meermühlen von +Argostoli</i> (Hamburg, 1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGOSY<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (a corruption, by transposition of letters, of the +name of the seaport Ragusa), the term originally for a carrack +or merchant ship from Ragusa and other Adriatic ports, now used +poetically of any vessel carrying rich merchandise. In English +writings of the 16th century the seaport named is variously +spelt Ragusa, Aragouse or Aragosa, and ships coming thence +were named Ragusyes, Arguzes and Argosies; the last form +surviving and passing into literature. The incorrect derivation +from Jason’s ship, the “Argo,” is of modern origin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGUIN,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> an island (identified by some writers with Hanno’s +Cerne), off the west coast of Africa, a little south of Cape Blanco, +in 20° 25′ N., 16° 37′ W. It is some 4 m. long by 2½ broad, +produces gum-arabic, and is the seat of a lucrative turtle-fishery. +Off the island, which was discovered by the Portuguese in the +15th century, are extensive and very dangerous reefs. Arguin +was occupied in turn by Portuguese, Dutch, English and French; +and to France it now belongs. The aridity of the soil and the +bad anchorage prevent a permanent settlement. The fishery +is mostly carried on by inhabitants of the Canary Isles. In +July 1816 the French frigate “Medusa,” which carried officers +on their way to Senegal to take possession of that country for +France, was wrecked off Arguin, 350 lives being lost.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGUMENT,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a word meaning “proof,” “evidence,” corresponding +in English to the Latin word <i>argumentum</i>, from which +it is derived; the originating Latin verb <i>arguere</i>, to make clear, +from which comes the English “argue,” is from a root meaning +bright, appearing in Greek <span class="grk" title="argaes">ἀργής</span>, white. From its primary +sense are derived such applications of the word as a chain of +reasoning, a fact or reason given to support a proposition, a +discussion of the evidence or reasons for or against some theory +or proposition and the like. More particularly “argument” +means a synopsis of the contents of a book, the outline of a novel, +play, &c. In logic it is used for the middle term in a syllogism, +and for many species of fallacies, such as the <i>argumentum ad +hominem, ad baculum</i>, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fallacy</a></span>). In mathematics the +term has received special meanings; in mathematical tables +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span> +the “argument” is the quantity upon which the other quantities +in the table are made to depend; in the theory of complex +variables, <i>e.g.</i> such as a + ib where i = √<span class="ov">−1</span>, the “argument” +(or “amplitude”) is the angle θ given by tan θ = b/a. In +astronomy, the term is used in connexion with the Ptolemaic +theory to denote the angular distance on the epicycle of a planet +from the true apogee of the epicycle; and the “equation to the +argument” is the angle subtended at the earth by the distance +of a planet from the centre of the epicycle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGUS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> in ancient Greek mythology, the son of Inachus, +Agenor or Arestor, or, according to others, an earth-born hero +(autochthon). He was called Panoptes (all-seeing), from having +eyes all over his body. After performing several feats of valour, +he was appointed by Hera to watch the cow into which Io had +been transformed. While doing this he was slain by Hermes, +who stoned him to death, or put him to sleep by playing on the +flute and then cut off his head. His eyes were transferred +by Hera to the tail of the peacock. Argus with his countless +eyes originally denoted the starry heavens (Apollodorus ii. 1; +Aeschylus, <i>P. V.</i> 569; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> i. 264).</p> + +<p>Another <span class="sc">Argus</span>, the old dog of Odysseus, who recognized his +master on his return to Ithaca, figures in one of the best-known +incidents in Homer’s <i>Odyssey</i> (xvii. 291-326).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>. The rise of this family +of Scottish peers, originally the Campbells of Lochow, and first +ennobled as Barons Campbell, is referred to in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argyllshire</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Archibald Campbell,</span> 5th earl of Argyll (1530-1573), was +the elder son of Archibald, 4th earl of Argyll (d. 1558), and a +grandson of Colin, the 3rd earl (d. 1530). His great-grandfather +was the 2nd earl, Archibald, who was killed at Flodden in 1513, +and this nobleman’s father was Colin, Lord Campbell (d. 1493), +the founder of the greatness of the Campbell family, who was +created earl of Argyll in 1457. With Lord James Stuart, afterwards +the regent Murray, the 5th earl of Argyll became an +adherent of John Knox about 1556, and like his father was one +of the most influential members of the party of religious reform, +signing what was probably the first “godly band” in December +1557. As one of the “lords of the congregation” he was one of +James Stuart’s principal lieutenants during the warfare between +the reformers and the regent, Mary of Lorraine; and later with +Murray he advised and supported Mary queen of Scots, who +regarded him with great favour. It was about this time that +William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley, referred to Argyll as +“a goodly gentleman universally honoured of all Scotland.” +Owing to his friendship with Mary, Argyll was separated from +the party of Knox, but he forsook the queen when she +determined to marry Lord Darnley; he was, however, again on +Mary’s side after Queen Elizabeth’s refusal to aid Murray in 1565. +Argyll was probably an accomplice in the murder of Rizzio; +he was certainly a consenting party to that of Darnley, and then +separating himself from Murray he commanded Mary’s soldiers +after her escape from Lochleven, and by his want of courage and +resolution was partly responsible for her defeat at Langside +in May 1568. Soon afterwards he made his peace with Murray, +but it is possible that he was accessory to the regent’s murder +in 1570. After this event Argyll became lord high chancellor +of Scotland, and he died on the 12th of September 1573. His +first wife was an illegitimate daughter of James V., and he was +thus half-brother-in-law to Mary and to Murray. His relations +with her were not harmonious; he was accused of adultery, +and in 1568 he performed a public penance at Stirling.</p> + +<p>He left no children, and on his death his half-brother Colin +(d. 1584) became 6th earl of Argyll. This nobleman, whose life +was partly spent in feuds with the regent Morton, died in October +1584. He was succeeded as 7th earl by his young son Archibald +(1576-1638), who became a Roman Catholic, fought for Philip III. +of Spain in Flanders, whither he had gone to avoid his creditors, +and, having entrusted the care of his estates to his son, died +in London.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Archibald Campbell</span>, 1st marquess and 8th earl of Argyll +(1607-1661), eldest son of Archibald, 7th earl, by his first wife, +Lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William, 1st earl of Morton, was +born in 1607<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and educated at St Andrews University, where he +matriculated on the 15th of January 1622. He had early in +life, as Lord Lorne, been entrusted with the possession of the +Argyll estates when his father renounced Protestantism and took +service with Philip of Spain; and he exercised over his clan an +authority almost absolute, disposing of a force of 20,000 retainers, +and being, according to Baillie, “by far the most powerful subject +in the kingdom.” On the outbreak of the religious dispute +between the king and Scotland in 1637 his support was eagerly +desired by Charles I. He had been made a privy councillor in +1628, and in 1638 the king summoned him, together with Traquair +and Roxburgh, to London; but he refused to be won over, +openly and courageously warned Charles against his despotic +ecclesiastical policy, and showed great hostility towards Laud. +In consequence a secret commission was given to the earl of +Antrim to invade Argyllshire and stir up the Macdonalds against +the Campbells, a wild and foolish project which completely +miscarried. Argyll, who inherited the title by the death of his +father in 1638, had originally no preference for Presbyterianism, +but now definitely took the side of the Covenanters in defence of +the national religion and liberties. He continued to attend the +meetings of the Assembly after its dissolution by the marquess of +Hamilton, when Episcopacy was abolished. In 1639 he sent a +statement to Laud, and subsequently to the king, defending the +Assembly’s action; and raising a body of troops he seized +Hamilton’s castle of Brodick in Arran. After the pacification +of Berwick he carried a motion, in opposition to Montrose, by +which the estates secured to themselves the election of the lords +of the articles, who had formerly been nominated by the king, a +fundamental change in the Scottish constitution, whereby the +management of public affairs was entrusted to a representative +body and withdrawn from the control of the crown. An attempt +by the king to deprive him of his office as justiciary of Argyll and +Tarbet failed, and on the prorogation of the parliament by +Charles, in May 1640, Argyll moved that it should continue its +sittings and that the government and safety of the kingdom +should be secured by a committee of the estates, of which, though +not a member, he was himself the guiding spirit. In June he was +entrusted with a “commission of fire and sword” against the +royalists in Atholl and Angus, which, after succeeding in +entrapping the earl of Atholl, he carried out with completeness +and some cruelty. It was on this occasion that took place the burning +of “the bonnie house of Airlie.” By this time the personal +rivalry and difference in opinion between Montrose and Argyll +had led to an open breach. The former arranged that on the +occasion of Charles’s approaching visit to Scotland, Argyll should +be accused of high treason in the parliament. The plot, however, +was disclosed, and Montrose with others was imprisoned. +Accordingly when the king arrived he found himself deprived of +every remnant of influence and authority. It only remained for +Charles to make a series of concessions. He transferred the +control over judicial and political appointments to the +parliament, created Argyll a marquess (1641) with a pension of £1000 +a year, and returned home, having in Clarendon’s words “made a +perfect deed of gift of that kingdom.” Meanwhile the king’s +policy of peace and concession had, as usual, been rudely and +treacherously interrupted by a resort to force, an unsuccessful +attempt, known as the “incident,” being made to kidnap +Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark. Argyll was mainly instrumental +at this crisis in keeping the national party faithful to what was +to him evidently the common cause, and in accomplishing the +alliance with the Long Parliament in 1643. In January 1644 he +accompanied the Scottish army into England as a member of the +committee of both kingdoms and in command of a troop of horse, +but was soon in March compelled to return to suppress royalist +movements in the north and to defend his own territories. He +compelled Huntly to retreat in April, and in July advanced to +meet the Irish troops now landed in Argyllshire, which were +acting in conjunction with Montrose, who had put himself at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span> +head of the royalist forces in Scotland. A campaign followed in +the north in which neither general succeeded in obtaining any +advantage over the other, or even in engaging battle. Argyll +then returned to Edinburgh, threw up his commission, and +retired to Inveraray Castle. Thither Montrose unexpectedly +followed him in December, compelled him to flee to Roseneath, +and devastated his territories. On the 2nd of February 1645, +when following Montrose northwards, Argyll was surprised by +him at Inverlochy and witnessed from his barge on the lake, to +which he had retired owing to a dislocated arm, a fearful slaughter +of his troops, which included 1500 of the Campbells. He arrived +at Edinburgh on the 12th of February and was again present +at Montrose’s further great victory on the 15th of August at +Kilsyth, whence he escaped to Newcastle. Argyll was at last +delivered from his formidable antagonist by Montrose’s final +defeat at Philiphaugh on the 12th of September. In 1646 he was +sent to negotiate with the king at Newcastle after his surrender +to the Scottish army, when he endeavoured to moderate the +demands of the parliament and at the same time to persuaade the +king to accept them. On the 7th of July 1646 he was appointed +a member of the Assembly of Divines.</p> + +<p>Up to this point the statesmanship of Argyll had been highly +successful. The national liberties and religion of Scotland had +been defended and guaranteed, and the power of the king in +Scotland reduced to a mere shadow. In addition, these privileges +had been still further secured by the alliance with +the English opposition, and by the subsequent triumph of the +parliament and Presbyterianism in the neighbouring kingdom. +The sovereign himself, after vainly contending in arms, was a +prisoner in their midst. But Argyll’s influence could not survive +the rupture of the alliance between the two nations on which his +whole policy was constructed. He opposed in vain the secret +treaty now concluded between the king and the Scots against the +parliament, and while Hamilton marched into England and was +defeated by Cromwell at Preston, Argyll, after a narrow escape +from a surprise at Stirling, joined the Whiggamores, a body of +Covenanters at Edinburgh; and, supported by London, Leven +and Leslie, he established a new government, which welcomed +Cromwell on his arrival there on the 4th of October. This alliance, +however, was at once destroyed by the execution of Charles I., +which excited universal horror in Scotland. In the series of +tangled incidents which followed, Argyll lost control of the +national policy. He describes himself at this period as “a +distracted man ... in a distracted time” whose “remedies ... had +the quite contrary operation.” He supported the +invitation from the Covenanters to Charles II. to land in Scotland, +gazed upon the captured Montrose, bound on a cart on his way to +execution at Edinburgh, and subsequently, when Charles II. +came to Scotland, having signed the Covenant and repudiated +Montrose, Argyll remained at the head of the administration. +After the defeat of Dunbar, Charles retained his support by the +promise of a dukedom and the Garter, and an attempt was made +by Argyll to marry the king to his daughter. On the 1st of +January 1651 he placed the crown on Charles’s head at Scone. +But his power had now passed to the Hamilton party. He +strongly opposed, but was unable to prevent, the expedition into +England, and in the subsequent reduction of Scotland, after +having held out in Inveraray Castle for nearly a year, was at last +surprised in August 1652 and submitted to the Commonwealth. +His ruin was then complete. His policy had failed, his power had +vanished. In his estate he was hopelessly in debt, and on terms +of such violent hostility with his eldest son as to be obliged to +demand a garrison in his house for his protection. During his +visit to Monk at Dalkeith in 1654 to complain of this, he was +subjected to much personal insult from his creditors, and on +visiting London in September 1655 to obtain money due to him +from the Scottish parliament, he was arrested for debt, though +soon liberated. In Richard Cromwell’s parliament of 1659 +Argyll sat as member for Aberdeenshire. At the Restoration he +presented himself at Whitehall, but was at once arrested by order +of Charles and placed in the Tower (1660), being sent to Edinburgh +to stand his trial for high treason. He was acquitted of complicity +in the death of Charles I., and his escape from the whole +charge seemed imminent, but the arrival of a packet of letters +written by Argyll to Monk showed conclusively his collaboration +with Cromwell’s government, particularly in the suppression +of Glencairn’s royalist rising in 1652. He was immediately +sentenced to death, his execution by beheading taking place on +the 27th of May 1661, before even the death warrant had been +signed by the king. His head was placed on the same spike +upon the west end of the Tolbooth on which that of Montrose +had previously been exposed, and his body was buried at the +Holy Loch, where the head was also deposited in 1664. A +monument was erected to his memory in St Giles’s church in +Edinburgh in 1895.</p> + +<p>While imprisoned in the Tower he wrote <i>Instructions to a +Son</i> (1661; reprinted in 1689 and 1743). Some of his speeches, +including the one delivered on the scaffold, were published +and are printed in the <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>. He married Lady +Margaret Douglas, daughter of William, 2nd earl of Morton, and +had two sons and four daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the <i>Life and Times of Archibald Marquis of Argyll</i> (1903), +by John Willcock, who prints for the first time the six incriminating +letters to Monk; <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i>, xviii. 369 and 624; <i>Scottish +History Society</i>, vol. xvii. (1894); <i>Charles II. and Scotland in 1650</i>, +ed. by S.R. Gardiner, and vol. xviii. (1895); <i>History of Scotland</i>, +by A. Lang, vol. iii. (1904).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Archibald Campbell</span>, 9th earl of Argyll (1629-1685), eldest +son of the 8th earl, studied abroad, and at the age of thirteen +was appointed captain in the Scottish regiment serving in +France under his uncle the earl of Irvine. He returned home +at the close of 1649, and was made captain of Charles II.’s life +guards on the king’s arrival in Scotland in 1650. He declared +himself a royalist in opposition to his father, with the view, as +some said, of securing the family estates in any event. He +fought at Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, and after the +battle of Worcester joined Glencairn in the Highlands. Bitter +disputes arose, and on the 2nd of January 1654 Lorne, quitting +his troops, fled to avoid arrest. In 1653 he submitted to Monk. +He appears, however, to have maintained communications with +Charles, and on his refusal to take the oath renouncing allegiance +to the Stuarts in 1657 he was imprisoned, remaining in confinement +probably till a short time before the Restoration. He +was then well received at court by Charles II. After the execution +of his father, he endeavoured to obtain the restitution of his +forfeited estates and title, but having incautiously attacked +certain members of the government in letters which were made +public, he was indicted at Edinburgh on the capital charge of +“leasing-making” and was sentenced to death on the 26th of +August. He remained a prisoner in Edinburgh Castle till the +4th of June 1663, when the sentence was cancelled and he was +re-created earl and restored to his estates. He disapproved +of the severities practised upon the Covenanters in the west, +and in 1671 pleaded for milder methods. His staunch Protestantism +rendered him exceedingly obnoxious to James, duke of +York, who in 1680 arrived as high commissioner in Scotland +and at once expressed his jealousy of Argyll’s immense territorial +influence. Argyll moved the re-enactment of “all the acts +against popery” omitted on James’s account, and opposed the +exemption of the royal family from the test, though allowing +it in the case of James. In signing the test himself, in its final +form both ambiguous and self-contradictory, he made the +reservation “so far as consistent with itself and the Protestant +faith,” and declined to engage himself not to promote any alteration +of advantage in church or state. On his refusal to record +his oath in writing and to sign it, he was dismissed from the +Scottish privy council, and on the 9th of November 1681 was +accused of treason, a charge which Halifax declared openly in +England “they would not hang a dog upon.” A trial followed, +a scandalous exhibition of illegality and injustice, at the close +of which Argyll was sentenced to death and to the forfeiture of +his estates. Shortly afterwards, through the instrumentality +of his step-daughter, Sophia Lindsay, he succeeded in making +his escape, and after some adventures retired to Holland. His +subsequent movements are uncertain, but he appears to have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span> +again visited London, and was in correspondence with the Rye +House plotters and proposing to head a rebellion in Scotland +in 1683. In 1685 he joined the conspiracy in Holland to set +Monmouth on the throne instead of James II., arriving in Orkney +on the 6th of May and making his way to his own country. But +his clansmen refused to join him, and whatever small chances of +success remained were destroyed by constant and paralysing +disputes. His ships and ammunition were captured, and after +some aimless wanderings he found himself deserted, with but +one companion, Major Fullerton. On the 18th of June he was +taken prisoner at Inchinnan and arrived at Edinburgh on the +20th, where he was paraded through the streets and put in +irons in the castle. James ordered his summary execution on +the 29th, and it was carried out by beheading on the following +day, on the old charge of 1681. His head was exposed on the +west side of the Tollbooth, where his father’s and Montrose’s +had also been exhibited, his body finding its final place of burial +at Inveraray.</p> + +<p>By his first wife, Lady Mary Stewart, daughter of the 4th +earl of Moray (Murray), he had four sons and three daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Argyll Papers</i> (1834); <i>Letters from Archibald, 9th Earl of Argyle, +to the Duke of Lauderdale</i> (1829); <i>Hist. MSS. Comm</i>. vi. Rep. 606; +<i>Life of Mr Donald Cargile</i>, by P. Walker, pp. 45 et seq.; <i>The 3rd +Part of the Protestant Plot ... and a Brief Account of the Case of the +Earl of Argyle</i> (1682); Sir George MacKenzie’s <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, +p. 70; and J. Willcock, <i>A Scots Earl in Covenanting Times</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Archibald Campbell</span>, 1st duke of Argyll (? 1651-1703), was +the eldest son of the 9th earl. He tried to get his father’s +attainder reversed by seeking the king’s favour, but being unsuccessful he went over to the Hague and joined William of +Orange as an active promoter of the revolution of 1688. In +spite of the attainder, he was admitted in 1689 to the convention +of the Scottish estates as earl of Argyll, and he was deputed, +with Sir James Montgomery and Sir John Dalrymple, to present +the crown to William III. in its name, and to tender him the +coronation oath. In 1690 an act was passed restoring his title +and estates, and it was in connexion with the refusal of the +Macdonalds of Glencoe to join in the submission to him that +he organized the terrible massacre which has made his name +notorious. In 1696 he was made a lord of the treasury, and his +political services were rewarded in 1701 by his being created +duke of Argyll. He had two sons by his wife Elizabeth, daughter +of Sir Lionel Talmash, John (the 2nd duke) and Archibald (the +3rd duke.)</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Campbell</span>, 2nd duke of Argyll and duke of Greenwich +(1678-1743), was born on the 10th of October 1678. He entered +the army in 1694, and in 1701 was promoted to the command +of a regiment. On the death of his father in 1703, he was appointed +a member of the privy council, and at the same time +colonel of the Scotch horse guards, and one of the extraordinary +lords of session. In return for his services in promoting the +Union, he was created (1705) a peer of England, by the titles +of baron of Chatham and earl of Greenwich, and in 1710 was +made a knight of the Garter. He first distinguished himself +in a military capacity at the battle of Oudenarde (1708), where +he served as a brigadier-general; and was afterwards present +under the duke of Marlborough at the sieges of Lille, Ghent, +Bruges and Tournay, and did remarkable service at the battle +of Malplaquet in 1709. He was very popular with the troops, +and his rivalry with Marlborough on this account is thought to +have been the cause of the enmity shown by Argyll afterwards +to his old commander. In 1711 he was sent to take command +in Spain; but being seized with a violent fever at Barcelona, and +disappointed of supplies from home, he returned to England. +Having a seat in the House of Lords, and being gifted with an +extraordinary power of oratory, he censured the measures of the +ministry with such freedom that all his places were disposed of +to other noblemen; but at the accession of George I. he recovered +his influence. On the breaking out of the rebellion in 1715 he +was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in North Britain, +and was principally instrumental in effecting the total extinction +of the rebellion in Scotland without much bloodshed. He +arrived in London early in March 1716, and at first stood high +in the favour of the king, but in a few months was strippee of +his offices. This disgrace, however, did not deter him from the +discharge of his parliamentary duties; he supported the bill +for the impeachment of Bishop Atterbury, and lent his aid to +his countrymen by opposing the bill for punishing the city of +Edinburgh for the Porteous riot. In the beginning of the year +1719 he was again admitted into favour, appointed lord steward +of the household, and, in April following, created duke of Greenwich; +he held various offices in succession, and in 1735 was +made a field marshall. He continued in the administration till +after the accession of George II., when, in April 1740, a violent +speech against the government led again to his dismissal from +office. He was soon restored on a change of the ministry, but +disapproving the measures of the new administration, and +apparently disappointed at not being given the command of the +army, he shortly resigned all his posts, and spent the rest of +his life in privacy and retirement. He died on the 4th of +October 1743. A monument by Roubillac was erected to his +memory in Westminster Abbey. He was twice married, and +by his second wife, Jane Warburton, had five daughters; his +Scottish titles passed to his brother, but his English titles became +extinct, and though his eldest daughter was created baroness of +Greenwich in 1767 this title also became extinct on her death +in 1794.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Archibald Campbell</span>, 3rd duke of Argyll (1682-1761), was +born at Ham House in Surrey, in June 1682. On his father +being created a duke, he joined the army, and served for a short +time under the duke of Marlborough. In 1705 he was appointed +treasurer of Scotland, and in the following year was one of the +commissioners for treating of the Union; on the consummation +of which, having been raised to the peerage of Scotland as earl +of Islay, he was chosen one of the sixteen peers for Scotland in +the first parliament of Great Britain. In 1711 he was called to +the privy council, and commanded the royal army at the battle +of Sheriffmuir in 1715. he was appointed keeper of the privy +seal in 1721, and was afterwards entrusted with the principal +management of Scottish affairs to an extent which caused him +to be called “king of Scotland.” In 1733 he was made keeper +of the great seal, an office which he held till his death. He +succeeded to the dukedom in 1743. Both as earl of Islay and as +duke of Argyll he was prominently connected (with Duncan +Forbes of Culloden) with the movement for consolidating +Scottish loyalty by the formation of locally recruited highland +regiments. The duke was eminent not only for his political +abilities, but also for his literary accomplishments, and he +collected one of the most valuable private libraries in Great +Britain. He died suddenly on the 15th of April 1761. He was +married but had no legitimate issue, and his English property +was left to a Mrs Williams, by whom he had a son, William +Campbell.</p> + +<p>The succession now passed to the descendants of the younger +son of the 9th earl, the Campbells of Mamore; the 4th duke died +in 1770, and was succeeded by his son <span class="sc">John</span>, the 5th duke (1723-1806) +He was a soldier who had fought at Dettingen and +Culloden, and became colonel of the 42nd regiment (Black +Watch), and eventually a field marshall. He sat in the House +of Commons for Glasgow from 1744 to 1761, when on his father’s +succession to the dukedom he became legally disqualified, as +courtesy marquess of Lorne, for a Scottish constituency; he could +sit, however, for an English one, and was returned for Dover, +which he represented till 1766, when he was created an English +peer as Baron Sundridge, the title by which till 1892 the dukes +of Argyll sat in the House of Lords. The 5th duke was an +active landlord, and was the first president of the Highland and +Agricultural Society. In 1759 he had married the widowed +duchess of Hamilton (the beautiful Elizabeth Gunning), by whom +he had two sons and two daughters. The eldest of his sons, +<span class="sc">George</span> (d. 1841), became 6th duke, and on his death was +succeeded as 7th duke by his brother <span class="sc">John</span> (1777-1847), who +from 1799-1822 sat in parliament as member for Argyllshire. +He was thrice married, and by his second wife, Joan Glassell +(d. 1828), had two sons, the eldest of whom (b. 1821) died +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span> +in 1837, and two daughters, the second of whom died in +infancy.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">George John Douglas Campbell</span>, 8th duke (1823-1900), +the second son of the 7th duke, was born on the 30th of April +1823, and succeeded his father in April 1847. He had already +obtained notice as a writer of pamphlets on the disruption of the +Church of Scotland, which he strove to avert, and he rapidly +became prominent on the Liberal side in parliamentary politics. +He was a frequent and eloquent speaker in the House of Lords, +and sat as lord privy seal (1852) and postmaster-general (1855) +in the cabinets of Lord Aberdeen and Lord Palmerston. In +Mr Gladstone’s cabinet of 1868 he was secretary of state for +India, and somewhat infelicitously signalized his term of office +by his refusal, against the advice of the Indian government, +to promise the amir of Afghanistan support against Russian +aggression, a course which threw that ruler into the arms of +Russia and was followed by the second Afghan War. His +eminence alike as a great Scottish noble, and as a British statesman, +was accentuated in 1871 when his son, the marquess of +Lorne, married Princess Louise, the fourth daughter of Queen +Victoria; but in the political world few memorable acts on his +part call for record except his resignation of the office of lord +privy seal, which he held in Mr Gladstone’s administration of +1880, from his inability to assent to the Irish land legislation +of 1881. He opposed the Home Rule Bill with equal vigour, +though Mr Gladstone subsequently stated that, among all the +old colleagues who dissented from his course, the duke was the +only one whose personal relations with him remained entirely +unchanged. Detached from party, the duke took an independent +position, and for many years spoke his mind with great freedom +in letters to <i>The Times</i> on public questions, especially such as +concerned the rights or interests of landowners. He was no less +active on scientific questions in their relation to religion, which +he earnestly strove to reconcile with the progress of discovery. +With this aim he published <i>The Reign of Law</i> (1866), <i>Primeval +Man</i> (1869), <i>The Unity of Nature</i> (1884), <i>The Unseen Foundations +of Society</i> (1893), and other essays. He also wrote on the +Eastern question, with especial reference to India, the history +and antiquities of Iona, patronage in the Church of Scotland, and +many other subjects. The duke (to whose Scottish title was added +a dukedom of the United Kingdom in 1892) died on the 24th of +April 1900. He was thrice married: first (1844) to a daughter +of the second duke of Sutherland (d. 1878); secondly (1881) to +a daughter of Bishop Claughton of St Albans (d. 1894); and +thirdly (1895) to Ina Erskine M‘Neill. Few men of the duke’s +era displayed more versatility of intellect, and he was remarkable +among the men of his time for his lofty eloquence.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded as 9th duke by his eldest son <span class="sc">John Douglas +Sutherland Campbell</span> (1845- emsp;), whose marriage in 1871 +to H.R.H. Princess Louise gave him a special prominence in +English public life. He was governor-general of Canada from +1878 to 1883; member of parliament for South Manchester, in +the Unionist interest, 1895 to 1900; and he also became known +as a writer both in prose and verse. In 1907 he published his +reminiscences, <i>Pages from the Past</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Autobiography and Memoirs</i> of the 8th duke, edited by +his widow (1906), which is full of interesting historical and personal +detail.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.; H. Ch.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The date of 1598, previously accepted, is shown by +Willcock to be incorrect.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGYLLSHIRE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a county on the west coast of Scotland, the +second largest in the country, embracing a large tract of country +on the mainland and a number of the Hebrides or Western Isles. +The mainland portion is bounded N. by Inverness-shire; E. by +Perth and Dumbarton, Loch Long and the Firth of Clyde; +S. by the North Channel (Irish Sea); and W. by the Atlantic. +Its area is 1,990,471 acres or 3110 sq. m. The principal districts +are Ardnamurchan on the Atlantic, Ardnamurchan Point being +the most westerly headland of Scotland; Morven or Morvern, +bounded by Loch Sunart, the Sound of Mull and Loch Linnhe; +Appin, on Loch Linnhe, with piers at Ballachulish and Port +Appin; Benderloch, lying between Loch Creran and Loch Etive; +Lorne, surrounding Loch Etive and giving the title of marquess +to the Campbells; Argyll, in the middle of the shire, containing +Inveraray Castle and furnishing the titles of earl and duke to +the Campbells; Cowall, between Loch Fyne and the Firth of +Clyde, in which lie Dunoon and other favourite holiday resorts; +Knapdale between the Sound of Jura and Loch Fyne; and +Kintyre or Cantyre, a long narrow peninsula (which, at the +isthmus of Tarbert, is little more than 1 m. wide), the southernmost +point of which is known as the Mull, the nearest part of +Scotland to the coast of Ireland, only 13 m. distant.</p> + +<p>There are no navigable rivers. The two principal mountain +streams are the Orchy and Awe. The Orchy flows from Loch +Tulla through Glen Orchy, and falls into the north-eastern end +of Loch Awe; and the Awe drains the loch at its north-western +extremity, discharging into Loch Etive. Among other streams +are the Add, Aray, Coe or Cona, Creran, Douglas, Eachaig, Etive, +Euchar, Feochan, Finart, Fyne, Kinglass, Nell, Ruel, Shiel, +Shira, Strae and Uisge-Dhu. The county is remarkable for the +numerous sea-lochs which deeply indent the coast, the principal +being Loch Long (with its branches Loch Goil and the Holy +Loch), Loch Striven (Rothesay’s “weather glass”), Loch +Riddon, Loch Fyne (with Loch Gilp and Loch Gair), Lochs +Tarbert, Killisport, Swin, Crinan, Craignish, Melfort, Feochan, +Etive, Linnhe (with its branches Loch Creran, Loch Leven and +Loch Eil) and Sunart. There are also a large number of inland +lakes, the total area of which is about 25,000 acres. Of these the +principal are Lochs Awe, Avich, Eck, Lydoch and Shiel. The +principal islands are Mull, Islay, Jura, Colonsay, Lismore, Tyree, +Coll, Gigha, Luing and Kerrera. Besides these there are the two +small but interesting islands of Staffa and Iona. The mountains +are so many as to give the shire a markedly rugged character. +Some of them are among the loftiest in the kingdom, as Ben +Cruachan with its summit of twin pyramids (3689 ft.), Ben More, +in Mull (3172), Ben Ima (3318), Buachaille Etive (3345), Ben +Bui (3106), Ben Lui (or Loy), on the confines of the shires of +Perth and Argyll (3708), Ben Starav near the head of Loch Etive +(3541), and Ben Arthur, called from its shape “The Cobbler” +(2891), on the borders of Dumbartonshire. There are many +picturesque glens, of which the best-known are Glen Aray, Glen +Croe, Glen Etive, Glendaruel, Glen Lochy (“the wearisome glen”—some +10 m. of bare hills and boulders—between Tyndrum and +Dalmally), Glen Strae, Hell’s Glen (off Lech Goil) and Glencoe, the +scene of the massacre in 1692. The waterfalls of Cruachan are +beautiful; and those of Connel, which are more in the nature of +rapids, caused by the rush of the ebbing tide over the rocky bar +at the narrowing mouth of Loch Etive, have been made celebrated +by Ossian, who called them “the Falls of Lora.” In +several of the glens, as Glen Aray, small falls may be seen, +enhanced in beauty when the rivers are in flood. Pre-eminently +Argyll is the shire of the sportsman. The lovely Western Isles +provide endless enjoyment for the yachtsman; the lochs and +rivers abound with salmon and trout; the deer forests and +grouse moors are second to none in Scotland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The mainland portion of the county consists chiefly of +the metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands, nearly all the subdivisions +of that series (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>: <i>Geology</i>) being represented. +They form parallel belts of varying width trending north-east and +south-west. The slates and phyllites referred to the lowest group +occur along the shore at Dunoon, and are followed by the Beinn +Bheula grits and albite schists, forming nearly all the highest ground +in Cowall between Loch Fyne and the Firth of Clyde and the greater +part of Kintyre. The green beds, Glensluan mica-schists and Loch +Tay limestones are developed in Glendaruel, and have been traced +north-east to Glen Fyne and at intervals south-west to Campbeltown. +The next prominent zone is that of the Ardrishaig phyllites, with +quartzites in the lower portion and soft phyllites in the upper part, +which cover a belt from 3 to 6 m. across, stretching from Glen Shira +by Inveraray and Ardrishaig to south Knapdale.</p> + +<p>Next in order come the Easdale slates, phyllites with thin dark +limestone, the main limestone of Loch Awe and the pebbly quartzite +(Schiehallion), which are repeated by innumerable folds and spread +northwards to Loch Linnhe and westwards to Jura and Islay. The +slates of this horizon have been largely quarried at Easdale and +Ballachulish, and this main limestone is typically developed near +Loch Awe, near Kilmartin, on the islands of Lismore and Shuna, +and in Islay between Bridgend and Portaskaig. The quartzites of +this series form the highest hills in the south of Islay, occupy nearly +the whole of Jura, and are continued in the mainland, where, by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span> +means of the rapid isoclinal folding, they form lenticular masses. In +Islay and at various localities on the mainland a conglomerate +occurs at or near the base of the quartzites, which contains fragments +of the underlying rocks and boulders of granite not now found +in place in that region.</p> + +<p>On the mainland, on the north side of the compound synclinal +folding of Loch Awe, the Ardrishaig phyllites reappear at Craignish +near Kilmartin, and the quartzites of this group are supposed to +come to the surface again in Glencoe, not far from the outcrop of the +Schiehallion quartzite.</p> + +<p>The metamorphic rocks are associated with bands of epidiorite +which have shared in the folding and metamorphism of the region. +These are largely developed near Loch Awe, in Knapdale, and on the +south-east coast of Islay. They have been usually regarded as +intrusive, but south of Tayvallich on the mainland, lavas and tuffs, +which have escaped deformation, occur in the Easdale slates and the +pebbly limestone.</p> + +<p>The Lower Old Red Sandstone, chiefly composed of volcanic +rocks—lavas and tuffs—rests unconformably on the metamorphic +series. These rocks cover a wide area in Lorne between Loch +Melfort, Oban and the Pass of Brander, and they reappear in the +lofty mountains on both sides of Glencoe. Representatives of this +formation are found in Kintyre, south of Campbeltown, where the +sediments prevail. The intrusive igneous rocks belonging to this +period are widely distributed and form conspicuous features. The +plutonic masses are represented by the granite of Ben Cruachan, by +the diorite of Gleann Domhainn, and by the kentallenite (a basic +rock related to the monxonites), near Ballachulish. Throughout the +Lorne volcanic plateau there are numerous dykes of porphyrite +which likewise traverse the schists and part of the Ben Cruachan +granite. Sheets of quartz-porphyry, lamprophyre and diorite are +also represented, the first of these types being quarried at Crarae on +the north shore of Loch Fyne.</p> + +<p>The Upper Old Red Sandstone forms isolated patches resting +unconformably on all older rocks, on the west coast of Kintyre, +and between Campbeltown and Southend. In the district of +Campbeltown these red sandstones and cornstones are followed by +the volcanic rocks of the Calciferous Sandstone series, which lie +to the south of the depression at Machrihanish, and are succeeded +by the lower limestones and coals of the Carboniferous Limestone +series.</p> + +<p>On the north and south shores of the promontory of Ardnamurchan +there are small patches of Jurassic strata ranging from the Lower +Lias to the Oxford Clay, and in Morvern on the shores of Loch Aline +representatives of the Upper Greensand are covered by the basaltic +lavas of Tertiary age. The acid and basic plutonic rocks (gabbros +and granophyres) of Tertiary time occur in Ardnamurchan. A +striking geological feature of the county is the number of dolerite +and basalt dykes trending in a north-west direction, which are +referred to the same period of intrusion. There is, however, another +group of dolerite dykes running east and west near Dunoon and +elsewhere, which are cut by the former and are probably of older +date.</p> + +<p>Lead veins occur at Strontian which have yielded a number of +minerals, including sphalerite, fluorite, strontianite, harmotone, +brewsterite and pilolite. Near Inveraray, nickeliferous ore has been +obtained at two localities.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The rainfall is very abundant. At Oban, the +average annual amount is 64.18 in.; in Glen Fyne, 104.11 in.; +at the bridge of Orchy, 113.62 in., and at Upper Glencoe 127.65. +The prevailing winds, as observed near Crinan, are south-west +and south-east, and next in frequency are the north-west and +north-east. The average yearly temperature is 48° F.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture</i>.—Argyllshire was formerly partly covered with +natural forests, remains of which, consisting chiefly of oak, ash, +pine and birch, are still visible in the mosses; but, owing to +the clearance of the ground for the introduction of sheep, and +to past neglect of planting, the county is now remarkable for +its lack of wood, except in the neighbourhood of Inveraray, +where there are extensive and flourishing plantations, and a few +other places. Replanting, however, has been carried on. Most +of the county is unfitted for agriculture; but many districts +afford fine pasturage for mountain sheep; and some of the +valleys, such as Glendaruel, are very fertile. The chief crop +is oats; there is a little barley, but no wheat. The shire is one +of those where the crofting system exists, but it is by no means +universal. It is predominant in Tyree and the western district +of the mainland, but elsewhere farms of moderate size are the +rule. The cattle, though small, are equal to any other breed +in the kingdom, and are marketed in large numbers in the south. +Dairy farming is carried on to some extent in the southern parts +of Kintyre, where there is a large proportion of arable land. +In the higher tracts sheep have taken the place of cattle with +excellent results. The black-faced is the species most generally +reared.</p> + +<p><i>Industries</i>.—Whisky is manufactured at Campbeltown, in +Islay, at Oban, Ardrishaig and elsewhere. Gunpowder is made +at Kames (Kyles of Bute), Melfort and Furnace. Coarse woollens +are made for home use; but fishing is the most important +industry, Loch Fyne being famous for its herrings. The season +lasts from June to January, but white fishing is carried on at +one or other of the ports all the year round. Slate and granite +quarrying and some coal-mining are the only other industries +of any consequence.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—Owing partly to the paucity of trading +industries and partly to the fact that, owing to its greatly +indented coast-line, no place in the shire is more than 12 m. +from the sea, the railway mileage in the county is very small. +The Tyndrum to Oban section of the Caledonian railway company’s +system is within the county limits; a small portion of +the track of the North British railway company’s line to Mallaig +skirts the extreme west of the shire, and the Caledonian line +from Oban to Ballachulish serves the northern coast districts of +the Argyllshire mainland. In connexion with this last route +mention should be made of the cantilever bridge crossing the +Falls of Lora with a span of 500 ft. at a height of 125 ft. above +the water-way. The chief means of communication is by +steamers, which maintain regular intercourse between Glasgow +and various parts of the coast. In order to avoid the circuitous +passage round the Mull of Kintyre the Crinan Canal, across the +isthmus from Ardrishaig to Loch Crinan, a distance of 9 m., +was constructed in 1793-1801, at a cost of £142,000. It has +15 locks, an average depth of 10 ft., a surface width of 66 ft., and +bottom width of 30 ft., is navigable by vessels of 200 tons, and +runs through a district of remarkable beauty. Another canal +unites Campbeltown with Dalavaddy. In summer the mails +for the islands and the great bulk of the tourist traffic by the +MacBrayne fleet is conveyed through the Crinan Canal, +transhipment being effected at Ardrishaig and Crinan. Throughout +the year goods traffic between the Clyde and elsewhere and the +West Highland ports is conveyed by deep-sea steamers round +the Mull. Before the advent of railways the shire contained +many famous coaching routes, but now coaches only run during +the tourist season, either in connexion with train and steamer, +or in districts still not served by either.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government</i>.—Owing to emigration, chiefly +to Canada, the population has declined, almost without a +break, since 1831, when it was 100,973, to 74,085 in 1891 and +73,642 in 1901, in which year there were 24 persons to the +sq. m. In 1901 the number of Gaelic-speaking persons was +34,224, of whom 3313 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are +Campbeltown (population in 1901, 8286), Dunoon (6779) and +Oban (5427), with Ardrishaig (1285), Ballachulish (1143), +Lochgilphead (1313) and Tarbert (1697). The county returns +a member to parliament. Inveraray, Campbeltown and Oban +belong to the Ayr district group of parliamentary burghs. +Argyllshire is a sheriffdom, and there are resident +sheriffs-substitute at Inveraray, Campbeltown and Oban; courts are +held also at Tobermory, Lochgilphead, Bowmore in Islay, +and Dunoon. Both Presbyterian bodies are strongly represented; +there are Roman Catholic and (Anglican) Episcopal +bishops of Argyll and the Isles, and there is a Roman Catholic +pro-cathedral at Oban. Campbeltown, Dunoon and Oban have +secondary schools, Tarbert public school has a secondary department, +and several other schools earn grants for giving +higher education. Part of the “residue” grant is spent by the +county council on classes of navigation and other subjects in +various schools, short courses in agriculture for farmers, and +in providing bursaries.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The early history of Argyll (Airergaidheal) is very +obscure. At the close of the 5th century Fergus, son of Erc, +a descendant of Conor II., <i>airdrigh</i> or high king of Ireland, came +over with a band of Irish Scots and established himself in Argyll +and Kintyre. Nothing more is known till, in the days of Conall I., +the descendant of Fergus in the fourth generation, St Columba +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span> +appears. Conall died in 574, and Columba was mainly instrumental +in establishing his first cousin, Aidan, founder of the +Dalriad kingdom and ancestor of the royal house of Scotland, +in power. In the 8th century Argyll, with the Western Islands +and Man, fell under the power of the Norsemen until, in the +12th century, Somerled (or Somhairle), a descendant of Colla-Uais, +<i>airdrigh</i> of Ireland (327-331), succeeded in ousting them +and established his authority, not only as thane of Argyll, but +also in Kintyre and the Western Islands. Somerled died in +1164 and his descendants maintained themselves in Argyll +and the islands, between the conflicting claims of the kings +of Scotland, Norway and Man, until the end of the 15th +century.</p> + +<p>Up to 1222 Argyll had formed an independent Celtic princedom; +but in that year it was reduced by Alexander II., the +Scottish king, to a sheriffdom, and was henceforth regarded +as an integral part of Scotland. Among the various clans +in Argyll, the Campbells of Loch Awe, a branch of the clan +McArthur, now began to come to the fore, though the mainland +was still chiefly in the possession of the MacDougals. The +position of the lords of the house of Somerled was now curious, +since they were feudatories of the king of Norway for the isles +and of the king of Scotland for Argyll. Their policy in the wars +between the two powers was a masterly neutrality. Thus, +during the expedition of Alexander II. to the Western Isles in +1249, Ewan (Eoghan), lord of Argyll, refused to fight against the +Norwegians; in 1263 the same Ewan refused to join Haakon +of Norway in attacking Alexander III. Forty years later the +clansmen of Argyll, mainly MacDougals, were warring on the +side of Edward of England against Robert Bruce, by whom they +were badly beaten on Loch Awe in 1309. The clansmen of the +house of Somerled in the isles, on the other hand, the MacDonalds, +remained loyal to Scotland in spite of the persuasions of John +of Argyll, appointed admiral of Edward II.’s western fleet; +and, under their chief Angus Og, they contributed much to the +victory of Bannockburn. The alliance of John, earl of Ross and +lord of the Isles, with Edward IV. of England in 1461 led to +the breaking of the power of the house of Somerled, and in 1478 +John was forced to resign Ross to the crown and, two years later, +his lordships of Knapdale and Kintyre as well. In Argyll itself +the Campbells had already made the first step to supremacy +through the marriage of Colin, grandson of Sir Duncan Campbell +of Lochow, first Lord Campbell, with Isabel Stewart, eldest +of the three co-heiresses of John, third lord of Lorne. He +acquired the greater part of the lands of the other sisters by +purchase, and the lordship of Lorne from Walter their uncle, the +heir in tail male, by an exchange for lands in Perthshire. In +1457 he was created, by James II., earl of Argyll. He died on +the 10th of May 1493. From him dates the greatness of the house +of the earls and dukes of Argyll (<i>q.v.</i>), whose history belongs to +that of Scotland. The house of Somerled survives in two main +branches—that of Macdonald of the Isles, Alexander Macdonald +(d. 1795) having been raised to the peerage in 1776, and that +of the Macdonnells, earls of Antrim in Ireland. The principal +clans in Argyll, besides those already mentioned, were the +Macleans, the Stewarts of Appin, the Macquarries and the +Macdonalds of Glencoe, and the Macfarlanes of Glencroe. The +Campbells are still very numerous in the county.</p> + +<p>Argyllshire men have made few contributions to English +literature. For long the natives spoke Gaelic only and their +bards sang in Gaelic (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>: <i>Literature:</i> Scottish). Near +Inistrynich on the north-eastern shore of Loch Awe stands the +monumental cairn erected in honour of Duncan Ban McIntyre +(1724-1812), the most popular of modern Gaelic bards. But +the romantic beauty of the country has made it a favourite +setting for the themes of many poets and story-tellers, from +“Ossian” and Sir Walter Scott to Robert Louis Stevenson, +while not a few men distinguished in affairs or in learning have +been natives of the county.</p> + +<p>The antiquities comprise monoliths, circles of standing stones, +crannogs and cairns. In almost all the burying-grounds—as +at Campbeltown, Keil, Soroby, Kilchousland, Kilmun—there +are specimens of sculptured crosses and slabs. Besides the +famous ecclesiastical remains at Iona (<i>q.v.</i>), there are ruins +of a Cistercian priory in Oronsay, and of a church founded +in the 12th century by Somerled, thane of Argyll, at Saddell. +Among castles may be mentioned Dunstaffnage, Ardtornish, +Skipness, Kilchurn (beloved of painters), Ardchonnel, Dunolly, +Stalker, Dunderaw and Carrick.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The (Eighth) Duke of Argyll, <i>Commercial Principles +Applied to the Hire of Land</i> (London, 1877); <i>Crofts and Farms +in the Hebrides</i> (Edinburgh, 1883); <i>Iona</i> (Edinburgh, 1889); +<i>Scotland as it Was and Is</i> (Edinburgh, 1887), <i>House of Argyll</i> (Glasgow, +1871); A. Brown, <i>Memorials of Argyllshire</i> (Greenock, 1889); +Harvie-Brown and Buckley, <i>Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the +Inner Hebrides</i> (Edinburgh, 1892); D. Clerk, “On the Agriculture +of the County of Argyll” (<i>Trans. of H. and A. Soc.</i>, 1878); T. Gray, +<i>Week at Oban</i> (Edinburgh, 1881); Stewart, <i>Collection of Views of +Campbeltown</i>. For antiquities see <i>The Sculptured Stones of Scotland</i>, +vol. ii., published by the Spalding Club, and Capt. T.P. White’s +<i>Archaeological Sketches in Kintyre</i> and <i>Proc. Antiq. Soc. of Scotland</i>, +vols. iv., v., viii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGYRODITE,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a mineral which is of interest as being that +in which the element germanium was discovered by C. Winkler +in 1886. It is a silver sulpho-germanate, Ag<span class="su">8</span>GeS<span class="su">6</span>, and +crystallizes in the cubic system. The crystals have the form of the +octahedron or rhombic dodecahedron, and are frequently +twinned. The botryoidal crusts of small indistinct crystals +first found in a silver mine at Freiberg in Saxony were originally +thought to be monoclinic, but were afterwards proved to be +identical with the more distinctly developed crystals recently +found in Bolivia. The colour is iron-black with a purplish tinge, +and the lustre metallic. There is no cleavage; hardness 2½, +specific gravity 6.2. It is of interest to note that the Freiberg +mineral was long ago imperfectly described by A. Breithaupt +under the name <i>Plusinglanz</i>, and that the Bolivian crystals +were incorrectly described in 1849 as crystallized brongniardite. +The name argyrodite is from the Greek <span class="grk" title="argurodaes">ἀργυρώδης</span>, rich in +silver.</p> + +<p>Isomorphous with argyrodite is the corresponding tin +compound Ag<span class="su">8</span>SnS<span class="su">6</span>, also found in Bolivia as cubic crystals, +and known by the name canfieldite. Other Bolivian crystals +are intermediate in composition between argyrodite and +canfieldite.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGYROKASTRO,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Argyrocastron</span> (Turkish, <i>Ergeri</i>; +Albanian <i>Ergir Castri</i>), a town of southern Albania, Turkey, in +the vilayet of Iannina. Pop. (1900) about 11,000. Argyrokastro +is finely situated 1060 ft. above sea-level, on the eastern slopes +of the Acroceraunian mountains, and near the left bank of the +river Dhrynos, a left-hand tributary of the Viossa. It is the +capital of a sanjak bearing the same name, and was formerly +important as the headquarters of the local Moslem aristocracy, +partly owing to the mountainous and easily defensible nature +of the district. It contains the ruins of an imposing castellated +fort. A fine kind of snuff, known as <i>fuli</i>, is manufactured here. +Argyrokastro has been variously identified with the ancient +Hadrianopolis and Antigonea. In the 18th century it is said +to have contained 20,000 inhabitants, but it was almost depopulated +by plague in 1814. Albanian Moslems constitute the +greater part of the population.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARGYROPULUS,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Argyropulo</span>, <b>JOHN</b> (<i>c.</i> 1416-1486), +Greek humanist, one of the earliest promoters of the revival of +learning in the West, was born in Constantinople, and became +a teacher there, Constantine Lascaris being his pupil. He then +appears to have crossed over to Italy, and taught in Padua in +1434, being subsequently made rector of the university. About +1441 he returned to Constantinople, but after its capture by the +Turks, again took refuge in Italy. About 1456 he was invited to +Florence by Cosimo de’ Medici, and was there appointed professor +of Greek in the university. In 1471, on the outbreak of the +plague, he removed to Rome, where he continued to act as +a teacher of Greek till his death. Among his scholars were +Angelus Politianus and Johann Reuchlin. His principal works +were translations of the following portions of Aristotle,— +<i>Categoriae, De Interpretatione, Analytica Posteriora, Physica, De +Caelo, De Anima, Metaphysica, Ethica Nicomachea, Politica</i>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span> +and an <i>Expositio Ethicorum Aristotelis</i>. Several of his writings +exist still in manuscript.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Humphrey Hody, <i>De Graecis Illustribus</i>, 1742, and Smith’s +<i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, s.v.</i> Joannes.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIA<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (Ital. for “air”), a musical term, equivalent to the +English “air,” signifying a melody apart from the harmony, but +especially a musical composition for a single voice or instrument, +with an accompaniment of other voices or instruments.</p> + +<p>The aria originally developed from the expansion of a single +vocal melody, generally on the lines of what is known as binary +form (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonata</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonata Forms</a></span>). Accordingly, while the +germs of aria form may be traceable in the highest developments +of folk-song, the aria as a definite art-form could not exist before +the middle of the 17th century; because up to that time the +whole organization of music was based upon polyphonic principles +which left no room for the development of melody for melody’s +sake. When at the beginning of the 17th century the Monodists +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monteverde</a></span>) inaugurated a new era and +showed in their first experiments the enormous possibilities +latent in their new art of accompanying single voices by instruments, +it was natural that for many years the mere suggestiveness +and variety of their experiments should suffice to retain the +attention of contemporary listeners, without any real artistic +coherence in the works as wholes. But, even at the outset, +mere novelty of harmony, however poignant its emotional +expression, was felt by the profounder spirits of the new art +to be an untrustworthy guide to progress. And Monteverde’s +famous lament of the deserted Ariadne is one of many early +examples that appeal to an elementary sense of form by making +the last phrase identical with the first. As instrumental music +grew, and the modern sense of key became strong and consistent, +composers felt themselves more and more able to appeal to that +sense of harmonically consistent melody which has asserted +itself in folk-music before the history of harmonic music may be +said to have begun. The technique of solo singers grew as +rapidly as that of solo players, and composers soon found their +chief musical interest in doing justice to both. In Sir Hubert +Parry’s work, <i>The Music of the 17th Century (Oxford History +of Music</i>, vol. iii.), will be found numerous illustrations of the +early development of aria forms, from their first indications +in Monteverde’s instinctive struggles after coherence, to their +complete maturity in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti.</p> + +<p>By Scarlatti’s time it was thoroughly established that the binary +form of melody was that which could best be expanded into a +form which should do justice both to singers and to the players +who accompanied them. Thus the aria became on a small scale +the prototype of the Concerto; and under that heading will +accordingly be found all that need be said as to the relation +between the instrumental <i>ritornello</i> and the material of the voice +part in an aria.</p> + +<p>So far we have spoken only of the main body of the aria; +but the addition of a middle section with a <i>da Capo</i>, which +constitutes the universal 18th-century <i>da Capo</i> form of aria, +adds a very simple new principle to the essential scheme without +really modifying it. A typical aria of the Scarlatti or Handelian +type is a very large melody in binary form, delivered by the +voice, which expands it with florid perorations before each +cadence (and sometimes also with florid preludes); while relief +is given to the voice, further spaciousness to the form, and +justice done to the accompaniment, by the addition of an +instrumental ritornello containing the gist of the melody not only +at the beginning and end, but also in suitable shorter forms +at the principal intermediate cadences in foreign keys. A +smaller scheme of the same kind in a new group of related keys, +but generally without much new material, is then appended as +a middle section after which follows the main section <i>da Capo</i>. +The result is generally a piece of music of considerable length, +in a form which cannot fail to be effective and coherent; and +there is little cause for wonder in the extent to which it dominated +18th-century music. It was not, however, invariable. In the +<i>Cavatina</i> we find a form too small for the <i>da Capo</i>; and in +the oratorios of Handel and the choral works of Bach we find +a majority of arias in a larger form which evades the possibility +of exact repetition.</p> + +<p>The aria forms are profoundly influenced by the difference +between the Sonata style and the style of Bach and Handel. +But the scale of the form is inevitably small, and in any opera +an aria is hardly possible except in a situation which is a tableau +rather than an action. Consequently there is no such difference +between the form of the classical operatic aria of Mozart and that +of the Handelian type as there is between sonata music and +suite music. The scale, however, has become too large for the +<i>da Capo</i>, which was in any case too rigid to survive in music +designed to intensify a dramatic situation instead of to distract +attention from it. The necessary change of style was so successfully +achieved that, until Wagner succeeded in devising music +that moved absolutely <i>pari passu</i> with his drama, the aria +remained as the central formal principle in dramatic music; +and few things in artistic evolution are more interesting than +the extent to which Mozart’s predecessor, the great dramatic +reformer Gluck, profited by the essential resources of his pet +aversion, the aria style, when he had not only purged it of what +had become the stereotyped ideas of ritornellos and vocal +flourishes, but animated it by the new sense of dramatic climax +to which the sonata style appealed.</p> + +<p>In modern opera the aria is almost always out of place, and +the forms in which definite melodies nowadays appear are rather +those of the song in its limited sense as that of a poem in formal +stanzas all set to the same music. In other words, a song in a +modern opera tends to be something which would be sung even +if the drama had to be performed as a play without music; +whereas a classical aria would in non-musical drama be a soliloquy. +This can be shown by works at such opposite poles of musical +and dramatic technique as Bizet’s <i>Carmen</i> and the later works +of Wagner. In <i>Carmen</i> the librettist has so managed that, if +his work were performed as a play, almost the whole of it would +have to be sung; and the one exception of musical importance +is the developed soliloquy of Micaëla in the third act, which, +although treated in no old-fashioned or commonplace spirit by the +composer, is the one thing in the opera which sounds “operatic.”</p> + +<p>In the later works of Wagner those passages in which we can +successfully detach complete melodies from their context have, +one and all, dramatically the aspect of songs and not of +soliloquies. Siegmund sings the song of Spring to his sister-bride; +Mime teaches Siegfried lessons of gratitude in nursery rhymes; +and the whole story of the <i>Meistersinger</i> is a series of opportunities +for song-singing.</p> + +<p>The distinctions and gradations between aria and song are +of great aesthetic importance, but their history would carry +us too far. The distinction is obviously of the same importance +as that between dramatic and lyric poetry. Beethoven’s +<i>Adelaïde</i> is a famous example of what is called a song when it is +really entirely in aria style; while the operas of Mozart and +Weber naturally contain in appropriate situations many numbers +which really are songs. The composers themselves generally give +appropriate names. Thus Mozart, in <i>Figaro</i>, calls “Non so +piu cosa son” an aria, because of its free style, though Cherubino +actually sings it as a song he has just invented; while “Voi +che sapete,” being more purely lyric, is called <i>Canzona</i>.</p> + +<p>The term <i>aria form</i> is applied, generally most inaccurately, +to all kinds of slow cantabile instrumental music of which the +general design can be traced to the operatic aria. Mozart, for +example, is very fond of slow movements in large binary form +without development, and this is constantly called aria-form, +though the term ought certainly to be restricted to such examples +as have some traits of the aria style, such as the first slow movement +in the great serenade in B flat. At all events, until writers +on music have agreed to give the term some more accurate use, +it is as well to avoid it and its cognate version, <i>Lied-form</i>, +altogether in speaking of instrumental music.</p> + +<p>The <i>air</i> or <i>aria</i> in a suite is a short binary movement in a +flowing rhythm in common or duple time and by no means of +the broadly tunelike quality which its name would seem to +imply.</p> +<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIADNE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (in Greek mythology), was the daughter of Minos, +king of Crete, and Pasiphae, the daughter of Helios the Sun-god. +When Theseus landed on the island to slay the Minotaur (<i>q.v.</i>), +Ariadne fell in love with him, and gave him a clue of thread to +guide him through the mazes of the labyrinth. After he had +slain the monster, Theseus carried her off, but, according to +Homer (<i>Odyssey</i>, xi. 322) she was slain by Artemis at the request +of Dionysus in the island of Dia near Cnossus, before she could +reach Athens with Theseus. In the later legend, she was +abandoned, while asleep on the island of Naxos, by Theseus, +who had fallen a victim to the charms of Aegle (Plutarch, +<i>Theseus</i>, 20; Diodorus, iv. 60, 61). Her abandonment and +awakening are celebrated in the beautiful <i>Epithalamium</i> of +Catullus. On Naxos she is discovered by Dionysus on his return +from India, who is enchanted with her beauty, and marries her +when she awakes. She receives a crown as a bridal gift, which +is placed amongst the stars, while she herself is honoured as a +goddess (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> viii. 152, <i>Fasti</i>, iii. 459).</p> + +<p>The name probably means “very holy” = <span class="grk" title="ári-agné">ἀρι-αγνη</span>; +another (Cretan) form <span class="grk" title="Aridéla">Άριδήλα</span> (= <span class="grk" title="phanerá">φανερά</span>)indicates the return +to a “bright” season of nature. Ariadne is the personification +of spring. In keeping with this, her festivals at Naxos present +a double character; the one, full of mourning and sadness, +represents her death or abandonment by Theseus, the other, +full of joy and revelry, celebrates her awakening from sleep +and marriage with Dionysus. Thus nature sleeps and dies during +winter, to awake in springtime to a life of renewed luxuriance. +With this may be compared the festivals of Adonis and Osiris +and the myth of Persephone. Theseus himself was said to have +founded a festival at Athens in honour of Ariadne and Dionysus +after his return from Crete. The story of Dionysus and Ariadne +was a favourite subject for reliefs and wall-paintings. Most +commonly Ariadne is represented asleep on the shore at Naxos, +while Dionysus, attended by satyrs and bacchanals, gazes +admiringly upon her; sometimes they are seated side by side +under a spreading vine. The scene where she is holding the +clue to Theseus occurs on a very early vase in the British +Museum. There is a statue of the sleeping Ariadne in the Vatican +Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Kanter, <i>De Ariadne</i> (1879); Pallat, <i>De Fabula Ariadnea</i> (1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIANO DI PUGLIA<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see, which, despite +its name, now belongs to Campania, Italy, in the province +of Avellino, 1509 ft. above sea-level, on the railway between +Benevento and Foggia, 24 m. E. of the former by rail. Pop. +(1901) town, 8384; commune, 17,653. It lies in the centre of +a fertile district, but has no buildings of importance, as it has +often been devastated by earthquakes. A considerable part of +the population still dwells in caves. It has been supposed to +occupy the site of Aequum Tuticum, an ancient Samnite town, +which became a post-station on the Via Traiana<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in Roman +times; but this should probably be sought at S. Eleuterio +5½ m. north. It was a military position of some importance in +the middle ages. Thirteen miles south-south-east is the Sorgente +Mefita, identical with the pools of Ampsanctus (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This has generally been supposed to be the place referred to by +Horace (<i>Sat</i>. i. 5. 87), as one which the metre would not allow him +to mention by name; but H.-Nissen (<i>Halische Landeskunde</i>, Berlin, +1902, ii. 845) proposes Ausculum instead.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIAS MONTANO, BENITO<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1527-1598), Spanish Orientalist +and editor of the Antwerp Polyglot, was born at Fregenal de la +Sierra, in Estremadura, in 1527. After studying at the universities +of Seville and Alcala, he took orders about the year +1559 and in 1562 he was appointed consulting theologian to the +council of Trent. He retired to Peña de Aracena in 1564, wrote +his commentary on the minor prophets (1571), and was sent to +Antwerp by Philip II. to edit the polyglot Bible projected by +Christopher Plantin. The work appeared in 8 volumes folio, +between 1568 and 1573. León de Castro, a professor at Salamanca, +thereon brought charges of heresy against Arias Montano, +who was finally acquitted after a visit to Rome in 1575-1576. +He was appointed royal chaplain, but withdrew to Peña de +Aracena from 1579 to 1583; he resigned the chaplaincy in 1584, +and went into complete seclusion at Santiago de la Espada in +Seville, where he died in 1598.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He is the subject of an <i>Elogio histórico</i> by Tomás Gonzalez Carvajal +in the <i>Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia</i> (Madrid, +1832), vol. vii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARICA<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (<span class="sc">San Marcos de Arica</span>), a town and port of the +Chilean-governed province of Tacna, situated in 18° 28′ 08″ S. +lat. and 70° 20′ 46″ W. long. It is the port for Tacna, the capital +of the province, 38 m. distant, with which it is connected by rail, +and is the outlet for a large and productive mining district. +Arica at one time had a population of 30,000 and enjoyed much +prosperity, but through civil war, earthquakes and conquest, +its population had dwindled to 2853 in 1895 and 2824 in 1902. +The great earthquake of 1868, followed by a tidal wave, nearly +destroyed the town and shipping. Arica was captured, looted +and burned by the Chileans in 1880, and in accordance with the +terms of the treaty of Ancon (1883) should have been returned to +Peru in 1894, but this was not done. Late in 1906 the town +again suffered severely from an earthquake.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARICIA<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (mod. <i>Ariccia</i>), an ancient city of Latium, on the Via +Appia, 16 m. S.E. of Rome. The old town, or at any rate its +acropolis, now occupied by the modern town, lay high (1350 ft. +above sea-level) above the circular Valle Aricciana, which is +probably an extinct volcanic crater; some remains of its fortifications, +consisting of a mound of earth supported on each side by a +wall of rectangular blocks of peperino stone, have been discovered +(D. Marchetti, in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1892, 52). The lower town +was situated on the north edge of the valley, close to the Via +Appia, which descended into the valley from the modern Albano, +and re-ascended partly upon very fine substructions of <i>opus +quadratum</i>, some 200 yds. in length, to the modern Genzano. +Remains of the walls of the lower town, of the <i>cella</i> of a temple +built of blocks of peperino, and also of later buildings in brickwork +and <i>opus reticulatum</i>, connected with the post-station +(Aricia being the first important station out of Rome, cf. Horace, +<i>Sat.</i> i. 5. 1, <i>Egressum magna me excepit Aricia Roma hospitio +modico</i>) on the highroad, may still be seen (cf. T. Ashby in +<i>Mélanges de l’école française de Rome</i>, 1903, 399). Aricia was +one of the oldest cities of Latium, and appears as a serious +opponent of Rome at the end of the period of the kings and +beginning of the republic. In 338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was conquered by +C. Maenius and became a <i>civitas sine suffragio</i>, but was soon given +full rights. Even in the imperial period its chief magistrate was +styled <i>dictator</i>, and its council <i>senatus</i>, and it preserved its own +calendar of festivals. Its vegetables and wine were famous, and +the district is still fertile.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARICINI<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span>, the ancient inhabitants of Aricia (<i>q.v.</i>), the form of +the name ranking them with the Sidicini, Marrucini (<i>q.v.</i>), &c., +as one of the communities belonging probably to the earlier or +Volscian stratum of population on the west side of Italy, who +were absorbed by the Sabine or Latin immigrants. Special +interest attaches to this trace of their earlier origin, because of +the famous cult of Diana Nemorensis, whose temple in the forest +close by Aricia, beside the <i>lacus Nemorensis</i>, was served by “the +priest who slew the slayer, and shall himself be slain”; that is to +say, the priest, who was called <i>rex Nemorensis</i>, held office only so +long as he could defend himself from any stronger rival. This +cult, which is unique in Italy, is picturesquely described in the +opening chapter of J.G. Frazer’s <i>Golden Bough</i> (2nd ed., 1900) +where full references will be found. Of these references the most +important are, perhaps, Strabo v. 3. 12; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iii. 263-272; +and Suetonius, <i>Calig</i>. 35, whose wording indicates that the old-world +custom was dying out in the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It is a +reasonable conjecture that this extraordinary relic of barbarism +was characteristic of the earlier stratum of the population who +presumably called themselves <i>Arici</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the anthropological aspect of the cult, see also A.B. Cook, <i>Class. +Rev</i>. xvi., 1902, p. 365, where the whole evidence is very fully collected; +and Frazer’s <i>Studies in the Early History of Kingship</i> (1907), where he +accepts Cook’s criticism of his own earlier theory.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIÈGE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, an inland department of southern France, bounded +S. by Spain, W. and N. by the department of Haute-Garonne, +N.E. and E. by Aude, and S.E. by Pyrénées-Orientales. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span> +embraces the old countship of Foix, and a portion of Languedoc +and Gascony. Area, 1893 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 205,684. +Ariège is for the most part mountainous. Its southern border is +occupied by the snow-clad peaks of the eastern Pyrenees, the +highest of which within the department is the Pic de Montcalm +(10,512 ft.). Communication with Spain is afforded by a large +number of <i>ports</i> or <i>cols</i>, which are, however, for the most part +difficult paths, and only practicable for a few months in the year. +Farther to the north two lesser ranges running parallel to the +main chain traverse the centre of the department from south-east +to north-west. The more southerly, the Montagne de Tabe, +contains, at its south-eastern end, several heights between 7200 +and 9200 ft., while the Montagues de Plantaurel to the north of +Foix are of lesser altitude. These latter divide the fertile +alluvial plains of the north from the mountains of the centre +and south. The department is intersected by torrents belonging +to the Garonne basin—the Salat, the Arize, which, near Mas +d’Azil, flows through a subterranean gallery, the Ariège and the +Hers. The climate is mild in the south, but naturally very +severe among the mountains. Generally speaking, the arable +land, which is chiefly occupied by small holdings, is confined to +the lowlands. Wheat, maize and potatoes are the chief crops. +Good vineyards and market gardens are found in the neighbourhood +of Pamiers in the north. Flax and hemp are also cultivated. +The mountains afford excellent pasture, and a considerable +number of cattle, sheep and swine are reared. Poultry- and bee-farming +flourish. Forests cover more than one-third of the +department and harbour wild boars and even bears. Game, +birds of prey and fish are plentiful. There is abundance of +minerals, including lead, copper, manganese and especially iron. +Grindstones, building-stone, talc, gypsum, marble and phosphates +are also produced. Warm mineral springs of note are found at +Ax, Aulus and Ussat. Pamiers and St Girons are the most important +industrial towns. Iron founding and forging, which have +their chief centre at Pamiers are principal industries. Flour-milling, +paper-making and cloth-weaving may also be mentioned. +Ariège is served by the Southern railway. It forms the diocese +of Pamiers and belongs to the ecclesiastical province of Toulouse. +It is within the circumscriptions of the académie (educational +division) and of the court of appeal of Toulouse and of the XVII. +army corps. Its capital is Foix; it comprises the arrondissements +of Foix, St Girons and Pamiers, with 20 cantons and +338 communes. Foix, Pamiers, St Girons and St Lizier-de-Cousérans +are the more noteworthy towns. Mention may also be made +of Mirepoix, once the seat of a bishopric, and possessing a cathedral +(15th and 16th centuries) with a remarkable Gothic spire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIES<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (“The Ram”), in astronomy, the first sign of the +zodiac (<i>q.v.</i>), denoted by the sign ♈, in imitation of a ram’s head. +The name is probably to be associated with the fact that when +the sun is in this part of the heavens (in spring) sheep bring forth +their young; this finds a parallel in <i>Aquarius</i>, when there is +much rain. It is also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus +(4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); Ptolemy +catalogued eighteen stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-one, and +Hevelius twenty-seven. According to a Greek myth, Nephele, +mother of Phrixus and Helle, gave her son a ram with a golden +fleece. To avoid the evil designs of Hera, their stepmother, +Phrixus and Helle fled on the back of the ram, and reaching the +sea, attempted to cross. Helle fell from the ram and was drowned +(hence the <i>Hellespont</i>); Phrixus, having arrived in Colchis and +been kindly received by the king, Aeetes, sacrificed the ram to +Zeus, to whom he also dedicated the fleece, which was afterwards +carried away by Jason. Zeus placed the ram in the heavens as +the constellation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIKARA,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aricara</span> (from <i>ariki</i>, horn), a tribe of North +American Indians of Caddoan stock. They are now settled +with the Hidatsas and the Mandans on the Fort Berthold +Reservation, North Dakota. They originally lived in the Platte +Valley, Nebraska, with the Pawnees, to whom they are related. +They number about 400.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i>, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington +1907)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIMASPI,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> an ancient people in the extreme N.E. of Scythia +(<i>q.v.</i>), probably the eastern Altai. All accounts of them +go back to a poem by Aristeas of Proconnesus, from whom +Herodotus (iii. 116, iv. 27) drew his information. They were +supposed to be one-eyed (hence their Scythian name), and to +steal gold from the griffins that guarded it. In art they are +usually represented as richly dressed Asiatics, picturesquely +grouped with their griffin foes; the subject is often described +by poets from Aeschylus to Milton. They are so nearly mythical +that it is impossible to insist on the usual identification with +the ancestors of the Huns. Their gold was probably real, as +gold still comes from the Altai.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIMINUM<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (mod. <i>Rimini</i>), a city of Aemilia, on the N.E. +coast of Italy, 69 m. S.E. of Bononia. It was founded by the +Umbrians, but in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> became a Roman colony with Latin +rights. It was reached from Rome by the Via Flaminia, constructed +in 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and from that time onwards was the bulwark +of the Roman power in Cisalpine Gaul, to which province it even +gave its name. Its harbour was of some importance, but is +now silted up, the sea having receded. The remains of its moles +were destroyed in 1807-1809. Ariminum became a place of +considerable traffic owing to the construction of the Via Aemilia +(187 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the Via Popilia (132 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and is frequently mentioned +by ancient authors. In 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it acquired Roman citizenship, +but in 82 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> having been held by the partisans of Marius, +it was plundered by those of Sulla (who probably made the +Rubicon the frontier of Italy instead of the Aesis), and a military +colony settled there. Caesar occupied it in 49 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> after +his crossing of the Rubicon. It was one of the eighteen richest +cities of Italy which the triumviri selected as a reward for their +troops. In 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus planted new colonists there, and +divided the city into seven <i>vici</i> after the model of Rome, from +which the names of the <i>vici</i> were borrowed. He also restored +the Via Flaminia (<i>Mon. Ancyr.</i> c. 20) from Rome to Ariminum. +At the entrance to the latter the senate erected, in his honour, +a triumphal arch which is still extant—a fine simple monument +with a single opening. At the other end of the <i>decumanus +maximus</i> or main street (3000 Roman ft. in length) is a fine +bridge over the Ariminus (mod. Marecchia) begun by Augustus +and completed by Tiberius in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 20. It has five wide arches, +the central one having a span of 35 ft., and is well preserved. +Both it and the arch are built of Istrian stone. The present +Piazza Giulio Cesare marks the site of the ancient forum. The +remains of the amphitheatre are scanty; many of its stones +have gone to build the city wall, which must, therefore, at +the earliest belong to the end of the classical period. In +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1 Augustus’s grandson Gaius Caesar had all the streets of +Ariminum paved. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69 the town was attacked by the +partisans of Vespasian, and was frequently besieged in the Gothic +wars. It was one of the five seaports which remained Byzantine +until the time of Pippin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rimini</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Tonini, <i>Storia della Città di Rimini</i> (Rimini, 1848-1862).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIOBARZANES,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the name of three ancient kings or satraps +of Pontus, and of three kings of Cappadocia and a Persian +satrap.</p> + +<p>Of the Pontic rulers two are most famous, (1) The son of +Mithradates I., who revolted against Artaxerxes in 362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and +may be regarded as the founder of the kingdom of Pontus (<i>q.v.</i>). +According to Demosthenes he and his three sons received from +the Athenians the honour of citizenship. (2) The son of Mithradates +III., who reigned c. 266-240 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was one of those +who enlisted the help of the invading Gauls (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Galatia</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Of the Cappadocian rulers the best-known one (“Philo-Romaeus” +on the coins) reigned nominally from 93 to 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +but was three times expelled by Mithradates the Great and as +often reinstated by Roman generals. Soon after the third +occasion he formally abdicated in favour of his son Ariobarzanes +“Philopator,” of whom we gather only that he was murdered +some time before 51. His son Ariobarzanes, called “Eusebes” +and “Philo-Romaeus,” earned the gratitude of Cicero during +his proconsulate in Cilicia, and fought for Pompey in the civil +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span> +wars, but was afterwards received with honour by Julius Caesar, +who subsequently reinstated him when expelled by Pharnaces +of Pontus. In 42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Brutus and Cassius declared him a traitor, +invaded his territory and put him to death.</p> + +<p>The Persian satrap of this name unsuccessfully opposed Alexander +the Great on his way to Persepolis (331 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARION,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> of Methymna, in Lesbos, a semi-legendary poet and +musician, friend of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. He flourished +about 625 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Several of the ancients ascribe to him the invention +of the dithyramb and of dithyrambic poetry; it is +probable, however, that his real service was confined to the +organization of that verse, and the conversion of it from a mere +drunken song, used in the Dionysiac revels, to a measured +antistrophic hymn, sung by a trained body of performers. The +name Cycleus given to his father indicates the connexion of the +son with the “cyclic” or circular chorus which was the origin +of tragedy. According to Suidas he composed a number of songs +and proems; none of these is extant; the fragment of a hymn +to Poseidon attributed to him (Aelian, <i>Hist. An.</i> xii. 45) is spurious +and was probably written in Attica in the time of Euripides. +Nothing is known of the life of Arion, with the exception of +the beautiful story first told by Herodotus (i. 23) and elaborated +and embellished by subsequent writers. According to Herodotus, +Arion being desirous of exhibiting his skill in foreign countries +left Corinth, and travelled through Sicily and parts of Italy, +where he gained great fame and amassed a large sum of money. +At Taras (Tarentum) he embarked for his homeward voyage in a +Corinthian vessel. The sight of his treasure roused the cupidity +of the sailors, who resolved to possess themselves of it by putting +him to death. In answer to his entreaties that they would spare +his life, they insisted that he should either die by his own hand +on shipboard or cast himself into the sea. Arion chose the latter, +and as a last favour begged permission to sing a parting song. +The sailors, desirous of hearing so famous a musician, consented, +and the poet, standing on the deck of the ship, in full minstrel’s +attire, sang a dirge accompanied by his lyre. He then threw +himself overboard; but instead of perishing, he was miraculously +borne up in safety by a dolphin, supposed to have been charmed +by the music. Thus he was conveyed to Taenarum, whence he +proceeded to Corinth, arriving before the ship from Tarentum. +Immediately on his arrival Arion related his story to Periander, +who was at first incredulous, but eventually learned the truth +by a stratagem. Summoning the sailors, he demanded what had +become of the poet. They affirmed that he had remained +behind at Tarentum; upon which they were suddenly confronted +by Arion himself, arrayed in the same garments in which he had +leapt overboard. The sailors confessed their guilt and were +punished. Arion’s lyre and the dolphin were translated to the +stars. Herodotus and Pausanias (iii. 25. 7) both refer to a brass +figure at Taenarum which was supposed to represent Arion seated +on the dolphin’s back. But this story is only one of several +in which the dolphin appears as saving the lives of favoured +heroes. For instance, it is curious that Taras, the mythical +founder of Tarentum, is said to have been conveyed in this +manner from Taenarum to Tarentum. On Tarentine coins a +man and dolphin appear, and hence it may be thought that +the monument at Taenarum represented Taras and not Arion. +At the same time the connexion of Apollo with the dolphin must +not be forgotten. Under this form the god appeared when he +founded the celebrated oracle at Delphi, the name of which +commemorates the circumstance. He was also the god of music, +the special preserver of poets, and to him the lyre was sacred.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the numerous modern versions of the story, particular +mention may be made of the pretty ballad by A.W. Schlegel; see +also Lehrs, <i>Populare Aufsatze aus dem Alterthum</i> (1844-1846); +Clement, <i>Arion</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIOSTO, LODOVICO<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1474-1533) Italian poet, was born at +Reggio, in Lombardy, on the 8th of September 1474. His father +was Niccolo Ariosto, commander of the citadel of Reggio. He +showed a strong inclination to poetry from his earliest years, +but was obliged by his father to study the law—a pursuit in +which he lost five of the best years of his life. Allowed at last to +follow his inclination, he applied himself to the study of the +classics under Gregorio da Spoleto. But after a short time, +during which he read the best Latin authors, he was deprived of +his teacher by Gregorio’s removal to France as tutor of Francesco +Sforza. Ariosto thus lost the opportunity of learning Greek, +as he intended. His father dying soon after, he was compelled +to forego his literary occupations to undertake the management of +the family, whose affairs were embarrassed, and to provide for +his nine brothers and sisters, one of whom was a cripple. He +wrote, however, about this time some comedies in prose and a +few lyrical pieces. Some of these attracted the notice of the +cardinal Ippolito d’Este, who took the young poet under his +patronage and appointed him one of the gentlemen of his +household. This prince usurped the character of a patron of +literature, whilst the only reward which the poet received for +having dedicated to him the <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, was the question, +“Where did you find so many stories, Master Ludovic?” The +poet himself tells us that the cardinal was ungrateful; deplores +the time which he spent under his yoke; and adds, that if he +received some niggardly pension, it was not to reward him for +his poetry, which the prelate despised, but to make some just +compensation for the poet’s running like a messenger, with the +risk of his life, at his eminence’s pleasure. Nor was even this +miserable pittance regularly paid during the period that the +poet enjoyed it. The cardinal went to Hungary in 1518, and +wished Ariosto to accompany him. The poet excused himself, +pleading ill health, his love of study, the care of his private +affairs and the age of his mother, whom it would have been +disgraceful to leave. His excuses were not received, and even +an interview was denied him. Ariosto then boldly said, that +if his eminence thought to have bought a slave by assigning him +the scanty pension of 75 crowns a year, he was mistaken and +might withdraw his boon—which it seems the cardinal did.</p> + +<p>The cardinal’s brother, Alphonso, duke of Ferrara, now took +the poet under his patronage. This was but an act of simple +justice, Ariosto having already distinguished himself as a +diplomatist, chiefly on the occasion of two visits to Rome as +ambassador to Pope Julius II. The fatigue of one of these hurried +journeys brought on a complaint from which he never recovered; +and on his second mission he was nearly killed by order of the +violent pope, who happened at the time to be much incensed +against the duke of Ferrara. On account of the war, his salary +of only 84 crowns a year was suspended, and it was withdrawn +altogether after the peace; in consequence of which Ariosto +asked the duke either to provide for him, or to allow him to +seek employment elsewhere. A province, situated on the wildest +heights of the Apennines, being then without a governor, Ariosto +received the appointment, which he held for three years. The +office was no sinecure. The province was distracted by factions +and banditti, the governor had not the requisite means to enforce +his authority and the duke did little to support his minister. +Yet it is said that Ariosto’s government satisfied both the sovereign +and the people confided to his care; and a story is added +of his having, when walking out alone, fallen in with a party +of banditti, whose chief, on discovering that his captive was +the author of <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, humbly apologized for not having +immediately shown him the respect which was due to his rank. +Although he had little reason to be satisfied with his office, he +refused an embassy to Pope Clement VII. offered to him by the +secretary of the duke, and spent the remainder of his life at +Ferrara, writing comedies, superintending their performance +as well as the construction of a theatre, and correcting his +<i>Orlando Furioso</i>, of which the complete edition was published +only a year before his death. He died of consumption on the +6th of June 1533.</p> + +<p>That Ariosto was honoured and respected by the first men of +his age is a fact; that most of the princes of Italy showed him +great partiality is equally true; but it is not less so that their +patronage was limited to kind words. It is not known that he +ever received any substantial mark of their love for literature; +he lived and died poor. He proudly wrote on the entrance of a +house built by himself,</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span></p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Parva, sed apta mihi, sed nulli obnoxia, sed non</p> +<p class="i1">Sordida, parta meo sed tamen aere domus;”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">which serves to show the incorrectness of the assertion of +flatterers, followed by Tiraboschi, that the duke of Ferrara built +that house for him. The only one who seems to have given +anything to Ariosto as a reward for his poetical talent was the +marquess del Vasto, who assigned him an annuity of 100 crowns +on the revenues of Casteleone in Lombardy; but it was only +paid, if ever, from the end of 1531. That he was crowned as poet +by Charles V. seems untrue, although a diploma may have been +issued to that effect by the emperor.</p> + +<p>The character of Ariosto seems to have been fully and justly +delineated by Gabriele, his brother:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Ornabat pietas et grata modestia Vatem,</p> +<p class="i05">Sancta fides, dictique memor, munitaque recto</p> +<p class="i05">Justitia, et nullo patientia victa labore,</p> +<p class="i05">Et constans virtus animi, et clementia mitis,</p> +<p class="i05">Ambitione procul pulsa, fastusque tumore.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>His satires, in which we see him before us such as he was, +show that there was no flattery in this portrait. In these compositions +we are struck with the noble independence of the poet. +He loved liberty with a most jealous fondness. His disposition +was changeable withal, as he himself very frankly confesses in +his Latin verses, as well as in the satires.</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Hoc olim ingenio vitales hausimus auras,</p> +<p class="i1">Multa cito ut placeant, displicitura brevi.</p> +<p class="i05">Non in amore modo mens haec, sed in omnibus impar</p> +<p class="i1">Ipsa sibi longa non retinenda mora.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Hence he never would bind himself, either by going into orders, +or by marrying, till towards the end of his life, when he espoused +Alessandra, widow of Tito Strozzi. He had no issue by his wife, +but he left two natural sons by different mothers.</p> + +<p>His Latin poems do not perhaps deserve to be noticed: in +the age of Flaminio, Vida, Fracastoro and Sannazaro, better +things were due from a poet like Ariosto. His lyrical compositions +show the poet, although they do not seem worthy of his +powers. His comedies, of which he wrote four, besides one which +he left unfinished, are avowedly imitated from Plautus and +Terence; and although native critics may admire in them the +elegance of the diction, the liveliness of the dialogue and the +novelty of some scenes, few will feel interest either in the subject +or in the characters, and it is hard to approve the immoral +passages by which they are disfigured, however grateful these +might be to the audiences and patrons of theatrical representations +in Ariosto’s own day.</p> + +<p>Of all the works of Ariosto, the most solid monument of his +fame is the <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, the extraordinary merits of which +have cast into oblivion the numberless romance poems which +inundated Italy during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.</p> + +<p>The popularity which an earlier poem on the same theme, +<i>Orlando Innamorato</i>, by Boiardo, enjoyed in Ariosto’s time, +cannot be well conceived, now that the enthusiasm of the +crusades, and the interest which was attached to a war against +the Moslems, have passed away. Boiardo wrote and read his +poem at the court of Ferrara, but died before he was able to +finish it. Many poets undertook the difficult task of its completion; +but it was reserved for Ariosto both to finish and to +surpass, his original. Boiardo did not, perhaps, yield to Ariosto +either in vigour or in richness of imagination, but he lived in +a less refined age, and died before he was able to recast or even +finish the poetical romance which he had written under the +impulse of his exuberant fancy. Ariosto, on the other hand, +united to a powerful imagination an elegant and cultivated taste. +He began to write his great poem about 1503, and after having +consulted the first men of the age of Leo X., he published it in +1516, in only 40 cantos (extended afterwards to 46); and up +to the moment of his death never ceased to correct and improve +both the subject and the style. It is in this latter quality that +he excels, and for which he had assigned him the name of <i>Divino +Lodovico</i>. Even when he jests, he never compromises his +dignity; and in pathetic description or narrative he excites +the reader’s deepest feelings. In his machinery he displays a +vivacity of fancy with which no other poet can vie; but he +never lets his fancy carry him so far as to omit to employ, with +an art peculiar to himself, those simple and natural pencil-strokes +which, by imparting to the most extraordinary feats +a colour of reality, satisfy the reason without disenchanting the +imagination. The death of Zerbino, the complaints of Isabella, +the effects of discord among the Saracens, the flight of Astolfo +to the moon, the passion which causes Orlando’s madness, teem +with beauties of every variety. The supposition that the poem +is not connected throughout is wholly unfounded; there is a +connexion which, with a little attention, will become evident. +The love of Ruggero and Bradamante forms the main subject +of the <i>Furioso</i>; every part of it, except some episodes, +depend upon this subject; and the poem ends with their marriage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first complete edition of the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> was published +at Ferrara in 1532, as noted above. The edition of Morali (Milan, +1818) follows the text of the 1532 edition with great correctness. +Of editions published in England, those of Baskerville (Birmingham, +1773) and Panizzi (London, 1834) are the most important. The +indifferent translations into English of Sir John Harrington (1591) +and John Hoole (1783) have been superseded by the spirited rendering +of W. Stewart Rose (1823). See also E. Gardner, <i>Ariosto: the +Prince of Court Poets</i> (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTAENETUS,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> Greek epistolographer, flourished in the +5th or 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was formerly identified with Aristaenetus +of Nicaea (the friend of Symmachus), who perished +in an earthquake at Nicomedia, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 358, but internal evidence +points to a much later date. Under his name two books of love +stories, in the form of letters, are extant; the subjects are +borrowed from the erotic elegies of such Alexandrian writers as +Callimachus, and the language is a patchwork of phrases from +Plato, Lucian, Alciphron and others. The stories are feeble +and insipid, and full of strange and improbable incidents.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Text: Boissonade (1822); Hercher, <i>Epistolographi Graeci</i> (1873). +English translations: Boyer (1701); Thomas Brown (1715); +R.B. Sheridan and Halked (1771 and later).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTAEUS,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a divinity whose worship was widely spread +throughout ancient Greece, but concerning whom the myths +are somewhat obscure. The account most generally received +connects him specially with Thessaly. Apollo carried off from +Mount Pelion the nymph Cyrene, daughter or granddaughter of +the river-god Peneus, and conveyed her to Libya, where she gave +birth to Aristaeus. From this circumstance the town of Cyrene +took its name. The child was at first handed over to the care +of the Hours, or the nymph Melissa and the centaur Cheiron. +He afterwards left Libya and went to Thebes, where he received +instruction from the Muses in the arts of healing and prophecy, +and married Autonoe, daughter of Cadmus, by whom he had +several children, among others, the unfortunate Actaeon. He +is said to have visited Ceos, where, by erecting a temple to Zeus +Icmaeus (the giver of moisture), he freed the inhabitants from +a terrible drought. The islanders worshipped him, and occasionally +identified him with Zeus, calling him Zeus Aristaeus. +After travelling through many of the Aegean islands, through +Sicily, Sardinia and Magna Graecia, everywhere conferring +benefits and receiving divine honours, Aristaeus reached Thrace, +where he was initiated into the mysteries of Dionysus, and +finally disappeared near Mount Haemus. While in Thrace he is +said to have caused the death of Eurydice, who was bitten by +a snake while fleeing from him. Aristaeus was essentially a +benevolent deity; he was worshipped as the first who introduced +the cultivation of bees (Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> iv. 315-558), and of the +vine and olive; he was the protector of herdsmen and hunters; +he warded off the evil effects of the dog-star; he possessed the +arts of healing and prophecy. He was often identified with +Zeus, Apollo and Dionysus. In ancient sculptures and coins he +is represented as a young man, habited like a shepherd, and +sometimes carrying a sheep on his shoulders. Coins of Ceos +exhibit the head of Aristaeus and Sirius in the form of a dog +crowned with rays.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Pindar, <i>Pythia</i>, ix. 5-65; Apollonius Rhodius, schol. on ii. 498, +500; Diodorus, iv. 81.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTAGORAS<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (d. 497 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), brother-in-law and cousin of +Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus. While Histiaeus was practically +a prisoner at the court of Darius, he acted as regent in Miletus. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> +In 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he persuaded the Persians to join him in an attack +upon Naxos, but he quarrelled with Megabates, the Persian +commander, who warned the inhabitants of the island, and the +expedition failed. Finding himself the object of Persian +suspicion, Aristagoras, instigated by a message from Histiaeus, +raised the standard of revolt in Miletus, though it seems likely +that this step had been under consideration for some time (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionia</a></span>). After the complete failure of the Ionian revolt he +emigrated to Myrcinus in Thrace. Here he fell in battle (497), +while attacking Ennea Hodoi (afterwards Amphipolis) on the +Strymon, which belonged to the Edonians, a Thracian tribe. +The aid given to him by Athens and Eretria, and the burning of +Sardis, were the immediate cause of the invasion of Greece by +Darius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Herodotus v. 30-51, 97-126; Thucydides iv. 102; Diodorus +xii. 68; for a more favourable view see G.B. Grundy, <i>Great Persian +War</i> (London, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTANDER,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> of Telmessus in Lycia, was the favourite +soothsayer of Alexander the Great, who consulted him on all +occasions. After the death of the monarch, when his body had +lain unburied for thirty days, Aristander procured its burial by +foretelling that the country in which it was interred would be +the most prosperous in the world. He is frequently mentioned +by the historians who wrote about Alexander, and was probably +the author of a work on prodigies, which is referred to by Pliny +(<i>Nat. Hist</i>. xvii. 38) and Lucian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Philopatris</i>, 21; Arrian, <i>Anabasis</i>, ii. 26, iii. 2, iv. 4; Plutarch, +<i>Alexander</i>; Curtius iv. 2, 6, 15, vii. 7.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTARCHUS,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> of Samos, Greek astronomer, flourished about +250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is famous as having been the first to maintain +that the earth moves round the sun. On this account he was +accused of impiety by the Stoic Cleanthes, just as Galileo, in +later years, was attacked by the theologians. His only extant +work is a short treatise (with a commentary by Pappus) <i>On the +Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun and Moon</i>. His method +of estimating the relative lunar and solar distances is +geometrically correct, though the instrumental means at his command +rendered his data erroneous. Although the heliocentric system +is not mentioned in the treatise, a quotation in the <i>Arenarius</i> +of Archimedes from a work of Aristarchus proves that he anticipated +the great discovery of Copernicus. Further, Copernicus +could not have known of Aristarchus’s doctrine, since Archimedes’s +work was not published till after Copernicus’s death. +Aristarchus is also said to have invented two sun-dials, one +hemispherical, the so-called <i>scaphion</i>, the other plane.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editio princeps by Wallis (1688); Fortia d’Urban (1810); Nizze +(1856). See Bergk-Hinrichs, <i>Aristarchus van Samos</i> (1883); Tannery, +<i>Aristarque de Samos</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTARCHUS,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> of Samothrace (<i>c.</i> 220-143 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek grammarian +and critic, flourished about 155. He settled early in +Alexandria, where he studied under Aristophanes of Byzantium, +whom he succeeded as librarian of the museum. On the accession +of the tyrant Ptolemy Physcon (his former pupil), he found his +life in danger and withdrew to Cyprus, where he died from +dropsy, hastened, it is said, by voluntary starvation, at the age +of 72. Aristarchus founded a school of philologists, called after +him “Aristarcheans,” which long flourished in Alexandria and +afterwards at Rome. He is said to have written 800 commentaries +alone, without reckoning special treatises. He edited +Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles and other authors; but +his chief fame rests on his critical and exegetical edition of +Homer, practically the foundation of our present recension. In +the time of Augustus, two Aristarcheans, Didymus and Aristonicus, +undertook the revision of his work, and the extracts +from these two writers in the Venetian scholia to the <i>Iliad</i> +give an idea of Aristarchus’s Homeric labours. To obtain a +thoroughly correct text, he marked with an obelus the lines +he considered spurious; other signs were used by him to indicate +notes, varieties of reading, repetitions and interpolations. He +arranged the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> in twenty-four books as we +now have them. As a commentator his principle was that the +author should explain himself, without recourse to allegorical +interpretation; in grammar, he laid chief stress on analogy +and uniformity of usage and construction. His views were +opposed by Crates of Mallus, who wrote a treatise <span class="grk" title="Heri +Anomalias">Άνωμαλίας</span>, especially directed against them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lehrs, <i>De Aristarchi Stud. Homericis</i> (3rd ed., 1882); Ludwich, +<i>Aristarchs homerische Textcritik</i> (1884); especially Sandys, <i>Hist. of +Class. Schol.</i> (ed. 1906), vol. i. with authorities; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homer</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTEAS,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a somewhat mythical personage in ancient +Greece, said to have lived in the time of Cyrus and Croesus, +or, according to some, ca. 690 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> We are chiefly indebted +to Herodotus (iv. 13-15) for our knowledge of him and his poem +<i>Arimaspeia</i>. He belonged to a noble family of Proconnesus, +an island colony from Miletus in the Propontis, and was supposed +to be inspired by Apollo. He travelled through the +countries north and east of the Euxine, and visited the +Hyperboreans, Issedonians and Arimaspians, who fought against the +gold-guarding griffins. An important historical fact which +seems to be indicated in his poem is the rush of barbarian hordes +towards Europe under pressure from their neighbours. Twelve +lines of the poem are preserved in Tzetzes and Longinus. +Wonderful stories are told of Aristeas. At Proconnesus, he fell +dead in a shop; simultaneously a traveller declared he had +spoken with him near Cyzicus; his body vanished; six years +afterwards, he returned. Again disappearing, 240 years later +he was at Metapontum, and commanded the inhabitants to +raise a statue to himself and an altar to Apollo, whom he had +accompanied in the form of a raven, at the founding of the city. +According to Suidas, Aristeas also wrote a prose theogony. +The genuineness of his works is disputed by Dionysius of +Halicarnassus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Tournier, <i>De Aristea Proconneso</i> (1863); Macan, <i>Hdt.</i> iv. 14 note.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTEAS,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> the pseudonymous author of a famous <i>Letter</i> in +which is described, in legendary form, the origin of the Greek +translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint +(<i>q.v.</i>). Aristeas represents himself as a Gentile Greek, but was +really an Alexandrian Jew who lived under one of the later +Ptolemies. Though the <i>Letter</i> is unauthentic, it is now recognized +as a useful source of information concerning both Egyptian and +Palestinian affairs in the 2nd and possibly in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An English translation, based on a critical Greek text, was published +by H. St J. Thackeray in the <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, vol. xv. +There are two modern editions of the Greek, one by the last named +(in Swete’s <i>Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek</i>, Cambridge, +1900), the other by P. Wendland (Leipzig, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTIDES<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> [<span class="grk" title="Aristeides">Άριστείδης</span>] (<i>c.</i> 530-468 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Athenian statesman, +called “the Just,” was the son of Lysimachus, and a member +of a family of moderate fortune. Of his early life we are told +merely that he became a follower of the statesman Cleisthenes +and sided with the aristocratic party in Athenian politics. +He first comes into notice as strategus in command of his native +tribe Antiochis at Marathon, and it was no doubt in consequence +of the distinction which he then achieved that he was elected +chief archon for the ensuing year (489-488). In pursuance of +his conservative policy which aimed at maintaining Athens as +a land power, he was one of the chief opponents of the naval +policy of Themistocles (<i>q.v.</i>). The conflict between the two +leaders ended in the ostracism of Aristides, at a date variously +given between 485 and 482. It is said that, on this occasion, +a voter, who did not know him, came up to him, and giving +him his sherd, desired him to write upon it the name of Aristides. +The latter asked if Aristides had wronged him. “No,” was +the reply, “and I do not even know him, but it irritates me to +hear him everywhere called <i>the just</i>.”</p> + +<p>Early in 480 Aristides profited by the decree recalling the +post-Marathonian exiles to help in the defence of Athens against +the Persian invaders, and was elected strategus for the year +480-479. In the campaign of Salamis he rendered loyal support +to Themistocles, and crowned the victory by landing Athenian +infantry on the island of Psyttaleia and annihilating the Persian +garrison stationed there (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Salamis</a></span>). In 479 he was re-elected +strategus, and invested with special powers as commander of +the Athenian contingent at Plataea; he is also said to have +judiciously suppressed a conspiracy among some oligarchic +malcontents in the army, and to have played a prominent part +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span> +in arranging for the celebration of the victory. In 478 or +477 Aristides was in command of the Athenian squadron off +Byzantium, and so far won the confidence of the Ionian allies +that, after revolting from the Spartan admiral Pausanias, they +offered him the chief command and left him with absolute +discretion in fixing the contributions of the newly formed +confederacy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>). His assessment was universally +accepted as equitable, and continued as the basis of taxation +for the greater part of the league’s duration; it was probably +from this that he won the title of “the Just.” Aristides soon +left the command of the fleet to his friend Cimon (<i>q.v.</i>), but +continued to hold a predominant position in Athens. At first +he seems to have remained on good terms with Themistocles, +whom he is said to have helped in outwitting the Spartans over +the rebuilding of the walls of Athens. But in spite of statements +in which ancient authors have represented Aristides as +a democratic reformer, it is certain that the period following +the Persian wars during which he shaped Athenian policy was +one of conservative reaction. (For the theory based on Plutarch, +<i>Aristid.</i> 22, that Aristides after Plataea threw open the +archonship to all the citizens, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>He is said by some authorities to have died at Athens, by +others on a journey to the Euxine sea. The date of his death +is given by Nepos as 468; at any rate he lived to witness the +ostracism of Themistocles, towards whom he always displayed +a generous conduct, but had died before the rise of Pericles. +His estate seems to have suffered severely from the Persian +invasions, for apparently he did not leave enough money to +defray the expenses of his burial, and it is known that his +descendants even in the 4th century received state pensions. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Themistocles</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Herodotus viii. 79-81, 95; ix. 28; “Constitution +of Athens” (<i>Ath. Pol.</i>), 22-24, 41; Plutarch, <i>Aristides</i>; Cornelius +Nepos, <i>Vita Aristidis</i>. See also E. Meyer, <i>Geschichte des Altertums</i> +(Stuttgart, 1901), iii. pp. 481, 492. In the absence of positive +information the 4th-century writers (on whom Plutarch and Nepos +mainly rely) seized upon his surname of “Just,” and wove round it +a number of anecdotes more picturesque than historical. Herodotus +is practically our only trustworthy authority.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTIDES,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> of Miletus, generally regarded as the father of +Greek prose romance, flourished 150-100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He wrote six +books of erotic <i>Milesian Tales</i> (<span class="grk" title="Milesiaka">Μιλησιακὰ</span>), which enjoyed great +popularity, and were subsequently translated into Latin by +Cornelius Sisenna (119-67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). They are lost, with the exception +of a few fragments, but the story of the Ephesian matron +in Petronius gives an idea of their nature. They have been +compared with the old French <i>fabliaux</i> and the tales of +Boccaccio.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Plutarch, <i>Crassus</i>, 32; Ovid, <i>Tristia</i>, ii. 413, 443; Müller, <i>Fragmenta +Historicorum Graecorum</i>, iv.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTIDES,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> of Thebes, a Greek painter of the 4th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is said to have excelled in expression. For example, +a picture of his representing a dying mother’s fear lest her infant +should suck death from her breast was much celebrated. He +also painted one of Alexander’s battles. One of his pictures +is said to have been bought by King Attalus for 100 talents +(more than £20,000).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTIDES, AELIUS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> surnamed <span class="sc">Theodorus</span>, Greek rhetorician +and sophist, son of Eudaemon, a priest of Zeus, was born +at Hadriani in Mysia, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117 (or 129). He studied under +Herodes Atticus of Athens, Polemon of Smyrna, and Alexander of +Cotyaeum, in whose honour he composed a funeral oration still +extant. In the practice of his calling he travelled through +Greece, Italy, Egypt and Asia, and in many places the +inhabitants erected statues to him in recognition of his talents. +In 156 he was attacked by an illness which lasted thirteen years, +the nature of which has caused considerable speculation. However, +it in no way interfered with his studies; in fact, they were +prescribed as part of his cure. Aristides’ favourite place of +residence was Smyrna. In 178, when it was destroyed by an +earthquake, he wrote an account of the disaster to Aurelius, +which deeply affected the emperor and induced him to rebuild +the city. The grateful inhabitants set up a statue in honour of +Aristides, and styled him the “builder” of Smyrna. He refused +all honours from them except that of priest of Asclepius, which +office he held till his death, about 189. The extant works of +Aristides consist of two small rhetorical treatises and fifty-five +declamations, some not really speeches at all. The treatises are +on <i>political</i> and <i>simple speech</i>, in which he takes Demosthenes +and Xenophon as models for illustration; some critics attribute +these to a later compiler (Spengel, <i>Rhetores Graeci</i>). The six +<i>Sacred Discourses</i> have attracted some attention. They give a +full account of his protracted illness, including a mass of superstitious +details of visions, dreams and wonderful cures, which +the god Asclepius ordered him to record. These cures, from his +account, offer similarities to the effects produced by hypnotism. +The speeches proper are epideictic or show speeches—on certain +gods, panegyrics of the emperor and individual cities (Smyrna, +Rome); justificatory—the attack on Plato’s <i>Gorgias</i> in defence +of rhetoric and the four statesmen, Thucydides, Miltiades, +Pericles, Cimon; symbouleutic or political, the subjects being +taken from the past history of free Greece—the Sicilian expedition, +peace negotiations with Sparta, the political situation after +the battle of Leuctra. The <i>Panathenaicus</i> and <i>Encomium of +Rome</i> were actually delivered, the former imitated from Isocrates. +The <i>Leptinea</i>—the genuineness of which is disputed—contrast +unfavourably with the speech of Demosthenes. Aristides’ works +were highly esteemed by his contemporaries; they were much +used for school instruction, and distinguished rhetoricians wrote +commentaries upon them. His style, formed on the best models, +is generally clear and correct, though sometimes obscured by +rhetorical ornamentation; his subjects being mainly fictitious, +the cause possessed no living interest, and his attention was +concentrated on form and diction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editio princeps (52 declamations only) (1517); Dindorf (1829); +Keil (1899); Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. 312 (ed. 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> the author of an ancient treatise +on music, who lived probably in the third century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> According +to Meibomius, in whose collection (<i>Antiq. Musicae Auc. Septem</i>, +1652) this work is printed, it contains everything on music that is +to be found in antiquity. (See Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyc.</i> ii. 894.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>. Until 1878 our knowledge of the +early Christian writer Aristides was confined to the statement of +Eusebius that he was an Athenian philosopher, who presented an +apology “concerning the faith” to the emperor Hadrian. In +that year, however, the Mechitharists of S. Lazzaro at Venice +published a fragment in Armenian<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> from the beginning of the apology; +and in 1889 Dr Rendel Harris found the whole of it in a +Syriac version on Mount Sinai. While his edition was passing +through the press, it was observed by the present writer that all +the while the work had been in our hands in Greek, though in a +slightly abbreviated form, as it had been imbedded as a speech +in a religious novel written about the 6th century, and entitled +“The Life of Barlaam and Josaphat.” The discovery of the +Syriac version reopened the question of the date of the work. +For although its title there corresponds to that given by the +Armenian fragment and by Eusebius, it begins with a formal +inscription to “the emperor Titus Hadrianus Antoninus +Augustus Pius”; and Dr R. Harris is followed by Harnack and +others in supposing that it was only through a careless reading +of this inscription that the work was supposed to have been +addressed to Hadrian. If this be the case, it must be placed +somewhere in the long reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161). +There are, however, no internal grounds for rejecting the thrice-attested +dedication to Hadrian his predecessor, and the picture of +primitive Christian life which is here found points to the earlier +rather than to the later date. It is possible that the Apology was +read to Hadrian in person when he visited Athens, and that the +Syriac inscription was prefixed by a scribe on the analogy of +Justin’s Apology, a mistake being made in the amplification of +Hadrian’s name.</p> + +<p>The Apology opens thus: “I, O king, by the providence of +God came into the world; and having beheld the heaven, and +the earth, and the sea, the sun and moon, and all besides, I +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span> +marvelled at their orderly disposition; and seeing the world and +all things in it, that it is moved by compulsion, I understood that +He that moveth and governeth it is God. For whatsoever +moveth is stronger than that which is moved, and whatsoever +governeth is stronger than that which is governed.” Having +briefly spoken of the divine nature in the terms of Greek philosophy, +Aristides proceeds to ask which of all the races of men +have at all partaken of the truth about God. Here we have the +first attempt at a systematic comparison of ancient religions. +For the purpose of his inquiry he adopts an obvious threefold +division into idolaters, Jews and Christians. Idolaters, or, as he +more gently terms them in addressing the emperor, “those who +worship what among you are said to be gods,” he subdivides +into the three great world-civilizations—Chaldeans, Greeks and +Egyptians. He chooses this order so as to work up to a climax +of error and absurdity in heathen worship. The direct nature-worship +of the Chaldeans is shown to be false because its objects +are works of the Creator, fashioned for the use of men. They obey +fixed laws and have no power over themselves. “The Greeks +have erred worse than the Chaldeans ... calling those gods who +are no gods, according to their evil lusts, in order that having +these as advocates of their wickedness they may commit adultery, +and plunder and kill, and do the worst of deeds.” The gods of +Olympus are challenged one by one, and shown to be either vile or +helpless, or both at once. A heaven of quarrelling divinities +cannot inspire a reasonable worship. These gods are not even +respectable; how can they be adorable? “The Egyptians have +erred worse than all the nations; for they were not content with +the worships of the Chaldeans and Greeks, but introduced, +moreover, as gods even brute beasts of the dry land and of the +waters, and plants and herbs.... Though they see their gods +eaten by others and by men, and burned, and slain, and rotting, +they do not understand concerning them that they are no +gods.”</p> + +<p>Throughout the whole of the argument there is strong common-sense +and a stern severity unrelieved by conscious humour. +Aristides is engaged in a real contest; he strikes hard blows, and +gives no quarter. He cannot see, as Justin and Clement see, +a striving after truth, a feeling after God, in the older religions, +or even in the philosophies of Greece. He has no patience with +attempts to find a deeper meaning in the stories of the gods. +“Do they say that one nature underlies these diverse forms? +Then why does god hate god, or god kill god? Do they say +that the histories are mythical? Then the gods themselves +are myths, and nothing more.”</p> + +<p>The Jews are briefly treated. After a reference to their +descent from Abraham and their sojourn in Egypt, Aristides +praises them for their worship of the one God, the Almighty +Creator; but blames them as worshipping angels, and observing +“sabbaths and new moons, and the unleavened bread, and the +great fast, and circumcision, and cleanness of meats.” He then +proceeds to the description of the Christians. He begins with a +statement which, when purged of glosses by a comparison of +the three forms in which it survives, reads thus: “Now the +Christians reckon their race from the Lord Jesus Christ; and +He is confessed to be the Son of God Most High. Having by the +Holy Spirit come down from heaven, and having been born of +a Hebrew virgin, He took flesh and appeared unto men, to call +them back from their error of many gods; and having completed +His wonderful dispensation, He was pierced by the Jews, and +after three days He revived and went up to heaven. And the +glory of His coming thou canst learn, O king, from that which +is called among them the evangelic scripture, if thou wilt read it. +He bad twelve disciples, who after His ascent into heaven went +forth into the provinces of the world and taught His greatness; +whence they who at this day believe their preaching are called +Christians.” This passage contains striking correspondences +with the second section of the Apostles’ Creed. The attribution +of the Crucifixion to the Jews appears in several 2nd-century +documents; Justin actually uses the words “He was pierced +by you” in his dialogue with Trypho the Jew.</p> + +<p>“These are they,” he proceeds, “who beyond all the nations +of the earth have found the truth: for they know God as Creator +and Maker of all things, and they worship no other god beside +Him; for they have His commandments graven on their hearts, +and these they keep in expectation of the world to come.... +Whatsoever they would not should be done unto them, they do +not to another.... He that hath supplieth him that hath not +without grudging: if they see a stranger they bring him under +their roof, and rejoice over him, as over a brother indeed, for they +call not one another brethren after the flesh, but after the spirit. +They are ready for Christ’s sake to give up their own lives; for +His commandments they securely keep, living holily and righteously, +according as the Lord their God hath commanded them, +giving thanks to Him at all hours, over all their food and drink, +and the rest of their good things.” This simple description is +fuller in the Syriac, but the additional details must be accepted +with caution: for while it is likely that the monk who appropriated +the Greek may have cut it down to meet the exigencies +of his romance, it is the habit of certain Syriac translators to +elaborate their originals. After asserting that “this is the way +of truth,” and again referring for further information to “the +writings of the Christians,” he says: “And truly this is a new +race, and there is something divine mingled with it.” At the +close we have a passage which is found only in the Syriac, but +which is shown by internal evidence to contain original elements: +“The Greeks, because they practise foul things ... turn the +ridicule of their foulness upon the Christians.” This is an allusion +to the charges of Thyestean banquets and other immoralities, +which the early apologists constantly rebut. “But the Christians +offer up prayers for them, that they may turn from their error; +and when one of them turns, he is ashamed before the Christians +of the deeds that were done by him, and he confesses to God +saying: ‘In ignorance I did these things’; and he cleanses his +heart, and his sins are forgiven him, because he did them in +ignorance in former time, when he was blaspheming the true +knowledge of the Christians.”</p> + +<p>These last words point to the use in the composition of this +Apology of a lost apocryphal work of very early date, <i>The Preaching +of Peter</i>. This book is known to us chiefly by quotations +in Clement of Alexandria: it was widely circulated, and at one +time claimed a place within the Canon. It was used by the +Gnostic Heracleon and probably by the unknown writer of the +epistle to Diognetus. From the fragments which survive we +see that it contained: (1) a description of the nature of God, +which closely corresponds with Arist. i., followed by (2) a warning +not to worship according to the Greeks, with an exposure of +various forms of idolatry; (3) a warning not to worship according +to the Jews—although they alone think they know the true God—for +they worship angels and are superstitious about moons +and sabbaths, and feasts, comp. Arist. xiv.; (4) a description +of the Christians as being “a third race,” and worshipping God +in “a new way” through Christ; (5) a proof of Christianity +from Jewish prophecy; (6) a promise of forgiveness to Jews +and Gentiles who should turn to Christ, because they had sinned +“in ignorance” in the former time. Now all these points, except +the proof from Jewish prophecy, are taken up and worked out +by Aristides with a frequent use of the actual language of +<i>The Preaching of Peter</i>. A criterion is thus given us for the +reconstruction of the Apology, where the Greek which we have +has been abbreviated, and we are enabled to claim with certainty +some passages of the Syriac which might otherwise be suspected +as interpolations.</p> + +<p>The style of the Apology is exceedingly simple. It is curiously +misdescribed by Jerome, who never can have seen it, as +“Apologeticum pro Christianis contextum philosophorum sententiis.” +Its merits are its recognition of the helplessness of the old +heathenism to satisfy human aspiration after the divine, and +the impressive simplicity with which it presents the unfailing +argument of the lives of Christians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The student may consult <i>The Apology of Aristides</i>, Syriac text +and translation (J.R. Harris), with an appendix containing the +Greek text, <i>Texts and Studies</i>, i. 1 (1891), and a critical discussion +by R. Seeberg in Zahn’s <i>Forschungen</i>, v. 2 (1893); also, brief +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span> +discussions by A. Harnack, <i>Altchristl. Litteratur</i>, i. 96 ff., <i>Chronologie</i>, +i. 271 ff., where references to other writers may be found. The +<i>Epistola ad omnes philosophos</i> and the <i>Homily on the Penitent Thief</i>, +ascribed by Armenian tradition to Aristides, are really of 5th-century +origin. Trans. of <i>Apology</i> by W.S. Walford (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. R.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Codex Venet. ann.</i>, 981, and <i>Codex Etchmiaz.</i> of the 11th century.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTIPPUS<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 435-356 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek philosopher, the founder +of the Cyrenaic school, was the son of Aritadas, a merchant of +Cyrene. At an early age he came to Athens, and was induced +to remain by the fame of Socrates, whose pupil he became. +Subsequently he travelled through a number of Grecian cities, +and finally settled in Cyrene, where he founded his school. +His philosophy was eminently practical (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaics</a></span>). +Starting from the two Socratic principles of virtue and happiness, +he emphasized the second, and made pleasure the criterion +of life. That he held to be good which gives the maximum +of pleasure. In pursuance of this he indulged in all forms of +external luxury. At the same time he remained thoroughly +master of himself and had the self-control to refrain or to enjoy. +Diogenes Laertius (ii. 65), quoting Phanias the peripatetic, says +that he received money for his teaching, and Aristotle (<i>Met</i>. ii. 2) +expressly calls him a sophist. Diogenes further states that he +wrote several treatises, but none have survived. The five +letters attributed to him are undoubtedly spurious. His +daughter Arete, and her son Aristippus (<span class="grk" title="maetrodidaktos">μητροδίδακτος</span>, “pupil +of his mother”), carried on the school after his death. A +cosmopolitan on principle, and a convinced disbeliever in the +ethics of his day, he comes very near to modern empiricism and +especially to the modern Hedonist school.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTO<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ariston</span>, of Chios (<i>c.</i> 250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a Stoic philosopher +and pupil of Zeno. He differed from Zeno on many points, +and approximated more closely to the Cynic school. He was +eloquent (hence his nickname “the Siren”) but controversial +in tone. He despised logic, and rejected the philosophy of nature +as beyond the powers of man. Ethics alone he considered +worthy of study, and in that only general and theoretical +questions. He rejected Zeno’s doctrine of desirable things, +intermediate between virtue and vice. There is only one virtue—a +clear, intelligent, healthy state of mind (<i>hygeia</i>). Aristo is +frequently confounded with another philosopher of the same +name, Ariston of Iulis, in Ceos, who, about 230 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, succeeded +Lyco as scholarch of the Peripatetics. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stoics</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTO,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> of Pella, a Jewish Christian writer of the middle of +the 2nd century, who like Hegesippus (<i>q.v.</i>) represents a school +of thought more liberal than that of the Pharisaic and Essene +Ebionites to which the decline of Jewish Christianity mainly +led. Aristo is cited by Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iv. 6. 3) for a decree +of Hadrian respecting the Jews, but he is best known as the +writer of a <i>Dialogue</i> (between Papiscus, an Alexandrian Jew, +and Jason, who represents the author) on the witness of prophecy +to Jesus Christ, which was approvingly defended by Origen +against the reproaches of Celsus. The little book was perhaps +used by Justin Martyr in his own <i>Dialogue with Trypho</i>, and +probably also by Tertullian and Cyprian, but it has not been +preserved.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The literature is cited in G. Krüger’s <i>Early Christian Literature</i>, +pp. 104 f.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOBULUS,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> of Cassandreia, Greek historian, accompanied +Alexander the Great on his campaigns, of which he wrote an +account, mainly geographical and ethnological. His work was +largely used by Arrian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Müller, <i>Historicorum Graecorum Fragmenta</i>; Schöne, <i>De Rerum +Alexandri Magni Scriptoribus</i> (1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOBULUS,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> of Paneas (<i>c.</i> 160 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a Jewish philosopher +of the Peripatetic school. Gercke places him in the time of +Ptolemy X. Philometor (end of 2nd century), Anatolius in that +of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, but the middle of the 2nd century +is more probable. He was among the earliest of the Jewish-Alexandrian +philosophers whose aim was to reconcile and +identify Greek philosophical conceptions with the Jewish religion. +Only a few fragments of his work, apparently entitled <i>Commentaries +on the Writings of Moses</i>, are quoted by Clement, Eusebius +and other theological writers, but they suffice to show its object. +He endeavoured to prove that early Greek philosophers had +borrowed largely from certain parts of Scripture, and quoted +from Linus, Orpheus, Musaeus and others, passages which +strongly resemble the Mosaic writings. These passages, however, +were obvious forgeries. It is suggested that the name Aristobulus +was taken from 2 Macc. i. 10. The hypothesis (Schlatter, +<i>Das neugefundene hebräische Stück des Sirach</i>) that it was from +Aristobulus that the philosophy of <i>Ecclesiasticus</i> was derived +is not generally accepted.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Schürer, <i>History of the Jewish People</i> (Eng. trans., 1890-1891), +ii. 237 seq.; article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexandrian School</a></span>: <i>Philosophy</i>; +and <i>s.v.</i> “Aristobulus” in <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i> (Paul Wendland).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOCRACY<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="aristos">ἄριστος</span>, best; <span class="grk" title="kratia">κρατία</span>, government), +etymologically, the “rule of the best,” a form of government +variously defined and appreciated at different times and by +different authorities. In Greek political philosophy, aristocracy +is the government of those who most nearly attain to the ideal +of human perfection. Thus Plato in the <i>Republic</i> advocates +the rule of the “philosopher-king” who, in the social scheme, +is analogous to Reason in the intellectual, and alone is qualified +to control the active principles, <i>i.e.</i> the fighting population and +the artisans or workers. Aristocracy is thus the government +by those who are superior both morally and intellectually, and, +therefore, govern directly in the interests of the governed, as +a good doctor works for the good of his patient. Aristotle +classified good governments under three heads—monarchy, +aristocracy and commonwealth <span class="grk" title="politeia">πολιτεία</span>, to which he opposed +the three perverted forms—tyranny or absolutism, oligarchy +and democracy or mob-rule. The distinction between aristocracy +and oligarchy, which are both necessarily the rule of the few, +is that whereas the few <span class="grk" title="aristoi">ἄριστοι</span> will govern unselfishly, the +oligarchs, being the few wealthy (“plutocracy” in modern +terminology), will allow their personal interests to predominate. +While Plato’s aristocracy might be the rule of the wise and +benevolent despot, Aristotle’s is necessarily the rule of the few.</p> + +<p>Historically aristocracy develops from primitive monarchy +by the gradual progressive limitation of the regal authority. +This process is effected primarily by the nobles who have hitherto +formed the council of the king (an excellent example will be found +in Athenian politics, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>), whose triple prerogative— +religious, military and judicial—is vested, <i>e.g.</i>, in a magistracy of +three. These are either members of the royal house or the heads +of noble families, and are elected for life or periodically by their +peers, <i>i.e.</i> by the old royal council (cf. the Areopagus at Athens, +the Senate at Rome), now the sovereign power. In practice +this council depends primarily on a birth qualification, and thus +has always been more or less inferior to the Aristotelian ideal; +it is, by definition, an “oligarchy” of birth, and is recruited +from the noble families, generally by the addition of emeritus +magistrates. From the earliest times, therefore, the word +“aristocracy” became practically synonymous with “oligarchy,” +and as such it is now generally used in opposition to democracy +(which similarly took the place of Aristotle’s <span class="grk" title="politeia">πολιτεία</span>), in which +the ultimate sovereignty resides in the whole citizen body.</p> + +<p>The aristocracy of which we know most in ancient Greece +was that of Athens prior to the reforms of Cleisthenes, but all +the Greek city-states passed through a period of aristocratic +or oligarchic government. Rome, between the regal and the +imperial periods, was always more or less under the aristocratic +government of the senate, in spite of the gradual growth of +democratic institutions (the Lat. <i>optimates</i> is the equivalent +of <span class="grk" title="aristoi">ἄριστοι</span>). There is, however, one feature which distinguishes +these aristocracies from those of modern states, namely, that +they were all slave-owning. The original relation of the slave-population, +which in many cases outnumbered the free citizens, +cannot always be discovered. But in some cases we know that +the slaves were the original inhabitants who had been overcome +by an influx of racially different invaders (cf. Sparta with its +Helots); in others they were captives taken in war. Hence even +the most democratic states of antiquity were so far aristocratic +that the larger proportion of the inhabitants had no voice in the +government. In the second place this relation gave rise to a +philosophic doctrine, held even by Aristotle, that there were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +peoples who were inferior by nature and adapted to submission +(<span class="grk" title="phusei douloi">Φύσει δοῦλοι</span>); such people had no “virtue” in the technical +civic sense, and were properly occupied in performing the menial +functions of society, under the control of the <span class="grk" title="aristoi">ἄριστοι</span>. Thus, +combined with the criteria of descent, civic status and the +ownership of the land, there was the further idea of intellectual +and social superiority. These qualifications were naturally, in +course of time, shared by an increasingly large number of the +lower class who broke down the barriers of wealth and education. +From this stage the transition is easy to the aristocracy of +wealth, such as we find at Carthage and later at Venice, in periods +when the importance of commerce was paramount and mercantile +pursuits had cast off the stigma of inferiority (in Gr. <span class="grk" title="banausia">βαναυσία</span>).</p> + +<p>It is important at this stage to distinguish between aristocracy +and the feudal governments of medieval Europe. In these it is +true that certain power was exercised by a small number of +families, at the expense of the majority. But under this system +each noble governed in a particular area and within strict +limitations imposed by his sovereign; no sovereign authority +was vested in the nobles collectively.</p> + +<p>Under the conditions of the present day the distinction +of aristocracy, democracy and monarchy cannot be rigidly +maintained from a purely governmental point of view. In no +case does the sovereign power in a state reside any longer in an +aristocracy, and the word has acquired a social rather than a +political sense as practically equivalent to “nobility,” though +the distinction is sometimes drawn between the “aristocracy +of birth” and the “aristocracy of wealth.” Modern history, +however, furnishes many examples of government in the hands +of an aristocracy. Such were the aristocratic republics of Venice, +Genoa and the Dutch Netherlands, and those of the free imperial +cities in Germany. Such, too, in practice though not in theory, +was the government of Great Britain from the Revolution of +1689 to the Reform Bill of 1832. The French nobles of the +<i>Ancien Régime</i>, denounced as “aristocrats” by the Revolutionists, +had no share as such in government, but enjoyed exceptional +privileges (<i>e.g.</i> exemption from taxation). This privileged position +is still enjoyed by the heads of the German mediatized +families of the “High Nobility.” In Great Britain, on the other +hand, though the aristocratic principle is still represented in the +constitution by the House of Lords, the “aristocracy” generally, +apart from the peers, has no special privileges.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTODEMUS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), semi-legendary ruler of +Messenia in the time of the first Messenian War. Tradition +relates that, after some six years’ fighting, the Messenians were +forced to retire to the fortified summit of Ithome. The Delphic +oracle bade them sacrifice a virgin of the house of Aepytus. +Aristodemus offered his own daughter, and when her lover, +hoping to save her life, declared that she was no longer a maiden, +he slew her with his own hand to prove the assertion false. +In the thirteenth year of the war, Euphaes, the Messenian king, +died. As he left no children, popular election was resorted +to, and Aristodemus was chosen as his successor, though the +national soothsayers objected to him as the murderer of his +daughter. As a ruler he was mild and conciliatory. He was +victorious in the pitched battle fought at the foot of Ithome +in the fifth year of his reign, a battle in which the Messenians, +reinforced by the entire Arcadian levy and picked contingents +from Argos and Sicyon, defeated the combined Spartan and +Corinthian forces. Shortly afterwards, however, led by unfavourable +omens to despair of final success, he killed himself on his +daughter’s tomb. Though little is known of his life and the +chronology is uncertain, yet Aristodemus may fairly be regarded +as a historical character. His reign is dated 731-724 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by +Pausanias, and this may be taken as approximately correct, +though Duncker (<i>History of Greece</i>, Eng. trans., ii. p. 69) inclines +to place it eight years later.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Pausanias iv. 9-13 is practically our only authority. He followed +as his chief source the prose history of Myron of Priene, an untrustworthy +writer, probably of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; hence a good deal of +his story must be regarded as fanciful, though we cannot distinguish +accurately between the true and the fictitious.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOLOCHIA<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="aristos">ἄριστος</span>, best, <span class="grk" title="locheia">λοχεία</span>, child-birth, in +allusion to its repute in promoting child-birth), a genus of shrubs +or herbs of the natural order Aristolochiaceae, often with climbing +stems, found chiefly in the tropics. The flower forms a tube +inflated at the base. <i>A. Clematitis</i>, birthwort, is a central and +southern European species, found sometimes in England apparently +wild on ruins and similar places, but not a native. <i>A. +Sipho</i>, Dutchman’s pipe, or pipe vine, is a climber, native in +the woods of the Atlantic United States, and grown in Europe +as a garden plant. The flower is bent like a pipe.</p> + +<p>A member of the same order is the <i>asarabacca</i> (<i>Asarum europaeum</i>), +a small creeping herb with kidney-shaped leaves and +small purplish bell-shaped flowers. It is a native of the woods +of Europe and north temperate Asia, and occurs wild in some +English counties. It was formerly grown for medicinal purposes, +the underground stem having cathartic and emetic +properties. An allied species, <i>A. canadense</i>, is the Canadian +snake-root, a native of Canada and the Atlantic United States.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOMENES,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> of Andania, the semi-legendary hero of the +second Messenian war. He was a member of the Aepytid family, +the son of Nicomedes (or, according to another version, of +Pyrrhus) and Nicoteleia, and took a prominent part in stirring +up the revolt against Sparta and securing the co-operation of +Argos and Arcadia. He showed such heroism in the first +encounter, at Derae, that the crown was offered him, but he would +accept only the title of commander-in-chief. His daring is +illustrated by the story that he came by night to the temple of +Athene “of the Brazen House” at Sparta, and there set up his +shield with the inscription, “Dedicated to the goddess by +Aristomenes from the Spartans.” His prowess contributed +largely to the Messenian victory over the Spartan and Corinthian +forces at “The Boar’s Barrow” in the plain of Stenyclarus, +but in the following year the treachery of the Arcadian king +Aristocrates caused the Messenians to suffer a crushing defeat +at “The Great Trench.” Aristomenes and the survivors retired +to the mountain stronghold of Eira, where they defied the +Spartans for eleven years. On one of his raids he and fifty of his +companions were captured and thrown into the Caeadas, the +chasm on Mt. Taygetus into which criminals were cast. Aristomenes +alone was saved, and soon reappeared at Eira: legend +told how he was upheld in his fall by an eagle and escaped by +grasping the tail of a fox, which led him to the hole by which +it had entered. On another occasion he was captured during +a truce by some Cretan auxiliaries of the Spartans, and was +released only by the devotion of a Messenian girl who afterwards +became his daughter-in-law. At length Eira was betrayed +to the Spartans (668 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to Pausanias), and after a +heroic resistance Aristomenes and his followers had to evacuate +Messenia and seek a temporary refuge with their Arcadian +allies. A desperate plan to seize Sparta itself was foiled by +Aristocrates, who paid with his life for his treachery. +Aristomenes retired to Ialysus in Rhodes, where Damagetus, his +son-in-law, was king, and died there while planning a journey +to Sardis and Ecbatana to seek aid from the Lydian and Median +sovereigns (Pausanias iv. 14-24). Another tradition represents +him as captured and slain by the Spartans during the war +(Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xi. 187; Val. Maximus i. 8, 15; Steph. +Byzant. s.v. <span class="grk" title="Andania">Άνδανία</span>). Though there seems to be no conclusive +reason for doubting the existence of Aristomenes, his history, +as related by Pausanias, following mainly the <i>Messeniaca</i> of +the Cretan epic poet Rhianus (about 230 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), is evidently +largely interwoven with fictions. These probably arose after +the foundation of Messene in 369 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Aristomenes’ statue +was set up in the stadium there: his bones were fetched from +Rhodes and placed in a tomb surmounted by a column (Paus. iv. +32. 3, 6); and more than five centuries later we still find heroic +honours paid to him, and his exploits a popular subject of song +(<i>ib</i>. iv. 14. 7; 16. 6).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details see Pausanias iv.; Polyaenus ii. 31; G. Grote, +<i>History of Greece</i>, pt. ii. chap. vii.; M. Duncker, <i>History of Greece</i>, +Eng. trans., book iv. chap, viii.; A. Holm, <i>History of Greece</i>, +Eng. trans., vol. i. chap. xvi.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTONICUS,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> of Alexandria, Greek grammarian, lived during +the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He taught at Rome and +wrote commentaries and grammatical treatises. His chief work +was <span class="grk" title="Peri Saemeion Homaerou">Περὶ Σημείων Όμήρου</span>, in which he gave an account of the +“critical marks” inserted by Aristarchus in the margin of his +recension of the text of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>. Important fragments +are preserved in the scholia of the Venetian Codex A of +the <i>Iliad</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Friedländer, <i>Aristonici</i> <span class="grk" title="Peri Saemeion Iliados">Περὶ Σημείων Ίλιάδος</span> <i>reliquiae</i> (1853); +Carnuth, <i>Aristonici</i> <span class="grk" title="Peri Saemeion Odusseias">Περὶ Σημείων Όδυσσεἰας</span> <i>reliquiae</i> (1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOPHANES<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 448-385 <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the great comic dramatist +and poet of Athens. His birth-year is uncertain. He is known +to have been about the same age as Eupolis, and is said to have +been “almost a boy” when his first comedy (<i>The Banqueters</i>) +was brought out in 427 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His father Philippus was a landowner +in Aegina. Aristophanes was an Athenian citizen of the tribe +Pandionis, and the deme Cydathene. The stories which made +him a native of Camirus in Rhodes, or of the Egyptian Naucratis, +had probably no other foundation than an indictment for usurpation +of civic rights (<span class="grk" title="xenias graphae">ξενίας γραφή</span>) which appears to have been +more than once laid against him by Cleon. His three sons— +Philippus, Araros and Nicostratus—were all comic poets. +Philippus, the eldest, was a rival of Eubulus, who began to exhibit +in 376 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Araros brought out two of his father’s latest +comedies—the <i>Cocalus</i> and the <i>Aeolosicon</i>, and in 375 began to +exhibit works of his own. Nicostratus, the youngest, is assigned +by Athenaeus to the Middle Comedy, but belongs, as is shown by +some of the names and characters of his pieces, to the New +Comedy also.</p> + +<p>Although tragedy and comedy had their common origin in +the festivals of Dionysus, the regular establishment of tragedy +at Athens preceded by half a century that of comedy. The Old +Comedy may be said to have lasted about eighty years (470-390 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and to have flourished about fifty-six (460-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Of the forty poets who are named as having illustrated it the +chief were Cratinus, Eupolis and Aristophanes. The Middle +Comedy covers a period of about seventy years (390-320 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +its chief poets being Antiphanes, Alexis, Theopompus and +Strattis. The New Comedy was in vigour for about seventy years +(320-250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), having for its foremost representatives Menander, +Philemon and Diphilus. The Old Comedy was possible only for +a thorough democracy. Its essence was a satirical censorship, +unsparing in personalities, of public and of private life—of +morality, of statesmanship, of education, of literature, of social +usage—in a word, of everything which had an interest for the +city or which could amuse the citizens. Preserving all the freedom +of banter and of riotous fun to which its origin gave it an +historical right, it aimed at associating with this a strong practical +purpose—the expression of a democratic public opinion in such +a form that no misconduct or folly could altogether disregard it. +That licentiousness, that grossness of allusion which too often +disfigures it, was, it should be remembered, exacted by the +sentiment of the Dionysiac festivals, as much as a decorous +cheerfulness is expected at the holiday times of other worships. +This was the popular element. Without this the entertainment +would have been found flat and unseasonable. But for a comic +poet of the higher calibre the consciousness of a recognized power +which he could exert, and the desire to use this power for the +good of the city, must always have been the uppermost feelings. +At Athens the poet of the Old Comedy had an influence analogous, +perhaps, rather to that of the journalist than to that of the +modern dramatist. But the established type of Dionysiac +comedy gave him an instrument such as no public satirist has +ever wielded. When Molière wished to brand hypocrisy he +could only make his Tartuffe the central figure of a regular +drama, developed by a regular process to a just catastrophe. +He had no choice between touching too lightly and using sustained +force to make a profound impression. The Athenian +dramatist of the Old Comedy worked under no such limitations +of form. The wildest flights of extravagance were permitted +to him. Nothing bound him to a dangerous emphasis or a +wearisome insistence. He could deal the keenest thrust, or +make the most earnest appeal, and at the next moment—if his +instinct told him that it was time to change the subject—vary +the serious strain by burlesque. He had, in short, an incomparable +scope for trenchant satire directed by sure tact.</p> + +<p>Aristophanes is for us the representative of the Old Comedy. +But his genius, while it includes, also transcends the genius of +the Old Comedy. He can denounce the frauds of a Cleon, he can +vindicate the duty of Athens to herself and to her allies, with +a stinging scorn and a force of patriotic indignation which +makes the poet almost forgotten in the citizen. He can banter +Euripides with an ingenuity of light mockery which makes it +seem for the time as if the leading Aristophanic trait was the +art of seeing all things from their prosaic side. Yet it is neither +in the denunciation nor in the mockery that he is most individual. +His truest and highest faculty is revealed by those wonderful +bits of lyric writing in which he soars above everything that can +move laughter or tears, and makes the clear air thrill with the +notes of a song as free, as musical and as wild as that of the +nightingale invoked by his own chorus in the <i>Birds</i>. The speech +of Dikaios Logos in the <i>Clouds</i>, the praises of country life in the +<i>Peace</i>, the serenade in the <i>Ecclesiazusae</i>, the songs of the Spartan +and Athenian maidens in the <i>Lysistrata</i>, above all, perhaps, the +chorus in the <i>Frogs</i>, the beautiful chant of the Initiated,—these +passages, and such as these, are the true glories of Aristophanes. +They are the strains, not of an artist, but of one who warbles for +pure gladness of heart in some place made bright by the presence +of a god. Nothing else in Greek poetry has quite this wild +sweetness of the woods. Of modern poets Shakespeare alone, +perhaps, has it in combination with a like richness and fertility +of fancy.</p> + +<p>Fifty-four<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> comedies were ascribed to Aristophanes. Forty-three +of these are allowed as genuine by Bergk. Eleven only +are extant. These eleven form a running commentary on the +outer and the inner life of Athens during thirty-six years. They +may be ranged under three periods. The first, extending to +420 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, includes those plays in which Aristophanes uses an +absolutely unrestrained freedom of political satire. The second +ends with the year 405. Its productions are distinguished from +those of the earlier time by a certain degree of reticence and +caution. The third period, down to 388 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, comprises two +plays in which the transition to the character of the Middle +Comedy is well marked, not merely by disuse of the parabasis, +but by general self-restraint.</p> + +<p>I. <i>First Period</i>, (1) 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Acharnians</i>.—Since the +defeat in Boeotia the peace party at Athens had gained ground, +and in this play Aristophanes seeks to strengthen their hands. +Dicaeopolis, an honest countryman, is determined to make +peace with Sparta on his own account, not deterred by the angry +men of Acharnae, who crave vengeance for the devastation of +their vineyards. He sends to Sparta for samples of peace; and +he is so much pleased with the flavour of the Thirty Years’ +sample that he at once concludes a treaty for himself and his +family. All the blessings of life descend on him; while Lamachus, +the leader of the war party, is smarting from cold, snow and +wounds.</p> + +<p>(2) 424 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Knights</i>.—Three years before, in his <i>Babylonians</i>, +Aristophanes had assailed Cleon as the typical demagogue. +In this play he continues the attack. The Demos, or +State, is represented by an old man who has put himself and +his household into the hands of a rascally Paphlagonian steward. +Nicias and Demosthenes, slaves of Demos, contrive that the +Paphlagonian shall be supplanted in their master’s favour by +a sausage-seller. No sooner has Demos been thus rescued than +his youthfulness and his good sense return together.</p> + +<p>(3) 423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Clouds</i> (the first edition; a second edition +was brought out in 422 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).—This play would be correctly +described as an attack on the new spirit of intellectual inquiry +and culture rather than on a school or class. Two classes of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> +thinkers or teachers are, however, specially satirized under the +general name of “Sophist” (v. 331)—1. The Physical Philosophers—indicated +by allusions to the doctrines of Anaxagoras, +Heraclitus and Diogenes of Apollonia. 2. The professed +teachers of rhetoric, belles lettres, &c., such as Protagoras and +Prodicus. Socrates is taken as the type of the entire tendency. +A youth named Pheidippides—obviously meant for Alcibiades—is +sent by his father to Socrates to be cured of his dissolute +propensities. Under the discipline of Socrates the youth becomes +accomplished in dishonesty and impiety. The conclusion of the +play shows the indignant father preparing to burn up the +philosopher and his hall of contemplation.</p> + +<p>(4) 422 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Wasps</i>.—This comedy, which suggested <i>Les +Plaideurs</i> to Racine, is a satire on the Athenian love of litigation. +The strength of demagogy, while it lay chiefly in the ecclesia, +lay partly also in the paid dicasteries. From this point of +view the <i>Wasps</i> may be regarded as supplementing the <i>Knights</i>. +Philocleon (admirer of Cleon), an old man, has a passion for lawsuits—a +passion which his son, Bdelycleon (detester of Cleon) +fails to check, until he hits upon the device of turning the house +into a law-court, and paying his father for absence from the +public suits. The house-dog steals a Sicilian cheese; the old +man is enabled to gratify his taste by trying the case, and, by an +oversight, acquits the defendant. In the second half of the +play a change comes over the dream of Philocleon; from litigation +he turns to literature and music, and is congratulated +by the chorus on his happy conversion.</p> + +<p>(5) 421 <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>The Peace</i>.—In its advocacy of peace with Sparta, +this play, acted at the Great Dionysia shortly before the conclusion +of the treaty, continues the purpose of the <i>Acharnians</i>. +Trygaeus, a distressed Athenian, soars to the sky on a beetle’s +back. There he finds the gods engaged in pounding the Greek +states in a mortar. In order to stop this, he frees the goddess +Peace from a well in which she is imprisoned. The pestle and +mortar are laid aside by the gods, and Trygaeus marries one of +the handmaids of Peace.</p> + +<p>II. <i>Second Period</i>. (6) 414 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Birds</i>.—Peisthetaerus, an +enterprising Athenian, and his friend Euelpides persuade the +birds to build a city—“Cloud-Cuckoo-borough”—in mid-air, +so as to cut off the gods from men. The plan succeeds; the +gods send envoys to treat with the birds; and Peisthetaerus +marries Basileia, daughter of Zeus. Some have found in the +<i>Birds</i> a complete historical allegory of the Sicilian expedition; +others, a general satire on the prevalence at Athens of headstrong +caprice over law and order; others, merely an aspiration +towards a new and purified Athens—a dream to which the poet +had turned from his hope for a revival of the Athens of the past. +In another view, the piece is mainly a protest against the religious +fanaticism which the incident of the Hermae had called forth.</p> + +<p>(7) 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Lysistrata</i>.—This play was brought out during +the earlier stages of those intrigues which led to the revolution +of the Four Hundred. It appeared shortly before Peisander +had arrived in Athens from the camp at Samos for the purpose +of organizing the oligarchic policy. The <i>Lysistrata</i> expresses +the popular desire for peace at any cost. As the men can do +nothing, the women take the question into their own hands, +occupy the citadel, and bring the citizens to surrender.</p> + +<p>(8) 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Thesmophoriazusae</i> (Priestesses of Demeter).— +This came out three months later than the <i>Lysistrata</i>, during +the reign of terror established by the oligarchic conspirators, +but before their blow had been struck. The political meaning +of the play lies in the absence of political allusion. Fear silences +even comedy. Only women and Euripides are satirized. Euripides +is accused and condemned at the female festival of the +Thesmophoria.</p> + +<p>(9) 405 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Frogs</i>.—This piece was brought out just +when Athens had made her last effort in the Peloponnesian War, +eight months before the battle of Aegospotami, and about fifteen +months before the taking of Athens by Lysander. It may be +considered as an attempt to distract men’s minds from public +affairs. It is a literary criticism. Aeschylus and Euripides +were both lately dead. Athens is beggared of poets; and Dionysus +goes down to Hades to bring back a poet. Aeschylus and +Euripides contend in the under-world for the throne of tragedy; +and the victory is at last awarded to Aeschylus.</p> + +<p>III. <i>Third Period</i>.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> (10) 393 <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> <i>The Ecclesiazusae</i> (women +in parliament).—The women, disguised as men, steal into the +ecclesia, and succeed in decreeing a new constitution. At this +time the demagogue Agyrrhius led the assembly; and the play +is, in fact, a satire on the general demoralization of public life.</p> + +<p>(11) 388 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> <i>The Plutus</i> (Wealth).—The first edition of +the play had appeared in 408 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, being a symbolical representation +of the fact that the victories won by Alcibiades in the +Hellespont had brought back the god of wealth to the treasure-chamber +of the Parthenon. In its extant form the <i>Plutus</i> is +simply a moral allegory. Chremylus, a worthy but poor man, +falls in with a blind and aged wanderer, who proves to be the god +of wealth. Asclepius restores eyesight to Plutus; whereupon +all the just are made rich and all the unjust are reduced to +poverty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the lost plays, the following are the chief of which anything +is known:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Banqueters</i> <span class="grk" title="Daitaleis">Δαιταλεῖς</span>, 427 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—A satire on young +Athens. A father has two sons; one is brought up in the good old +school, another in the tricky subtleties of the new; and the contrast +of results is the chief theme.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Babylonians</i>, 426 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—Under this name the subject-allies +of Athens are represented as “Babylonians”-barbarian slaves, +employed to grind in the mill. The oppression of the allies by the +demagogues—a topic often touched elsewhere—was, then, the main +subject of the piece, in which Aristophanes is said to have attacked +especially the system of appointing to offices by lot. The comedy +is memorable as opening that Aristophanic war upon Cleon which +was continued in the <i>Knights</i> and the <i>Wasps</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Merchantmen, The Farmers, The Preliminary Contest</i> (<i>Proagon</i>), +and possibly the <i>Old Age</i> (<i>Geras</i>), belonged to the First Period. The +<i>Geras</i> is assigned by Süvern to 422 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and is supposed to have been +a picture of dotage similar to that in the <i>Knights</i>. A comedy called +<i>The Islands</i> is conjectured to have dealt with the sufferings imposed +by the war on the insular tributaries. The <i>Triphales</i> was probably +a satire on Alcibiades; the <i>Storks</i>, on the tragic poet Patrocles.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Aeolosicon</i>—produced by his son Araros in 387 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—Aristophanes +probably parodied the <i>Aeolus</i> of Euripides. The +<i>Cocalus</i> is thought to have been a parody of the legend, according +to which a Sicilian king of that name slew Minos.</p> +</div> + +<p>A sympathetic reader of Aristophanes can hardly fail to perceive +that, while his political and intellectual tendencies are well +marked, his opinions, in so far as they colour his comedies, are +too indefinite to reward, or indeed to tolerate, analysis. Aristophanes +was a natural conservative. His ideal was the Athens +of the Persian wars. He disapproved the policy which had made +Athenian empire irksome to the allies and formidable to Greece; +he detested the vulgarity and the violence of mob-rule; he clave +to the old worship of the gods; he regarded the new ideas of +education as a tissue of imposture and impiety. How far he +was from clearness or precision of view in regard to the intellectual +revolution which was going forward, appears from the <i>Clouds</i>, +in which thinkers and literary workers who had absolutely +nothing in common are treated with sweeping ridicule as prophets +of a common heresy. Aristophanes is one of the men for whom +opinion is mainly a matter of feeling, not of reason. His imaginative +susceptibility gave him a warm and loyal love for the +traditional glories of Athens, however dim the past to which +they belonged; a horror of what was ugly or ignoble in the +present; a keen perception of what was offensive or absurd in +pretension. The broad preferences and dislikes thus generated +were enough not only to point the moral of comedy, but to make +him, in many cases, a really useful censor for the city. The +service which he could render in this way was, however, only +negative. He could hardly be, in any positive sense, a political +or a moral teacher for Athens. His rooted antipathy to intellectual +progress, while it affords easy and wide scope for his +wit, must after all, lower his intellectual rank. The great minds +are not the enemies of ideas. But as a mocker—to use the word +which seems most closely to describe him on this side—he is +incomparable for the union of subtlety with riot of the comic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span> +imagination. As a poet, he is immortal. And, among Athenian +poets, he has it for his distinctive characteristic that he is inspired +less by that Greek genius which never allows fancy to escape +from the control of defining, though spiritualizing, reason, than +by such ethereal rapture of the unfettered fancy as lifts Shakespeare +or Shelley above it,—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p class="i6">“Pouring his full heart</p> +<p>In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Editio princeps (Aldine, Venice, 1498), by +Marcus Musurus (not including the <i>Lysistrata</i> and <i>Thesmophoriazusae</i>); +S. Bergler (ed. P. Burmann, 1760); Invernizi-Beck-Dindorf +(1794-1834); I. Bekker (1829); H.A. Holden (expurgated +text, 1868), with <i>Onomasticon</i> (new ed., 1902); F.H.M. Blaydes +(1880-1893), and critical edition (1886); J. van Leeuwen (1893 +foll.); F.W. Hall and E.M. Geldart (text, 1900-1901), with the +fragment (from the Oxyrhynchus papyri) of a dialogue between two +women concerning a leathern phallus, perhaps from Aristophanes. +There is a complete edition of the valuable scholia by F. Dübner +(1842, Didot series),—with the anonymous biographies of the poet; +of the Ravenna MS. by A. Martin (1883), and W.G. Rutherford +(1896-1905). Among English translations mention may be made +of those of V.J. Hickie (prose, in Bohn’s <i>Classical Library</i>); (verse) +J. Hookham Frere, five plays; T. Mitchell, four plays; and, above +all, B.B. Rogers, a brilliant work of exceptional merit. There +is a concordance to the plays and fragments by H. Dunbar (1883). +On Aristophanes generally see H. Müller-Strübing, <i>Aristophanes +und die historische Kritik</i> (1873); the article by G. Kaibel in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Realencyclopadie</i>, ii. 1 (1896); A. Couat, <i>Aristophane et l’ancienne comédie +attique</i> (1889); E. Deschanel, <i>Études sur Aristophane</i> (3rd ed., +1892); G. Dantu, <i>Opinions et critiques d’Aristophane sur le +mouvement politique et intellectuel à Athènes</i> (Paris, 1907). +For the numerous editions and translations of separate plays in +English and other languages see the introductions to Blaydes’s +edition, and, for the literature, the introduction to W.J.M. Starkie’s +edition of the <i>Wasps</i> (1897); W. Engelmann, <i>Scriptores Graeci</i> (1880); +and “Bericht über die Literatur der griechischen Komödie aus den +Jahren 1892-1901” in C. Bursian’s <i>Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte +der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, cxvi. (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. C. J.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The dates in the text, as given by Jebb, are retained. +According to R.G. Kent, <i>Classical Review</i> (April 1905, April +1906), Aristophanes was born in 465, and died in 375 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Or “fourty-four” (reading <span class="grk" title="md'">μδ´</span> for <span class="grk" title="nd'">νδ´</span> in Suidas).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See E. Curtius, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, iii (Eng. trans. p. 275).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The date is uncertain; others give 392 and 389.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOPHANES,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> of Byzantium, Greek critic and grammarian, +was born about 257 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He removed early to Alexandria, where +he studied under Zenodotus and Callimachus. At the age of +sixty he was appointed chief librarian of the museum. He died +about 185-180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Aristophanes chiefly devoted himself to +the poets, especially Homer, who had already been edited by +his master Zenodotus. He also edited Hesiod, the chief lyric, +tragic and comic poets, arranged Plato’s dialogues in trilogies, +and abridged Aristotle’s <i>Nature of Animals</i>. His arguments +to the plays of Aristophanes and the tragedians are in great part +preserved. His works on Athenian courtesans, masks and +proverbs were the results of his study of Attic comedy. He +further commented on the <span class="grk" title="Pinakes">Πίνακες</span> of Callimachus, a sort +of history of Greek literature. As a lexicographer, Aristophanes +compiled collections of foreign and unusual words and expressions, +and special lists (words denoting relationship, modes of address). +As a grammarian, he founded a scientific school, and in his +<i>Analogy</i> systematically explained the various forms. He +introduced critical signs—except the obelus; punctuation +prosodiacal, and accentual marks were probably already in +use. The foundation of the so-called Alexandrian “canon” +was also due to his impulse (<i>Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol</i>., ed. 1906, +i. 129 f.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Nauck, <i>Aristophanis Byzantii Grammatici Fragmenta</i> (1848).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOTLE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (384-322 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the great Greek philosopher, was +born at Stagira, on the Strymonic Gulf, and hence called “the +Stagirite.” Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his <i>Epistle on Demosthenes +and Aristotle</i> (chap. 5), gives the following sketch of his +life:—Aristotle (<span class="grk" title="Aristotelaes">Άριστοτέλης</span>) was the son of Nicomachus, who +traced back his descent and his art to Machaon, son of Aesculapius; +his mother being Phaestis, a descendant of one of those who carried +the colony from Chalcis to Stagira. He was born in the 99th +Olympiad in the archonship at Athens of Diotrephes (384-383), +three years before Demosthenes. In the archonship of Polyzelus +(367-366), after the death of his father, in his eighteenth year, he +came to Athens, and having joined Plato spent twenty years with +him. On the death of Plato (May 347) in the archonship of +Theophilus (348-347) he departed to Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus, +and, after three years’ stay, during the archonship of Eubulus +(345-344) he moved to Mitylene, whence he went to Philip of +Macedon in the archonship of Pythodotus (343-342), and spent +eight years with him as tutor of Alexander. After the death +of Philip (336), in the archonship of Euaenetus (335-334), he +returned to Athens and kept a school in the Lyceum for twelve +years. In the thirteenth, after the death of Alexander (June 323) +in the archonship of Cephisodorus (323-322), having departed to +Chalcis, he died of disease (322), after a life of three-and-sixty +years.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Aristotle’s Life</p> + +<p>This account is practically repeated by Diogenes Laertius in his +<i>Life of Aristotle</i>, on the authority of the <i>Chronicles</i> of Apollodorus, +who lived in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Starting then from this +tradition, near enough to the time, we can confidently divide +Aristotle’s career into four periods: his youth under his parents +till his eighteenth year; his philosophical education under Plato +at Athens till his thirty-eighth year; his travels in the Greek +world till his fiftieth year; and his philosophical teaching in the +Lyceum till his departure to Chalcis and his death in his sixty-third +year. But when we descend from generals to particulars, +we become less certain, and must here content ourselves with +few details.</p> + +<p>Aristotle from the first profited by having a father who, being +physician to Amyntas II., king of Macedon, and one of the +Asclepiads who, according to Galen, practised their sons in dissection, +both prepared the way for his son’s influence at the +Macedonian court, and gave him a bias to medicine and biology, +which certainly led to his belief in nature and natural science, +and perhaps induced him to practise medicine, as he did, according +to his enemies, Timaeus and Epicurus, when he first went to +Athens. At Athens in his second period for some twenty years he +acquired the further advantage of balancing natural science by +metaphysics and morals in the course of reading Plato’s writings +and of hearing Plato’s unwritten dogmas (cf. <span class="grk" title="en tois legomenois agraphois dogmasin">ἐν τοῖς λεγομένοις ἀγράφοις δόγμασιν</span>, Ar. <i>Physics</i>, iv. 2, 209 b 15, Berlin ed.). +He was an earnest, appreciative, independent student. The +master is said to have called his pupil the intellect of the school +and his house a reader’s. He is also said to have complained +that his pupil spurned him as colts do their mothers. Aristotle, +however, always revered Plato’s memory (<i>Nic. Ethics</i>, i. 6), +and even in criticizing his master counted himself enough of a +Platonist to cite Plato’s doctrines as what “we say” (cf. <span class="grk" title="phamen">φαμέν</span>, +<i>Metaphysics</i>, i. 9, 990 b 16). At the same time, he must have +learnt much from other contemporaries at Athens, especially from +astronomers such as Eudoxus and Callippus, and from orators +such as Isocrates and Demosthenes. He also attacked Isocrates, +according to Cicero, and perhaps even set up a rival school of +rhetoric. At any rate he had pupils of his own, such as Eudemus +of Cyprus, Theodectes and Hermias, books of his own, especially +dialogues, and even to some extent his own philosophy, while he +was still a pupil of Plato.</p> + +<p>Well grounded in his boyhood, and thoroughly educated in his +manhood, Aristotle, after Plato’s death, had the further advantage +of travel in his third period, when he was in his prime. The +appointment of Plato’s nephew, Speusippus, to succeed his uncle +in the Academy induced Aristotle and Xenocrates to leave +Athens together and repair to the court of Hermias. Aristotle +admired Hermias, and married his friend’s sister or niece, Pythias, +by whom he had his daughter Pythias. After the tragic death of +Hermias, he retired for a time to Mitylene, and in 343-342 was +summoned to Macedon by Philip to teach Alexander, who was +then a boy of thirteen. According to Cicero (<i>De Oratore</i>, iii. 41), +Philip wished his son, then a boy of thirteen, to receive from +Aristotle “agendi praecepta et eloquendi.” Aristotle is said to +have written on monarchy and on colonies for Alexander; and +the pupil is said to have slept with his master’s edition of Homer +under his pillow, and to have respected him, until from hatred of +Aristotle’s tactless relative, Callisthenes, who was done to death +in 328, he turned at last against Aristotle himself. Aristotle +had power to teach, and Alexander to learn. Still we must not +exaggerate the result. Dionysius must have spoken too strongly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> +when he says that Aristotle was tutor of Alexander for eight +years; for in 340, when Philip went to war with Byzantium, +Alexander became regent at home, at the age of sixteen. From +this date Aristotle probably spent much time at his paternal house +in his native city at Stagira as a patriotic citizen. Philip had +sacked it in 348: Aristotle induced him or his son to restore it, +made for it a new constitution, and in return was celebrated in +a festival after his death. All these vicissitudes made him a man +of the world, drew him out of the philosophical circle at Athens, +and gave him leisure to develop his philosophy. Besides +Alexander he had other pupils: Callisthenes, Cassander, Marsyas, +Phanias, and Theophrastus of Eresus, who is said to have had +land at Stagira. He also continued the writings begun in his +second period; and the Macedonian kings have the glory of +having assisted the Stagirite philosopher with the means of +conducting his researches in the <i>History of Animals</i>.</p> + +<p>At last, in his fourth period, after the accession of Alexander, +Aristotle at fifty returned to Athens and became the head of +his own school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium near the temple of +Apollo Lyceius in the suburbs. The master and his scholars were +called Peripatetics (<span class="grk" title="oi ek ton peripaton">οἱ ἐκ τοῦ περιπάτου</span>), certainly from meeting, +like other philosophical schools, in a walk (<span class="grk" title="peripatos">περίπατος</span>), and +perhaps also, on the authority of Hermippus of Smyrna, from +walking and talking there, like Protagoras and his followers as +described in Plato’s <i>Protagoras</i> (314 <span class="scs">E</span>, 315 <span class="scs">C</span>). Indeed, according +to Ammonius, Plato too had talked as he walked in the Academy; +and all his followers were called Peripatetics, until, while the +pupils of Xenocrates took the name “Academics,” those of +Aristotle retained the general name. Aristotle also formed his +Peripatetic school into a kind of college with common meals +under a president (<span class="grk" title="archon">ἄρχων</span>) changing every ten days; while the +philosopher himself delivered lectures, in which his practice, as his +pupil Aristoxenus tells us (<i>Harmonics</i> ii, <i>init</i>.), was, avoiding the +generalities of Plato, to prepare his audience by explaining the +subject of investigation and its nature. But Aristotle was an +author as well as a lecturer; for the hypothesis that the Aristotelian +writings are notes of his lectures taken down by his pupils +is contradicted by the tradition of their learning while walking, +and disproved by the impossibility of taking down such complicated +discourses from dictation. Moreover, it is clear that +Aristotle addressed himself to readers as well as hearers, as in +concluding his whole theory of syllogisms he says, “There would +remain for all of you or for our hearers (<span class="grk" title="panton umon ae ton aekroamenon">πάντων ὑμῶν ἢ τῶν</span>) a duty of according to the defects of the investigation +consideration, to its discoveries much gratitude” (<i>Sophisticai +Elenchi</i>, 34,184 b 6). In short, Aristotle was at once a student, +a reader, a lecturer, a writer and a book collector. He was, says +Strabo (608), the first we knew who collected books and taught +the kings in Egypt the arrangement of a library. In his library +no doubt were books of others, but also his own. There we must +figure to ourselves the philosopher, constantly referring to his +autograph rolls; entering references and cross-references; correcting, +rewriting, collecting and arranging them according to +their subjects; showing as well as reading them to his pupils; +with little thought of publication, but with his whole soul concentrated +on being and truth.</p> + +<p>On his first visit to Athens, during which occurred the fatal +battle of Mantineia (362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Aristotle had seen the confusion of +Greece becoming the opportunity of Macedon under Philip; and +on his second visit he was supported at Athens by the complete +domination of Macedon under Alexander. Having witnessed the +unjust exactions of a democracy at Athens, the dwindling +population of an oligarchy at Sparta, and the oppressive selfishness +of new tyrannies throughout the Greek world, he condemned +the actual constitutions of the Greek states as deviations (<span class="grk" title="parekbaseis">παρεκβάσεις</span>) +directed merely to the good of the government; and +he contemplated a right constitution (<span class="grk" title="orthae politeia">ὀρθὴ πολιτεία</span>), which +might be either a commonwealth, an aristocracy or a monarchy, +directed to the general good; but he preferred the monarchy of +one man, pre-eminent in virtue above the rest, as the best of all +governments (<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, viii. 10; <i>Politics</i>, Γ 14-18). +Moreover, by adding (<i>Politics</i>, Η 7, 1327 b 29-33) that the Greek +race could govern the world by obtaining one constitution (<span class="grk" title="mias tonchanon politeias">μιᾶς τυγχάνον πολιτείας</span>), +he indicated some leaning to a universal +monarchy under such a king as Alexander. On the whole, +however, he adhered to the Greek city-state (<span class="grk" title="polis">πόλις</span>), partly +perhaps out of patriotism to his own Stagira. Averse at all +events to the Athenian democracy, leaning towards Macedonian +monarchy, and resting on Macedonian power, he maintained +himself in his school at Athens, so long as he was supported by the +friendship of Antipater, the Macedonian regent in Alexander’s +absence. But on Alexander’s sudden death in 323, when Athens +in the Lamian war tried to reassert her freedom against Antipater, +Aristotle found himself in danger. He was accused of impiety +on the absurd charge of deifying the tyrant Hermias; and, +remembering the fate of Socrates, he retired to Chalcis in Euboea. +There, away from his school, in 322 he died. (A tomb has been +found in our time inscribed with the name of Biote, daughter of +Aristotle. But is this <i>our</i> Aristotle?)</p> + +<p>Such is our scanty knowledge of Aristotle’s life, which seems +to have been prosperous by inheritance and position, and happy +by work and philosophy. His will, which was quoted by Hermippus, +and, as afterwards quoted by Diogenes Laertius, has +come down to us, though perhaps not complete, supplies some +further details, as follows:—Antipater is to be executor with +others. Nicanor is to marry Pythias, Aristotle’s daughter, and +to take charge of Nicomachus his son. Theophrastus is to be one +of the executors if he will and can, and if Nicanor should die to +act instead, if he will, in reference to Pythias. The executors and +Nicanor are to take charge of Herpyllis, “because,” in the words +of the testator, “she has been good to me,” and to allow her to +reside either in the lodging by the garden at Chalcis or in the +paternal house at Stagira. They are to provide for the slaves, +who in some cases are to be freed. They are to see after the +dedication of four images by Gryllion of Nicanor, Proxenus, +Nicanor’s mother and Arimnestus. They are to dedicate an +image of Aristotle’s mother, and to see that the bones of his wife +Pythias are, as she ordered, taken up and buried with him. On +this will we may remark that Proxenus is said to have been +Aristotle’s guardian after the death of his father, and to have +been the father of Nicanor; that Herpyllis of Stagira was the +mother of Nicomachus by Aristotle; and that Arimnestus was +the brother of Aristotle, who also had a sister, Arimneste. Every +clause breathes the philosopher’s humanity.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Development from Platonism</p> + +<p>Turning now from the man to the philosopher as we know him +best in his extant writings (see <i>Aristoteles</i>, ed. Bekker, Berlin, +1831, the pages of which we use for our quotations), we find, +instead of the general dialogues of Plato, special didactic treatises, +and a fundamental difference of philosophy, so great as to have +divided philosophers into opposite camps, and made Coleridge +say that everybody is born either a Platonist or an Aristotelian. +Platonism is the doctrine that the individuals we call things only +become, but a thing is always one universal form beyond many +individuals, <i>e.g.</i> one good beyond seeming goods; and that +without supernatural forms, which are models of individuals, +there is nothing, no being, no knowing, no good. Aristotelianism +is the contrary doctrine: a thing is always a separate individual, +a <i>substance</i> (<span class="grk" title="ousia">οὐσία</span>), natural such as earth or supernatural such +as God; and without these individual substances, which have +attributes and universals belonging to them, there is nothing, to +be, to know, to be good. Philosophic differences are best felt by +their practical effects: philosophically, Platonism is a philosophy +of universal forms, Aristotelianism a philosophy of individual +substances: practically, Plato makes us think first of the supernatural +and the kingdom of heaven, Aristotle of the natural and +the whole world.</p> + +<p>So diametrical a difference could not have arisen at once. +For, though Aristotle was different from Plato, and brought with +him from Stagira a Greek and Ionic but colonial origin, a medical +descent and tendency, and a matter-of-fact worldly kind of +character, nevertheless on coming to Athens as pupil of Plato he +must have begun with his master’s philosophy. What then in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span> +more detail was the philosophy which the pupil learnt from the +master? When Aristotle at the age of eighteen came to Athens, +Plato, at the age of sixty-two, had probably written all his +dialogues except the <i>Laws</i>; and in the course of the remaining +twenty years of his life and teaching, he expounded “the so-called +unwritten dogmas” in his lectures on the Good. There +was therefore a written Platonism for Aristotle to read, and an +unwritten Platonism which he actually heard.</p> + +<p>To begin with the written philosophy of the Dialogues. +Individual so-called things neither are nor are not, but become: +the real thing is always one universal form beyond the many individuals, +<i>e.g.</i> the one beautiful beyond all beautiful individuals; +and each form (<span class="grk" title="idea">ἰδέα</span>) is a model which causes individuals by participation +to become like, but not the same as, itself. Above +all forms stands the form of the good, which is the cause of all +other forms being, and through them of all individuals becoming. +The creator, or the divine intellect, with a view to the form of the +good, and taking all forms as models, creates in a receptacle +(<span class="grk" title="hypodochae">ὑποδοχή</span>, Plato, <i>Timaeus</i>, 49 <span class="scs">A</span>) individual impressions which +are called things but really change and become without attaining +the permanence of being. Knowledge resides not in sense but +in reason, which, on the suggestion of sensations of changing +individuals, apprehends, or (to be precise) is reminded of, real +universal forms, and, by first ascending from less to more general +until it arrives at the form of good and then descending from this +unconditional principle to the less general, becomes science and +philosophy, using as its method the dialectic which gives and +receives questions and answers between man and man. Happiness +in this world consists proximately in virtue as a harmony +between the three parts, rational, spirited and appetitive, of our +souls, and ultimately in living according to the form of the good; +but there is a far higher happiness, when the immortal soul, +divesting itself of body and passions and senses, rises from earth +to heaven and contemplates pure forms by pure reason. Such +in brief is the Platonism of the written dialogues; where the +main doctrine of forms is confessedly advanced never as a dogma +but always as a hypothesis, in which there are difficulties, but +without which Plato can explain neither being, nor truth nor +goodness, because throughout he denies the being of individual +things. In the unwritten lectures of his old age, he developed +this formal into a mathematical metaphysics. In order to +explain the unity and variety of the world, the one universal form +and the many individuals, and how the one good is the main +cause of everything, he placed as it were at the back of his own +doctrine of forms a Pythagorean mathematical philosophy. He +supposed that the one and the two, which is indeterminate, and is +the great and little, are opposite principles or causes. Identifying +the form of the good with the one, he supposed that the one, by +combining with the indeterminate two, causes a plurality of forms, +which like every combination of one and two are numbers but +peculiar in being incommensurate with one another, so that each +form is not a mathematical number (<span class="grk" title="mathaematikos arithmos">μαθηματικὸς ἀριθμός</span>), +but a formal number (<span class="grk" title="eidaetikos arithmos">εἰδητικὸς ἀριθμός</span>). Further he supposed +that in its turn each form, or formal number, is a limited +one which, by combining again with the indeterminate two, +causes a plurality of individuals. Hence finally he concluded +that the good as the one combining with the indeterminate +two is directly the cause of all forms as formal numbers, and +indirectly through them all of the multitude of individuals in +the world.</p> + +<p>Aristotle knew Plato, was present at his lectures on the Good, +wrote a report of them (<span class="grk" title="peri tagathou">περὶ τἀγαθοῦ</span>), and described this latter +philosophy of Plato in his <i>Metaphysics</i>. Modern critics, who +were not present and knew neither, often accuse Aristotle of misrepresenting +Plato. But Heracleides and Hestiacus, Speusippus +and Xenocrates were also present and wrote similar reports. +What is more, both Speusippus and Xenocrates founded their +own philosophies on this very Pythagoreanism of Plato. Speusippus +as president of the Academy from 347 to 339 taught that +the one and the many are principles, while abolishing forms and +reducing the good from cause to effect. Xenocrates as president +from 339 onwards taught that the one and many are principles, +only without distinguishing mathematical from formal numbers. +Aristotle’s critics hardly realize that for the rest of his life he +had to live and to struggle with a formal and a mathematical +Platonism, which exaggerated first universals and attributes +and afterwards the quantitative attributes, one and many, into +substantial things and real causes.</p> + +<p>Aristotle had no sympathy with the unwritten dogmas of +Plato. But with the written dialogues of Plato he always +continued to agree almost as much as he disagreed. Like Plato, +he believed in real universals, real essences, real causes; he +believed in the unity of the universal, and in the immateriality +of essences; he believed in the good, and that there is a good of +the universe; he believed that God is a living being, eternal and +best, who is a supernatural cause of the motions and changes of +the natural world, and that essences and matter are also necessary +causes; he believed in the divine intelligence and in the immortality +of our intelligent souls; he believed in knowledge going +from sense to reason, that science requires ascent to principles +and is descent from principles, and that dialectic is useful to +science; he believed in happiness involving virtue, and in moral +virtue being a control of passions by reason, while the highest +happiness is speculative wisdom. All these inspiring metaphysical +and moral doctrines the pupil accepted from his master’s +dialogues, and throughout his life adhered to the general spirit of +realism without materialism pervading the Platonic philosophy. +But what he refused to believe with Plato was that reality is not +here, but only above; and what he maintained against Plato was +that it is both, and that universals and forms, one and many, the +good, are real but not separate realities. This deep metaphysical +divergence was the prime cause of the transition from Platonism +to Aristotelianism.</p> + +<p><i>Fragmenta Aristotelis.</i>—Aristotle’s originality soon asserted +itself in early writings, of which fragments have come down to +us, and have been collected by Rose (see the Berlin edition of +Aristotle’s works, or more readily in the Teubner series, which +we shall use for our quotations). Many, no doubt, are spurious; +but some are genuine, and a few perhaps cited in Aristotle’s +extant works. Some are dialogues, others didactic works. A +special interest attaches to the dialogues written after the manner +of Plato but with Aristotle as principal interlocutor; and some +of these, <i>e.g.</i> the <span class="grk" title="peri poiaeton">περὶ ποιητῶν</span> and the <i>Eudemus</i>, seem to have +been published. It is not always certain which were dialogues, +which didactic like Aristotle’s later works; but by comparing +those which were certainly dialogues with their companions in +the list of Aristotle’s books as given by Diogenes Laertius, we +may conclude with Bernays that the books occurring first in that +list were dialogues. Hence we may perhaps accept as genuine +the following:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind">1. Dialogues:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri dikaiosunaes">περὶ δικαιοσύνης</span>: On justice.</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri poiaeton">περὶ ποιητῶν</span>: On poets (perhaps cited in <i>Poetics</i>, 15, 1454 b 18, + <span class="grk" title="en tois ekdekomenois logois">ἐν τοῖς ἐκδεδομένοις λόγοις</span>).</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri philosophias">περὶ φιλοσοφίας</span>: On philosophy (perhaps cited in <i>Physics</i>, ii. 2, 194 a 35-36).</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri politikou">περὶ πολιτικοῦ</span>: A politician.</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri rhaetorikaes hae Grullos">περὶ ῥητορικῆς ἢ Γρύλλος</span>: On rhetoric.</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="protreptikos">προτρεπτικός</span>: An exhortation to philosophy (probably in dialogue, because it is the model of Cicero’s dialogue <i>Hortensius</i>).</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="Eudaemos hae peri Psuchaes">Εὔδημος ἢ περὶ Ψυχῆς</span>: On soul (perhaps cited in <i>De Anima</i>, i. 4, 407 b 29, + <span class="grk" title="kai tois en koino levomenois logois">καὶ τοῖς ἐν κοινῷ γενομένοις λόγοις</span>).</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">2. Didactic writings:—</p> +<p>(1) Metaphysical:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri tagathou">περὶ τἀγαθοῦ</span>: On the good (probably not a dialogue but a report of Plato’s lectures).</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri ideon">περὶ ἰδεῶν</span>: On forms.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) Political:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p><span class="grk" title="peri basileias">περὶ βασιλείας</span>: On monarchy.</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="Alexandros hae hyper apoikon">Άλέξανδρος ἤ ὑπὲρ ἀποίκων</span>: On colonies.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span></p> + +<p>(3) Rhetorical:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p><span class="grk" title="technaes taes theodektou sunagogae">τέχνης τῆς Θεοδέκτου συναγωγή</span>: The <i>Theodectea</i> + (cited in the Preface to the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> (chap. i.)), + and as <span class="grk" title="ta theodekteia">τὰ Θεοδέκτεια</span> in the <i>Rhetoric</i> (iii. 9, 1410 b 2).</p> + <p><span class="grk" title="technon sunagogae">τεχνῶν συναγωγή</span>: A historical collection of arts of rhetoric.</p> +</div> + +<p>Difficult as it is to determine when Aristotle wrote all these +various works, some of them indicate their dates. Gryllus, +celebrated in the dialogue on rhetoric, was Xenophon’s son +who fell at Mantineia in 362; and Eudemus of Cyprus, lamented +in the dialogue on soul, died in Sicily in 352. These then were +probably written before Plato died in 347; and so probably were +most of the dialogues, precisely because they were imitations of +the dialogues of Plato. Among the didactic writings, the <span class="grk" title="peri tagathou">περὶ τὰγαθοῦ</span> +would probably belong to the same time, because it was +Aristotle’s report of Plato’s lectures. On the other hand, the +two political works, if written for Alexander, would be after +343-342 when Philip made Aristotle his tutor. So probably +were the rhetorical works, especially the <i>Theodectea</i>; since both +politics and oratory were the subjects which the father wanted +the tutor to teach his son, and, when Alexander came to Phaselis, +he is said by Plutarch (<i>Alexander</i>, 17) to have decorated the +statue of Theodectes in honour of his association with the man +through Aristotle and philosophy. On the whole, then, it seems +as if Aristotle began with dialogues during his second period +under Plato, but gradually came to prefer writing didactic +works, especially in the third period after Plato’s death, and +in connexion with Alexander.</p> + +<p>These early writings show clearly how Aristotle came to depart +from Plato. In the first place as regards style, though the +Stagirite pupil Aristotle could never rival his Attic master in +literary form, yet he did a signal service to philosophy in +gradually passing from the vague generalities of the dialogue to +the scientific precision of the didactic treatise. The philosophy +of Plato is dialogue trying to become science; that of Aristotle +science retaining traces of dialectic. Secondly as regards subject-matter, +even in his early writings Aristotle tends to widen the +scope of philosophic inquiry, so as not only to embrace metaphysics +and politics, but also to encourage rhetoric and poetics, +which Plato tended to discourage or limit. Thirdly as regards doctrines, +the surpassing interest of these early writings is that they +show the pupil partly agreeing, partly disagreeing, with his master. +The <i>Eudemus</i> and <i>Protrepticus</i> are with Plato; the dialogues +<i>on Philosophy</i> and the treatise <i>on Forms</i> are against Plato.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Eudemus</i>, on the soul (<i>Fragmenta</i>, 37 seq.), must have been in +style and thought the most Platonic of all the Aristotelian writings. +Plato’s theory of the soul and its immortality was not the ordinary +Greek view derived from Homer, who regarded the body as the self, +the soul as a shade having a future state but an obscure existence, +and stamped that view on the hearts of his countrymen, and affected +Aristotle himself. After Homer there had come to Greece the new +view that the soul is more real than the body, that it is imprisoned in +the carcase as a prison-house, that it is capable of enjoying a happier +life freed from the body, and that it can transmigrate from body to +body. This strange, exotic, ascetic view was adopted by some +philosophers, and especially by the Pythagoreans, and so transmitted +to Plato. Aristotle in the <i>Eudemus</i>, written about 352, when he was +thirty-two, also believed in it. Accordingly, the soul of Eudemus, +when it left his body, is said to be returning home: the soul is made +subject to the casting of lots, and in coming from the other world to +this it is supposed to forget its former visions: but its disembodied +life is regarded as its natural life in a better world. The <i>Eudemus</i> +also contained a celebrated passage, preserved by Plutarch (<i>Consolat. +ad Apoll.</i>.27; <i>Fragm.</i> 44). Here we can read the young Aristotle, +writing in the form of the dialogue like Plato, avoiding hiatus like +Isocrates, and justifying the praises accorded to his style by Cicero, +Quintilian and Dionysius. It shows how nearly the pupil could +imitate his master’s dialogues, and still more how exactly he at first +embraced his master’s doctrines. It makes Silenus, captured by +Midas, say that the best of all things is not to have been born, and +the next best, having been born, to die as soon as possible. Nothing +could be more like Plato’s <i>Phaedo</i>, or more unlike Aristotle’s later +work <i>on the Soul</i>, which entirely rejects transmigration and allows +the next life to sink into the background.</p> + +<p>Hardly less Platonic is the <i>Protrepticus</i> (<i>Fragm.</i> 50 seq.), an +exhortation to philosophy which, according to Zeno the Stoic, was +studied by his master Crates. It is an exhortation, whose point is +that the chief good is philosophy, the contemplation of the universe +by divine and immortal intellect. This is indeed a doctrine of +Platonic ethics from which Aristotle in his later days never swerved. +But in the <i>Protrepticus</i> he goes on to say that seeming goods, such +as strength, size, beauty, honours, opinions, are mere illusion +(<span class="grk" title="okiagraphia">σκιαγραφία</span>), worthless and ridiculous, as we should know if we +had Lyncean eyes to compare them with the vision of the eternal. +This indifference to goods of body and estate is quite Platonic, but is +very different from Aristotle’s later ethical doctrine that such goods, +though not the essence, are nevertheless necessary conditions of +happiness. Finally, in the spirit of Plato’s <i>Phaedo</i> and the dialogue +<i>Eudemus</i>, the <i>Protrepticus</i> holds that the soul is bound to the sentient +members of the body as prisoners in Etruria are bound face to face +with corpses; whereas the later view of the <i>De Anima</i> is that the soul +is the vital principle of the body and the body the necessary organ of +the soul.</p> + +<p>Thus we find that at first, under the influence of his master, +Aristotle held somewhat ascetic views on soul and body and on goods +of body and estate, entirely opposed both in psychology and in ethics +to the moderate doctrines of his later writings. This perhaps is one +reason why Cicero, who had Aristotle’s early writings, saw no difference +between the Academy and the Peripatetics (<i>Acad. Post</i>, i. 4, +17-18).</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the dialogue <i>on Philosophy</i> (<span class="grk" title="peri philosophias">περὶ φιλοσοφίας</span>, +<i>Fragm.</i> 1 seq.) strikingly exhibits the origin of Aristotle’s divergence +from Platonism, and that too in Plato’s lifetime. The young son +of a doctor from the colonies proved too fond of this world to +stomach his Athenian master’s philosophy of the supernatural. +Accordingly in this dialogue he attacked Plato’s fundamental +position, both in its written and in its unwritten presentment, as a +hypothesis both of forms and of formal numbers. First, he attacked +the hypothesis of forms (<span class="grk" title="taen ton ideon hypothesin">τὴν τῶν ἰδεῶν ὑπόθεσιν</span>, <i>Fragm.</i> 8), exclaiming +in his dialogues, according to Proclus, that he could not sympathize +with the dogma even if it should be thought that he was opposing +it out of contentiousness; while Plutarch says that his attacks on +the forms by means of his exoteric dialogues were thought by some +persons more contentious than philosophical, as presuming to disdain +Plato’s philosophy: so far was he, says Plutarch, from following it. +Secondly, in the same dialogue (<i>Fragm.</i> 9), according to Syrianus, +he disagreed with the hypothesis of formal numbers (<span class="grk" title="tois eidaetikois +arithmois">τοῖς εἰδητικοῖς ἀριθμοῖς</span>). If, wrote Aristotle, the forms are another sort of +number, not mathematical, there would be no understanding of it. +Lastly, in the same dialogue (<i>Fragm.</i> 18 seq.) he revealed his +emphasis on nature by contending that the universe is uncreate and +indestructible. According to Plato, God caused the natural world to +become: according to Aristotle it is eternal. This eternity of the +world became one of his characteristic doctrines, and subsequently +enabled him to explain how essences can be eternal without being +separate from this world which is also eternal (cf. <i>Metaph.</i> Ζ 8). +Thus early did Aristotle begin, even in Plato’s lifetime, to oppose +Plato’s hypothesis of supernatural forms, and advance his own +hypothesis of the eternity of the world.</p> + +<p>He made another attack on Platonism in the didactic work <span class="grk" title="peri ideon">περὶ ἰδεῶν</span>, (<i>Fragm.</i> 185 seq.), contending that the Platonic arguments +prove not forms (<span class="grk" title="ideai">ἰδέαι</span>) but only things common (<span class="grk" title="ta koina">τὰ κσινά</span>). +Here, according to Alexander the commentator, he first brought +against Plato the argument of “the third man” (<span class="grk" title="ho tritos anthropos">ὸ τρίτος ἄνθρωπος</span>); +that, if there is the form, one man beyond many men, there will be +a third man predicated of both man and men, and a fourth predicated +of all three, and so on to infinity (<i>Fragm.</i> 188). Here, too, he +examined the hypothesis of Eudoxus that things are caused by +mixture of forms, a hypothesis which formed a kind of transition to +his own later views, but failed to satisfy him on account of its difficulties. +Lastly, in the didactic work <span class="grk" title="peri tagathou">περὶ τἀγαθοῦ</span> (<i>Fragm.</i> 27 seq.), +containing his report of Plato’s lectures on the Good, he was dealing +with the same mathematical metaphysics which in his dialogue <i>on +Philosophy</i> he criticized for converting forms into formal numbers. +Aristoxenus, at the beginning of the second book of the <i>Harmonics</i>, +gives a graphic account of the astonishment caused by these lectures +of Plato, and of their effect on the lectures of Aristotle. In contending, +as Aristotle’s pupil, that a teacher should begin by proposing his +subject, he tells us how Aristotle used to relate that most of Plato’s +hearers came expecting to get something about human goods and +happiness, but that when the discourses turned out to be all about +mathematics, with the conclusion that good is one, it appeared to +them a paradox, which some despised and others condemned. The +reason, he adds, was that they were not informed by Plato beforehand; +and for this very reason, Aristotle, as he told Aristoxenus +himself, used to prepare his hearers by informing them of the nature +of the subject. From this rare personal reminiscence we see at a +glance that the mind of Plato and the mind of Aristotle were so +different, that their philosophies must diverge; the one towards the +supernatural, the abstract, the discursive, and the other towards the +natural, the substantial, the scientific.</p> + +<p>Aristotle then even in the second period of his life, while Plato +was still alive, began to differ from him in metaphysics. He rejected +the Platonic hypothesis of forms, and affirmed that they are not +separate but common, without however as yet having advanced to a +constructive metaphysics of his own; while at the same time, after +having at first adopted his master’s dialectical treatment of metaphysical +problems, he soon passed from dialogues to didactic works, +which had the result of separating metaphysics from dialectic. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> +all-important consequence of this first departure from Platonism +was that Aristotle became and remained primarily a metaphysician. +After Plato’s death, coming to his third period he made a further +departure from Platonism in his didactic works on politics and +rhetoric, written in connexion with Alexander and Theodectes. Those +on politics (<i>Fragm.</i> 646-648) were designed to instruct Alexander +on monarchy and on colonization; and in them Aristotle agreed +with Plato in assigning a moral object to the state, but departed from +him by saying that a king need not be a philosopher, as Plato had +said in the <i>Republic</i>, but does need to listen to philosophers. Still +more marked was his departure from Plato as regards rhetoric. +Plato in the <i>Gorgias</i>, (501 <span class="scs">A</span>) had contended that rhetoric is not an +art but an empirical practice (<span class="grk" title="tribae kai empeiria">τριβὴ καὶ ἐμπειρία</span>); Aristotle in the +<i>Gryllus</i> (<i>Fragm.</i> 68-69), written in his second period, took according +to Quintilian a similar view. But in his third period, in the +<i>Theodectea</i> (<i>Fragm.</i> 125 seq.), rhetoric is treated as an art, and is +laid out somewhat in the manner of his later <i>Art of Rhetoric</i>; while +he also showed his interest in the subject by writing a history of +other arts of rhetoric called <span class="grk" title="technon ounagogae">τεχνῶν συναγωγή</span> (<i>Fragm.</i> 136 seq.). +Further, in treating rhetoric as an art in the <i>Theodectea</i> he was forced +into a conclusion, which carried him far beyond Plato’s rigid notions +of proof and of passion: he concluded that it is the work of an orator +to use persuasion, and to arouse the passions (<span class="grk" title="to ta pathae diageirai">τὸ τὰ πάθη διαγεῖραι</span>), +<i>e.g.</i> anger and pity (<i>ib.</i> 133-134). Nor could he treat poetry as he is +said to have done without the same result.</p> +</div> + +<p>On the whole then, in his early dialectical and didactic writings, +of which mere fragments remain, Aristotle had already diverged +from Plato, and first of all in metaphysics. During his master’s +life, in the second period of his own life, he protested against +the Platonic hypothesis of forms, formal numbers and the +one as the good, and tended to separate metaphysics from +dialectic by beginning to pass from dialogues to didactic works. +After his master’s death, in the third period of his own life, and +during his connexion with Alexander, but before the final construction +of his philosophy into a system, he was tending to write +more and more in the didactic style; to separate from dialectic, +not only metaphysics, but also politics, rhetoric and poetry; to +admit by the side of philosophy the arts of persuasive language; +to think it part of their legitimate work to rouse the passions; and +in all these ways to depart from the ascetic rigidity of the philosophy +of Plato, so as to prepare for the tolerant spirit of his own, +and especially for his ethical doctrine that virtue consists not in +suppressing but in moderating almost all human passions. In +both periods, too, as we shall find in the sequel, he was already +occupied in composing some of the extant writings which were +afterwards to form parts of his final philosophical system. But +as yet he had given no sign of system, and—what is surprising—no +trace of logic. Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician +against Plato; a metaphysician before he was a logician; a +metaphysician who made what he called primary philosophy +(<span class="grk" title="protae philosophia">πρώτη φιλοσοφία</span>) the starting-point of his philosophical +development, and ultimately of his philosophical system.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Composition of his Extant Works</p> + +<p>The system which was taught by Aristotle at Athens in the +fourth period of his life, and which is now known as the Aristotelian +philosophy, is contained not in fragments but in extant +books. It will be best then to give at once a list of these extant +works, following the traditional order in which they have long +been arranged, and marking with a dagger (†) those which are +now usually considered not to be genuine, though not always +with sufficient reason.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt1 center sc">A. Logical</p> + +<p>1. <span class="grk" title="Kataegoriai">Κατηγορίαι</span>: <i>Categoriae</i>: On simple expressions signifying +different kinds of things and capable of predication [probably an +early work of Aristotle, accepting species and genera as “secondary +substances” in deference to Plato’s teaching].</p> + +<p>2. <span class="grk" title="peri Hermaeneias">περὶ Έρμηνείας</span>: <i>De interpretatione</i>: On language as +expression of mind, and especially on the enunciation or assertion +(<span class="grk" title="apophansis, apophantikos logos">ἀπόφανσις, ἀποφαντικὸς λόγος</span>) [rejected by Andronicus according +to Alexander; but probably an early work of Aristotle, based on +Plato’s analysis of the sentence into noun and verb].</p> + +<p>3. <span class="grk" title="Analytika protera">Άναλυτικὰ πρότερα</span>: <i>Analytica Priora</i>, On syllogism, with +a view to demonstration.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="grk" title="Analytika ustera">Άναλυτικὰ ὔστερα</span>: <i>Analytica Posteriora</i>: On demonstration, +or demonstrative or scientific syllogism (<span class="grk" title="apodeixis, apodeiktikos ae +epistaemonilos syllogismos">ἀπόδειξις, ἀποδεικτικὸς ἢ ἐπιστημονικὸς συλλογισμός</span>).</p> + +<p>5. <span class="grk" title="Topika">Τοπικά</span>: <i>Topica</i>: On dialectical syllogism (<span class="grk" title="Dialektikos +syllogismos">διαλεκτικὸς συλλογισμός</span>), so called from consisting mainly of commonplaces +(<span class="grk" title="topoi">τόποι</span>. <i>loci</i>), or general sources of argument.</p> + +<p>6. <span class="grk" title="Sophistikoi elenchoi">Σοφιστικοὶ ἒλεγχοι</span>: <i>Sophistici Elenchi</i>: On sophistic +(<span class="grk" title="sophistikos">σοφιστικὸς</span>) or eristic syllogism (<span class="grk" title="eristikos syllogismos">ἐριστικὸς συλλογισμός</span>), so called +from the fallacies used by sophists in refutation (<span class="grk" title="elenchos">ἒλεγχος</span>) of +their opponents.</p> + +<p>[Numbers 1-6 were afterwards grouped together as the <i>Organon</i>.]</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">B. Physical</p> + +<p>1. <span class="grk" title="Physikae akroasis">Φυσικὴ ἀκρόασις</span>: <i>Physica Auscultatio</i>: On Nature as cause +of change, and the general principles of natural science.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="grk" title="peri ouranou">περὶ οὐρανοῦ</span>: <i>De coelo</i>: On astronomy, &c.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="grk" title="peri geneseos kai phthoras">περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς</span>: <i>De generatione et corruptione</i>: +On generation and destruction in general.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="grk" title="Meteorologika">Μετεωρολογικά</span>: <i>Meteorologica</i>: On sublunary changes.</p> + +<p>5. † <span class="grk" title="peri kosmou">περὶ κόσμου</span>: <i>De mundo</i>: On the universe. [Supposed by Zeller +to belong to the latter half of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>]</p> + +<p>6. <span class="grk" title="peri psychês">περὶ ψυχῆς</span>: <i>De anima</i>: On soul, conjoined with organic +body.</p> + +<p>7. <span class="grk" title="peri aisthêseos kai aisthêton">περὶ αἰσθήσεως καὶ αἰσθητῶν</span>: <i>De sensu et sensili</i>: On sense +and objects of sense.</p> + +<p>8. <span class="grk" title="peri mnaemaes kai anamnêseos">περὶ μνήμης καὶ ἀναμνήσεως</span>: <i>De memoria et reminiscentia</i>: +On memory and recollection.</p> + +<p>9. <span class="grk" title="peri hypnou kai egrêgorseos">περὶ ὒπνου καὶ ἐγρηγόρσεως</span>: <i>De somno et vigilia</i>: On sleep +and waking.</p> + +<p>10. <span class="grk" title="peri enypnion">περὶ ἐνυπνίων</span>: <i>De insomniis</i>: On dreams.</p> + +<p>11. <span class="grk" title="peri taes kath hypnon mantikês">περὶ τῆς καθ᾽ ὔπνον μαντικῆς</span> +or <span class="grk" title="peri mantikês pês hen tois hypnois">περὶ μαντικῆς τῆς ἐν τοῖς ὔπνοις</span>: <i>De divinatione per somnum</i>: On prophecy in sleep.</p> + +<p>12. <span class="grk" title="peri makrobiotêtos kai brachybiotêtos">περὶ μακροβιότητος καὶ βραχυβιότητος</span>: <i>De longitudine et brevitate +vitae</i>: On length and shortness of life.</p> + +<p>13. <span class="grk" title="peri neotêtos kai gêros kai peri zoaes kai thanatou">περὶ νεότητος καὶ γήρως καὶ περὶ ζωῆςκαὶ θανάτου</span>: <i>De juventute et +senectute et de vita et morte</i>: On youth and age, and on life and death.</p> + +<p>14. <span class="grk" title="peri anapnoês">περὶ ἀναπνοῆς</span>: <i>De respiratione</i>: On respiration. +[Numbers 7-14 are grouped together as Parva naturalia.]</p> + +<p>15. † <span class="grk" title="peri pneumatos">περὶ πνεύματος</span>: <i>De spiritu</i>: On innate spirit (<i>spiritus +vitalis</i>).</p> + +<p>16. <span class="grk" title="peri ta zoa istoriai">περὶ τὰ ζῷα ἱστορίαι</span>: <i>Historia animalium</i>: Description of +facts about animals, <i>i.e.</i> their organs. &c.</p> + +<p>17. <span class="grk" title="peri zoon morion">περὶ ζᾠων μορίων</span>. <i>De partibus animalium</i>: Philosophy of +the causes of the facts about animals, <i>i.e.</i> their functions.</p> + +<p>18. † <span class="grk" title="peri zoon kinêseos">περὶ ζᾠων κινήσεως</span>: <i>De animalium motione</i>: On the motion +of animals. [Ascribed to the school of Theophrastus and Strato +by Zeller.]</p> + +<p>19. <span class="grk" title="peri zoon poreias">περὶ ζᾠων πορείας</span>: <i>De animalium incessu</i>: On the going of +animals.</p> + +<p>20. <span class="grk" title="peri zoon geneseos">περὶ ζᾠων γενἐσεως</span>: <i>De animalium generatione</i>: On the +generation of animals.</p> + +<p>21. † <span class="grk" title="peri chromaton">περὶ χρωμάτων</span>: <i>De coloribus</i>: On colours. [Ascribed to the +school of Theophrastus and Strato by Zeller.]</p> + +<p>22. † <span class="grk" title="peri akouston">πεςὶ ἀκουστῶν</span>: <i>De audibilibus</i>. [Ascribed to the school of +Theophrastus and Strato by Zeller.]</p> + +<p>23. † <span class="grk" title="Physiognomonika">Φυσιογνωμονικά</span>: <i>Physiognomonica</i>: On physiognomy, and +the sympathy of body and soul.</p> + +<p>24. † <span class="grk" title="peri phytos">περὶ φυτῷν</span>: <i>De plantis</i>: On plants. [Not Aristotle’s work +on this subject.]</p> + +<p>25. † <span class="grk" title="peri thaumasion akousmatos">περὶ θαυμασίων ἀκουσμάτων</span>: <i>De mirabilibus ausculationibus</i>: +On phenomena chiefly connected with natural history.</p> + +<p>26. † <span class="grk" title="Maechanica">Μηχανικά</span>: <i>Quaestiones mechanicae</i>: Mechanical questions.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">C. Miscellaneous</p> + +<p>1. † <span class="grk" title="Problaemata">Προβλήματα</span>: <i>Problemata</i>: Problems on various subjects +[gradually collected by the Peripatetics from partly Aristotelian +materials, according to Zeller].</p> + +<p>2. † <span class="grk" title="peri atomon grammon">περὶ ἀτομῶν γραμμῶν</span>: <i>De insecabilibus lineis</i>: On indivisible +lines. [Ascribed to Theophrastus, or his time, by Zeller.]</p> + +<p>3. † <span class="grk" title="anemos theseis kai prosaegoriai">ἀνέμων θέσεις καὶ προσηγορίαι</span>: <i>Ventorum situs et appellationes</i>: +A fragment on the winds.</p> + +<p>4. † <span class="grk" title="peri Xenophanous, peri +Zaenonos, peri Gorgiou">περὶ Ξενοφάνους, περὶ Ζήνωνος, περὶ Γοργίου</span>: <i>De Xenophane, +Zenone et Gorgia</i>: On Xenophanes, Zeno and Gorgias.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">D. Primary Philosophy or Theology or Wisdom</p> + +<p><span class="grk" title="ta meta ta physika">τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά</span>: <i>Metaphysica</i>: On being as being and its +properties, its causes and principles, and on God as the motive motor +of the world.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">E. Practical</p> + +<p>1. <span class="grk" title="Aethika Nikomacheia">Ήθικὰ Νικομάχεια</span>: <i>Ethica Nicomachea</i>: On the good of the +individual.</p> + +<p>2. † <span class="grk" title="Aethika megala">Ήθικὰ μεγάλα</span>: <i>Magna Moralia</i>: On the same subject. +[According to Zeller, an abstract of the <i>Nicomachean</i> and the +<i>Eudemian Ethics</i>, tending to follow the latter, but possibly an early +draft of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>.]</p> + +<p>3. † <span class="grk" title="Aethika Eudaemia">Ήθικὰ Εὐδήμια</span> or <span class="grk" title="pros Eudaemos">πρὸς Εὔδημον</span>: <i>Ethica ad Eudemum</i>: On +the same subject. [Usually supposed to be written by Eudemus, but +possibly an early draft of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>.]</p> + +<p>4. † <span class="grk" title="peri aretos kai kakios">περὶ ἀρετῶν καὶ κακιῶν</span>: <i>De virtutibus et vitiis</i>: On virtues +and vices. [An eclectic work of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, half Academic +and half Peripatetic, according to Zeller.]</p> + +<p>5. <span class="grk" title="Politika">Πολιτικά</span>: <i>De re publica</i>: Politics, on the good of the state.</p> + +<p>6. † <span class="grk" title="Oikonomika">Οἰκονομικά</span>: <i>De cura rei familiaris</i>: Economics, on the good +of the family. [The first book a work of the school of Theophrastus +or Eudemus, the second later Peripatetic, according to Zeller.]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span></p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">F. Art</p> + +<p>1. <span class="grk" title="technae Rhaetorikae">τἐχνη ῾Ρητορική</span>: <i>Ars rhetorica</i>: On the art of oratory.</p> + +<p>2. † <span class="grk" title="Rhaetorikae pros: Alexandron:">῾Ρητορικὴ πρὸς: Άλέξανδρον</span>: <i>Rhetorica ad Alexandrum</i>: On +the same subject. [Ascribed to Anaximenes of Lampsacus (fl. 365, +Diodorus xv. 76) by Petrus Victorius, and Spengel, but possibly an +earlier rhetoric by Aristotle.]</p> + +<p>3. <span class="grk" title="peri Poiaetikaes">περὶ Ποιητικῆς</span>: <i>De poetica</i>: On the art of poetry [fragmentary].</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">G. Historical</p> + +<p><span class="grk" title="Athaenaion politeia:">Άθηναίων πολιτεία</span> <i>De republica Atheniensium</i>: On the Constitution +of Athens. [One of the <span class="grk" title="Politeiai">Πολιτεῖαι</span>, said to have been +158 at least, the genuineness of which is attested by the defence +which Polybius (xii.) makes of Aristotle’s history of the Epizephyrian +Locrians against Timaeus, Aristotle’s contemporary and critic. +Hitherto, only fragments have come down to us (cf. <i>Fragm</i>. 381-603). +The present treatise, without however its beginning and end, written +on a papyrus discovered in Egypt and now in the British Museum, +was first edited by F.G. Kenyon 1890-1891.] (See the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constitution of Athens</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Difficulty</i>.—The genuineness of the Aristotelian works, as +Leibnitz truly said (<i>De Stilo Phil. Nizolii</i>, xxx.), is ascertained +by the conspicuous harmony of their theories, and by their +uniform method of swift subtlety. Nevertheless difficulties lurk +beneath their general unity of thought and style. In style they +are not quite the same: now they are brief and now diffuse: +sometimes they are carelessly written, sometimes so carefully as +to avoid hiatus, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Metaphysics</i> Α, and parts of the <i>De +Coelo</i> and <i>Parva Naturalia</i>, which in this respect resemble the +fragment quoted by Plutarch from the early dialogue <i>Eudemus</i> +(<i>Fragm</i>. 44). They also appear to contain displacements, +interpolations, prefaces such as that to the <i>Meteorologica</i>, and +appendices such as that to the <i>Sophistical Elenchi</i>, which may +have been added. An Aristotelian work often goes on continuously +at first, and then becomes disappointing by suddenly +introducing discussions which break the connexion or are even +inconsistent with the beginning; as in the <i>Posterior Analytics</i>, +which, after developing a theory of demonstration from necessary +principles, suddenly makes the admission, which is also the main +theory of science in the <i>Metaphysics</i>, that demonstration is about +either the necessary or the contingent, from principles either +necessary or contingent, only not accidental. At times order is +followed by disorder, as in the <i>Politics</i>. Again, there are repetitions +and double versions, <i>e.g.</i> those of the <i>Physics</i>, vii., +and those of the <i>De Anima</i>, ii., discovered by Torstrik; or two +discussions of the same subject, <i>e.g.</i> of pleasure in the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i>, vii. and x.; or several treatises on the same +subject very like one another, viz. the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, the +<i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and the <i>Magna Moralia</i>; or, strangest of all, +a consecutive treatise and other discourses amalgamated, <i>e.g.</i> in +the <i>Metaphysics</i>, where a systematic theory of being running +through several books (Β, Γ, Ε, Ζ, Η, Θ) is preceded, interrupted +and followed by other discussions of the subject. Further, there +are frequently several titles of the same work or of different +parts of it. Sometimes diagrams (<span class="grk" title="diagraphai">διαγραφαί</span> or <span class="grk" title="hypographai">ὑπογραφαί</span>) are +mentioned, and sometimes given (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>De Interp</i>. 13, 22 a 22; +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, ii. 7; <i>Eudemian Ethics</i>, ii. 3), but sometimes +only implied (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Hist. An.</i> i. 17, 497 a 32; iii. 1, 510 a 30; +iv. 1, 525 a 9). The different works are more or less connected by +a system of references, which give rise to difficulties, especially +when they are cross-references: for example, the <i>Analytics</i> and +<i>Topics</i> quote one another: so do the <i>Physics</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i>; +the <i>De Vita</i> and <i>De Respiratione</i> and the <i>De Partibus +Animalium</i>; this latter treatise and the <i>De Animalium Incessu</i>; +the <i>De Interpretatione</i> and the <i>De Anima</i>. A late work may +quote an earlier; but how, it may be asked, can the earlier +reciprocally quote the later?</p> + +<p>Besides these difficulties in and between the works there are +others beyond them. On the one hand, there is the curious story +given partly by Strabo (608-609) and partly in Plutarch’s <i>Sulla</i> +(c. 26), that Aristotle’s successor Theophrastus left the books +of both to their joint pupil, Neleus of Scepsis, where they were +hidden in a cellar, till in Sulla’s time they were sold to Apellicon, +who made new copies, transferred after Apellicon’s death by +Sulla to Rome, and there edited and published by Tyrannio and +Andronicus. On the other hand, there are the curious and +puzzling catalogues of Aristotelian books, one given by Diogenes +Laertius, another by an anonymous commentator (perhaps +Hesychius of Miletus) quoted in the notes of Gilles Ménage on +Diogenes Laertius, and known as “Anonymus Menagii,” and a +third copied by two Arabian writers from Ptolemy, perhaps King +Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of the founder of the library at +Alexandria. (See Rose, <i>Fragm</i>. pp. 1-22.) But the extraordinary +thing is that, without exactly agreeing among themselves, the +catalogues give titles which do not agree well with the Aristotelian +works as we have them. A title in some cases suits a given work +or a part of it; but in other cases there are no titles for works +which exist, or titles for works which do not exist.</p> + +<p>These difficulties are complicated by various hypotheses +concerning the composition of the Aristotelian works. Zeller +supposes that, though Aristotle may have made preparations for +his philosophical system beforehand, still the properly didactic +treatises composing it almost all belong to the last period of his +life, <i>i.e.</i> from 335-334 to 322; and from the references of one +work to another Zeller has further suggested a chronological +order of composition during this period of twelve years, beginning +with the treatises on Logic and Physics, and ending with that on +Metaphysics. There is a further hypothesis that the Aristotelian +works were not originally treatises, but notes of lectures either +for or by his pupils. This easily passes into the further and still +more sceptical hypothesis that the works, as we have them, under +Aristotle’s name, are rather the works of the Peripatetic school, +from Aristotle, Theophrastus and Eudemus downwards. “We +cannot assert with certainty,” says R. Shute in his <i>History of the +Aristotelian Writings</i> (p. 176), “that we have even got throughout +a treatise in the exact words of Aristotle, though we may be +pretty clear that we have a fair representation of his thought. +The unity of style observable may belong quite as much to the +school and the method as to the individual.” This sceptical +conclusion, the contrary of that drawn by Leibnitz from the +harmony of thought and style pervading the works, shows us +that the Homeric question has been followed by the Aristotelian +question.</p> + +<p><i>The Solution</i>.—Such hypotheses attend to Aristotle’s philosophy +to the neglect of his life. He was really, as we have seen, +a prolific writer from the time when he was a young man under +Plato’s guidance at Athens; beginning with dialogues in the +manner of his master, but afterwards preferring to write didactic +works during the prime of his own life between thirty-eight and +fifty (347-335-334), and with the further advantage of leisure +at Atarneus and Mitylene, in Macedonia and at home in Stagira. +When at fifty he returned to Athens, as head of the Peripatetic +school, he no doubt wrote much of his extant philosophy during +the twelve remaining years of his life (335-322). But he was +then a busy teacher, was growing old, and suffered from a disease +in the stomach for a considerable time before it proved fatal at +the age of sixty-three. It is therefore improbable that he could +between fifty and sixty-three have written almost the whole +of the many books on many subjects constituting that grand +philosophical system which is one of the most wonderful works of +man. It is far more probable that he was previously composing +them at his leisure and in the vigour of manhood, precisely as his +contemporary Demosthenes composed all his great speeches +except the <i>De Corona</i> before he was fifty.</p> + +<p>Turning to Aristotle’s own works, we immediately light upon +a surprise: Aristotle began his extant scientific works during +Plato’s lifetime. By a curious coincidence, in two different +works he mentions two different events as contemporary with +the time of writing, one in 357 and the other in 356. In the +<i>Politics</i> (Ε 10, 1312 b 10), he mentions as now (<span class="grk" title="nun">νῦν</span>) Dion’s +expedition to Sicily which occurred in 357. In the <i>Meteorologica</i> +(iii. 1, 371 a 30), he mentions as now (<span class="grk" title="nun">νῦν</span>) the burning of the +temple at Ephesus, which occurred in 356. To save his hypothesis +of late composition, Zeller resorts to the vagueness of +the word “now” (<span class="grk" title="nun">νῦν</span>). But Aristotle is graphically describing +isolated events, and could hardly speak of events of 357 and 356 +as happening “now” in or near 335. Moreover, these two works +contain further proofs that they were both begun earlier than this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span> +date. The <i>Politics</i> (Β 10) mentions as having happened lately +(<span class="grk" title="neosti">νεωστί</span>) the expedition of Phalaecus to Crete, which occurred +towards the end of the Sacred War in 346. The <i>Meteorologica</i> +(Γ 7) mentions the comet of 341. It is true that the <i>Politics</i> +also mentions much later events, <i>e.g.</i> the assassination of Philip +which took place in 336 (Ε 10, 1311 b 1-3). Indeed, the whole +truth about this great work is that it remained unfinished at +Aristotle’s death. But what of that? The logical conclusion is +that Aristotle began writing it as early as 357, and continued +writing it in 346, in 336, and so on till he died. Similarly, he +began the <i>Meteorologica</i> as early as 356 and was still writing it +in 341. Both books were commenced some years before Plato’s +death: both were works of many years: both were destined to +form parts of the Aristotelian system of philosophy. It follows +that Aristotle, from early manhood, not only wrote dialogues +and didactic works, surviving only in fragments, but also began +some of the philosophical works which are still parts of his extant +writings. He continued these and no doubt began others during +the prime of his life. Having thus slowly matured his separate +writings, he was the better able to combine them more and more +into a system, in his last years. No doubt, however, he went on +writing and rewriting well into the last period of his life; for +example, the recently discovered <span class="grk" title="Athaenaion politeia">Άθηναίων πολιτεία</span> mentions +on the one hand (c. 54) the archonship of Cephisophon (329-328), +on the other hand (c. 46) triremes and quadriremes but without +quinqueremes, which first appeared at Athens in 325-324; and +as it mentions nothing later it probably received its final touches +between 320 and 324. But it may have been begun long before, +and received additions and changes. However early Aristotle +began a book, so long as he kept the manuscript, he could always +change it. Finally he died without completing some of his +works, such as the <i>Politics</i>, and notably that work of his whole +philosophic career and foundation of his whole philosophy—the +<i>Metaphysics</i>—which, projected in his early criticism of Plato’s +philosophy of universal forms, gradually developed into his +positive philosophy of individual substances, but remained +unfinished after all.</p> + +<p>On the whole, then, Aristotle was writing his extant works very +gradually for some thirty-five years (357-322), like Herodotus +(iv. 30) contemplated additions, continued writing them more or +less together, not so much successively as simultaneously, and +had not finished writing at his death.</p> + +<p>There is a curious characteristic connected with this gradual +composition. An Aristotelian treatise frequently has the appearance +of being a collection of smaller discourses (<span class="grk" title="logoi">λόγοι</span>), as, <i>e.g.</i>, +K.L. Michelet has remarked.</p> + +<p>This is obvious enough in the <i>Metaphysics</i>: it has two openings +(Books Α and α); then comes a nearly consecutive theory +of being (Β, Γ, Ε, Ζ, Η, Θ), but interrupted by a philosophical +lexicon Δ; afterwards follows a theory of unity (Ι); then a +summary of previous books and of doctrines from the <i>Physics</i> (Κ); +next a new beginning about being, and, what is wanted to complete +the system, a theory of God in relation to the world (Λ); +finally a criticism of mathematical metaphysics (Μ, Ν), in which +the argument against Plato (Α 9) is repeated almost word for +word (Μ 4-5). The <i>Metaphysics</i> is clearly a compilation formed +from essays or discourses; and it illustrates another characteristic +of Aristotle’s gradual method of composition. It refers +back to passages “in the first discourses” (<span class="grk" title="en tois protois logois">ἐν τοῖς πρώτοις λόγοις</span>) +—an expression not uncommon in Aristotelian writings. Sometimes +the reference is to the beginning of the whole treatise; +<i>e.g.</i> <i>Met</i>. Β 2, 997 b 3-5, referring back to Α 6 and 9 about Platonic +forms. Sometimes, on the other hand, the reference only goes +back to a previous part of a given topic, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Met</i>. Θ 1, 1045 b +27-32, referring back to Ζ 1, or at the earliest to Γ 2. On +either alternative, however, “the first discourses” mentioned +may have originally been a separate discourse; for Book Γ +begins quite fresh with the definition of the science of being, +long afterwards called “Metaphysics,” and Book Ζ begins +Aristotle’s fundamental doctrine of substance.</p> + +<p>Another indication of a treatise having arisen out of separate +discourses is its consisting of different parts imperfectly connected. +Thus the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> begins by identifying the good with +happiness (<span class="grk" title="eudaimonia">εὐδαιμονία</span>), and happiness with virtuous action. +But when it comes to the moral virtues (Book iii. 6), a new +motive of the “honourable” (<span class="grk" title="tou kalou eneka">τοῦ καλοῦ ἔνεκα</span>) is suddenly +introduced without preparation, where one would expect the +original motive of happiness. Then at the end of the moral +virtues justice is treated at inordinate length, and in a different +manner from the others, which are regarded as means between +two vices, whereas justice appears as a mean only because it is +of the middle between too much and too little. Later, the +discussion on friendship (Books viii.-ix.) is again inordinate in +length, and it stands alone. Lastly, pleasure, after having been +first defined (Book vii.) as an activity, is treated over again +(Book x.) as an end beyond activity, with a warning against +confusing activity and pleasure. The probability is that the +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> is a collection of separate discourses worked +up into a tolerably systematic treatise; and the interesting point +is that these discourses correspond to separate titles in the list of +Diogenes Laertius (<span class="grk" title="peri kalou, peri dikaion, peri philias, peri haedonaes">περὶ καλοῦ, περὶ δικαίων, +περὶ φιλίας, περὶ ἡδονῆς</span>, and <span class="grk" title="peri haedonon">περὶ ἡδονῶν</span>). The same list also refers to tentative +notes (<span class="grk" title="upomnaemata epicheiraematika">ὐπομνήματα ἐπιχειρηματικά</span>), and the commentators +speak of ethical notes (<span class="grk" title="aethika upomnaemata">ἠθικὰ ὑπομνήματα</span>). Indeed, they sometimes +divide Aristotle’s works into notes (<span class="grk" title="upomnaematika">ὑπομνηματικά</span>) and +compilations (<span class="grk" title="syntagmatika">συνταγματικά</span>). How can it be doubted that in the +gradual composition of his works Aristotle began with notes +(<span class="grk" title="upomnaematika">ὑπομνήματα</span>) and discourses (<span class="grk" title="logoi">λόγοι</span>), and proceeded to treatises +(<span class="grk" title="pragmateiai">πραγματείαι</span>)? He would even be drawn into this process by +his writing materials, which were papyrus rolls of some magnitude; +he would tend to write discourses on separate rolls, and +then fasten them together in a bundle into a treatise.</p> + +<p>If then Aristotle was for some thirty-five years gradually and +simultaneously composing manuscript discourses into treatises +and treatises into a system, he was pursuing a process which +solves beforehand the very difficulties which have since been +found in his writings. He could very easily write in different +styles at different times, now avoiding hiatus and now not, sometimes +writing diffusely and sometimes briefly, partly polishing +and partly leaving in the rough, according to the subject, his own +state of health or humour, his age, and the degree to which he had +developed a given topic; and all this even in the same manuscript +as well as in different manuscripts, so that a difference +of style between different parts of a work or between different +works, explicable by one being earlier than another, does not +prove either to be not genuine. As he might write, so might he +think differently in his long career. To put one extreme case, +about the soul he could think at first in the <i>Eudemus</i> like Plato +that it is imprisoned in the body, and long afterwards in the <i>De +Anima</i> like himself that it is the immateriate essence of the +material bodily organism. Again, he might be inconsistent; +now, for example, calling a universal a substance in deference +to Plato, and now denying that a universal can be a substance +in consequence of his own doctrine that every substance is +an individual; and so as to contradict himself in the same +treatise, though not in the same breath or at the same moment +of thinking. Again, in developing his discourses into larger +treatises he might fall into dislocations; although it must be +remembered that these are often inventions of critics who do not +understand the argument, as when they make out that the treatment +of reciprocal justice in the <i>Ethics</i> (v. 5-6) needs rearrangement +through their not noticing that, according to Aristotle, +reciprocal justice, being the fairness of a commercial bargain, is +not part of absolute or political justice, but is part of analogical +or economical justice. Or he might make repetitions, as in the +same book, where he twice applies the principle, that so far as the +agent does the patient suffers, first to the corrective justice of the +law court (<i>Eth</i>. v. 4) in order to prove that in a wrong the injurer +gains as much as the injured loses, and immediately afterwards +to the reciprocal justice of commerce (<i>ib</i>. 5) in order to prove +that in a bargain a house must be exchanged for as many shoes as +equal it in value. Or he might himself, without double versions, +repeat the same argument with a different shade of meaning; +as when in the <i>Nic. Ethics</i> (vii. 4) he first argues that incontinence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> +about such natural pleasures as that of gain is only modified +incontinence, a sign (as <i>causa cognoscendi</i>) of which is that it is not +so bad as incontinence about carnal pleasures, and then argues +that, because (as <i>causa essendi</i>) it is only modified incontinence, +therefore it is not so bad. Or he might return again and again +to the same point with a difference: there is a good instance in +his conclusion that the speculative life is the highest happiness; +which he first infers because it is the life of man’s highest and +divine faculty, intelligence (1176 b-1178 a 8), then after an interval +infers a second time because our speculative life is an imitation of +that of God (1178 b 7-32), and finally after another interval infers +a third time, because it will make man most dear to God (1179 a +22-32). Or, extending himself as it were still more, he might +write two drafts, or double versions of his own, on the same +subject; <i>e.g. Physics</i>, vii. and <i>De Anima</i>, ii. Or he might, going +still further, in his long literary career write two or more treatises +on the same subject, different and even more or less inconsistent +with each other, as we shall find in the sequel. Finally, having +a great number of discourses and treatises, containing all those +small blemishes, around him in his library, and determined to +collect, consolidate and connect them into a philosophical system, +he would naturally be often taking them down from their places +to consult and compare one with another, and as naturally enter +in them references one to the other, and cross-references between +one another. Thus he would enter in the <i>Metaphysics</i> a reference +to the <i>Physics</i>, and in the <i>Physics</i> a reference to the <i>Metaphysics</i>, +precisely because both were manuscripts in his library. For the +same purpose of connexion he would be tempted to add a preface +to a book like the <i>Meteorologica</i>. In order to refer back to the +<i>Physics</i>, the <i>De Coelo</i>, and the <i>De Generatione</i>, this work begins by +stating that the first causes of all nature and all natural motion, +the stars ordered according to celestial motion and the bodily +elements with their transmutations, and generation and corruption +have all been discussed; and by adding that there remains +to complete this investigation, what previous investigators called +meteorology. To suppose this preface, presupposing many +sciences, to have been written in 356, when the <i>Meteorologica</i> had +been already commenced, would be absurd; but equally absurd +would it be to reject that date on account of the preface, which +even a modern author often writes long after his book. Nor is it +at all absurd to suppose that, long after he began the <i>Meteorologica</i>, +Aristotle himself added the preface in the process of gathering his +general treatises on natural science into a system. So he might +afterwards add the preface to the <i>De Interpretatione</i>, in order to +connect it with the <i>De Anima</i>, though written afterwards, in order +to connect his treatises on mind and on its expression. So also +he might add the appendix to the <i>Sophistical Elenchi</i>, long after +he had written that book, and perhaps, to judge from its being a +general claim to have discovered the syllogism, when the founder +of logic had more or less realized that he had written a number +of connected treatises on reasoning.</p> + +<p><i>The Question of Publication</i>.—There is still another point which +would facilitate Aristotle’s gradual composition of discourses into +treatises and treatises into a system; there was no occasion for +him to publish his manuscripts beyond his school. Printing has +accustomed us to publication, and misled us into applying to +ancient times the modern method of bringing out one book after +another at definite dates by the same author. But Greek authors +contemplated works rather than books. Some of the greatest +authors were not even writers: Homer, Aesop, Thales, Socrates. +Some who were writers were driven to publish by the occasion; +and after the orders of government, which were occasionally +published to be obeyed, occasional poems, such as the poems of +Solon, the odes of Pindar and the plays of the dramatists, which +all had a political significance, were probably the first writings +to be published or, rather, recited and acted, from written +copies. With them came philosophical poems, such as those of +Xenophanes and Empedocles; the epical history of Herodotus; +the dramatic philosophy of Plato. On a larger scale speeches +written by orators to be delivered by litigants were published +and encouraged publication; and, as the Attic orators were his +contemporaries, publication had become pretty common in the +time of Aristotle, who speaks of many bundles (<span class="grk" title="desmas">δέσμας</span>) of +judicial speeches by Isocrates being hawked about by the booksellers +(<i>Fragm</i>. 140).</p> + +<p>No doubt then Aristotle’s library contained published copies of +the works of other authors, as well as the autographs of his own. +It does not follow that his own works went beyond his library +and his school. Publication to the world is designed for readers, +who at all times have demanded popular literature rather than +serious philosophy such as that of Aristotle. Accordingly it +becomes a difficult question, how far Aristotle’s works were +published in his lifetime. In answering it we must be careful +to exclude any evidence which refers to Aristotle as a man, not +as a writer, or refers to him as a writer but does not prove +publication while he was alive.</p> + +<p>Beginning then with his early writings, which are now lost, the +dialogues <i>On Poetry</i> and the <i>Eudemus</i> were probably the published +discourses to which Aristotle himself refers (<i>Poetics</i>, 15; <i>De +Anima</i>, i. 4); and the dialogue <i>Protrepticus</i> was known to the +Cynic Crates, pupil of Diogenes and master of Zeno (<i>Fragm</i>. 50), +but not necessarily in Aristotle’s lifetime, as Crates was still +alive in 307. Again, Aristotle’s early rhetorical instructions +and perhaps writings, as well as his opinion that a collection of +proverbs is not worth while, must have been known outside +Aristotle’s rhetorical school to the orator Cephisodorus, pupil of +Isocrates and master of Demosthenes, for him to be able to write +in his <i>Replies to Aristotle</i> (<span class="grk" title="en tais pros Aristotelaen antigraphais">ἐν ταῖς πρὸς Άριστοτέλην ἀντιγραφαῖς</span>) +an admired defence of Isocrates (Dionys. H. <i>De Isoc</i>. 18). But +this early dialectic and rhetoric, being popular, would tend to be +published. History comes nearer to philosophy; and Aristotle’s +<i>Constitutions</i> were known to his enemy Timaeus, who attacked +him for disparaging the descent of the Locrians of Italy, according +to Polybius (xii.), who defended Aristotle. But as Timaeus +brought his history down to 264 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Polyb. i. 5), and therefore +might have got his information after Aristotle’s death, we cannot +be sure that any of the <i>Constitutions</i> were published in the author’s +lifetime. We are equally at a loss to prove that Aristotle published +his philosophy. He had, like all the great, many enemies, +personal and philosophical; but in his lifetime they attacked the +man, not his philosophy. In the Megarian school, first Eubulides +quarrelled with him and calumniated him (Diog. Laert. ii. 109) +in his lifetime; but the attack was on his life, not on his writings: +afterwards Stilpo wrote a dialogue (<span class="grk" title="Aristotelaes">Άριστοτέλης</span>]), which may +have been a criticism of the Aristotelian philosophy from the +Megarian point of view; but he outlived Aristotle thirty years. +In the absence of any confirmation, “the current philosophemata” +(<span class="grk" title="ta egkuklia philosophaemata">τὰ ἐγκύκλια φιλοσοφήματα</span>), mentioned in the <i>De Coela</i> +(i. 9, 279 a 30), are sometimes supposed to be Aristotle’s published +philosophy, to which he is referring his readers. But the example +there given, that the divine is unchangeable, is precisely such a +religious commonplace as might easily be a current philosopheme +of Aristotle’s day, not of Aristotle; and this interpretation suits +the parallel passage in the <i>Nic. Ethics</i> (i. 5, 1096 a 3) where +opinions about the happiness of political life are said to have been +sufficiently treated “even in current discussions” (<span class="grk" title="kai en tois +egkukliois">καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἐγκυκλίοις</span>).</p> + +<p>There is therefore no contemporary proof that Aristotle +published any part of his mature philosophical system in his lifetime. +It is true that a book of Andronicus, as reported by Aulus +Gellius (xx. 5), contained a correspondence between Alexander +and Aristotle in which the pupil complained that his master +had published his “acroatic discourses” (<span class="grk" title="tous akroatikous ton +logon">τοὺς ἀκροατικοὺς τῶν λόγων</span>). But ancient letters are proverbially forgeries, and in the +three hundred years which elapsed between the supposed correspondence +and the time of Andronicus there was plenty of time +for the forgery of these letters. But even if the correspondence +is genuine, “acroatic discourses” must be taken to mean what +Alexander would mean by them in the time of Aristotle, and not +what they had come to mean by the time of Andronicus. +Alexander meant those discourses which Aristotle, when he was +his tutor, intended for the ears of himself and his fellow-pupils; +such as the early political works on <i>Monarchy</i> and on <i>Colonies</i>, +and the early rhetorical works, the <i>Theodectea</i>, the <i>Collection of Arts</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span> +and possibly the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i>, in the preface to +which the writer actually says to Alexander: “You wrote to me +that nobody else should receive this book.” These few early +works may have been published, and contrary to the wishes +of Alexander, without affecting Aristotle’s later system. But +even so, Alexander’s complaint would not justify writers three +centuries later in taking Alexander to have referred to mature +scientific writings, which were not addressed, and not much +known, to him, the conqueror of Asia; although by the times +of Andronicus and Aulus Gellius, Aristotle’s scientific writings +were all called acroatic, or acroamatic, or sometimes esoteric, +in distinction from exoteric—a distinction altogether unknown +to Aristotle, and therefore to Alexander. In the absence of any +contemporary evidence, we cannot believe that Aristotle in his +lifetime published any, much less all, of his scientific books. The +conclusion then is that Aristotle on the one hand to some extent +published his early dialectical and rhetorical writings, because +they were popular, though now they are lost, but on the other +hand did not publish any of the extant historical and philosophical +works which belong to his mature system, because they were best +adapted to his philosophical pupils in the Peripatetic school. +The object of the philosopher was not the applause of the public +but the truth of things. Now this conclusion has an important +bearing on the composition of Aristotle’s writings and on the +difficulties which have been found in them. If he had like a +modern author brought out each of his extant philosophical +works on a definite day of publication, he would not have been +able to change them without a second edition, which in the case +of serious writings so little in demand would not be worth while. +But as he did not publish them, but kept the unpublished manuscripts +together in his library and used them in his school, he was +able to do with them as he pleased down to the very end of his +life, and so gradually to consolidate his many works into one +system.</p> + +<p>While Aristotle did not publish his philosophical works to the +world, he freely communicated them to the Peripatetic school. +They are not mere lectures; but he used them for lectures: he +allowed his pupils to read them in his library, and probably to +take copies from them. He also used diagrams, which are +sometimes incorporated in his works, but sometimes are only +mentioned, and were no doubt used for purposes of teaching. +He also availed himself of his pupils’ co-operation, as we may +judge from his description in the <i>Ethics</i> (x. 7) of the speculative +philosopher who, though he is self-sufficing, is better having +co-operators (<span class="grk" title="synergous hexon">συνεργοὺς ἔχων</span>). From an early time he had a +tendency to address his writings to his friends. For example, +he addressed the <i>Theodectea</i> to his pupil Theodectes; and even +in ancient times a doubt arose whether it was a work of the +master or the pupil. It was certainly by Aristotle, because it +contained the triple grammatical division of words into noun, +verb and conjunction, which the history of grammar recognized +as his discovery. But we may explain the share of Theodectes +by supposing that he had a hand in the work (cf. Dionys. H. +<i>De Comp. Verb.</i> 2; Quintilian i. 4. 18). Similarly in astronomy, +Aristotle used the assistance of Eudoxus and Callippus. Indeed, +throughout his writings he shows a constant wish to avail himself +of what is true in the opinions of others, whether they are +philosophers, or poets or ordinary people expressing their +thoughts in sayings and proverbs. With one of his pupils in +particular, Theophrastus, who was born about 370 and therefore +was some fifteen years younger than himself, he had a long and +intimate connexion; and the work of the pupil bears so close a +resemblance to that of his master, that, even when he questions +Aristotle’s opinions (as he often does), he seems to be writing in an +Aristotelian atmosphere; while he shows the same acuteness in +raising difficulties, and has caught something of the same encyclopaedic +genius. Another pupil, Eudemus of Rhodes, wrote and +thought so like his master as to induce Simplicius to call him the +most genuine of Aristotle’s companions (<span class="grk" title="ho gnaesiotatos ton +Aristotelous hetairon">ὁ γνησιώτατος τῶν Άριστοτέλους ἑταίρων</span>). It is probable that this extraordinary +resemblance is due to the pupils having actually assisted their +master; and this supposition enables us to surmount a difficulty +we feel in reading Aristotle’s works. How otherwise, we +wonder, could one man writing alone and with so few predecessors +compose the first systematic treatises on the psychology of the +mental powers and on the logic of reasoning, the first natural +history of animals, and the first civil history of one hundred and +fifty-eight constitutions, in addition to authoritative treatises on +metaphysics, biology, ethics, politics, rhetoric and poetry; in all +penetrating to the very essence of the subject, and, what is most +wonderful, describing more facts than any other man has ever +done on so many subjects?</p> + +<p><i>The Uncompleted Works</i>.—Such then was the method of +composition by which Aristotle began in early manhood to +write his philosophical works, continued them gradually and +simultaneously, combined shorter discourses into longer treatises, +compared and connected them, kept them together in his library +without publishing them, communicated them to his school, used +the co-operation of his best pupils, and finally succeeded in +combining many mature writings into one harmonious system. +Nevertheless, being a man, he did not quite succeed. He left +some unfinished; such as the <i>Categories</i>, in which the main part +on categories is not finished, while the last part, afterwards called +postpredicaments, is probably not his, the <i>Politics</i> and the +<i>Poetics</i>. He left others imperfectly arranged, and some of the +most important, the <i>Metaphysics</i>, the <i>Politics</i> and the logical +writings. Of the imperfect arrangement of the <i>Metaphysics</i> we +have already spoken; and we shall speak of that of his logical +writings when we come to the order of his whole system. At +present the <i>Politics</i> will supply us with a conspicuous example +of the imperfect arrangement of some, as well as of the gradual +composition of all, of Aristotle’s extant writings.</p> + +<p>The <i>Politics</i> was begun as early as 357, yet not finished in 322. +It betrays its origin from separate discourses. First comes a +general theory of constitutions, right and wrong (Books Α, Β, Γ); +and this part is afterwards referred to as “the first discourses” +(<span class="grk" title="hen tois protois logois">ἐν τοῖς πρώτοις λόγοις</span>). Then follows the treatment of oligarchy, +democracy, commonwealth and tyranny, and of the +various powers of government (Δ), and independent investigation +of revolution, and of the means of preserving states (Ε), and +a further treatment of democracy and oligarchy, and of the +different offices of the state (Ζ), and finally a return to the discussion +of the right form of constitution (Η, Θ). But Δ and Ζ +are a group interrupted by Ε, and Η and Θ are another group +unconnected with the previous group and with Ε, and are also +distinguished in style by avoiding hiatus. Further, the group +(Δ, Ζ) and the group (Η, Θ) are both unfinished. Finally the +group (Δ, Ζ), the book (Ε) and the group (Η, Θ) though +unconnected with one another, are all connected though imperfectly +with “the first discourses” (Α, Β, Γ). This complicated +arrangement may be represented in the following diagram:—</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:389px; height:86px" src="images/img509.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind">The simplest explanation is that Aristotle began by writing +separate discourses, four at least, on political subjects; that he +continued to write them and perhaps tried to combine them: +but that in the end he failed and left the <i>Politics</i> unfinished and +in disorder. But modern commentators, possessed by the fallacy +that Aristotle like a modern author must from the first have +comtemplated a whole treatise in a regular order for definite +publication, lose themselves in vain disputes as to whether to go +by the traditional order of books indicated by their letters and +known to have existed as early as the abstract (given in Stobaeus, +<i>Ecl.</i> ii. 7) ascribed to Didymus (1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), or to put the +group Η, Θ, as more connected with Α, Β, Γ, before the group +Δ, Ζ, and this group before the book Η. It is agreed, says Zeller, +that the traditional order contradicts the original plan. But +what right have we to say that Aristotle had an original plan?</p> + +<p>The incomplete state in which Aristotle left the <i>Metaphysics</i>, +the <i>Politics</i> and his logical works, brings us to the hard question +how much he did, and how much his Peripatetic followers did +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span> +to his writings after his death. To answer it we should have +to go far beyond Aristotle. But two corollaries follow from our +present investigation of his extant writings; the first, that it was +the long continuance of the Peripatetic school which gradually +caused the publication, and in some cases the forgery, of the +separate writings; and the second, that his Peripatetic successors +arranged and edited some of Aristotle’s writings, and gradually +arrived by the time of Andronicus, the eleventh from Aristotle, +at an order of the whole body of writings forming the system. +Now, it is probable that the arrangement of the works which we +are considering was done by the Peripatetic successors of Aristotle. +There is nothing indeed in the <i>Metaphysics</i> to show whether he +left it in isolated treatises or in its present disorder; and nothing +in the <i>Politics</i>. On the other hand, in the case of logic, it is +certain that he did not combine his works on the subject into one +whole, but that the Peripatetics afterwards put them together as +organic, and made them the parts of logic as an organon, as they +are treated by Andronicus. Perhaps something similar occurred +to the <i>Metaphysics</i>, as Alexander imputed its redaction to +Eudemus, and the majority of ancient commentators attributed +its second opening (Book α) to Pasicles, nephew of Eudemus. +Again, it is not unlikely that the <i>Politics</i> was arranged in the +traditional order of books by Theophrastus, and that this is the +meaning of the curious title occurring in the list of Aristotle’s +works as given by Diogenes Laertius, <span class="grk" title="politikês akroaseos hos +hê theophrastou a’ b’ g’ d’ e’ s’ z’ ê’">πολιτικῆς ἀκροάσεως ὡς ἡ Θεοφράστου α´β´γ´δ´ε´ς´ζ´η´</span>, which agrees with the <i>Politics</i> +in having eight books. Although, however, we may concede +that such great works as the <i>Metaphysics</i>, the <i>Politics</i> and the +logical writings did not receive their present form from Aristotle +himself, that concession does not deprive Aristotle of the authorship, +but only of the arrangement of those works. On the +contrary, Theophrastus and Eudemus, his immediate followers, +both wrote works presupposing Aristotle’s <i>Metaphysics</i> and his +logical works, and Dicaearchus, their contemporary, used his +<i>Politics</i> for his own <i>Tripoliticus</i>. It was Aristotle himself then who wrote these works, whether he arranged them or not; and if he wrote the incomplete works, then <i>a fortiori</i> he wrote the completed works except those which are proved spurious, and +practically consummated the Aristotelian system, which, as +Leibnitz said, by its unity of thought and style evinces its +own genuineness and individuality. We must not exaggerate +the school and underrate the individual, especially such an +individual. What he mainly wanted was the time, the leisure +and the labour, which we have supposed to have been given +to the gradual composition of the extant Aristotelian writings. +Aristotle, asked where dwell the Muses, answered, “In the souls +of those who love work.”</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">IV. Earlier and Later Writings</p> + +<p>Aristotle’s quotations of his other books and of historical +facts only inform us at best of the dates of isolated passages, +and cannot decide the dates and sequences of whole philosophical +books which occupied him for many years. Is there then any +way of discriminating between early and late works? There is +the evidence of the influences under which the books were written. +This evidence applies to the whole Aristotelian literature including +the fragments. As to the fragments, we are safe in saying +that the early dialogues in the manner of Plato were written +under the influence of Plato, and that the subsequent didactic +writings connected with Alexander were written more under +the influence of Philip and Alexander. Turning to the extant +writings, we find that some are more under the influence of Plato, +while others are more original and Aristotelian. Also some +writings are more rudimentary than others on the same subject; +and some have the appearance of being first drafts of others. +By these differences we can do something to distinguish between +earlier and later philosophical works; and also vindicate as +genuine some works, which have been considered spurious because +they do not agree in style or in matter with his most mature +philosophy. In thirty-five years of literary composition, Aristotle +had plenty of time to change, because any man can differ from +himself at different times.</p> + +<p>On these principles, we regard as early genuine philosophical +works of Aristotle, (1) the <i>Categories</i>, (2) the <i>De Interpretatione</i>;(3) +the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and <i>Magna Moralia</i>; (4) the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i>.</p> + +<p>1. The Categories (<span class="grk" title="kataegoriai">κατηγορίαι</span>).—This short discourse turns on +Aristotle’s fundamental doctrine of individual substances, without +which there is nothing. He arrives at it from a classification +of categories, by which he here means “things stated in no +combination” (<span class="grk" title="ta kata maedemian symplokaen legomena">τὰ κατὰ μηδεμίαν συμπλοκὴν λεγόμενα</span>) or what +we should call “names,” capable of becoming predicates +(<span class="grk" title="kataegoroumena, kataegoriai">κατηγορούμενα κατηγορίαι</span>). “Every name,” says he (chap. 4), +“signifies either substance or something quantitative, or qualitative, or relative, or somewhere, or sometimes, or that +it is in a position, or in a condition, or active or passive.” +He immediately adds that, by the combination of these +names with one another, affirmation or negation arises. The +categories then are names signifying things capable of becoming +predicates in a proposition. Next he proceeds to substances +(<span class="grk" title="ousiai">οὐσίαι</span>), which he divides into primary (<span class="grk" title="protai">πρῶται</span>) and secondary +(<span class="grk" title="deuterai">δεύτεραι</span>). “Substance”, says he (chap. 5), “which is properly, primarily and especially so called, is that which is neither a +predicate of a subject nor inherent in a subject; for example, +a particular man, or a particular horse. Secondary substances +so called are the species in which are the primarily called +substances, and the genera of these species: for example, a +particular man is in a species, man, the genus of which is animal: +these then are called secondary substances, man and animal.” +Having made these subdivisions of substance, he thereupon +reduces secondary substances and all the rest of the categories +to belongings of individual or primary substances. “All other +things”, says he, “are either predicates of primary substances as +subjects” (<span class="grk" title="kath’ hypokeimenon ton proton ousion">καθ᾽ ὑποκειμένων τῶν πρώτων οὐσιῶν</span>) +“or inherent in them as subjects” (<span class="grk" title="en hypokeimenais autais">ἐν ὑποκειμέναις αὐταῖς</span>). He explains that +species and genus are predicates of, and that other categories +(<i>e.g.</i> the quality of colour) are inherent in, some individual +substance such as a particular man. Then follows his conclusion: +“without primary substances it is impossible for anything to be” +(<span class="grk" title="mae ouson oun ton proton ousion adunaton ton hallon ti einai">μὴ οὐσῶν οῧν τῶν πρώτων οὐσιῶν τῶν ἄλλων τι εἶναι</span>. +<i>Cat.</i> 5, 2 b 5-6).</p> + +<p>Things are individual substances, without which there is +nothing—this is the fundamental point of Aristotelianism, as +against Platonism, of which the fundamental point is that things +are universal forms without which there becomes nothing. The +world, according to Aristotle, consists of substances, each of +which is a separate individual, this man, this horse, this animal, +this plant, this earth, this water, this air, this fire; in the +heavens that moon, that sun, those stars; above all, God. On +the other hand, a universal species or genus of substances is a +predicate which, as well as everything else in all the other categories, +always belongs to some individual substance or other as +subject, and has no separate being. In full, then, a substance is +a separate individual, having universals, and things in all other +categories, inseparably belonging to it. The individual substance +Socrates, for example, is a man and an animal (<span class="grk" title="ousia">οὐσία</span>), tall, +(<span class="grk" title="poson">ποσόν</span>), white (<span class="grk" title="poion">ποιόν</span>), a husband (<span class="grk" title="pros ti">πρός τι</span>), in the market (<span class="grk" title="pou">ποῦ</span>), +yesterday (<span class="grk" title="pote">πότε</span>), sitting (<span class="grk" title="keisthai">κεῖσθαι</span>), armed +(<span class="grk" title="hechein">ἔχειν</span>), talking (<span class="grk" title="poiein">ποιεῖν</span>), listening (<span class="grk" title="paschein">πάσχειν</span>). Aristotelianism is this philosophy +of substantial things.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The doctrine that all things are substances which are separate +individuals, stated in the <i>Categories</i>, is expanded in the <i>Metaphysics</i>. +Both works arrive at it from the classification of categories, which +is the same in both; except that in the former the categories are +treated rather as a logical classification of names signifying things, +in the latter rather as a metaphysical classification of things. In +neither, however, are they a grammatical classification of words by +their structure; and in neither are they a psychological classification +of notions or general conceptions (<span class="grk" title="noaemata">νοήματα</span>), such as they afterwards +became in Kant’s <i>Critique</i> and the post-Kantian idealism. +Moreover, even in the <i>Categories</i> as names signifying distinct things +they imply distinct things; and hence the <i>Categories</i>, as well +as the <i>Metaphysics</i>, draws the metaphysical conclusion that individual +substances are the things without which there is nothing else, and +thereby lays the positive foundation of the philosophy running +through all the extant Aristotelian writings.</p> + +<p>Again, according to both works, an individual substance is a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span> +subject, a universal its predicate; and they have in common the +Aristotelian metaphysics, which differs greatly from the modern +logic of subject and predicate. Subject (<span class="grk" title="upokeimenon">ὑποκείμενον</span>) originally +meant a real thing which is the basis of something, and was used +by Aristotle both for a thing to which something belongs and for +a name of which another is asserted: accordingly “predicate” +(<span class="grk" title="kataegoroymenon">κατηγορούμενον</span>) came with him to mean something really belonging +(<span class="grk" title="uparchon">ὑπάρχον</span>) to a substance as real subject, as well as a name capable of +being asserted of a name as a nominal subject. In other words, to +him subject meant real as well as nominal subject, and predicate +meant real as well as nominal predicate; whereas modern logic +has gradually reduced both to the nominal terms of a proposition. +Accordingly, when he said that a substance is a subject, he meant a +real subject; and when he said that a universal species or genus +is a predicate, he meant that it is a real predicate belonging to a +real subject, which is always some individual substance of the +kind. It follows that Aristotelianism in the <i>Categories</i> and in the +<i>Metaphysics</i> is a realism both of individuals and of universals; +of individual substances as real subjects, and of universals as +real predicates.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the two works agree in reducing the <i>Categories</i> to substance +and its belongings (<span class="grk" title="uparchonta">ὑπάρχοντα</span>). According to both, it is always +some substance, such as Socrates, which is quantitative, qualitative, +relative, somewhere, some time, placed, conditioned, active, passive; +so that all things in all other categories are attributes which are +belongings of substances. There are therefore two kinds of belongings, +universals and attributes; and in both cases belonging in the sense +of having no being but the being of the substance.</p> + +<p>In brief then the common ground of the <i>Categories</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i> +is the fundamental position that all things are substances +having belonging to them universals and attributes, which have no +separate being as Plato falsely supposed.</p> + +<p>This essential agreement suffices to show that the <i>Categories</i> and +the <i>Metaphysics</i> are the result of one mind. Nevertheless, there is a +deep difference between them in detail, which may be expressed by +saying that the <i>Categories</i> is nearer to Platonism. We have seen how +anxious Aristotle was to be considered one of the Platonists, how +reluctant he was to depart from Plato’s hypothesis of forms, and +how, in denying the separability, he retained the Platonic belief in the +reality and even in the unity of the universal. We have now to see +that, in writing the <i>Categories</i>, on the one hand he carried his differences +from his master further than he had done in his early criticisms +by insisting that individual substances are not only real, but are the +very things which sustain the universal; but on the other hand, he +clung to further relics of the Platonic theory, and it is those which +differentiate the <i>Categories</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i>.</p> + +<p>In the first place, in the <i>Categories</i> the belonging of things in other +categories to individual substances in the first category is not so +well developed. A distinction (chap. 2) is drawn between things +which are predicates of a subject (<span class="grk" title="kath upokeimenon">καθ᾽ ὑποκείμενον</span>) and things which +inhere in a subject (<span class="grk" title="en ipokeimeno">ἐν ὑποκειμένῳ</span>); and, while universals are called +predicates of a subject, things in a subordinate category, <i>i.e.</i> attributes +such as colour (<span class="grk" title="chroma">χρῶμα</span>) in the qualitative, are said to inhere in +a subject. It is true that the work gives only a negative definition of +the inherent, namely, that it does not inhere as a part and cannot +exist apart from that in which it inheres (1 a 24-25), and it admits that +what is inherent may sometimes also be a predicate (chap. 5, 2 a 27-34). +The commentators explain this to mean that an attribute as individual +is inherent, as universal is a predicate. But even so the +<i>Categories</i> concludes that everything is either a predicate of, or +inherent in, a substance; and the view that this colour belongs to +this substance only in the sense of being in it, not of it, leaves the +impression that, like a Platonic form, it is an entity rather in than of +an individual substance, though even in the <i>Categories</i> Aristotle is +careful to deny its separability. The hypothesis of inherence gives +an inadequate account of the dependence of an attribute on a substance, +and is a kind of half-way house between separation and +predication.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, in the <i>Metaphysics</i>, the distinction between +inherence and predication disappears; and what is more, the relation +of an attribute to a substance is regarded as so close that an attribute +is merely the substance modified. “The thing itself and the thing +affected,” says Aristotle, “are in a way the same; <i>e.g.</i> Socrates and +Socrates musical” (<i>Met.</i> Δ 29, 1024 b 30-31). Consequently, all +attributes, as well as universals, belong as predicates of individual +substances as subjects, according to the <i>Metaphysics</i>, and also according +to the most authoritative works of Aristotle, such as the <i>Posterior +Analytics</i>, where (cf. i. 4, 22) an attribute (<span class="grk" title="symbebaekos">συμβεβηκός</span>) is said to be +only by being the substance possessing it, and any separation of an +attribute from a substance is held to be entirely a work of human +abstraction (<span class="grk" title="aphairesis">ἀφαίρεσις</span>). At this point, Plato and Aristotle have +become very far apart: to the master beauty appears to be an +independent thing, and really separate, to the pupil at his best only +something beautiful, an attribute which is only mentally separable +from an individual substance. The first difference then between +the <i>Categories</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i> is in the nature of an attribute; +and the theory of inherence in the <i>Categories</i> is nearer to Plato and +more rudimentary than the theory of predication in the <i>Metaphysics</i>. +The second difference is still nearer to Plato and more rudimentary, +and is in the nature of substance. For though both works rest on +the reality of individual substances, the <i>Categories</i> (chap. 5) admits +that universal species and genera can be called substances, whereas +the <i>Metaphysics</i> (Ζ 13) denies that a universal can be a substance +at all.</p> + +<p>It is evident that in the category of substance, as Aristotle perceived, +substance is predicate of substance, <i>e.g.</i> Socrates (<span class="grk" title="ousia">οὐσία</span>) is a +man (<span class="grk" title="ousia">οὐσία</span>), and an animal (<span class="grk" title="ousia">οὐσία</span>). The question then arises, +what sort of substance can be predicate; and in the <i>Categories</i> +Aristotle gave an answer, which would have been impossible, if he +had not, under Plato’s influence, accepted both the unity and the +substantiality of the universal. What he said in consequence was +that the substance in the predicate is not an individual substance, +<i>e.g.</i> this man or this animal, because such a primary substance is not +a predicate; but that the species man or the genus animal is the +substance which is the predicate of Socrates the subject (<i>Cat.</i> 5, 3 a +36 seq.). Finding then that substances are real predicates, and +supposing that in that case they must be species or genera, he could +not avoid the conclusion that some substances are species or genera, +which were therefore called by him “secondary substances,” and by +his Latin followers <i>substantiae universales</i>. It is true that this conclusion +gave him some misgivings, because he recognized that it is +a characteristic of a substance to signify an individual (<span class="grk" title="tose ti">τόδε τι</span>), +which a species or a genus does not signify (<i>ib.</i> 5, 3 b 10-21). Nevertheless, +in the <i>Categories</i>, he did not venture to deny that in the +category of substance a universal species (<i>e.g.</i> man), or genus (<i>e.g.</i> +animal), is itself a substance. On the other hand, in the <i>Metaphysics</i> +(Ζ 13), he distinctly denies that any universal can be a substance, +on the ground that a substance is a subject, whereas a universal is +a predicate and a belonging of a subject, from which it follows as +he says that no universal is a substance, and no substance universal. +Here again the <i>Categories</i> forms a kind of transition from Platonism to +the <i>Metaphysics</i> which is the reverse: to call universals “secondary +substances” is half way between Plato’s calling them the only +substances and Aristotle’s denial in the <i>Metaphysics</i> that they are +substances at all.</p> + +<p>What conclusion are we to draw from these differences between the +<i>Categories</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i>? The only logical conclusion is that +the <i>Categories</i>, being nearer to Plato on the nature of attributes, and +still nearer on the relation of universals to substances, is earlier than +the <i>Metaphysics</i>. There are difficulties no doubt in drawing this +conclusion; because the <i>Metaphysics</i>, though it denies that universals +can be substances, and does not allow species and genera to be +called “secondary substances,” nevertheless falls itself into calling +a universal essence (<span class="grk" title="to ti aen einai">τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι</span>) a substance—and that too in +the very book where it is proved that no universal can be a substance. +But this lapse only shows how powerful a dominion Plato +exercised over Aristotle’s soul to the last; for it arises out of the +pupil still accepting from his master the unity of the universal though +now applying it, not to classes, but to essences. The argument about +essences in the <i>Metaphysics</i> is as follows:—Since a separate individual, +<i>e.g.</i> Socrates, is a substance, and he is essentially a rational animal, +then his essence, being what he is, is a substance; for we cannot +affirm that Socrates is a substance and then deny that this rational +animal is a substance (<i>Met.</i> Ζ 3). Now, according to the unity of a +universal asserted by Plato and accepted by Aristotle, the universal +essence of species, being one and the same for all individuals of the +kind, is the same as the essence of each individual: <i>e.g.</i> the rational +animal in the human species and in Socrates is one and the same; +“for the essence is indivisible” (<span class="grk" title="atomon gar to eisos">ἄτομον γὰρ τὸ εἶδος</span>, <i>Met.</i> Ζ 8, +1034 <i>a</i> 8). It follows that we must call this selfsame essence, at once +individual and universal, substance—a conclusion, however, which +Aristotle never drew in so many words, though he continued always +to call essence substance, and definition a knowledge of substance.</p> + +<p>There is therefore a history of Aristotle’s metaphysical views, +corresponding to his gradual method of composition. It is as +follows:—</p> + +<p>(1) Negative rejection of Plato’s hypothesis of forms and formal +numbers, and reduction of forms to the common in the early +dialogue <span class="grk" title="peri philosophias">περὶ φιλοσοφίας</span> and in the early work <span class="grk" title="peri iseon">περὶ ἰδεῶν</span>.</p> + +<p>(2) Positive assertion of the doctrine that things are individual +substances in the <i>Categories</i>, but with the admission that attributes +sometimes inhere in substance without being predicates of it, and +that universal species and genera are “secondary substances.”</p> + +<p>(3) Expansion of the doctrine that things are individual substances +in the <i>Metaphysics</i>, coupled with the reduction of all attributes to +predicates, and the direct denial of universal substances; but nevertheless +calling the universal essence of a species of substances +substance, because the individual essence of an individual substance +really is that substance, and the universal essence of the whole species +is supposed to be indivisible and therefore identical with the individual +essence of any individual of the species.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. The <i>De Interpretatione</i>.—Another example of Aristotle’s +gradual desertion of Plato is exhibited by the <i>De Interpretatione</i> +as compared with the <i>Prior Analytics</i>, and it shows another +gradual history in Aristotle’s philosophy, namely, the development +of subject, predicate and copula, in his logic.</p> + +<p>The short discourse on the expression of thought by language +(<span class="grk" title="peri Ermaeneias">περὶ Έρμηνείας</span>, <i>De Interpretatione</i>) is based on the Platonic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span> +division of the sentence (<span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>) into noun and verb (<span class="grk" title="onoma">ὄνομα</span> and +<span class="grk" title="rema">ῥῆμα</span>.) Its point is to separate the enunciative sentence, or that +in which there is truth or falsity, from other sentences; and then, +dismissing the rest to rhetoric or poetry (where we should say +grammar), to discuss the enunciative sentence (<span class="grk" title="apophantikos logos">ἀποφαντικὸς λόγος</span>), +or enunciation (<span class="grk" title="apophansís">ἀποφανσίς</span>), or what we should call the proposition +(<i>De Int.</i> chap. 4). Here Aristotle, starting from the previous +grammar of sentences in general, proceeded, for the first time in +philosophical literature, to disengage the logic of the proposition, +or that sentence which can alone be true or false, whereby it alone +enters into reasoning. But in spite of this great logical achievement, +he continued throughout the discourse to accept Plato’s +grammatical analysis of all sentences into noun and verb, which +indeed applies to the proposition as a sentence but does not give +its particular elements. The first part of the work confines itself +strictly to noun and verb, or the form of proposition called +<i>secundi adjacentis</i>. Afterwards (chap. 10) proceeding to the +opposition of propositions, he adds the form called <i>tertii +adjacentis</i>, in a passage which is the first appearance, or rather +adumbration, of the verb of being as a copula. In the +form <i>secundi adjacentis</i> we only get oppositions, such as the +following:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p>man is—man is not</p> + <p>not-man is—not-man is not</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In the form <i>tertii adjacentis</i> the oppositions, becoming more +complex, are doubled, as follows:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p>man is just—man is not just</p> + <p>man is non-just—man is not non-just</p> + <p>not-man is just—not-man is not just</p> + <p>not-man is non-just—not-man is not non-just.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The words introducing this form (<span class="grk" title="dtan de to esti triton +proskategoretai">δταν δὲ τὸ ἔστι τρίτον προσκατηγορῆται</span>, chap. 10, 19 b 19), which are the origin of the +phrase <i>tertii adjacentis</i>, disengage the verb of being (<span class="grk" title="esti">ἔστι</span>) partially +but not entirely, because they still treat it as an extra part of the +predicate, and not as a distinct copula. Nor does the work get +further than the analysis of some propositions into noun and verb +with “is” added to the predicated verb; an analysis, however, +which was a great logical discovery and led Aristotle further to +the remark that “is” does not mean “exists”; <i>e.g.</i> “Homer is +a poet” does not mean “Homer exists” (<i>De Int.</i> chap. 11).</p> + +<p>How then did Aristotle get further in the logical analysis of +the proposition? Not in the <i>De Interpretatione</i>, but in the <i>Prior +Analytics</i>. The first adumbration was forced upon him in the +former work by his theory of opposition; the complete appearance +in the latter work by his theory of syllogism. In analysing +the syllogism, he first says that a premiss is an affirmative or +negative sentence, and then that a term is that into which a +premiss is dissolved, <i>i.e.</i> predicate and subject, combined or +divided by being and not being (<i>Pr. An.</i> i. 1). Here, for the first +time in logical literature, subject and predicate suddenly appear +as terms, or extremes, with the verb of being (<span class="grk" title="to einai">τὸ εἶναι</span>) or not +being (<span class="grk" title="to me einai">τὸ μὴ εἶναι</span>) completely disengaged from both, but connecting +them as a copula. Why here? Because the crossing of +terms in a syllogism requires it. In the syllogism “Every man +is mortal and Socrates is a man,” if in the minor premiss the +copula “is” were not disengaged from the predicate “man,” +there would not be one middle term “man” in the two premisses. +It is not necessary in every proposition, but it is necessary in the +arrangement of a syllogism, to extricate the terms of its propositions +from the copula; <i>e.g.</i> mortal—man—Socrates.</p> + +<p>This important difference between the <i>De Interpretatione</i> and +the <i>Prior Analytics</i> can only be explained by supposing that the +former is the earlier treatise. It is nearer to Plato’s analysis of +the sentence, and no logician would have gone back to it, after +the Prior Analytics. It is not spurious, as some have supposed, +nor later than the <i>De Anima</i>, as Zeller thought, but Aristotle +in an earlier frame of mind.</p> + +<p>Moreover we can make a history of Aristotle’s thought and +gradual composition thus:</p> + +<p>(1) Earlier acceptance in the <i>De Interpretatione</i> of Plato’s +grammatical analysis of the sentence into noun and verb (<i>secundi +adjacentis</i>) but gradually disengaging the proposition, and +afterwards introducing the verb of being as a third thing added +(<i>tertium adjacens</i>) to the predicated verb, for the purpose of +opposition.</p> + +<p>(2) Later logical analysis in the <i>Prior Analytics</i> of the proposition +as premiss into subject, predicate and copula, for the purpose +of syllogism; but without insisting that the original form is +illogical.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and <i>Magna Moralia</i> in relation to +the <i>Nicomachean Ethics.</i>—Under the name of Aristotle, three +treatises on the good of man have come down to us, <span class="grk" title="Ethika +Nikomacheia">Ήθικὰ Νικομάχεια</span> (<span class="grk" title="pros Nikomachon">πρὸς Νικόμαχον</span>, Porphyry), <span class="grk" title="Ethika Eudemia">Ήθικὰ Εὐδήμια</span> +(<span class="grk" title="pros Eudemon">πρὸς Εὔδημον</span>, Porphyry), and <span class="grk" title="Ethika Megala">Ήθικὰ μεγάλα</span>; so like one another +that there seems no tenable hypothesis except that they are the +manuscript writings of one man. Nevertheless, the most usual +hypothesis is that, while the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (<i>E.N.</i>) was +written by Aristotle to Nicomachus, the <i>Eudemian</i> (<i>E.E.</i>) was +written, not to, but by, Eudemus, and the <i>Magna Moralia</i> (<i>M.M.</i>) +was written by some early disciple before the introduction of +Stoic and Academic elements into the Peripatetic school. The +question is further complicated by the fact that three Nicomachean +books (<i>E.N.</i> v.-vii.) and three Eudemian (<i>E.E.</i> Δ-Ζ) +are common to the two treatises, and by the consequent question +whether, on the hypothesis of different authorship, the common +books, as we may style them, were written for the <i>Nicomachean</i> +by Aristotle, or for the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> by Eudemus, or some by +one and some by the other author. Against the “Chorizontes,” +who have advanced various hypotheses on all these points without +convincing one another, it may be objected that they have +not considered Aristotle’s method of gradual and simultaneous +composition of manuscripts within the Peripatetic school. We +have to remember the traces of his separate discourses, and his +own double versions; and that, as in ancient times Simplicius, +who had two versions of the <i>Physics</i>, Book vii., suggested that +both were early versions of Book viii. on the same subject, so +in modern times Torstrik, having discovered that there were two +versions of the <i>De Anima</i>, Book ii., suggested that both were by +Aristotle. Above all, we must consider our present point that +Platonic influence is a sign of earliness in an Aristotelian work; +and generally, the same man may both think and write differently +at different times, especially if, like Aristotle, he has been a +prolific author.</p> + +<p>These considerations make it probable that the author of all +three treatises was Aristotle himself; while the analysis of the +treatises favours the hypothesis that he wrote the <i>Eudemian +Ethics</i> and the <i>Magna Moralia</i> more or less together as the +rudimentary first drafts of the mature <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>.</p> + +<p>As the Platonic philosophy was primarily moral, and its metaphysics +a theory of the moral order of the universe, Aristotle from +the first must have mastered the Platonic ethics. At first he +adopted the somewhat ascetic views of his master about soul and +body, and about goods of body and estate; but before Plato’s +death he had rejected the hypothesis of forms, formal numbers +and the form of the good identified with the one, by which Plato +tried to explain moral phenomena; while his studies and teaching +on rhetoric and poetry soon began to make him take a more +tolerant view than Plato did of men’s passions. Throughout his +whole subsequent life, however, he retained the fundamental +doctrine, which he had learnt from Plato, and Plato from +Socrates, that virtue is essential to happiness. Twice over this +tenet, which makes Socrates, Plato and Aristotle one ethical +school, inspired Aristotle to attempt poetry: first, in the Elegy +to Eudemus of Cyprus, in which, referring to either Socrates or +Plato, he praises the man who first showed clearly that a good and +happy man are the same (<i>Fragm.</i> 673); and secondly, in the +Hymn in memory of Hermias, beginning “Virtue, difficult to +the human race, noblest pursuit in life” (<i>ib.</i> 675). Moreover, the +successors of Plato in the Academy, Speusippus and Xenocrates, +showed the same belief in the essentiality of virtue. The question +which divided them was what the good is. Speusippus took the +ascetic view that the good is a perfect condition of neutrality +between two contrary evils, pain and pleasure. Xenocrates +took the tolerant view that it is the possession of appropriate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span> +virtue and noble actions, requiring as conditions bodily and +external goods. Aristotle was opposed to Speusippus, and nearly +agreed with Xenocrates. According to him, the good is activity +of soul in accordance with virtue in a mature life, requiring as +conditions bodily and external goods of fortune; and virtue is a +mean state of the passions. It is probable that when, after +Plato’s death and the accession of Speusippus in 347, Aristotle +with Xenocrates left Athens to visit his former pupil Hermias, +the three discussed this moderate system of Ethics in which the +two philosophers nearly agreed. At any rate, it was adopted in +each of the three moral treatises which pass under the name of +Aristotle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The three treatises are in very close agreement throughout, and +in the following details. The good of Ethics is human good; and +human good is happiness, not the universal good or form of the +good to which Plato subordinated human happiness. Happiness is +activity of soul according to virtue in a mature life: it requires other +goods only as conditions. The soul is partly irrational, partly +rational; and therefore there are two kinds of virtue. Moral virtue, +which is that of the irrational desires so far as they are obedient to +reason, is a purposive habit in the mean. The motive of the moral +virtues is the honourable (<span class="grk" title="to kalon">τὸ καλόν</span>, <i>honestum</i>). As the rational is +either deliberative or scientific, either practical or speculative +intellect, there are two virtues of the intellect—prudence of the +deliberative or practical, and wisdom of the scientific or speculative, +intellect. The right reason by which moral virtue is determined is +prudence, which is determined in its turn by wisdom. Pleasure is a +psychical state, and is not a generation in the body supplying a defect +and establishing a natural condition, but an activity of a natural +condition of the soul. It should be specially noted that this doctrine +like the rest is common to the three treatises: in Book vii. of the +<i>Nicomachean</i>, which is Ζ of the <i>Eudemian</i>, pleasure is defined as +<span class="grk" title="energeia taes kata thusin exeos anempodistos">ἐνέργεια τῆς κατὰ φύσιν ἔξεως ἀνεμπόδιστος</span> (chap. 12, 1153 a 14-15); +and in the <i>Magna Moralia</i> as <span class="grk" title="hae kinaesis autou kai hae energeia">ἡ κἰνησις αὐτοῦ καὶ ἡ ἐνέργεια</span> +(ii. 7, 1204 b 28; cf. 1205 b 20-28). It is plain from the context +that in the former definition “the natural condition” (<span class="grk" title="hae kata +thusin exis">ἡ κατὰ φύσιν ἔξις</span>) refers to the soul which, while the body is regenerated, +remains unimpaired (cf. 1152 b 35 seq., 1154 b 15 seq.); and in the +latter definition the thing (<span class="grk" title="autou">αὐτοῦ</span>), whose “motion, that is activity” +is spoken of, is the part of the soul with which we feel pleased.</p> + +<p>Down then to their common definition of pleasure as activity the +three treatises present a harmonious system of morals, consistently +with one another, and with the general philosophy of Aristotle. +In particular, the theory that pleasure is activity (<span class="grk" title="energeia">ἐνέργεια</span>) is the +theory of two of his most authoritative works. In the <i>De Anima</i> +(iii. 7, 431 a 10-12), being pleased and pained are defined by him as +acting <span class="grk" title="to">τὸ</span> (<span class="grk" title="energein">ἐνεργεῖν</span>) by a sensitive mean in relation to good or evil +as such. In the <i>Metaphysics</i> (Λ 7, 1072 b 16), in discussing the occupation +of God, he says “his pleasure is activity,” or “his activity +is pleasure,” according to a difference of readings which makes no +difference to the identification of pleasure and activity (<span class="grk" title="energeia">ἐνέργεια</span>). +As then we find this identification of pleasure with activity in the +<i>Metaphysics</i> and in the <i>De Anima</i>, as well as in the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i>, the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and the <i>Magna Moralia</i>, the only logical +conclusion, from which there is no escape, is that, so far as the treatment +of pleasure goes, any Aristotelian treatise which defines it as +activity is genuine. There is no reason for doubting that the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i> to the end of Book vii., the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> to the +end of Book Ζ, and the <i>Magna Moralia</i> as far as Book ii. chap. 7, +were all three written by Aristotle.</p> + +<p>Why then doubt at all? It is because the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> +contains a second discourse on pleasure (x. 1-5), in which the author, +while agreeing with the previous treatment of the subject that +pleasure is not a bodily generation, even when accompanied by it, +but something psychical, nevertheless defines it (x. 4, 1174 b 31-33) +not as an activity, but as a supervening end (<span class="grk" title="epigignomenon ti telos">ἐπιγιγνόμενόν τι τέλος</span>) +perfecting an activity (<span class="grk" title="teleioi taen energeian">τελειοῖ τὴν ἐνέργειαν</span>). He allows indeed +that activity and pleasure are very closely related; that a +pleasure of sense or thought perfects an act of sensation or of thinking, +depends on it, and is so inseparably conjoined with it as to raise +a doubt whether pleasure is end of life or life end of pleasure, and even +whether the activity is the same as the pleasure. But he disposes +of this doubt in a very emphatic and significant manner. “Pleasure,” +says he, “does not seem to be thinking or perceiving; for it is absurd: +but on account of not being separated from them, it appears to some +persons to be the same.” Now it is not likely that Aristotle either, +after having so often identified pleasure with activity, would say that +the identification is absurd though it appears true to some persons, of +whom he would in that case be one, or, having once disengaged the +pleasure of perceiving and thinking from the acts of perceiving and +thinking, would go backwards and confuse them. It is more likely +that Aristotle identified pleasure with activity in the <i>De Anima</i>, the +<i>Metaphysics</i> and the three moral treatises, as we have seen; but +that afterwards some subsequent Peripatetic, considering that the +pleasure of perceiving or thinking is not the same as perceiving or +thinking, declared the previous identification of pleasure with activity +absurd. At any rate, if we are to choose, it is the identification that +is Aristotle’s, and the distinction not Aristotle’s. Moreover, the +distinction between activity and pleasure in the tenth book is really +fatal to the consistency of the whole <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, which +started in the first book with the identification of happiness and +virtuous activity. For if the pleasure of virtuous activity is a supervening +end beyond the activity, it becomes a supervening end beyond +the happiness of virtuous activity, which thus ceases to be the final +end. Nevertheless, the distinction between activity and pleasure +is true. Some unknown Peripatetic detected a flaw in the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i> when he said that pleasure is a supervening end +beyond activity, and, if he had gone on to add that happiness is also +a supervening end beyond the virtuous activities which are necessary +to produce it, he would have destroyed the foundation of his own +founder’s Ethics.</p> + +<p>It is further remarkable that the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> proceeds to a +different conclusion. After the intrusion of this second discourse on +pleasure, it goes on (<i>E.N.</i> x. 6-fin.) to the famous theory that the +highest happiness is the speculative life of intellect or wisdom as +divine, but that happiness as human also includes the practical life +of combining prudence and moral virtue; and that, while both lives +need external goods as necessaries, the practical life also requires +them as instruments of moral action. The treatise concludes with +the means of making men virtuous; contending that virtue requires +habituation, habituation law, law legislative art, and legislative art +politics: Ethics thus passes into Politics. The <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> +proceeds to its conclusion (<i>E.E.</i> Η 13-15) differently, with the +consideration of (1) good fortune (<span class="grk" title="eutuchia">εὐτυχία</span>), and (2) gentlemanliness +(<span class="grk" title="kalokagathia">καλοκἀγαθία</span>). Good fortune it divides into two kinds, both +irrational; one divine, according to impulse, and more continuous; +the other contrary to impulse and not continuous. Gentlemanliness +it regards as perfect virtue, containing all particular virtues, and all +goods for the sake of the honourable. Finally, it concludes with the +limit (<span class="grk" title="horos">ὅρος</span>) of goods. First it finds the limit of goods of fortune in +that desire and possession of them which will conduce to the +contemplation of God, whereas that which prevents the service and +contemplation of God is bad. Then it adds that the best limit of the +soul is as little as possible to perceive the other part of the soul +(<i>i.e.</i> desire). Finally, the treatise concludes with saying that the limit +of gentlemanliness has thus been stated, meaning that its limit is +the service and contemplation of God and the control of desire by +reason. The <i>Magna Moralia</i> (<i>M.M.</i> ii. 8-10) on these points is +unlike the <i>Nicomachean</i>, and like the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> in discussing +good fortune and gentlemanliness, but it discusses them in a more +worldly way. On good fortune (ii. 8), after recognizing the necessity +of external goods to happiness, it denies that fortune is due to +divine grace, and simply defines it as irrational nature (<span class="grk" title="alogos +thusis">ἄλογος φύσις</span>). Gentlemanliness (ii. 9) it regards as perfect virtue, and +defines the gentleman as the man to whom really good things are +good and really honourable things honourable. It then adds (ii. 10) +that acting according to right reason is when the irrational part of +the soul does not hinder the rational part of intellect from doing its +work. Thereupon it proceeds to a discourse on friendship, which in +the <i>Nicomachean</i> and <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> is discussed in an earlier +position, but breaks off unfinished.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the three moral treatises proceed on very similar +lines down to the common identification of pleasure with activity, +and then diverge. From this point the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and the +<i>Magna Moralia</i> become more like one another than like the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i>. They also become less like one another than before: +for the treatment of good fortune, gentlemanliness, and their limit +is more theological in the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> than in the <i>Magna +Moralia</i>.</p> + +<p>How are the resemblances and differences of the three to be +explained? By Aristotle’s gradual method of composition. All +three are great works, contributing to the origin of the independent +science of Ethics. But the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and the <i>Magna Moralia</i> +are more rudimentary than the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, which as it were +seems to absorb them except in the conclusion. They are, in short, +neither independent works, nor mere commentaries, but Aristotle’s +first drafts of his Ethics.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Ethics to Eudemus</i>, as Porphyry properly called the +<i>Eudemian Ethics</i>, Aristotle in the first four books successively +investigates happiness, virtue, the voluntary and the particular moral +virtues, in the same order and in the same letter and spirit as in his +<i>Ethics to Nicomachus</i>. But the investigations are never so good. +They are all such rudiments as Aristotle might well polish into the +more developed expositions in the first four books of the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i>. On the other hand, nobody would have gone back +afterwards on his masterly treatment of happiness, in the first book, +or of virtue in the second, or of the voluntary in the third, or of the +particular virtues in the third and fourth, to write the sketchy +accounts of the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i>.</p> + +<p>Again, these sketches are rough preparations for the subsequent +books common to the two treatises. It is true, as Dr Henry Jackson +has pointed out, though with some exaggeration, that the Eudemian +agrees in detail rather better than the Nicomachean treatment of the +voluntary with the subsequent discussion of injury (<i>E.E.</i> Δ = <i>E.N.</i> +v. 8); and, as Th. H. Fritzsche remarks, the distinction between +politics, and economics, and prudence in the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> (Α 8) +is a closer anticipation of the subsequent triple distinction of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span> +practical science (<i>E.E.</i> Ε = <i>E.N.</i> vi 8). On the other hand, there +are still more fundamental points in which the first three books of +the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> are a very inadequate preparation for the +common books. Notably its treatment of prudence (<span class="grk" title="phronaesis">φρόνησις</span>) is a +chaos. At first, prudence appears as the operation of the philosophical +life and connected with the speculative philosophy of +Anaxagoras (<i>E.E.</i> Α 1-5): then it is brought into connexion with +the practical philosophy of Socrates (<i>ib</i>. 5) and co-ordinated with +politics and economics (<i>ib</i>. 8); then it is intruded into the diagram +of moral virtues as a mean between villainy (<span class="grk" title="panourgia">πανουργία</span>) and simplicity +((<span class="grk" title="euhaetheia">εὐήθεια</span>) (E.E. B 33, 1221 a 12); finally, a distinction +between virtue by nature and virtue with prudence (<span class="grk" title="metha phronhaeseos">μετὰ φρονήσεως</span>) +is promised (<i>E.E.</i> Τ 7, 1234 a 4). In addition to all this confusion +of speculative and practical knowledge, prudence is absent when it +ought to be present; <i>e.g.</i> from the division of virtues into moral and +intellectual (<i>E.E.</i> Β 1, 1220 a 4-13), and from the definition of +moral virtue (<i>ib</i>. 5, 10); while, in a passage (Β 11) anticipating the +subsequent discussion of the relation between prudence and moral +virtue (<i>E.E.</i> Ε = <i>E.N.</i> vi. 12-13), it is stated that in purpose the end +is made right by moral virtue, the means by another power, reason, +without this right reason being stated to be prudence. After this, +it can never be said that the earlier books of the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> are +so good a preparation as those of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> for the +distinction between prudence (<span class="grk" title="phrhoraesis">φρόνησις</span>) and wisdom (<span class="grk" title="sophia">σοφία</span>), which +is the main point of the common books, and one of Aristotle’s main +points against Plato’s philosophy.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough, although little is made of it, this distinction, +absent from the earlier books, is present in the final book II of the +<i>Eudemian Ethics</i> (cf. 1246 b 4 seq., 1248 a 35, 1249 b 14); and probably +therefore this part was a separate discourse. Meanwhile, however, +the truth about the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> in general is that it was an +earlier rudimentary sketch written by Aristotle, when he was still +struggling, without quite succeeding, to get over Plato’s view that +there is one philosophical knowledge of universal good, by which +not only the dialectician and mathematician must explain the being +and becoming of the world, but also the individual and the statesman +guide the life of man. Indeed, the final proof that the <i>Eudemian +Ethics</i> is earlier than the <i>Nicomachean</i> is the very fact that it +is more under Platonic influence. In the first place, the reason +why the account of prudence begins by confusing the speculative +with the practical is that the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> starts from Plato’s +<i>Philebus</i>, where, without differentiating speculative and practical +knowledge, Plato asks how far good is prudence (<span class="grk" title="phronaesis">φρόνησις</span>), how +far pleasure (<span class="grk" title="haedorhae">ἡδονή</span>); and in the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> Aristotle asks +the same question, adding virtue (<span class="grk" title="harethae">ἀρετή</span>) in order to correct the +Socratic confusion of virtue with prudence. Secondly, the <i>Eudemian +Ethics</i>, while not agreeing with Plato’s <i>Republic</i> that the just can +be happy by justice alone, does not assign to the external goods of +good fortune (<span class="grk" title="ehutuchia">εὐτυχία</span>) the prominence accorded to them in the +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> as the necessary conditions of all virtue, and +the instruments of moral virtue. Thirdly, the emphasis of the +<i>Eudemian Ethics</i> on the perfect virtue of gentlemanliness +(<span class="grk" title="kalokhagathia">καλοκἀγαθία</span>) is a decidedly old-fashioned trait, which descended +to Aristotle from the Greek notion of a gentleman who does his +duty to his state (cf. Herodotus i. 30, Thucydides iv. 40) and +to his God (Xenophon, <i>Symp</i>. iv. 49) through Plato, who in the +<i>Gorgias</i> (470 E) says that the gentleman is happy, and in the <i>Republic</i> +(489 E) imputes to him the love of truth essential to philosophy. +Moreover, when Plato goes on (<i>ib.</i> 505 <span class="scs">B</span>) to identify the form of +good, without which nothing is good, with the gentlemanly thing +(<span class="grk" title="kalhon kai agathon">καλὸν καὶ ἀγαθόν</span>), without which any possession is worthless, he +inspired into the author of the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> the very limit (<span class="grk" title="opos">ὅρος</span>) of good fortune and gentlemanliness with which it concludes, only +without Plato’s elevation of the good into the form of the good. +In the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> the old notion, we gladly see, survives +(cf. i. 8): virtuous actions are gentlemanly actions, and happiness accordingly is being at our best and noblest and pleasantest (<span class="grk" title="ariston kai kalliston kai aediston">ἄριστον καὶ κάλλιστον καὶ ἤδιστον</span>). But gentlemanliness +is no longer called perfect virtue, as in the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i>: its place has been taken +by justice, which is perfect virtue to one’s neighbour, by prudence +which unites all the moral virtues, and by wisdom which is the highest +virtue. Accordingly, in the end the old ideal of gentlemanliness is +displaced by the new ideal of the speculative and practical life.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> derives from Platonism a strong +theological bias, especially in its conclusion (Η 14-15). The opposition +of divine good fortune according to impulse to that which is +contrary to impulse reminds us of Plato’s point in the <i>Phaedrus</i> that +there is a divine as well as a diseased madness. The determination of +the limit of good fortune and of gentlemanliness by looking to the +ruler, God, who governs as the end for which prudence gives its +orders, and the conclusion that the best limit is the most conducive +to the service and contemplation of God, presents the Deity and +man’s relation to him as a final and objective standard more +definitely in the <i>Eudemian</i> than in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, which +only goes so far as to say that man’s highest end is the speculative +wisdom which is divine, like God, dearest to God.</p> + +<p>Because, then, it is very like, but more rudimentary and more +Platonic, we conclude that the <i>Eudemian</i> is an earlier draft of the +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, written by Aristotle when he was still in process +of transition from Plato’s ethics to his own.</p> + +<p>The <i>Magna Moralia</i> contains similar evidence of being earlier than +the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. It treats the same subjects, but always in +a more rudimentary manner; and its remarks are always such as +would precede rather than follow the masterly expositions of the +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. This inferiority applies also to its treatment +not only of the early part (i. 1-33 corresponding to <i>E.N.</i> i.-iv.), but +also of the middle part (i. 34-11. 7 corresponding to <i>E.N.</i> v.-vii. = +<i>E.E.</i> Δ-Ζ). In dealing with justice, it does not make it clear, as the +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (Book v.) does, that even universal justice is +virtue towards another (<i>M.M.</i> i. 34, 1193 b 1-15), and it omits +altogether the division into distributive and corrective justice. In +dealing with what the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (Book vi.) calls intellectual +virtues, but the <i>Magna Moralia</i> (i. 5, 35) virtues of the +rational part of the soul, and right reason, it distinguishes (i. 35, +1196 b 34-36) science, prudence, intelligence, wisdom, apprehension +(<span class="grk" title="upolaepsis">ὑπόληψις</span>), in a rough manner very inferior to the classification +of science, art, prudence, intelligence, wisdom, all of which are coordinate +states of attaining truth, in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (vi. 3). +It distinguishes prudence (<span class="grk" title="phronaesis">φρόνησις</span>) and wisdom (<span class="grk" title="sophia">σοφία</span>) as the +respective virtues of deliberative and scientific reason; and on the +whole its account of prudence (cf. <i>M.M.</i> i. 5) is more consistent than +that of the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i>. In these points it is a better preparation +for the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. But it falls into the confusion of +first saying that praise is for moral virtues, and not for virtues of the +reason, whether prudence or wisdom (<i>M.M.</i> i. 5, 1185 b 8-12), and +afterwards arguing that prudence is a virtue, precisely because it is +praised (i. 35, 1197 a 16-18). In dealing with continence and incontinence, +the same doubts and solutions occur as in the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i> (Book vii. = <i>E.E.</i> Ζ), but sometimes confusing doubts and +solutions together, instead of first proposing all the doubts and then +supplying the solutions as in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. Such rudimentary +and imperfect sketches would be quite excusable in a first +draft, but inexcusable and incredible after the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> +had been written.</p> + +<p>It has another characteristic which points to its being an early work +of Aristotle, when he was still under the influence of Plato’s style; +namely its approximation to dialogue. It asks direct questions +(<i>e.g.</i> <span class="grk" title="dia ti">διὰ τί</span>; <i>M.M.</i> i. 1 repeatedly, 12; ii. 6, 7), incorporates direct +statements of others (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="grk" title="phaesi">φησί</span>, i. 12, 13; ii. 3, 6, 7), alternates +direct objections and answers (i. 34), and introduces conversations +between the author and others, expressed interrogatively, indicatively +and even imperatively (<span class="grk" title="all erei moi, ta poia diasaphaeson hygieina estin">ἀλλ᾽ ἐρεῖ μοι, τὰ ποῖα διασάφησον ὑγιεινά ἐστιν</span>. +i. 35, 1196 b 10; cf. ii. 10, 1208 a 20-22). The whole treatise +inclines to run into dialogue. It is also Platonic, like the <i>Endemian +Ethics</i>, in making little of external goods in the account of good +fortune (ii. 8), and in emphasizing the perfect virtue of gentlemanliness +(ii. 9). Indeed, in some respects it is more like the <i>Eudemian</i>, +though in the main more like the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. In the first +book, it has the Eudemian distinction between prudence, virtue and +pleasure (i. 3, 1184 b 5-6); but does not make so much of it as the +distinction between prudence and wisdom blurred in the <i>Eudemian</i> +but defined in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. In the second book, it runs +parallel to the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> in placing good fortune and gentlemanliness +(ii. 8-9), where the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> places the speculative +and the practical life; but it omits the theological element +by denying that good fortune is divine grace, and by submitting +gentlemanliness to no standard but that of right reason, when the +irrational part of the soul does not hinder the rational part, or +intellect (<span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span>), from doing its work.</p> + +<p>Because, then, the <i>Magna Moralia</i> is very like the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i>, but more rudimentary, nearer to the Platonic dialogues in +style and. to a less degree in matter, and also like the <i>Eudemian +Ethics</i>, we conclude that it is also like that treatise in having been +written as an earlier draft of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> by Aristotle +himself.</p> + +<p>The hypothesis that the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i>, and by consequence the +<i>Magna Moralia</i>, are later than Aristotle has arisen from a simple +misconception, continued in a Scholium attributed to Aspasius, who +lived in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Nicomachean means “addressed to +Nicomachus,” and Eudemian “addressed to Eudemus”; but, as +Cicero thought that the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> was written by Nicomachus, +so the author of the Scholium thought that the <i>Eudemian +Ethics</i>, at least so far as the first account of pleasure goes, was written +by Eudemus. He only thought so, however, because Aristotle +could not have written both accounts of pleasure; and, taking for +granted that Aristotle had written the second account of pleasure in +the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (Book x.), he concluded that the first +account (Book vii.) was not the work of Aristotle, but of Eudemus +(<i>Comm. in Ar.</i> (Berlin) xix. p. 151). We have seen reason to reverse +this argument: Aristotle did write the first account in Book vii., +because it contains his usual theory; and, if we must choose, he did +not write the second account in Book x. In this way, too, we get a +historical development of the theory of pleasure: Plato and Speusippus +said it is generation (cf. Plato’s <i>Philebus</i>): Aristotle said it is +psychical activity sometimes requiring bodily generation, sometimes +not (<i>E.N.</i> vii. = <i>E.E.Z</i>): Aristotle, or some Aristotelian, afterwards +said that it is a supervening end completing an activity (E.N. x.). +Secondly, some modern commentators, starting from the false conclusion +that the definition of pleasure as activity (<i>E.N.</i> vii. = <i>E.E.Z</i>) is +by Eudemus, and supposing without proof that he was also author of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span> +the first three books of the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i>, have further asserted +that these are a better introduction than the first four books of +the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> to the books common to both treatises +(<i>E.N.</i> Books v.-vii. = <i>E.E.</i> Books Δ-Ζ), and have concluded that +Eudemus wrote these common books. But we have seen that +Aristotle wrote the first three books of the <i>Eudemian</i> as an +earlier draft of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>; so that, even so far as +they form a better introduction, this will not prove the common +books to be by Eudemus. Again, those first three books are a +better introduction only in details; whereas in regard to the +all-important subject of prudence as distinct from wisdom, they +are so bad an introduction that the common book which discusses +that subject at large (<i>E.N.</i> Book vi. = <i>E.E.</i> Book Ε) must be rather +founded on the first four books of Aristotle’s <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. +Further, as Aristotle wrote both the first three Eudemian and the +first four Nicomachean books, there is no reason why sometimes one, +sometimes the other, should not be the best introduction to the +common books by the same author. Finally, the common books are +so integral a part of the Aristotelian system of philosophy that they +cannot be disengaged from it: the book on justice (<i>E.N.</i> v.) quotes +and is quoted in the <i>Politics</i> (cf. 1130 b 28, 1280 a 16, 1261 a 30); the +book on intellectual virtues (<i>E.N.</i> vi.) quotes (vi. 3) the <i>Posterior +Analytics</i>, i. 2, and is quoted in the <i>Metaphysics</i> (Α 1); and we have +seen that the book (<i>E.N.</i> vii.) which defines pleasure as activity +is simply stating an Aristotelian commonplace. Thirdly, in order to +prove that the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> was by Eudemus, it is said that in +its first part it contemplates that there must be a limit (<span class="grk" title="oros">ὄρος</span>) for +virtue as a mean (<i>E.E.</i> Β 5, 1222 b 7-8), in its middle part it criticizes +the <i>Nicomackean Ethics</i> for not being clear about this limit (<i>E.E.</i> Ε 1), +and in the end it alone assigns this limit, in the service and contemplation +of God (<i>E.E.</i> Η 15, 1249 b 16 seq.). This argument is subtle, +but over-subtle. The <i>Eudemian</i> and the <i>Nicomachean</i> treatments +of this subject do not really differ. In the <i>Nicomachean</i> as in the +<i>Eudemian Ethics</i> the limit above moral virtue is right reason, or +prudence, which is right reason on such matters; and above prudence +wisdom, for which prudence gives its orders; while wisdom is the +intelligence and science of the most venerable objects, of the most +divine, and of God. After this agreement, there is a shade of difference. +While the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> in a more theological vein emphasizes +God, the object of wisdom as the end for which prudence gives +its orders, the Nicomachean Ethics in a more humanizing spirit +emphasizes wisdom itself, the speculative activity, as that end, and +afterwards as the highest happiness, because activity of the divine +power of intellect, because an imitation of the activity of God, +because most dear to God. This is too fine a distinction to found a +difference of authorship. Beneath it, and behind the curious hesitation +which in dealing with mysteries Aristotle shows between the +divine and the human, his three moral treatises agree that wisdom +is a science of things divine, which the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (vi. 7) +defines as science and intelligence of the most venerable things, the +<i>Magna Moralia</i> (i. 35) regards as that which is concerned with the +eternal and the divine, and the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> (Η 15) elevates into +the service and contemplation of God.</p> +</div> + +<p>Aristotle then wrote three moral treatises, which agree in the +fundamental doctrines that happiness requires external fortune, +but is activity of soul according to virtue, rising from morality +through prudence to wisdom, or that science of the divine which +constitutes the theology of his <i>Metaphysics</i>. Surely, the harmony +of these three moral gospels proves that Aristotle wrote them, +and wrote the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and the <i>Magna Moralia</i> as preludes +to the Nicomachean Ethics. When did he begin? We do +not know; but there is a pathetic suggestiveness in a passage in +the <i>Magna Moralia</i> (i. 35), where he says, “Clever even a bad +man is called; as Mentor was thought clever, but prudent he +was not.” Mentor was the treacherous contriver of the death of +Hermias (345-344 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Was this passage written when Aristotle +was mourning for his friend?</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Rhetoric to Alexander</i>.—This is one of a series of works +emanating from Aristotle’s early studies in rhetoric, beginning +with the <i>Gryllus</i>, continuing in the <i>Theodectea</i> and the <i>Collection +of Arts</i>, all of which are lost except some fragments; while +among the extant Aristotelian writings as they stand we still +possess the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> (<span class="grk" title="Rhaetorikae pros Alexandron">Ῥητορικὴ πρὸς Άλέξανδρον</span>) +and the <i>Rhetoric</i> (<span class="grk" title="Techyn Rhaetorikae">Τἐχνη Ῥητορική</span>). But the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> +was considered spurious by Erasmus, for the inadequate reasons +that it has a preface and is not mentioned in the list of Diogenes +Laertius, and was assigned by Petrus Victorius, in his preface to +the <i>Rhetoric</i>, to Anaximenes. It remained for Spengel to entitle +the work <i>Anaximenis Ars Rhetorica</i> in his edition of 1847, and +thus substitute for the name of the philosopher Aristotle that of +the sophist Anaximenes on his title-page. We have therefore to +ask, first who was the author, and secondly what is the relation +of the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> to the <i>Rhetoric</i>, which nowadays alone +passes for genuine.</p> + +<p>After a dedicatory epistle to Alexander (chap, 1) the opening of +the treatise itself (chap. 2) is as follows:—“There are three genera +of political speeches; one deliberative, one declamatory, one +forensic: their species are seven; hortative, dissuasive, laudatory, +vituperative, accusatory, defensive, critical.” This brief sentence +is enough to prove the work genuine, because it was Aristotle +who first distinguished the three genera (cf. <i>Rhet</i>. i. 3; Quintilian +iii. 4, 1. 7, 1), by separating the declamatory (<span class="grk" title="epideiktikon">ἐπιδεικτικόν</span>) +from the deliberative (<span class="grk" title="daempaegorikon, symbouleutikon">δημηγορικόν, συμβουλευτικόν</span>) and +judicial (<span class="grk" title="dikanikon">δικανικόν</span>); whereas his rival Isocrates had considered +that laudation and vituperation, which Aristotle elevated +into species of declamation, run through every kind (Quintilian +iv. 4), and Anaximenes recognized only the deliberative and the +judicial (Dionys. H. <i>de Isaeo</i>, 19). In order, however, to impute +the whole work to Anaximenes, Spengel took one of the most +inexcusable steps ever taken in the history of scholarship. Without +any manuscript authority he altered the very first words +“three genera” (<span class="grk" title="tria genae">τρία γένη</span>) into “two genera” (<span class="grk" title="duo genae">δύο γένη</span>), and +omitted the words “one declamatory” (<span class="grk" title="to de epideiktikon">τὸ δὲ ἐπιδεικτικόν</span>). +Quintilian (iii. 4) imputes to Anaximenes two genera, deliberative +and judicial, and seven species, “hortandi, dehortandi, laudandi, +vituperandi, accusandi, defendendi, exquirendi, quod <span class="grk" title="exetastikon">ἐξεταστικὸν</span> +dicit.” But the author of this rhetoric most certainly recognized +three genera (<span class="grk" title="tria genae">τρία γένη</span>), since, besides the deliberative and +judicial, the declamatory genus constantly appears in the work +(chaps. 2 <i>init.</i>, 4, 7, 18, 36, cf. <span class="grk" title="oyk agonos all epideixeos eneka">οὐκ ἀγῶνος ἀλλ᾽ ἐπιδείξεως ἓνεκα</span> +1440 <i>b</i> 13); and, if the terms for it are not always the same, this is +just what one would expect in a new discovery. Moreover, he +could recognize seven species in the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i>, though +he recognized only six in the <i>Rhetoric</i>, provided the two works +were not written at the same time; and as a matter of fact +even in the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> the seventh or critical species +(<span class="grk" title="exetastikon">ἐξεταστικόν</span>) is in process of disappearing (cf. chap. 37). As +then Anaximenes did not, but Aristotle did, recognize three +genera, and as Aristotle could as well as Anaximenes recognize +seven species, the evidence is overwhelming that the <i>Rhetoric to +Alexander</i> is the work not of Anaximenes, but of Aristotle; on +the condition that its date is not that of Aristotle’s confessedly +genuine <i>Rhetoric</i>.</p> + +<p>There is a second and even stronger evidence that the <i>Rhetoric +to Alexander</i> is a genuine work of Aristotle. It divides (chap. 8) +evidences (<span class="grk" title="pisteis">πίστεις</span>) into two kinds (1) evidence from arguments, +actions and men (<span class="grk" title="ai men ex auton ton logon kai ton praxeon kai +ton anthropon">αἱ μὲν ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν λόγων καὶ τῶν πράξεων καὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων</span>); (2) adventitious evidences (<span class="grk" title="ai d’ epithetoi tois +legomenois kai tois prattomenois">αἱ δ᾽ ἐπίθετοι τοῖς λεγομένοις καὶ τοῖς πραττομένοις</span>). The former are immediately +enumerated as probabilities (<span class="grk" title="eikota">εἰκότα</span>), examples (<span class="grk" title="paradeigmara">παραδείγματα</span>), +proofs (<span class="grk" title="tekmaeria">τεκμήρια</span>), considerations (<span class="grk" title="enthomaemata">ἐνθυμήματα</span>), maxims (<span class="grk" title="gnomai">γνῶμαι</span>), +signs (<span class="grk" title="saemeia">σημεῖα</span>), refutations (<span class="grk" title="elenchoi">ἔλεγχοι</span>); the latter as opinion of +the speaker (<span class="grk" title="doxa ton legontos">δόξα τοῦ λεγοντος</span>), witnesses (<span class="grk" title="martyriai">μαρτυρίαι</span>), tortures +(<span class="grk" title="basanoi">βάσανοι</span>), oaths (<span class="grk" title="orkoi">ὄρκοι</span>). It is confessed by Spengel himself +that these two kinds of evidences are the two kinds recognized +in Aristotle’s <i>Rhetoric</i> as (1) artificial (<span class="grk" title="entechnoi pisteis">ἐντέχνοι πίστεις</span>) and +(2) inartificial (<span class="grk" title="atechnoi pisteis">ἀτέχνοι πίστεις</span>). Now, from the outset of his +<i>Rhetoric</i> Aristotle himself claims to be the first to distinguish +between artificial evidences from arguments and other evidences +which he regards as mere additions; and he complains that the +composers of arts of speaking had neglected the former for the +latter. In particular, rhetoricians appeared to him to have +neglected argument in comparison with passion. No doubt, +rational evidences had appeared in books of rhetoric, as we see +from Plato’s <i>Phaedrus</i>, 266-267,where we find proofs, probabilities, +refutation and maxim, but mixed up with other evidences. The +point of Aristotle was to draw a line between rational and other +evidences, to insist on the former, and in fact to found a logic of +rhetoric. But if in the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i>, not he, but Anaximenes, +had already performed this great achievement, Aristotle +would have been the meanest of mankind; for the logic of +rhetoric would have been really the work of Anaximenes the +sophist, but falsely claimed by Aristotle the philosopher. As we +cannot without a tittle of evidence accept such a consequence, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span> +we conclude that Aristotle formulated the distinction between +argumentative and adventitious, artificial and inartificial evidences, +both in the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> and in the <i>Rhetoric</i>; +and that the former as well as the latter is a genuine work of +Aristotle, the founder of the logic of rhetoric.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>What is the relation between these two genuine Rhetorics? The +last event mentioned in the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> occurred in 340, +the last in the <i>Rhetoric</i> is the common peace (<span class="grk" title="koinae eiraenae">κοινὴ εἰρἠνη</span>) made +between Alexander and the Greeks in 336 (<i>Rhet</i>. ii. 23, 1399 b 12). +The former treatise (chap. 9), under the head of examples +(<span class="grk" title="paradeigmata">παραδείγματα</span>), gives historical examples of the unexpected in war +for the years 403, 371, 358, concluding with the year 340, in which +the Corinthians, coming with nine triremes to the assistance of +the Syracusans, defeated the Carthaginians who were blockading +Syracuse with 150 ships. Spengel, indeed, tries to bring the latest +date in the book down to 330; but it is by absurdly supposing that +the author could not have got the commonplace, “one ought to +criticize not bitterly but gently,” except from Demosthenes, <i>De +Corona</i> (§ 265). We may take it then that the last date in the +<i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> is 340; and by a curious coincidence 340 was +the year when, on Philip’s marching against Byzantium, Alexander +was left behind as regent and keeper of the seal, and distinguished +himself so greatly that Philip was only too glad that the Macedonians +called Alexander king (Plutarch, <i>Alexander</i>, 9). It is possible then +that Aristotle may have written the dedication to Alexander about +340 and treated him as if he were king in the dedicatory epistle. +At the same time, as such prefaces are often forgeries, not prejudicing +the body of the treatise, it does not really matter whether +Aristotle actually dedicated his work to Alexander in that epistle +about that year or not. If he did, then the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> in +340 was at least four years prior to the <i>Rhetoric</i>, which was as late as +336. If he did not, the question still remains, what is the internal +relation between these two genuine Rhetorics? It will turn out +most important.</p> + +<p>The relation between the two Rhetorics turns on their treatment +of rational, argumentative, artificial evidences. Each of them, the +probability (chap. 8), the example (chap. 9), the proof (chap. 10), the +consideration (chap, 11), the maxim (chap. 12), the sign (chap. 13), +the refutation (chap. 14), though very like what it is in the <i>Rhetoric</i>, +receives in the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> a definition slightly different +from the definition in the <i>Rhetoric</i>, which it must be remembered is +also the definition in the <i>Prior Analytics</i>. Strange as this point is, it +is still stranger that not one of these internal evidences is brought +into relation with induction and deduction. Example (<span class="grk" title="paradeigma">παράδειγμα</span>) +is not called rhetorical induction, and consideration (<span class="grk" title="enthymaema">ἐνθύμημα</span>) is +not called rhetorical syllogism, as they are in the <i>Rhetoric</i>, and in +the <i>Analytics</i>. Induction (<span class="grk" title="epagogae">ἐπαγωγή</span>) and syllogism (<span class="grk" title="syllogismos">συλλογισμός</span>), the +general forms of inference, do not occur in the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i>. +In fact, this interesting treatise contains a rudimentary treatment of +rational evidences in rhetoric and is therefore earlier than the +<i>Rhetoric</i>, which exhibits a developed analysis of these rational +evidences as special logical forms. Together, the earlier and the later +<i>Rhetoric</i> show us the logic of rhetoric in the making, going on about +340, the last date of the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i>, and more developed +in or after 336 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the last date of the <i>Rhetoric</i>.</p> + +<p>Nor is this all: the earlier <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> and the later +<i>Rhetoric</i> show us logic itself in the making. We have already said +that Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician. He gradually became +a logician out of his previous studies: out of metaphysics, for with +him being is always the basis of thinking, and common principles, +such as that of contradiction, are axioms of things before axioms of +thought, while categories are primarily things signified by names; +out of the mathematics of the Pythagoreans and the Platonists, +which taught him the nature of demonstration; out of the physics, +of which he imbibed the first draughts from his father, which taught +him induction from sense and the modification of strict demonstration +to suit facts; out of the dialectic between man and man which +provided him with beautiful examples of inference in the Socratic +dialogues of Xenophon and Plato; out of the rhetoric addressed to +large audiences, which with dialectic called his attention to probable +inferences; out of the grammar taught with rhetoric and poetics +which led him to the logic of the proposition. We cannot write a +history of the varied origin of logic, beyond putting the rudimentary +logic of the proposition in the <i>De Interpretatione</i> before the less +rudimentary theory of categories as significant names capable of +becoming predicates in the <i>Categories</i>, and before the maturer analysis +of the syllogism in the <i>Analytics</i>. But at any rate the process was +gradual; and Aristotle was advanced in metaphysics, mathematics, +physics, dialectics, rhetoric and poetics, before he became the founder +of logic.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">V. Order of the Philosophical Writings</p> + +<p>Some of Aristotle’s philosophical writings then are earlier than +others; because they show more Platonic influence, and are +more rudimentary; <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Categories</i> earlier than some parts of +the <i>Metaphysics</i>, because under the influence of Platonic forms +it talks of inherent attributes, and allows secondary substances +which are universal; the <i>De Interpretatione</i> earlier than the +<i>Analytics</i>, because in it the Platonic analysis of the sentence into +noun and verb is retained for the proposition; the <i>Eudemian +Ethics</i> and the <i>Magna Moralia</i> earlier than the <i>Nicomachean +Ethics</i>, because they are rudimentary sketches of it, and the one +written rather in the theological spirit, the other rather in the +dialectical style, of Plato; and the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> earlier +than the <i>Rhetoric</i>, because it contains a rudimentary theory of +the rational evidences afterwards developed into a logic of +rhetoric in the <i>Rhetoric</i> and <i>Analytics</i>.</p> + +<p>It is tempting to think that we can carry out the chronological +order of the philosophical writings in detail. But in the gradual +process of composition, by which a work once begun was kept +going with the rest, although a work such as the <i>Politics</i> (begun +in 357) was begun early, and some works more rudimentary came +earlier than others, the general body of writings was so kept +together in Aristotle’s library, and so simultaneously elaborated +and consolidated into a system that it soon becomes impossible +to put one before another.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Zeller, indeed, has attempted an exact order of succession:—</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>1. The logical treatises.</p> + <p>2. The <i>Physics, De Coelo, De Generatione et Corruptione, Meteorologica</i>.</p> + <p>3. <i>Historia Animalium, De Anima, Parva Naturalia, De Partibus Animalium, + De Animalium Incessu, De Generatione Animalium</i>.</p> + <p>4. <i>Ethics</i> and <i>Politics</i>.</p> + <p>5. <i>Poetics</i> and <i>Rhetoric</i>.</p> + <p>6. <i>Metaphysics</i> (unfinished).</p> +</div> + +<p>But Zeller does not give enough weight either to the evidence of +early composition contained in the <i>Politics</i> and <i>Meteorology</i>, or to the +evidence of subsequent contemporaneous composition contained in +the cross-references, <i>e.g.</i> between the <i>Physics</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i>. +On the other hand he gives too much weight to the references from +one book to another, which Aristotle could have entered into his +manuscripts at any time before his death. Moreover, the arrangement +sometimes breaks down: for example, though on the whole +the logical books are quoted without quoting the rest, the <i>De Interpretatione</i> +(chap. 1) quotes the <i>De Anima</i>, and therefore is falsely taken +by Zeller against its own internal evidence to be subsequent to it and +consequently to the other logical books. Again, the <i>Meteorologica</i> +(iii. 2, 372 b 9) quotes the <i>De Sensu</i> (c. 3), and therefore, on Zeller’s +arguments, ought to follow one of the <i>Parva Naturalia</i>. Lastly, +though the <i>Metaphysics</i> often quotes the <i>Physics</i>, and is therefore +regarded as being subsequent, it is itself quoted in the <i>Physics</i> (i. 8, +191 b 29), and therefore ought to be regarded as antecedent. Zeller +tries to get over this difficulty of cross-reference by detaching <i>Metaphysics</i>, +Book Δ, from the rest and placing it before the <i>Physics</i>. +But this violent and arbitrary remedy is only partial. The truth is +that the <i>Metaphysics</i> both precedes and follows the <i>Physics</i>, because +it had been all along occupying Aristotle ever since he began to +differ from Plato’s metaphysical views and indeed forms a kind of +presupposed basis of his whole system. So generally, the references +backwards and forwards, and the cross-references, are really evidences +that Aristotle mainly wrote his works not successively but +simultaneously, and entered references as and when he pleased, because +he had not published them.</p> + +<p>There are two kinds of quotations in Aristotle’s extant works, the +quotation of another book, and the quotation of a historical fact. +While the former is useless to determine the sequence of books written +simultaneously, the latter is insufficient to determine a complete +chronological order. When Aristotle, <i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Politics</i>, quotes an +event as now (<span class="grk" title="nun">νῦν</span>), he was writing about it at that time; and when +he quotes another event as lately (<span class="grk" title="neosti">νεωστί</span>) he was writing about it +shortly after that time; but he might have been writing the rest of +the <i>Politics</i> both before and after either event. When he quotes the +last event mentioned in the book, <i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Rhetoric</i> (ii. 23, 1399 b +12) the “common peace” of Greece under Alexander in 336, he was +writing as late as that date, but he might also have been writing the +<i>Rhetoric</i> both before it and after it. When he quotes what persons +used to say in the past, <i>e.g.</i> Plato and Speusippus in the <i>Ethics</i>, +Eudoxus and Callippus in the <i>Metaphysics</i>, he was writing these +passages after the deaths of these persons; but he might have been +also writing the <i>Ethics</i> and the <i>Metaphysics</i> both beforehand and +afterwards. Lastly, when he is silent about a historical fact, the +argument from silence is evidence only when he could not have failed +to mention it; as, for example, in the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, when +he could not have failed to mention quinqueremes and other facts +after 325-324. But this is in a historical work; whereas the argument +from silence about historical facts in a philosophical work can +seldom apply.</p> + +<p>The chronological order therefore is not sufficiently detailed to +be the real order of Aristotelian writings. Secondly, the traditional +order, which for nearly 2000 years has descended from the edition +of Andronicus to the Berlin edition, is satisfactory in details, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span> +unsatisfactory in system. It gives too much weight to Aristotle’s +logic, and too little to his metaphysics, on account of two prejudices +of the commentators which led them to place both logic and physics +before metaphysics. Aristotle rightly used all the sciences of his day, +and especially his own physics, as a basis of his metaphysics. For +example, at the very outset he refers to the <i>Physics</i> (ii. 2)for his use +of the four causes, material, efficient, formal and final, in the <i>Metaphysics</i> +(Α 2). This and other applications of the science of nature to +the science of all being induced the commentators to adopt this order, +and entitle the science of being the <i>Sequel to the Physics</i> (<span class="grk" title="ta meta ta physica">τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά</span>). +But Aristotle knew nothing of this title, the first known +use of which was by Nicolaus Damascenus, a younger contemporary +of Andronicus, the editor of the Aristotelian writings, and Andronicus +was probably the originator of the title, and of the order. On the +other hand, Aristotle entitles the science of all being “Primary +Philosophy” (<span class="grk" title="protae philosophia">πρώτη φιλοσοφία</span>), and the science of physical being +“Secondary Philosophy” (<span class="grk" title="deutera philosophia">δεύτερα φιλοσοφία</span>), which suggests that +his order is from Metaphysics to Physics, the reverse of his editor’s +order from Physics to Metaphysics. Thus the traditional order puts +Physics before Metaphysics without Aristotle’s authority. With +some more show of authority it puts Logic before Metaphysics. +Aristotle, on introducing the principle of contradiction (<i>Met.</i> Γ 3), +which belongs to Metaphysics as an axiom of being, says that those +who attempt to discuss the question of accepting this axiom, do so on +account of their ignorance of <i>Analytics</i>, which they ought to know +beforehand (<span class="grk" title="proepistamenous">προεπισταμένους</span>). He means that the logical analysis +of demonstration in the <i>Analytics</i> would teach them beforehand that +there cannot be demonstration, though there must be induction, of an +axiom, or any other principle; whereas, if they are not logically prepared +for metaphysics, they will expect a demonstration of the axiom, +as Heraclitus, the Heraclitean Cratylus and the Sophist Protagoras +actually did,—and in vain. Acting on this hint, not Aristotle but the +Peripatetics inferred that all logic is an instrument (<span class="grk" title="organon">ὄργανον</span>) of all +sciences; and by the time of Andronicus, who was one of them and +sometimes called “the eleventh from Aristotle,” the order, Logic-Physics-Metaphysics, +had become established pretty much as we have +it now. It is, however, not the real order for studying the philosophy +of Aristotle, because there is more Metaphysics in his Physics than +Physics in his Metaphysics, and more Metaphysics in his Logic than +Logic in his Metaphysics. The commentators themselves were doubtful +about the order: Boethus proposed to begin with Physics, and some +of the Platonists with Ethics or Mathematics; while Andronicus preferred +to put Logic first as Organon (<i>Scholia</i>, 25 b 34 seq.). None of +the parties to the dispute had the authority of Aristotle. What do we +find in his works? Primary philosophy, Metaphysics, the science of +being, is the solid foundation of all parts of his philosophical system; +not only in the <i>Physics</i>, but also in the <i>De Coelo</i> (i. 8, 277 b 10), in the +<i>De Generatione</i> (i. 3, 318 a 6; ii. 10, 336 b 29), in the <i>De Anima</i> (i. 1, +403 a 28, cf. b 16), in the <i>De Partibus Animalium</i> (i. 1, 641 a 35), in the +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (i. 6, 1096 b 30), in the <i>De Interpretatione</i> (5, 17 a +14); and in short throughout his extant works. The reason is that +Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician half for and half against +Plato, occupied himself with metaphysics all his philosophical +life, made the science of things the universal basis of all sciences +without destroying their independence, and so gradually brought +round philosophy from universal forms to individual substances. +The traditional order of the Aristotelian writings, still continued in +the Berlin edition, beginning with the logical writings on page 1, +proceeding to the physical writings on page 184, and postponing +the Metaphysics to page 980, is not the real order of Aristotle’s +philosophy.</p> +</div> + +<p>The real order of Aristotle’s philosophy is that of Aristotle’s +mind, revealed in his writings, and by the general view of thinking, +science, philosophy and all learning therein contained. He +classified thinking (<i>Met.</i> Ε 1) and science (<i>Topics</i>, vi. 6) by the +three operations of speculation (<span class="grk" title="theoria">θεωρία</span>), practice (<span class="grk" title="praxis">πρᾶξις</span>) and +production (<span class="grk" title="poiaesis">ποίησις</span>), and made the following subdivisions:—</p> + +<p class="in">I. Speculative: about things; subdivided (<i>Met.</i> Ε 1; <i>De An.</i> i. 1) into:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>i. Primary Philosophy, Theology, also called Wisdom, about things as things.</p> + <p>ii. Mathematical Philosophy, about quantitative things in the abstract.</p> + <p>iii. Physical Philosophy, about things as changing, and therefore about natural substances or bodies, composed of matter and essence.</p> +</div> +<p class="in">II. Practical or Political Philosophy, or philosophy of things human (cf. <i>E.N.</i> x. 9-fin.): about human good; subdivided (<i>E.N.</i> vi. 8, cf. <i>E.E.</i> Α 8, 1218 b 13) into:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>i. Ethics, about the good of the individual.</p> + <p>ii. Economics, about the good of the family.</p> + <p>iii. Politics, about the general good of the state.</p> +</div> +<p class="in">III. Productive, or Art (<span class="grk" title="technae">τέχνη</span>): about works produced; subdivided (<i>Met.</i> Α. 1, 981 b 17-20) into:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>i. Necessary (<span class="grk" title="pros tanagkaia">πρὸς τάναγκαῖα</span>), <i>e.g.</i> medicine.</p> + <p>ii. Fine (<span class="grk" title="pros diagogaen">πρὸβ διαγωγήν</span>), <i>e.g.</i> poetry.</p> +</div> + +<p>Aristotle calls all these investigations sciences (<span class="grk" title="epistaemai">ἐπιστῆμαι</span>): +but he also uses the term “sciences” in a narrower sense in +consequence of a classification of their objects, which pervades his +writings, into things necessary and things contingent, as follows.—</p> + +<p class="in">(A) The necessary (<span class="grk" title="to mae endechomenon allos echein">τὸ μὴ ἐνδεχόμενον ἄλλως ἔχειν</span>), what must be; subdivided into:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>(1) Absolutely (<span class="grk" title="haplos">ἁπλῶς</span>), <i>e.g.</i> the mathematical.</p> + <p>(2) Hypothetically (<span class="grk" title="ex hypotheseus">ἐξ ὑποθέσεως</span>), <i>e.g.</i> matter necessary as means to an end.</p> +</div> +<p class="in">(B) The contingent (<span class="grk" title="to endechomenon allos echein">τὸ ἐνδεχόμενον ἄλλως ἔχειν</span>), what may + be; subdivided into:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>(1) The usual (<span class="grk" title="to hos epi to polu">τὸ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ</span>) or natural (<span class="grk" title="to physikon">τὸ φυσικόν</span>), <i>e.g.</i> a man grows grey.</p> + <p>(2) The accidental (<span class="grk" title="to kata symbebaekos">τὸ κατὰ συμβεβηκός</span>), <i>e.g.</i> a man sits or not.</p> +</div> + +<p>Now, according to Aristotle, science in the narrow sense is +concerned only with the absolutely necessary (<i>E.N.</i> iii. 3), and in +the classification would stop at mathematics, which we still call +exact science: in the wide sense, on the other hand, it extends +to the whole of the necessary and to the usual contingent, but +excludes the accidental (<i>Met.</i> Ε 2), and would in the classification +include not only metaphysics and mathematics, but also physics, +ethics, economics, politics, necessary and fine art; or in short +all speculative, practical and productive thinking of a systematic +kind. Hence the <i>Posterior Analytics</i>, which is Aristotle’s +authoritative logic of science, is of peculiar interest because, after +beginning by defining science as investigating necessary objects +from necessary principles (i. 4), it proceeds to say that it is either +of the necessary or of the usual though not of the accidental +(i. 29), and to admit that its principles are some necessary and +some contingent (i. 32, 88 b 7). Philosophy (<span class="grk" title="philosophia">φιλοςοφία</span>) also is +used by him in a similar manner. Though occasionally he means +by it primary philosophy (<i>Met.</i> Γ 2-3, Κ 3), more frequently he +extends it to all three speculative philosophies (Ε 1, 1026 a 18, +<span class="grk" title="treis an eien philosophiai theoraetikai, mathaematikae, physikae, theologikae">τρεῖς ἂν εἶεν φιλοσοφίαι θεωρητικαί, μαθηματική, φυσική, θεολογική</span>), +and to all three practical philosophies, as we see from +the constant use of the phrase “political philosopher” in the +<i>Ethics</i>; and in short applies it to all sciences except productive +science or art. With him, as with the Greeks generally, the +problems of philosophy are the nature and origin of being and of +good: it is not as with too many of us a mere science of mind.</p> + +<p>Aristotle’s view of thinking in science and philosophy is essentially +comprehensive; but it is not so wide as to become indefinite. +According to him, science at its widest selects a special subject, +<i>e.g.</i> number in arithmetic, magnitude in geometry, stars in +astronomy, a man’s good in ethics; concentrates itself on the +causes and appropriate principles of its subject, especially the +definition of the subject and its species by their essences or formal +causes; and after an inductive intelligence of those principles +proceeds by a deductive demonstration from definitions to +consequences: philosophy is simply a desire of this definite +knowledge of causes and effects. Beyond philosophy, not +beyond science, there is art; and beyond philosophy and science +there is history, the description of facts preparatory to philosophy, +the investigation of causes (cf. <i>Pr. An.</i> i. 30); and this may +be natural history, preparatory to natural philosophy, as in the +<i>History of Animals</i> preparatory to the <i>De Partibus Animalium</i>, +or what we call civil history, preparatory to political philosophy, +as in the 158 Constitutions more or less preparatory to the +<i>Politics</i>.</p> + +<p>Wide as is all his knowledge of facts and causes, it does not +appear to Aristotle to be the whole of learning and the show of it. +Beyond knowledge lies opinion, beyond discovery disputation, +beyond philosophy and science dialectic between man and man, +which was much practised by the Greeks in the dialogues of +Socrates, Plato, the Megarians and Aristotle himself in his early +manhood. With Plato, who thought that the interrogation of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span> +man is the best instrument of truth, dialectic was exaggerated +into a universal science of everything that is. Aristotle, on +the other hand, learnt to distinguish dialectic (<span class="grk" title="dialektikae">διαλεκτική</span>) from +science (<span class="grk" title="epotaemae">ἐπιστήμη</span>); in that it has no definite subject, else it +would not ask questions (<i>Post. An.</i> i. 11, 77 a 31-33); in that for +appropriate principles it substitutes the probabilities of authority +(<span class="grk" title="ta hendoxa">τὰ ἔνδοξα</span>) which are the opinions of all, or of the majority, or of +the wise (<i>Top.</i> i. 1, 100 b 21-23); and in that it is not like science a +deduction from true and primary principles of a definite subject +to true consequences, but a deduction from opinion to opinion, +which may be true or false. Sophistry appeared to him to be like +it, except that it is a fallacious deduction either from merely +apparent probabilities in its matter or itself merely apparently +syllogistic in its form (cf. <i>Topics</i>, i. 1). Moreover, he compared +dialectic and sophistry, on account of their generality, with +primary philosophy in the <i>Metaphysics</i> (Γ 2, 1004 b 17-26); to +the effect that all three concern themselves with all things, +but that about everything metaphysics is scientific, dialectic +tentative, sophistry apparent, not real. He means that a sophist +like Protagoras will teach superficially anything as wisdom for +money; and that even a dialectician like Plato will write a +dialogue, such as the <i>Republic</i>, nominally about justice, but really +about all things from the generality of the form of good, instead +of from appropriate moral principles; but that a primary philosopher +selects as a definite subject all things as such without +interfering with the special sciences of different things each in +its kind (<i>Met.</i> Γ 1), and investigates the axioms or common +principles of things as things (<i>ib.</i> 3), without pretending, like +Plato, to deduce from any common principle the special principles +of each science (<i>Post. An.</i> i. 9, 32). Aristotle at once maintains +the primacy of metaphysics and vindicates the independence of +the special sciences. He is at the same time the only Greek +philosopher who clearly discriminated discovery and disputation, +science and dialectic, the knowledge of a definite subject from its +appropriate principles and the discussion of anything whatever +from opinions and authority. On one side he places science and +philosophy, on the other dialectic and sophistry.</p> + +<p>Such is the great mind of Aristotle manifested in the large map +of learning, by which we have now to determine the order of his +extant philosophical writings, with a view to studying them in +their real order, which is neither chronological nor traditional, +but philosophical and scientific. Turning over the pages of the +Berlin edition, but passing over works which are perhaps spurious, +we should put first and foremost speculative philosophy, and +therein the primary philosophy of his <i>Metaphysics</i> (980 a 21-1093 +b 29); then the secondary philosophy of his <i>Physics</i>, +followed by his other physical works, general and biological, +including among the latter the <i>Historia Animalium</i> as preparatory +to the <i>De Partibus Animalium</i>, and the <i>De Anima</i> and <i>Parva +Naturalia</i>, which he called “physical” but we call “psychological” +(184 a 10-967 b 27); next, the practical philosophy of the +<i>Ethics</i>, including the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> and the <i>Magna Moralia</i> +as earlier and the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> as later (1094-1249 b 25), +and of the <i>Politics</i> (1252-1342), with the addition of the newly +discovered <i>Athenian Constitution</i> as ancillary to it; finally, the +productive science, or art, of the <i>Rhetoric</i>, including the earlier +<i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i> and the later <i>Rhetorical Art</i>, and of the +<i>Poetics</i>, which was unfinished (1354-end). This is the real order +of Aristotle’s system, based on his own theory and classification +of sciences.</p> + +<p>But what has become of Logic, with which the traditional +order of Andronicus begins Aristotle’s works (1-148 b 8)? So far +from coming first, Logic comes nowhere in his classification of +science. Aristotle was the founder of Logic; because, though +others, and especially Plato, had made occasional remarks about +reason (<span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>), Aristotle was the first to conceive it as a definite +subject of investigation. As he says at the end of the <i>Sophistical +Elenchi</i> on the syllogism, he had no predecessor, but took pains +and laboured a long time in investigating it. Nobody, not even +Plato, had discovered that the process of deduction is a combination +of premisses (<span class="grk" title="syllogomos">συλλογισμός</span>) to produce a new conclusion. +Aristotle, who made this great discovery, must have had great +difficulty in developing the new investigation of reasoning processes +out of dialectic, rhetoric, poetics, grammar, metaphysics, +mathematics, physics and ethics; and in disengaging it from +other kinds of learning. He got so far as gradually to write short +discourses and long treatises, which we, not he, now arrange in +the order of the <i>Categories</i> or names; the <i>De Interpretatione</i> +on propositions; the <i>Analytics</i>, <i>Prior</i> on syllogism, <i>Posterior</i> +on scientific syllogism; the <i>Topics</i> on dialectical syllogism; the +<i>Sophistici Elenchi</i> on eristical or sophistical syllogism; and, +except that he had hardly a logic of induction, he covered the +ground. But after all this original research he got no further. +First, he did not combine all these works into a system. He +may have laid out the sequence of syllogisms from the +<i>Analytics</i> onwards; but how about the <i>Categories</i> and the <i>De +Interpretatione</i>? Secondly, he made no division of logic. In the +<i>Categories</i> he distinguished names and propositions for the sake +of the classification of names; in the <i>De Interpretatione</i> he +distinguished nouns and verbs from sentences with a view to the +enunciative sentence: in the <i>Analytics</i> he analysed the syllogism +into premisses and premisses into terms and copula, for the +purpose of syllogism. But he never called any of these a division +of all logic. Thirdly, he had no one name for logic. In the +<i>Posterior Analytics</i> (i. 22, 84 a 7-8) he distinguishes two modes +of investigation, analytically (<span class="grk" title="analytikos">ἀναλυτικῶς</span>) and logically (<span class="grk" title="logikos">λογικῶς</span>). +But “analytical” means scientific inference from appropriate +principles, and “logical” means dialectical inference from general +considerations; and the former gives its name to the <i>Analytics</i>, +the latter suits the <i>Topics</i>, while neither analytic nor logic is a +name for all the works afterwards called logic. Fourthly, and +consequently, he gave no place to any science embracing the +whole of those works in his classification of science, but merely +threw out the hint that we should know analytics before +questioning the acceptance of the axioms of being (<i>Met.</i> Γ 3).</p> + +<p>It is a commentator’s blunder to suppose that the founder +of logic elaborated it into a system, and then applied it to the +sciences. He really left the Peripatetics to combine his scattered +discourses and treatises into a system, to call it logic, and logic +<i>Organon</i>, and to put it first as the instrument of sciences; and +it was the Stoics who first called logic a science, and assigned it +the first place in their triple classification of science into logic, +physics, ethics. Would Aristotle have consented? Would he +not rather have given the first place to primary philosophy?</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dialectic was distinguished from science by Aristotle. Is logic, +then, according to him, not science but dialectic? The word logically +(<span class="grk" title="logikos">λογικῶς</span>) means the same as dialectically (<span class="grk" title="dialektikos">διαλεκτικῶς</span>). But +the general discussion of opinions, signified by both words, is only a +subordinate part of Aristotle’s profound investigation of the whole +process of reasoning. The <i>Analytics</i>, the most important part, so far +from being dialectic or logic in that narrow sense, is called by him not +logic but analytic science (<span class="grk" title="analytickae elistaemae">ἀναλυτικὴ ἐπιστήμη</span>, <i>Rhet.</i> i. 4, 1359 b 10; cf, 1356 b 9, 1357 a 30, b 25); and in the <i>Metaphysics</i> he evidently refers to +it as “the science which considers demonstration and science,” which +he distinguishes from the three speculative sciences, mathematics, +physics and primary philosophy (Met. Κ 1, 1059 b 9-21). The +<i>Analytics</i> then, which from the beginning claims to deal with science, +is a science of sciences, without however forming any part of the +classification. On the other hand, it does not follow that Aristotle +would have regarded the <i>Topics</i>, which he calls “the investigation” +and “the investigation of dialectic” (<span class="grk" title="hae pralmateia">ἡ πραγματεία</span>, <i>Top</i>, i. 1, +<span class="grk" title="hae pralmateia hae peri taen dialektikaen">ἡ πραγματεία ἡ περὶ τὴν διαλεκτικήν</span>, Pr. <i>An.</i> i. 30, 46 a 30), or the <i>De Interpretatione</i>, +which he calls “the present theory” (<span class="grk" title="taes nun theorias">τῆς νῦν θεωρίας</span>, <i>De Int.</i> +6, 17 a 7), as science. In fact, as to the <i>Categories</i> as well as the <i>De Interpretatione</i>, +we are at a complete loss. But about the <i>Topics</i> we may +venture to make the suggestion that, as in describing consciousness +Aristotle says we perceive that we perceive, and understand that we +understand, and as he calls <i>Analytics</i> a science of sciences, so he +might have called the <i>Topics</i> a dialectical investigation of dialectic. +Now, this suggestion derives support from his own description of the +allied art of Rhetoric. “Rhetoric is counterpart to dialectic” is the +first sentence of the <i>Rhetoric</i>; and the reason is that both are concerned +with common objects of no definite science. Afterwards dialectic +and rhetoric are said to differ from other arts in taking either +side of a question (i. 1, 1355 a 33-35); rhetoric, since its artificial evidences +involve characters, passions and reasoning, is called a kind of +offshoot of dialectic and morals, and a copy of dialectic, because +neither is a science of anything definite, but both faculties (<span class="grk" title="dynameis">δυνάμεις</span>) +of providing arguments (i. 2, 1356 a 33); and, since rhetorical arguments +are examples and enthymemes analysed in the <i>Analytics</i>, +rhetoric is finally regarded as a compound of analytic science and of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span> +morals, while it is like dialectical and sophistic arguments (i. 4, 1359 b +2-17).</p> + +<p>As then Aristotle himself regarded rhetoric as partly science and +partly dialectic, perhaps he would have said that his works on reasoning +are some science and others not, and that, while the investigation +of syllogism with a view to scientific syllogism in the <i>Analytics</i> is +analytic science, the investigation of dialectical syllogism, in the +<i>Topics</i>, with its abuse, eristical syllogism, in the <i>Sophistici Elenchi</i>, is +dialectic. At any rate, these miscellaneous works on reasoning have +no right to stand first in Aristotle’s writings under any one name, +logic or <i>Organon</i>. As he neither put them together, nor on any one +definite plan, we are left to convenience; and the most convenient +place is with the psychology of the <i>De Anima</i>.</p> + +<p>As for dialectic itself, it would have been represented by Aristotle’s +early dialogues, had they not been lost except a few fragments. But +none of his extant writings is so much dialectic, like a Platonic dialogue. +They contain however many relics of dialectic. The <i>Rhetoric</i> +is declared by him to be partly dialectic. The <i>Topics</i> is at least an +investigation of dialectic, which has had an immense influence on the +method of argument. The <i>Magna Moralia</i> almost runs into dialogue. +Besides, all the extant works, though apparently didactic, are full of +dialectical matter in the way of opinions (<span class="grk" title="legomena">λεγόμενα</span>), difficulties and +doubts (<span class="grk" title="aporaemata, aporiai">ἀπορήματα, ἀπορίαι</span>), solutions (<span class="grk" title="luseis">λύσεις</span>), and of dialectical +style in the way of conversational expressions. It is probable also +that the “extraneous discourses” (<span class="grk" title="oi exoterikoi logoi">οἱ ἐξωτερικοὶ λόγοι</span>) sometimes +mentioned in them here mean dialectical discussions of a subject from +opinions extraneous to its nature, as opposed to scientific deduction +from its appropriate principles. From the eight passages, which refer +to the extraneous discourses, we find (1) that Platonic forms were +made by them matters of common talk (<span class="grk" title="tethrulaetai">τεθρύληται</span>, <i>Met.</i> Μ 1, 1076a +28); (2) that time was made by them matter of doubts, which in this +case are Aristotle’s own doubts (<i>Phys.</i> iv. 10, 217 b 31-218 a 30); (3) +that the discussions of Platonic forms in them and in philosophical +discourses were different (<i>E.E.</i> i. 8, 1217 b 22); (4) that the ordinary +distinction between goods of mind, body and estate is one which we +make (<span class="grk" title="diaironmetha">διαιρούμεθα</span>) in them (<i>E.E.</i> ii. 1, 1218 b 34); (5) that in them +appeared the division of soul into irrational and rational, used by +Aristotle (<i>E.N.</i> i. 13, 1102 a 26), and attributed to Plato; (6) that the +distinction between action and production accepted by Aristotle appeared +in them (<i>E.N.</i> vi. 4, 1140 a 3); (7) that a distinction between +certain kinds of rule is one which we make often (<span class="grk" title="diorizometha">διοριζόμεθα</span> ... +<span class="grk" title="pollakis">πολλάκις</span>) in them (<i>Pol.</i> 16, 1278 b 31); (8) that a discussion about +the best life, used by Aristotle, was made in them (<i>Pol.</i> Η 1, 1323 a +22). On the whole, the interpretation which best suits all the passages +is that extraneous discourses mean any extra-scientific dialectical +discussions, oral or written, occurring in dialogues by Plato, or +by Aristotle, or by anybody else, or in ordinary conversation, on any +subject under the sun.</p> + +<p>Among all the eight passages mentioned above, the most valuable +is that from the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i> (Α 8), which discriminates extraneous +discourses and philosophical (<span class="grk" title="kai en tois ezoterikois logois kai +en tois kata philosophian">καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἐξωτερικοῖς λόγοις καὶ ἐν τοῖς κατὰ φιλοσοφίαν</span>, 1217 b 22-23); and it is preceded (Α 6, +1216 b 35-37 a 17), by a similar distinction between foreign discourses +(<span class="grk" title="allotrioi logoi">ἀλλοτρίοι λόγοι</span>) and discourses appropriate to the thing (<span class="grk" title="oikeioi logoi +tou pragmatos">οἰκεῖοι λόγοι τοῦ πράγματος</span>), which marks even better the opposition intended +between dialectic and philosophy. Now, as in all eight passages +Aristotle speaks, somewhat disparagingly, of “even (<span class="grk" title="kai">καί</span>) extraneous +discourses,” and as these include his own early dialogues, they must +be taken to mean that though he might quote them, he no longer +wished to be judged by his early views, and therefore drew a strong +line of demarcation between his early dialogues and the mature treatises +of his later philosophical system. Now, both were in the hands of +his readers in the time of Andronicus. Therefore his contemporary, +Cicero, who knew the early dialogues on <i>Philosophy</i>, the <i>Eudemus</i> +and the <i>Protrepticus</i>, and also among the mature scientific writings +the <i>Topics</i>, <i>Rhetoric</i>, <i>Politics</i>, <i>Physics</i> and <i>De Coelo</i>, to some extent, +was justified by Aristotle’s example and precept in drawing the line +between two kinds of books, one written popularly, called exoteric, the +other more accurately (Cic. <i>De Finibus</i>, v. 5). But there was no doubt +a tendency to extend the term “exoteric” from the dialectical to the +more popular of the scientific writings of Aristotle, to make a new distinction +between exoteric and acroamatic or esoteric, and even to +make out that Aristotle was in the habit of teaching both exoterically +and acroamatically day by day as head of the Peripatetic school +at Athens. Aulus Gellius in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> supplies the best +proof of this growth of tradition in his <i>Noctes Atticae</i> (xx. 5). He +says that Aristotle (1) divided his <i>commentationes</i> and arts taught to +his pupils into <span class="grk" title="exoterika">ἐξωτερικά</span> and <span class="grk" title="akroatika">ἀκροατικά</span>; (2) taught the latter in +the morning walk (<span class="grk" title="eothinon peripaton">ἐωθινὸν περίπατον</span>), the former in the evening +walk (<span class="grk" title="deilinon peripaton">δειλινὸν περίπατον</span>); (3) divided his books in the same +manner; (4) defended himself against Alexander’s letter, complaining +that it was not right to his pupils to have published his acroamatic +works, by replying in a letter that they were published and not +published, because they are intelligible only to those who heard them. +Gellius then quotes this correspondence, also given by Plutarch, and +quotes it <i>ex Andronici philosophi libro</i>. The answer to the first three +points is that Aristotle did not make any distinction between exoteric +and acroamatic, and was not likely to have any longer taught his +exoteric dialogues when he was teaching his mature philosophy at +Athens, but may have alternated the teaching of the latter between +the more abstruse and the more popular parts which had gradually +come to be called “exoteric.” As regards the last point, the authority +of Andronicus proves that he at all events did not exaggerate his own +share in publishing Aristotle’s works; but it does not prove either +that this correspondence between Alexander and Aristotle took place, +or that Aristotle called his philosophical writings acroamatic, or that +he had published them wholesale to the world.</p> +</div> + +<p>The literary career of Aristotle falls into three periods, +(1) The early period; when he was writing and publishing +exoteric dialogues, but also tending to write didactic works, and +beginning his scientific writings, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Politics</i> in 357, the +<i>Meteorologica</i> in 356. (2) The immature period; when he was +continuing his didactic and scientific works, and composing first +drafts, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Categories</i>, the <i>Eudemian Ethics</i>, the <i>Magna +Moralia</i>, the <i>Rhetoric to Alexander</i>. (3) The mature period; +when he was finishing his scientific works, completing his system, +and not publishing it but teaching it in the Peripatetic school; +when he would teach not his early dialogues, nor his immature +writings and first drafts, but mature works, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Metaphysics</i>, +the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, the <i>Rhetoric</i>; and above all teach his +whole system as far as possible in the real order of his classification +of science.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">VI. The Aristotelian Philosophy</p> + +<p>We have now (1) sketched the life of Aristotle as a reader and a +writer from early manhood; (2) have watched him as a Platonist, +partly imitating but gradually emancipating himself from his +master to form a philosophy of his own; (3) have traced the +gradual composition of his writings from Plato’s time onwards; +(4) have distinguished earlier, more Platonic and rudimentary, +from later, more independent and mature, writings; (5) have +founded the real order of his writings, not on chronology, nor +on tradition, but on his classification of science and learning. It +remains to answer the final question:—What is the Aristotelian +philosophy, which its author gradually formed with so much +labour? Here we have only room for its spirit, which we shall +try to give as if he were himself speaking to us, as head of the +Peripatetic school at Athens, and holding no longer the early +views of his dialogues, or the immature views of such treatises as +the <i>Categories</i>, but only his mature views, such as he expresses +in the <i>Metaphysics</i>. Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician, a +philosopher of things, who uses the objective method of proceeding +from being to thinking. We shall begin therefore with that +primary philosophy which is the real basis of his philosophy, and +proceed in the order of his classification of science to give his chief +doctrines on:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(1) Speculative philosophy, metaphysical and physical, +including his psychology, and with it his logic.</p> + +<p>(2) Practical philosophy, ethics and politics.</p> + +<p>(3) Productive science, or art.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Things are substances</i> (<span class="grk" title="ousiai">οὐσίαι</span>), each of which is a separate +individual (<span class="grk" title="choriston, tode ti, kath ekaston">χωριστόν, τόδε τι, καθ᾽ ἕκαστον</span>) and is variously +affected as quantified, qualified, related, active, passive and so +forth, in categories of things which are attributes (<span class="grk" title="sumbebaekota">συμβεβηκότα</span>), +different from the category of substance, but real only as predicates +belonging to some substance, and are in fact only the +substance itself affected (<span class="grk" title="auto peponthos">αὐϔὸ πεπονθός</span>). The essence of each +substance, being what it is (<span class="grk" title="to tiest, to ti aen einai">τὸ τί ἐστι, τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι</span>), is that +substance; <i>e.g.</i> this rational animal, Socrates. Substances are +so similar that the individuals of a species are even the same in +essence or substance, <i>e.g.</i> Callias and Socrates differ in matter but +are the same in essence, as rational animals. The universal (<span class="grk" title="to katholoy">τὸ καθόλου</span>) +is real only as one predicate belonging to many +individual substances: it is therefore not a substance. There +are then no separate universal forms, as Plato supposed. There +are attributes and universals, real as belonging to individual +substances, whose being is their being. The mind, especially +in mathematics, abstracts numbers, motions, relations, causes, +essences, ends, kinds; and it over-abstracts things mentally +separate into things really separate. But reality consists only +of individual substances, numerous, moving, related, active as +efficient causes, passive as material causes, essences as formal +causes, ends as final causes, and in classes which are real +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> +universals only as real predicates of individual substances. +Such is Aristotle’s realism of individuals and universals, contained +in his primary philosophy, as expressed in the <i>Metaphysics</i>, +especially in Book Ζ, his authoritative pronouncement on +being and substance.</p> + +<p>The individual substances, of which the universe is composed, +fall into three great irreducible kinds: nature, God, man.</p> + +<p>I. Nature.—The obvious substances are natural substances +or bodies (<span class="grk" title="physikai ousiai, somata">φυσικαὶ οὐσίαι, σώματα</span>), <i>e.g.</i> animals, plants, water, +earth, moon, sun, stars. Each natural substance is a compound +(<span class="grk" title="syntheton, synthetae, ousia">σύνθετον, συνθέτη οὐσία</span>) of essence and matter; its essence +(<span class="grk" title="eldos, morphae, to ti esti, to ti aen einai">εἰδος, μορφή, τὸ τί ἐστι, τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι</span>) being its actual substance, +its matter (<span class="grk" title="ulae">ὕλη</span>) not; its essence being determinate, its matter +not; its essence being immateriate, its matter conjoined with the +essence; its essence being one in all individuals of a species, its +matter different in each individual; its essence being cause of +uniformity, its matter cause of accident. At the same time, +matter is not nothing, but something, which, though not substance, +is potentially substance; and it is either proximate to +the substance, or primary; proximate, as a substance which is +potentially different, <i>e.g.</i> wood potentially a table; primary, as +an indeterminate something which is a substratum capable of +becoming natural substances, of which it is always one; and it is +primarily the matter of earth, water, air, fire, the four simple +bodies (<span class="grk" title="apla somata">ἁπλᾶ σώματα</span>) with natural rectilineal motions in the +terrestrial world (<i>De Gen. et Cor</i>. ii. I seq.); while aether (<span class="grk" title="aithaer">αἰθήρ</span>) +is a fifth simple body, with natural circular motion, being the +element of the stars (<span class="grk" title="to ton astron stoicheion">τὸ τῶν ἄστρων στοιχεῖον</span>) in the celestial +world. Each natural substance is a formal cause, as being what +it is; a material cause, as having passive power to be changed; +an efficient cause, as having active power to change, by communicating +the selfsame essence into different matter so as to +produce therein a homogeneous effect in the same species; and +a final cause, as an end to be realized. Moreover, though each +natural substance is corruptible (<span class="grk" title="phtharton">φθαρτόν</span>), species is eternal +(<span class="grk" title="aidion">ἀἲδιον</span>), because there was always some individual of it to continue +its original essence (expressed by the imperfect tense in +<span class="grk" title="to ti aen einai">τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι</span>), which is ungenerated and incorruptible; the +natural world therefore is eternal; and nature is for ever aiming +at an eternal propagation, by efficient acting on matter, of +essence as end. For even nature does nothing in vain, but aims +at final causes, which she uniformly realizes, except so far as +matter by its spontaneity (<span class="grk" title="apo tou automatou">ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου</span>) causes accidental +effects; and the ends of nature are no form of good, nor even the +good of man, but the essences of natural substances themselves, +and, above them all, the good God Himself. Such is Aristotle’s +natural realism, pervading his metaphysical and physical +writings.</p> + +<p>II. <i>God</i>.—Nature is but one kind of being (<span class="grk" title="en gar ti genos tou ontos ae physis">ἓν γάρ τι γένος τοῦ ὄντος ἡ φύσις</span>, <i>Met.</i> Γ 3, 1005 a 34). Above all natural substances, +the objects of natural science, there stands a supernatural +substance, the object of metaphysics as theology. +Nature’s boundary is the outer sphere of the fixed stars, which +is eternally moved day after day in a uniform circle round the +earth. Now, an actual cause is required for an actual effect. +Therefore, there must be a prime mover of that prime movable, +and equally eternal and uniform. That prime mover is God, +who is not the creator, but the mover directly of the heavens, +and indirectly through the planets of sublunary substances. But +God is no mechanical mover. He moves as motive (<span class="grk" title="kinei de +os eromenon">κινεῖ δὲ ὡς ἐρώμενον</span>, <i>Met.</i> Λ 7, 1072 b 3); He is the efficient only as the +final cause of nature. For God is a living being, eternal, very +good (<span class="grk" title="zoov aision ariston">ζῷον ἀἴδιον ἄριστον</span>, <i>ib.</i> 1072 b 29). While nature aims at +Him as design, as an end, a motive, a final cause, God’s occupation +(<span class="grk" title="diagogae">διαγωγή</span>) is intelligence (<span class="grk" title="noaesis">νόησις</span>); and since essence, not +indeed in all being, but in being understood, becomes identical +with intelligence, God in understanding essence is understanding +Himself; and in short, God’s intelligence is at once intelligence +of Himself, of essence and of intelligence,—<span class="grk" title="kai estin ae noaesis +noaeseos noaesis">καὶ ἔστιν ἡ νόησις νοήσεως νόησις</span> (<i>Met.</i> Λ 7, 1074 b 34). But at the same time the +essence of good exists not only in God and God’s intelligence on +the one hand, but also on the other hand on a declining scale in +nature, as both in a general and in his army; but rather in God, +and more in some parts of nature than in others. Thus even +God is a substance, a separate individual, whose differentiating +essence is to be a living being, eternal and very good; He is +however the only substance whose essence is entirely without +matter and unconjoined with matter; and therefore He is a +substance, not because He has or is a substratum beneath +attributes, but wholly because He is a separate individual, +different both from nature and men, yet the final good of +the whole universe. Such is Aristotle’s theological realism +without materialism and the origin of all spiritualistic realism, +contained in his <i>Metaphysics</i> (Λ 6-end).</p> + +<p>III. <i>Man</i>.—There is a third kind of substance, combining +something both of the natural and of the divine: we men are +that privileged species. Each man is a substance, like any other, +only because he is a separate individual. Like any natural +substance, he is composed of matter and immateriate essence. +But natural substances are inorganic and organic; and a man +is an organic substance composed of an organic body (<span class="grk" title="organikon +soma">ὀργανικὸν σῶμα</span>) as matter, and a soul (<span class="grk" title="psychae">ψυχή</span>) as essence, which is the primary +actuality of an organic body capable of life (<span class="grk" title="zoae">ζωή</span>). Still a man is +not the only organism; and every organism has a soul, whose +immediate organ is the spirit (<span class="grk" title="pneuma">πνεῦμα</span>), a body which—analogous +to a body diviner than the four so-called elements, namely the +aether, the element of the stars—gives to the organism its non-terrestrial +vital heat, whether it be a plant or an animal. In an +ascending scale, a plant is an organism with a nutritive soul; +an animal is a higher organism with a nutritive, sensitive, +orectic and locomotive soul; a man is the highest organism with +a nutritive, sensitive, orectic, locomotive and rational soul. +What differentiates man from other natural and organic substances, +and approximates him to a supernatural substance, God, +is reason (<span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>), or intellect (<span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span>). Now, though only one of the +powers of the soul, intellect alone of these powers has no bodily +organ; it alone is immortal: it alone is divine. While the soul +is propagated, like any other essence, by the efficient, which is +the seed, to the matter, which is the germ, of the embryo man, +intellect alone enters from without (<span class="grk" title="thurathen">θύραθεν</span>), and is alone divine +(<span class="grk" title="theion">θεῖον</span>, not <span class="grk" title="theos">θεός</span>), because its activity communicates with no +bodily activity (<i>De Gen.</i> ii. 3, 736-737). A man then is a third +kind of substance, like a natural substance in bodily matter, like +a supernatural substance in divine reason or intellect. Such is +Aristotle’s dual, or rather triple, realism, continued in his <i>De +Anima</i> and other biological writings, especially <i>De Generatione +Animalium</i>, ii.</p> + +<p>There are three points about a man’s life which both connect +him with, and distinguish him from, God. God’s occupation is +speculative; man’s is speculation, practice and production.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>I. <i>Speculation</i> (<span class="grk" title="theoria">θεωρία</span>).—Since things are individuals, and there +is nothing, and nothing universal, beyond them, there are two +kinds of knowledge (<span class="grk" title="gnosis">γνῶσις</span>), sense (<span class="grk" title="aisthaesis">αἴσθησις</span>) of individuals, intellect +(<span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span>) of universals. Both powers know by being passively receptive +of essence propagated by an efficient cause; but, while in sense the +efficient cause is an external object (<span class="grk" title="exothen">ἔξωθεν</span>), in intelligence it is active +intellect (<span class="grk" title="nous to poiein">νοῦς τῷ ποιεῖν</span>) propagating its essence in passive intellect +(<span class="grk" title="nous pathaetikos">νοῦς παθητικός</span>). Nevertheless, without sense there is no knowledge. +Sense receives from the external world an essence, <i>e.g.</i> of white, which +is really universal as well as individual, but apprehends it only as +individual, <i>e.g.</i> this white substance: intellect thereupon discovers +the universal essence but only in the individuals of sense. This +intellectual discovery requires sensation and retention of sensation; +so that sense (<span class="grk" title="aisthaesis">αἴσθησις</span>) receives impressions, imagination (<span class="grk" title="phantasia">φαντασία</span>) +retains them as images, intellect (<span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span>) generalizes the universal, and, +when it is intelligence of essence, is always true.</p> + +<p>This is the origin of knowledge, psychologically regarded (in the <i>De +Anima</i>). Logically regarded, the origin of all teaching and learning +of an intellectual kind is a process of induction (<span class="grk" title="epagogae">ἐπαγωγή</span>) from particulars +to universal, and of syllogism (<span class="grk" title="syllogismos">συλλογισμός</span>) from universal +to further particulars; induction, whenever it starts from sense, +becomes the origin of scientific knowledge (<span class="grk" title="epiostaemae">ἐπιστήμη</span>); while there +is also a third process of example (<span class="grk" title="paradeigma">παράδειγμα</span>) from particular to +particular, which produces only persuasion. In acquiring scientific +knowledge, syllogism cannot start from universals without induction, +nor induction acquire universals without sense. At the same time, +there are three species of syllogism, scientific, dialectical and eristical +or sophistical; and in consequence there are different ways of +acquiring premisses. In order to acquire the knowledge of the true +and primary principles of scientific knowledge, and especially the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span> +intelligence of the universal essence of the subject, which is always +true, the process of knowledge consists of (1) sense (<span class="grk" title="aisthaesis">αἴσθησις</span>), which +receives the essence as individual, (2) memory (<span class="grk" title="mnaemae">μνήμη</span>), which is a +retention of sensible impression, (3) experience (<span class="grk" title="empeiria">ἐμπειρία</span>), which consists +of a number of similar memories, (4) induction (<span class="grk" title="epagogae">ἐπαγωγή</span>), which infers +the universal as a fact (<span class="grk" title="to oti">τὸ ὅτι</span>), (5) intellect (<span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span>), which apprehends the +principle (<span class="grk" title="archae">ἀρχή</span>); because it is a true apprehension that the universal +induced is the very essence and formal cause of the subject: thereupon, +scientific syllogism (<span class="grk" title="epistaemonikos syllogismos">ἐπιστημονικὸς συλλογισμός</span>), making the definition +(<span class="grk" title="horismos">ὁρισμος</span>) of this essence the middle term (<span class="grk" title="to meson">τὸ μέσον</span>), becomes a +demonstration (<span class="grk" title="apodeixis">ὁρισμος</span>) of the consequences which follow from +the essence in the conclusion. Such then is science. In order to +acquire the probabilities (<span class="grk" title="ta endoxa">τὰ ἔνδοξα</span>) of opinion (<span class="grk" title="doxa">δόξα</span>), which are the +premisses of dialectical syllogism, the process is still induction, as in +science, but dialectical induction by interrogation from the opinions +of the answerers until the universal is conceded: thereupon the dialectical +syllogism (<span class="grk" title="dialektikos syllogismos">διαλεκτικὸς συλλογισμός</span>) deduces consequent opinions +in the conclusion. Nor does the process of acquiring the premisses +of eristical syllogism, which is fallacious either in its premisses or +in its process, differ, except that, when the premisses are fallacious, +the dialectical interrogations must be such as to cause this fallacy. +Hence, as science and dialectic are different, so scientific induction +and syllogism must be distinguished from dialectical induction and +syllogism. Dialectic is useful, for exercise, for conversation and for +philosophical sciences, where by being critical it has a road to principles. +But it is by a different process of sense, memory, experience, +induction, intelligence, syllogism, that science becomes knowledge of +real causes, of real effects, and especially of real essences from which +follow real consequences, not beyond, but belonging to real substances. +So can we men, not, as Plato thought, by having in our +souls universal principles innate but forgotten, but by acquiring +universal principles from sense, which is the origin of knowledge, arrive +at judgments which are true, and true because they agree with the +things which we know by sense, by inference and by science. Such +is Aristotle’s psychological and logical realism, contained in the <i>De +Anima</i> and logical treatises.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Practice</i> (<span class="grk" title="praxis">πρᾶξις</span>).—In this natural world of real substances, +human good is not an imitation of a supernatural universal form of +the good, but is human happiness; and this good is the same both of +the individual as a part and of the state as a whole. Ethics then is +a kind of Politics. But in Ethics a man’s individual good is his own +happiness; and his happiness is no mere state, but an activity of soul +according to virtue in a mature life, requiring as conditions moderate +bodily and external goods of fortune; his virtue is (1) moral virtue, +which is acquired by habituation, and is a purposive habit of performing +actions in the mean determined by right reason or prudence; +requiring him, not to exclude, but to moderate his desires; and (2) +intellectual virtue, which is either prudence of practical, or wisdom of +speculative intellect; and his happiness is a kind of ascending scale +of virtuous activities, in which moral virtue is limited by prudence, +and prudence by wisdom; so that the speculative life of wisdom is +the happiest and most divine, and the practical life of prudence and +moral virtue secondary and human. Good fortune in moderation is +also required as a condition of his happiness. Must we then, on account +of misfortunes, look with Solon at the end, and call no man +happy till he is dead? Or is this altogether absurd for us who say +that happiness is an activity? Virtuous activities determine happiness, +and a virtuous man is happy in this life, in spite of misfortunes +unless they be too great; while after death he will not feel the misfortunes +of the living so much as to change his happiness. Still, +for perfect happiness a man should prefer the speculative life of +divine intellect, and immortalize (<span class="grk" title="athanatizein">ἀθανατίζειν</span>) as far as possible. For +intellect is what mainly makes a man what he is, and is divine and +immortal.</p> + +<p>To turn from Ethics to Politics, the good of the individual on a +small scale becomes on a large scale the good of the citizen and the +state, whose end should be no far-off form of good, and no mere +guarantee of rights, but the happiness of virtuous action, the life +according to virtue, which is the general good of the citizen. Hence, +the citizen of the best state is he who has the power and the purpose +to be governed and govern for the sake of the life according to virtue.</p> + +<p>A right government is one which aims at the general good, whereas +any government which aims at its own good is a deviation. Hence +governments are to be arranged from best to worst in the following +order:—</p> + +<p class="in">I. Right governments (<span class="grk" title="orthai politeiai">ὀρθαὶ πολιτείαι</span>), aiming at the general + good:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>i. Monarchy, of one excelling in virtue:</p> + <p>ii. Aristocracy, of a class excelling in virtue:</p> + <p>iii. Commonwealth, of the majority excelling in virtue.</p> +</div> +<p class="in">II. Deviations (<span class="grk" title="parekbaseis">παρεκβάσεις</span>), aiming at the good of the government:—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>i. Democracy, aiming at the good of the majority:</p> + <p>ii. Oligarchy, aiming at the good of the few:</p> + <p>iii. Tyranny, aiming at the good of one.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">Such is Aristotle’s practical philosophy, contained in his matured +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, and his unfinished <i>Politics</i>.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Production</i> (<span class="grk" title="poiaesis">ποίησις</span>).—Production differs from practice in +being an activity (<span class="grk" title="enirgeia">ἐνέργεια</span>; <i>e.g.</i> building) which is always a means +to a work (<span class="grk" title="ergon">ἔργον</span>; <i>e.g.</i> a house) beyond itself. Productive science, +or art, is an intellectual habit of true reasoning from appropriate +principles, acquired from experiences, and applied to the production +of the work which is the end of the art. All the arts are therefore at +once rational and productive. They are either for necessity (<i>e.g.</i> +medicine) or for occupation (<i>e.g.</i> poetry), the former being inferior +to the latter. Rhetoric is a faculty on any subject of investigating +what may be persuasive (<span class="grk" title="pithanon">πιθανόν</span>), which is the work of no other +art; its means are artificial and inartificial evidences (<span class="grk" title="pisteis">πίστεις</span>), +and, among artificial evidences, especially the logical arguments of +example and enthymeme. Poetry is the art of producing representations; +(1) in words, rhythm and harmony (<span class="grk" title="harmonia">ἁρμονία</span>, “harmony” in +the original sense); (2) of men like ourselves, or better as in tragedy, +or worse as in comedy; (3) by means of narrative as in epic, or by +action as in the drama. The cause of poetry is man’s instinct of +representation and his love of representations caused by the pleasure of +learning. Comedy is representation of men inferior in being ludicrous: +epic is like tragedy a representation of superior men, but by means of +narrative and unlimited in time: tragedy is a representation of an +action superior and complete, in a day if possible, by means of action, +and accomplishing by pity and fear the purgation of such passions +(<i>Poetics</i>, 1449 b 24). Music is a part of moral education; and for +this end we should use the most moral harmonies. But music has +also other ends and uses, and on the whole four; namely amusement, +virtue, occupation and purgation of the affections; for some +men are liable more than others to pity and fear and enthusiasm, but +from sacred melodies we see them, when they have heard those which +act orgiastically on the soul, becoming settled by a kind of medicine +and purgation (<span class="grk" title="katharsis">κάθαρσις</span>), and being relieved with pleasure. Finally, +art is not morality, because its end is always a work of art, not +virtuous action: on the other hand, art is subordinate to morality, +because all the ends of art are but means to the end of life, and +therefore a work of art which offends against morality is opposed to the +happiness and the good of man. Such is Aristotle’s productive +science or art, contained in his <i>Rhetoric</i> and <i>Poetics</i>, compared with +his <i>Ethics</i> and <i>Politics</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Aristotle, even in this sketch of his system, shows himself +to be the philosopher of facts, who can best of all men bear +criticism; and indeed it must be confessed that he retained +many errors of Platonism and laid himself open to the following +objections. Two substances, being individuals, <i>e.g.</i> Socrates and +Callias, are in no way the same, but only similar, even in essence, +<i>e.g.</i> Socrates is one rational animal, Callias another. A universal, +<i>e.g.</i> the species man, is not predicate of many individuals +(<span class="grk" title="en kata pollon">ἓν κατὰ πολλῶν</span>, <i>Post. An.</i> i. II), but a whole number of +similar individuals, <i>e.g.</i> all men; and not a whole species, +but only an individual, is a predicate of such individual, <i>e.g.</i> +Socrates is a man, not all men, and one white thing, not +all white things. Consequently, a species or genus is not a +substance, as Aristotle says it is in the <i>Categories</i> +(inconsistently with his own doctrine of substances), but a whole +number of substances, <i>e.g.</i> all men, all animals. Similarly, +the universal essence of a species is not one and the +same as each individual essence, but is the whole number +of similar individual essences of the similar individuals of the +species, <i>e.g.</i> all rational animals. Consequently, the universal +essence of a species of substances is not one and the same eternal +essence in all the individuals of a species but only similar, and is +not substance as Aristotle calls it in the <i>Metaphysics</i>, +inconsistently with his own doctrine of substance, but is a whole +number of similar substances, <i>e.g.</i> all rational animals which are +what all men are. Hence again, the natural world of species and +essences is not eternal, but only endures as long as there are +individual substances. Hence, moreover, a natural substance or +body as an efficient cause or force causes an effect on another, +not by propagating one eternal essence of a species into the matter +of the other, but so far as we really understand force, by their +reciprocally preventing one another from occupying the same +place at the same moment on account of the mutual resistance of +any two bodies. The essence of a natural substance, <i>e.g.</i> wood, +is not immateriate, but is the whole body as what it is. The +matter of a natural substance is not a primary matter which is +one indeterminate substratum of all natural substances, but is +only one body as able to be changed by a force which is another +substance able to change it, <i>e.g.</i> a seed becoming wood, wood +becoming coal, &c. A natural substance or body, therefore, is +not a heterogeneous compound of essence and matter, but is +essence as what it is, matter as able passively to be changed, +force as able actively to change. The simple bodies which are +the matter of the rest are not terrestrial earth, water, air, fire, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span> +and a different celestial aether, but whatever elementary bodies +natural science, starting anew from mechanics and chemistry, +may determine to be the matter of all other bodies whatever. +Nature does not aim at God as end, but God, thinking and +willing ends, produces and acts on nature. Soul is not an +immateriate essence of an organic body capable, but an immateriate +conscious substance within an organic body. Sensation is not +the reception of the selfsame essence of an external body, but +one’s perception of one’s sentient organism as affected, and +especially of its organs resisting one another, <i>e.g.</i> one’s lips, +hands, &c., preventing one another from occupying the same +place at the same moment within one’s organism. Intelligence +does not differ from sense by having no bodily organ, but the +nervous system is the bodily organ of both. Intelligence is not +active intellect propagating universal essence in passive intellect, +but only logical inference starting from sense, and both requiring +nervous body and conscious soul. It is not always a true apprehension +of essence, but often, especially in physical matter, such +as sound or heat or light, takes superficial effects to be the +essence of the thing. Aristotle did not altogether solve the +question, What is, and scarcely solved at all the question, How +do we know the external world?</p> + +<p>We might continue to object. But at bottom there remains +the fundamental position of Aristotelianism, that all things are +substances, individuals separate though related; that some +things are attributes, real only as being some individual substance +somehow affected, or, as we should say, modified or determined; +and that without individual substances there is nothing, and +nothing universal apart from individuals. There remains too +the consequence that there are different substances, separate +from but related to one another; and these substances of three +irreducible kinds, natural, supernatural, human. Aristotelianism +has to be considered against the philosophy which preceded +it and against the philosophy which has since followed it. Platonism +preceded it, and was the metaphysical doctrine that all things +are supernatural—forms, gods, souls. Idealism has since followed +it, and is the metaphysical doctrine that all things are mind and +states of mind. Aristotelianism intervenes between ancient +Platonism and modern Idealism, and is the metaphysical doctrine +that all things are substances, natural and supernatural and +human. It is a philosophy of substantial things, standing as a +<i>via media</i> between a philosophy of the supernatural and a +philosophy of mind. There are three alternatives, which may be +put as questions which every thinker must ask himself. Are the +things which surround me in what I call the environment,—the +men, the animals, the plants, the ground, the stones, the water, +the air, the moon, the sun, the stars and God—are they shadows, +unsubstantial things, as formerly Platonism made all things to be +except the supernatural world of forms, gods and souls? Or are +they, as modern Idealism says, mind and states of mind? Or +are they really substances separate from, though related to, +myself, who am also a substance? The Aristotelian answer +is—“Yes, all things are substances, but not all supernatural, nor +all mental; for some are natural substances, or bodies”; and +by that answer Aristotelianism stands or falls.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—The Aristotelian philosophy is to be studied first in +Aristotle’s works, which are the best commentaries on one another; +the best complete edition is the Berlin edition (1831-1870), by Bekker +and Brandis, in which also are the fragments collected by V. Rose, +the scholia collected by Brandis, and the index compiled by Bonitz. +After reading the remains of the Peripatetic school, the Greek +commentators should be further studied in this edition. The Latin +commentators, the Arabians and the schoolmen show how Aristotle +has been the chief author of modern culture; while the vindication +of modern independence comes out in his critics, the greatest of whom +were Roger and Francis Bacon. Since the modern discovery of the +science of motion by Galileo which changed natural science, and the +modern revolution of philosophy by Descartes which changed metaphysics, +the study of Aristotle has become less universal; but it did +not die out, and received a fresh stimulus especially from Julius Pacius, +who going back through G. Zabarella to the Arabians, and himself +gifted with great logical powers, always deserves study in his editions +of the <i>Organon</i> and the <i>Physics</i> and in his <i>Doctrinae Peripateticae</i>. +In more recent times, as part of the growing conviction of the essentiality of everything Greek, Aristotle has received marked +attention. In France there are the works of Cousin (1835), Félix Ravaisson, who +wrote on the <i>Metaphysics</i> (1837-1846), and Barthélemy St Hilaire, +who translated the <i>Organon</i> and other works (1844 seq.). In +Germany there has been a host of commentaries, among which we +may mention the <i>Organon</i> edited (1844-1846) by F. Th. Waitz (not +so well as by Pacius), the <i>De Anima</i> edited (1833) by F.A. +Trendelenburg and later by A. Torstrik, the <i>Historia Animalium</i> by H. Aubert +and F. Wimmer (1868), the <i>Ethics</i> by K.L. Michelet (1827), the +<i>Metaphysics</i> by A. Schwegler (1847) and (best of all) by H. Bonitz +(1848), who is the most faithful of all commentators, because to great +industry and acumen he adds the rare gift of confessing when he does +not understand, and when he does not know what Aristotle might +have thought. With Aristotle’s works before one, with the <i>Index +Aristotelicus</i>, and the edition and translation of the <i>Metaphysics</i> by +Bonitz on one side, and Zeller’s <i>Die Philosophie der Griechen</i>, ii. 2, +“Aristoteles” (trans. by Costelloe and Muirhead), on the other side, +one can go a considerable way towards understanding the foundations +of Aristotelianism.</p> + +<p>In England scholars tend to take up certain parts of Aristotle’s +philosophy. Grote indeed intended to write a general account of +Aristotle like that of Plato; but his <i>Aristotle</i> went little further than +the logical writings. From Cambridge we have J.W. Blakesley’s +<i>Life of Aristotle</i>, E.M. Cope’s <i>Rhetoric</i>, Dr Henry Jackson’s +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, v., S.H. Butcher’s <i>Poetics</i>, Hicks’s <i>De Anima</i>, +J.E. Sandys’s <i>Athenian Constitution</i>, Jebb’s <i>Rhetoric</i> (ed. Sandys). +Oxford in particular, since the beginning of the 19th century, has kept alive the study of Aristotle. E. Cardwell in his edition +of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> (1828) had the wisdom to found his text +on the Laurentian Manuscript (Kb); E. Poste wrote translations +of the <i>Posterior Analytics</i> and <i>Sophistici Elenchi</i>; R. Congreve +edited the <i>Politics</i>; A. Grant edited the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>; +E. Wallace translated and annotated the <i>De Anima</i>; B. Jowett +translated the <i>Politics</i>; W.L. Newman has edited the <i>Politics</i> in +four volumes; Dr Ogle has translated the <i>De Partibus Animalium</i>, +with notes; R. Shute wrote a <i>History of the Aristotelian Writings</i>; +Professor J.A. Stewart has written <i>Notes on the Nicomachean +Ethics</i>; Professor J. Burnet has issued an annotated edition of +the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, and W.D. Ross has translated the +<i>Metaphysics</i>. All these are, or were, Oxford men; and it remains to +mention two others: I. Bywater, who as an Aristotelian scholar has +done much for the improvement of Bekker’s text, especially of the +<i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> and the <i>Poetics</i>; and F.G. Kenyon, who has +the proud distinction of having been the first modern editor of the +<span class="grk" title="Athaenaion politeia">Ἀθηναίων πολιτεία</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. Ca.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISTOXENUS,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> of Tarentum (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a Greek +peripatetic philosopher, and writer on music and rhythm. He +was taught first by his father Spintharus, a pupil of Socrates, +and later by the Pythagoreans, Lamprus of Erythrae and Xenophilus, +from whom he learned the theory of music. Finally he +studied under Aristotle at Athens, and was deeply annoyed, it is +said, when Theophrastus was appointed head of the school on +Aristotle’s death. His writings, said to have numbered four +hundred and fifty-three, were in the style of Aristotle, and dealt +with philosophy, ethics and music. The empirical tendency of +his thought is shown in his theory that the soul is related to the +body as harmony to the parts of a musical instrument. We have +no evidence as to the method by which he deduced this theory +(cf. T. Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>, Eng. trans. 1905, vol. iii. p. 43). +In music he held that the notes of the scale are to be judged, not +as the Pythagoreans held, by mathematical ratio, but by the ear. +The only work of his that has come down to us is the three books +of the <i>Elements of Harmony</i> (<span class="grk" title="rythmika stoicheia">ῥυθμικὰ στοιχεῖα</span>), an +incomplete musical treatise. Grenfell and Hunt’s <i>Oxyrhynchus Papyri</i> +(vol. i., 1898) contains a five-column fragment of a treatise on metre, +probably this treatise of Aristoxenus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition is by Paul Marquard, with German translation and +full commentary, <i>Die harmonischen Fragmente des Aristoxenus</i> (Berlin, +1868). The fragments are also given in C.W. Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i>, +ii. 269 sqq.; and R. Westphal, <i>Melik und Rhythmik d. klass. Hellenenthums</i> +(2nd vol. edited by F. Saran, Leipzig, 1893). Eng. trans. +by H.S. Macran (Oxford, 1902). See also W.L. Mahne, <i>Diatribe de +Aristoxeno</i> (Amsterdam, 1793); B. Brill, <i>Aristoxenus’ rhythmische +und metrische Messungen</i> (1871); R. Westphal, <i>Griechische Rhythmik +und Harmonik</i> (Leipzig, 1867); L. Laloy, <i>Aristoxène de Tarente et la +musique de l’antiquité</i> (Paris, 1904); See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peripatetics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pythagoras</a></span> +(<i>Music</i>) and art. “Greek Music” in Grove’s <i>Dict. of Music</i> (1904). +For the Oxyrhynchus fragment see <i>Classical Review</i> (January 1898), +and C. van Jan in Bursian’s <i>Jahresbericht</i>, civ. (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARISUGAWA,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> the name of one of the royal families of Japan, +going back to the seventh son of the mikado Go-Yozei (d. 1638). +After the revolution of 1868, when the mikado Mutsu-hito was +restored, his uncle, Prince Taruhito Arisugawa (1835-1895), +became commander-in-chief, and in 1875 president of the senate. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span> +After his suppression of the Satsuma rebellion he was made a +field-marshal, and he was chief of the staff in the war with China +(1894-95). His younger brother, Prince Takehito Arisugawa +(b. 1862), was from 1879 to 1882 in the British navy, serving +in the Channel Squadron, and studied at the Naval College, +Greenwich. In the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 he was +in command of a cruiser, and subsequently became +admiral-superintendent at Yokosuka. Prince Arisugawa represented +Japan in England together with Marquis Ito at the Diamond +Jubilee (1897), and in 1905 was again received there as the +king’s guest.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARITHMETIC<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="arithmaetikae">ἀριθμητική</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="technae">τέχνη</span>, the art of counting, +from <span class="grk" title="arithmos">ἀριθμός</span>, number), the art of dealing with numerical +quantities in their numerical relations.</p> + +<p>1. Arithmetic is usually divided into <i>Abstract Arithmetic</i> and +<i>Concrete Arithmetic</i>, the former dealing with numbers and the +latter with concrete objects. This distinction, however, might +be misleading. In stating that the sum of 11d. and 9d. is 1s. 8d. +we do not mean that nine pennies when added to eleven pennies +produce a shilling and eight pennies. The sum of money +corresponding to 11d. may in fact be made up of coins in several +different ways, so that the symbol “11d.” cannot be taken as +denoting any definite concrete objects. The arithmetical fact is +that 11 and 9 may be regrouped as 12 and 8, and the statement +“11d. + 9d. = 1s. 8d.” is only an arithmetical statement in so far +as each of the three expressions denotes a numerical quantity +(§ 11).</p> + +<p>2. The various stages in the study of arithmetic may be +arranged in different ways, and the arrangement adopted must +be influenced by the purpose in view. There are three main +purposes, the practical, the educational, and the scientific; <i>i.e.</i> +the subject may be studied with a view to technical skill in dealing +with the arithmetical problems that arise in actual life, or for +the sake of its general influence on mental development, or as an +elementary stage in mathematical study.</p> + +<p>3. The practical aspect is an important one. The daily +activities of the great mass of the adult population, in countries +where commodities are sold at definite prices for definite +quantities, include calculations which have often to be performed +rapidly, on data orally given, and leading in general to +results which can only be approximate; and almost every branch +of manufacture or commerce has its own range of applications +of arithmetic. Arithmetic as a school subject has been largely +regarded from this point of view.</p> + +<p>4. From the educational point of view, the value of arithmetic +has usually been regarded as consisting in the stress it lays on +accuracy. This aspect of the matter, however, belongs mainly +to the period when arithmetic was studied almost entirely for +commercial purposes; and even then accuracy was not found +always to harmonize with actuality. The development of +physical science has tended to emphasize an exactly opposite +aspect, viz. the impossibility, outside a certain limited range of +subjects, of ever obtaining absolute accuracy, and the consequent +importance of not wasting time in attempting to obtain results +beyond a certain degree of approximation.</p> + +<p>5. As a branch of mathematics, arithmetic may be treated +logically, psychologically, or historically. All these aspects are +of importance to the teacher: the logical, in order that he may +know the end which he seeks to attain; the psychological, that +he may know how best to attain this end; and the historical, for +the light that history throws on psychology,</p> + +<p>The logical arrangement of the subject is not the best for +elementary study. The division into abstract and concrete, for +instance, is logical, if the former is taken as relating to number +and the latter to numerical quantity (§ 11). But the result of a +rigid application of this principle would be that the calculation +of the cost of 3 ℔ of tea at 2s. a ℔ would be deferred until +after the study of logarithms. The psychological treatment +recognizes the fact that the concrete precedes the abstract and +that the abstract is based on the concrete; and it also recognizes +the futility of attempting a strictly continuous development of +the subject.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, logical analysis is necessary if the subject +is to be understood. As an illustration, we may take the elementary +processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication and +division. These are still called in text-books the “four simple +rules”; but this name ignores certain essential differences. +(i) If we consider that we are dealing with numerical quantities, +we must recognize the fact that, while addition and subtraction +might in the first instance be limited to such quantities, +multiplication and division necessarily introduce the idea of +pure number. (ii) If on the other hand we regard ourselves as +dealing with pure number throughout, then, as multiplication is +continued addition, we ought to include in our classification +involution as continued multiplication. Or we might say that, +since multiplication is a form of addition, and division a form +of subtraction, there are really only two fundamental processes, +viz. addition and subtraction. (iii) The inclusion of the four +processes under one general head fails to indicate the essential +difference between addition and multiplication, as direct processes, +on the one hand, and subtraction and division, as inverse +processes, on the other (§ 59).</p> + +<p>6. The present article deals mainly with the principles of the +subject, for which a logical arrangement is on the whole the more +convenient. It is not suggested that this is the proper order to be +adopted by the teacher.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Number</p> + +<p>7. <i>Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers</i>.—One of the primary +distinctions in the use of number is between ordinal and cardinal +numbers, or rather between the ordinal and the cardinal aspects +of number. The usual statement is that <i>one, two, three, ...</i> are +cardinal numbers, and <i>first, second, third, ...</i> are ordinal +numbers. This, however, is an incomplete statement; the words +one, two, three, ... and the corresponding symbols 1, 2, 3, ... +or I, II, III, ... are used sometimes as ordinals, <i>i.e.</i> to denote +the place of an individual in a series, and sometimes as cardinals, +<i>i.e.</i> to denote the total number since the commencement of the +series.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the ordinal use is perhaps the more common. +Thus “100” on a page of a book does not mean that the page is +100 times the page numbered 1, but merely that it is the page +after 99. Even in commercial transactions, in dealing with +sums of money, the statement of an amount often has reference +to the last item added rather than to a total; and geometrical +measurements are practically ordinal (§ 26).</p> + +<p>For ordinal purposes we use, as symbols, not only figures, such +as 1, 2, 3, ... but also letters, as a, b, c, ... Thus the pages of +a book may be numbered 1, 2, 3, ... and the chapters I, II, III, ... but +the sheets are lettered A, B, C, ... Figures and letters +may even be used in combination; thus 16 may be followed by +16a and 16b, and these by 17, and in such a case the ordinal +100 does not correspond with the total (cardinal) number up to +this point.</p> + +<p>Arithmetic is supposed to deal with cardinal, not with ordinal +numbers; but it will be found that actual numeration, beyond +about three or four, is based on the ordinal aspect of number, +and that a scientific treatment of the subject usually requires a +return to this fundamental basis.</p> + +<p>One difference between the treatment of ordinal and of +cardinal numbers may be noted. Where a number is expressed +in terms of various denominations, a cardinal number usually +begins with the largest denomination, and an ordinal number +with the smallest. Thus we speak of one thousand eight hundred +and seventy-six, and represent it by MDCCCLXXVI or 1876; +but we should speak of the third day of August 1876, and represent +it by 3. 8. 1876. It might appear as if the writing of 1876 +was an exception to this rule; but in reality 1876, when used +in this way, is partly cardinal and partly ordinal, the first three +figures being cardinal and the last ordinal. To make the year +completely ordinal, we should have to describe it as the 6th year +of the 8th decade of the 8th century of the 2nd millennium; <i>i.e.</i> +we should represent the date by 3. 8. 6. 8. 9. 2, the total number +of years, months and days completed being 1875. 7. 2.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span></p> + +<p>In using an ordinal we direct our attention to a term of a series, +while in using a cardinal we direct our attention to the interval +between two terms. The total number in the series is the sum +of the two cardinal numbers obtained by counting up to any +interval from the beginning and from the end respectively; but +if we take the ordinal numbers from the beginning and from the +end we count one term twice over. Hence, if there are 365 days +in a year, the 100th day from the beginning is the 266th, not the +265th, from the end.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Meaning of Names of Numbers</i>.—What do we mean by any +particular number, <i>e.g.</i> by <i>seven</i>, or by <i>two hundred and fifty-three</i>? +We can define <i>two</i> as <i>one and one</i>, and <i>three</i> as <i>one and one +and one</i>; but we obviously cannot continue this method for +ever. For the definition of large numbers we may employ either +of two methods, which will be called the <i>grouping</i> method and +the <i>counting</i> method.</p> + +<p>(i) <i>Method of Grouping</i>.—The first method consists in defining +the first few numbers, and forming larger numbers by groups +or aggregates, formed partly by multiplication and partly by +addition. Thus, on the denary system (§16) we can give independent +definitions to the numbers up to ten, and then regard +(<i>e.g.</i>) fifty-three as a composite number made up of five tens and +three ones. Or, on the quinary-binary system, we need only give +independent definitions to the numbers up to five; the numbers +<i>six, seven</i>, ... can then be regarded as <i>five and one, five and two</i>, ..., +a fresh series being started when we get to <i>five and five</i> +or <i>ten.</i> The grouping method introduces multiplication into the +definition of large numbers; but this, from the teacher’s point +of view, is not now such a serious objection as it was in the days +when children were introduced to millions and billions before they +had any idea of elementary arithmetical processes.</p> + +<p>(ii) <i>Method of Counting</i>.—The second method consists in taking +a series of names or symbols for the first few numbers, and then +repeating these according to a regular system for successive +numbers, so that each number is defined by reference to the +number immediately preceding it in the series. Thus <i>two</i> still +means <i>one and one</i>, but <i>three</i> means <i>two and one</i>, not <i>one and one +and one.</i> Similarly <i>two hundred and fifty-three</i> does not mean two +hundreds, five tens and three ones, but <i>one</i> more than <i>two +hundred and fifty-two</i>; and the number which is called one +hundred is not defined as ten tens, but as one more than ninety-nine.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Concrete and Abstract Numbers</i>.—Number is concrete or +abstract according as it does or does not relate to particular +objects. On the whole, the grouping method refers mainly to +concrete numbers and the counting method to abstract numbers. +If we sort objects into groups of ten, and find that there are five +groups of ten with three over, we regard the five and the three +as names for the actual sets of groups or of individuals. The +three, for instance, are regarded as a whole when we name them +<i>three.</i> If, however, we count these three as one, two, three, then +the number of times we count is an abstract number. Thus +number in the abstract is the number of times that the act of +counting is performed in any particular case. This, however, +is a description, not a definition, and we still want a definition for +“number” in the phrase “number of times.”</p> + +<p>10. <i>Definition of “Number.”</i>—Suppose we fix on a certain +sequence of names “one,” “two,” “three,” ..., or symbols +such as 1, 2, 3, ...; this sequence being always the same. If we +take a set of concrete objects, and name them in succession “one,” +“two,” “three,” ..., naming each once and once only, we shall +not get beyond a certain name, <i>e.g.</i> “six.” Then, in saying that +the number of objects is six, what we mean is that the name of +the last object named is six. We therefore only require a definite +law for the formation of the successive names or symbols. The +symbols 1, 2, ... 9, 10, ..., for instance, are formed according +to a definite law; and in giving 253 as the <i>number</i> of a set of +objects we mean that if we attach to them the symbols 1, 2, 3, +... in succession, according to this law, the symbol attached +to the last object will be 253. If we say that this act of attaching +a symbol has been performed 253 times, then 253 is an +<i>abstract</i> (or <i>pure</i>) <i>number.</i></p> + +<p>Underlying this definition is a certain assumption, viz. that if +we take the objects in a different order, the last symbol attached +will still be 253. This, in an elementary treatment of the subject, +must be regarded as axiomatic; but it is really a simple case of +mathematical induction. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span>.) If we take two objects +A and B, it is obvious that whether we take them as A, B, or as +B, A, we shall in each case get the sequence 1, 2. Suppose this +were true for, say, eight objects, marked 1 to 8. Then, if we +introduce another object anywhere in the series, all those coming +after it will be displaced so that each will have the mark formerly +attached to the next following; and the last will therefore +be 9 instead of 8. This is true, whatever the arrangement of the +original objects may be, and wherever the new one is introduced; +and therefore, if the theorem is true for 8, it is true for 9. But it +is true for 2; therefore it is true for 3; therefore for 4, and so on.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Numerical Quantities</i>.—If the term <i>number</i> is confined to +number in the abstract, then number in the concrete may be +described as <i>numerical quantity</i>. Thus £3 denotes £1 taken +3 times. The £1 is termed the <i>unit.</i> A numerical quantity, +therefore, represents a certain unit, taken a certain number of +times. If we take £3 twice, we get £6; and if we take 3s. twice, +we get 6s., <i>i.e.</i> 6 times 1s. Thus arithmetical processes deal with +numerical quantities by dealing with numbers, provided the unit +is the same throughout. If we retain the unit, the arithmetic is +concrete; if we ignore it, the arithmetic is abstract. But in the +latter case it must always be understood that there is some unit +concerned, and the results have no meaning until the unit is +reintroduced.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Notation, Numeration and Number-Ideation</p> + +<p>12. <i>Terms used</i>.—The representation of numbers by spoken +sounds is called <i>numeration</i>; their representation by written +signs is called <i>notation</i>. The systems adopted for numeration and +for notation do not always agree with one another; nor do they +always correspond with the idea which the numbers subjectively +present. This latter presentation may, in the absence of any +accepted term, be called <i>number-ideation</i>; this word covering +not only the perception or recognition of particular numbers, but +also the formation of a number-concept.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Notation of Numbers</i>.—The system which is now almost +universally in use amongst civilized nations for representing +cardinal numbers is the Hindu, sometimes incorrectly called the +Arabic, system. The essential features which distinguish this +from other systems are (1) the limitation of the number of +different symbols, only ten being used, however large the number +to be represented may be; (2) the use of the <i>zero</i> to indicate the +absence of number; and (3) the principle of local value, by which +a symbol in effect represents different numbers, according to its +position. The symbols denoting a number are called its <i>digits</i>.</p> + +<p>A brief account of the development of the system will be found +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numeral</a></span>. Here we are concerned with the principle, +the explanation of which is different according as we proceed on +the grouping or the counting system.</p> + +<p>(i) On the grouping system we may in the first instance consider +that we have separate symbols for numbers from “one” to +“nine,” but that when we reach ten objects we put them in a +group and denote this group by the symbol used for “one,” but +printed in a different type or written of a different size or (in +teaching) of a different colour. Similarly when we get to ten +tens we denote them by a new representation of the figure denoting +one. Thus we may have:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">ones</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc">5</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">7</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">tens</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc">5</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">7</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">hundreds,</td> <td class="tcc"><b>1</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>2</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>3</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>4</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>5</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>6</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>7</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>8</b></td> <td class="tcc"><b>9</b></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">&c. </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcc">&c.</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcc">&c.</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>On this principle 24 would represent twenty-four, <b>24</b> two +hundred and forty, and <b>2</b>4 two hundred and four. To prevent +confusion the <i>zero</i> or “nought” is introduced, so that the +successive figures, beginning from the right, may represent ones, tens, +hundreds, ... We then have, <i>e.g.</i>, <b>24</b>0 to denote two hundreds +and four tens; and we may now adopt a uniform type for all the +figures, writing this 240.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 100px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:49px; height:247px" src="images/img525.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>(ii) On the counting system we may consider that we have a +series of objects (represented in the adjoining diagram by dots), +and that we attach to these objects in succession the +symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, repeating this series +indefinitely. There is as yet no distinction between +the first object marked 1 and the second object marked +1. We can, however, attach to the 0’s the same symbols, +1, 2, ... 0 in succession, in a separate column, +repeating the series indefinitely; then do the same with +every 0 of this new series; and so on. Any particular +object is then defined completely by the combination +of the symbols last written down in each series; and +this combination of symbols can equally be used to +denote the number of objects up to and including the +last one (§ 10).</p> + +<p>In writing down a number in excess of 1000 it is +(except where the number represents a particular year) usual +in England and America to group the figures in sets of three, +starting from the right, and to mark off the sets by commas. +On the continent of Europe the figures are taken in sets of +three, but are merely spaced, the comma being used at the +end of a number to denote the commencement of a decimal.</p> + +<p>The zero, called “nought,” is of course a different thing from +the letter O of the alphabet, but there may be a historical +connexion between them (§ 79). It is perhaps interesting to +note that the latter-day telephone operator calls 1907 “nineteen +O seven” instead of “nineteen nought seven.”</p> + +<p>14. <i>Direction of the Number-Series</i>.—There is no settled +convention as to the direction in which the series of symbols +denoting the successive numbers one, two, three, ... is to be +written.</p> + +<p>(i) If the numbers were written down in succession, they would +naturally proceed from left to right, thus:—1, 2, 3, ... This +system, however, would require that in passing to “double +figures” the figure denoting tens should be written either above +or below the figure denoting ones, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">1</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1, 2, ... 8, 9,</td> <td class="tcl">0, 1, 2, ... or 1, 2, ... , 8, 9,</td> <td class="tcl">0, 1, 2, ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">1</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The placing of the tens-figure to the left of the ones-figure will not +seem natural unless the number-series runs either up or down.</p> + +<p>(ii) In writing down any particular number, the successive +powers of ten are written from right to left, <i>e.g.</i> 5,462,198 is</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc f80">(6)</td> <td class="tcc f80">(5)</td> <td class="tcc f80">(4)</td> <td class="tcc f80">(3)</td> <td class="tcc f80">(2)</td> <td class="tcc f80">(1)</td> <td class="tcc f80">(0)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">5</td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">9</td> <td class="tcc">8</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">the small figures in brackets indicating the successive powers. +On the other hand, in writing decimals, the sequence (of negative +powers) is from left to right.</p> + +<p>(iii) In making out lists, schedules, mathematical tables (<i>e.g.</i> +a multiplication-table), statistical tables, &c., the numbers are +written vertically downwards. In the case of lists and schedules +the numbers are only ordinals; but in the case of mathematical +or statistical tables they are usually regarded as cardinals, though, +when they represent values of a continuous quantity, they must +be regarded as ordinals (§§ 26, 93).</p> + +<p>(iv) In graphic representation measurements are usually made +upwards; the adoption of this direction resting on certain +deeply rooted ideas (§ 23).</p> + +<p>This question of direction is of importance in reference to the +development of useful number-forms (§ 23); and the existence +of the two methods mentioned under (iii) and (iv) above produces +confusion in comparing numerical tabulation with graphical +representation. It is generally accepted that the horizontal +direction of increase, where a horizontal direction is necessary, +should be from left to right; but uniformity as regards vertical +direction could only be attained either by printing mathematical +tables upwards or by taking “downwards,” instead of +“upwards,” as the “positive” direction for graphical purposes. +The downwards direction will be taken in this article as +the normal one for succession of numbers (<i>e.g.</i> in +multiplication), and, where the arrangement is horizontal, it is to +be understood that this is for convenience of printing. It +should be noticed that, in writing the components of a +number 253 as 200, 50 and 3, each component beneath the next +larger one, we are really adopting the downwards principle, since +the figures which make up 253 will on this principle be successively +2, 5 and 3 (§ 13 (ii)).</p> + +<div class="f80"> +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcr">200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">253</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">====</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>15. <i>Roman Numerals.</i>—Although the Roman numerals are +no longer in use for representing cardinal numbers, except in +certain special cases (<i>e.g.</i> clock-faces, milestones and chemists’ +prescriptions), they are still used for ordinals.</p> + +<p>The system differs completely from the Hindu system. There +are no single symbols for two, three, &c.; but numbers are +represented by combinations of symbols for one, five, ten, fifty, +one hundred, five hundred, &c., the numbers which have single +symbols, viz. I, V, X, L, C, D, M, proceeding by multiples of five +and two alternately. Thus 1878 is MDCCCLXXVIII, <i>i.e.</i> +thousand five-hundred hundred hundred hundred fifty ten ten +five one one one.</p> + +<p>The system is therefore essentially a cardinal and grouping +one, <i>i.e.</i> it represents a number as the sum of sets of other +numbers. It is therefore remarkable that it should now only +be used for ordinal purposes, while the Hindu system, which is +ordinal in its nature, since a single series is constantly repeated, +is used almost exclusively for cardinal numbers. This fact +seems to illustrate the truth that the counting principle is the +fundamental one, to which the interpretation of grouped numbers +must ultimately be referred.</p> + +<p>The normal process of writing the larger numbers on the left is in certain +cases modified in the Roman system by writing a number in front of a larger +one to denote subtraction. Thus <i>four</i>, originally written IIII, was later +written IV. This may have been due to one or both of two causes; a +primitive tendency to refer numbers, in numeration, to the nearest large +number (§ 24 (iv)), and the difficulty of perceiving the number of a group +of objects beyond about three (§ 22). Similarly IX, XL and XC +were written for nine, forty and ninety respectively. These, +however, were later developments.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Scales of Notation.</i>—In the Hindu system the numbering +proceeds by tens, tens of tens, &c.; thus the figure in the fifth +place, counting from the right, denotes the product of the +corresponding number by four tens in succession. The notation is +then said to be in the <i>scale</i> of which ten is the <i>base</i>, or in the +<i>denary scale.</i> The Roman system, except for the use of symbols +for five, fifty, &c., is also in the denary scale, though expressed +in a different way. The introduction of these other symbols +produces a compound scale, which may be called a <i>quinary-binary</i>, +or, less correctly, a <i>quinary-denary</i> scale.</p> + +<p>The figures used in the Hindu notation might be used to express +numbers in any other scale than the denary, provided new +symbols were introduced if the base of the scale exceeded ten. +Thus 1878 in the quinary-binary scale would be 1131213, and +1828 would be 1130213; the meaning of these is seen at once +by comparison with MDCCCLXXVIII and MDCCCXXVIII. +Similarly the number which in the denary scale is 215 would in +the quaternary scale (base 4) be 3113, being equal to 3·4·4·4 + +1·4·4 + 1·4 + 3.</p> + +<p>The use of the denary scale in notation is due to its use in +numeration (§ 18); this again being due (as exemplified by the +use of the word <i>digit</i>) to the primitive use of the fingers for +counting. If mankind had had six fingers on each hand and six toes on +each foot, we should be using a <i>duodenary scale</i> (base twelve), +which would have been far more convenient.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Notation of Numerical Quantities.</i>—Over a large part of the +civilized world the introduction of the metric system (§ 118) has +caused the notation of all numerical quantities to be in the denary +scale. In Great Britain and her colonies, however, and in the +United States, other systems of notation still survive, though +there is none which is consistently in one scale, other than the +denary. The method is to form quantities into groups, and these +again into larger groups; but the number of groups making one +of the next largest groups varies as we proceed along the scale. +The successive groups or units thus formed are called <i>denominations.</i> +Thus twelve pennies make a shilling, and twenty shillings +a pound, while the penny is itself divided into four farthings (or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span> +two halfpennies). There are, therefore, four denominations, the +bases for conversion of one denomination into the next being +successively four (or two), twelve and twenty. Within each +denomination, however, the denary notation is employed +exclusively, <i>e.g.</i> “twelve shillings” is denoted by 12s.</p> + +<p>The diversity of scales appears to be due mainly to four +causes: (i) the tendency to group into scores (§ 20); (ii) the +tendency to subdivide into twelve; (in) the tendency to subdivide +into two or four, with repetitions, making subdivision into +sixteen or sixty-four; and (iv) the independent adoption of +different units for measuring the same kind of magnitude.</p> + +<p>Where there is a division into sixteen parts, a binary scale may +be formed by dividing into groups of two, four or eight. Thus +the weights ordinarily in use for measuring from ¼ oz. up to +2 ℔ give the basis for a binary scale up to not more than eight +figures, only 0 and 1 being used. The points of the compass +might similarly be expressed by numbers in a binary scale; but +the numbers would be ordinal, and the expressions would be +analogous to those of decimals rather than to those of whole +numbers.</p> + +<p>In order to apply arithmetical processes to a quantity expressed +in two or more denominations, we must first express it in terms of +a single denomination by means of a varying scale of notation. +Thus £254, 13S. 6d. may be written <img style="width:110px; height:25px" src="images/img526a.jpg" alt="" /> each of +the numbers in brackets indicating the number of units in +one denomination that go to form a unit in the next higher +denomination. To express the quantity in terms of £, it ought +to be written <img style="width:88px; height:25px" src="images/img526b.jpg" alt="" /> this would mean £254 (13<span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>)/20 or +£(254 + <span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span> + <span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">20·12</span>), and therefore would involve a fractional +number.</p> + +<p>A quantity expressed in two or more denominations is usually +called a <i>compound number</i> or <i>compound quantity</i>. The former +term is obviously incorrect, since a quantity is not a number; +and the latter is not very suggestive. For agreement with the +terminology of fractional numbers (§ 62) we shall describe such a +quantity as a <i>mixed quantity</i>. The letters or symbols descriptive +of each denomination are visually placed after or (in actual +calculations) above the figures denoting the numbers of the +corresponding units; but in a few cases, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of £, the +symbol is placed before the figures. There would be great +convenience in a general adoption of this latter method; the +combination of the two methods in such an expression as +£123, 16s. 4½d. is especially awkward.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Numeration.</i>—The names of numbers are almost wholly +based on the denary scale; thus eighteen means eight and ten, +and twenty-four means twice ten and four. The words <i>eleven</i> +and <i>twelve</i> have been supposed to suggest etymologically a +denary basis (see, however, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numeral</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Two exceptions, however, may be noted.</p> + +<p>(i) The use of <i>dozen, gross</i> (= dozen dozen), and <i>great gross</i> +(= dozen gross) indicates an attempt at a duodenary basis. But +the system has never spread; and the word “dozen” itself is +based on the denary scale.</p> + +<p>(ii) The <i>score</i> (twenty) has been used as a basis, but to an even +more limited extent. There is no essential difference, however, +between this and the denary basis. As the latter is due to +finger-reckoning, so the use of the fingers and the toes produced +a vigesimal scale. Examples of this are given in § 20; it is +worthy of notice that the vigesimal (or, rather, quinary-quaternary) +system was used by the Mayas of Yucatan, and also, in a +more perfect form, by the Nahuatl (Aztecs) of Mexico.</p> + +<p>The number ten having been taken as the basis of numeration, +there are various methods that might consistently be adopted for +naming large numbers.</p> + +<p>(i) We might merely name the figures contained in the number. +This method is often adopted in practical life, even as regards +mixed quantities; thus £57,593, 16s. 4d. would be read as <i>five +seven, five nine three, sixteen and four pence.</i></p> + +<p>(ii) The word <i>ten</i> might be introduced, <i>e.g.</i> 593 would be <i>five +ten ten ninety</i> (= nine ten) <i>and three.</i></p> + +<p>(iii) Names might be given to the successive powers of ten, up +to the point to which numeration of ones is likely to go. Partial +applications of this method are found in many languages.</p> + +<p>(iv) A compromise between the last two methods would be to +have names for the series of numbers, beginning with ten, each of +which is the “square” of the preceding one. This would in effect +be analysing numbers into components of the form a. 10<span class="sp">b</span> where +<i>a</i> is less than 10, and the index <i>b</i> is expressed in the binary scale, +<i>e.g.</i> 7,000,000 would be 7·10<span class="sp">4</span>·10<span class="sp">2</span>, and 700,000 would be 7·10<span class="sp">4</span>·10<span class="sp">1</span>.</p> + +<p>The British method is a mixture of the last two, but with an +index-scale which is partly ternary and partly binary. There are +separate names for ten, ten times ten (= <i>hundred</i>), and ten times +ten times ten (= <i>thousand</i>); but the next single name is <i>million</i>, +representing a thousand times a thousand. The next name is +<i>billion</i>, which in Great Britain properly means a million million, +and in the United States (as in France) a thousand million.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Discrepancies between Numeration and Notation.</i>—Although +numeration and notation are both ostensibly on the denary +system, they are not always exactly parallel. The following +are a few of the discrepancies.</p> + +<p>(i) A set of written symbols is sometimes read in more than +one way, while on the other hand two different sets of symbols +(at any rate if denoting numerical quantities) may be read in the +same way. Thus 1820 might be read as <i>one thousand eight +hundred and twenty</i> if it represented a number of men, but it +would be read as <i>eighteen hundred and twenty</i> if it represented a +year of the Christian era; while 1s. 6d. and 18d. might both be +read as <i>eighteenpence</i>. As regards the first of these two examples, +however, it would be more correct to write 1,820 for the former +of the two meanings (cf. § 13).</p> + +<p>(ii) The symbols 11 and 12 are read as <i>eleven</i> and <i>twelve</i>, not +(except in elementary teaching) as <i>ten-one</i> and <i>ten-two</i>.</p> + +<p>(iii) The names of the numbers next following these, up to +19 inclusive, only faintly suggest a <i>ten</i>. This difficulty is not +always recognized by teachers, who forget that they themselves +had to be told that <i>eighteen</i> means <i>eight-and-ten</i>.</p> + +<p>(iv) Even beyond twenty, up to a hundred, the word <i>ten</i> is not +used in numeration, <i>e.g.</i> we say <i>thirty-four</i>, not <i>three ten four</i>.</p> + +<p>(v) The rule that the greater number comes first is not universally +observed in numeration. It is not observed, for instance, +in the names of numbers from 13 to 19; nor was it in the names +from which <i>eleven</i> and <i>twelve</i> are derived. Beyond twenty it +is usually, but not always, observed; we sometimes instead of +<i>twenty-four</i> say <i>four and twenty</i>. (This latter is the universal +system in German, up to 100, and for any portion of 100 in +numbers beyond 100.)</p> + +<p>20. <i>Other Methods of Numeration and Notation.</i>—It is only +possible here to make a brief mention of systems other than those +now ordinarily in use.</p> + +<p>(i) <i>Vigesimal Scale.</i>—The system of counting by twenties +instead of by tens has existed in many countries; and, though +there is no corresponding notation, it still exhibits itself in the +names of numbers. This is the case, for instance, in the Celtic +languages; and the Breton or Gaulish names have affected the +Latin system, so that the French names for some numbers are on +the vigesimal system. This system also appears in the Danish +numerals. In English the use of the word <i>score</i> to represent +twenty—<i>e.g.</i> in “threescore and ten” for seventy—is superimposed +on the denary system, and has never formed an essential +part of the language. The word, like <i>dozen</i> and <i>couple</i>, is still in +use, but rather in a vague than in a precise sense.</p> + +<p>(ii) <i>Roman System.</i>—The Roman notation has been explained +above (§ 15). Though convenient for exhibiting the composition +of any particular number, it was inconvenient for purposes of +calculation; and in fact calculation was entirely (or almost entirely) +performed by means of the abacus (<i>q.v.</i>). The numeration +was in the denary scale, so that it did not agree absolutely with +the notation. The principle of subtraction from a higher number, +which appeared in notation, also appeared in numeration, but not +for exactly the same numbers or in exactly the same way; thus +XVIII was two-from-twenty, and the next number was one-from-twenty, +but it was written XIX, not IXX.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span></p> + +<p>(iii) <i>Other Systems of Antiquity.</i>—The Egyptian notation was +purely denary, the only separate signs being those for 1, 10, 100, +&c. The ordinary notation of the Babylonians was denary, but +they also used a sexagesimal scale, <i>i.e.</i> a scale whose base was 60. +The Hebrews had a notation containing separate signs (the +letters of the alphabet) for numbers from 1 to 10, then for multiples +of 10 up to 100, and then for multiples of 100 up to 400, and later +up to 1000.</p> + +<p>The earliest Greek system of notation was similar to the +Roman, except that the symbols for 50, 500, &c., were more +complicated. Later, a system similar to the Hebrew was adopted, +and extended by reproducing the first nine symbols of the series, +preceded by accents, to denote multiplication by 1000.</p> + +<p>On the island of Ceylon there still exists, or existed till recently, +a system which combines some of the characteristics of the later +Greek (or Semitic) and the modern European notation; and it is +conjectured that this was the original Hindu system.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a further account of the above systems see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numeral</a></span>, and +the authorities quoted at the end of the present article.</p> +</div> + +<p>21. <i>The Number-Concept.</i>—It is probable that very few people +have any definite mental presentation of individual numbers +(<i>i.e.</i> numbers proceeding by differences of <i>one</i>) beyond 100, or at +any rate beyond 144. Larger numbers are grasped by forming +numbers into groups or by treating some large number as a unit. +A person would appreciate the difference between 93,000,000 m. +and 94,000,000 m. as the distance of the centre of the sun from +the centre of the earth at a particular moment; but he certainly +would not appreciate the relative difference between +93,000,000 m. and 93,000,001 m. In order to get an idea of +93,000,000, he must take a million as his unit. Similarly, in the +metric system he cannot mentally compare two units, one of +which is 1000 times the other. The metre and the kilometre, +for instance, or the metre and the millimetre, are not directly +comparable; but the metre can be conceived as containing 100 +centimetres.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, it would seem that, for most educated +people, sixteen and seventeen or twenty-six and twenty-seven, +and even eighty-six and eighty-seven, are single numbers, just +as six and seven are, and are not made up of groups of tens and +ones. In other words, the denary scale, though adopted in +notation and in numeration, does not arise in the corresponding +mental concept until we get beyond 100.</p> + +<p>Again, in the use of decimals, it is unusual to give less than +two figures. Thus 3.142 or 3.14 would be quite intelligible; but +3.1 does not convey such a good idea to most people as either 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> +or 3.10, <i>i.e.</i> as an expression denoting a fraction or a percentage.</p> + +<p>There appears therefore to be a tendency to use some larger +number than ten as a basis for grouping into new units or for +subdivision into parts. The Babylonians adopted 60 for both +these purposes, thus giving us the sexagesimal division of angles +and of time.</p> + +<p>This view is supported, not only by the intelligibility of +percentages to ordinary persons, but also by the tendency, noted +above (§ 19), to group years into centuries, and to avoid the use +of thousands. Thus 1876 is not 1 thousand, 8 hundred, 7 tens +and 6, but 18 hundred and 76, each of the numbers 18 and 76 +being named as if it were a single number. It is also in accordance +with what is so far known about number-forms (§ 23).</p> + +<p>If there is this tendency to adopt 100 as a basis instead +of 10, the teaching of decimals might sometimes be simplified +by proceeding from percentages to percentages of percentages, +<i>i.e.</i> by commencing with <i>centesimals</i> instead of with <i>decimals.</i></p> + +<p>22. <i>Perception of Number.</i>—In using material objects as a +basis for developing the number-concept, it must be remembered +that it is only when there are a few objects that their number +can be perceived without either counting or the performance of +some arithmetical process such as addition. If four coins are laid +on a table, close together, they can (by most adults) be seen to be +four, without counting; but seven coins have to be separated +mentally into two groups, the numbers of which are added, or +one group has to be seen and the remaining objects counted, +before the number is known to be seven.</p> + +<p>The actual limit of the number that can be “seen”—<i>i.e.</i> +seen without counting or adding—depends for any individual on +the shape and arrangement of the objects, but under similar +conditions it is not the same for all individuals. It has been +suggested that as many as six objects can be seen at once; but +this is probably only the case with few people, and with them +only when the objects have a certain geometrical arrangement. +The limit for most adults, under favourable conditions, is about +four. Under certain conditions it is less; thus IIII, the old +Roman notation for <i>four</i>, is difficult to distinguish from III, and +this may have been the main reason for replacing it by IV (§ 15).</p> + +<p>In the case of young children the limit is probably two. That +this was also the limit in the case of primitive races, and that the +classification of things was into one, two and many, before any +definite process of counting (<i>e.g.</i> by the fingers) came to be +adopted, is clear from the use of the “dual number” in language, +and from the way in which the names for three and four are often +based on those for one and two. With the individual, as with the +race, the limit of the number that can be seen gradually increases +up to four or five.</p> + +<p>The statement that a number of objects can be seen to be three +or four is not to be taken as implying that there is a simultaneous +perception of all the objects. The attention may be directed +in succession to the different objects, so that the perception is +rhythmical; the distinctive rhythm thus aiding the perception +of the particular number.</p> + +<p>In consequence of this limitation of the power of perception of +number, it is practically impossible to use a pure denary scale in +elementary number-teaching. If a quinary-binary system (such +as would naturally fit in with counting on the fingers) is not +adopted, teachers unconsciously resort to a binary-quinary +system. This is commonly done where cubes are used; thus +seven is represented by three pairs of cubes, with a single cube +at the top.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Visualization of the Series.</i>—A striking fact, in reference +to ideas of number, is the existence of number-forms, <i>i.e.</i> of +definite arrangements, on an imagined plane or in space, of the +mental representations of the successive numbers from 1 onwards. +The proportion of persons in whom number-forms exist has been +variously estimated; but there is reason to believe that the forms +arise at a very early stage of childhood, and that they did at some +time exist in many individuals who have afterwards forgotten +them. Those persons who possess them are also apt to make +spatial arrangements of days of the week or the month, months of +the year, the letters of the alphabet, &c.; and it is practically +certain that only children would make such arrangements of +letters of the alphabet. The forms seem to result from a general +tendency to visualization as an aid to memory; the letter-forms +may in the first instance be quite as frequent as the number-forms, +but they vanish in early childhood, being of no practical +value, while the number-forms continue as an aid to arithmetical +work.</p> + +<p>The forms are varied, and have few points in common; but the +following tendencies are indicated.</p> + +<p>(i) In the majority of cases the numbers lie on a continuous +(but possibly zigzag) line.</p> + +<p>(ii) There is nearly always (at any rate in English cases) a break +in direction at 12. From 1 to 12 the numbers sometimes lie in the +circumference of a circle, an arrangement obviously suggested +by a clock-face; in these cases the series usually mounts upwards +from 12. In a large number of cases, however, the direction is +steadily upwards from 1 to 12, then changing. In some cases the +initial direction is from right to left or from left to right; but +there are very few in which it is downwards.</p> + +<p>(iii) The multiples of 10 are usually strongly marked; but +special stress is also laid on other important numbers, <i>e.g.</i> the +multiples of 12.</p> + +<p>(iv) The series sometimes goes up to very high numbers, but +sometimes stops at 100, or even earlier. It is not stated, in most +cases, whether all the numbers within the limits of the series +have definite positions, or whether there are only certain numbers +which form an essential part of the figure, while others only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span> +exist potentially. Probably the latter is almost universally +the case.</p> + +<p>These forms are developed spontaneously, without suggestion +from outside. The possibility of replacing them by a standard +form, which could be utilized for performing arithmetical operations, +is worthy of consideration; some of the difficulties in the +way of standardization have already been indicated (§ 14). The +general tendency to prefer an upward direction is important; and +our current phraseology suggests that this is the direction which +increase is naturally regarded as taking. Thus we speak of counting +<i>up</i> to a certain number; and similarly mathematicians speak of +<i>high</i> and <i>ascending</i> powers, while engineers speak of high pressure, +high speed, high power, &c. This tendency is probably aided by +the use of bricks or cubes in elementary number-teaching.</p> + +<p>24. <i>Primitive Ideas of Number.</i>—The names of numbers give +an idea of the way in which the idea of number has developed. +Where civilization is at all advanced, there are usually certain +names, the origin of which cannot be traced; but, as we go +farther back, these become fewer, and the names are found to +be composed on certain systems. The systems are varied, and +it is impossible to lay down any absolute laws, but the following +seem to be the main conclusions.</p> + +<p>(i) Amongst some of the lowest tribes, as (with a few exceptions) +amongst animals, the only differentiation is between one +and many, or between one, two and many, or between one, two, +three and many. As it becomes necessary to use higher but still +small numbers, they are formed by combinations of one and two, +or perhaps of three with one or two. Thus many of the Australasian +and South American tribes use only one and two; seven, +for instance, would be two two two one.</p> + +<p>(ii) Beyond ten, and in many cases beyond five, the names have +reference to the use of the fingers, and sometimes of the toes, for +counting; and the scale may be quinary, denary or vigesimal, +according as one hand, the pair of hands, or the hands and feet, +are taken as the new unit. <i>Five</i> may be signified by the word for +hand; and either <i>ten</i> or <i>twenty</i> by the word for <i>man</i>. Or the +words signifying these numbers may have reference to the completion +of some act of counting. Between five and ten; or beyond +ten, the names may be due to combinations, <i>e.g.</i> 16 may be +10 + 5 + 1; or they may be the actual names of the fingers last +counted.</p> + +<p>(iii) There are a few, but only a few, cases in which the number +6 or 8 is named as twice 3 or twice 4; and there are also a few +cases in which 7, 8 and 9 are named as 6 + 1, 6 + 2 and 6 + 3. +In the large majority of cases the numbers 6, 7, 8 and 9 are 5 + 1, +5 + 2, 5 + 3 and 5 + 4, being named either directly from their +composition in this way or as the fingers on the second hand.</p> + +<p>(iv) There is a certain tendency to name 4, 9, 14 and 19 as being +one short of 5, 10, 15 and 20 respectively; the principle being thus +the same as that of the Roman IV, IX, &c. It is possible that +at an early stage the number of the fingers on one hand or on +the two hands together was only thought of vaguely as a large +number in comparison with 2 or 3, and that the number did +not attain definiteness until it was linked up with the smaller +by insertion of the intermediate ones; and the linking up might +take place in both directions.</p> + +<p>(v) In a few cases the names of certain small numbers are +the names of objects which present these numbers in some +conspicuous way. Thus the word used by the Abipones to denote +5 was the name of a certain hide of five colours. It has been +suggested that names of this kind may have been the origin of +the numeral words of different races; but it is improbable that +direct visual perception would lead to a name for a number +unless a name based on a process of counting had previously +been given to it.</p> + +<p>25. <i>Growth of the Number-Concept.</i>—The general principle that +the development of the individual follows the development of the +race holds good to a certain extent in the case of the number-concept, but it is modified by the existence of language dealing +with concepts which are beyond the reach of the child, and also, +of course, by the direct attempts at instruction. One result is +the formation of a number-series as a mere succession of names +without any corresponding ideas of number; the series not being +necessarily correct.</p> + +<p>When numbering begins, the names of the successive numbers +are attached to the individual objects; thus the numbers are +originally ordinal, not cardinal.</p> + +<p>The conception of number as cardinal, <i>i.e.</i> as something belonging +to a group of objects as a whole, is a comparatively late one, +and does not arise until the idea of a whole consisting of its parts +has been formed. This is the <i>quantitative</i> aspect of number.</p> + +<p>The development from the name-series to the quantitative +conception is aided by the numbering of material objects and +the performance of elementary processes of comparison, addition, +&c., with them. It may also be aided, to a certain extent, by the +tendency to find rhythms in sequences of sounds. This tendency +is common in adults as well as in children; the strokes of a clock +may, for instance, be grouped into fours, and thus eleven is +represented as two fours and three. Finger-counting is of course +natural to children, and leads to grouping into fives, and ultimately +to an understanding of the denary system of notation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:167px; height:33px" src="images/img528a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>26. <i>Representation of Geometrical Magnitude by Number.</i>—The +application of arithmetical methods to geometrical measurement +presents some difficulty. In reality there is a transition +from a cardinal to an ordinal system, but to an ordinal system +which does not agree with the original ordinal system from which +the cardinal system was derived. To see this, we may represent +ordinal numbers by the ordinary numerals 1, 2, 3, ... and +cardinal numbers by the Roman I, II, III, ... Then in the +earliest stage each object counted is indivisible; either we are +counting it as a whole, or we are not counting it at all. The symbols 1, 2, 3, ... +then refer to the individual objects, as in fig. 1; this is the primary +ordinal stage. Figs. 2 and 3 represent the cardinal stage; fig. 2 +showing how the I, II, III, ... denote the successively larger +groups of objects, while fig. 3 shows how the name II of the +whole is determined by the name 2 of the last one counted.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:183px; height:121px" src="images/img528b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: top;"><img style="width:237px; height:72px" src="images/img528c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr></table> + +<p>When now we pass to geometrical measurement, each “one” +is a thing which is itself divisible, and it cannot be said that at +any moment we are counting it; it is only when one is completed +that we can count it. The names 1, 2, 3, ... for the individual +objects cease to have an intelligible meaning, and measurement +is effected by the cardinal numbers I, II, III, ..., as in fig. 4. +These cardinal numbers have now, however, come to denote +individual points in the line of measurement, <i>i.e.</i> the points of +separation of the individual units of length. The point III in fig. 4 +does not include the point II in the same way that the number +III includes the number II in fig. 2, and the points must therefore +be denoted by the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3, ... as in fig. 5, +the zero 0 falling into its natural place immediately before the +commencement of the first unit.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: top;"><img style="width:254px; height:91px" src="images/img528d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: top;"><img style="width:244px; height:27px" src="images/img528e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>Thus, while arithmetical numbering refers to units, geometrical +numbering does not refer to units but to the intervals between +units.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Arithmetic of Integral Numbers</p> +<p class="center">(i.) <i>Preliminary</i></p> + +<p>27. <i>Equality and Identity.</i>—There is a certain difference +between the use of words referring to equality and identity in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> +arithmetic and in algebra respectively; what is an <i>equality</i> in +the former becoming an <i>identity</i> in the latter. Thus the statement +that 4 times 3 is equal to 3 times 4, or, in abbreviated form, +4 × 3 = 3 × 4 (§ 28), is a statement not of identity but of equality; +<i>i.e.</i> 4 × 3 and 3 × 4 mean different things, but the operations +which they denote produce the same result. But in algebra a × b = b × a +is called an identity, in the sense that it is true whatever a +and b may be; while n × X = A is called an equation, as being +true, when n and A are given, for one value only of X. Similarly +the numbers represented by <span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span> and ½ are not identical, but are +equal.</p> + +<p>28. <i>Symbols of Operation.</i>—The failure to observe the +distinction between an identity and an equality often leads to loose +reasoning; and in order to prevent this it is important that +definite meanings should be attached to all symbols of operation, +and especially to those which represent elementary operations. +The symbols − and ÷ mean respectively that the first quantity +mentioned is to be reduced or divided by the second; but there +is some vagueness about + and ×. In the present article a + b +will mean that a is taken first, and b added to it; but a × b will +mean that b is taken first, and is then multiplied by a. In the +case of numbers the × may be replaced by a dot; thus 4·3 +means 4 times 3. When it is necessary to write the multiplicand +before the multiplier, the symbol <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> will be used, so that +b <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> a will mean the same as a × b.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Axioms.</i>—There are certain statements that are +sometimes regarded as axiomatic; <i>e.g.</i> that if equals are added to +equals the results are equal, or that if A is greater than B then +A + X is greater than B + X. Such statements, however, are +capable of logical proof, and are generalizations of results obtained +empirically at an elementary stage; they therefore belong more +properly to the laws of arithmetic (§ 58).</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">(ii.) <i>Sums and Differences.</i></p> + +<p>30. <i>Addition and Subtraction.</i>—<i>Addition</i> is the process of +expressing (in numeration or notation) a whole, the parts of which +have already been expressed; while, if a whole has been expressed +and also a part or parts, <i>subtraction</i> is the process of expressing +the remainder.</p> + +<p>Except with very small numbers, addition and subtraction, +on the grouping system, involve analysis and rearrangement. +Thus the sum of 8 and 7 cannot be expressed as ones; we can +either form the whole, and regroup it as 10 and 5, or we can split +up the 7 into 2 and 5, and add the 2 to the 8 to form 10, thus +getting 8 + 7 = 8 + (2 + 5) = (8 + 2) + 5 = 10 + 5 = 15. For larger +numbers the rearrangement is more extensive; thus +24 + 31 = (20 + 4) + (30 + 1) = (20 + 30) + (4 + 1) = 50 + 5 = 55, the process being +still more complicated when the ones together make more +than ten. Similarly we cannot subtract 8 from 15, if 15 means +1 ten + 5 ones; we must either write +15 − 8 = (10 + 5) − 8 = (10 − 8) + 5 = 2 + 5 = 7, +or else resolve the 15 into an inexpressible +number of ones, and then subtract 8 of them, leaving 7.</p> + +<p>Numerical quantities, to be added or subtracted, must be in +the same denomination; we cannot, for instance, add 55 shillings +and 100 pence, any more than we can add 3 yards and 2 metres.</p> + +<p>31. <i>Relative Position in the Series.</i>—The above method of +dealing with addition and subtraction is synthetic, and is +appropriate to the grouping method of dealing with number. +We commence with processes, and see what they lead to; and +thus get an idea of sums and differences. If we adopted the +counting method, we should proceed in a different way, our +method being analytic.</p> + +<p>One number is less or greater than another, according as the +symbol (or ordinal) of the former comes earlier or later than that +of the latter in the number-series. Thus (writing ordinals in +light type, and cardinals in heavy type) 9 comes after 4, and +therefore <b>9</b> is greater than <b>4</b>. To find how much greater, we +compare two series, in one of which we go up to 9, while in +the other we stop at 4 and then recommence our counting. The +series are shown below, the numbers being placed horizontally +for convenience of printing, instead of vertically (§ 14):—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>5</td> <td>6</td> <td>7</td> <td>8</td> <td>9</td></tr> +<tr><td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>5</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">This exhibits <b>9</b> as the sum of <b>4</b> and <b>5</b>; it being understood that +the sum of <b>4</b> and <b>5</b> means that we add <b>5</b> to <b>4</b>. That this gives +the same result as adding <b>4</b> to <b>5</b> may be seen by reckoning the +series backwards.</p> + +<p>It is convenient to introduce the zero; thus</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>5</td> <td>6</td> <td>7</td> <td>8</td> <td>9</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>5</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">indicates that after getting to 4 we make a fresh start from 4 +as our zero.</p> + +<p>To subtract, we may proceed in either of two ways. The +subtraction of <b>4</b> from <b>9</b> may mean either “What has to be added +to <b>4</b> in order to make up a total of <b>9</b>,” or “To what has <b>4</b> to be +added in order to make up a total of <b>9</b>.” For the former meaning +we count forwards, till we get to 4, and then make a new count, +parallel with the continuation of the old series, and see at what +number we arrive when we get to 9. This corresponds to the +concrete method, in which we have <b>9</b> objects, take away <b>4</b> of +them, and recount the remainder. The alternative method is to +retrace the steps of addition, <i>i.e.</i> to count backwards, treating +9 of one (the standard) series as corresponding with 4 of the other, +and finding which number of the former corresponds with 0 of +the latter. This is a more advanced method, which leads easily +to the idea of negative quantities, if the subtraction is such that +we have to go behind the 0 of the standard series.</p> + +<p>32. <i>Mixed Quantities.</i>—The application of the above principles, +and of similar principles with regard to multiplication and +division, to numerical quantities expressed in any of the diverse +British denominations, presents no theoretical difficulty if the +successive denominations are regarded as constituting a varying +scale of notation (§17). Thus the expression 2 ft. 3 in. implies +that in counting inches we use 0 to eleven instead of 0 to 9 +as our first repeating series, so that we put down 1 for the next +denomination when we get to twelve instead of when we get to +ten. Similarly 3 yds. 2 ft. means</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">yds.</td> <td>0</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>2</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>3</td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">ft.</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The practical difficulty, of course, is that the addition of two +numbers produces different results according to the scale in +which we are for the moment proceeding; thus the sum of 9 and +8 is 17, 15, 13 or 11 according as we are dealing with shillings, +pence, pounds (avoirdupois) or ounces. The difficulty may be +minimized by using the notation explained in § 17.</p> + +<p class="center pt1">(iii.) <i>Multiples, Submultiples and Quotients.</i></p> + +<p>33. <i>Multiplication</i> and <i>Division</i> are the names given to certain +numerical processes which have to be performed in order to +find the result of certain arithmetical operations. Each process +may arise out of either of two distinct operations; but the +terminology is based on the processes, not on the operations +to which they belong, and the latter are not always clearly +understood.</p> + +<p>34. <i>Repetition and Subdivision.</i>—<i>Multiplication</i> occurs when a +certain number or numerical quantity is treated as a <i>unit</i> (§ 11), +and is taken a certain <i>number</i> of times. It therefore arises in one +or other of two ways, according as the unit or the number exists +first in consciousness. If pennies are arranged in groups of five, +the total amounts arranged are successively once 5d., twice 5d., +three times 5d., ... ; which are written 1 × 5d., 2 × 5d., 3 × 5d., ... (§ 28). +This process is <i>repetition</i>, and the quantities 1 × 5d., +2 × 5d., 3 × 5d., ... are the successive <i>multiples</i> of 5d. If, on +the other hand, we have a sum of 5s., and treat a shilling as being +equivalent to twelve pence, the 5s. is equivalent to 5 × 12d.; +here the multiplication arises out of a <i>subdivision</i> of the original +unit 1s. into 12d.</p> + +<p>Although multiplication may arise in either of these two ways, +the actual process in each case is performed by commencing with +the unit and taking it the necessary number of times. In the +above case of subdivision, for instance, each of the 5 shillings is +separately converted into pence, so that we do in fact find in +succession once 12d., twice 12d., ...; <i>i.e.</i> we find the multiples +of 12d. up to 5 times.</p> + +<p>The result of the multiplication is called the <i>product</i> of the unit +by the number of times it is taken.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span></p> + +<p>35. <i>Diagram of Multiplication.</i>—The process of multiplication +is performed in order to obtain such results as the following:—</p> + +<p class="center">If 1 boy receives 7 apples,<br /> + then 3 boys receive 21 apples;</p> + +<p class="noind">or</p> + +<p class="center">If 1s. is equivalent to 12d.,<br /> + then 5s. is equivalent to 60d.</p> + +<p>The essential portions of these statements, from the arithmetical +point of view, may be exhibited in the form of the +diagrams A and B:—</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:494px; height:130px" src="images/img530a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind">or more briefly, as in C or C′ and D or D′:—</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:525px; height:129px" src="images/img530b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind">the general arrangement of the diagram being as shown in E +or E′:—</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:465px; height:134px" src="images/img530c.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind">Multiplication is therefore equivalent to completion of the +diagram by entry of the product.</p> + +<p>36. <i>Multiple-Tables.</i>—The diagram C or D of § 35 is part of a +complete table giving the successive multiples of the particular +unit. If we take several different units, and write down their +successive multiples in parallel columns, preceded by the number-series, +we obtain a <i>multiple-table</i> such as the following:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb2 tb bb">1</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb">2</td> <td class="tcr allb">9</td> <td class="tcr allb">1s.   5d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">3 yds. 2 ft.</td> <td class="tcr allb">17359</td> <td class="tcc tb bb"> ...</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb2 tb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr allb">4</td> <td class="tcr allb">18</td> <td class="tcr allb">2s. 10d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">7 yds. 1 ft.</td> <td class="tcr allb">34718</td> <td class="tcc bb"> ...</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb2 tb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr allb">6</td> <td class="tcr allb">27</td> <td class="tcr allb">4s.   3d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">11 yds. 0 ft.</td> <td class="tcr allb">52077</td> <td class="tcc bb"> ...</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb2 tb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr allb">8</td> <td class="tcr allb">36</td> <td class="tcr allb">5s.   8d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">14 yds. 2 ft.</td> <td class="tcr allb">69436</td> <td class="tcc bb"> ...</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb2 tb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr allb">10</td> <td class="tcr allb">45</td> <td class="tcr allb">7s.   1d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">16 yds. 1 ft.</td> <td class="tcr allb">86795</td> <td class="tcc bb"> ...</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb2">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc"> ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb2">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc"> ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb2">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc"> ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb2">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td class="tcc"> ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It is to be considered that each column may extend downwards +indefinitely.</p> + +<p>37. <i>Successive Multiplication.</i>—In multiplication by repetition +the unit is itself usually a multiple of some other unit, <i>i.e.</i> it is a +product which is taken as a new unit. When this new unit has +been multiplied by a number, we can again take the product as +a unit for the purpose of another multiplication; and so on +indefinitely. Similarly where multiplication has arisen out of the +subdivision of a unit into smaller units, we can again subdivide +these smaller units. Thus we get successive multiplication; but +it represents quite different operations according as it is due to +repetition, in the sense of § 34, or to subdivision, and these +operations will be exhibited by different diagrams. Of the two +diagrams below, A exhibits the successive multiplication of £3 by +20, 12 and 4, and B the successive reduction of £3 to shillings, +pence and farthings. The principle on which the diagrams are +constructed is obvious from § 35. It should be noticed that in +multiplying £3 by 20 we find the value of 20·3, but that in +reducing £3 to shillings, since each £ becomes 20s., we find the +value of 3·20.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:483px; height:237px" src="images/img530d.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>38. <i>Submultiples.</i>—The relation of a unit to its successive +multiples as shown in a multiple-table is expressed by saying +that it is a submultiple of the multiples, the successive +submultiples being <i>one-half, one-third, one-fourth</i>, ... Thus, in the +diagram of § 36, 1s. 5d. is one-half of 2s. 10d., one-third of 4s. 3d., +one-fourth of 5s. 8d., ...; these being written “½ of 2s. 10d.,” +“<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of 4s. 3d.,” “¼ of 5s. 8d,”...</p> + +<p>The relation of submultiple is the converse of that of multiple; +thus if a is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> of b, then b is 5 times a. The determination of a +submultiple is therefore equivalent to completion of the diagram E +or E′ of § 35 by entry of the unit, when the number of times it is +taken, and the product, are given. The operation is the converse +of repetition; it is usually called <i>partition</i>, as representing division +into a number of equal shares.</p> + +<p>39. <i>Quotients.</i>—The converse of subdivision is the formation +of units into groups, each constituting a larger unit; the number +of the groups so formed out of a definite number of the original +units is called a <i>quotient</i>. The determination of a quotient is +equivalent to completion of the diagram by entry of the number +when the unit and the product are given. There is no satisfactory +name for the operation, as distinguished from partition; it is +sometimes called measuring, but this implies an equality in +the original units, which is not an essential feature of the +operation.</p> + +<p>40. <i>Division.</i>—From the commutative law for multiplication, +which shows that 3 × 4d. = 4 × 3d. = 12d., it follows that the +number of pence in one-fourth of 12d. is equal to the quotient +when 12 pence are formed into units of 4d.; each of these numbers +being said to be obtained by <i>dividing</i> 12 by 4. The term <i>division</i> +is therefore used in text-books to describe the two processes +described in §§ 38 and 39; the product mentioned in § 34 is the +<i>dividend</i>, the number or the unit, whichever is given, is called the +<i>divisor</i>, and the unit or number which is to be found is called the +<i>quotient</i>. The symbol ÷ is used to denote both kinds of division; +thus A ÷ n denotes the unit, n of which make up A, and A ÷ B +denotes the number of times that B has to be taken to make up A. +In the present article this confusion is avoided by writing the +former as <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">n</span> of A.</p> + +<p>Methods of division are considered later (§§ 106-108).</p> + +<p>41. <i>Diagrams of Division.</i>—Since we write from left to right +or downwards, it may be convenient for division to interchange +the rows or the columns of the multiplication-diagram. Thus the +uncompleted diagram for partition is F or G, while for measuring +it is usually H; the vacant compartment being for the unit in +F or G, and for the number in H. In some cases it may be convenient +in measuring to show both the units, as in K.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:521px; height:134px" src="images/img530e.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>42. <i>Successive Division</i> may be performed as the converse of +successive multiplication. The diagrams A and B below are the +converse (with a slight alteration) of the corresponding diagrams +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span> +in § 37; A representing the determination of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span> of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span> of ¼ of +2880 farthings, and B the conversion of 2880 farthings into £.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:494px; height:231px" src="images/img531a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="center">(iv.) <i>Properties of Numbers.</i></p> + +<p class="center ptb1">(A) Properties not depending on the Scale of Notation.</p> + +<p>43. <i>Powers, Roots and Logarithms.</i>—The standard series 1, 2, +3, ... is obtained by successive additions of 1 to the number last +found. If instead of commencing with 1 and making successive +additions of 1 we commence with any number such as 3 and make +successive multiplications by 3, we get a series 3, 9, 27, ... as +shown below the line in the margin. The first member +of the series is 3; the second is the product of +two numbers, each equal to 3; the third is the product +of three numbers, each equal to 3; and so on. +These are written 3<span class="sp">1</span> (or 3), 3<span class="sp">2</span>, 3<span class="sp">3</span>, 3<span class="sp">4</span>, ... where +n<span class="sp">p</span> denotes the product of p numbers, each equal to +n. If we write n<span class="sp">p</span> = N, then, if any two of the three +numbers n, p, N are known, the third is determinate. +If we know n and p, p is called the <i>index</i>, and n, n<span class="sp">2</span>, ... n<span class="sp">p</span> +are called the <i>first power, second power, ... pth power</i> of n, the +series itself being called the <i>power-series</i>. The <i>second power</i> and +<i>third power</i> are usually called the <i>square</i> and <i>cube</i> respectively. +If we know p and N, n is called the <i>pth root</i> of N, so that n is the +<i>second</i> (or <i>square</i>) <i>root</i> of n<span class="sp">2</span>, the <i>third</i> (or <i>cube</i>) <i>root</i> of n<span class="sp">3</span>, the +<i>fourth root</i> of n<span class="sp">4</span>, ... If we know n and N, then p is the <i>logarithm</i> +of N to <i>base</i> n.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">1 = 3<span class="sp">0</span></td> <td class="tcr bb">n<span class="sp">0</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcr">3 = 3<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr">n<span class="sp">1</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcr">9 = 3<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcr">n<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcr">27 = 3<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcr">n<span class="sp">3</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcr">81 = 3<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td class="tcr">n<span class="sp">4</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.   .</td> <td class="tcc">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.   .</td> <td class="tcc">.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The calculation of powers (<i>i.e.</i> of N when n and p are given) is +<i>involution</i>; the calculation of roots (<i>i.e.</i> of n when p and N are +given) is <i>evolution</i>; the calculation of logarithms (<i>i.e.</i> of p when n +and N are given) has no special name.</p> + +<p>Involution is a direct process, consisting of successive multiplications; +the other two are inverse processes. The calculation of +a logarithm can be performed by successive divisions; evolution +requires special methods.</p> + +<p>The above definitions of logarithms, &c., relate to cases in which +n and p are whole numbers, and are generalized later.</p> + +<p>44. <i>Law of Indices.</i>—If we multiply n<span class="sp">p</span> by n<span class="sp">q</span>, we multiply the +product of p n’s by the product of q n’s, and the result is therefore +n<span class="sp">p + q</span>. Similarly, if we divide n<span class="sp">p</span> by n<span class="sp">q</span>, where q is less than p, +the result is n<span class="sp">p − q</span>. Thus multiplication and division in the +power-series correspond to addition and subtraction in the +index-series, and vice versa.</p> + +<p>If we divide n<span class="sp">p</span> by n<span class="sp">p</span>, the quotient is of course 1. This should +be written n<span class="sp">0</span>. Thus we may make the power-series commence +with 1, if we make the index-series commence with 0. The added +terms are shown above the line in the diagram in § 43.</p> + +<p>45. <i>Factors, Primes and Prime Factors.</i>—If we take the successive +multiples of 2, 3, ... +as in § 36, and place each +multiple opposite the same +number in the original series, +we get an arrangement as +in the adjoining diagram. If +any number N occurs in the +vertical series commencing +with a number n (other than +1) then n is said to be a <i>factor</i> +of N. Thus 2, 3 and 6 are +factors of 6; and 2, 3, 4, 6 +and 12 are factors of 12.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcr">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td> <td class="tcr">.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>A number (other than 1) which has no factor except itself is +called a <i>prime number</i>, or, more briefly, a <i>prime</i>. Thus 2, 3, 5, 7 +and 11 are primes, for each of these occurs twice only in the table. +A number (other than 1) which is not a prime number is called a +<i>composite</i> number.</p> + +<p>If a number is a factor of another number, it is a factor of any +multiple of that number. Hence, if a number has factors, one at +least of these must be a prime. Thus 12 has 6 for a factor; but +6 is not a prime, one of its factors being 2; and therefore 2 must +also be a factor of 12. Dividing 12 by 2, we get a submultiple 6, +which again has a prime 2 as a factor. Thus any number which +is not itself a prime is the product of several factors, each of which +is a prime, <i>e.g.</i> 12 is the product of 2, 2 and 3. These are called +<i>prime factors</i>.</p> + +<p>The following are the most important properties of numbers in +reference to factors:—</p> + +<p>(i) If a number is a factor of another number, it is a factor of any +multiple of that number.</p> + +<p>(ii) If a number is a factor of two numbers, it is a factor of their +sum or (if they are unequal) of their difference. (The words in +brackets are inserted to avoid the difficulty, at this stage, of +saying that every number is a factor of 0, though it is of course +true that 0·n = 0, whatever n may be.)</p> + +<p>(iii) A number can be resolved into prime factors in one way +only, no account being taken of their relative order. Thus +12 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 2 × 3 × 2 = 3 × 2 × 2, but this is regarded as one +way only. If any prime occurs more than once, it is usual to +write the number of times of occurrence as an index; thus +144 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 2<span class="sp">4</span>·3<span class="sp">2</span>.</p> + +<p>The number 1 is usually included amongst the primes; but, if +this is done, the last paragraph requires modification, since 144 +could be expressed as 1·2<span class="sp">4</span>·3<span class="sp">2</span>, or as 1<span class="sp">2</span>·2<span class="sp">4</span>·3<span class="sp">2</span>, +or as 1<span class="sp">p</span>·2<span class="sp">4</span>·3<span class="sp">2</span>, where p might be anything.</p> + +<p>If two numbers have no factor in common (except 1) each is +said to be <i>prime to</i> the other.</p> + +<p>The multiples of 2 (including 1·2) are called <i>even</i> numbers; +other numbers are <i>odd</i> numbers.</p> + +<p>46. <i>Greatest Common Divisor.</i>—If we resolve two numbers into +their prime factors, we can find their <i>Greatest Common Divisor</i> or +<i>Highest Common Factor</i> (written G.C.D. or G.C.F. or H.C.F.), +<i>i.e.</i> the greatest number which is a factor of both. Thus +144 = 2<span class="sp">4</span>·3<span class="sp">2</span>, and 756 = 2<span class="sp">2</span>·3<span class="sp">3</span>·7, and therefore the G.C.D. of 144 +and 756 is 2<span class="sp">2</span>·3<span class="sp">2</span> = 36. If we require the G.C.D. of two numbers, +and cannot resolve them into their prime factors, we use a process +described in the text-books. The process depends on (ii) +of § 45, in the extended form that, if x is a factor of a and b, it is +a factor of pa − qb, where p and q are any integers.</p> + +<p>The G.C.D. of three or more numbers is found in the same way.</p> + +<p>47. <i>Least Common Multiple.</i>—The <i>Least Common Multiple</i>, or +L.C.M., of two numbers, is the least number of which they are +both factors. Thus, since 144 = 2<span class="sp">4</span>·3<span class="sp">2</span>, and 756 = 2<span class="sp">2</span>·3<span class="sp">3</span>·7, the +L.C.M. of 144 and 756 is 2<span class="sp">4</span>·3<span class="sp">3</span>·7. It is clear, from comparison +with the last paragraph, that the product of the G.C.D. and the +L.C.M. of two numbers is equal to the product of the numbers +themselves. This gives a rule for finding the L.C.M. of two +numbers. But we cannot apply it to finding the L.C.M. of three +or more numbers; if we cannot resolve the numbers into their +prime factors, we must find the L.C.M. of the first two, then the +L.C.M. of this and the next number, and so on.</p> + +<p class="center pt1">(B) Properties depending on the Scale of Notation.</p> + +<p>48. <i>Tests of Divisibility.</i>—The following are the principal rules +for testing whether particular numbers are factors of a given +number. The number is divisible—</p> + +<p>(i) by 10 if it ends in 0;</p> + +<p>(ii) by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5;</p> + +<p>(iii) by 2 if the last digit is even;</p> + +<p>(iv) by 4 if the number made up of the last two digits is +divisible by 4;</p> + +<p>(v) by 8 if the number made up of the last three digits is +divisible by 8;</p> + +<p>(vi) by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9;</p> + +<p>(vii) by 3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span></p> + +<p>(viii) by 11 if the difference between the sum of the 1st, 3rd, +5th, ... digits and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, ... is zero or +divisible by 11.</p> + +<p>(ix) To find whether a number is divisible by 7, 11 or 13, +arrange the number in groups of three figures, beginning from the +end, treat each group as a separate number, and then find the +difference between the sum of the 1st, 3rd, ... of these numbers +and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, ... Then, if this difference is +zero or is divisible by 7, 11 or 13, the original number is also so +divisible; and conversely. For example, 31521 gives 521 − 31 = 490, +and therefore is divisible by 7, but not by 11 or 13.</p> + +<p>49. <i>Casting out Nines</i> is a process based on (vi) of the last +paragraph. The remainder when a number is divided by 9 is +equal to the remainder when the sum of its digits is divided by 9. +Also, if the remainders when two numbers are divided by 9 are +respectively a and b, the remainder when their product is divided +by 9 is the same as the remainder when a·b is divided by 9. This +gives a rule for testing multiplication, which is found in most +text-books. It is doubtful, however, whether such a rule, giving +a test which is necessarily incomplete, is of much educational +value.</p> + +<p class="center pt1">(v.) <i>Relative Magnitude.</i></p> + +<p>50. <i>Fractions.</i>—A <i>fraction</i> of a quantity is a submultiple, or a +multiple of a submultiple, of that quantity. Thus, since +3 × 1s. 5d. = 4s. 3d., 1s. 5d. may be denoted by <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of 4s. 3d.; and +any multiple of 1s. 5d., denoted by n × 1s. 5d., may also be +denoted by n/3 of 4s. 3d. We therefore use “<span class="spp">n</span>⁄<span class="suu">a</span> of A” to mean that +we find a quantity X such that a × X = A, and then multiply +X by n.</p> + +<p>It must be noted (i) that this is a definition of “n/a of,” not a +definition of “n/a,” and (ii) that it is not necessary that n should be +less than a.</p> + +<p>51. <i>Subdivision of Submultiple.</i>—By <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A we mean 5 times the +unit, 7 times which is A. If we regard this unit as being 4 times +a lesser unit, then A is 7·4 times this lesser unit, and <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A is 5·4 +times the lesser unit. Hence <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A is equal to <span class="spp">5·4</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·4</span> of A; and, +conversely, <span class="spp">5·4</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·4</span> of A is equal to <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A. Similarly each of +these is equal to <span class="spp">5·3</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·3</span> of A. Hence the value of a fraction is not +altered by substituting for the numerator and denominator the +corresponding numbers in any other column of a multiple-table +(§ 36). If we write <span class="spp">5·4</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·4</span> in the form <span class="spp">4·5</span>⁄<span class="suu">4·7</span> we may say that the +value of a fraction is not altered by multiplying or dividing the +numerator and denominator by any number.</p> + +<p>52. <i>Fraction of a Fraction.</i>—To find <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> of <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A we must +convert <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A into 4 times some unit. This is done by the preceding +paragraph. For <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A = <span class="spp">5·4</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·4</span> of A = <span class="spp">4·5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·4</span> of A; <i>i.e.</i> it is +4 times a unit which is itself 5 times another unit, 7·4 times, which +is A. Hence, taking the former unit 11 times instead of 4 times,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> of <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A =</td> <td>11·5</td> +<td rowspan="2">of A</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">7·4</td></tr></table> + +<p>A fraction of a fraction is sometimes called a <i>compound +fraction.</i></p> + +<p>53. <i>Comparison, Addition and Subtraction of Fractions.</i>—The +quantities ¾ of A and <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A are expressed in terms of different +units. To compare them, or to add or subtract them, we must +express them in terms of the same unit. Thus, taking <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span> of A +as the unit, we have (§ 51)</p> + +<p class="center">¾ of A = <span class="spp">21</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span> of A; <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> of A = <span class="spp">20</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span> of A.</p> + +<p class="noind">Hence the former is greater than the latter; their sum is <span class="spp">41</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span> of A; +and their difference is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span> of A.</p> + +<p>Thus the fractions must be reduced to a <i>common denominator</i>. +This denominator must, if the fractions are in their lowest terms +(§ 54), be a multiple of each of the denominators; it is usually +most convenient that it should be their L.C.M. (§ 47).</p> + +<p>54. <i>Fraction in its Lowest Terms.</i>—A fraction is said to be <i>in its +lowest terms</i> when its numerator and denominator have no common +factor; or to be reduced to its lowest terms when it is replaced by +such a fraction. Thus <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">22</span> of A is said to be reduced to its lowest +terms when it is replaced by <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span> of A. It is important always to +bear in mind that <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span> of A is not the <i>same</i> as <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">22</span> of A, though +it is <i>equal</i> to it.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 205px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:155px; height:159px" src="images/img532a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>55. <i>Diagram of Fractional Relation.</i>—To find <span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">24</span> of 14s. we have +to take 10 of the units, 24 of which make up 14s. Hence the +required amount will, in the multiple-table of +§ 36, be opposite 10 in the column in which +the amount opposite 24 is 14s.; the quantity +at the head of this column, representing the +unit, will be found to be 7d. The elements +of the multiple-table with which we are +concerned are shown in the diagram in the +margin. This diagram serves equally for +the two statements that (i) <span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">24</span> of 14s. is +5s. 10d., (ii) <span class="spp">24</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> of 5s. 10d. is 14s. The two statements are in fact +merely different aspects of a single relation, considered in the +next section.</p> + +<p class="nom"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:153px; height:264px" src="images/img532b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>56. <i>Ratio.</i>—If we omit the two upper compartments of the +diagram in the last section, we obtain the diagram A. This +diagram exhibits a relation between the two +amounts 5s. 10d. and 14s. on the one hand, +and the numbers 10 and 24 of the standard +series on the other, which is expressed by saying +that 5s. 10d. is to 14s. in the <i>ratio</i> of 10 +to 24, or that 14s. is to 5s. 10d. in the ratio of +24 to 10. If we had taken 1s. 2d. instead of +7d. as the unit for the second column, we +should have obtained the diagram B. Thus +we must regard the ratio of a to b as being +the same as the ratio of c to d, if the fractions +a/b and c/d are equal. For this reason the +ratio of a to b is sometimes written a/b, but +the more correct method is to write it a:b.</p> + +<p>If two quantities or numbers P and Q are to each other in the +ratio of p to q, it is clear from the diagram that +p times Q = q times P, so that Q = q/p of P.</p> + +<p class="nom"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:224px; height:107px" src="images/img532c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:117px; height:110px" src="images/img532d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>57. <i>Proportion.</i>—If from any two columns in the table of § 36 +we remove the numbers or quantities in any two rows, we get +a diagram such as that here shown. +The pair of compartments on either +side may, as here, contain numerical +quantities, or may contain numbers. +But the two pairs of compartments +will correspond to a single pair of +numbers, <i>e.g.</i> 2 and 6, in the standard series, so that, denoting +them by M, N and P, Q respectively, M will be to N in the same +ratio that P is to Q. +This is expressed by saying +that M is to N as P to Q, the relation being written +M:N :: P:Q; the four quantities are then said +to be <i>in proportion</i> or to be <i>proportionals</i>.</p> + +<p>This is the most general expression of the +relative magnitude of two quantities; <i>i.e.</i> the +relation expressed by proportion includes the relations expressed +by multiple, submultiple, fraction and ratio.</p> + +<p>If M and N are respectively m and n times a unit, and P and Q +are respectively p and q times a unit, then the quantities are in +proportion if mq = np; and conversely.</p> + +<p class="nom"> </p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">IV. Laws of Arithmetic</p> + +<p>58. <i>Laws of Arithmetic.</i>—The arithmetical processes which we +have considered in reference to positive integral numbers are +subject to the following laws:—</p> + +<p>(i) <i>Equalities and Inequalities.</i>—The following are sometimes +called <i>Axioms</i> (§ 29), but their truth should be proved, even if at +an early stage it is assumed. The symbols “>” and “<” +mean respectively “is greater than” and “is less than.” The +numbers represented by a, b, c, x and m are all supposed to be +positive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span></p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(a) If a = b, and b = c. then a = c;</p> +<p>(b) If a = b, then a + x = b + x, and a − x = b − x;</p> +<p>(c) If a > b, then a + x > b + x, and a − x > b − x;</p> +<p>(d) If a < b, then a + b < b + x, and a − x < b − x;</p> +<p>(e) If a = b, then ma = mb, and a ÷ m = b ÷ m;</p> +<p>(f) If a > b, then ma > mb, and a ÷ m > b ÷ m;</p> +<p>(g) If a < b, then ma < mb, and a ÷ m < b ÷ m.</p> +</div> + +<p>(ii) <i>Associative Law for Additions and Subtractions.</i>—This law +includes the <i>rule of signs</i>, that a − (b − c) = a − b + c; and it states +that, subject to this, successive operations of addition or subtraction +may be grouped in sets in any way; <i>e.g.</i> a − b + c + d + e − f += a − (b − c) + (d + e − f).</p> + +<p>(iii) <i>Commutative Law for Additions and Subtractions</i>, that +additions and subtractions may be performed in any order; <i>e.g.</i> +a − b + c + d = a + c − b + d = a − b + c − b.</p> + +<p>(iv) <i>Associative Law for Multiplications and Divisions.</i>—This +law includes a rule, similar to the rule of signs, to the effect that +a ÷ (b ÷ c) = a ÷ b <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> c; and it states that, subject to this, successive +operations of multiplication or division may be grouped in sets in +any way; <i>e.g.</i> a ÷ b <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> c <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> d <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> e ÷ f = a ÷ (b ÷ c) <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> (d <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> e ÷ f).</p> + +<p>(v) <i>Commutative Law for Multiplications and Divisions</i>, that +multiplications and divisions may be performed in any order: <i>e.g.</i> +a ÷ b <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> c <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> d = a <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> c ÷ b <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> d = a <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> d <span class="f150"><b>×</b></span> c ÷ b.</p> + +<p>(vi) <i>Distributive Law</i>, that multiplications and divisions may +be distributed over additions and subtractions, <i>e.g.</i> that +m(a + b − c) = m·a + m·b − m·c, or that (a + b − c) ÷ n = (a ÷ n) + (b ÷ n) + (c ÷ n).</p> + +<p>In the case of (ii), (iii) and (vi), the letters a, b, c, ... may +denote either numbers or numerical quantities, while m and n +denote numbers; in the case of (iv) and (v) the letters denote +numbers only.</p> + +<p>59. <i>Results of Inverse Operations.</i>—Addition, multiplication +and involution are direct processes; and, if we start with +positive integers, we continue with positive integers throughout. +But, in attempting the inverse processes of subtraction, division, +and either evolution or determination of index, the data may be +such that a process cannot be performed. We can, however, +denote the result of the process by a symbol, and deal with this +symbol according to the laws of arithmetic. In this way we +arrive at (i) negative numbers, (ii) fractional numbers, (iii) surds, +(iv) logarithms (in the ordinary sense of the word).</p> + +<p>60. <i>Simple Formulae.</i>—The following are some simple +formulae which follow from the laws stated in § 58.</p> + +<p>(i) (a + b + c + ...)(p + q + r + ...) = (ap + aq + ar + ...) + +(bp + bq + br + ...) + (cp + cq + cr + ...) + ...; <i>i.e.</i> the product +of two or more numbers, each of which consists of two +or more parts, is the sum of the products of each part of the one +with each part of the other.</p> + +<p>(ii) (a + b)(a − b) = a<span class="sp">2</span> − b<span class="sp">2</span>; <i>i.e.</i> the product of the sum and the +difference of two numbers is equal to the difference of their squares.</p> + +<p>(in) (a + b)<span class="sp">2</span> = a<span class="sp">2</span> + 2ab + b<span class="sp">2</span> = a<span class="sp">2</span> + (2a + b)b.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">V. Negative Numbers</p> + +<p>61. <i>Negative Numbers</i> may be regarded as resulting from the +commutative law for addition and subtraction. According to this +law, 10 + 3 + 6 − 7 = 10 + 3 − 7 + 6 = 3 + 6 − 7 + 10 = &c. But, if we +write the expression as 3 − 7 + 6 + 10, this means that we must +first subtract 7 from 3. This cannot be done; but the result of +the subtraction, if it could be done, is something which, when +6 is added to it, becomes 3 − 7 + 6 = 3 + 6 − 7 = 2. The result of +3 − 7 is the same as that of 0 − 4; and we may write it “−4,” +and call it a <i>negative number</i>, if by this we mean something +possessing the property that −4 + 4 = 0.</p> + +<p>This, of course, is unintelligible on the grouping system of +treating number; on the counting system it merely means that +we count backwards from 0, just as we might count inches backwards +from a point marked 0 on a scale. It should be remembered +that the counting is performed with something as unit. If this +unit is A, then what we are really considering is −4A; and this +means, not that A is multiplied by −4, but that A is multiplied +by 4, and the product is taken negatively. It would therefore +be better, in some ways, to retain the unit throughout, and to +describe −4A as a <i>negative quantity</i>, in order to avoid confusion +with the “negative numbers” with which operations are performed +in formal algebra.</p> + +<p>The positive quantity or number obtained from a negative +quantity or number by omitting the “−” is called its <i>numerical +value</i>.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">VI. Fractional and Decimal Numbers</p> + +<p>62. <i>Fractional Numbers.</i>—According to the definition in § 50 +the quantity denoted by <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> of A is made up of a number, 3, and a +unit, which is one-sixth of A. Similarly p/n of A, q/n of A, r/n of A, ... +mean quantities which are respectively p times, q times +r times, ... the unit, n of which make up A. Thus any arithmetical +processes which can be applied to the numbers p, q, r, +... can be applied to p/n, q/n, r/n, ... , the denominator n +remaining unaltered.</p> + +<p>If we denote the unit 1/n of A by X, then A is n times X, and +p/n of n times X is p times X; <i>i.e.</i> p/n of n times is p times.</p> + +<p>Hence, so long as the denominator remains unaltered, we can +deal with p/n, q/n, r/n, ... exactly as if they were numbers, any +operations being performed on the numerators. The expressions +p/n, q/n, r/n, ... are then <i>fractional numbers</i>, their relation to +ordinary or <i>integral</i> numbers being that p/n times n times is equal +to p times.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:107px; height:300px" src="images/img533a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>This relation is of exactly the same kind as the relation of the +successive digits in numbers expressed in a scale of notation whose +base is n. Hence we can treat the fractional +numbers which have any one denominator as +constituting a number-series, as shown in the +adjoining diagram. The result of taking 13 sixths +of A is then seen to be the same as the result of +taking twice A and one-sixth of A, so that we may +regard <span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> as being equal to 2<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>. A fractional +number is called a <i>proper fraction</i> or an <i>improper +fraction</i> according as the numerator is or is not +less than the denominator; and an expression +such as 2<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> is called a mixed number. An improper +fraction is therefore equal either to an +integer or to a mixed number. It will be seen +from § 17 that a mixed number corresponds +with what is there called a <i>mixed quantity</i>. +Thus £3, 17s. is a mixed quantity, being expressed +in pounds and shillings; to express it in terms of pounds +only we must write it £3<span class="spp">17</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span>.</p> + +<p class="nom"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:187px; height:447px" src="images/img533b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>63. <i>Fractional Numbers with different Denominators.</i>—If we +divided the unit into halves, and these new units into thirds, we +should get sixths of the original unit, as +shown in A; while, if we divided the +unit into thirds, and these new units +into halves, we should again get sixths, +but as shown in B. The series of halves +in the one case, and of thirds in the +other, are entirely different series of +fractional numbers, but we can compare +them by putting each in its proper +position in relation to the series of sixths. +Thus <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span> is equal to <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>, and <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> is equal to <span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>, +and conversely; in other words, any +fractional number is equivalent to the +fractional number obtained by multiplying +or dividing the numerator and +denominator by any integer. We can +thus find fractional numbers equivalent +to the sum or difference of any two +fractional numbers. The process is the +same as that of finding the sum or difference +of 3 sixpences and 5 fourpences; +we cannot subtract 3 sixpenny-bits +from 5 fourpenny-bits, but we can express +each as an equivalent number of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span> +pence, and then perform the subtraction. Generally, to find the +sum or difference of two or more fractional numbers, we must +replace them by other fractional numbers having the same +denominator; it is usually most convenient to take as this +denominator the L.C.M. of the original fractional numbers (cf. +§ 53).</p> + +<p>64. <i>Complex Fractions.</i>—A fraction (or fractional number), +the numerator or denominator of which is a fractional number, +is called a <i>complex</i> fraction (or fractional number), to distinguish +it from a <i>simple</i> fraction, which is a fraction having integers for +numerator and denominator. Thus 5<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> / 11<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of A means that we take +a unit X such that 11<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> times X is equal to A, and then take 5<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> +times X. To simplify this, we take a new unit Y, which is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of X. +Then A is 34 times Y, and 5<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> / 11<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of A is 17 times Y, <i>i.e.</i> it is ½ of A.</p> + +<p>65. <i>Multiplication of Fractional Numbers.</i>—To multiply <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> by <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> +is to take <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> times <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>. It has already been explained (§ 62) that <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> +times is an operation such that <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> times 7 times is equal to 5 times. +Hence we must express <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, which itself means <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> times, as being +7 times something. This is done by multiplying both numerator +and denominator by 7; <i>i.e.</i> <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> is equal to <span class="spp">7·8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·3</span>, which is the same +thing as 7 times <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·3</span>. Hence <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> times <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> = <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> times 7 times <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·3</span> += 5 times <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·3</span> = <span class="spp">5·8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7·3</span>. The rule for multiplying a fractional number +by a fractional number is therefore the same as the rule for finding +a fraction of a fraction.</p> + +<p>66. <i>Division of Fractional Numbers.</i>—To divide <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> by <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> is to +find a number (<i>i.e.</i> a fractional number) x such that <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> times x is +equal to <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>. But <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> times <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> times x is, by the last section, equal to +x. Hence x is equal to <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> times <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>. Thus to divide by a fractional +number we must multiply by the number obtained by interchanging +the numerator and the denominator, <i>i.e.</i> by the <i>reciprocal</i> +of the original number.</p> + +<p>If we divide 1 by <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> we obtain, by this rule, <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>. Thus the +reciprocal of a number may be defined as the number obtained +by dividing 1 by it. This definition applies whether the original +number is integral or fractional.</p> + +<p>By means of the present and the preceding sections the rule +given in § 63 can be extended to the statement that a fractional +number is equal to the number obtained by multiplying its +numerator and its denominator by any fractional number.</p> + +<p>67. <i>Negative Fractional Numbers.</i>—We can obtain negative +fractional numbers in the same way that we obtain negative +integral numbers; thus − <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> or − <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>A means that <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> or <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>A is taken +negatively.</p> + +<p>68. <i>Genesis of Fractional Numbers.</i>—A fractional number may +be regarded as the result of a measuring division (§ 39) which +cannot be performed exactly. Thus we cannot divide 3 in. by +11 in. exactly, <i>i.e.</i> we cannot express 3 in. as an integral multiple +of 11 in.; but, by extending the meaning of “times” as in § 62, +we can say that 3 in. is <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span> times 11 in., and therefore call <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span> the +quotient when 3 in. is divided by 11 in. Hence, if p and n are +numbers, p/n is sometimes regarded as denoting the result of +dividing p by n, whether p and n are integral or fractional +(mixed numbers being included in fractional).</p> + +<p>The idea and properties of a fractional number having been +explained, we may now call it, for brevity, a <i>fraction</i>. Thus +“<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of A” no longer means two of the units, three of which make +up A; it means that A is multiplied by the fraction <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, <i>i.e.</i> it +means the same thing as “<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> times A.”</p> + +<p>69. <i>Percentage.</i>—In order to deal, by way of comparison or +addition or subtraction, with fractions which have different +denominators, it is necessary to reduce them to a common +denominator. To avoid this difficulty, in practical life, it is usual +to confine our operations to fractions which have a certain +standard denominator. Thus (§ 79) the Romans reckoned in +twelfths, and the Babylonians in sixtieths; the former method +supplied a basis for division by 2, 3, 4, 6 or 12, and the latter for +division by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, or 60. The modern +method is to deal with fractions which have 100 as denominator; +such fractions are called <i>percentages</i>. They only apply accurately +to divisions by 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25 or 50; but they have the convenience +of fitting in with the denary scale of notation, and they +can be extended to other divisions by using a mixed number +as numerator. One-fortieth, for instance, can be expressed as +2½/100, which is called 2½ <i>per cent.</i>, and usually written 2½%. +Similarly 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>% is equal to one-thirtieth.</p> + +<p>If the numerator is a multiple of 5, the fraction represents +twentieths. This is convenient, <i>e.g.</i> for expressing <i>rates in the +pound</i>; thus 15% denotes the process of taking 3s. for every £1, +<i>i.e.</i> a rate of 3s. in the £.</p> + +<p>In applications to money “per cent.” sometimes means “per +£100.” Thus “£3, 17s. 6d. per cent.” is really the complex +fraction</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">3</td><td>17<span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom" colspan="2">100</td></tr></table> + +<p>70. <i>Decimal Notation of Percentage.</i>—An integral percentage, +<i>i.e.</i> a simple fraction with 100 for denominator, can be expressed +by writing the two figures of the numerator (or, if there is only one +figure, this figure preceded by 0) with a dot or “point” before +them; thus .76 means 76%, or <span class="spp">76</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span>. If there is an integral +number to be taken as well as a percentage, this number is +written in front of the point; thus 23.76 × A means 23 times A, +with 76% of A. We might therefore denote 76% by 0.76.</p> + +<p>If as our unit we take X = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> of A = 1% of A, the above +quantity might equally be written 2376 X = <span class="spp">2376</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> of A; <i>i.e.</i> +23.76 × A is equal to 2376% of A.</p> + +<p>71. <i>Approximate Expression by Percentage.</i>—When a fraction +cannot be expressed by an integral percentage, it can be so +expressed approximately, by taking the <i>nearest</i> integer to the +numerator of an equal fraction having 100 for its denominator. +Thus <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> = 14<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> / 100, so that <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> is approximately equal to 14%; and +<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> = (28<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>)/100, which is approximately equal to 29%. The difference +between this approximate percentage and the true value is less +than ½%, <i>i.e.</i> is less than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">200</span>.</p> + +<p>If the numerator of the fraction consists of an integer and +½—<i>e.g.</i> in the case of <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> = (37½)/100—it is uncertain whether we should +take the next lowest or the next highest integer. It is best in +such cases to retain the ½; thus we can write <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> = 37½% = +.37½.</p> + +<p>72. <i>Addition and Subtraction of Percentages.</i>—The sum or +difference of two percentages is expressed by the sum or difference +of the numbers expressing the two percentages.</p> + +<p>73. <i>Percentage of a Percentage.</i>—Since 37% of 1 is expressed by +0.37, 37% of 1% (<i>i.e.</i> of 0.01) might similarly be expressed by +0.00.37. The second point, however, is omitted, so that we write +it 0.0037 or .0037, this expression meaning <span class="spp">37</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> = <span class="spp">37</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span>.</p> + +<p>On the same principle, since 37% of 45% is equal to <span class="spp">37</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> of <span class="spp">45</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> += <span class="spp">1665</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span> = <span class="spp">16</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> + (<span class="spp">65</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span>), we can express it by .1665; and +3% of 2% can be expressed by .0006. Hence, to find a percentage +of a percentage, we multiply the two numbers, put 0’s in front +if necessary to make up four figures (not counting fractions), +and prefix the point.</p> + +<p>74. <i>Decimal Fractions.</i>—The percentage-notation can be +extended to any fraction which has any power of 10 for its +denominator. Thus <span class="spp">153</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span> can be written .153 and <span class="spp">15300</span>⁄<span class="suu">100000</span> can +be written .15300. These two fractions are equal to each other, +and also to .1530. A fraction written in this way is called a +<i>decimal fraction</i>; or we might define a decimal fraction as a +fraction having a power of 10 for its denominator, there being a +special notation for writing such fractions.</p> + +<p>A mixed number, the fractional part of which is a decimal +fraction, is expressed by writing the integral part in front of +the point, which is called the <i>decimal point</i>. Thus 27<span class="spp">1530</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span>} +can be written 27.1530. This number, expressed in terms of the +fraction <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span> or .0001, would be 271530. Hence the successive +figures after the decimal point have the same relation to each +other and to the figures before the point as if the point did not +exist. The point merely indicates the <i>denomination</i> in which +the number is expressed: the above number, expressed in terms +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> +of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>, would be 271.530, but expressed in terms of 100 it would be +.271530.</p> + +<p>Fractions other than decimal fractions are usually called +<i>vulgar fractions</i>.</p> + +<p>75. <i>Decimal Numbers.</i>—Instead of regarding the .153 in +27.153 as meaning <span class="spp">153</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span>, we may regard the different figures in +the expression as denoting numbers in the successive orders +of submultiples of 1 on a denary scale. Thus, on the grouping +system, 27.153 will mean 2·10 + 7 + 1/10 + 5/10<span class="sp">2</span> + 3/10<span class="sp">3</span>, while on +the counting system it will mean the result of counting +through the tens to 2, then through the ones to 7, then through +tenths to 1, and so on. A number made up in this way may be +called a <i>decimal number</i>, or, more briefly, a <i>decimal</i>. +It will be seen that the definition includes integral numbers.</p> + +<p>76. <i>Sums and Differences of Decimals.</i>—To add or subtract +decimals, we must reduce them to the same denomination, <i>i.e.</i> +if one has more figures after the decimal point than the other, +we must add sufficient 0’s to the latter to make the numbers +of figures equal. Thus, to add 5.413 to 3.8, we must write the +latter as 3.800. Or we may treat the former as the sum of +5.4 and .013, and recombine the .013 with the sum of 3.8 and +5.4.</p> + +<p>77. <i>Product of Decimals.</i>—To multiply two decimals exactly, +we multiply them as if the point were absent, and then insert it +so that the number of figures after the point in the product shall +be equal to the sum of the numbers of figures after the points in +the original decimals.</p> + +<p>In actual practice, however, decimals only represent approximations, +and the process has to be modified (§ 111).</p> + +<p>78. <i>Division by Decimal.</i>—To divide one decimal by another, +we must reduce them to the same denomination, as explained +in § 76, and then omit the decimal points. Thus 5.413 ÷ 3.8 = +<span class="spp">5413</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span> ÷ <span class="spp">3800</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span> = 5413 ÷ 3800.</p> + +<p>79. <i>Historical Development of Fractions and Decimals.</i>—The +fractions used in ancient times were mainly of two kinds: +unit-fractions, <i>i.e.</i> fractions representing aliquot parts (§ 103), and +fractions with a definite denominator.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians as a rule used only unit-fractions, other +fractions being expressed as the sum of unit-fractions. The only +known exception was the use of <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> as a single fraction. Except in +the case of <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> and ½, the fraction was expressed by the +denominator, with a special symbol above it.</p> + +<p>The Babylonians expressed numbers less than 1 by the numerator +of a fraction with denominator 60; the numerator only being +written. The choice of 60 appears to have been connected with +the reckoning of the year as 360 days; it is perpetuated in the +present subdivision of angles.</p> + +<p>The Greeks originally used unit-fractions, like the Egyptians; +later they introduced the sexagesimal fractions of the +Babylonians, extending the system to four or more successive +subdivisions of the unit representing a degree. They also, but +apparently still later and only occasionally, used fractions of the +modern kind. In the sexagesimal system the numerators of the +successive fractions (the denominators of which were the successive +powers of 60) were followed by ′, ″, ″′, ″″, the denominator +not being written. This notation survives in reference to the +minute (′) and second (″) of angular measurement, and has been +extended, by analogy, to the foot (′) and inch (″). Since ξ +represented 60, and ο was the next letter, the latter appears to have +been used to denote absence of one of the fractions; but it is not +clear that our present sign for zero was actually derived from +this. In the case of fractions of the more general kind, the +numerator was written first with ′, and then the denominator, +followed by ″, was written twice. A different method was used +by Diophantus, accents being omitted, and the denominator +being written above and to the right of the numerator.</p> + +<p>The Romans commonly used fractions with denominator 12; +these were described as <i>unciae</i> (ounces), being twelfths of the +<i>as</i> (pound).</p> + +<p>The modern system of placing the numerator above the +denominator is due to the Hindus; but the dividing line is a +later invention. Various systems were tried before the present +notation came to be generally accepted. Under one system, for +instance, the continued sum 4/5 + 1/(7 × 5) + 3/(8 × 7 × 5) would be denoted +by (3 1 4)/(8 7 5); this is somewhat similar in principle to a decimal +notation, but with digits taken in the reverse order.</p> + +<p>Hindu treatises on arithmetic show the use of fractions, +containing a power of 10 as denominator, as early as the beginning +of the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> There was, however, no development +in the direction of decimals in the modern sense, and the +Arabs, by whom the Hindu notation of integers was brought to +Europe, mainly used the sexagesimal division in the ′ ″ ″′ +notation. Even where the decimal notation would seem to arise +naturally, as in the case of approximate extraction of a square +root, the portion which might have been expressed as a decimal +was converted into sexagesimal fractions. It was not until +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1585 that a decimal notation was published by Simon +Stevinus of Bruges. It is worthy of notice that the invention of +this notation appears to have been due to practical needs, being +required for the purpose of computation of compound interest. +The present decimal notation, which is a development of that of +Stevinus, was first used in 1617 by H. Briggs, the computer of +logarithms.</p> + +<p>80. <i>Fractions of Concrete Quantities.</i>—The British systems +of coinage, weights, lengths, &c., afford many examples of the +use of fractions. These may be divided into three classes, as +follows:—</p> + +<p>(i) The fraction of a concrete quantity may itself not exist as +a concrete quantity, but be represented by a token. Thus, if we +take a shilling as a unit, we may divide it into 12 or 48 smaller +units; but corresponding coins are not really portions of a +shilling, but objects which help us in counting. Similarly we +may take the farthing as a unit, and invent smaller units, +represented either by tokens or by no material objects at all. +Ten marks, for instance, might be taken as equivalent to a +farthing; but 13 marks are not equivalent to anything except +one farthing and three out of the ten acts of counting required +to arrive at another farthing.</p> + +<p>(ii) In the second class of cases the fraction of the unit quantity +is a quantity of the same kind, but cannot be determined with +absolute exactness. Weights come in this class. The ounce, +for instance, is one-sixteenth of the pound, but it is impossible to +find 16 objects such that their weights shall be exactly equal and +that the sum of their weights shall be exactly equal to the weight +of the standard pound.</p> + +<p>(iii) Finally, there are the cases of linear measurement, where +it is theoretically possible to find, by geometrical methods, an +exact submultiple of a given unit, but both the unit and the +submultiple are not really concrete objects, but are spatial +relations embodied in objects.</p> + +<p>Of these three classes, the first is the least abstract and the +last the most abstract. The first only involves number and +counting. The second involves the idea of <i>equality</i> as a necessary +characteristic of the units or subunits that are used. The third +involves also the idea of <i>continuity</i> and therefore of unlimited +subdivision. In weighing an object with ounce-weights the fact +that it weighs more than 1 ℔ 3 oz. but less than 1 ℔ 4 oz. does +not of itself suggest the necessity or possibility of subdivision +of the ounce for purposes of greater accuracy. But in measuring +a distance we may find that it is “between” two distances +differing by a unit of the lowest denomination used, and a +subdivision of this unit follows naturally.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">VII. Approximation</p> + +<p>81. <i>Approximate Character of Numbers.</i>—The numbers +(integral or decimal) by which we represent the results of arithmetical +operations are often only approximately correct. All +numbers, for instance, which represent physical measurements, are +limited in their accuracy not only by our powers of measurement +but also by the accuracy of the measure we use as our unit. Also +most fractions cannot be expressed exactly as decimals; and this +is also the case for surds and logarithms, as well as for the numbers +expressing certain ratios which arise out of geometrical relations. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span> +Even where numbers are supposed to be exact, calculations +based on them can often only be approximate. We might, for +instance, calculate the exact cost of 3 ℔ 5 oz. of meat at 9½ d. +a ℔, but there are no coins in which we could pay this exact +amount.</p> + +<p>When the result of any arithmetical operation or operations +is represented approximately but not exactly by a number, +the excess (positive or negative) of this number over the +number which would express the result exactly is called the +<i>error</i>.</p> + +<p>82. <i>Degree of Accuracy.</i>—There are three principal ways of +expressing the degree of accuracy of any number, <i>i.e.</i> the extent +to which it is equal to the number it is intended to represent.</p> + +<p>(i) A number can be <i>correct to</i> so many <i>places of decimals</i>. +This means (cf. § 71) that the number differs from the true value +by less than one-half of the unit represented by 1 in the last place +of decimals. For instance, .143 represents <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> correct to 3 places of +decimals, since it differs from it by less than .0005. The final +figure, in a case like this, is said to be <i>corrected</i>.</p> + +<p>This method is not good for comparative purposes. Thus .143 +and 14.286 represent respectively <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> and <span class="spp">100</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> to the same number +of places of decimals, but the latter is obviously more exact than +the former.</p> + +<p>(ii) A number can be correct to so many <i>significant figures</i>. +The significant figures of a number are those which commence +with the first figure other than zero in the number; thus the +significant figures of 13.027 and of .00013027 are the same.</p> + +<p>This is the usual method; but the relative accuracy of two +numbers expressed to the same number of significant figures +depends to a certain extent on the magnitude of the first figure. +Thus .14286 and .85714 represent <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> and <span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> correct to 5 significant +figures; but the latter is relatively more accurate than the former. +For the former shows only that <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> lies between .142855 and +.142865, or, as it is better expressed, between .14285½ and +.14286½; but the latter shows that <span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> lies between .85713½ +and .85714½, and therefore that <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> lies between .14285<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span> and +.14285<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>.</p> + +<p>In either of the above cases, and generally in any case where a +number is known to be within a certain limit on each side of +the stated value, the <i>limit of error</i> is expressed by the sign ±. +Thus the former of the above two statements would give <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> = +.14286 ± .000005. It should be observed that the numerical +value of the error is to be subtracted from or added to the +stated value according as the error is positive or negative.</p> + +<p>(iii) The limit of error can be expressed as a fraction of +the number as stated. Thus <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> = .143 ± .0005 can be written +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> = 143(1 ± <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">286</span>).</p> + +<p>83. <i>Accuracy after Arithmetical Operations.</i>—If the numbers +which are the subject of operations are not all exact, the accuracy +of the result requires special investigation in each case.</p> + +<p>Additions and subtractions are simple. If, for instance, the +values of a and b, correct to two places of decimals, are 3.58 and +1.34, then 2.24, as the value of a − b, is not necessarily correct +to two places. The limit of error of each being ±.005, the limit +of error of their sum or difference is ±.01.</p> + +<p>For multiplication we make use of the formula (§ 60 (i)) +(a′ ± α)(b′ ± β) = a′b′ + aβ ± (a′β + b′α). +If a′ and b′ are the stated values, +and ±α and ±β the respective limits of error, we ought strictly +to take a′b′ + αβ as the product, with a limit of error ±(a′β + b′α). +In practice, however, both αβ and a certain portion of a′b′ are +small in comparison with a′β and b′α, and we therefore replace +a′b′ + αβ by an approximate value, and increase the limit of +error so as to cover the further error thus introduced. In the case +of the two numbers given in the last paragraph, the product lies +between 3.575 × 1.335 = 4.772625 and 3.585 × 1.345 = 4.821825. +We might take the product as (3.58 × 1.34) + (.005)<span class="sp">2</span> = 4.797225, +the limits of error being ±.005(3.58 + 1.34) = ±.0246; but it is +more convenient to write it in such a form as 4.797 ± .025 or +4.80 ± .03.</p> + +<p>If the number of decimal places to which a result is to be +accurate is determined beforehand, it is usually not necessary +in the actual working to go to more than two or three places +beyond this. At the close of the work the extra figures are +dropped, the last figure which remains being corrected (§ 82 (i)) +if necessary.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">VIII. Surds and Logarithms</p> + +<p>84. <i>Roots and Surds.</i>—The pth root of a number (§ 43) may, +if the number is an integer, be found by expressing it in terms of +its prime factors; or, if it is not an integer, by expressing it as +a fraction in its lowest terms, and finding the pth roots of the +numerator and of the denominator separately. Thus to find the +cube root of 1728, we write it in the form 2<span class="sp">6</span>}·3<span class="sp">3</span>, and find that +its cube root is 2<span class="sp">2</span>·3 = 12; or, to find the cube root of 1.728, we +write it as <span class="spp">1728</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span> = <span class="spp">216</span>⁄<span class="suu">125</span> = 2<span class="sp">3</span>·3<span class="sp">3</span>/5<span class="sp">3</span>, and find that the cube root is +2·3/5 = 1.2. Similarly the cube root of 2197 is 13. But we cannot +find any number whose cube is 2000.</p> + +<p>It is, however, possible to find a number whose cube shall +approximate as closely as we please to 2000. Thus the cubes of +12.5 and of 12.6 are respectively 1953.125 and 2000.376, so that +the number whose cube differs as little as possible from 2000 is +somewhere between 12.5 and 12.6. Again the cube of 12.59 is +1995.616979, so that the number lies between 12.59 and 12.60. +We may therefore consider that there is some number x whose +cube is 2000, and we can find this number to any degree of +accuracy that we please.</p> + +<p>A number of this kind is called a <i>surd</i>; the surd which is the +pth root of N is written <span class="sp">p</span>√N, but if the index is 2 it is usually +omitted, so that the square root of N is written √N.</p> + +<p>85. <i>Surd as a Power.</i>—We have seen (§§ 43, 44) that, if we take +the successive powers of a number N, commencing with 1, they +may be written N<span class="sp">0</span>, N<span class="sp">1</span>, N<span class="sp">2</span>, N<span class="sp">3</span>, ..., the series of indices being +the standard series; and we have also seen (§ 44) that multiplication +of any two of these numbers corresponds to addition of +their indices. Hence we may insert in the power-series numbers +with fractional indices, provided that the multiplication of these +numbers follows the same law. The number denoted by N<span class="sp">1/3</span> will +therefore be such that N<span class="sp">1/3</span> × N<span class="sp">1/3</span> × N<span class="sp">1/3</span> = N<span class="sp">1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3</span> = N; <i>i.e.</i> it will +be the cube root of N. By analogy with the notation of fractional +numbers, N<span class="sp">2/3</span> will be N<span class="sp">1/3 + 1/3</span> = N<span class="sp">1/3</span> × N<span class="sp">1/3</span>; and, generally, N<span class="sp">p/q</span> will +mean the product of p numbers, the product of q of which is equal +to N. Thus N<span class="sp">2/6</span> will not mean the <i>same</i> as N<span class="sp">1/3</span>, but will mean the +square of N<span class="sp">1/6</span>; but this will be <i>equal</i> to N<span class="sp">1/3</span>, <i>i.e.</i> +(<span class="sp">6</span>√N)<span class="sp">2</span> = <span class="sp">3</span>√N.</p> + +<p>86. <i>Multiplication and Division of Surds.</i>—To add or subtract +fractional numbers, we must reduce them to a common denominator; +and similarly, to multiply or divide surds, we must express +them as power-numbers with the same index. Thus <span class="sp">3</span>√2 × √5 = +2<span class="sp">1/3</span> × 5<span class="sp">1/2</span> = 2<span class="sp">2/6</span> × 5<span class="sp">3/6</span> = 4<span class="sp">1/6</span> × 125<span class="sp">1/6</span> = 500<span class="sp">1/6</span> = <span class="sp">6</span>√500.</p> + +<p>87. <i>Antilogarithms.</i>—If we take a fixed number, <i>e.g.</i> 2, as base, +and take as indices the successive decimal numbers to any particular +number of places of decimals, we get a series of <i>antilogarithms</i> +of the indices to this base. Thus, if we go to two places of +decimals, we have as the integral series the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, ... which +are the values of 2<span class="sp">0</span>, 2<span class="sp">1</span>, 2<span class="sp">2</span>, ... and we insert within +this series the successive powers of x, where x is such that x<span class="sp">100</span> = 2. +We thus get the numbers 2<span class="sp">.01</span>, 2<span class="sp">.02</span>, 2<span class="sp">.03</span>, ..., which are the +antilogarithms of .01, .02, .03, ... to base 2; the first antilogarithm +being 2<span class="sp">.00</span> = 1, which is thus the antilogarithm of 0 to this (or any +other) base. The series is formed by successive multiplication, +and any antilogarithm to a larger number of decimal places is +formed from it in the same way by multiplication. If, for +instance, we have found 2<span class="sp">.31</span>, then the value of 2<span class="sp">.316</span> is +found from it by multiplying by the 6th power of the 1000th +root of 2.</p> + +<p>For practical purposes the number taken as base is 10; the +convenience of this being that the increase of the index by an +integer means multiplication by the corresponding power of 10, +<i>i.e.</i> it means a shifting of the decimal point. In the same way, +by dividing by powers of 10 we may get negative indices.</p> + +<p>88. <i>Logarithms.</i>—If N is the antilogarithm of p to the base a, +<i>i.e.</i> if N = a<span class="sp">p</span>, then p is called the logarithm of N to the base a, +and is written log<span class="su">a</span> N. As the table of antilogarithms is formed +by successive multiplications, so the logarithm of any given +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span> +number is in theory found by successive divisions. Thus, to find +the logarithm of a number to base 2, the number being greater +than 1, we first divide repeatedly by 2 until we get a number +between 1 and 2; then divide repeatedly by <span class="sp">10</span>√2 until we get +a number between 1 and <span class="sp">10</span>√2; then divide repeatedly by <span class="sp">100</span>√2; +and so on. If, for instance, we find that the number is approximately +equal to 2<span class="sp">3</span> × (<span class="sp">10</span>√2)<span class="sp">5</span> × (<span class="sp">100</span>√2)<span class="sp">7</span> × (<span class="sp">1000</span>√2)<span class="sp">4</span>, it may be +written 2<span class="sp">3.574</span>, and its logarithm to base 2 is 3.574.</p> + +<p>For a further explanation of logarithms, and for an explanation +of the treatment of cases in which an antilogarithm is less than +1, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logarithm</a></span>.</p> + +<p>For practical purposes logarithms are usually calculated to +base 10, so that log<span class="su">10</span> 10 = 1, log<span class="su">10</span> 100 = 2, &c.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">IX. Units</p> + +<p>89. <i>Change of Denomination</i> of a numerical quantity is usually +called <i>reduction</i>, so that this term covers, <i>e.g.</i>, the expression of +£153, 7s. 4d. as shillings and pence and also the expression of +3067s. 4d. as £, s. and d.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:328px" src="images/img537a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>The usual statement is that to express £153, 7s. as shillings we +multiply 153 by 20 and add 7. This, as already explained (§ 37), +is incorrect. £153 denotes 153 units, each of which is £1 or 20s.; +and therefore we must multiply 20s. by 153 and add 7s., <i>i.e.</i> +multiply 20 by 153 (the unit being now 1s.) and add 7. This is +the expression of the process on the grouping method. On the +counting method we have +a scale with every 20th +shilling marked as a £; +there are 153 of these 20’s, +and 7 over.</p> + +<p>The simplest case, in +which the quantity can be +expressed as an integral +number of the largest units +involved, has already been +considered (§§ 37, 42). The +same method can be +applied in other cases +by regarding a quantity +expressed in several denominations +as a fractional +number of units of the +largest denomination mentioned; +thus 7s. 4d. is to be taken as meaning 7<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>s., but +£0, 7s. 4d. as £0[(7<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>) / 20] (§ 17). The reduction of £153, 7s. 4d. to pence, +and of 36808d. to £, s. d., on this principle, is shown in diagrams +A and B above.</p> + +<p>For reduction of pounds to shillings, or shillings to pounds, we +must consider that we have a multiple-table (§ 36) in which the +multiples of £1 and of 20s. are arranged in parallel columns; +and similarly for shillings and pence.</p> + +<p>90. <i>Change of Unit.</i>—The statement “£153 = 3060s.” is not +a statement of <i>equality</i> of the same kind as the statement +“153 × 20 = 3060,” but only a statement of <i>equivalence</i> for +certain purposes; in other words, it does not convey an +absolute truth. It is therefore of interest to see whether we +cannot replace it by an absolute truth.</p> + +<p>To do this, consider what the ordinary processes of multiplication +and division mean in reference to concrete objects. If +we want to give, to 5 boys, 4 apples each, we are said to multiply +4 apples by 5. We cannot multiply 4 apples by 5 boys, for then +we should get 20 “boy-apples,” an expression which has no +meaning. Or, again, to distribute 20 apples amongst 5 boys, +we are not regarded as dividing 20 apples by 5 boys, but as dividing +20 apples by the number 5. The multiplication or division +here involves the omission of the unit “boy,” and the operation +is incomplete. The complete operation, in each case, is as +follows.</p> + +<p>(i) In the case of multiplication we commence with the +conception of the number “5” and the unit “boy”; and we +then convert this unit into 4 apples, and thus obtain the result, +20 apples. The conversion of the unit may be represented as +multiplication by a factor (4 apples)/(1 boy), so that the operation is +(4 apples)/(1 boy) × (5 boys) = 5 × (4 apples)/(1 boy) × (1 boy) = 5 × 4 apples = 20 apples. +Similarly, to convert £153 into shillings we must multiply it by a +factor 20s./£1, so that we get</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>20s.</td> <td rowspan="2">× £153 = 153 ×</td> <td>20s.</td> + <td rowspan="2">× £1 = 153 × 20s. = 3060s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">£1</td> <td class="denom">£1</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Hence we can only regard £153 as being equal to 3060s. if we +regard this converting factor as unity.</p> + +<p>(ii) In the case of partition we can express the complete operation +if we extend the meaning of division so as to enable us to +divide 20 apples by 5 boys. We thus get (20 apples)/(5 boys) = (4 apples)/(1 boy), +which means that the distribution can be effected by distributing +at the rate of 4 apples per boy. The converting factor mentioned +under (i) therefore represents a <i>rate</i>; and partition, applied to +concrete cases, leads to a rate.</p> + +<p>In reference to the use of the sign × with the converting factor, +it should be observed that “(7 ℔)/(4 ℔) ×” symbolizes the replacing of +so many times 4 ℔ by the same number of times 7 ℔, while +“<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> ×” symbolizes the replacing of 4 times something by 7 times +that something.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">X. Arithmetical Reasoning</p> + +<p>91. <i>Correspondence of Series of Numbers.</i>—In §§ 33-42 we have +dealt with the parallelism of the original number-series with a +series consisting of the corresponding multiples of some unit, +whether a number or a numerical quantity; and the relations +arising out of multiplication, division, &c., have been exhibited by +diagrams comprising pairs of corresponding terms of the two series. +This, however, is only a particular case of the correspondence +of two series. In considering addition, for instance, we have +introduced two parallel series, each being the original number-series, +but the two being placed in different positions. If we add +1, 2, 3, ... to 6, we obtain a series 7, 8, 9, ..., the terms of +which correspond with those of the original series 1, 2, 3,...</p> + +<p>Again, in §§ 61-75 and 84-88 we have considered various kinds +of numbers other than those in the original number-series. +In general, these have involved two of the original numbers, <i>e.g.</i> +5<span class="sp">3</span> involves 5 and 3, and log<span class="su">2</span> 8 involves 2 and 8. In some cases, +however, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of negative numbers and reciprocals, +only one is involved; and there might be three or more, as in the +case of a number expressed by (a + b)<span class="sp">n</span>. If all but one of these +constituent elements are settled beforehand, <i>e.g.</i> if we take the +numbers 5, 5<span class="sp">2</span>, 5<span class="sp">3</span>, ..., or the numbers <span class="sp">3</span>√1, <span class="sp">3</span>√2, <span class="sp">3</span>√3, ... or +log<span class="su">10</span> 1.001, log<span class="su">10</span> 1.002, log<span class="su">10</span> 1.003 ... we obtain a series in which each +term corresponds with a term of the original number-series.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:239px" src="images/img537b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table> + +<p>This correspondence is usually shown by <i>tabulation, i.e</i>. by the +formation of a table in which the original series is shown in one +column, and each term of +the second series is placed +in a second column opposite +the corresponding +term of the first series, +each column being headed +by a description of its +contents. It is sometimes +convenient to begin the +first series with 0, and even +to give the series of negative +numbers; in most +cases, however, these latter +are regarded as belonging to a different series, and they need not +be considered here. The diagrams, A, B, C are simple forms of +tables; A giving a sum-series, B a multiple-series, and C a +series of square roots, calculated approximately.</p> + +<p>92. <i>Correspondence of Numerical Quantities.</i>—Again, in § 89, we +have considered cases of multiple-tables of numerical quantities, +where each quantity in one series is <i>equivalent</i> to the corresponding +quantity in the other series. We might extend this principle +to cases in which the terms of two series, whether of numbers or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span> +of numerical quantities, merely <i>correspond</i> with each other, the +correspondence being the result of some relation. The volume +of a cube, for instance, bears a certain +relation to the length of an edge of the +cube. This relation is not one of proportion; +but it may nevertheless be +expressed by tabulation, as shown at D.</p> + +<p class="nom"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:197px; height:260px" src="images/img538.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table> + +<p>93. <i>Interpolation.</i>—In most cases the +quantity in the second column may +be regarded as increasing or decreasing +continuously as the number in the first +column increases, and it has intermediate +values corresponding to intermediate +(<i>i.e.</i> fractional or decimal) +numbers not shown in the table. The +table in such cases is not, and cannot +be, complete, even up to the number to which it goes. For +instance, a cube whose edge is 1½ in. has a definite volume, +viz. 3<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> cub. in. The determination of any such intermediate +value is performed by <i>Interpolation</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>In treating a fractional number, or the corresponding value of +the quantity in the second column, as intermediate, we are in effect +regarding the numbers 1, 2, 3, ..., and the corresponding +numbers in the second column, as denoting points between which +other numbers lie, <i>i.e.</i> we are regarding the numbers as <i>ordinal</i>, +not cardinal. The transition is similar to that which arises in the +case of geometrical measurement (§ 26), and it is an essential +feature of all reasoning with regard to continuous quantity, such +as we have to deal with in real life.</p> + +<p>94. <i>Nature of Arithmetical Reasoning.</i>—The simplest form of +arithmetical reasoning consists in the determination of the term +in one series corresponding to a given term in another series, when +the relation between the two series is given; and it implies, +though it does not necessarily involve, the establishment of each +series as a whole by determination of its unit. A method +involving the determination of the unit is called a <i>unitary</i> +method. When the unit is not determined, the reasoning is +algebraical rather than arithmetical. If, for instance, three +terms of a proportion are given, the fourth can be obtained by +the relation given at the end of § 57, this relation being then +called the <i>Rule of Three</i>; but this is equivalent to the use of an +algebraical formula.</p> + +<p>More complicated forms of arithmetical reasoning involve the +use of series, each term in which corresponds to particular terms +in two or more series jointly; and cases of this kind are usually +dealt with by special methods, or by means of algebraical +formulae. The old-fashioned problems about the amount of work +done by particular numbers of men, women and boys, are of this +kind, and really involve the solution of simultaneous equations. +They are not suitable for elementary purposes, as the arithmetical +relations involved are complicated and difficult to grasp.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">XI. Methods of Calculation</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">(i.) <i>Exact Calculation.</i></p> + +<p>95. <i>Working from Left.</i>—It is desirable, wherever possible, to +perform operations on numbers or numerical quantities from +the left, rather than from the right. There are several reasons +for this. In the first place, an operation then corresponds more +closely, at an elementary stage, with the concrete process which it +represents. If, for instance, we had one sum of £3, 15s. 9d. and +another of £2, 6s. 5d., we should add them by putting the coins +of each denomination together and commencing the addition with +the £. In the second place, this method fixes the attention at +once on the larger, and therefore more important, parts of the +quantities concerned, and thus prevents arithmetical processes +from becoming too abstract in character. In the third place, it is +a better preparation for dealing with approximate calculations. +Finally, experience shows that certain operations in which the +result is written down at once—<i>e.g.</i> addition or subtraction of +two numbers or quantities, and multiplication by some small +numbers—are with a little practice performed more quickly and +more accurately from left to right.</p> + +<p>96. <i>Addition.</i>—There is no difference in principle between +addition (or subtraction) of numbers and addition (or subtraction) +of numerical quantities. In each case the grouping system +involves rearrangement, which implies the commutative law, +while the counting system requires the expression of a quantity in +different denominations to be regarded as a notation in a varying +scale (§§ 17, 32). We need therefore consider numerical quantities +only, our results being applicable to numbers by regarding the +digits as representing multiples of units in different denominations.</p> + +<p>When the result of addition in one denomination can be partly +expressed in another denomination, the process is technically +called <i>carrying</i>. The name is a bad one, since it does not correspond +with any ordinary meaning of the verb. It would be better +described as <i>exchanging</i>, by analogy with the “changing” of +subtraction. When, <i>e.g.</i>, we find that the sum of 17s. and 18s. is +35s., we take out 20 of the 35 shillings, and exchange them for £1.</p> + +<p>To add from the left, we have to look ahead to see whether +the next addition will require an exchange. Thus, in adding +£3, 17s. 0d. to £2, 18s. 0d., we write down the sum of £3 and £2 +as £6, not as £5, and the sum of 17s. and 18s. as 15s., not as 35s.</p> + +<p>When three or more numbers or quantities are added together, +the result should always be checked by adding both upwards +and downwards. It is also useful to look out for pairs of numbers +or quantities which make 1 of the next denomination, <i>e.g.</i> 7 and 3, +or 8d. and 4d.</p> + +<p>97. <i>Subtraction.</i>—To subtract £3, 5s. 4d. from £9, 7s. 8d., on +the grouping system, we split up each quantity into its denominations, +perform the subtractions independently, and then regroup +the results as the “remainder” £6, 2s. 4d. On the counting +system we can count either forwards or backwards, and we can +work either from the left or from the right. If we count forwards +we find that to convert £3, 5s. 4d. into £9, 7s. 8d. we must +successively add £6, 2s. and 4d. if we work from the left, or 4d., +2s. and £6 if we work from the right. The intermediate values +obtained by the successive additions are different according +as we work from the left or from the right, being £9, 5s. 4d. and +£9, 7s. 4d. in the one case, and £3, 5s. 8d. and £3, 7s. 8d. in the +other. If we count backwards, the intermediate values are +£3, 7s. 8d. and £3, 5s. 8d. in the one case, and £9, 7s. 4d. and +£9, 5s. 4d. in the other.</p> + +<p>The determination of each element in the remainder involves +reference to an addition-table. Thus to subtract 5s. from 7s. we +refer to an addition-table giving the sum of any two quantities, +each of which is one of the series 0s., 1s., ... 19s.</p> + +<p>Subtraction by counting forward is called <i>complementary +addition</i>.</p> + +<p>To subtract £3, 5s. 8d. from £9, 10s. 4d., on the grouping +system, we must <i>change</i> 1s. out of the 10s. into 12d., so that we +subtract £3, 5s. 8d. from £9, 9s. 16d. On the counting system +it will be found that, in determining the number of shillings in +the remainder, we subtract 5s. from 9s. if we count forwards, +working from the left, or backwards, working from the right; +while, if we count backwards, working from the left, or +forwards, working from the right, the subtraction is of 6s. +from 10s. In the first two cases the successive values (in +direct or reverse order) are £3, 5s. 8d., £9, 5s. 8d., £9, 9s. 8d. and +£9, 10s. 4d.; while in the last two cases they are £9, 10s. 4d., +£3, 10s. 4d., £3, 6s. 4d. and £3, 5s. 8d.</p> + +<p>In subtracting from the left, we look ahead to see whether a 1 +in any denomination must be reserved for changing; thus in +subtracting 274 from 637 we should put down 2 from 6 as 3, not as +4, and 7 from 3 as 6.</p> + +<p>98. <i>Multiplication-Table.</i>—For multiplication and division we +use a <i>multiplication-table</i>, which is a multiple-table, arranged as +explained in § 36, and giving the successive multiples, up to +9 times or further, of the numbers from 1 (or better, from 0) to 10, +12 or 20. The column (vertical) headed 3 will give the multiples +of 3, while the row (horizontal) commencing with 3 will give the +values of 3 × 1, 3 × 2, ... To multiply by 3 we use the row. +To divide by 3, in the sense of partition, we also use the row; +but to divide by 3 as a unit we use the column.</p> + +<p>99. <i>Multiplication by a Small Number.</i>—The idea of a large +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span> +multiple of a small number is simpler than that of a small multiple +of a large number, but the calculation of the latter is easier. It +is therefore convenient, in finding the product of two numbers, +to take the smaller as the multiplier.</p> + +<p>To find 3 times 427, we apply the distributive law (§ 58 (vi)) +that 3·427 = 3(400 + 20 + 7) = 3·400 + 3·20 + 3·7. This, if we regard +3·427 as 427 + 427 + 427, is a direct consequence of the commutative +law for addition (§ 58 (iii)), which enables us to add +separately the hundreds, the tens and the ones. To find 3·400, +we treat 100 as the unit (as in addition), so that 3·400 = 3·4·100 = +12·100 = 1200; and similarly for 3·20. These are examples of the +associative law for multiplication (§ 58 (iv)).</p> + +<p>100. <i>Special Cases.</i>—The following are some special rules:—</p> + +<p>(i) To multiply by 5, multiply by 10 and divide by 2. (And +conversely, to divide by 5, we multiply by 2 and divide by 10.)</p> + +<p>(ii) In multiplying by 2, from the left, add 1 if the next figure of +the multiplicand is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9.</p> + +<p>(iii) In multiplying by 3, from the left, add 1 when the next +figures are not less than 33 ... 334 and not greater than 66 ... 666, +and 2 when they are 66 ... 667 and upwards.</p> + +<p>(iv) To multiply by 7, 8, 9, 11 or 12, treat the multiplier as +10 − 3, 10 − 2, 10 − 1, 10 + 1 or 10 + 2; and similarly for 13, 17, 18, 19, &c.</p> + +<p>(v) To multiply by 4 or 6, we can either multiply from the left +by 2 and then by 2 or 3, or multiply from the right by 4 or 6; +or we can treat the multiplier as 5 − 1 or 5 + 1.</p> + +<p>101. <i>Multiplication by a Large Number.</i>—When both the +numbers are large, we split up one of them, preferably the +multiplier, into separate portions. Thus +231·4273 = (200 + 30 + 1)·4273 = 200·4273 + 30·4273 + 1·4273. +This gives the <i>partial products</i>, +the sum of which is the complete products. The process is shown +fully in A below,—</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:484px; height:156px" src="images/img539a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind">and more concisely in B. To multiply 4273 by 200, we use +the commutative law, which gives 200·4273 = 2 × 100 × 4273 = +2 × 4273 × 100 = 8546 × 100 = 854600; and similarly for 30·4273. +In B the terminal 0’s of the partial products are omitted. It is +usually convenient to make out a preliminary table of multiples +up to 10 times; the table being checked at 5 times (§ 100) and at +10 times.</p> + +<p>The main difficulty is in the correct placing of the curtailed +partial products. The first step is to regard the product of two +numbers as containing as many digits as the two numbers put +together. The table of multiples will them be as in C. The next +step is to arrange the multiplier and the multiplicand above the +partial products. For elementary work the multiplicand may +come immediately after the multiplier, as in D; the last figure +of each partial product then comes immediately under the corresponding +figure of the multiplier. A better method, which leads +up to the multiplication of decimals and of approximate values +of numbers, is to place the first figure of the multipler under +the first figure of the multiplicand, as in E; the first figure of +each partial product will then come under the corresponding +figure of the multiplier.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:377px; height:173px" src="images/img539b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 225px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:173px; height:112px" src="images/img539c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>102. <i>Contracted Multiplication.</i>—The partial products are +sometimes omitted; the process saves time in writing, but is not +easy. The principle is that, <i>e.g.</i> (a·10<span class="sp">2</span> + b·10 + c)(p·10<span class="sp">2</span> + q<span class="sp">10</span> + r) += ap·10<span class="sp">4</span> + (aq + bp)·10<span class="sp">3</span> + (ar + bq + cp)·10<span class="sp">2</span> + (br + cq)·10 + cr. +Hence the digits are multiplied in pairs, and grouped according +to the power of 10 which each product contains. A method of +performing the process is shown here for the case of 162·427. +The principle is that 162·427 = 100·427 + 60·427 + 2·427 = +1·42700 + 6·4270 + 2·427; but, instead of +writing down the separate products, we +(in effect) write 42700, 4270, and 427 in +separate rows, with the multipliers 1, 6, 2 +in the margin, and then multiply each +number in each column by the corresponding +multiplier in the margin, making allowance for any +figures to be “carried.” Thus the second figure (from the +right) is given by 1 + 2·2 + 6·7 = 47, the 1 being carried.</p> + +<p>103. <i>Aliquot Parts.</i>—For multiplication by a proper fraction +or a decimal, it is sometimes convenient, especially when we are +dealing with mixed quantities, to convert the multiplier into the +sum or difference of a number of fractions, each of which has 1 as +its numerator. Such fractions are called <i>aliquot parts</i> (from Lat. +<i>aliquot</i>, some, several). This can usually be done in a good many +ways. Thus <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> = 1 − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>, and also = ½ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>; and 15% = .15 = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span> = +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">60</span> = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">40</span>. The fractions should generally be chosen so +that each part of the product may be obtained from an earlier +part by a comparatively simple division. Thus ½ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span> − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">60</span> is a +simpler expression for <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">15</span> than ½ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">30</span>.</p> + +<p>The process may sometimes by applied two or three times in +succession; thus <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">15</span> = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>·<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> = (1 − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>)(1 − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>), and +<span class="spp">33</span>⁄<span class="suu">40</span> = ¾·<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> = (1 − ¼)(1 + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>).</p> + +<p>104. <i>Practice.</i>—The above is a particular case of the method +called <i>practice</i>, but the nomenclature of the method is confusing. +There are two kinds of practice, <i>simple practice</i> and <i>compound +practice</i>, but the latter is the simpler of the two. To find the cost +of 2 ℔ 8 oz. of butter at 1s. 2d. a ℔, we multiply 1s. 2d. by +2<span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> = 2½. This straightforward process is called “compound” +practice. “Simple” practice involves an application of the +commutative law. To find the cost of n articles at £a, bs, cd. +each, we express £a, bs, cd. in the form £(a + f), where f is a +fraction (or the sum of several fractions); we then say that the +cost, being n × £(a + f), is equal to (a + f) × £n, and apply the +method of compound practice, <i>i.e.</i> the method of aliquot parts.</p> + +<p>105. <i>Multiplication of a Mixed Number.</i>—When a mixed +quantity or a mixed number has to be multiplied by a large +number, it is sometimes convenient to express the former in terms +of one only of its denominations. Thus, to multiply £7, 13s. 6d. +by 469, we may express the former in any of the ways £7.675, <span class="spp">307</span>⁄<span class="suu">40</span> of +£1, 153½s., 153.5s., 307 sixpences, or 1842 pence. Expression +in £ and decimals of £1 is usually recommended, but it depends +on circumstances whether some other method may not be simpler.</p> + +<p>A sum of money cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal of +£1 unless it is a multiple of ¾d. A rule for approximate conversion +is that 1s. = .05 of £1, and that 2½d.= .01 of £1. For accurate +conversion we write .1£ for each 2s., and .001£ for each farthing +beyond 2s., their number being first increased by one twenty-fourth.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:196px; height:286px" src="images/img539d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>106. <i>Division.</i> Of the two kinds of division, although the idea +of partition is perhaps the more elementary, the process of +measuring is the easier to perform, since it is equivalent to a +series of subtractions. Starting from +the dividend, we in theory keep on +subtracting the unit, and count the +number of subtractions that have to +be performed until nothing is left. In +actual practice, of course, we subtract +large multiples at a time. Thus, to +divide 987063 by 427, we reverse the +procedure of § 101, but with intermediate +stages. We first construct the +multiple-table C, and then subtract +successively 200 times, 30 times and +1 times; these numbers being the +<i>partial quotients</i>. The theory of the +process is shown fully in F. Treating x +as the unknown quotient corresponding to the original dividend, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span> +we obtain successive dividends corresponding to quotients x − 200, +x − 230 and x − 231. The original dividend is written as 0987063, +since its initial figures are greater than those of the divisor; if the +dividend had commenced with (<i>e.g.</i>) 3 ... it would not have +been necessary to insert the initial 0. At each stage of the +division the number of digits in the reduced dividend is decreased +by one. The final dividend being 0000, we have x − 231 = 0, and +therefore x = 231.</p> + +<p>107. <i>Methods of Division.</i>—What are described as different +methods of division (by a single divisor) are mainly different +methods of writing the successive figures occurring in the +process. In <i>long division</i> the divisor is put on the left of the +dividend, and the quotient on the right; and each partial +product, with the remainder after its subtraction, is shown in full. +In <i>short division</i> the divisor and the quotient are placed +respectively on the left of and below the dividend, and the partial +products and remainders are not shown at all. The <i>Austrian</i> +method (sometimes called in Great Britain the <i>Italian</i> method) +differs from these in two respects. The first, and most important, +is that the quotient is placed above the dividend. The second, +which is not essential to the method, is that the remainders are +shown, but not the partial products; the remainders being +obtained by working from the right, and using complementary +addition. It is doubtful whether the brevity of this latter +process really compensates for its greater difficulty.</p> + +<div class="center pt2" style="clear: both;"> +<img style="width:336px; height:138px" src="images/img540a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>The advantage of the Austrian arrangement of the quotient +lies in the indication it gives of the true value of each partial +quotient. A modification of the method, corresponding with D +of § 101, is shown in G; the fact that the partial product 08546 is +followed by two blank spaces shows that the figure 2 represents a +partial quotient 200. An alternative arrangement, corresponding +to E of § 101, and suited for more advanced work, is shown in H.</p> + +<p>108. <i>Division with Remainder.</i>—It has so far been assumed +that the division can be performed exactly, <i>i.e.</i> without leaving +an ultimate remainder. Where this is not the case, difficulties +are apt to arise, which are mainly due to failure to distinguish +between the two kinds of division. If we say that the division of +41d. by 12 gives quotient 3d. with remainder 5d., we are speaking +loosely; for in fact we only distribute 36d. out of the 41d., the +other 5d. remaining undistributed. It can only be distributed by +a subdivision of the unit; <i>i.e.</i> the true result of the division is +3<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>d. On the other hand, we can quite well express the result +of dividing 41d. by 1s (= 12d.) as 3 with 5d. (not “5”) over, for +this is only stating that 41d. = 3s. 5d.; though the result might +be more exactly expressed as 3<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>s.</p> + +<p>Division with a remainder has thus a certain air of unreality, +which is accentuated when the division is performed by means of +factors (§ 42). If we have to divide 935 by 240, taking 12 and 20 +as factors, the result will depend on the fact that, in the notation +of § 17, <img style="width:112px; height:30px" src="images/img540d.jpg" alt="" /> In incomplete partition the quotient +is 3, and the remainders 11 and 17 are in effect disregarded; if, +after finding the quotient 3, we want to know what remainder +would be produced by a direct division, the simplest method is to +multiply 3 by 240 and subtract the result from 935. In complete +partition the successive quotients are 77<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span> and +3[(17<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>)/20] = 3<span class="spp">215</span>⁄<span class="suu">240</span>. +Division in the sense of measuring leads to such a result as +935d. = £3, 17s. 11d.; we may, if we please, express the 17s. 11d. +as 215d., but there is no particular reason why we should do so.</p> + +<p>109. <i>Division by a Mixed Number.</i>—To divide by a mixed +number, when the quotient is seen to be large, it usually saves +time to express the divisor as either a simple fraction or a decimal +of a unit of one of the denominations. Exact division by a mixed +number is not often required in real life; where approximate +division is required (<i>e.g.</i> in determining the rate of a “dividend”), +approximate expression of the divisor in terms of the largest +unit is sufficient.</p> + +<p>110. <i>Calculation of Square Root.</i>—The calculation of the square +root of a number depends on the formula (iii) of § 60. To find the +square root of N, we first find some number a whose square is less +than N, and subtract a<span class="sp">2</span> from N. If the complete square root is +a + b, the remainder after subtracting a<span class="sp">2</span> is (2a + b)b. We therefore +guess b by dividing the remainder by 2a, and form the +product (2a + b)b. If this is equal to the remainder, we have +found the square root. If it exceeds the square root, we must +alter the value of b, so as to get a product which does not exceed +the remainder. If the product is less than the remainder, we get +a new remainder, which is N − (a + b)<span class="sp">2</span>; we then assume the +full square root to be c, so that the new remainder is equal to +(2a + 2b + c)c, and try to find c in the same way as we tried to +find b.</p> + +<p>An analogous method of finding cube root, based on the +formula for (a + b)<span class="sp">3</span>, used to be given in text-books, but it is of no +practical use. To find a root other than a square root we can +use logarithms, as explained in § 113.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">(ii.) <i>Approximate Calculation.</i></p> + +<p>111. <i>Multiplication.</i>—When we have to multiply two numbers, +and the product is only required, or can only be approximately +correct, to a certain number of significant figures, we need only +work to two or three more figures (§ 83), and then correct the final +figure in the result by means of the superfluous figures.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 225px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:174px; height:186px" src="images/img540b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>A common method is to reverse the digits in one of the +numbers; but this is only appropriate to the old-fashioned +method of writing down products from the right. A better method +is to ignore the positions of the decimal points, and multiply +the numbers as if they were decimals +between .1 and 1.0. The method E of +§ 101 being adopted, the multiplicand +and the multiplier are written with a +space after as many digits (of each) as +will be required in the product (on the +principle explained in § 101); and the +multiplication is performed from the left, +two extra figures being kept in. Thus, +to multiply 27.343 by 3.1415927 to one +decimal place, we require 2 + 1 + 1 = 4 +figures in the product. The result is 085.9 = 85.9, the position +of the decimal point being determined by counting the figures +before the decimal points in the original numbers.</p> + +<p class="nom"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 225px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:173px; height:246px" src="images/img540c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>112. <i>Division</i>.—In the same way, in +performing approximate division, we can +at a certain stage begin to abbreviate +the divisor, taking off one figure (but +with correction of the final figure of the +partial product) at each stage. Thus, to +divide 85.9 by 3.1415927 to two places +of decimals, we in effect divide .0859 by +.31415927 to four places of decimals. In +the work, as here shown, a 0 is inserted +in front of the 859, on the principle +explained in § 106. The result of the +division is 27.34.</p> + +<p>113. <i>Logarithms.</i>—Multiplication, division, involution and +evolution, when the results cannot be exact, are usually most +simply performed, at any rate to a first approximation, by means +of a table of logarithms. Thus, to find the square root of 2, we +have log √2 = log (2<span class="sp">1/2</span>) = ½ log 2. We take out log 2 from +the table, halve it, and then find from the table the number of +which this is the logarithm. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logarithm</a></span>.) The <i>slide-rule</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calculating Machines</a></span>) is a simple apparatus for the +mechanical application of the methods of logarithms.</p> + +<p>When a first approximation has been obtained in this way, +further approximations can be obtained in various ways. Thus, +having found √2 = 1.414 approximately, we write √2 = 1.414 + θ, +whence 2 = (1.414)<span class="sp">2</span> + (2.818)θ + θ<span class="sp">2</span>. +Since θ<span class="sp">2</span> is less than ¼ of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span> +(.001)<span class="sp">2</span>, we can obtain three more figures approximately by +dividing 2 − (1.414)<span class="sp">2</span> by 2.818.</p> + +<p>114. <i>Binomial Theorem.</i>—More generally, if we have +obtained a as an approximate value for the pth root of N, the +binomial theorem gives as an approximate formula <span class="sp">p</span>√N = a + θ, +where N = a<span class="sp">p</span> + pa<span class="sp">p − 1</span>θ.</p> + +<p>115. <i>Series.</i>—A number can often be expressed by a series of +terms, such that by taking successive terms we obtain successively +closer approximations. A decimal is of course a series of this +kind, <i>e.g.</i> 3.14159 ... means 3 + 1/10 + 4/10<span class="sp">2</span> + 1/10<span class="sp">3</span> + 5/10<span class="sp">4</span> ++ 9/10<span class="sp">5</span> + ... A series of aliquot parts is another kind, <i>e.g.</i> +3.1416 is a little less than 3 + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">800</span>.</p> + +<p><i>Recurring Decimals</i> are a particular kind of series, which arise +from the expression of a fraction as a decimal. If the denominator +of the fraction, when it is in its lowest terms, contains any +other prime factors than 2 and 5, it cannot be expressed exactly +as a decimal; but after a certain point a definite series of figures +will constantly recur. The interest of these series is, however, +mainly theoretical.</p> + +<p>116. <i>Continued Products.</i>—Instead of being expressed as the +sum of a series of terms, a number may be expressed as the +product of a series of factors, which become successively more and +more nearly equal to 1. For example,</p> + +<p class="center">3.1416 = 3 × <span class="spp">10472</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span> = 3 × <span class="spp">1309</span>⁄<span class="suu">1250</span> = 3 × <span class="spp">22</span>⁄<span class="suu">21</span> × <span class="spp">2499</span>⁄<span class="suu">2500</span> = 3(1 + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">21</span>)(1 − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2500</span>).</p> + +<p class="noind">Hence, to multiply by 3.1416, we can multiply by 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>, and subtract +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2500</span> (= .0004) of the result; or, to divide by 3.1416, we +can divide by 3, then subtract <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">22</span> of the result, and then add <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2499</span> +of the new result.</p> + +<p>117. <i>Continued Fractions.</i>—The theory of <i>continued fractions</i> +(<i>q.v.</i>) gives a method of expressing a number, in certain cases, +as a continued product. A continued fraction, of the kind we +are considering, is an expression of the form +<img style="width:122px; height:60px" src="images/img541.jpg" alt="" /> +where b, c, d, ... are integers, and a is an integer or zero. The +expression is usually written, for compactness, a + 1/b+ 1/c+ 1/d+ &c. +The numbers a, b, c, d, ... are called the <i>quotients</i>.</p> + +<p>Any exact fraction can be expressed as a continued fraction, +and there are methods for expressing as continued fractions +certain other numbers, <i>e.g.</i> square roots, whose values cannot be +expressed exactly as fractions.</p> + +<p>The successive values, a/1, (ab + 1)/b, ..., obtained by taking +account of the successive quotients, are called <i>convergents</i>, <i>i.e.</i> +convergents to the true value. The following are the main +properties of the convergents.</p> + +<p>(i) If we precede the series of convergents by <span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span> and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">0</span>, then +the numerator (or denominator) of each term of the series +<span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>, <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">0</span>, a/1, (ab + 1)/b ..., after the first two, is found by multiplying +the numerator (or denominator) of the last preceding term by the +corresponding quotient and adding the numerator (or denominator) +of the term before that. If a is zero, we may regard 1/b +as the first convergent, and precede the series by <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">0</span> and <span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>.</p> + +<p>(ii) Each convergent is a fraction in its lowest terms.</p> + +<p>(iii) The convergents are alternately less and greater than the +true value.</p> + +<p>(iv) Each convergent is nearer to the true value than any other +fraction whose denominator is less than that of the convergent.</p> + +<p>(v) The difference of two successive convergents is the reciprocal +of the product of their denominators; <i>e.g.</i> (ab + 1)/b − a/1 = 1/(1·b), and +(abc + c + a)/(bc + 1) − (ab + 1)/b = −1/b(bc + 1).</p> + +<p>It follows from these last three properties that if the successive +convergents are p<span class="su">1</span>/1, p<span class="su">2</span>/q<span class="su">2</span>, p<span class="su">3</span>/q<span class="su">3</span>, ... the number can be expressed +in the form p<span class="su">1</span>(1 + 1/p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">2</span>) (1 − 1/p<span class="su">2</span>q<span class="su">3</span>) (1 + 1/p<span class="su">3</span>q<span class="su">4</span>) ..., and that if +we go up to the factor 1 ± 1/(p<span class="su">n</span>q<span class="su">n + 1</span>) the product of these factors +differs from the true value of the number by less than ±{1/(q<span class="su">n</span>q<span class="su">n + 1</span>).</p> + +<p>In certain cases two or more factors can be combined so as to +produce an expression of the form 1 ± 1/k, where k is an integer. +For instance, 3.1415927 = 3(1 + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3.7</span>) (1 − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">22.106</span>) (1 + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">333.113</span>) ...; +but the last two of these factors may be combined as (1 − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">22.113</span>). +Hence 3.1415927 = <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span> · <span class="spp">22</span>⁄<span class="suu">21</span> · <span class="spp">2485</span>⁄<span class="suu">2486</span> ...</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">XII. Applications</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">(i.) <i>Systems of Measures.</i><a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>118. <i>Metric System.</i>—The metric system was adopted in +France at the end of the 18th century. The system is decimal +throughout. The principal units of length, weight and volume +are the <i>metre, gramme</i> (or <i>gram</i>) and <i>litre</i>. Other units are +derived from these by multiplication or division by powers of 10, +the names being denoted by prefixes. The prefixes for multiplication +by 10, 10<span class="sp">2</span>, 10<span class="sp">3</span> and 10<span class="sp">4</span> are <i>deca-</i>, <i>hecto-</i>, <i>kilo-</i> and <i>myria-</i>, +and those for division by 10, 10<span class="sp">2</span> and 10<span class="sp">3</span> are <i>deci-</i>, <i>centi-</i> and +<i>milli-</i>; the former being derived from Greek, and the latter from +Latin. Thus <i>kilogramme</i> means 1000 grammes, and <i>centimetre</i> +means <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> of a metre. There are also certain special units, such +as the <i>hectare</i>, which is equal to a square hectometre, and the +<i>micron</i>, which is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1000</span> of a millimetre.</p> + +<p>The metre and the gramme are defined by standard measures +preserved at Paris. The litre is equal to a cubic decimetre. The +gramme was intended to be equal to the weight of a cubic centimetre +of pure water at a certain temperature, but the equality is +only approximate.</p> + +<p>The metric system is now in use in the greater part of the +civilized world, but some of the measures retain the names of +old disused measures. In Germany, for instance, the <i>Pfund</i> is +½ kilogramme, and is approximately equal to 1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> ℔ English.</p> + +<p>119. <i>British Systems.</i>—The British systems have various +origins, and are still subject to variations caused by local usage +or by the usage of particular businesses. The following tables are +given as illustrations of the arrangement adopted elsewhere in +this article; the entries in any column denote multiples or submultiples +of the unit stated at the head of the column, and the +entries in any row give the expression of one unit in term of +the other units.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Length</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Inch.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Foot.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Yard.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Chain.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Furlong.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Mile.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">36</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">792</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7920</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">63360</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">12</td> <td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">66</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">660</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5280</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">36</td> <td class="tcr allb">3</td> <td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">22</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">220</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1760</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">792</td> <td class="tcr allb">66</td> <td class="tcr allb">22</td> <td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">80</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">7920</td> <td class="tcr allb">660</td> <td class="tcr allb">220</td> <td class="tcr allb">10</td> <td class="tcc allb">1</td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">63360</td> <td class="tcr allb">5280</td> <td class="tcr allb">1760</td> <td class="tcr allb">80</td> <td class="tcc allb">8</td> <td class="tcc allb">1</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Weight (Avoirdupois)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Ounce.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pound.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Stone.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Quarter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hundred-<br />weight.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ton.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">224</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">448</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1792</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">33840</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">16</td> <td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">14</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span></td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">112</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2240</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">224</td> <td class="tcr allb">14</td> <td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb">½</td> <td class="tcr allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">160</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">448</td> <td class="tcr allb">28</td> <td class="tcr allb">2</td> <td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcr allb">¼</td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">80</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">1792</td> <td class="tcr allb">112</td> <td class="tcr allb">8</td> <td class="tcr allb">4</td> <td class="tcr allb">1</td> <td class="tcc allb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr allb">33840</td> <td class="tcr allb">2240</td> <td class="tcr allb">160</td> <td class="tcr allb">80</td> <td class="tcr allb">20</td> <td class="tcc allb">1</td></tr> +</table> +<p class="center">(Also 7000 grains = 1 ℔ avoirdupois.)</p> + +<p class="pt2">120. <i>Change of System.</i>—It is sometimes necessary, when a +quantity is expressed in one system, to express it in another, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span> +The following are the ratios of some of the units; each unit is +expressed approximately as a decimal of the other, and their +ratio is shown as a continued product (§ 116), a few of the +corresponding convergents to the continued fraction (§ 117) being +added in brackets. It must be remembered that the number +expressing any quantity in terms of a unit is <i>inversely proportional</i> +to the magnitude of the unit, <i>i.e.</i> the number of new units is to be +found by multiplying the number of old units by the ratio of the +old unit to the new unit.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">Yard</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">9144</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">10000</span>⁄<span class="suu">10935</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">22</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>· + <span class="spp">884</span>⁄<span class="suu">385</span>· + <span class="spp">8225</span>⁄<span class="suu">8224</span> ... + (<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span>, + <span class="spp">32</span>⁄<span class="suu">35</span> = + <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>· + <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, + <span class="spp">235</span>⁄<span class="suu">257</span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc ov">Metre</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Inch</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">25400</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">10000</span>⁄<span class="suu">3937</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>· + <span class="spp">66</span>⁄<span class="suu">65</span>· + <span class="spp">1651</span>⁄<span class="suu">1650</span> ... + (<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>, + <span class="spp">33</span>⁄<span class="suu">13</span>, + <span class="spp">127</span>⁄<span class="suu">50</span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc ov">Centimetre</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Mile</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">16093</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">10000</span>⁄<span class="suu">6214</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>· + <span class="spp">185</span>⁄<span class="suu">184</span>· + <span class="spp">2369</span>⁄<span class="suu">2368</span> ... + (<span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, + <span class="spp">37</span>⁄<span class="suu">23</span>, + <span class="spp">103</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc ov">Kilometre</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Square Yard</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">8361</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">10000</span>⁄<span class="suu">11960</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>· + <span class="spp">306</span>⁄<span class="suu">305</span>· + <span class="spp">15250</span>⁄<span class="suu">15249</span> ... + (<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>, + <span class="spp">51</span>⁄<span class="suu">61</span>, + <span class="spp">250</span>⁄<span class="suu">299</span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc ov">Square Metre</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Acre</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">4047</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">10000</span>⁄<span class="suu">24711</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>· + <span class="spp">85</span>⁄<span class="suu">84</span>· + <span class="spp">5320</span>⁄<span class="suu">5321</span> ... + (<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, + <span class="spp">17</span>⁄<span class="suu">42</span>, + <span class="spp">380</span>⁄<span class="suu">939</span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc ov">Hectare</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Quart</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">11365</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">10000</span>⁄<span class="suu">8799</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>· + <span class="spp">175</span>⁄<span class="suu">176</span>· + <span class="spp">8976</span>⁄<span class="suu">8975</span> ... + (<span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>, + <span class="spp">25</span>⁄<span class="suu">22</span>, + <span class="spp">408</span>⁄<span class="suu">359</span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc ov">Litre</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Pound</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">4536</span>⁄<span class="suu">10000</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">10000</span>⁄<span class="suu">22046</span></td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">= <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>· + <span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span>· + <span class="spp">484</span>⁄<span class="suu">485</span>· + <span class="spp">29391</span>⁄<span class="suu">29392</span> ... + (<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>, + <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span>, + <span class="spp">44</span>⁄<span class="suu">97</span>, + <span class="spp">303</span>⁄<span class="suu">668</span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc ov">Kilogramme</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center">(ii.) <i>Special Applications.</i></p> + +<p>121. <i>Commercial Arithmetic.</i>—This term covers practically all +dealings with money which involve the application of the principle +of proportion. A simple class of cases is that which deals +with equivalence of sums of money in different currencies; these +cases really come under § 120. In other cases we are concerned +with a proportion stated as a <i>numerical percentage</i>, or as a <i>money +percentage</i> (<i>i.e.</i> a sum of money per £100), or as a <i>rate</i> in the £ or +the shilling. The following are some examples. Percentage: +<i>Brokerage, commission, discount, dividend, interest, investment, +profit and loss.</i> Rate in the £: <i>Discount, dividend, rates, taxes.</i> +Rate in the shilling: <i>Discount.</i></p> + +<p>Text-books on arithmetic usually contain explanations of the +chief commercial transactions in which arithmetical calculations +arise; it will be sufficient in the present article to deal with +interest and discount, and to give some notes on percentages and +rates in the £. <i>Insurance</i> and <i>Annuities</i> are matters of general +importance, which are dealt with elsewhere under their own headings.</p> + +<p>122. <i>Percentages and Rates in the £.</i>—In dealing with +percentages and rates it is important to notice whether the sum which is +expressed as a percentage of a rate on another sum is a part of or +an addition to that sum, or whether they are independent of one +another. Income tax, for instance, is calculated on income, and +is in the nature of a deduction from the income; but local rates +are calculated in proportion to certain other payments, actual +or potential, and could without absurdity exceed 20s. in the £.</p> + +<p>It is also important to note that if the increase or decrease of an +amount A by a certain percentage produces B, it will require a +different percentage to decrease or increase B to A. Thus, if B is +20% less than A, A is 25% greater than B.</p> + +<p>123. <i>Interest</i> is usually calculated yearly or half-yearly, at a +certain rate per cent. on the principal. In legal documents the +rate is sometimes expressed as a certain sum of money “per +centum per annum”; here “centum” must be taken to mean “£100.”</p> + +<p><i>Simple interest</i> arises where unpaid interest accumulates as a +debt not itself bearing interest; but, if this debt bears interest, +the total, <i>i.e.</i> interest and interest on interest, is called <i>compound +interest.</i> If 100r is the rate per cent. per annum, the simple +interest on £A for n years is £nrA, and the compound interest +(supposing interest payable yearly) is £[(1 + r)<span class="sp">n</span> − 1]A. If n is +large, the compound interest is most easily calculated by means +of logarithms.</p> + +<p>124. <i>Discount</i> is of various kinds. Tradesmen allow discount +for ready money, this being usually at so much in the shilling or £. +Discount may be allowed twice in succession off quoted prices; in +such cases the second discount is off the reduced price, and +therefore it is not correct to add the two rates of discount together. +Thus a discount of 20%, followed by a further discount of 25%, +gives a total discount of 40%, not 45%, off the original amount. +When an amount will fall due at some future date, the <i>present +value</i> of the debt is found by deducting discount at some rate per +cent. for the intervening period, in the same way as interest to be +added is calculated. This discount, of course, is not equal to the +interest which the present value would produce at that rate of +interest, but is rather greater, so that the present value as +calculated in this way is less than the theoretical present value.</p> + +<p>125. Applications to <i>Physics</i> are numerous, but are usually +only of special interest. A case of general interest is the +measurement of <i>temperature.</i> The graduation of a thermometer is +determined by the freezing-point and the boiling-point of water, +the interval between these being divided into a certain number +of degrees, representing equal increases of temperature. On the +Fahrenheit scale the points are respectively 32° and 212°; on the +Centigrade scale they are 0° and 100°; and on the Réaumur they +are 0° and 80°. From these data a temperature as measured on +one scale can be expressed on either of the other two scales.</p> + +<p>126. <i>Averages</i> occur in statistics, economics, &c. An average +is found by adding together several measurements of the same +kind and dividing by the number of measurements. In calculating +an average it should be observed that the addition of any +numerical quantity (positive or negative) to each of the measurements +produces the addition of the same quantity to the average, +so that the calculation may often be simplified by taking some particular +measurement as a new zero from which to measure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For the history of the subject, see W.W.R. Ball, +<i>Short History of Mathematics</i> (1901), and F. Cajori, <i>History of +Elementary Mathematics</i> (1896); or more detailed information in +M. Cantor, <i>Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik</i> (1894-1901). +L.C. Conant, <i>The Number-Concept</i> (1896), gives a very full account of +systems of numeration. For the latter, and for systems of notation, +reference may also be made to Peacock’s article “Arithmetic” in the +<i>Encyclopaedia Metropolitana</i>, which contains a detailed account of +the Greek system. F. Galton, <i>Inquiries into Human Faculty</i> (1883), +contains the first account of number-forms; for further examples and +references see D.E. Phillips, “Genesis of Number-Forms,” <i>American +Journal of Psychology</i>, vol. viii. (1897). There are very few works +dealing adequately but simply with the principles of arithmetic. +Homersham Cox, <i>Principles of Arithmetic</i> (1885), is brief and lucid, +but is out of print. <i>The Psychology of Number</i>, by J.A. McLellan and +J. Dewey (1895), contains valuable suggestions (some of which have +been utilized in the present article), but it deals only with number as +the measure of quantity, and requires to be read critically. This +work contains references to Grube’s system, which has been much +discussed in America: for a brief explanation, see L. Seeley, <i>The Grube +Method of Teaching Arithmetic</i> (1890). On the teaching of arithmetic, +and of elementary mathematics generally, see J.W.A. Young, <i>The +Teaching of Mathematics in the Elementary and the Secondary School</i> +(1907); D.E. Smith, <i>The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics</i> (1900), +also contains an interesting general sketch; W.P. Turnbull, <i>The +Teaching of Arithmetic</i> (1903), is more elaborate. E.M. Langley, +<i>A Treatise on Computation</i> (1895), has notes on approximate and +abbreviated calculation. Text-books on arithmetic in general and +on particular applications are numerous, and any list would soon be +out of date. Recent English works have been influenced by the brief +<i>Report on the Teaching of Elementary Mathematics</i>, issued by the +Mathematical Association (1905); but this is critical rather than +constructive. The Association has also issued a <i>Report on the Teaching +of Mathematics in Preparatory Schools</i> (1907). In the United States +of America the <i>Report of the Committee of Ten</i> on secondary school +studies (1893) and the <i>Report of the Committee of Fifteen</i> on elementary +education (1893-1894), both issued by the United States Bureau of +Education, have attracted a good deal of attention. Sir O. Lodge, +<i>Easy Mathematics, chiefly Arithmetic</i> (1905), treats the subject +broadly in its practical aspects. The student who is interested +in elementary teaching should consult the annual bibliographies in +the <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>; an article by D.E. Phillips in vol. v. +(October 1897) contains references to works dealing with the psychological +aspect of number. For an account of German methods, see +W. King, <i>Report on Teaching of Arithmetic and Mathematics in the +Higher Schools of Germany</i> (1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. Sh.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weights And Measures</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIUS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Areios">Ἄρειος</span>), a name celebrated in ecclesiastical history, +not so much on account of the personality of its bearer as of the +“Arian” controversy which he provoked. Our knowledge of +Arius is scanty, and nothing certain is known of his birth or of his +early training. Epiphanius of Salamis, in his well-known treatise +against eighty heresies (<i>Haer.</i> lxix. 3), calls him a Libyan by +birth, and if the statement of Sozomen, a church historian of +the 5th century, is to be trusted, he was, as a member of the +Alexandrian church, connected with the Meletian schism (see +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span> +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meletius of Lycopolis</a></span>), and on this account excommunicated +by Peter of Alexandria, who had ordained him deacon. After +the death of Peter (November 25, 311), he was received into +communion by Peter’s successor, Achillas, elevated to the +presbytery, and put in charge of one of the great city churches, +Baucalis, where he continued to discharge his duties with +apparent faithfulness and industry after the accession of +Alexander. This bishop also held him in high repute. Theodoret +(<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> i. 2) indeed does not hesitate to say that Arius +was chagrined because Alexander, instead of himself, had been +appointed to the see of Alexandria, and that the beginning of +his heretical attitude is, in consequence, to be attributed to +discontent and envy. But this must be rejected, for it is a +common explanation of heretical movements with the early +church historians, and there is no evidence for it in the original +sources. However, Arius was ambitious. Epiphanius, using +older documents, describes him as a man inflamed with his own +opinionativeness, of a soft and smooth address, calculated to +persuade and attract, especially women: “in no time he had +drawn away seven hundred virgins from the church to his +party.” When the controversy broke out, Arius was an old man.</p> + +<p>The real causes of the controversy lay in differences as to +dogma. Arius had received his theological education in the +school of the presbyter Lucian of Antioch, a learned man, and +distinguished especially as a biblical scholar. The latter was a +follower of Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who had been +excommunicated in 269, but his theology differed from that of his +master in a fundamental point. Paul, starting with the conviction +that the One God cannot appear substantially (<span class="grk" title="ousiodos">οὐσιωδῶς</span>) +on earth, and, consequently, that he cannot have become a +person in Jesus Christ, had taught that God had filled the man +Jesus with his Logos (<span class="grk" title="sophia">σοφία</span>) or Power (<span class="grk" title="dynamis">δύναμις</span>). Lucian, on the +other hand, persisted in holding that the Logos became a person +in Christ. But since he shared the above-mentioned belief of his +master, nothing remained for him but to see in the Logos a second +essence, created by God before the world, which came down to +earth and took upon itself a human body. In this body the +Logos filled the place of the intellectual or spiritual principle. +Lucian’s Christ, then, was not “perfect man,” for that which +constituted in him the personal element was a divine essence; +nor was he “perfect God,” for the divine essence having become +a person was other than the One God, and of a nature foreign to +him. It is this idea which Arius took up and interpreted unintelligently. +His doctrinal position is explained in his letters to +his patron Eusebius, bishop of the imperial city of Nicomedia, +and to Alexander of Alexandria, and in the fragments of the +poem in which he set forth his dogmas, which bears the enigmatic +title of “Thalia” (<span class="grk" title="Thaleia">θάλεια</span>), used in Homer, in the sense of +“a goodly banquet,” most unjustly ridiculed by Athanasius as +an imitation of the licentious style of the drinking-songs of the +Egyptian Sotades (270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). From these writings it can even +nowadays be seen clearly that the principal object which he had +in view was firmly to establish the unity and simplicity of the +eternal God. However far the Son may surpass other created +beings, he remains himself a created being, to whom the Father +before all time gave an existence formed out of not being (<span class="grk" title="ex ouk +onton">ἐξ οὐκ ὄντων</span>); hence the name of <i>Exoukontians</i> sometimes given to +Arius’s followers. On the other hand, Arius affirmed of the Son +that he was “perfect God, only-begotten” (<span class="grk" title="plaeraes theos monogenaes">πλήρης θεὸς μονογενής</span>); +that through him God made the worlds (<span class="grk" title="aiones">αἰῶνες</span>, ages); +that he was the product or offspring of the Father, and yet +not as one among things made (<span class="grk" title="gennaema all ouch ton +gegenaemenon">γέννημα ἀλλ᾽ οὐχ ὡς ἓν τὤν γεγενημένων</span>). In his eyes it was blasphemy when he heard that +Alexander proclaimed in public that “as God is eternal, so is his +Son,—when the Father, then the Son,—the Son is present in +God without birth (<span class="grk" title="agennaetos">ἀγεννήτως</span>), ever-begotten (<span class="grk" title="aeigenaes">ἀειγενής</span>), an +unbegotten-begotten (<span class="grk" title="agennaetogenaes">ἀγεννητογενής</span>).” He detected in his +bishop Gnosticism, Manichaeism and Sabellianism, and was +convinced that he himself was the champion of pure doctrine +against heresy. He was quite unconscious that his own monotheism +was hardly to be distinguished from that of the pagan +philosophers, and that his Christ was a demi-god.</p> + +<p>For years the controversy may have been fermenting in +the college of presbyters at Alexandria. Sozomen relates that +Alexander only interfered after being charged with remissness in +leaving Arius so long to disturb the faith of the church. According +to the general supposition, the negotiations which led to the +excommunication of Arius and his followers among the presbyters +and deacons took place in 318 or 319, but there are good reasons +for assigning the outbreak of the controversy to the time following +the overthrow of Licinius by Constantine, <i>i.e.</i> to the year +323. In any case, from this time events followed one another +to a speedy conclusion. Arius was not without adherents, even +outside Alexandria. Those bishops who, like him, had passed +through the school of Lucian were not inclined to let him fall +without a struggle, as they recognized in the views of their +fellow-student their own doctrine, only set forth in a somewhat +radical fashion. In addressing to Eusebius of Nicomedia a +request for his help, Arius ended with the words: “Be mindful +of our adversity, thou faithful comrade of Lucian’s school +(<span class="grk" title="sulloukianistaes">συλλουκιανιστής</span>)”; and Eusebius entered the lists energetically +on his behalf. But Alexander too was active; by means of a +circular letter he published abroad the excommunication of his +presbyter, and the controversy excited more and more general +interest.</p> + +<p>It reached even the ears of Constantine. Now sole emperor, +he saw in the one Catholic church the best means of counteracting +the movement in his vast empire towards disintegration; +and he at once realized how dangerous dogmatic squabbles might +prove to its unity. His letter, preserved by the imperial +biographer, Eusebius of Caesarea, is a state document inspired by +a wisely conciliatory policy; it made out both parties to be +equally in the right and in the wrong, at the same time giving +them both to understand that such questions, the meaning of +which would be grasped only by the few, had better not be +brought into public discussion; it was advisable to come to an +agreement where the difference of opinion was not fundamental. +This well-meaning attempt at reconciliation, betraying as it did +no very deep understanding of the question, came to nothing. +No course was left for the emperor except to obtain a general +decision. This took, place at the fist oecumenical council, which +was convened in Nicaea (<i>q.v.</i>) in 325. After various turns in the +controversy, it was finally decided, against Arius, that the Son +was “of the same substance” (<span class="grk" title="homoousios">ὁμοούσιος</span>) with the Father, +and all thought of his being created or even subordinate had to +be excluded. Constantine accepted the decision of the council +and resolved to uphold it. Arius and the two bishops of +Marmarica Ptolemais, who refused to subscribe the creed, +were excommunicated and banished to Illyria, and even Eusebius +of Nicomedia, who accepted the creed, but not its anathemas, +was exiled to Gaul. Alexander returned to his see triumphant, +but died soon after, and was succeeded by Athanasius (<i>q.v.</i>), his +deacon, with whose indomitable fortitude and strange vicissitudes +the further course of the controversy is bound up.</p> + +<p>It only remains for us here to sketch what is known of the future +career of Arius and the Arians. Although defeated at the council +of Nicaea, the Arians were by no means subdued. Constantine, +while strongly disposed at first to enforce the Nicene decrees, +was gradually won to a more conciliatory policy by the influence +especially of Eusebius of Caesarea and Eusebius of Nicomedia, +the latter of whom returned from exile in 328 and won the ear +of the emperor, whom he baptized on his death-bed. In 330 +even Arius was recalled from banishment. Athanasius, on the +other hand, was banished to Trèves in 335. During his absence +Arius returned to Alexandria, but even now the people are said +to have raised a fierce riot against the heretic. In 336 the emperor +was forced to summon him to Constantinople. Bishop Alexander +reluctantly assented to receive him once more into the bosom of +the church, but before the act of admission was completed, Arius +was suddenly taken ill while walking in the streets, and died in a +few moments. His death seems to have exercised no influence +worth speaking of on the course of events. His theological +radicalism had in any case never found many convinced adherents. +It was mainly the opposition to the Homoousios, as a formula +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span> +open to heretical misinterpretation, and not borne out by Holy +Writ, which kept together the large party known as Semiarians, +who under the leadership of the two Eusebiuses carried on the +strife against the Nicenes and especially Athanasius. Under the +sons of Constantine Christian bishops in numberless synods +cursed one another turn by turn. In the western half of the +empire Arianism found no foothold, and even the despotic will +of Constantius, sole emperor after 351, succeeded only for the +moment in subduing the bishops exiled for the sake of their +belief. In the east, on the other hand, the Semiarians had for +long the upper hand. They soon split up into different groups, +according as they came to stand nearer to or farther from the +original position of Arius. The actual centre was formed by the +<i>Homoii</i>, who only spoke generally of a likeness <span class="grk" title="homoiotaes">ὁμοιότης</span> of the +Son to the Father; to the left of them were the <i>Anomoii</i>, who, +with Arius, held the Son to be unlike <span class="grk" title="anomoios">ἀνόμοιος</span> the Father; +to the right, the <i>Homoiousians</i> who, taking as their catchword +“likeness of nature” <span class="grk" title="homoiotaes kat ousian">ὁμοιότης κατ᾽ οὐσίαν</span>, thought that they +could preserve the religious content of the Nicene formula without +having to adopt the formula itself. Since this party in +the course of years came more and more into sympathy with +the representatives of the Nicene party, the <i>Homoousians</i>, +and notably with Athanasius, the much-disputed formula +became more and more popular, till the council summoned in +381 at Constantinople, under the auspices of Theodosius the +Great, recognized the Nicene doctrine as the only orthodox one. +Arianism, which had lifted up its head again under the emperor +Valens, was thereby thrust out of the state church. It lived to +flourish anew among the Germanic tribes at the time of the great +migrations. Goths, Vandals, Suebi, Burgundians and Langobardi +embraced it; here too as a distinctive national type of +Christianity it perished before the growth of medieval Catholicism, +and the name of Arian ceased to represent a definite form +of Christian doctrine within the church, or a definite party +outside it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best account of the proceedings, both political and theological, +may be found in the following books:—H.M. Gwatkin, <i>Studies of +Arianism</i> (2nd edit., Cambridge, 1900); A. Harnack, <i>History of +Dogma</i> (Eng. trans., 1894-1899); J.F. Bethune-Baker, <i>An Introduction +to the Early History of Christian Doctrine</i> (London, 1903); +W. Bright, <i>The Age of the Fathers</i> (London, 1903). Cardinal Newman’s +celebrated <i>Arians of the Fourth Century</i> is interesting more from the +controversial than from the historical point of view. See also Paavo +Snellman, <i>Der Anfang des arianischen Streites</i> (Helsingfors, 1904); +Sigismund Rogala, <i>Die Anfange des arianischen Streites</i> (Paderborn, +1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARIZONA<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (from the Spanish-Indian <i>Arizonac</i>, of unknown +meaning,—possibly “few springs,”—the name of an 18th-century +mining camp in the Santa Cruz valley, just S. of the present +border of Arizona), a state on the S.W. border of the United +States of America, lying between 31° 20′ and 37° N. lat. and +109° 2′ and 114° 45′ W. long. It is bounded N. by Utah, E. by +New Mexico, S. by Mexico and W. by California and Nevada, +the Colorado river separating it from California and in part from +Nevada. On the W. is the Great Basin. Arizona itself is mostly +included in the great arid mountainous uplift of the Rocky +Mountain region, and partly within the desert plain region of +the Gulf of California, or Open Basin region. The whole state +lies on the south-western exposure of a great roof whose crest, +along the continental divide in western New Mexico, pitches +southward. Its altitudes vary from 12,800 ft. to less than 100 ft. +above the sea. Of its total area of 113,956 sq. m. (water surface, +116 sq. m.), approximately 39,000 lie below 3000 ft., 27,000 from +3000 to 5000 ft., and 47,000 above 5000 ft.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—Three characteristic physiographic regions +are distinctly marked: first the great Colorado Plateau, some +45,000 sq. m. in area, embracing all the region N. and E. of a line +drawn from the Grand Wash Cliffs in the N.W. corner of the +state to its E. border near Clifton; next a broad zone of +compacted mountain ranges with a southern limit of similar +trend; and lastly a region of desert plains, occupying somewhat +more than the S.W. quarter of the state. The plateau region +has an average elevation of 6000-8000 ft. eastward, but it is +much broken down in the west. The plateau is not a plain. It is +dominated by high mountains, gashed by superb canyons of +rivers, scarred with dry gullies and washes, the beds of intermittent +streams, varied with great shallow basins, sunken deserts, +dreary levels, bold buttes, picturesque mesas, forests and rare +verdant bits of valley. In the N.W. there is a giddy drop into +the tremendous cut of the Grand Canyon (<i>q.v.</i>) of the Colorado +river. The surface in general is rolling, with a gentle slope northward, +and drains through the Little Colorado (or Colorado +Chiquito), Rio Puerco and other streams into the Grand Canyon. +Along the Colorado is the Painted Desert, remarkable for the +bright colours—red, brown, blue, purple, yellow and white—of +its sandstones, shales and clays. Within the desert is a petrified +forest, the most remarkable in the United States. The trees +are of mesozoic time, though mostly washed down to the foot of +the mesas in which they were once embedded, and lying now +amid deposits of a later age. Blocks and logs of agate, chalcedony, +jasper, opal and other silicate deposits lie in hundreds +over an area of 60 sq. m. The forest is now protected as a +national reserve against vandalism and commercialism. Everywhere +are evidences of water and wind erosion, of desiccation +and differential weathering. This is the history of the mesas, +which are the most characteristic scenic feature of the highlands. +The marks of volcanic action, particularly lava-flows, are also +abundant and widely scattered.</p> + +<p>Separating the plateau from the mountain region is an abrupt +transition slope, often deeply eroded, crossing the entire state as +has been indicated. In localities the slope is a true escarpment +falling 150 and even 250 ft. per mile. In the Aubrey Cliffs and +along the Mogollon mesa, which for about 200 m. parts the waters +of the Gila and the Little Colorado, it often has an elevation +of 1000 to 2000 ft., and the ascent is impracticable through long +distances to the most daring climber. It is not of course everywhere +so remarkable, or even distinct, and especially after its +trend turns southward W. of Clifton, it is much broken down and +obscured by erosion and lava deposits. The mountain region +has a width of 70 to 150 m., and is filled with short parallel +ranges trending parallel to the plateau escarpment. Many of +the mountains are extinct volcanoes. In the San Francisco +mountains, in the north central part of the state, three peaks +rise to from 10,000 to 12,794 ft.; three others are above 9000 ft.; +all are eruptive cones, and among the lesser summits are old +cinder cones. The S.E. corner of Arizona is a region of +greatly eroded ranges and gentle aggraded valleys. This mountain +zone has an average elevation of not less than 4000 ft., +while in places its crests are 5000 ft. above the plains below. The +line dividing the two regions runs roughly from Nogales on the +Mexican border, past Tucson, Florence and Phoenix to Needles +(California), on the W. boundary. These plains, the third or desert +region of the state, have their mountains also, but they are +lower, and they are not compacted; the plains near the mountain +region slope toward the Gulf of California across wide valleys +separated by isolated ranges, then across broad desert stretches +traversed by rocky ridges, and finally there is no obstruction to +the slope at all. Small parts of the desert along the Mexican +boundary are shifting sand.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:860px; height:1170px" src="images/img544.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img544a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Climate.</i>—As may be inferred from the physical description, +Arizona has a wide variety of local climates. In general it is +characterized by wonderfully clear air and extraordinarily low +humidity. The scanty rainfall is distributed from July to April, +with marked excess from July to September and a lesser maximum +in December. May and June are very dry. Often during +a month, sometimes for several months, no rain falls over the +greatest part of Arizona. Very little rain comes from the +Pacific or the Gulf of California, the mountains and desert, as +well as the adverse winds, making it impossible. Rain and snow +fall usually from clouds blown from the Gulf of Mexico and not +wholly dried in Texas. The mountainous areas are the only ones +of adequate precipitation; the northern slope of the Colorado +Plateau is almost destitute of water; the region of least precipitation +is the “desert” region. The mean annual rainfall +varies from amounts of 2 to 5.5 in. at various points in the +lower gulf valley, and on the western border to amounts of 25 to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span> +30 in. in the mountains. The highest recorded maximum in +Arizona is 35 in. The proportion of perfectly clear days in +the year varies at different points from a half to two-thirds; +of the rest not more than half are without brilliant sunshine +part of the day. Local thunderstorms and cloud-bursts are +a characteristic phenomenon, inundating limited areas and +transforming dried-up streams into muddy torrents carrying +boulders and débris. Often in the plateau country the dry under-air +absorbs the rain as it falls; and rarely in the Hopi Country +do flooded gullies “run through” to the Little Colorado. The +country of the cliff-dwellers in the N.E. is desert-like. Only +points high in altitude catch much rain. Mountain snows feed +the Gila, the Little Colorado, and the Colorado rivers. The +Colorado, apart from the Gila, draws little water from Arizona. +The mountain zone W. of Prescott drains into the Colorado, +and to the S. and E. into the Gila; and the latter is by far the +heavier drainage in volume. The floods come in May and June, +and during the wet season the rivers, all with steep beds in their +upper courses, wash along detritus that lower down narrows, +and on smaller streams almost chokes, their courses. These +gradients enable the inconstant streams tributary to the Colorado +to carve their canyons, some of which are in themselves very +remarkable, though insignificant beside the Grand Canyon. Many +streams that are turned in spring or by summer cloud-bursts +into torrents are normally mere water films or dry gulches. +Even the Gila is dry in its bed part of the year at its mouth near +Yuma. From the Gila to the southern boundary the parched +land gives no water to the sea, and the international boundary +runs in part through a true desert. In the hot season there +is almost no surface water. Artesian wells are used in places, +as in the stock country of the Baboquivari valley.</p> + +<p>The temperature of Arizona is somewhat higher than that of +points of equal latitude on the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico +coasts. In the mountains on the plateau it ranges from that of the +temperate zone to that of regions of perpetual snow; S. of the +mountains it ranges from temperate heats in the foothills to +semi-tropic heat in the lower valleys of the Gila and Colorado. +The average annual temperature over the region N. of 34′ N. +is about 55°; that of the region S. is about 68°. The warmest +region is the lower Gila valley. Here the hottest temperature of +the year hovers around 130°, the mean for the hottest month +(July) is about 98°, and the mean for the year is from 68.9°-74.4° F. +at different points. Some parts of the Santa Cruz +valley are equally hot. In the hottest (western) portions of the +true desert on the Mexican border the daily maximum temperature +is about 110° F.; but owing to the rapid radiation in the +dry, clear, cloudless air the temperature frequently falls 40-50° +in the night. The coldest points on the high plateau have annual +means as low as 45-48°, and a mean for the coldest month at +times below 20° F. The range from high to low extreme on the +plateau may be as great as 125°, but in the S.W. it is only about +70-80° F. The daily variation (not uncommonly 60° F.) is of +course greatest in the most arid regions, where radiation is most +rapid. And of all Arizona it should be said that owing to +the extreme dryness of the air, evaporation from moist surfaces +is very rapid,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> so that the high temperatures here are decidedly +less oppressive than much lower temperatures in a humid +atmosphere. The great difference between absolute and sensible +temperature is a very important climatic characteristic of +Arizona. Generally speaking, during two-thirds of the year the +temperature is really delightful; the nights are cool, the mornings +bracing, the days mild though splendid. Intense heat prevails +in July, August and September. In lowness of humidity (mean +annual relative humidity at Yuma about 39, at Phoenix 36.7, +at Tucson 37.8) and clarity of atmosphere, southern Arizona +rivals Upper Egypt and other famous arid health resorts.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna and Flora.</i>—Within the borders of Arizona are areas +representative of every life zone save the humid tropical. From +the summit of the San Francisco Mountains one may pass rapidly +through all these down into the Painted Desert. The Boreal-Canadian, +Transition and Upper Sonoran embrace the highlands. +Coyotes are very common; wild cats and mountain lions are +fairly plentiful. Deer and antelope are represented by various +species. Prairie-dogs, jack-rabbits, crows and occasional ravens, +quail, grouse, pheasants and wild turkeys are also noteworthy in +a rather scant animal life. Characteristic forms of the Upper +Sonoran zone are the burrowing owl, Nevada sage-thrush, +sage-thrasher and special species of orioles, kangaroo rats, mice, +rabbits and squirrels. The Lower Sonoran covers the greatest +part of southern and western Arizona, as well as the immediate +valleys of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. Its animal +life is in the main distinguished in species only from that of the +Upper Sonoran belt, including among birds, the desert sparrow, +desert thrasher, mocking-bird, hooded oriole; and among +mammals small nocturnal species of kangaroo rats, pocket mice, +mice and bats. Jaguars occasionally stray into Arizona from +Mexico. Lizards and toads are conspicuous in the more desert +areas. Snakes are not numerous. The Gila-monster, tarantula, +the scorpion and thelyphonus, scolopender and julus occur in +some localities in the rainy season. The Arid-Tropical zone is +represented by a narrow belt along the lower Colorado river, with +a short arm extending into the valley of the Gila. The country +is so arid that it supports only desert birds and mammals. +Camels were very successfully employed as pack animals on the +Tule desert in the palmy days of Virginia City, Nevada, before the +advent of railways.</p> + +<p>The general conditions of distribution of the fauna of Arizona +are shown even more distinctly by the flora. There are firs and +spruces on the mountains, characteristic of the Boreal zone; pines +characteristic of the Transition zone; piñon juniper, greasewood +and the universally conspicuous sage-brush, characteristic of the +Upper Sonoran zone. In the Lower Sonoran belt, soapweed, +acacias (Palo Verde or <i>Parkinsonia torreyana</i>), agaves, yuccas +and dasylirions, the creosote bush and mesquite tree, candle +wood, and about seventy-five species of cactuses—among them +omnipresent opuntiae and great columnar “Chayas”—make up +a striking vegetation, which in its colours of dull grey and olive +harmonizes well with the rigidity and forbidding barrenness +of the plains. It has exercised profound influence upon the +industries, arts, faiths and general culture of the Indians. In +places the giant cactus grows in groves, attaining a height of +40 and even 50 ft. The mesquite varies in size from a tangled +thorny shrub to a spreading tree as much as 3 ft. in diameter +and 50 ft. high; it is normally perhaps half as high, and 6-8 in. +in diameter. Enduring hardily great extremes of heat and +moisture, it is throughout the arid South-west the most important, +and in many localities the only important, native tree. From +the great juicy, leafless, branchless stalk of the yucca, soap is +prepared, and strong fibres useful in making paper, rope and +fabrics. The fibre of the agave is also made into rope and its +juice into pulque. The canaigre grows wild and is also cultivated. +It is easy to exaggerate greatly the barrenness of an arid country. +There are fine indigenous grasses that spring up over the mesas +after the summer rains, furnishing range for live-stock; some are +extraordinarily independent of the rainfall. In the most arid +regions there is a small growth of green in the rainy season, and a +rich display of small wild-flowers, as well as the enormous flower +clusters of the yucca, and blooms in pink and orange, crimson, +yellow and scarlet of the giant cactus and its fellows. Even in the +Mexican border, desert oak, juniper and manzanita cover the +mountains, and there is a vigorous though short-lived growth +of grasses and flower from July to October. The cliff-dweller +country supports a scant vegetation—a few cottonwood in the +washes, a few cedars on the mesas.</p> + +<p>Continuous forest areas are scant. A fair variety of trees—cottonwood, +sycamore, ash, willow, walnut and cherry—grow +in thickets in the canyons, and each mountain range is a forest +area. Rainfall varying with the altitude, the lower timber line +below which precipitation is insufficient to sustain a growth of +trees is about 7000 ft., and the upper timber line about 11,500 ft. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span> +Oaks, juniper, piñon, cedars, yellow pine, fir and spruce grow +on the mountains and over large areas of the plateau country.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +The Coconino forest is one of the largest unbroken pine forests +(about 6000 sq. m.) in the United States. Since 1898 about +86% of the wooded lands have been made reservations, and work +has been done also to preserve the forest areas in the mountains +in the south-east, from which there are few streams of permanent +flow to the enclosing arid valleys.</p> + +<p><i>Soil.</i>—The soils in the southern part of Arizona are mainly +sandy loams, varying from light loam to heavy, close adobe; on +the plateaus is what is known as “mesa” soil; and along the +rivers are limited overflow plains of fine sediment—especially +along the Colorado and the river Verde. These soils are in +general rich, but deficient in nitrogen and somewhat in humus; +and in limited areas white alkaline salts are injuriously in excess. +Virgin soils are densely compact. By far the most useful crops +are leguminous green manures, especially alfalfa, which grows +four to seven cuttings in a year and as a soil flocculator and +nitrogen-storer has proved of the greatest value. The greatest +obstacle to agriculture is lack of water. Artesian wells are much +used in the south-east. For the reservation of the water-partings—in +the past considerably denuded by lumbermen and ranchmen—the +increase of the forest areas, and the creation of reservoirs +along the rivers, to control their erratic flow<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and impound their +flood waste for purposes of irrigation, much has been done by the +national government. The irrigated areas are only little spots +along the permanent streams. In 1900 the farm area was only +2.7% of the total area of the state and only 0.31% was +actually improved (including Indian reservations, 0.35%; in +1906, 0.92% was cultivated); of the land actually under crops, +88.5% was irrigated. The improved acreage more than quintupled +from 1880 to 1900. The total irrigated area in 1900 was +185,000 acres and in 1902, 247,250 acres. The increase in land +values by irrigation from 1890 to 1900 is estimated at $3,500,000. +A reservoir was begun in 1904 just below the junction of the +Tonto and the Salt with capacity to store 1,330,000 acre-ft. for +irrigation, and develop also an electric power sufficient to pump +underground water for an additional 50,000 acres at the lowest +estimate<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> of lands lying too high for supply by gravity. +Another important undertaking begun about the same time was +the throwing of an East Indian weir dam (the only one in the +United States) across the Colorado near Yuma, and the confinement +of both sides of the lower Gila and Colorado with levees.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Strawberries and Sahara dates; alfalfa, wheat, +barley, corn and sorghum; oranges, lemons, wine grapes, limes, +olives, figs, dates, peanuts and sweet potatoes; yams and sugar +beets, show the range of agricultural products. The date palm +fruits well; figs grow luxuriantly, though requiring much irrigation; +almonds do well if protected from spring frosts; sea-island +cotton grows in the finest grades, but is not of commercial +importance. The country about Yuma is particularly suited to +subtropical fruits. Temperate fruits—peaches, pears, apples, +apricots and small fruits—do excellently; as do all important +vegetables. The fruit industry is becoming more and more +important. Farming is very intensive, and crop follows crop +in swift succession; in 1905 the yield of barley per acre, 44 +bushels, was greater than in any other state or territory, as was +the farm price per bushel on the 1st of December, 81 cents; +the average yield per acre of hay was the highest in the Union in +1903, 3.46 tons, the general average being 1.54 tons, was fourth in +1904, 2.71 tons (Utah 3.54, Idaho 3.07, Nevada 3.04), the general +average being 1.52 tons, and was highest in 1905, 3.75 tons, the +general average for the country being 1.54 tons; and in the +same three years the average value per acre of hay was greater +in Arizona than in any other state of the Union, being $35.78 in +1903, $40.22 in 1904, and $46.39 in 1905, the general averages for +the country being $13.93, $13.23 and $13.11 respectively, for the +three years. Of the total farm acreage of the state 97.6% were +held in 1900 by the whites; and of these 80.2% owned in whole +or in part the land they cultivated.</p> + +<p>Stock-raising is a leading industry, but it has probably +attained its full development. The over-stocking of the ranges +has caused much loss in the past, and the almost total eradication +of fine native grasses over extended areas. Of the neat cattle +(7,042,635) almost 98%, and of the sheep (861,761) almost 100%, +were in 1900 pastured wholly or in part upon the public domain. +The extension of national forest reserves and the regulations +enforced by the United States government for the preservation +of the ranges have put limits to the industry. In 1900 the value +of live-stock represented 15.7% of the capital invested in +agriculture; the value of animals sold or slaughtered for +food ($3,204,758) was half the total value of all farm products +($6,997,097). Ostrich farms have been successfully established +in the Salt river valley since 1893; in 1907 there were six farms +in the Salt river valley, on which there were about 1354 birds; +the most successful food for the ostrich is alfalfa.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—Mining is the leading industry of Arizona. +Contrary to venerable traditions there is no evidence that +mining was practised beyond the most inconsiderable extent +by aborigines, Spanish <i>conquistadores</i>, or Jesuits. In 1738 an +extraordinary deposit of silver nuggets, quickly exhausted +(1741), was discovered at Arizonac. At the end of the 18th +century the Mexicans considerably developed the mines in the +south-east. The second half of the 19th century witnessed several +great finds; first, of gold placers on the lower Gila and Colorado +(1858-1869); later, of lodes at Tombstone, which flourished from +1879-1886, then decayed, but in 1905 had again become the +centre of important mining interests; and still later the development +of copper mines at Jerome and around Bisbee. Several of +the Arizona copper mines are among the greatest of the world. +The Copper Queen at Bisbee from 1880-1902 produced +378,047,210 ℔ of crude copper, which was practically the total +output of the territory till after 1900, when other valuable +mines were opened; the Globe, Morenci and Jerome districts are +secondary to Bisbee. Important mines of gold and silver, +considerable deposits of wolframite, valuable ores of molybdenum +and vanadium, and quarries of onyx marble, are also worked. +Low-grade coal deposits occur in the east central part of the +state and near the junction of the Gila and San Pedro rivers. +Some fine gems of peridot, garnet and turquoise have been found. +The mineral products of Arizona for 1907 were valued at +$56,753,650; of which $51,355,687 (more than that of any other state) +was the value of copper; $2,664,000, gold; and $1,916,000, silver. +In 1907 the legislature passed an elaborate act providing +for the taxation of mines, its principal clause being that the +basis of valuation for taxation in each year be one-fourth of the +output of the mines in question for the next preceding year.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—The manufacturing industries are of relatively +slight importance, though considerable promise attends the +experiments with canaigre as a source of tannin. The Navaho +and Moqui Indians make woollen blankets and rugs and the +Pimas baskets. Onyx marbles of local source are polished at +Phoenix. The capital invested in manufacturing industries +increased from $9,517,573 in 1900 to $14,395,654 in 1905, or +51.3%, and the value of products from $20,438,987 in 1900 to +$28,083,192 in 1905, or 37.4%. Of the total product in 1905 +the product of the principal industry, the smelting and refining +of copper ($22,761,981), represented 81.1%; it was 9.4% of all +the smelting and refining of copper done in the United States in +that year. The other manufactures were of much less importance, +the principal ones being cars and general shop construction, +including repairs by steam railway companies ($1,329,308), +lumber and timber products ($960,778), and flour and grist mill +products ($743,124).</p> + +<p>Two transcontinental railway systems, the Southern Pacific +and Santa Fe, were built across Arizona in 1878-1883. They +are connected by one line, and a feeder runs S. into Sonora. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span> +The railway mileage of Arizona on the 1st of January 1908 +was 1935.35 m.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Arizona in 1880 was +40,440; in 1890, 59,620; in 1900, 122,931 (including 28,623 +reservation Indians not counted before); in 1910, 204,354. The +native population is of the most diverse origin; the foreign +element is equally heterogeneous, but more than half (in 1900, +14,172 out of 24,283 foreign-born) are Mexicans, many of whom +are not permanent residents; after 1900, immigrants were largely +mine labourers, and included Slavonians and Italians. The +largest towns in 1900 were Tucson, Phoenix, which is the +capital, Prcscott (pop. 3559), Jerome (pop. 1890, 250; in 1900, +2861); Winslow (pop. 1890, 363; in 1900, 1305), Nogales (pop. +1900, 1761), and Bisbee. The last was an insignificant mining +camp in 1880, still unincorporated in 1900, but with an estimated +population of 6000 in 1904. It is crowded picturesquely into +several narrow confluent ravines. Railway connexion with El +Paso was established in 1902. Douglas is another growing camp.</p> + +<p>Over thirty Indian tribes are represented in the Indian schools +of Arizona. The more important are the Hualapais or Apache-Yumas; +the Mohaves; the Yavapais or Apache-Mohaves; the +Yumas, whose lesser neighbours on the lower Colorado are the +most primitive Indians of the United States in habits; the +Maricopas; the Pimas and Papagoes, who figure much in +early Arizona history, and who are superior in intelligence, +adaptability, application and character; the Hopis or Moquis, +possessed of the same good qualities and notably temperate and +provident, famous for their prehistoric culture (Tusuyan); the +Navaho, and the kindred Apaches, perhaps the most relentless +and savage of Indian warriors. All the Indians of Arizona live +on reservations save the few non-tribal Indians taxed and treated +as active citizens. Even the Apaches after being whipped +by relentless war into temporary submission have been bound +by treaties which the gifts, vices and virtues of the reservation +system have tempted them to observe. The Pimas and Papagoes +were early converted by the Spaniards, and retain to-day a +smattering of Christianity plentifully alloyed with paganism. +Apaches, Pimas, Papagoes have been employed by the United +States on great irrigation works, and have proved industrious +and faithful labourers. In 1900 there were 1836 taxed Indians, +26,480 reservation Indians not taxed, and in addition many +friendly Papagoes unenumerated.</p> + +<p>In 1906 the Indian population was estimated as being 14% of +the whole population of Arizona, and that they are singularly +law-abiding is argued from the fact that in the same year the Indians +furnished only 3% of the convicts in the territorial prison.</p> + +<p><i>Government and Education.</i>—Arizona became a territory of +the first (or practically autonomous) class in 1863. Her organic +law thereafter until 1910 consisted of various sections of the +Revised Statutes of the United States. From the beginning she +had a territorial legislature. Congress retained ultimately direct +control of all government, administration being in the hands of +resident officials appointed by the president and Senate. Special +mention must be made of the secret police, the Arizona Rangers, +organized in 1901 to police the cattle ranges; they are “fearless +men, trained in riding, roping, trailing and shooting,” a force +whose <i>personnel</i> is not known to the general public. The +legislature repealed the law licensing public gambling in 1907; +enacted a law requiring the payment of $300 per annum as +licence fee by retail liquor dealers; and provided for juvenile +courts and probationary control of children. In 1907 the total +tax valuation of property was $77,705,251; the net debt of the +territory $1,022,972, and that of counties and towns $3,123,275. +The receipts of the territorial treasury for the year ending on +the 30th of June 1907 were $687,386, and the disbursements for +the same period were $601,568. A homestead provision (1901) +exempts from liability for debts (except mortgages or liens placed +before the homestead claim) any homestead belonging to the head +of a family, existing in one compact body and valued at not more +than $2500; such a homestead a married man may not sell, +lease or put a lien on without his wife’s consent. Personal +property to the value of $500 is exempt from the same liability. +The public school system was established in 1871. A compulsory +attendance law applies to children between 6 and 14 years of age, +but it is not generally obeyed by the Mexican element of population. +In 1907 there was an enrolment of 24,962 out of 33,167 +children of school age; there were six high schools—three new +in 1906; and the average number of school days was 128.4. In +the fiscal year ending June 1907, the total receipts for schools +were $697,762, and the expenditures were $701,102. Illiteracy +is high, amounting in 1900 to 23.1% of native males, above 21 +years of age, and 30.5% of foreign males, principally because of +the large number of Indians, Chinese, Japanese and Mexicans +in the state. There are two normal schools at Tempe (1886) +and Flagstaff (1899), a university at Tucson with an agricultural +experiment station that has done much for the industries of +Arizona; there is a considerable number of Indian schools, the +largest of which are maintained by the national government, +and the funds of the university come largely from the same source. +The first juvenile reform school, called the Territorial Industrial +school, was opened in 1903 at Benson. The territorial prison, +formerly at Yuma, was abandoned for a modern building at +Florence, Pinal county; and a hospital for the insane is 3 m. +from Phoenix.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The history of the South-west is full of interest to the +archaeologist. A prehistoric culture widely distributed has left +abundant traces. Pueblo ruins are plentiful in the basins of the +Gila and Colorado rivers and their tributaries. Geographical +conditions and a hard struggle against nature fixed the character +of this “aridian” culture, and determined its migrations; the +onslaughts of nomad Indians determined the sedentary civilization +of the cliff dwellers. A co-operative social economy is +evidenced by the traces of great public works, such as canals +many miles in length. The pueblos of the Gila valley are held to +be older than those of the Colorado. Casa Grande, 15 m. S.E. +of a railway station of the same name on the Southern Pacific +railway, is the most remarkable of plain ruins in the South-west, +the only one of its type in the United States. It resembles the +Casa Grande ruin of Chihuahua, Mexico, with its walls of sun-dried +puddled clay, and its area of rooms, courts and plazas, +surrounded by a wall. It was already a ruin when discovered in +1694 by the Jesuit father Kino. John Russel Bartlett described +it in 1854, and in 1889 Congress voted that it be protected +as a government reservation; in 1892 it was set apart by the +government. Excavations were made there in 1906-1907 by Dr +J. Walter Fewkes. Migration was northward. The valleys of the +Salt river and its affluents, the Agua Fria, Verde and Tonto, +are strewn with aboriginal remains; but especially important +in migrations of culture was the Little Colorado. A very +considerable population must have lived once in this valley. It is +represented to-day by the still undeserted habitats of Zuñi +(in New Mexico) and Tusayan; the Moquis, after the Zuñis, +are in customs and traditions the best survival of the ancient +civilization.</p> + +<p>Arizona north of the Gila, save for a very limited and intermittent +missionary effort and for scant exploring expeditions, +was practically unknown to the whites until well after the +beginning of American rule. The Santa Cruz valley, however, +has much older annals of a past that charms by its picturesque +contrasts with the present. Arizona history begins with the +arrival in Sonora in 1536 of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, who, +although he had not entered Arizona or New Mexico, had heard +of them, and by his stories incited the Spaniards to explore the +unknown north in hope of wealth. Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan +friar to whom the first reconnaissance was entrusted, was the +first Spaniard to enter the limits of Arizona. He crossed the +south-eastern corner to Zuñi in 1539, passing through the Santa +Cruz valley; and F.V. de Coronado (<i>q.v.</i>) was led by Fray +Marcos over the same route in 1540; while Hernando Alarcon +explored the Gulf of California and the lower Colorado river. +Members of Coronado’s expedition explored the Moqui country +and reached the Grand Canyon, and after this a succession of +remarkable and heroic explorations followed through the century; +which however accomplished little for geography, further confusing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span> +and embellishing rather than clearing up its mysteries. All this +has left traces in still living myths about the early history of +the South-west. Early in the 17th century considerable progress +had been made in Christianizing the Pimas, Papagoes and Moquis. +Following 1680 came a great Indian revolt in New Mexico and +Arizona, and thereafter the Moquis remained independent of +Spanish and Christian domination, although visited fitfully by +rival Jesuits and Franciscans. In 1732 (possibly in 1720) +regular Jesuit missions were founded at Bac (known as an Indian +rancheria since the 17th century) and at Guevavi. The region +south of the Gila had already been repeatedly explored. In the +second half of the century there was a presidio at Tubac (whose +name first appears 1752) and some half-dozen pueblos de visita, +including the Indian settlement of Tucson.</p> + +<p>A few errors should be corrected and some credit given with +reference to this early period. The Inquisition never had any +jurisdiction whatever over the Indians; compulsory labour by +the Indians was never legalized except on the missions, and the +law was little violated; they were never compelled to work +mines; of mining by the Indians for precious metals there is no +evidence; nor by the Jesuits (expelled in 1767, after which their +missions and other properties were held by the Franciscans), +except to a small extent about the presidio of Tubac, although +they did some prospecting. Persistent traditions have greatly +exaggerated the former prosperity of the old South-west. The +Spaniards probably provoked some inter-tribal intercourse +among the Indians, and did something among some tribes for +agriculture. Their own farms and settlements, save in the +immediate vicinity of the presidio, were often plundered and +abandoned, and such settlement as there was was confined to the +Santa Cruz valley. From about 1790 to 1822 was a period of +peace with the Apaches and of comparative prosperity for church +and state. The fine Indian mission church at Bac, long abandoned +and neglected, dates from the last decade of the 18th century. +The establishment of a presidio at Tucson in 1776 marks its +beginning as a Spanish settlement.</p> + +<p>The decay of the military power of the presidios during the +Mexican war of independence, the expulsion of loyal Spaniards—notably +friars—and the renewal of Apache wars, led to the +temporary abandonment of all settlements except Tubac and +Tucson. The church practically forsook the field about 1828.</p> + +<p>American traders and explorers first penetrated Arizona in the +first quarter of the 19th century. As a result of the Mexican War, +New Mexico, which then included all Arizona north of the Gila, +was ceded to the United States. California gold discoveries drew +particular attention to the country south of the Gila, which was +wanted also for a transcontinental railway route. This strip, +known as the “Gadsden Purchase” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gadsden, James</a></span>), was +bought in 1854 by the United States, which took possession +in 1856. This portion was also added to New Mexico. The +Mexicans, pressed by the Apaches, had, in 1848, abandoned even +Tubac and Tamacácori, first a visita of Guevavi, and after 1784 +a mission. The progress of American settlement was interrupted +by the Civil War, which caused the withdrawal of the troops and +was the occasion for the outbreak of prolonged Indian wars.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile a convention at Tucson in 1856 sent a delegate to +Congress and petitioned for independent territorial government. +This movement and others that followed were ignored by +Congress owing to its division over the general slavery question, +and especially the belief of northern members that the control of +Arizona was an object of the pro-slavery party. A convention +held in April 1860 at Tucson undertook to “ordain and establish,” +of its own motion, a provisional constitution until Congress should +“organize a territorial government.” This provisional territory +constituted all New Mexico south of 34° 40′ N. Officials were +appointed and New Mexican legislation for the Arizona counties +ignored, but nothing further was done. In 1861 it was occupied +by a Texan force, declared for the Confederacy, and sent a +delegate (who was not admitted) to the Confederate congress. +That body in January 1862 passed a formal act organizing the +territory, including in it New Mexico, but in May 1862 the +Texans were driven out by a Union force from California. By +act of the 24th of February 1863 Congress organized Arizona +territory as the country west of 109° W. long. In December +an itinerant government sent out complete from Washington +crossed the Arizona line and effected a formal organization. The +territorial capital was first at Prescott (1863-1867), then at +Tucson (1867-1877), again at Prescott (1877-1889), and finally +at Phoenix (since 1889).</p> + +<p>There have been boundary difficulties with every contiguous +state or territory. The early period of American rule was +extremely unsettled. The California gold discoveries and overland +travel directed many prospecting adventurers to Arizona. +For some years there was considerable sentiment favouring +filibustering in Sonora. The Indian wars, breeding a habit of +dependence on force, and the heterogeneous elements of cattle +thieves, Sonoran cowboys, mine labourers and adventurers led +to one of the worst periods of American border history. But +since about 1880 there is nothing to chronicle but a continued +growth in population and prosperity. Agitation for statehood +became prominent in territorial politics for some years. In +accordance with an act of Congress, approved on the 16th of +June 1906, the inhabitants of Arizona and New Mexico voted on +the 6th of November 1906 on the question of uniting the territories +into a single state to be called Arizona; the vote of New Mexico +was favourable to union and statehood, but these were defeated +by the vote of Arizona (16,265 against, and 3141 for statehood). +In June 1910 the President approved an enabling act providing for +the admission of Arizona and New Mexico as separate states.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For the Colorado river and the Grand Canyon +see those articles; for the Sonoran boundary region, <i>Report of the +Boundary Commission upon the Boundaries between the United States +and Mexico</i> (3 vols., Washington, 1898-1899, also as Senate Document +No. 247, vols. 23-25, 55 Congress, 2 Session); for the petrified +forest of the Painted Desert, L.F. Ward in <i>Smithsonian Institution</i> +Annual Rep., 1899; for the rest of the area, various reports in the +U.S. Geological Survey publications, bibliography in <i>Bulletin</i> Nos. +100, 177.—<span class="sc">Fauna</span> and <span class="sc">Flora</span>: U.S. Department of Agriculture, +<i>North American Fauna</i>, No. 3 (1890), No. 7 (1893); <i>U.S. Biological +Survey, Bulletin</i> No. 10 (1898); publications of the Desert +Botanical Laboratory at Tucson; also titles under archaeology +below, particularly Bandelier’s “Final Report.”—<span class="sc">Climate, Soil, +Agriculture</span>: U.S. Department of Agriculture, <i>Climate and Crop +Service, Arizona</i>, monthly reports, annual summaries; Arizona +Agricultural Experiment Station, <i>Bulletins</i>.—<span class="sc">Mineral Industries</span>: +U.S. Geological Survey publications, consult bibliographies; <i>The +Mineral Industry</i>, annual (New York and London).—<span class="sc">Government</span>: +<i>Arizona Revised Statutes</i> (Phoenix, 1887); <i>Report of the Governor of +Arizona Territory to the Secretary of the Interior</i>, annual.—<span class="sc">Archaeology</span>: +An abundance of materials in the <i>Annual Report, U.S. +Bureau of Ethnology</i> for different years; consult also especially +A.F.A. Bandelier, “Contributions to the History of the South-western +Portion of the United States,” in <i>Archaeological Institute +of America, Papers, American Series</i>, vol. 5 (Cambridge, 1890); +“Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the South-western +United States,” <i>ib.</i> vols. 3 and 4 (Cambridge, 1890-1892); +other material may be found in Smithsonian Institution, <i>Annual +Report</i>, 1896, 1897, &c., and many important papers by J.W. +Fewkes, F.W. Hodge, C. Mendeleff and others in the <i>American +Anthropologist</i> and <i>Journal of American Ethnology.</i>—<span class="sc">History</span>: H.H. +Bancroft, <i>History of Arizona and New Mexico</i> (San Francisco, 1887); +A.F.A. Bandelier, “Historical Introduction to Studies among the +Sedentary Indians of New Mexico,” in <i>Archaeological Institute of +America, Papers, American Series</i>, vol. 1 (Boston, 1881); <i>The Gilded +Man</i> (<i>El Dorado</i>) <i>and other Papers</i> (New York, 1893); G.P. Winship, +“The Coronado Expedition,” in <i>U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, 14th +Annual Report</i> (1892-1893), pp. 339-613, with an abundant literature +to which this may be the guide. The traditional errors respecting +the early history of the Spanish South-west are fully exposed in the +works of Bancroft and Bandelier, whose conclusions are supported +by E. Coues, <i>On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer, Francisco Garcés</i> +(2 vols. New York, 1900).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> At Yuma, Phoenix and Tucson, the records of twenty-six, +eighteen and fifteen years respectively show a rate of evaporation +35.2, 12.7, and 7.7 times as great as the mean annual rainfall, which +was 2.84 in., 7.06 in. and 11.7 in. for the places named.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The San Francisco yellow pine forest, with an area of some 4700 +sq. m., is the finest forest of the arid south-west.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The combined flow of the Salt and Verde varies from 100 to more +than 10,000 cub. ft. per second.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The dam locks a narrow canyon. The height is 284 ft., the water +rising 230 ft. against it. The storage capacity is exceeded by +probably but one reservoir in the world—the Wachusett reservoir near +Boston.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARJUNA,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, a semi-divine hero of the +<i>Mahabharata</i>. He was the third son of Pandu, son of Indra, +His character as sketched in the great epic is of the noblest kind. +He is the central figure of that portion of the epic known as the +<i>Bhagwad-gita</i>, where he is represented as horrified at the +impending slaughter of a battle and as being comforted by Krishna.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARK<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. <i>Arche</i>, +adapted from the Lat. <i>arca</i>, chest, cf. <i>arcere</i>, to shut up, enclose), +a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word <i>tebah</i>, translated in the +A.V. by “ark,” is used in the Old Testament (1) of the box made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span> +of bulrushes in which Pharaoh’s daughter found the infant Moses +(Exodus ii. 3), and (2) of the great vessel or ship in which Noah +took refuge during the flood (Genesis vi.-ix.).</p> + +<p><i>Noah’s Ark.</i>—According to the story in Genesis, Noah’s ark +was large enough to contain his family and representatives of each +kind of animal. Its dimensions are given as 300 cubits long, +50 cubits broad and 30 cubits high (cubit = 18-22 in.). It was +made of “gopher” wood, which has been variously identified +with cypress, pine and cedar. Before the days of the “higher +criticism” and the rise of the modern scientific views as to the +origin of species, there was much discussion among the learned, +and many ingenious and curious theories were advanced, as to +the number of the animals and the space necessary for their +reception, with elaborate calculations as to the subdivisions of the +ark and the quantities of food, &c., required to be stored. It may +be interesting to recall the account given in the first edition of the +<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> (1771), which contained a summary of +some of these various views (substantially repeated up to the +publication of the eighth edition, 1853). “Some have thought the +dimensions of the ark as given by Moses too scanty ... and +hence an argument has been drawn against the authority of the +relation. To solve this difficulty many of the ancient Fathers and +the modern critics have been put to miserable shifts. But Buteo +and Kircher have proved geometrically that, taking the cubit of +a foot and a half, the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the +animals supposed to be lodged in it. Snellius computes the ark +to have been above half an acre in area ... and Dr Arbuthnot +computes it to have been 81,062 tuns ... if we come to a calculation +the number of species of animals will be found much less +than is generally imagined, not amounting to a hundred species +of quadrupeds, nor to two hundred of birds.... Zoologists +usually reckon but an hundred and seventy species in all.” The +progress of the “higher criticism,” and the gradual surrender of +attempts to square scientific facts with a literal interpretation of +the Bible, are indicated in the shorter account given in the eighth +edition, which concludes as follows:—“the insuperable difficulties +connected with the belief that all the existing species of +animals were provided for in the ark, are obviated by adopting +the suggestion of Bishop Stillingfleet, approved by Matthew +Poole, Pye Smith, le Clerc, Rossenmüller and others, that the +deluge did not extend beyond the region of the earth then +inhabited, and that only the animals of that region were preserved +in the ark.” The first edition also gives an engraving of the +ark (repeated in the editions up to the fifth), in shape like a long +roofed box, floating on the waters; the animals are seen in +separate stalls. By the time of the ninth edition (1875) precise +details are no longer considered worthy of inclusion; and the age +of scientific comparative mythology has been reached.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a comparative study of the occurrence of the ark in the +various deluge myths, in the present edition, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deluge</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogony</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia And Assyria</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Ark of the Law</i>, in the Jewish synagogue, is a chest or +cupboard containing the scrolls of the Torah (Pentateuch), and +is placed against or in the wall in the direction of Jerusalem. It +forms one of the most decorative features of the synagogue, and +often takes an architectural design, with columns, arches and a +dome. There is a fine example in the synagogue at Great St +Helens, London.</p> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<p><i>Ark of the Covenant, Ark of the Revelation, Ark of the Testimony</i>, +are the full names of the sacred chest of acacia wood overlaid +with gold which the Israelites took with them on their journey into +Palestine. The Biblical narratives reveal traces of a considerable +development in the traditions regarding this sacred object, and +those which furnish the most complete detail are of post-exilic +date when the original ark had been lost. The fuller titles of the +ark originate in the belief that it contained the “covenant” +(bĕrīth) or “testimony” (‘ēdūth), the technical terms for the +Decalogue (<i>q.v.</i>); primarily, however, it would seem to have been +called “the ark of Yahweh” (or “Elohim”), or simply “the +ark.” The word itself (ārōn) designates an ordinary chest (cp. +Gen. i. 26; 2 Kings xii. 10), and the (late) description of its +appearance represents it as an oblong box 2½ cubits long, 1½ cubits in +breadth and height (roughly 1.2 by .75 metres). It was lined +within and without with gold, and through four golden rings were +placed staves of acacia wood, by means of which it was carried. +A slab of the same metal (the so-called “mercy-seat,” <i>kappōreth</i>, +Gr. <i>hilastērion</i>) covered the top, and this was surmounted by two +Cherubim (Ex. xxv. 10-22, xxxvii. 1-9). The latter, however, +are not mentioned in earlier passages (Deut. x. 1, 3), and would +naturally increase the weight of the ark, which, according to +2 Sam. xv. 29, could be carried by two men.</p> + +<p>The ark was borne by the Levites (Deut. x. 8), and the latest +narratives amplify the statement with a wealth of detail characteristic +of the post-exilic interest in this order. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>.) +An interesting passage relating the commencement of an Israelite +journey vividly illustrates the power of the sacred object. As the +ark started, it was hailed with the cry,”Arise, Yahweh, let thine +enemies be scattered, let them that hate thee flee from before +thee,” and when it came to rest, the cry again rang out,”Return, +O Yahweh, to the myriads of families of Israel” (Num. x. 33-36). +This saying appears to imply a settled life in Canaan, but both +affirm the warlike significance of Yahweh and the ark. Thus it is +the permanent pledge of Yahweh’s gracious presence; it guides +the people on their journey and leads them to victory. It is no +mere receptacle, but a sacrosanct object as much to be feared as +Yahweh himself. To presume to fight without it was to invite +defeat, and on one notable occasion the Israelites attempted to +attack their enemy north of Kadesh without its aid, and were +defeated (Num. xiv. 44 sq.). There are many gaps in its history, +and although at the crossing of the Jordan and at the fall of +Jericho the ark figures prominently (Josh. iii. sq., vi. sq.), it +is unaccountably missing in stories of greater national moment. +Once it is found at Bethel (Judges xx. 27 sq.). It is met with +again at Shiloh, where it is under the care of Eli and his sons, +descendants of an ancient family of priests (1 Sam. ii. 28; cp. +Josh. xviii. 1). After a great defeat of Israel by the Philistines +it was brought into the field, but was captured by the enemy. +The trophy was set up in the Philistine temple of Ashdod, but vindicated +its superiority by overthrowing the god Dagon. A plague +smote the city, and when it was removed to Ekron, pestilence +followed in its wake. After taking counsel the Philistines placed +the ark with a votive offering upon a new cart drawn by two cows. +The beasts went of their own accord to Beth-shemesh, where it +remained in the field of a certain Joshua. Again a disaster +happened through some obscure cause, and seventy of the sons of +Jeconiah were smitten (1 Sam. vi. 19, R.V., margin). Thence it +was removed to the house of Abinadab of Kirjath-jearim, who +consecrated his son to its service (1 Sam. iv.-vii. 1). For many +years the ark remained untouched—apparently forgotten. Shiloh +disappears from history; neither Saul nor even Samuel, whose +youth had been spent with it, takes any further thought of it. +After a remarkable period of obscurity, the ark enters suddenly +into the history of David (2 Sam. vi.). Some time after the +capture of Jerusalem the ark was brought from Baal-Judah, +but at the threshing-floor of Nacon (an unintelligible name) +Abinadab’s son Uzzah laid hands upon it and was struck down +for his impiety. On this account the place is said to have +received the name Perez-Uzzah (“breach of Uzzah”). It was +taken into the house of Obed-edom the Gittite (<i>i.e.</i> of Gath), and +brought a blessing upon his house during the three months that it +remained there. Finally the king had it conveyed to the city +of David, where a tent was prepared to shelter it. Once at +Jerusalem, it seems to have lost its unique value as the token of +Yahweh’s presence; its importance was apparently merged with +that of the Temple which Solomon built. The foundation of the +capital would pave the way for the belief that the national god +had taken a permanent dwelling-place in the royal seat. The +prophets themselves lay no weight upon the ark as the central +point of Jerusalem’s holiness. The real Deuteronomic code does +not mention it, and to Jeremiah (iii. 16) it was a thing of no +consequence. Later, in the age of the priestly schools, the ark received +much attention, although it must obviously be very doubtful how +far a true recollection of its history has survived. But nowhere +is any light thrown upon its fate. The invasion of Shishak, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> +capture of Jerusalem by Joash (2 Kings xiv. 13, 14), the troublous +reign of Manasseh, the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar, +have found each its supporters. The wild legends of +its preservation at the taking of Jerusalem (2 Macc. ii. and +elsewhere) only show that the popular mind was unable to share the +view that the ark was an obsolete relic. More poetical is the +tradition that the ark was raised to heaven, there to remain +till the coming of the Messiah, a thought which embodies the +spiritual idea that a heavenly pledge of God’s covenant and +faithfulness had superseded the earthly symbol.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>A critical examination of the history of the Israelite ark +renders it far from certain that the object was originally the +peculiar possession of all Israel. Many different traditions have +gathered around the story of the Exodus, and the ark was not the +only divinely sent guide or forerunner which led the Israelites. +Its presence at Shiloh, and its prominence in the life of Joshua, +support the view that it was the palladium of the Joseph tribes, +but the traditions in question conflict with others. The account +of the commencement of the ark’s journey associates it with +Moses and his kin (Num. x. 29 sqq.)—that is, with the south +Palestinian clans with which the term “Levites” appears to be +closely connected. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>.) A distinct movement direct +into Judah is implied by certain old traditions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caleb</a></span>), but +this is subordinated to the more comprehensive account of the +journey round by the east of the Jordan. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus, The</a></span>.) +The narratives in 1 Sam. iv.-vi. stand on a plane by themselves, +and the gap between them and 2 Sam. vi. has not been satisfactorily +fixed. But it is not certain that the two belong to the +same cycle of tradition; Kirjath-jearim and Baal-Judah are +identified only in later writings, and the behaviour of Saul’s +daughter (2 Sam. vi. 15 sqq.) may conceivably imply that the ark +was an unknown object to Benjamites. It is of course possible +that the ark was originally the sacred shrine of the clans which +came direct to Judah, and that the traditions in 1 Sam. iv.-vi., +Josh. iii. sqq. are of secondary origin, and are to be associated with +its appearance at Shiloh, the fall of which place, although attributed +to the time of Samuel, is apparently regarded by Jeremiah +(xxvi. 6) as a recent event. Of these two divergent traditions, it +would seem that the one which associates it with the kin of Moses +and David may be traced farther in those late narratives which +connect the ark closely with the Levites and even attribute its +workmanship to Bezalel, a Calebite (Ex. xxxi. 2; 1 Chron. +ii. 19 sqq.). The tradition in Psalms cxxxii. 6 of the search for the +ark at Jaar (Kirjath-jearim) and Ephratah is not clear; but a +comparison with 1 Chron. ii. 50 seems to show that it recognized +the “Calebite” origin of the ark.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, on this, S.A. Cook, <i>Critical Notes on 0. T. History</i> (<i>Index</i> s.v.), +and, for other views, Kosters, <i>Theol. Tijd</i>. xxvii. 361 sqq.; Cheyne, +<i>Encyc. Bib.</i> “Ark”; G. Westphal, <i>Yahwes Wohnstätten</i>, pp. 55 sqq., +85 sqq. (Giessen, 1908).</p> +</div> + +<p>Whether the ark originally contained some symbol of Yahweh +or not has been the subject of much discussion. Thus, it has been +held that it contained stone fetishes (meteoric stones and the +like) from Yahweh’s original abode on Sinai or Horeb. As the +palladium of the Joseph tribes, it has even been suggested that +the bones of Joseph were treasured in the ark. Others have +regarded it as an empty portable throne,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> or as a receptacle for +sacred serpents (analogies in Frazer, <i>Pausanias</i>, iv. pp. 292, 344). +That it contained the tables of the law (Deut. x. 2; 1 Kings viii. 9) +was the later Israelite view, and the subsequent development is +illustrated in Heb. ix. 4. It is enough to decide that the ark +represented in some way or other the presence of Yahweh and +that the safety of his followers depended upon its security +(analogies in Frazer, <i>Paus.</i> x. p. 283). The Semitic world affords +many examples of the belief that a man’s religion was part of his +political connexion and that the change of nationality involved +change of cult. He who leaves his land to enter another, leaves his +god and is influenced by the religion of his new home (1 Sam. +xxvi. 19; Ruth i. 16 sqq.), but strangers know not “the cult of the +God of the land” (2 Kings xvii. 26). No nation willingly changes +its god (Jer. ii. 11), and there are means whereby the follower of +Yahweh may continue his worship even when outside Yahweh’s +land (2 Kings v. 17). When a people migrate they may take +with them their god, and if they conceive him to be a spiritual +being who cannot be represented by an image, they may desire a +symbolical expression of or, rather, a substitute for his presence. +Accordingly the conception of the ark must be based in the first +instance upon the beliefs of the particular clans or tribes whose +sacred object it was.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further, W.R. Smith, <i>Religion of the Semites</i>, p. 37; Schwally, +<i>Kriegsaltertümer</i>, i. p. 9; <i>Revue biblique</i> (1903), pp. 249 sqq.; and on the +ark, generally, in addition to the literature already cited, Kautzsch, +Hastings’ <i>Dict. Bible</i>, v. p. 628; A.R.S. Kennedy, <i>Century Bible: +Samuel</i> (<i>Appendix</i>); E. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten, Index</i> s.v. <i>“Lade,”</i>; +and R.H. Kennett, <i>Enc. of Rel. and Ethics</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cp. Rev. xi. 19, and W.R. Smith, <i>Old Test. in Jew. Church, +Index</i>. For later traditional material, see Buxtorf, <i>De Arca Foederis</i> +(Basel, 1659).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> But see Budde, <i>Expos. Times</i> (1898), pp. 398 sqq.; +<i>Theolog. Stud. u. Krit.</i> (1906), pp. 489-507. The possibility +must be conceded that there were several arks in the course of +Hebrew history and that separate tribes or groups of tribes +had their own sacred object.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARKANSAS,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a river of the United States of America, rising +in the mountains of central Colorado, near Leadville, in lat. +39° 20′ N., long. 106° 15′ W., and emptying into the Mississippi, +at Napoleon, Arkansas, in lat. 33° 40′ N. Its total length is +about 2000 m., and its drainage basin (greater than that of the +Upper Mississippi) about 185,000 sq. m. It is the greatest +western affluent of the Missouri-Mississippi system. It rises in a +pocket of lofty peaks at an altitude of 10,400 ft. on a sharply +sloping plateau, down which it courses as a mountain torrent, +dropping 4625 ft. in 120 m. At Canyon City it passes out of the +Rockies through the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas; then turning +eastward, and soon a turbid, shallow stream, depositing its +mountain detritus, it flows with steadily lessening gradient and +velocity in a broad, meandering bed across the prairies and lowlands +of eastern Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas, +shifting its direction sharply to the south-east in central Kansas. +The Arkansas ordinarily receives little water from its tributaries +save in time of floods. In topography and characteristics and in +the difficulties of its regulation the Arkansas is in many ways +typical of the rivers in the arid regions of the western states. +The gradient below the mountains averages 7.5 ft. per mile +between Canyon City and Wichita, Kansas (543 m.), about 1.5 ft. +between Wichita and Little Rock (659 m.), and 0.65 of a foot from +Little Rock to the mouth (173 m.). The shores are sand, clay or +loam throughout some 1300 m., with very rare rock ridges or +rapids, and the banks rise low above ordinary water. The waters +are constantly rising and falling, and almost never is the discharge +at any point uniform. Every year there are, normally, two +distinct periods of high water; one an early freshet due mainly +to the heavy winter rainfall on the lower river, when the upper +river is still frozen hard; the other in the late spring, due to +the setting in of rains along the upper courses also, and to the +melting of the snow in the mountains. The lowest waters are +from August to December. In the summer there are sometimes +violent floods due to cloud-bursts. Everywhere along the river +there is a never-ending variation of velocity and discharge, and +an equally ceaseless transformation of the river’s bed and +contour. These changes become revolutionary in times of flood. +All these characteristics are accentuated below Little Rock. The +depth of water at this point has been known to vary from 27 ft. +to only half-a-foot, and the discharge to fall to 1170 cub. ft. per +second. There is often no more than 1.5 ft. of water, and far below +Little Rock a depth of 3 ft. on crossings is not infrequent. In +many places there are different channels for high and low water, +the latter being partly filled by each freshet, and recut after +each subsidence; and the river meanders tortuously through the +alluvial bottom in scores of great bends, loops and cut-offs. It is +estimated that the eating and caving of the shore below Little +Rock averages 7.64 acres per mile every year (as against 1.99 +acres above Little Rock). By way of the White river cut-off the +Arkansas finds an additional outlet through the valley of that +river in times of high water, and the White, when the current +in its natural channel is deadened by the backwaters of the +Mississippi, finds an outlet by the same cut-off through the valley +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span> +of the Arkansas. This backwater, where it meets and checks the +current of the Arkansas, occasions the precipitation of enormous +alluvial deposits, and vast quantities of snags. The banks are +disintegrated along this part of the river and built up again on +the opposite side to their original height in the extraordinarily +short time of two or three years, the channel remaining all the +while narrow. At the mouth of the White, the Arkansas and +the Mississippi the level of recurrent floods is 6 or 8 ft. above +the timber-bearing soil along the banks, and all along the lower +river the country is liable to overflow; and as the land backward +from the stream slopes downward from the banks heaped +up by successive flood-deposits, each overflow creates along the +river a fringe of swamps. These features, although exaggerated +in the portion of the river now in question, are qualitatively +characteristic of its entire course below the mountains.</p> + +<p>Up to the 30th of June 1907 the government of the United +States expended $2,384,557 on improvements along the Arkansas. +Almost half of this sum was required for snagging operations +alone. There is a considerable traffic on the river within the +borders of Arkansas in miscellaneous freights, and a slight +passenger movement. The river is rarely navigable above Fort +Smith, and during a considerable part of the year not above Pine +Bluff. Steamer service is maintained the year round between +this point and Memphis. Ordinarily there are some 400 m. of +channel open to steamers part of the year, and in time of high +flood considerably more. To the mouth of the Grand river +(460 m.) the river is open about four months in a year for +vessels of 4 ft. draft and about eight months for vessels of 2 ft. +draft.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—General descriptions of different portions of +the river are indicated in the Index to the <i>Reports of the Chief of +Engineers, U.S. Army</i> (many volumes, 1879-1900). See also +H. Gannett, <i>Profiles of Rivers in the U.S.</i> (U.S. Geolog. Survey, 1901); +Greenleaf, “Western Floods,” in <i>Engin. Mag.</i> xii. 945-958; U.S. +Geolog. Survey, <i>Bull.</i> 140; I.C. Russell, <i>Rivers of North America</i> +(1898); T.J. Vivian, <i>Transportation, Rivers of the Miss. Valley</i> +(U.S. Census, 1890, special Rp.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARKANSAS,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> one of the South Central states of the United +States of America, situated between 89° 40′ N. and 94° 42′ W., +bounded N. by Missouri, E. by the Mississippi river, separating +it from Tennessee and Mississippi, and W. by Texas and Oklahoma. +Its area is 53,335 sq. m., of which 810 are water surface.</p> + +<p>Arkansas lies in the drainage basin of the lower Mississippi, and +has a remarkable river system. The Arkansas bisects the state +from W. to E.; along its valley lie the oldest and largest +settlements of the state. Nine other considerable streams drain the +state; of these, the Red, the Ouachita, the White and the St +Francis are the most important. There are a number of swamps +and bayous in the eastern part.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The surface of Arkansas is the most +diversified of that of any state in the central Mississippi valley. +It rises, sloping upward toward the N.W., from an average +elevation of less than 300 ft. in the south-east to heights of +2000 ft. and more in the north-western quarter. There are four +physiographic regions: two of highlands; one of river valley +plain separating the two highland areas; while the fourth is a +region of hills, lowlands and scanty prairie. The last covers the +E. half of the state, and is part of the Gulf or coastal plain +province of the United States. If a line be drawn from the +point where the Red river cuts the western boundary to where +the Black cuts the northern, E. of it is the Gulf plain and W. +of it are the highlands (over 500 ft.) and the mineral regions +of the state. They are divided by the valley of the Arkansas +river into two regions, which are also structurally different. +South of the river are the Ouachita Mountains, and north of it +are the Boston Mountains. The Ouachita Mountains are +characterized by close folding and faulting. Their southern edge +is covered with cretaceous deposits, and their eastern edge is +covered as well with the tertiary deposits of the Gulf plains. The +Arkansas valley is marked by wide and open folding. The Boston +Mountains are substantially a continuation of the Ozark dome of +Missouri. Their northern border is marked by an escarpment of +500 to 700 ft. in height. The trend is from E. to W. between +Batesville and Wagoner, Oklahoma. In structure they are +monoclinical, their rocks—sandstones and shales—being laid +southward and blending on that side with the Arkansas valley +region. The entire region is very much dissected by streams, +and the topography is characteristically of a terrace and +escarpment type. In the highlands N. of the Arkansas the country +is very irregularly broken; S. of the river the hills lie less +capriciously in short, high ranges, with low, fertile valleys +between them. The Ouachitas extend 200 m., from within +Oklahoma (near Atoka) to central Arkansas, near Little Rock. +They are characterized by long, low ridges bearing generally +W.-E., with wide, flat valleys. Near the western boundary +of the state they attain a maximum altitude of 2900 ft. above the +sea, and 2000 ft. above the valleys of the Arkansas and Red +river; falling in elevation eastward (as westward) to 500-700 ft. +at their eastern end. Five peaks rise above 2000 ft. Magazine +Mountain, 2833 ft. above the sea-level and 2350 ft. above +the surrounding country, is the highest point between the +Alleghanies and the Rockies. Altitudes of 2250 ft. are attained +in the Boston Mountains, which are the highest portion of the +Ozark uplift, and the most picturesque. The streams are vigorous, +and in their lower courses flow in deep-cut gorges, 500 to +1000 ft. deep, almost deserving the name of canyons. The main +streams are tortuous, and their dendritic tributaries have cut the +region into ridges. The mountains do not fill the N.W. quarter +of the state, and are separated from a lower, greatly eroded +highland region on their N. by a bold escarpment 500 to 1000 +ft. in height. Along the upper course of the White river in the +Bostons and in the country about Hot Springs in the Ouachitas +is found the most beautiful scenery of the highlands; few regions +are more beautiful. The valley region embraces the bottom-lands +along the Mississippi, and up the Arkansas as far as Pine Bluff, +and the cypress swamp country of the St Francis.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate of the state is “southern,” owing to the +influence of the Gulf of Mexico. The mean temperatures for the +different seasons are normally about 41.6°, 61.1°, 78.8° and +61.9° F. for winter, spring, summer and autumn respectively. +The normal mean precipitations are about 11.7, 14.5, 10.5 and +10.2 in. for the same seasons. The extreme range of the monthly +isotherms crossing the state is from about 35° in winter to 81° F. +in summer, and the range of annual isotherms from about 54° to +60° F. That is, the variation of mean annual temperatures for +different parts of the state is only 6° F. The variation of the +mean annual temperature for the entire state is only 4° (from +59° to 63° F.). The variation of precipitation is as great as 30 in. +(from 34 to 64 in.) according to locality. There is little snow, no +severe winter cold, and no summer drought. Sheltered valleys +in the interior produce spring crops three or four weeks earlier +than is usual in Kansas. The climate is generally healthy.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—Arkansas lies in the humid, or Austroriparian, area of +the Lower Austral life-zone, except the highlands of the Ozark +uplift and Ouachita Mountains, which belong to the humid, +or Carolinian, area of the Upper Austral. The state possesses a +rich fauna and flora. From an economic standpoint its forests +deserve special mention. The forest lands of the state include +four-fifths of its area, and three-fourths are actually covered by +standing timber. Valuable trees are of great variety: cottonwood, +poplar, catalpa, red cedar, sweet-gum, birch-eye, sassafras, +persimmon, ash, elm, sycamore, maple, a variety of pines, pecan, +locust, dogwood, hickory, various oaks, beech, walnut and +cypress are all abundant. There are one hundred and twenty-nine +native species of trees. The yellow pine, the white oak +and the cypress are the most valuable growths. The northern +woods are mainly hard; the yellow pine is most characteristic +of the heavy woods of the south central counties; and magnificent +cypress abounds in the north-east. Hard woods grow even +on the alluvial lands. “The hard-wood forests of the state are +hardly surpassed in variety and richness, and contain inestimable +bodies of the finest oak, walnut, hickory and ash timber” (U.S. +Census, 1870 and 1900). The growth on the alluvial bottoms +and the lower uplands in the E. is extraordinarily vigorous. +The leading species of the Appalachian woodland maintain their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span> +full vigour of growth nearer to the margin of forest growth in +this part of the Mississippi valley than in any other part of the +United States; and some species, such as the holly, the osage +orange and the pecan, attain their fullest growth in Arkansas +(Shaler). There are two Federal forest reserves (4968 sq. m.).</p> + +<p><i>Soil.</i>—The soils of Arkansas are of peculiar variety. That of +the highlands is mostly but a thin covering, and their larger +portion is relatively poorly fitted for agriculture. The uplands +are generally fertile. Their poor soils are distinctively sandy, +those of the lowlands clayey; but these elements are usually +found combined in rich loams characterized by the predominance +of one or the other constituent. Finally the alluvial bottoms are +of wonderful richness.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—This variety of soils, a considerable range of +moderate altitudes and favourable factors of heat and moisture +promote a rich diversity in agriculture. Arkansas is predominantly +an agricultural state. The farm area of 1860 was only +28.2% of the whole area of the state, that of 1900 (16,636,719 +acres) was 49%; and while only a fifth of this farm area was +actually improved in 1860, two-fifths were improved in 1900; +thus, the part of the state’s area actually cultivated +approximately quadrupled in four decades. The value of products in +1900 ($79.6 millions) was 44% of the total farm values ($181.4 +millions). The rise in average value of farm lands since 1870 has +not been a fifth of the increase of the aggregate value of all farm +property.</p> + +<p>The Civil War wrought a havoc from which a full recovery was +hardly reached before 1890. The economic evolution of the state +since Reconstruction has been in the main that common to all +the old slave states developing from the plantation system of +ante-bellum days, somewhat diversified and complicated by the +special features of a young and border community. The farms +of Arkansas increased in number 357.8%, in area 73.7% and in +total true (as distinguished from tax) valuation about 53.8% +between 1860 and 1900; the decade of most extraordinary +growth being that of 1870-1880. Thus Arkansas has shared that +fall in the average size of farms common to all sections of the +Union (save the north central) since 1850, but especially marked +since the Civil War in the “Cotton States,” owing to the subdivision +of large holdings with the introduction of the tenant +system. The rapidity of the movement has not been exceptional +in Arkansas, but the size of its average farm, less in 1850 +than that of the other cotton states, was in 1900, 93.1 acres +(108.8 for white farmers alone, 49.0 for blacks alone), which was +even less than that of the North Atlantic states (96.5 acres, the +smallest sectional unit of the Union). The percentage of farms +worked by owners fell from 69.1% in 1880 to 54.6% in 1900; +the difference of the balances or 14.5% indicates the increase of +tenant holdings, two-thirds of these being for shares.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to compare in this matter the whites and the +negroes. In actual numbers the white farmers heavily predominate, +whether as owners, tenants for cash or tenants on shares; +but if we look at the numbers within each race holding by these +respective tenures (65.0, 8.7 and 26.3% respectively for whites; +25.6, 33.7 and 40.7% for negroes, in 1900), we see the lesser +independence of the negro farmer. The cotton counties, which +are the counties of densest coloured habitancy, exemplify this +fact with great clearness. The few negroes in the white counties +of the uplands are much better off than those in the cotton lowlands; +more than three times as large a part of them owners; +the poorer element is segregated in the cotton region. In +Arkansas, as elsewhere in the south, negro tenants, like white +tenants, are more efficient than owners working their own lands. +The black farmer is in bondage to cotton; for him still “Cotton +is King.” He gives it four-fifths of his land; while his white +rival allows it only a quarter of his, less by half than the area he +gives to live-stock, dairying, hay and grains. At Sunnyside, on the +west bank of the Mississippi, negro tenant farmers have been +practically forced out of business by Italians, who produced in +1899-1904 more than twice as much lint cotton per working +hand, and 70% more per acre. The general place of the negro +in agriculture is shown also by the fact that more than four-fifths +of the farm acreage and farm values of the state are in the hands +of the whites. The white farmer gives an outlay in labour and +fertilizers on his farm greater by 61.4% than the black, gathers +a produce greater by 22.5%, and possesses a farm of a value +53.5% greater (Census, 1900).</p> + +<p>Cotton is the leading product. It absorbs about a third of the area +under crops, and its returns ($28,000,000 in 1899) are about a half +of the value of all crops. A part of the cotton lands of Arkansas +are among the richest in the south. Other distinctively southern +products (tobacco, &c.) are of no importance in Arkansas. +Cereals are given more than twice as much acreage as cotton, +but yield only a third as great aggregate returns, Indian corn +being much the most remunerative; about three-fourths of the +cereal acreage are given to its cultivation, and it ranks after +cotton in value of harvest.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> For all the other staple agricultural +products of the central states the showing of Arkansas is uniformly +good, but not noteworthy. But its rank as a fruitgrowing +country is exceptional. Plums, prunes, peaches, pears +and grapes are cultivated very generally over the western half of +the state (grapes in the east also), but with greatest success in +the south-west; apples prosper best in the north-west. Small +berries are a very important product. All fruits are of the finest +quality. For apples the state makes probably a finer showing +than that of any other state except Oregon. About ninety +varieties are habitually entered in national competitions. The +fruit industry generally has developed with extreme rapidity.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—Although Arkansas is rich in minerals and in +forests, in 1900 only 2% of its population were engaged in +manufacturing. But the development has been rapid; the value of +products multiplied seven times, the wages paid nine, and the +capital invested twelve, in the years 1880-1900; and the +increase in the same categories from 1900-1905 was 35, 42.8 and +82.4% respectively.<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It must be noted as characteristic of the +state that of the total manufactures in 1905, 80.3% were produced +in rural districts (83.7 in 1900). About two-thirds of the +increase between 1890 and 1900 was in the lumber industry +which was of slight importance before the former year; it represented +more than half the total value of the manufactures of the +state in 1905 (output, 1905, $28,065,171 and of mill products +$3,786,772 additional); in the value of lumber and timber +products the state ranked sixth among the states of the United +States in 1900, and seventh in 1905. After the lumber and +timber industry ranked in 1905 the manufacture of cotton-seed +oil and cake ($4,939,919) and flour and grist milling. Cotton +ginning increased 739% from 1890 to 1900.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:1000px; height:742px" src="images/img552.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img552a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Minerals.</i>—The progress of coal-mining has been a striking +feature of the state’s economy since 1880. The field extends +from Oklahoma eastward to central Arkansas, along both sides +of the Arkansas river. A production of 5000 tons (short) in +1882 became 542,000 tons in 1891 and 2,229,172 tons in 1903—a +maximum for the state up to 1905; in 1907 the yield was +2,670,438 tons, valued at $4,473,693; the value of the product +increased more than eight-fold in 1886-1900. The United States +Geological Survey estimates that three-fourths of the coal area +(over 1700 sq. m.) can made commercially productive. Apart +from coal the great and varied mineral wealth of the state has +been only slightly utilized. The great zinc and lead area along +the northern border in the plateau portion of the Ozark region +has proved a disappointment in development; the iron areas +have hardly been touched, and the product of the exceptionally +promising deposits of manganese lost ground after 1890 before +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span> +the output of Virginia and Georgia. Among the products of +the rich stone quarries of the state, only that of abrasive stones +is important in the markets of the Union; the novaculites of +Arkansas are among the finest whetstones in the world. Deposits +of true chalk are utilized in the manufacture of Portland cement +for local markets. The chalk region lies in the S.E. part of the +state, S. of the Ouachita Mountains. Bauxite was discovered +in the state in 1887, and the product increased from 5045 +long tons in 1899 to 50,267 long tons in 1906, the production for +the whole country in 1899 being 35,280 long tons and in 1906 +75,332 long tons. The only other states in which bauxite was +produced during the period were Alabama and Georgia, which +in this respect have greatly declined in importance relatively +to Arkansas. Extremely valuable and varied marls, kaolins and +clays, fuller’s earth, asphaltum and mineral waters show special +promise in the state’s industry. In 1906 diamonds were found in +a peridotite dike in Pike county 2½ m. S.E. of Murfreesboro; +this is the first place in North America where diamonds have +been found <i>in situ</i>, and not in glacial deposit or in river gravel.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The rivers afford for light craft (of not over +3 ft. draft) about 3000 m. of navigable waters, a river system +unequalled in extent by that of any other state. The labours of +the United States government have much extended and very +greatly improved this navigation, materially lessening also the +frequency and havoc of floods along the rich bottom-lands +through which the rivers plough a tortuous way in the eastern +and southern portions of the state. As a result of these improvements +land and timber values have markedly risen, and great +impetus has been given to traffic on the rivers, which carry a +large part of the cotton, lumber, coal, stone, hay and +miscellaneous freights of the state. The greatest of these internal +improvements is the St Francis levee, from New Madrid, +Missouri, to the mouth of the St Francis, 212 m. along the +Mississippi; an area of 3500 sq. m., of exceptional fertility, is +here reclaimed at a cost of about $1500 per sq. m. (as compared +with $10,000 per sq. m. for the 2500 sq. m. reclaimed by the Nile +works at Assuan and Assiut). Whether with regard to area or +population, Arkansas is also relatively well supplied with railways +(4,472.8 m. at the end of 1907). A state railway commission +controls transportation rates, which are also somewhat checked +by the competition of river freights. There is also a considerable +passenger traffic on the Arkansas.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population in 1910 was 1,574,449. The +growth in 1880-1900 is shown by the following table:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Census<br />Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total<br />Pop.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">% White<br />Pop.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">% Negro<br />Pop.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Average<br />per sq. m.</td> +<td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">% Increase by decades</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total</td> <td class="tccm allb">White</td> <td class="tccm allb">Negro</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">802,525</td> <td class="tcc rb">73.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">63.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,128,211</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">40.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">38.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">46.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,311,561</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">72.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.7</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In 1900 the rank of the state in total population was twenty-fifth, +and in negro population tenth. The proportion of the coloured +element steadily rose from 11% in 1820 to 28% in 1900, at which +time there were more than a dozen counties along the border of the +Mississippi and lower Arkansas in which the negroes numbered +50 to 89% of the total. They have never been a large element in +the highland counties; it was these counties which were most +strongly Unionist at the time of the Civil War, and which to-day +are the region of diversified industry. About a ninth of the +state’s population is gathered into towns of more than 2000 +inhabitants. Fort Smith (pop. 11,587 in 1900), Little Rock, +the state capital (38,307), and Pine Bluff (11,496) lie in the valley +of the Arkansas. In 1900 a dozen other towns had a population +exceeding 2500, the most important being Hot Springs (9973), +Helena (5550), Texarkana (4914), Jonesboro (4508), Fayetteville +(4061), Eureka Springs (3572), Mena (3423) and Paragould +(3324). Foreign blood has only very slightly permeated the +state; negroes and native whites of native parents make up +more than 95% of its population. Immigration is almost +entirely from other southern states. The strongest religious +sects are the Methodists and Baptists.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—The present constitution of the state dates from +1874 (with amendments). Few features mark it off from the +usual type of such documents. The governor holds office for two +years; he has the pardoning and veto power, but his veto may +be overridden by a simple majority in each house of the whole +number elected to that house (a provision unusual among the +state constitutions of the Union). There is no lieutenant-governor. +The legislature is bicameral, senators holding office +for four years, representatives (about thrice as numerous) for +two. The length of the regular biennial legislative sessions is +limited to sixty days, but by a vote of two-thirds of the members +elected to each house the length of any session may be extended. +Special sessions may be called by the governor. A majority of +the members elected to each of the two houses suffices to propose +a constitutional amendment, which the people may then accept +by a mere majority of all votes cast at an election for the +legislature (an unusually democratic provision); no more than three +amendments, however, can be proposed or submitted at the same +time. The supreme court has five members, elected by the +people for eight years; they are re-eligible. The population of +the state entitles it to seven representatives in the national +House of Representatives, and to nine votes in the Electoral +College (census of 1900). Elections of members of the state +legislature and of Congress are not held at the same time—a very +unusual provision. Elections are by Australian ballot; the +constitution prescribes that no law shall “be enacted whereby +the right to vote at any election shall be made to depend upon any +previous registration of the elector’s name” (extremely unusual). +The qualifications for suffrage include one year’s residence in the +state, six months in the county, and one month in the voting +district, next before election; idiots, insane persons, convicts, +Indians not taxed, minors and women are disqualified; aliens +who have declared their intention to become citizens of the +United States vote on the same terms as actual citizens. An +amendment of 1893 requires the exhibition of a poll-tax receipt +by every voter (except those “who make satisfactory proof that +they have attained the age of twenty-one years since the time of +assessing taxes next preceding” the election). There is nothing +in the constitution or laws of Arkansas with any apparent +tendency to disfranchise the negroes; there are statutory +provisions (1866-1867) against intermarriage of the races and +constitutional and statutory (1886-1887) provisions for separate +schools, a “Jim Crow” law (1891) requires railways to provide +separate cars for negroes, and a law (1893) provides for separate +railway waiting-rooms for negroes. Giving or accepting a +challenge to a duel bars from office, but this survival of the +ante-bellum social life is to-day only reminiscent. Declared +atheists are similarly disqualified. There is no constitutional +provision for a census. Marriage is pronounced a civil contract. +A law for compulsory education was passed in 1909.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The constitution makes 1% on the assessed valuation +of property a maximum limit of state taxation for ordinary +expenses, but by an amendment of 1906 the legislature may levy +three mills on the dollar per annum for common schools; and +may “authorize school districts to levy by a vote of the qualified +electors of such district a tax not to exceed seven mills on the +dollar in any year for school purposes.” The state debt in 1874 +was $12,108,247, of which about $9,370,000 was incurred after the +Civil War for internal improvement schemes. This new debt was +practically repudiated in 1875 by a decision of the supreme court, +and completely set aside in 1884 by constitutional amendment. +Until 1900, when an adjustment of the matter was reached, there +was also another disputed debt to the national government, +owing to the collapse in 1839 of a so-called Real Estate Bank of +Arkansas, in which the state had invested more than $500,000 +paid to it by the United States in exchange for Arkansas bonds +to be held as an investment for the Smithsonian Institution, +on which bonds the state defaulted after 1839. If the +unacknowledged debt be included (as it often is; and hence the +necessity of reference to it), very few states—and those all +western or southern—have a heavier burden per capita. But +the acknowledged debt was in 1907 only $1,250,500, and this is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span> +not a true debt, being a permanent school fund that is not to be +paid off; of this total in 3% bonds, $1,134,500 is held by the +common schools and $116,000 by the state university. In net +combined state and local debt, Arkansas ranks very low among +the states of the Union. The hired labourer suffers from the +“truck” system, taking his pay in board and living, in goods, in +trade on his employer’s credit at the village store; the independent +farmer suffers in his turn from unlimited credit at the +same store, where he secures everything on the credit of his future +crops; and if he is reduced to borrow money, he secures it by +vesting the title to his property temporarily in his creditor. +His legal protections under such “title bonds” are much +slighter than under mortgages. Homesteads belonging to the +head of a family and containing 80 to 160 acres (according to +value) if in the country, or a lot of ¼ to one acre (according to +value), if in town, village or city, are exempt from liability for +debts, excepting liens for purchase money, improvements or +taxes. A married man may not sell or mortgage a homestead +without his wife’s consent.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—The legal beginnings of a public school system date +from 1843; in 1867 the first tax was imposed for its support. +Only white children were regarded by the laws before Reconstruction +days. There are now separate race schools, with terms of +equal length, and offering like facilities; the number of white +and coloured teachers employed is approximately in the same +proportion to the number of attending children of the respective +races; in negro districts two out of three school directors are +usually negroes. “The coloured race as a whole go to the +schools as regularly and as numerously in proportion as do the +whites” (Shinn). Of the current expenses of the common schools +about three-fourths is borne by the localities; the state distributes +its contribution annually among the counties. There is also +a permanent school fund derived wholly from land grants from +the national government. The total expenditure for the schools +is creditable to the state; but before 1909 hardly half the school +population attended; and in general the rural conditions +of the state, the shortness of the school terms and the dependence +of the schools primarily upon local funds and local supervision, +make the schools of inadequate and quite varying excellence. +The average expenditure in 1906 for tuition per child enrolled +was $4.93, and the average length of the school term was only +eighty-one days. In June 1906 there were 1102 school houses in +the state valued at $100 or less. In 1905-1906 the Peabody Board +gave $2000 to aid rural schools, and in general it has done much +for the improvement of country public schools throughout the +state. In 1906 an amendment to the state constitution, greatly +increasing the tax resources available for educational work, was +passed by a large popular vote. The University of Arkansas was +opened at Fayetteville in 1872. The law and medical faculties are +at Little Rock. A branch normal school, established 1873-1875 +at Pine Bluff, provides for coloured students, who enjoy the same +opportunities for work, and are accorded the same degrees, as the +students at Fayetteville; they are about a fourth as numerous. +In 1905-1906 there were 497 students in the college of liberal +arts, sciences and engineering, 548 in the preparatory school +and 26 in the conservatory of music and arts, all in Fayetteville; +171 in the medical school and 46 in the law school in Little +Rock; and 240 in the branch normal college at Pine Bluff. The +university and the normal school are supported by the Morrill +Fund and by state appropriations. The state still suffered in +1906 from the lack of a separate and special training school for +teachers; but in 1907 the legislature voted to establish a state +normal school. Of the Morrill Fund (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Morrill, Justin +Smith</a></span>), three-elevenths goes to the normal school. The +agricultural experiment station of the university dates from +1887. The financial support of the university has been light, +about three-fifths coming from the United States government. +Besides the university there are about a score of denominational +colleges or academies, of which half-a-dozen are for coloured +students. Among the large denominational colleges are +Philander Smith College, Little Rock (Methodist Episcopal, +1877); Ouachita College, Arkadelphia (Baptist, 1886); Hendrix +College, Conway (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1884); and +Arkansas College, Batesville (Presbyterian, 1872). There are few +libraries in Arkansas. In this matter her showing has long been +among the very poorest in the Union relatively to her population. +Daily papers are few in number. The state charitable institutions—insane +asylum, deaf-mute and blind institutes—and +the penitentiary, are at Little Rock.</p> + +<p>Local government is of the ordinary southern county type, +without noteworthy variations. Municipal corporations rest +upon a general state law, not upon individual charters. The +liquor question is left by the state to county (<i>i.e.</i> including +“local,” or town) option, and prohibition is the most common +county law, the alternative being high-licence.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The first settlement by Europeans in Arkansas was +made in 1686 by the French at Arkansas Post (later the residence +of the French and Spanish governors, important as a trading post +in the earlier days of the American occupation, and the first +territorial capital, 1819-1820). In 1720 a grant on the Arkansas +was made to John Law. In 1762 the territory passed to Spain, +in 1780 back to France, and in 1803 to the United States as a +part of the “Louisiana Purchase.” Save in the beginnings of +western frontier trade, and in a great mass of litigation left to the +courts of later years by the curious and uncertain methods of land +delimitation that prevailed among the French and Spanish colonists, +the pre-American period of occupation has slight connexions +with the later period, and scant historical importance.</p> + +<p>From 1804 to 1812 what is now Arkansas was part of the +district (and then the territory) of Louisiana, and from 1812 to +1819 of the territory of Missouri. Its earliest county organizations +date from this time. It was erected successively into a +territory of the first and second class by acts of Congress of the +2nd of March 1819 and the 21st of April 1820. By act of the +15th of June 1836 it was admitted into the Union as a slave +state.</p> + +<p>There is little of general interest in the history of ante-bellum +days. Economic life centred in the slave plantation, and there +was remarkable development up to the Civil War. The decade +1819-1829 saw the first newspaper (1819), the beginning of steamboating +on Arkansas rivers, and the first weekly mail from the +east. Trade was largely confined to the rivers and freighting for +Sante Fé and Salt Lake before the war, but the first railway +entered the state in 1853. Social life was sluggish in some ways +and wild in others. An unhappy propensity to duelling, the +origin in Arkansas of the bowie-knife,—from an alleged use of +which Arkansas received the nickname, which it has always +retained, of the “toothpick state,”—and other backwoods +associations gave the state a reputation which to some extent has +survived in spite of many years of sober history. The questions +of the conduct of territorial affairs do not seem to have been +contested systematically on national party lines until about 1825. +The government of Arkansas before the Civil War was always in +the hands of a few families closely intermarried. From the +beginning the state has been unswervingly Democratic, save in +the Reconstruction years, though often with heavy Whig or +Republican minorities.</p> + +<p>In February 1861 the people of Arkansas voted to hold a +convention to consider the state of public affairs. The convention +assembled on the 4th of March. Secession resolutions were +defeated, and it was voted to submit to the people the question +whether there should be “co-operation” through the Lincoln +government, or “secession.” The plan was endorsed of holding +a convention of all the states to settle the slavery question, and +delegates were chosen to the proposed Border State Convention +that was to meet at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 27th of May. +Then came the fall of Fort Sumter and the proclamation of +President Lincoln calling for troops to put down rebellion. The +governor of Arkansas curtly refused its quota. A quick surge of +ill-feeling, all the bitterer on account of the divided sentiments +of the people, chilled loyalty to the Union. The convention reassembled +on call of the governor, and on the 6th of May, with a +single dissentient voice, passed an ordinance of secession. It +then repealed its former vote submitting the question of secession +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span> +to the people. On the 16th of May Arkansas became one of the +Confederate States of America.</p> + +<p>In the years of war that followed, a very large proportion +of the able-bodied men of the state served in the armies of the +Confederacy; several regiments, some of coloured troops, served +the Union. Union sentiment was strongest in the north. In +1862-1863 various victories threw more than half the state, +mainly the north and east, under the Federal arms. Accordingly, +under a proclamation of the president, citizens within the +conquered districts were authorized to renew allegiance to the +Union, and a special election was ordered for March 1864, to +reorganize the state government. But meanwhile, a convention +of delegates chosen mainly at polls opened at the army posts, +assembled in January 1864, abolished slavery, repudiated +secession and the secession war debt, and revised in minor details +the constitution of 1836, restricting the suffrage to whites. This +new fundamental law was promptly adopted by the people, <i>i.e.</i> +by its friends, who alone voted. But the representatives of +Arkansas under this constitution were never admitted to Congress.</p> + +<p>The Federal and Confederate forces controlled at this time +different parts of the state; there was some ebb and flow of +military fortune in 1864, and for a short time two rival governments. +Chaotic conditions followed the war. The fifteenth +legislature (April 1864 to April 1865) ratified the Thirteenth +Amendment, and passed laws against “bush-whacking,” a term +used in the Civil War for guerilla warfare, especially as carried +on by pretended neutrals. Local militia, protecting none who +refused to join in the common defence, and all serving “not as +soldiers but as farmers mutually pledged to protect each other +from the depredations of outlaws who infest the state,” strove +to secure such public order as was necessary to the gathering of +crops, so as “to prevent the starvation of the citizens” (governor’s +circular, 1865). Struggling in these difficulties, the government of +the state was upset by the first Reconstruction Act. The governor +in these years (1865-1868) was a Republican, the caster of the +single Union vote in the convention of 1861; but the sixteenth +legislature (1866-1867) was largely Democratic. It undertook +to determine the rights of persons of African descent, and regrettable +conflicts followed. The first Reconstruction Act having +declared that “no legal state government or adequate protection +for life or property” existed in the “rebel states,” Arkansas was +included in one of the military districts established by Congress. +A registration of voters, predominantly whites, was at once +carried through, and delegates were chosen for another constitutional +convention, which met at Little Rock in January 1868. +The secessionist element was voluntarily or perforce excluded. +This convention ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, and framed +the third constitution of the state, which was adopted by a small +majority at a popular election, marred by various irregularities, +in March 1868. By its provisions negroes secured full political +rights, and all whites who had been excluded from registration for +the election of delegates to the convention were now practically +stripped of political privileges. The organization of Arkansas +being now acceptable to Congress, a bill admitting it to the Union +was passed over President Johnson’s veto, and on the 22nd of +June 1868 the admission was consummated.</p> + +<p>Arkansas now became for several years Republican, and +suffered considerably from the rule of the “carpet-baggers.” +The debt of the state was increased about $9,375,000 from 1868 to +1874, largely for railroad and levee schemes; much of the money +was misappropriated, and in a case involving the payment of +railway aid bonds the action of the legislature in pledging the +credit of the state was held nugatory by the state supreme court +in 1875 on the ground that, contrary to the constitution, the bond +issue had never been referred to popular vote. An amendment +to the constitution approved by a popular vote in 1884 provided +that the General Assembly should “have no power to levy any +tax, or make any appropriation, to pay” any of the bonds issued +by legislative action in 1868, 1869 and 1871. The current expenses +of the state in the years of Reconstruction were also enormously +increased. The climax of the Reconstruction period was the so-called +Baxter-Brooks war.</p> + +<p>Elisha Baxter (1827-1899) was the regular Republican candidate +for governor in 1872. He was opposed by a disaffected +Republican faction known as “brindletails,” or as they called +themselves, “reformers,” led by Joseph Brooks (1821-1877), and +supported by the Democrats. Baxter was irregularly elected. +The election was contested, and his choice was confirmed by +the legislature, the court of last resort in such cases. He soon +showed a willingness to rule as a non-partisan, and favoured +the re-enfranchisement of white citizens. This would have +put the Democrats again in power, and they rallied to Baxter, +while the Brooks party now assumed the name of “regulars,” and +received the support of the “carpet-bag” and negro elements. +After Baxter had been a year in office Brooks received a +judgment of <i>ouster</i> against him from a state circuit judge, and +got possession of the public buildings (April 1874). The state +flew to arms. The legislature called for Federal intervention +(May 1874), and Federal troops maintained neutrality while +investigations were conducted by a committee sent out by +Congress. As a result, President Grant pronounced for Baxter, +and the Brooks forces disbanded.</p> + +<p>The chief result was another convention. In 1873 the article +of the constitution which had disfranchised the whites was +repealed, and the Democrats thus regained power. By an overwhelming +majority the people now voted for another convention, +which (July to October 1874) framed the present constitution. +It removed all disfranchisement, and embraced equitable amnesty +and exemption features. It also took away all patronage from +the governor, reduced his term to two years, forbade him to +proclaim martial law or suspend the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, and +abolished all registration laws: all these provisions being reflections +of Reconstruction struggles. The people ratified the new +constitution on the 13th of October 1874. After Reconstruction +the state again became Democratic, and the main interest +of its history has been the progress of economic development.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of +Arkansas:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc ptb1" colspan="3"><i>Territorial.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">James Miller<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td> <td class="tcc cl">1819-1825</td> <td class="tcc cl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Izard</td> <td class="tcc">1825-1828</td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">John Pope<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcc cl">1829-1835</td> <td class="tcc cl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William S. Fulton</td> <td class="tcc">1835-1836</td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc ptb1" colspan="3"><i>State.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">James S. Conway</td> <td class="tcc cl">1836-1840</td> <td class="tcc cl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Archibald Yell<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1840-1844</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Thomas S. Drew<a name="fa6l" id="fa6l" href="#ft6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcc cl">1844-1849</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John S. Roane</td> <td class="tcc">1849-1852</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Elias N. Conway</td> <td class="tcc cl">1852-1860</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry M. Rector<a name="fa7l" id="fa7l" href="#ft7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1860-1862</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Harris Flannigan<a name="fa8l" id="fa8l" href="#ft8l"><span class="sp">8</span></a></td> <td class="tcc cl">1862-1865</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Isaac Murphy<a name="fa9l" id="fa9l" href="#ft9l"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1864-1868</td> <td class="tcc">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">C.H. Smith<a name="fa10l" id="fa10l" href="#ft10l"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcc cl">1867-1868</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Powell Clayton</td> <td class="tcc">1868-1871</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ozra A. Hadley<a name="fa11l" id="fa11l" href="#ft11l"><span class="sp">11</span></a></td> <td class="tcc cl">1871-1873</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Elisha Baxter</td> <td class="tcc">1873-1874</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">August H. Garland</td> <td class="tcc cl">1874-1877</td> <td class="tcc cl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William R. Miller</td> <td class="tcc">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Thomas J. Churchill</td> <td class="tcc cl">1881-1883</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James H. Berry</td> <td class="tcc">1883-1885</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Simon P. Hughes</td> <td class="tcc cl">1885-1889</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James P. Eagle</td> <td class="tcc">1889-1893</td> <td class="tcc">” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">William M. Fishback</td> <td class="tcc cl">1893-1895</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James P. Clarke</td> <td class="tcc">1895-1897</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Daniel W. Jones</td> <td class="tcc cl">1897-1901</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jefferson Davis</td> <td class="tcc">1901-1907</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">John S. Little</td> <td class="tcc cl">1907-1908</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">X.O. Pindall, Acting Gov</td> <td class="tcc">1908    </td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">George W. Donaghey</td> <td class="tcc cl">1909    </td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed pt2"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Information regarding the resources, climate, +population and industries of Arkansas should be sought in the +volumes of the United States Census, United States Department of +Agriculture and the United States Geological Survey (for the last +two there are various bibliographical guides); consult also the +publications of the Arkansas (Agricultural) Experiment Station (at +Fayetteville), the reports of the state horticulturist, the biennial +reports of the state treasurer, of the auditor, and of the Bureau of +Mines, Manufactures and Agriculture (all published at Little Rock).</p> + +<p>The constitutional documents may best be consulted in the +latest compiled <i>Statutes</i> of the state. See also J.H. Shinn, <i>Education +in Arkansas</i> (U.S. Bur. of Education, 1900); W.F. Pope, <i>Early Days +in Arkansas</i> (Little Rock, 1895); and F. Hempstead, <i>Pictorial +History of Arkansas</i> (St Louis, 1890). Similar to the last in popular +character, vast in bulk and loose in method, are a series of <i>Biographical +and Pictorial Histories</i>, covering the different sections of the +state (1 vol. by J. Hallum, Albany, 1887; four others compiled +anonymously, Chicago, 1889-1891). For the Reconstruction period +see especially the Poland Report in House Rp. No. 2, 43 Cong. 2 +Sess., vol. i. (1874), and John M. Harrell’s <i>The Brooks and Baxter +War: A History of the Reconstruction Period in Arkansas</i> (St Louis, +Missouri, 1893), which is frankly in favour of Baxter; also a paper by +B.S. Johnson in vol. ii. (1908) of the <i>Publications of the Arkansas +Historical Association</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For 1906 the <i>Yearbook</i> of the U.S. Department of Agriculture +reported the following statistics for Arkansas:—Indian corn, +52,802,659 bu., valued at $24,817,207; oats 3,783,706 bu., valued +at $1,589,157; wheat, 1,915,250 bu., valued at $1,436,438; rice, +131,440 bu., valued at $111,724; rye, 23,652 bu., valued at $19,631; +potatoes, 1,666,960 bu., valued at $1,116,863; hay, 113,491 tons, +valued at $1,123,561.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The special census of the manufacturing industry for 1905 was +concerned only with the establishment conducted under the so-called +“factory system”; for purposes of comparison the figures +for 1900 have been reduced to the same standard, and this fact +should be borne in mind with regard to the percentages of increase +given above.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> During this period Robert Crittenden, the secretary of the +territory, was frequently the acting governor.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Robert Crittenden was acting governor in 1828-1829.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Samuel Adams was acting governor from the 29th of April to +the 9th of November 1844.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6l" id="ft6l" href="#fa6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> R.C. Byrd was acting governor from the 11th of January to the 19th of April 1849.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7l" id="ft7l" href="#fa7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Thomas Fletcher was acting governor from the 4th to the 15th +of November 1862.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8l" id="ft8l" href="#fa8l"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Confederate governor.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9l" id="ft9l" href="#fa9l"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Union governor.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10l" id="ft10l" href="#fa10l"><span class="fn">10</span></a> United States military (sub) governor.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11l" id="ft11l" href="#fa11l"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Acting governor.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARKANSAS CITY,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a city of Cowley county, Kansas, U.S.A., +situated near the S. boundary of the state, in the fork of the +Arkansas and Walnut rivers. Pop. (1890) 8347; (1900) 6140, +of whom 302 were negroes; (1905) 7634; (1910) 7508. The city +is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Missouri +Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland Valley and +the Kansas South-Western railways. To the south is the Chilocco +Indian school (in Key county, Oklahoma), established by the U.S. +government in 1884. A canal joining the Arkansas and Walnut +rivers furnishes good water power. The manufactories include flour +mills, packing establishments, a creamery and a paint factory. +The city is situated in the midst of a rich agricultural region and +is a supply centre for southern Kansas and Oklahoma, with large +jobbing interests. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. +Arkansas City, first known as Creswell, was settled in +1870, was chartered as a city under its present name in 1872 +and was rechartered in 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARKLOW,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a seaport and market town of Co. Wicklow, Ireland, +in the east parliamentary division, 49 m. S. of Dublin, by the +Dublin & South-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4944. Sea-fisheries +are prosecuted, and there are oyster-beds on the coast, +but the produce requires to be freed from a peculiar flavour by the +purer waters of the Welsh and English coast before it is fit for +food. The produce of the copper and lead mines of the Vale of +Avoca is shipped from the port. There are cordite and explosives +works, established by Messrs Kynoch of Birmingham, England. +In 1882 an act was passed providing for the improvement of +the harbour and for the appointment of harbour commissioners. +The town hall and the Protestant church (1899) were gifts of the +earl of Carysfort, in whose property the town is situated. There +are slight ruins of an ancient castle of the Ormondes, demolished in +1649 by Cromwell. On the 9th of June 1798 the Irish insurgents, +attacking the town, were defeated by the royal troops near Arklow +Bridge, and their leader, Father Michael Murphy, was killed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1732-1792), English inventor, +was born at Preston in Lancashire, on the 23rd of December 1732, +of parents in humble circumstances. He was the youngest of +thirteen children, and received but a very indifferent education. +After serving his apprenticeship in his native town, he established +himself as a barber at Bolton about 1750, and later amassed a +little property from dealing in human hair and dyeing it by a +process of his own. This business he gave up about 1767 in order +to devote himself to the construction of the spinning frame. The +spinning jenny, which was patented by James Hargreaves +(d. 1778), a carpenter of Blackburn, Lancashire, in 1770, though +he had invented it some years earlier, gave the means of spinning +twenty or thirty threads at once with no more labour than had +previously been required to spin a single thread. The thread +spun by the jenny could not, however, be used except as weft, +being destitute of the firmness or hardness required in the +longitudinal threads or warp. Arkwright supplied this deficiency +by the invention of the spinning-frame, which spins a vast number +of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness.</p> + +<p>The precise date of the invention is not known; but in 1767 he +employed John Kay, a watchmaker at Warrington, to assist him +in the preparation of the parts of his machine, and he took out a +patent for it in 1769. The first model was set up in the parlour +of the house belonging to the free grammar school at Preston. +This invention having been brought to a fairly advanced stage, +he removed to Nottingham in 1768, accompanied by Kay and +John Smalley of Preston, and there erected his first spinning +mill, which was worked by horses. But his operations were at +first greatly fettered by want of capital, until Jedediah Strutt +(<i>q.v.</i>), having satisfied himself of the value of the machines, entered +with his partner, Samuel Need, into partnership with him, and +enabled him in 1771 to build a second factory, on a much larger +scale, at Cromford in Derbyshire, the machinery of which was +turned by a water-wheel. A fresh patent, taken out in 1775, +covered several additional improvements in the processes of +carding, roving and spinning. As the value of his processes +became known, he began to be troubled with infringements of his +patents, and in 1781 he took action in the courts to vindicate his +rights. In the first case, against Colonel Mordaunt, who was +supported by a combination of manufacturers, the decision was +unfavourable to him, on the sole ground that the description of +the machinery in the specification was obscure and indistinct. In +consequence he prepared a “case,” which he at one time intended +to lay before parliament, as the foundation of an application for +an act for relief. But this intention was subsequently abandoned; +and in a new trial (<i>Arkwright</i> v. <i>Nightingale</i>) in February 1785, +the presiding judge having expressed himself favourably with +respect to the sufficiency of the specification, a verdict was given +for Arkwright. On this, as on the former trial, nothing was +stated against the originality of the invention.</p> + +<p>In consequence of these conflicting verdicts, the whole matter +was brought, by a writ of <i>scire facias</i>, before the court of King’s +Bench, to have the validity of the patent finally settled, and it +was not till this third trial, which took place in June 1785, that +Arkwright’s claim to the inventions which formed the subject +of the patent was disputed. To support this new allegation, +Arkwright’s opponents brought forward, for the first time, +Thomas Highs, or Hayes, a reed-maker at Bolton, who stated +that he had invented a machine for spinning by rollers previously +to 1768, and that he had employed the watchmaker Kay to make +a model of that machine. Kay himself was produced to prove +that he had communicated that model to Arkwright, and that +this was the real source of all his pretended inventions. Having +no idea that any attempt was to be made to overturn the patent +on this new ground, Arkwright’s counsel were not prepared with +evidence to repel this statement, and the verdict went against +him. On a motion for a new trial on the 10th of November of +the same year it was stated that he was furnished with affidavits +contradicting the evidence that had been given by Kay and +others with respect to the originality of the invention; but the +court refused to grant a new trial, on the ground that, whatever +might be the fact as to the question of originality, the +deficiency in the specification was enough to sustain the verdict, +and the cancellation of the patents was ordered a few days +afterwards. His fortunes, however, were not thereby seriously +affected, for by this time his business capacity and organizing +skill had enabled him to consolidate his position, in spite of the +difficulties he had encountered not only from rival manufacturers +but also from the working classes, who in 1779 displayed their +antipathy to labour-saving appliances by destroying a large mill +he had erected near Chorley.</p> + +<p>Though a man of great personal strength, Arkwright never +enjoyed good health, and throughout his career of invention and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span> +discovery he laboured under a severe asthmatic affection. A +complication of disorders at length terminated his life on the 3rd +of August 1792, at his works at Cromford. He was knighted in +1786 when he presented a congratulatory address from the +wapentake of Wirksworth to George III., on his escape from the +attempt on his life by Margaret Nicholson.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARLES,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, 54 m. N.W. +of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 16,191. A canal unites Arles +with the harbour of Bouc on the Mediterranean. Arles stands on +the left bank of the Rhone, just below the point at which the river +divides to form its delta. A tubular bridge unites it with the +suburb of Trinquetaille on the opposite bank. The town is +hemmed in on the east by the railway line from Lyons to +Marseilles, on the south by the Canal de Craponne. Its streets +are narrow and irregular, and, away from the promenades which +border it on the south, there is little animation. In the centre +of the town stand the Place de la République, a spacious square +overlooked by the hôtel de ville, the museum, and the old +cathedral of St Trophime, the finest Romanesque church in +Provence. Founded in the 7th century, St Trophime has been +several times rebuilt, and was restored in 1870. Its chief portal, +which dates from the 12th century, is a masterpiece of graceful +arrangement and rich carving. The interior, plain in itself, +contains interesting sculpture. The choir opens into a beautiful +cloister, the massive vaulting of which is supported on heavy +piers adorned with statuary, between which intervene slender +columns arranged in pairs and surmounted by delicately carved +capitals. Two of the galleries are Romanesque, while two +are Gothic. Arles has two other churches of the Romanesque +period, and others of later date. The hôtel de ville, a building +of the 17th century, contains the library. Its clock tower, +surmounted by a statue of Mars, dates from the previous century. +The museum, occupying an old Gothic church, is particularly +rich in Roman remains and in early Christian sarcophagi; there +is also a museum of Provençal curiosities. The tribunal of +commerce and the communal college are the chief public institutions. +Arles is not a busy town and its port is of little importance. +There are, however, flour mills, oil and soap works, and the +Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée Railway Company have large workshops. +Sheep-breeding is a considerable industry in the vicinity. +The women of Arles have long enjoyed a reputation for marked +beauty, but the distinctive type is fast disappearing owing to their +intermarriage with strangers who have immigrated to the town.</p> + +<p>Arles still possesses many monuments of Roman architecture +and art, the most remarkable being the ruins of an amphitheatre +(the <i>Arénes</i>), capable of containing 25,000 spectators, which, in +the 11th and 12th centuries, was flanked with massive towers, +of which three are still standing. There are also a theatre, in +which, besides the famous Venus of Arles, discovered in 1651, +many other remains have been found; an ancient obelisk of +a single block, 47 ft. high, standing since 1676 in the Place de +la République; the ruins of the palace of Constantine, the +forum, the thermae and the remains of the Roman ramparts +and of aqueducts. There is, besides, a Roman cemetery known +as the Aliscamps (<i>Elysii Campi</i>), consisting of a short avenue +once bordered by tombs, of which a few still remain.</p> + +<p>The ancient town, <i>Arelate</i>, was an important place at the +time of the invasion of Julius Caesar, who made it a settlement +for his veterans. It was pillaged in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 270, but restored and +embellished by Constantine, who made it his principal residence, +and founded what is now the suburb of Trinquetaille. Under +Honorius, it became the seat of the prefecture of the Gauls and +one of the foremost cities in the western empire. Its bishopric +founded by St Trophimus in the 1st century, was in the +5th century the primatial see of Gaul; it was suppressed in +1790. After the fall of the Roman empire the city passed into +the power of the Visigoths, and rapidly declined. It was +plundered in 730 by the Saracens, but in the 10th century became +the capital of the kingdom of Arles (see below). In the 12th +century it was a free city, governed by a <i>podesta</i> and <i>consuls</i> +after the model of the Italian republics, which it also emulated in +commerce and navigation. In 1251 it submitted to Charles I. +of Anjou, and from that time onwards followed the fortunes of +Provence. A number of ecclesiastical synods have been held at +Arles, as in 314 (see below), 354, 452 and 475.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See V. Clair, <i>Monuments d’Arles</i> (1837); J.J. Estrangin, <i>Description +de la ville d’Arles</i> (1845); F. Beissier, <i>Le Pays d’Arles</i> (1889); Roger +Peyre, <i>Nîmes, Arles, Orange</i> (1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Tr.)</div> + +<p><i>Synod of Arles (314).</i>—As negotiations held at Rome in October +313 had failed to settle the dispute between the Catholics and the +Donatists, the emperor Constantine summoned the first general +council of his western half of the empire to meet at Arles by the +1st of August following. The attempt of Seeck to date the synod +316 presupposes that the emperor was present in person, which is +highly improbable. Thirty-three bishops are included in the most +authentic list of signatures, among them three from Britain,—York, +London and “Colonia Londinensium” (probably a corruption +of Lindensium, or Lincoln, rather than of Legionensium or +Caerleon-On-Usk). The twenty-two canons deal chiefly with the +discipline of clergy and people. Husbands of adulterous wives are +advised not to remarry during the lifetime of the guilty party. +Reiteration of baptism in the name of the Trinity is forbidden. +For the consecration of a bishop at least three bishops are +required. It is noteworthy that British representatives assented +to Canon I., providing that Easter be everywhere celebrated +on the same day: the later divergence between Rome and the +Celtic church is due to improvements in the <i>supputatio Romana</i> +adopted at Rome in 343 and subsequently.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the canons see Mansi ii. 471 ff.; Bruns ii. 107 ff.; Lauchert +26 ff. See also W. Smith and S. Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of Christian +Antiquities</i> (Boston, 1875), i. 141 ff. (contains also notices of later +synods at Arles); W. Bright, <i>Chapters of Early English Church +History</i> (2nd edition, Oxford, 1888), 9 f.; Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopadie</i> (3rd edition), ii. 59, x. 238 ff.; W. Moller, <i>Kirchengeschichte</i> +(2nd edition by H. von Schubert, Tubingen, 1902), i. 417. For full +titles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Council</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARLES,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> <span class="sc">Kingdom of</span>, the name given to the kingdom formed +about 933 by the union of the old kingdoms of Provence (<i>q.v.</i>) +or Cisjurane Burgundy, and Burgundy (<i>q.v.</i>) Transjurane, and +bequeathed in 1032 by its last sovereign, Rudolph III., to the +emperor Conrad II. It comprised the countship of Burgundy +(<i>Franche-Comté</i>), part of which is now Switzerland (the dioceses +of Geneva, Lausanne, Sion and part of that of Basel), the +Lyonnais, and the whole of the territory bounded by the Alps, +the Mediterranean and the Rhone; on the right bank of the +Rhone it further included the Vivarais. It is only after the end +of the 12th century that the name “kingdom of Arles” is applied +to this district; formerly it was known generally as the kingdom +of Burgundy, but under the Empire the name of Burgundy came +to be limited more and more to the countship of Burgundy, and +the districts lying beyond the Jura. The authority of Rudolph +III. over the chief lords of the land, the count of Burgundy and +the count of Maurienne, founder of the house of Savoy, was +already merely nominal, and the Franconian emperors (1039-1125), +whose visits to the country were rare and of short duration, +did not establish their power any more firmly. During the first +fifty years of their domination they could rely on the support of +the ecclesiastical feudatories, who generally favoured their cause, +but the investiture struggle, in which the prelates of the kingdom +of Arles mostly sided with the pope, deprived the Germanic +sovereigns even of this support. The emperors, on the other +hand, realized early that their absence from the country was a +grave source of weakness; in 1043 Henry III. conferred on +Rudolph, count of Rheinfelden (afterwards duke of Swabia), the +title of <i>dux et rector Burgundiae</i>, giving him authority over the +barons of the northern part of the kingdom of Arles. Towards +the middle of the 12th century Lothair II. revived this system, +conferring the rectorate on Conrad of Zähringen, in whose family +it remained hereditary up to the death of the last representative +of the house, Berthold V., in 1218; and it was the lords of +Zähringen who were foremost in defending the cause of the +Empire against its chief adversaries, the counts of Burgundy. +In the time of the Swabian emperors, the Germanic sovereignty +in the kingdom of Arles was again, during almost the whole period, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span> +merely nominal, and it was only in consequence of fortuitous +circumstances that certain of the heads of the Empire were able +to exercise a real authority in these parts. Frederick I., by his +marriage with Beatrix (1156), had become uncontested master +of the countship of Burgundy; Frederick II., who was more +powerful in Italy than his predecessors had been, and was extending +his activities into the countries of the Levant, found Provence +more accessible to his influence, thanks to the commercial +relations existing between the great cities of this country and +Italy and the East. Moreover, the heretics and enemies of the +church, who were numerous in the south, upheld the emperor in +his struggle against the pope. Henry VII. also, thanks to his +good relations with the princes of Savoy, succeeded in exercising +a certain influence over a part of the kingdom of Arles. The +emperors further tried to make their power more effective by +delegating it, first to a viceroy, William of Baux, prince of +Orange (1215), then to an imperial vicar, William of Montferrat +(1220), who was succeeded by Henry of Revello and William of +Manupello. In spite of this, the history of the kingdom of Arles +in the 13th century, and still more in the 14th, is distinguished +particularly by the decline of the imperial authority and the +progress of French influence in the country. In 1246 the +marriage of Charles, the brother of Saint Louis, with Beatrice, +the heiress to the countship of Provence, caused Provence to pass +into the hands of the house of Anjou, and many plans were made +to win the whole of the kingdom for a prince of this house. At +the beginning of the 14th century the bishops of Lyons and +Viviers recognized the suzerainty of the king of France, and in +1343 Humbert II., dauphin of Viennois, made a compact with +the French king Philip VI. that on his death his inheritance +should pass to a son or a grandson of the French king. Humbert, +who was perhaps the most powerful noble in Arles, was induced +to take this step as he had just lost his only son, and Philip had +already cast covetous eyes on his lands. Then in 1349, being in +want of money, he agreed to sell his possessions outright, and thus +Viennois, or Dauphiné, passed into the hands of Philip’s grandson, +afterwards King Charles V. The emperor Charles IV. took +an active part in the affairs of the kingdom, but without any +consistent policy, and in 1378 he, in turn, ceded the imperial vicariate +of the kingdom to the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VI. +This date may be taken as marking the end of the history of the +kingdom of Arles, considered as an independent territorial area.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the monumental work of P. Fournier, <i>Le Royaume d’Arles et de +Vienne</i> (Paris, 1890); Leroux, <i>Recherches critiques sur les relations +politiques de la France avec l’Allemagne de 1292 à 1378</i> (Paris, 1882). +For the early history of the kingdom, L. Jacob, <i>Le Royaume de Bourgogne +sous les empereurs franconiens</i> (<i>1038-1129</i>), (Paris, 1906). The +question of the nature and extent of the rights of the Empire over the +kingdom of Arles has given rise, ever since the 16th century, to +numerous juridical polemics; the chief dissertations published on +this subject are indicated in A. Leroux, <i>Bibliographie des conflits +entre la France et l’Empire</i> (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Po.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARLINGTON, HENRY BENNET,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1618-1685), +English statesman, son of Sir John Bennet of Dawley, Middlesex, +and of Dorothy Crofts, was baptized at Little Saxham, Suffolk, +in 1618, and was educated at Westminster school and Christ +Church, Oxford. He gained some distinction as a scholar and a +poet, and was originally destined for holy orders. In 1643 he +was secretary to Lord Digby at Oxford, and was employed as +a messenger between the queen and Ormonde in Ireland. Subsequently +he took up arms for the king, and received a wound in the +skirmish at Andover in 1644, the scar of which remained on his +face through life.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> And after the defeat of the royal cause he +travelled in France and Italy, joined the exiled royal family in +1650, and in 1654 became official secretary to James on Charles’s +recommendation, who had already been attracted by his +“pleasant and agreeable humour.”<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In March 1657 he was +knighted, and the same year was sent as Charles’s agent to Madrid, +where he remained, endeavouring to obtain assistance for the +royal cause, till after the Restoration. On his return to England +in 1661 he was made keeper of the privy purse, and became the +prime favourite. One of his duties was the procuring and +management of the royal mistresses, in which his success gained +him great credit. Allying himself with Lady Castlemaine, he +encouraged Charles’s increasing dislike to Clarendon; and he +was made secretary of state in October 1662 in spite of the opposition +of Clarendon, who had to find him a seat in parliament. He +represented Callington from 1661 till 1665, but appears never +to have taken part in debate. He served subsequently on the +committees for explaining the Irish Act of Settlement and for +Tangiers. In 1663 he obtained a peerage as Baron Arlington of +Arlington, or Harlington, in Middlesex, and in 1667 was appointed +one of the postmasters-general. The control of foreign affairs was +entrusted to him, and he was chiefly responsible for the attack +on the Smyrna fleet and for the first Dutch War. In 1665 he +advised Charles to grant liberty of conscience, but this was merely +a concession to gain money during the war; and he showed great +activity later in oppressing the nonconformists. On the death of +Southampton, whose administration he had attacked, his great +ambition, the treasurership, was not satisfied; and on the fall of +Clarendon, against whom he had intrigued, he did not, though +becoming a member of the Cabal ministry, obtain the supreme +influence which he had expected; for Buckingham first shared, +and soon surpassed him, in the royal favour. With Buckingham +a sharp rivalry sprang up, and they only combined forces when +endeavouring to bring about some evil measure, such as the ruin +of the great Ormonde, who was an opponent of their policy and +their schemes. Another object of jealousy to Arlington was Sir +William Temple, who achieved a great popular success in 1668 +by the conclusion of the Triple Alliance; Arlington endeavoured +to procure his removal to Madrid, and entered with alacrity into +Charles’s plans for destroying the whole policy embodied in the +treaty, and for making terms with France. He refused a bribe +from Louis XIV., but allowed his wife to accept a gift of 10,000 +crowns;<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> in 1670 he was the only minister besides the Roman +Catholic Clifford to whom the first secret treaty of Dover (May +1670), one clause of which provided for Charles’s declaration of +his conversion to Romanism, was confided (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles II</a></span>.); +and he was the chief actor in the deception practised upon the rest +of the council.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> He supported several other pernicious measures—the +scheme for rendering the king’s power absolute by force of +arms; the “stop of the exchequer,” involving a repudiation of +the state debt in 1672; and the declaration of indulgence the +same year, “that we might keep all quiet at home whilst we are +busy abroad.”<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> On the 22nd of April 1672 he was created an +earl, and on the 13th of June obtained the Garter; the same +month he proceeded with Buckingham on a mission, first to +William at the Hague, and afterwards to Louis at Utrecht, +endeavouring to force upon the Dutch terms of peace which were +indignantly refused. But Arlington’s support of the court policy +was entirely subordinate to personal interests; and after the +appointment of Clifford in November 1672 to the treasurership, +his jealousy and mortification, together with his alarm at the +violent opposition aroused in parliament, caused him to veer +over to the other side. He advised Charles in March 1673 to +submit the legality of the declaration of indulgence to the House +of Lords, and supported the Test Act of the same year, which +compelled Clifford to resign. He joined the Dutch party, and in +order to make his peace with his new allies, disclosed the secret +treaty of Dover to the staunch Protestants Ormonde and +Shaftesbury.<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Arlington had, however, lost the confidence of all +parties, and these efforts to procure support met with little +success. On the 15th of January 1674 he was impeached by the +Commons, the specific charges being “popery,” corruption and +the betrayal of his trust—Buckingham in his own defence having +accused him the day before of being the chief instigator of the +French and anti-Protestant policy, of the scheme of governing by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span> +the army, of responsibility for the Dutch War, and of +embezzlement. But the motion for his removal, owing chiefly to the +influence of his brother-in-law, the popular Lord Ossory, was +rejected by 166 votes to 127. His escape could not, however, +prevent his fall, and he resigned the secretaryship on the 11th of +September 1674, being appointed lord chamberlain instead. +In 1675 he made another attempt to gain favour with the parliament +by supporting measures against France and against the +Roman Catholics, and by joining in the pressure put upon Charles +to remove James from the court. In November he went on a +mission to the Hague, with the popular objects of effecting a +peace and of concluding an alliance with William and James’s +daughter Mary. In this he entirely failed, and he returned home +completely discredited. He had again been disappointed of the +treasurership when Danby succeeded Clifford; Charles having +declared “that he had too much kindness for him to let him have +it, for he was not fit for the office.”<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> His intrigues with discontented +persons in parliament to stir up an opposition to his +successful rival came to nothing. From this time, though +lingering on at court, he possessed no influence, and was treated +with scanty respect. It was safe to ridicule his person and +behaviour, and it became a common jest for “some courtier to put +a black patch upon his nose and strut about with a white staff in +his hand in order to make the king merry at his expense.”<a name="fa8m" id="fa8m" href="#ft8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +He was appointed a commissioner of the treasury in March 1679, +was included in Sir William Temple’s new modelled council the +same year, and was a member of the inner cabinet which was +almost immediately formed. In 1681 he was made lord lieutenant +of Suffolk. He died on the 28th of July 1685, and was buried at +Euston, where he had bought a large estate and had carried out +extensive building operations. His residence in London was Goring +House, on the site of which was built the present Arlington Street.</p> + +<p>Arlington was a typical statesman of the Restoration, possessing +outwardly an attractive personality, and according to Sir +W. Temple “the greatest skill of court and the best turns of art +in particular conversation,”<a name="fa9m" id="fa9m" href="#ft9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> but thoroughly unscrupulous and +self-seeking, without a spark of patriotism, faithless even to a +bad cause, and regarding public office solely as a means of +procuring pleasure and profit. His knowledge of foreign affairs +and of foreign languages, gained during his residence abroad, +was considerable, but long absence from England had also taught +him a cosmopolitan indifference to constitutions and religions, +and a careless disregard for English public opinion and the +essential interests of the country. According to Clarendon, he +“knew no more of the constitution and laws of England than he +did of China, nor had he in truth a care or tenderness for church +or state, but believed France was the best pattern in the world.”<a name="fa10m" id="fa10m" href="#ft10m"><span class="sp">10</span></a> +He was one of the chief promoters of the attempt to reintroduce +into England arbitrary government after the French model, not +because he imagined an absolute monarchy essential to the +well-being and security of the state, but because under such an +administration the favourites of a king enjoyed far greater privileges and +profits than under a constitutional government. Of the same +egotistical character was his religion, towards which his +attitude was similar to that of Charles II. himself. He was credited +with having inclined the king towards Romanism. Before the +Restoration he had attended mass with the king abroad, and in +opposition to Lord Bristol had urged Charles to declare publicly +his conversion in order to obtain the long-expected succour from +the foreign powers. But his religion sat lightly upon him as it +did upon his master, and it was often convenient to disguise it. +Like the king he continued to profess and practise Protestantism, +and spent large sums in restoring the church at Euston; and, +unlike Clifford, he took the Test in 1673 and remained in office, +successfully concealing his faith till on his deathbed, when he +declared himself an adherent of Roman Catholicism.<a name="fa11m" id="fa11m" href="#ft11m"><span class="sp">11</span></a></p> + +<p>He married Isabella of Beerwaert, daughter of Louis of Nassau, +by whom he had one daughter, Isabella, who married Henry, +duke of Grafton, the natural son of Charles II. and Lady +Castlemaine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—In addition to those mentioned above, see +<i>Biographia Britannica</i> (Kippis), accurate and careful, but too partial, +and written without complete knowledge of Arlington’s career; +Wood’s <i>Fasti Oxonienses</i> (Bliss), ii. 274; <i>Hist. of Great Britain</i> by +J. Macpherson (1776), i. 132-133; <i>Lauderdale Papers</i> (Camden Soc. +N.S., vols. 34, 36, 38), and MSS. in Brit. Mus.; <i>Original Letters of +Sir R. Fanshaw</i> (1724); <i>Letters from the Secretaries of State to Francis +Parry</i> (1817); <i>Add. MSS. Brit. Mus.</i> indexes; <i>Cat. of State Pap. +Dom.</i>, and <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.—MSS. of Marquis of Ormonde, and +Duke of Buccleugh at Montagu House</i>, ii. 49.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See his portrait in the earl of Arlington’s <i>Letters to Sir W. +Temple</i>, by Tho. Babington (1701).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Clarendon’s <i>Life and Continuation</i>, 397.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland</i>, by Sir John Dalrymple +(1790), i. 125.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> 114 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Arlington to Sir B. Gascoyn, in J.T. Brown’s <i>Miscellanea Aulica</i> +(1702), 66.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> On the authority of Colbert, 20th November 1673; Dalrymple’s +<i>Memoirs</i>, i. 131.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> James’s statement in Macpherson’s <i>Orig. Pap.</i> i. 67.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8m" id="ft8m" href="#fa8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Eachard’s <i>History of England</i> (1720), 911.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9m" id="ft9m" href="#fa9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Memoirs of W. Temple</i>, ed. by T.P. Courtenay, ii. 27.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10m" id="ft10m" href="#fa10m"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Life and Con.</i> 404.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11m" id="ft11m" href="#fa11m"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Cf. North’s <i>Examen</i>, 26; Dalrymple’s <i>Mem.</i> (1790) i. 40; +Pepys’s <i>Diary</i> (Feb. 17, 1663); +<i>Cat. of Clarendon St. Pap.</i> iii. 295; +T. Carte’s <i>Life of the Duke of Ormonde</i> (1851), iv. 109.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARLINGTON,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a township of Middlesex county in E. +Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 5629; (1900) 8603, of whom +2387 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,187. Area, 5½ sq. m. +It is served by the Boston & Maine railway. It has pleasant +residential villages (Arlington, Arlington Heights, &c.) with +attractive environs, and there is an excellent public library (the +Robbins library). At Arlington Heights there are several well-known +sanatoriums. Spy Pond (about 100 acres) is one of the +prettiest bodies of water in the vicinity of Boston. Arlington is +an important centre for market-gardening (in hot-houses), and +along Mill Brook, in the township, are several factories, including +chrome works, a large mill and a manufactory of pianoforte +cases. In 1762 Arlington was made a “precinct” of Cambridge +(of which it was a part from 1635 to 1807) under the name of +Menotomy. In 1807 it became a separate township under the +name (retained until 1867) of West Cambridge.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. and W.R. Cutter, <i>History of the Town of Arlington ... 1637-1879</i> +(Boston, 1880); and C.S. Parker, <i>The Town of Arlington, Past +and Present</i> (Arlington, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARLON,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> the chief town of the Belgian province of Luxemburg, +situated on a hill about 1240 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1904) +10,894. It is a very ancient town, and in the time of the Romans +was called Orolaunum, being a station on the Antoninian way +connecting Reims and Trèves. Authorities dispute as to the +origin of the name, some tracing it to <i>Ara Lunae</i>, a temple of +Diana having been erected here, while others more plausibly +derive it from the Celtic words <i>ar</i> (mount) and <i>lun</i> (wooded). +Nowadays the woods have disappeared, and Arlon is chiefly +notable for the extensive views obtainable from the church of St +Donat which crowns the peak. Arlon is no longer fortified. +When Vauban by order of Louis XIV. turned it into a fortress +in 1671 great damage was done to the old Roman wall, the foundations +of which were practically intact. In the local museum +are many Roman antiquities collected on the spot, including +several large sculptural stones similar to the celebrated monument +at Igel near Trèves. In the middle ages Arlon was the seat of +a powerful countship (later marquisate), held after 1235 by the +dukes of Luxemburg. As an important strategic position it was +several times seized by the French, <i>e.g.</i> in 1647 and 1651.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARM<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is +<i>ar</i>, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. <i>armus</i>, shoulder, and the plural word +<i>arma</i>, weapons, Gr. <span class="grk" title="armos">ἁρμός</span>, joint, and the reduplicated <span class="grk" title="arariskein">ἀραρίσκειν</span>, +to join), the human upper limb from the shoulder to the wrist, +and the fore limb of an animal. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>Superficial and +Artistic</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skeleton</a></span>: <i>Appendicular.</i>) The word is also used of +any projecting limb, as of a crane, or balance, of a branch of a +tree, and so, in a transferred sense, of the branch of a river or +a nerve. Through the Fr. <i>armes</i>, from the Lat. <i>arma</i>, and so in +English usually in the plural “arms,” comes the use of the word +for weapons of offence and defence, and in many expressions such +as “men-at-arms,” “assault-at-arms,” and the like, and for the +various branches, artillery, cavalry, infantry, of which an army +is composed, the “arms of the service.” “Arms” or “armorial +bearings” are the heraldic devices displayed by knights in battle +on the defensive armour or embroidered on the surcoat worn over +the armour and hence called “coats of arms.” These became +hereditary and thus are borne by families, and similar insignia are +used by nations, cities, episcopal sees and corporations generally. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMADA, THE.<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> The Spanish or Invincible Armada was the +great fleet (in Spanish, <i>armada</i>) sent against England by Philip II. +in 1588. The marquis of Santa Cruz, to whom the command had +first been given, died on the 9th of February 1588 (according to +the Gregorian calendar then used by Spain; on the 31st of +January by the Julian calendar used in England; the other dates +given in this article will be in Old Style, or Julian calendar). +Santa Cruz was succeeded by Don Alonso Perez de Guzman, duke +of Medina Sidonia, a noble of large estate, but of no experience or +capacity, who took the command unwillingly, and only on the +reiterated order of the king. The fleet was collected at Lisbon, +after many delays, and sailed on the 20th of May 1588. Its +nominal strength was 132 vessels, of 59,190 tons, carrying 21,621 +soldiers and 8066 sailors. But from a third to a half of the +vessels were transports, galleys or very small boats, and some +of them never reached the Channel. The effective force was +far below the paper strength. On the 10th of June, when the +Armada had rounded Cape Finisterre, it was scattered by squalls. +Some of the vessels went on to the appointed rendezvous at the +Scilly Isles, but the majority anchored on the north coast of +Spain. Medina Sidonia, who found many defects in his fleet, did +not finally sail till the 12th of July. On the English side all the +royal navy, and such armed merchant ships as could be obtained +from the ports, had been collected under the command of the +lord high admiral Howard of Effingham, who had with him +Hawkins, Drake and Frobisher as subordinate admirals. The +number of vessels is put at 197, but the majority were very small. +It is impossible to state with confidence what were the relative +numbers of guns carried by the two fleets. The Spaniards had +more pieces, but their gunnery was inferior. The English fleet +carried 16,000 or 17,000 men, of whom the large majority were +sailors. About 100 of their ships were at Plymouth with the +lord high admiral. The others were in the Downs with Lord +Henry Seymour and Sir William Winter, to co-operate with a +Dutch squadron under Justinus of Nassau in blockading the +Flemish ports, then occupied by the Spanish army of the duke of +Parma. The object was to prevent the proposed junction of the +forces of Medina Sidonia and Parma. On the 20th of July the +Armada was seen off the Lizard. It sailed past Plymouth, and +was followed by the English fleet. The Spaniards, who were +heavy sailers, and were hampered by the transports, were much +harassed by the more active English, and were defeated in all their +attempts to board, which it was their wish to do in order to make +use of their superior numbers of men. The flagship of the +squadron of Andalucia, “Nuestra Señora del Rosario,” commanded +by Don Pedro de Valdes, was crippled, fell behind and +had to surrender. On the 25th of July, when the fleets were near +the Isle of Wight, a shift of the wind offered the Spaniards a +chance of bringing on a close action, but it soon changed again. +The English fleet, of which part had been in some danger, escaped +uninjured, and the Spaniards stood on. They anchored on the +26th of July at Calais. The duke of Medina Sidonia now sent an +officer to Parma, calling on him to come to sea and join in a +landing on the shore of England. But Parma could not leave +port in face of Justinus of Nassau’s squadron. While these +messages were going and coming, Lord Howard had been joined +by Lord Henry Seymour and Sir William Winter from the +Downs. A council of war was held, to decide on the measures to +be taken to assail the Spaniards at Calais. The course taken was +to send fireships among them. On the night of the 28th of July +the fireships were sent in, and produced an utter panic in the +Armada. Most of the Spanish vessels slipped their cables and +ran to sea. Others weighed anchor, and escaped in a more +orderly style. One great vessel ran ashore and was taken +possession of by the English, who were however compelled to +give her up by the French governor of Calais. On the 29th of +July the scattered Spaniards, who were quite unable to restore +order, were attacked by the English off Gravelines. The engagement +was hot, and, though the English did not succeed in taking +any of the Spaniards, they destroyed some of them, and their +superiority in sailing force and gunnery was now so obvious that +the duke of Medina Sidonia lost heart. His large vessels were +indeed so helpless that only a timely shift of the wind saved many +of them from drifting on to the banks of Flanders. Officers and +men alike were completely discouraged. It was now recognized +that an invasion of England could not be carried out in face of the +more active English fleet and the proved impossibility of bringing +about the proposed union with Parma’s army. Suggestions were +made that the Armada should sail to Hamburg, refit there, and +renew the attack. But by this time the Spanish force was +incapable of energetic action. Medina Sidonia and his council +could think of nothing but of a return to Spain. As the wind +was westerly, and the English fleet barred the way, it was +impossible to sail down the Channel. The only alternative was to +take the route between the north of Scotland and Norway. So +the Armada sailed to the north. Lord Howard followed, after +detaching Lord Henry Seymour to remain in the Downs. He +watched the Spaniards to the Firth of Forth. The English had +at that time little knowledge of the seas beyond the Firth, and +they were beginning to run short of food and ammunition. On +the 2nd of August, therefore, they gave up the pursuit. Medina +Sidonia continued to the north, till his pilots told him that it was +safe to turn to the west. Up to this time the loss of the Spaniards +in ships had not been considerable. If the weather had been that +of a normal summer, they would probably have reached home +with no greater loss of men than was usually inflicted on all fleets +of the age by scurvy and fever. But the summer of 1588 was +marked by a succession of gales of unprecedented violence. The +damaged and weakened Spanish ships, which were from the first +greatly undermanned in sailors, were unable to contend with the +storms. It is not possible to give the details of the disasters +which overtook them. Nineteen of them are known to have +been wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. The +crews who fell into the hands of the English officers in Ireland +were put to the sword. Many more of them disappeared at sea. +Of the total number of the vessels originally collected for the +invasion of England one-half, if not more, perished, and the +crews of those which escaped were terribly diminished by scurvy +and starvation.</p> + +<p>The failure of the Armada was mainly due to its own interior +weakness, and as a military operation the English victory was +less glorious than some other less renowned achievements of the +British fleet. But the repulse of the great Spanish armament was +an event of the first historical importance. It marked the final +failure of King Philip II. of Spain to establish the supremacy +of the Habsburg dynasty and of the Church of Rome, which he +considered as being in a peculiar sense his charge, in Europe. +From that time forward no serious attempt to invade England +was, or could be, made. It became therefore the unconquerable +supporter of that part of Europe which had thrown off the +authority of the pope. The Armada had much of the character +of a crusade. Though Philip II. had political reasons for +hostility to Queen Elizabeth, they were so intimately bound +up with the struggle between the Reformation and the Counter +Reformation that the secular and the religious elements of the +conflict cannot be separated from one another. The struggle +was therefore not one between armed forces in national rivalry +alone. It was a trial of strength between two widely different +conceptions of life and of the state—between the medieval and +the modern worlds. The volunteers of all ranks who came +forward in large numbers on both sides were fighting for a +religious cause as well as for the interests of their respective +peoples.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The English side of the story of the Armada can +best be studied in the <i>State Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish +Armada</i>, edited by Sir J.K. Laughton, and printed for the Navy +Records Society (London, 1894). The Spanish side will be found in +<i>La Armada Invencible</i>, by Captain Cesareo Fernandez Duro (Madrid, +1884). Froude summarized the work of Captain Fernandez Duro in +his brilliant <i>Spanish Story of the Armada</i> (London, 1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMADILLO,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the Spanish designation for the small mail-clad +Central and South American mammals of the order Edentata, +constituting the family <i>Dasypodidae</i>. The armature consists of a +bony case, partly composed of solid buckler-like plates, and partly +of movable transverse bands, the latter differing in number with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span> +the species, and giving to the body a considerable degree of +flexibility. The bony plates are overlain by horny scales. +Armadillos are omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, worms, +reptiles and carrion, and are mostly, though not universally, +nocturnal. They are harmless and inoffensive creatures, offering +no resistance when caught; their principal means of escape being +the extraordinary rapidity with which they burrow in the +ground, and the tenacity with which they retain their hold in +their subterranean retreats. Notwithstanding the shortness of +their limbs they run with rapidity. Most of the species are +esteemed good eating by the natives of the countries in which +they live. They are all inhabitants of the open plains or the +forests of the tropical and temperate parts of South America, +with the exception of a few species which range as far north as +Texas. The largest species is the giant armadillo (<i>Priodon +gigas</i>), measuring nearly a yard long, from the forests of Surinam +and Brazil; while one of the smallest is <i>Dasypus minutus</i>, a near +ally of the larger <i>D. sexcinctus</i>. The peba (<i>Tatusia novemcincta</i>) +represents a group with a large number of movable bands in the +armour; while the apar (<i>Tolypeutes tricinctus</i>) and the other +members of the same genus are remarkable for their power of +rolling themselves up into balls. For the distinctive characters +of these and the other genera see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edentata</a></span>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:461px; height:340px" src="images/img561.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Peba Armadillo (<i>Tatusia novemcincta</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMAGEDDON,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a name occurring in the Authorized Version +of the English Bible in Rev. xvi. 16. The Revised Version has +Harmagedon. The form is commonly regarded as the Greek +equivalent of the Hebrew <i>har megiddōn</i>, the mountain district of +Megiddo. The writer is describing the place where the last +decisive battle was to be fought at the Day of Judgment, and +Harmagedon may have been chosen as the name because the +district about Megiddo had been on several occasions the scene +of great battles (cf. Judg. iv. 6 ff., v. 19). It has, however, +been suggested in the <i>Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche +Wissenschaft</i>, vii. 170 (1887), that the name is for <i>har migdo</i>, “his +fruitful mountain”—the mountain land of Israel. Prof. Cheyne +(<i>Encyc. Bibl.</i> s.v.) again, following suggestions of H. Gunkel, +H. Zimmern and P. Jensen, compares the dragon of the Apocalypse +with the Babylonian Tiāmat, thinks that some myth is +referred to, and finds the <span class="grk" title="magedon">μαγεδων</span> of <span class="grk" title="Harmagedon">Ἀρμαγεδων</span> in the divine +name <span class="grk" title="Yesemmigadon">Ὑεσεμμιγαδων</span>, a Babylonian god of the underworld. The +name of the place where Tiāmat was defeated by Marduk perhaps +included that of a god of the underworld. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antichrist</a></span>.) +From the application of the word Armageddon to the great +battle of the End of Time comes the use of the phrase “an +Armageddon” to express any great slaughter or final conflict.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMAGH,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> an inland county of Ireland, in the province of +Ulster, bounded N. by Lough Neagh, E. by Co. Down, S. by +Louth and W. by Monaghan and Tyrone. The area is 327,704 +acres, or about 512 sq. m. The general surface of the county is +gently undulating and pleasantly diversified; but in the northern +extremity, on the borders of Lough Neagh, there is a considerable +tract of low, marshy land, and the southern border of the county +is occupied by a barren range of hills, the highest of which, Slieve +Gullion, attains an elevation of 1893 ft. In the western portion of +the county are the Few Mountains, a chain of abrupt hills mostly +incapable of cultivation. The county is well watered by numerous +streams. The principal are the Callan, the Tynan and the +Tallwater, flowing into the Blackwater, which, after forming the +boundary between this county and Tyrone, empties itself into +the south-western angle of Lough Neagh. The Tara and +Newtown-Hamilton, the Creggan and the Fleury, flow into the bay +of Dundalk. The Cam or Camlin joins the Bann, which, crossing +the north-western corner of the county, falls into Lough Neagh +to the east of the Blackwater. The Newry Canal, communicating +with Carlingford Lough at Warrenpoint, 6 m. below Newry, +proceeds northward through Co. Armagh for about 21 m., +joining the Bann at Whitecoat. The Ulster Canal begins at +Charlemont on the river Blackwater, near its junction with +Lough Neagh, proceeding through the western border of the +county, and passing thence to the south-west by Monaghan and +Clones into Upper Lough Erne, after a course of 48 m. Part of +Lough Neagh is in the county, and there are many small loughs, +such as Gullion, Cam and Ross.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The flat shore of Lough Neagh in the north is due +to the thick deposit of pale-coloured clays with lignites, which are +probably of Pliocene age, and indicate a reduction of the area of +the lake in still later times. Between this lowland and Armagh +city, the early Cainozoic basalts form slightly higher ground, +while on the west a strip of Trias appears, overlying Carboniferous +Limestone. A rough conglomerate containing blocks of this +latter rock forms the hills on which Armagh itself is built; this +outlier is probably Permian. The Carboniferous Limestone +beneath it and around it is red-brown instead of grey, and is +famous for its richness in fish remains. A hummocky irregular +country spreads southward, where the Silurian axis is encountered, +in continuation of the southern uplands of Scotland. Slates and +fine-grained sandstones appear here freely through the glacial +drift. In the south the granite core of this upland is revealed, +and is quarried extensively about Bessbrook. It is penetrated +by far younger intrusive masses at Slieve Gullion and Forkill. +These rocks, which include some highly siliceous lavas, form part +of the Eocene series that is so conspicuously displayed above +Carlingford in Co. Louth. Lead-veins have been worked in +various parts of the county from time to time.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—The soil of the northern portion of the county is +a rich brown loam, on a substratum of clay or gravel. Towards +Charlemont there is much reclaimable bog resting on a limestone +substratum. The eastern portion of the county is generally of a +light friable soil; the southern portion rocky and barren, with +but little bog except in the neighbourhood of Newtown-Hamilton. +The climate of Armagh is considered to be one of the most genial +in Ireland, and less rain is supposed to fall in this than in any +other county. Only about one-twentieth of the land is naturally +barren, and Armagh offers a relatively large area of cultivable +soil. Agriculture, however, is not far advanced, yet owing to the +linen industry the inhabitants are generally in circumstances of +comparative comfort. The principal crops are oats and potatoes, +but all grain crops are decreasing, and flax, formerly grown to a +considerable extent, is now practically neglected. The acreage +under pasture slightly exceeds that of tillage. Cattle, sheep, pigs +and poultry show a general increase in numbers. The principal +manufacture, and that which has given a peculiar tone to the +character of the population, is that of linen, though it has +somewhat declined in modern times. It is not necessary to the +promotion of this manufacture that the spinners and weavers +should be congregated in large towns, or united in crowded and +unwholesome factories. On the contrary, most of its branches +can be carried on in the cottages of the peasantry. The men +devote to the loom those hours which are not required for the +cultivation of their little farms; the women spin and reel the yarn +during the intervals of their other domestic occupations. Smooth +lawns, pure springs and the open sky are necessary for perfecting +the bleaching process. Hence the numerous bleachers dwell in the +country with their assistants and machinery. Such is the effect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span> +of this combination of agricultural occupations with domestic +manufactures that the farmers are more than competent to +supply the resident population of the county with vegetable, +though not with animal food; and some of the less crowded +and less productive parts of Ulster receive from Armagh a +considerable supply of oats, barley and flour. Apples are grown +in such quantities as to entitle the county to the title applied +to it, the orchard of Ireland.</p> + +<p>Communications are monopolized by the Great Northern railway +company, whose main line from Belfast divides at Portadown, +sending off lines to Omagh, to Clones and to Dublin. A branch +from Omagh joins the Dublin line to Goraghwood, and from this +line there is a branch to Newry in Co. Down. An electric +tram-way connects Bessbrook, a town with important linen +manufactures and granite quarries, with Newry.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The population (72,286 in +1891; 65,619 in 1901) shows a heavy decrease, though emigration +affects it less seriously than the majority of Irish counties. Of +the total about 45% are Roman Catholics, 32% Protestant +Episcopalians, and 16% Presbyterians, the Roman Catholic faith +prevailing in the mountainous districts and the Protestant in the +towns and lowlands. About 74% of the whole constitutes the +rural population. The chief towns are Armagh (a city and the +county town, pop. 7588), Lurgan (11,782), Portadown (10,092), +Tanderagee (1427), Bessbrook (2977) and Keady (1466). Armagh +is divided into eight baronies, and contains twenty-five parishes +and parts of parishes, the greater number of which are in the +Protestant and Roman Catholic dioceses of Armagh, and a few +in the Roman Catholic diocese of Dromore. The constabulary +has its headquarters at Armagh, the county being divided into +five districts. Assizes are held at Armagh, and quarter sessions +at Armagh, Ballybot, Lurgan, Markethill and Newtown-Hamilton. +The parliamentary divisions are three: mid, north and south, +each returning one member.</p> + +<p><i>History and Antiquities.</i>—Armagh, together with Louth, +Monaghan and some smaller districts, formed part of a territory +called Orgial or Urial, which was long subject to the occasional +incursions of the Danes. The county was made shire ground in +1586, and called Armagh after the city by Sir John Perrott. +When James I. proceeded to plant with English and Scottish +colonists the vast tracts escheated to the crown in Ulster, the +whole of the arable and pasture land in Armagh, estimated at +77,800 acres, was to have been allotted in sixty-one portions. +Nineteen of these, comprising 22,180 acres, were to have been +allotted to the church, and forty-two, amounting to 55,620 +acres, to English and Scottish colonists, servitors, native Irish +and four corporate towns—the swordsmen to be dispersed +throughout Connaught and Munster. This project was not +strictly adhered to in Co. Armagh, nor were the Irish swordsmen +or soldiers transplanted into Connaught and Munster from this +and some other counties. The antiquities consist of cairns and +tumuli; the remains of the fortress of Emain near the city of +Armagh (<i>q.v.</i>), once the residence of the kings of Ulster; and +Danes Cast, an extensive fortification in the south-east of the +county, near Poyntzpass, extending into Co. Down. Spears, +battle-axes, collars, rings, amulets, medals of gold, ornaments of +silver, jet and amber, &c., have also been found in various places. +The religious houses were at Armagh, Killevy, Kilmore, Stradhailloyse +and Tahenny. Of military antiquities the most remarkable +are Tyrone’s ditches, near Poyntzpass; and the pass of +Moyry, the entry into the county from the south, which was +fiercely contested by the Irish in 1595 and 1600, is defended by a +castle. The summit of Slieve Gullion is crowned by a large cairn, +which forms the roof of a singular cavern of artificial construction, +probably an early burial-place.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMAGH,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a city and market town, and the county town of +Co. Armagh, Ireland, in the mid parliamentary division, 89½ m. +N.N.W. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway, at the junction +of the Belfast-Clones line. Pop. (1901) 7588. It is said to derive +its name of <i>Ard-macha</i>, the Hill of Macha, from Queen Macha of +the Golden Hair, who flourished in the middle of the 4th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> but earlier it was named from its situation on the sides of a +steep hill called Drumsailech, or the Hill of Sallows, which rises +in the midst of a fertile plain near the Callan stream. Of high +antiquity, and, like many other Irish towns, claiming (with +considerable probability) to have been founded by St Patrick +in the 5th century, it long possessed the more important distinction +of being the metropolis of Ireland; and, as the seat of a +flourishing college, was greatly frequented by students from other +lands, among whom the English and Scots were said to have +been so numerous as to give the name of Trian-Sassanagh, or +Saxon Street, to one of the quarters of the city. St Patrick’s bell, +long preserved at Armagh, the oldest Irish relic of its kind, is +now, with its shrine of the year 1091, preserved in the museum +of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. Of a synod that was held +at Armagh as early as 448, there is an interesting memorial in the +<i>Book of Armagh</i>, an Irish MS. dating about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800. Exposed +to the successive calamities of the Danish incursions, the English +conquest and the English wars, and at last deserted by its +bishops, who retired to Drogheda, the venerable city sank into an +insignificant collection of cabins, with a dilapidated cathedral. +From this state of decay, however, it was raised, in the second +half of the 18th century, by the unwearied exertions of +Archbishop Richard Robinson, 1st Lord Rokeby (1709-1794), +which, seconded by similar devotion on the part of succeeding +archbishops of the Beresford family, notably Archbishop Lord +John George Beresford (1773-1862), made of Armagh one of the +best built and most respectable towns in the country. As the +ecclesiastical metropolis and seat of an archbishop (Primate of all +Ireland) in both the Protestant and Roman organizations, it +possesses two cathedrals and two archiepiscopal palaces. As the +county town Armagh has a court-house, a prison, a lunatic asylum +and a county infirmary. Besides these there is a fever hospital, +erected by Lord John George Beresford; a college, which Primate +Robinson was anxious to raise to the rank of a university; a +public library founded by him, an observatory, which has become +famous from the efficiency of its astronomers; a number of +churches and schools, and barracks. Almost all the buildings are +built of the limestone of the district, but the Anglican cathedral +is of red sandstone. It stands boldly on the top of the hill, a +cruciform structure dating from the 13th, but practically rebuilt +in the 18th century, in accordance with its original plan. The +Roman Catholic cathedral is in the Decorated style, and was +consecrated in 1873. Armagh was a parliamentary borough until +1885; and, having been incorporated in 1613, so remained until +1835. The administration is in the hands of an urban district +council. Two miles W. of Armagh is Emain, Emania, or Navan +Fort, with large entrenchments and mounds, the site of a royal +palace of Ulster, founded by that Queen Macha who gave her +name to the city. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 335 it was destroyed during the inroad +on the defeat of the king of Ulster by the three brothers Colla, +cousins of Muredach, king of Ireland. Armagh itself fell before +the king Brian Boroime, who was buried here; and before +Edward Bruce in 1315, while previous to the English war after the +Reformation, it had witnessed the struggles of Shane O’Neill +(1564).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMAGNAC,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> formerly a province of France and the most +important fief of Gascony, now wholly comprised in the department +of Gers (<i>q.v.</i>). In the 15th century, when it attained its +greatest extent, it included, besides Armagnac, the neighbouring +territories of Fezensac, Fezensaguet, Pardiac, Pays de Gaure, +Rivière Basse, Eauzan and Lomagne, and stretched from the +Garonne to the Adour. Armagnac is a region of hills ranging to a +height of 1000 ft., watered by the river Gers and other rivers which +descend fanwise from the plateau of Lannemezan. On the slope +of its hills grow the grapes from which the famous Armagnac +brandy is made. In Roman Gaul this territory formed part of +the diocese of Auch (<i>civitas Ausciorum</i>), which corresponded +roughly with the later duchy of Gascony (<i>q.v.</i>). About the end +of the 9th century Fezensac (<i>comitatus Fedentiacus</i>), in +circumstances of which no trustworthy record remains, was erected +into an hereditary countship. This latter was in its turn +divided, the south-western portion becoming, about 960, the +countship of Armagnac (<i>pagus Armaniacus</i>). The domain of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span> +this countship, at first very limited in extent, continued steadily +to increase in size, and about 1140 Count Gerald III. added the +whole of Fezensac to his possessions. Under the English rule +the counts of Armagnac were turbulent and untrustworthy +vassals; and the administration of the Black Prince, tending to +favour the towns of Aquitaine at the expense of the nobles, drove +them to the side of France. The complaint against the English +prince which Count John I., in defiance of the treaty of Brétigny, +himself carried to Paris, was the principal cause of the resumption +of hostilities of 1369, and of the incessant defeats sustained by +the English until the accession of their king Henry V.</p> + +<p>At that moment Count Bernard VII. was all-powerful at the +French court; and Charles of Orleans, in order to be able to +avenge his father, Louis of Orleans, who had been assassinated in +1407 by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, married Bonne, +Bernard’s daughter. This was the origin of the political party +known as “the Armagnacs.” With the object of combating the +duke of Burgundy’s preponderant influence, a league was +formed at Gien, including the duke of Orleans and his father-in-law, +the dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, the count of +Alençon and all the other discontented nobles. Bernard VII. +ravaged the environs of Paris; and the treaty of Bicêtre +(November 2, 1410) only suspended hostilities for a few months, +war breaking out afresh in the spring of 1411. Paris sided +with the duke of Burgundy, and at his instigation Charles VII. +collected an army to besiege the allies in Bourges. The peace of +Bourges, confirmed at Auxerre on the 22nd of August, put an end +to the war. Paris was dominated at that time by the party of the +“butchers,” or <i>Cabochiens</i>, which had been organized and armed +by the count of Saint-Pol, brother-in-law of John the Fearless. +But their excesses, and in particular the Cabochien ordinance +of the 25th of May 1413, aroused public indignation; a reaction +took place, and in the month of August the Armagnacs in their +turn became masters of the government and of the king. The +duke of Burgundy, besieged in Arras, only obtained peace +(treaty of Arras, September 4, 1414), on condition of not +returning to Paris.</p> + +<p>Several months later Henry V. declared war against France; +and when, in August 1415, the English landed in Normandy, the +Armagnacs and Burgundians united against them, but were +defeated in the battle of Agincourt (October 25, 1415). John +the Fearless then began negotiations with the English, while +Bernard VII., appointed constable in place of the count of Saint-Pol, +who had been killed at Agincourt, returned to defend Paris. +However, the excesses committed by the Armagnacs incensed the +populace, and John the Fearless, who was ravaging the surrounding +districts, re-entered the capital on the 29th of May 1418, in +consequence of the treason of Perrinet Leclerc. On the 12th of +June Bernard VII. and the members of his party were massacred. +From this time onward the Armagnac party, with the dauphin, +afterwards King Charles VII., at its head, was the national party, +while the Burgundians united with the English. This division in +France continued until the treaty of Arras, on the 21st of +September 1435. The rivalry of the Burgundians and Armagnacs +brought terrible disasters upon France, and for many years afterwards +the name of “Armagnacs” was bestowed upon the bands +of adventurers who were as much to be feared as the <i>Grandes +Compagnies</i> of the preceding age.</p> + +<p>In 1444-45 the emperor Frederick III. of Germany obtained +from Charles VII. a large army of Armagnacs to enforce his +claims in Switzerland, and the war which ensued took the name +of the Armagnac war (<i>Armagnakenkrieg</i>). In Germany the +name of the foreigners, who were completely defeated in the +battle of St Jakob on the Birs, not far from Basel, was mockingly +corrupted into <i>Arme Jacken</i>, Poor Jackets, or <i>Arme Gecken</i>, +Poor Fools.</p> + +<p>On the death of Charles of Armagnac, in 1497, the countship +was united to the crown by King Charles VII., but was again +bestowed on Charles, the nephew of that count, by Francis I., +who at the same time gave him his sister Margaret in marriage. +After the death of her husband, by whom she had no children, she +married Henry of Albret, king of Navarre; and thus the countship +of Armagnac came back to the French crown along with the +other dominions of Henry IV. In 1645 Louis XIV. erected a +countship of Armagnac in favour of Henry of Lorraine, count of +Harcourt, in whose family it continued till the Revolution. +James of Armagnac, grandson of Bernard VII., was made duke +of Nemours in 1462, and was succeeded in the dukedom by his +second son, John, who died without issue, and his third son, Louis, +in whom the house of Armagnac became extinct in 1503.</p> + +<p>In 1789 Armagnac was a province forming part of the +<i>Gouvernement-général</i> of Guienne and Gascony; it was divided +into two parts, High or White Armagnac, with Auch for capital, +and Low or Black Armagnac. At the Revolution the whole of +the original Armagnac was included in the department of Gers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For authorities see U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist, du +moyen âge</i>, s. Armagnac (Montbéliard, 1894). For the Armagnacs see +Paul Dognon, “Les Armagnacs et les Bourguignons, le comte de Foix +et le dauphin en Languedoc” (1416-1420) in <i>Annales du Midi</i> (1889); +Rameau, “Guerre des Armagnacs dans le Mâconnais” (1418-1435) in +the <i>Rév. soc. lit. de l’Ain</i> (1884); Berthold Zeller, <i>Les Armagnacs et +les Bourguignons, la Commune de 1413</i>; E. Wulcker, <i>Urkunden und +Schreiben betreffend den Zug der Armagnaken</i> (Frankfort, 1873); +Witte, <i>Die Armagnaken im Elsass, 1439-1445</i> (Strassburg, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMATOLES<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="armatolos">ἀρματωλός</span>, a man-at-arms), the name given +to some Greeks who discharged certain military and police +functions under the Turkish government. When the Turks under +Sultan Mahommed II. conquered Greece in the 15th century, many +of the Greeks fled into the mountainous districts of Macedonia +and northern Greece, and maintained a harassing warfare with the +conquerors of their country. These men were called <i>Klephts</i> +(modern Gr. <span class="grk" title="klephtaes">κλέφτης</span>, ancient <span class="grk" title="kleptaes">κλέπτης</span>, a thief, a brigand), and +during the 16th century the Turkish pashas came to terms with +some of them, and these men were allowed to retain their local +customs, and were confirmed in the possession of certain districts, +while in return they undertook some duties, such as the custody +of the highroads. Those who accepted these terms were called +<i>armatoles</i>, and the districts in which they lived <i>armatoliks</i>. +Strengthened by a considerable number of Christian Albanians, +they rendered good service in defending Greece, and to some +extent repressed the ravages of the <i>Klephts</i>; but their power and +independence were disliked by the Turks. After the peace of +Belgrade in 1739 (between Austria and Turkey), the Turkish +government sought to weaken the position of the <i>armatoles</i>. +Their privileges were restricted, Mahommedan Albanians were +introduced into the <i>armatoliks</i>, and towards the end of the 18th +century their numbers were seriously reduced. Irritated by this +policy the <i>armatoles</i> rendered considerable service to Ali Pasha of +Iannina in his struggle with the Turks in 1820-22, and afforded +valuable assistance to their countrymen during the Greek war of +independence in 1830.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMATURE<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>armatura</i>, armour), a covering for +defence. In zoology the word is used of the bony shell of the +armadillo. In architecture it is applied to the iron stays by +which the lead lights are secured in windows. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stanchion</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saddle</a></span>: <i>Saddle-Bars</i>.) In magnetism Dr William Gilbert +applied the term to the piece of soft iron with which he “armed” +or capped the lodestone in order to increase its power. It is also +used for the “keeper” or piece of iron which is placed across the +poles of a horse-shoe magnet, and held in place by magnetic +attraction, in order to complete the magnetic circuit and preserve +the magnetism of the steel; and hence, in dynamo-electric +machinery, for the portion which is attracted by the electromagnet, +as the moving part of an electric motor, or, by extension, +the moving part of a dynamo (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMAVIR,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1) The ruins of the old capital of Armenia, on the +S.E. slope of the extinct volcano Ala-geuz, according to legend, +built by Armais, a grandson of Haik, in 1980 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the capital +of the Armenian kings till the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Now a small +village, Tapadibi, occupies its seat. (2) A district town of Russia, +northern Caucasia, province of Kuban, on Kuban river, and +on the main line of the Caucasian railway, 40 m. by rail west +of Stavropol, built in 1848 for the settlement of Armenian +mountaineers, and now a well-built, growing town with 8000 +inhabitants, the merchants of which carry on a lively trade.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMENIA<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (old Persian <i>Armina</i>, Armenian <i>Hayasdan</i>, or +<i>Hayq</i>), the popular modern name of a district south of the +Caucasus and Black Sea, which formed part of the ancient +Armenian kingdom. The name, which first occurs in the cuneiform +inscriptions of Darius Hystaspis, supplanted the earlier +Urardhu, or Ararat, but its origin is unknown. In its widest +extent Armenia stretched from 37° to 49° E. long., and from +37½° to 41½° N. lat.; but this area was never, or only for a brief +period, united under one king. Armenia is now divided between +Persia, Russia and Turkey, and the three boundaries have a +common point on Little Ararat.</p> + +<p>Geographically, Armenia is a continuation westward of the +great Iranian plateau. On the north it descends abruptly to the +Black Sea; on the south it breaks down in rugged terraces to the +lowlands of Mesopotamia; and on the east and west it sinks +more gradually to the lower plateaus of Persia and Asia Minor. +Above the general level of the plateau, 6000 ft., rise bare ranges +of mountains, which run from north-east to south-west at an +altitude of 8000-12,000 ft., and culminate in Ararat, 17,000 ft. +Between the ranges are broad elevated valleys, through which the +rivers of the plateau flow before entering the rugged gorges that +convey their waters to lower levels. Geologically, Armenia +consists of archaic rocks upon which, towards the north, are +superimposed Palaeozoic, and towards the south later sedimentary +rocks. The last have been pierced by volcanic outbursts +that extend southward to Lake Van. Amongst the higher +mountains are the two Ararats; Ala-geuz Dagh, north of the +Aras; Bingeul Dagh, south of Erzerum; and the peaks near +Lake Van. The rivers are the Euphrates, Tigris, Aras, Churuk +Su (Chorokh) and Kelkit Irmak, all rising on the plateau. The +more important lakes are Van, 5100 ft., about twice the size of the +Lake of Geneva, and Urmia, 4000 ft., both salt; Gokcha or +Sevan, 5870 ft., discharging into the Aras; and Chaldir, into the +Kars Chai. The aspect of the plateau is dreary and monotonous. +The valleys are wide expanses of arable land, and the hills are for +the most part grass-covered and treeless. But the gorges of the +Euphrates and Tigris, and their tributaries, cannot be surpassed +in wildness and grandeur. The climate is varied. In the higher +districts the winter is long and the cold severe; whilst the summer +is short, dry and hot. In Erzerum the temperature ranges from +−22° to 84° F., and snow sometimes falls in June. In the valley +of the Aras, and in the western and southern districts, the +climate is more moderate. Most of the towns lie high, from 4000 +to 6000 ft. The villages are usually built on gentle slopes, in +which the houses are partially excavated as a protection against +the severity of the weather. Many of the early towns were on or +near the Araxes, and amongst their ruins are the remains of +churches which throw light on the history of Christian architecture +in the East. Armenia is rich in mineral wealth, and there +are many hot and cold mineral springs. The vegetation varies +according to the locality. Cereals and hardy fruits grow on the +higher ground, whilst rice is cultivated in the hot, well-watered +valley of the Araxes. The summer is so hot that the vine grows +at much higher altitudes than it does in western Europe, and the +cotton tree and all southern fruit trees are cultivated in the +deeper valleys. On the fine pasture lands which now support the +flocks of the Kurds, the horses and mules, so celebrated in ancient +times, were reared. Trout are found in the rivers, and a small +herring in Lake Van. The country abounds in romantic scenery; +that of the district of Ararat especially has been celebrated by +patriotic historians like Moses of Chorene and Lazarus of Pharb.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—Accurate statistics cannot be obtained; but it +is estimated that in the nine vilayets, which include Turkish +Armenia, there are 925,000 Gregorian, Roman Catholic and +Protestant Armenians, 645,000 other Christians, 100,000 Jews, +Gypsies, &c., and 4,460,000 Moslems. The Armenians, taking +the most favourable estimate, are in a majority in nine kazas or +sub-districts only (seven near Van, and two near Mush) out of 159. +In Russian Armenia there are 960,000 Armenians, and in Persian +Armenia 130,000. According to an estimate made by General +Zelenyi for the Caucasus Geographical Society (<i>Zapiski</i>, vol. +xviii., Tiflis, 1896, with map), the population of the nine Turkish +vilayets, Erzerum, Van, Bitlis, Kharput (Mamuret-el-Aziz). +Diarbekr, Sivas, Aleppo, Adana and Trebizond, was 6,000,000 +(Armenians, 913,875, or 15%; other Christians, 632,875, or 11%; +and Moslems, 4,453,250, or 74%). In the first five vilayets which +contain most of the Armenians, the population was 2,642,000 +(Armenians, 633,250, or 24%; other Christians, 179,875, or 7%; +and Moslems, 1,828,875, or 69%); and in the seven Armenian +kazas the population was 282,375 (Armenians, 184,875, or 65%; +other Christians, 1000, or 0.3%; and Moslems, 96,500, or 34.7%). +In 1897 there were 970,656 Armenians in Russia, of whom +827,634 were in the provinces of Erivan, Elisavetpol and Tiflis.</p> + +<p>The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000 (in +Turkey, 1,500,000; Russia, 1,000,000; Persia, 150,000; Europe, +America and East Indies, 250,000).</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The history of Armenia has been largely influenced +by its physical features. The isolation of the valleys, especially +in winter, encouraged a tendency to separation, which invariably +showed itself when the central power was weak. The rugged +mountains have always been the home of hardy mountaineers +impatient of control, and the sanctuary to which the lowlanders +fled for safety in times of invasion. The country stands as an +open doorway between the East and the West. Through its long +valleys run the roads that connect the Iranian plateau with the +fertile lands and protected harbours of Asia Minor, and for its +possession nations have contended from the remotest past.</p> + +<p>The original inhabitants of Armenia are unknown, but, about +the middle of the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the mass of the people belonged +to that great family of tribes which seems to have been +spread over western Asia and to have had a common +<span class="sidenote">Ethnology.</span> +non-Aryan language. Mixed with these proto-Armenians, there +was an important Semitic element of Assyrian and Hebrew +origin. In the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, between 640 and 600, the country +was conquered by an Aryan people, who imposed their language, +and possibly their name, upon the vanquished, and formed a +military aristocracy that was constantly recruited from Persia +and Parthia. Politically the two races soon amalgamated, but, +except in the towns, there was apparently little intermarriage, +for the peasants in certain districts closely resemble the proto-Armenians, +as depicted on their monuments. After the Arab +and Seljuk invasions, there was a large emigration of Aryan and +Semitic Armenians to Constantinople and Cilicia; and all that +remained of the aristocracy was swept away by the Mongols and +Tatars. This perhaps explains the diversity of type and characteristics +amongst the modern Armenians. In the recesses of +Mount Taurus the peasants are tall, handsome, though somewhat +sharp-featured, agile and brave. In Armenia and Asia Minor +they are robust, thick-set and coarse-featured, with straight black +hair and large hooked noses. They are good cultivators of the +soil, but are poor, superstitious, ignorant and unambitious, and +they live in semi-subterranean houses as their ancestors did 800 +years <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The townsmen, especially in the large towns, have +more regular features—often of the Persian type. They are +skilled artisans, bankers and merchants, and are remarkable for +their industry, their quick intelligence, their aptitude for +business, and for that enterprising spirit which led their ancestors, +in Roman times, to trade with Scythia, China and India. The +upper classes are polished and well educated, and many have +occupied high positions in the public service in Turkey, Russia, +Persia and Egypt. The Armenians are essentially an Oriental +people, possessing, like the Jews, whom they resemble in their +exclusiveness and widespread dispersion, a remarkable tenacity +of race and faculty of adaptation to circumstances. They are +frugal, sober, industrious and intelligent, and their sturdiness of +character has enabled them to preserve their nationality and +religion under the sorest trials. They are strongly attached to +old manners and customs, but have also a real desire for progress +which is full of promise. On the other hand they are greedy of +gain, quarrelsome in small matters, self-seeking and wanting in +stability; and they are gifted with a tendency to exaggeration +and a love of intrigue which has had an unfortunate influence +on their history. They are deeply separated by religious +differences, and their mutual jealousies, their inordinate vanity +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span> +their versatility and their cosmopolitan character must always +be an obstacle to the realization of the dreams of the nationalists. +The want of courage and self-reliance, the deficiency in truth and +honesty sometimes noticed in connexion with them, are doubtless +due to long servitude under an unsympathetic government.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:1062px; height:794px" src="images/img565.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The early history of Armenia, more or less mythical, is partly +based on traditions of the Biainian kings (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ararat</a></span>), and is +interwoven with the Bible narrative, of which a knowledge +was possibly obtained from captive Jews settled +<span class="sidenote">Ancient kingdom.</span> +in the country by Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs. +The legendary kings are but faint echoes of the kings of Biainas; +the story of Semiramis and Ara is but another form of the myth +of Venus and Adonis; and tradition has clothed Tigranes, the +reputed friend of Cyrus, with the transient glory of the opponent +of Lucullus. The fall of the Biainian kingdom, perhaps overthrown +by Cyaxares, was apparently soon followed by an immigration +of Aryan (Medo-Persian) races, including the progenitors +of the Armenians. But they spread slowly, for the “Ten +Thousand,” when crossing the plateau to Trebizond, 401-400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +met no Armenians after leaving the villages four days’ march +beyond the Teleboas, now Kara Su. Under the Medes and +Persians Armenia was a satrapy governed by a member of the +reigning family; and after the battle of Arbela, 331 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it was +ruled by Persian governors appointed by Alexander and his +successors. Ardvates, 317-284 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, freed himself from Seleucid +control; and after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the +Romans, 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Artaxias (Ardashes), and Zadriades, the +governors of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor, became independent +kings, with the concurrence of Rome. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tigranes</a></span>.) +Artaxias established his capital at Artaxata on the Araxes, and +his most celebrated successor was Tigranes (Dikran), 94-56 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +the son-in-law of Mithradates VI., the Great. Tigranes founded +a new capital, Tigranocerta, in northern Mesopotamia, which he +modelled on Nineveh and Babylon, and peopled with Greek and +other captives. Here, and at Antioch, he played the part of +“great king” in Asia until his refusal to surrender his father-in-law +involved him in war with Rome. Defeated, 69 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, by +Lucullus beneath the walls of his capital, he surrendered his +conquests to Pompey, 66 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who had driven Mithradates across +the Phasis, and was permitted to hold Armenia as a vassal state +of Rome.</p> + +<p>The campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey brought Rome into +delicate relations with Parthia. Armenia, although politically +dependent upon Rome, was connected with Parthia by +geographical position, a common language and faith, +<span class="sidenote">Under later Empire.</span> +intermarriage and similarity of arms and dress. It had +never been Hellenized, as the provinces of Asia Minor +had been; the Roman provincial system was never applied to it; +and the policy of Rome towards it was never consistent. The +country became the field upon which the East and West contended +for mastery, and the struggle ended for a time in the partition +of Armenia, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 387, between Rome and Persia. The Roman +portion was soon added to the Diocesis Pontica. The Persian +portion, Pers-Armenia, remained a vassal state under an Arsacid +prince until 428. It was afterwards governed by Persian and +Armenian noblemen selected by the “great king,” and entitled +<i>marzbans</i>. Before the partition, Tiridates, converted by St +Gregory, “the Illuminator,” had established Christianity as the +religion of the state, and set an example followed later by Constantine. +After the partition, the invention of the Armenian +alphabet, and the translation of the Bible into the vernacular, +410, drew the Armenians together, and the discontinuance of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span> +Greek in the Holy Offices relaxed the ecclesiastical dependence on +Constantinople, which ceased entirely when the Patriarch, 491, +refused to accept the decrees of the council of Chalcedon. The +rule of the <i>marzbans</i> was marked by relentless persecution of the +Christians, forced conversions to Magism, frequent insurrections +and the rise to importance of the great families founded by men +of Assyrian, Parthian, Persian, Syrian and Jewish origin, and in +some cases of royal blood, who had been governors of districts, or +holders of fiefs under the Arsacids. Amongst the <i>marzbans</i> were +Jewish Bagratids and Persian Mamegonians; and one of the +latter family, Vartan, made himself independent (571-578), with +Byzantine aid. In 632 the victories of Heraclius restored Armenia +to the Byzantines; but the war that followed the Arab invasion, +636, left the country in the hands of the caliphs, who set over it +Arab and Armenian governors (<i>ostikans</i>). One of the governors, +the Bagratid Ashod I., was crowned king of Armenia by the +caliph Motamid, 885, and founded a dynasty which ended with +Kagig II. in 1079. A little later the Ardzrunian Kagig, governor +of Vaspuragan or Van, was crowned king of that province +by the caliph Moktadir, 908, and his descendants ruled at Van +and Sivas until 1080. The Bagratids founded dynasties at Kars, +962-1080, and in Georgia, which they held until its absorption, +1801, by Russia. From 984 to 1085 the country from Diarbekr +to Melasgerd was ruled under the suzerainty first of Arabs then +of Byzantines and Seljuks, by the Mervanid dynasty of Kurds, +called princes of Abahuni (<span class="grk" title="Apachouvaes">Ἀπαχουνῆς</span>). The Arab invasion drove +many Armenian noblemen to Constantinople, where they intermarried +with the old Roman families or became soldiers of fortune. +Artavasdes, an Arsacid, usurped the Byzantine throne for +two years; Leo V., an Ardzrunian, and John Zimisces, became +emperors; whilst Manuel, the Mamegonian, and others were +amongst the best generals of the empire. In 991, and again in +1021, Basil II. invaded Armenia, and in the latter year Senekherim, +king of Vaspuragan, exchanged his kingdom for Sivas +and its territory, where he settled down with many Armenian +emigrants. Basil’s policy was to make the great Armenian +fortresses, garrisoned by imperial troops, the first line of defence +on his eastern frontier; but it failed in the hands of his feeble +successors, who thought more of converting heretical Armenia +than of defending its frontier. The king of Ani, Kagig II., was +compelled to exchange his kingdom for estates in Cappadocia. +The country was raided by Seljuks and harried by Byzantine +soldiers, and the miseries of the people were regarded as +gain to the Orthodox church. After the defeat and capture of +Romanus IV. by Alp Arslan, 1071, Armenia formed part of the +Seljuk empire until it split up, 1157, into petty states, ruled by +Arabs, Kurds and Seljuks, who were in turn swept away by the +Mongol invasion, 1235. For more than three centuries after the +appearance of the Seljuks, Armenia was traversed by a long +<span class="sidenote">Medieval Partition.</span> +succession of nomad tribes whose one aim was to secure +good pasturage for their flocks on their way to the +richer lands of Asia Minor. The cultivators were driven +from the plains, agriculture was destroyed, and the country was +seriously impoverished when its ruin was completed by the +ravages and wholesale butcheries of Timur. Many Armenians +fled to the mountains, where they embraced Islam, and intermarried +with the Kurds, or purchased security by paying blackmail +to Kurdish chiefs. Others migrated to Cappadocia or to +Cilicia, where the Bagratid Rhupen had founded, 1080, a small +principality which, gradually extending its limits, became the +kingdom of Lesser Armenia. This Christian kingdom in the +midst of Moslem states, hostile to the Byzantines, giving valuable +support to the leaders of the crusades, and trading with the great +commercial cities of Italy, had a stormy existence of about 300 +years. Internal disorders, due to attempts by the later Lusignan +kings to make their subjects conform to the Roman Church, +facilitated its conquest by Egypt, 1375. The memory of Kiligia +(Cilicia) is enshrined in a popular song, and at Zeitun, in the +recesses of Mount Taurus, a small Armenian community has +hitherto maintained almost complete independence. After the +death of Timur, Armenia formed part of the territories of the +Turkoman dynasties of Ak- and Kara-Kuyunli, and under their +milder rule the seat of the Catholicus, which, during the Seljuk +invasion, had been moved first to Sivas, and then to Lesser +Armenia, was re-established, 1441, at Echmiadzin.</p> + +<p>In 1514, the Persian campaign of Selim I. gave Armenia to the +Osmanli Turks, and its reorganization was entrusted to Idris, the +historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. Idris found the +rich arable lands almost deserted, and the mountains +<span class="sidenote">Under Turkey.</span> +bristling with the castles of independent chieftains, of +Kurd, Arab and Armenian descent, between whom there were +long-standing feuds. He compelled the Kurds to settle on the +vacant lands, and divided the country into small sanjaks which +in the plains were governed by Turkish officials, and in the +mountains by local chiefs. This policy gave rest to the country, +but favoured the growth of Kurd influence and power, which by +1534 had spread westwards to Angora. Armenia was invaded +by the Persians in 1575, and again in 1604, when Shah Abbas +transplanted many thousand Armenians from Julfa to his new +capital Isfahan. In 1639, the province of Erivan, which included +Echmiadzin, was assigned by treaty to Persia, and it remained +in her hands until it passed to Russia, 1828, under the treaty +of Turkman-chai. The Turko-Russian War of 1828-29, which +advanced the Russian frontier to the Arpa Chai, was followed by +a large emigration of Armenians from Turkish to Russian territory, +and a smaller exodus took place after the war of 1877-78, +which gave Batum, Ardahan and Kars to Russia. In 1834 +the independent power of the Kurds in Armenia was greatly +curtailed; and risings under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843, and Sheik +Obeidullah in 1880, were firmly suppressed.</p> + +<p>After the capture of Constantinople, 1453, Mahommed II. +organized his non-Moslem subjects in communities, or <i>millets</i>, +under ecclesiastical chiefs to whom he gave absolute +authority in civil and religious matters, and in criminal +<span class="sidenote">Gregorian Armenians.</span> +offences that did not come under the Moslem religious +law. Under this system the Armenian bishop of Brusa, +who was appointed patriarch of Constantinople by the sultan, +became the civil, and practically the ecclesiastical head of his +community (<i>Ermeni millet</i>), and a recognized officer of the +imperial government with the rank of vizier. He was assisted +by a council of bishops and clergy, and was represented in each +province by a bishop. This <i>imperium in imperio</i> secured to the +Armenians a recognized position before the law, the free enjoyment +of their religion, the possession of their churches and +monasteries, and the right to educate their children and manage +their municipal affairs. It also encouraged the growth of a +community life, which eventually gave birth to an intense +longing for national life. On the other hand it degraded the +priesthood. The priests became political leaders rather than +spiritual guides, and sought promotion by bribery and intrigue. +Education was neglected and discouraged, servility and treachery +were developed, and in less than a century the people had become +depraved and degraded to an almost incredible extent. After the +issue, 1839, of the <i>hatt-i-skerif</i> of Gül-khaneh, the tradesmen +and artisans of the capital freed themselves from clerical control. +Under regulations, approved by the sultan in 1862, the patriarch +remained the official representative of the community, but all +real power passed into the hands of clerical and lay councils +elected by a representative assembly of 140 members. The +“community,” which excluded Roman Catholics and Protestants, +was soon called the “nation,” “domestic” became “national” +affairs, and the “representative” the “national” assembly.</p> + +<p>The connexion of “Lesser Armenia” with the Western powers +led to the formation, 1335, of an Armenian fraternity, “the +Unionists,” which adopted the dogmas of the Roman +church, and at the council of Florence, 1439, was +<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholics.</span> +entitled the “United Armenian Church.” Under the +millet system the unionists were frequently persecuted by the +patriarchs, but this ended in 1830, when, at the intervention of +France, they were made a community (<i>Katoluk millet</i>), with their +own ecclesiastical head. The Roman Catholics, through the works +issued by the Mechitharists at Venice, have greatly promoted the +progress of education and the development of Armenian literature. +They are most numerous at Constantinople, Angora and Smyrna.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span></p> + +<p>The Protestant movement, initiated at Constantinople by +American missionaries in 1831, was opposed by the patriarchs +and Russia. In 1846 the patriarch anathematized all +Armenians with Protestant sympathies, and this led +<span class="sidenote">Protestants.</span> +to the formation of the “Evangelical Church of the +Armenians,” which was made, after much opposition from France +and Russia, a community (<i>Protestant millet</i>), at the instance of the +British ambassador. The missionaries afterwards founded colleges +on the Bosporus, at Kharput, Marsivan and Aintab, to supply +the needs of higher university education, and they opened good +schools for both sexes at all their stations. Everywhere they +supplied the people with pure, wholesome literature, and represented +progress and religious liberty.</p> + +<p>When Abd-ul-Hamid came to the throne of Turkey in 1876, the +condition of the Armenians was better than it had ever been under +the Osmanlis; but with the close of the war of 1877-78 +came the “Armenian Question.” By the treaty of San +<span class="sidenote">Modern Armenian question.</span> +Stefano, Turkey engaged to Russia to carry out reforms +“in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and +to guarantee their security against the Kurds and Circassians.” +By the treaty of Berlin, 13th of July 1878, a like engagement to the +six signatory powers was substituted for that to Russia. By the +Cyprus convention, 4th of June 1878, the sultan promised Great +Britain to introduce necessary reforms “for the protection of the +Christians and other subjects of the Porte” in the Turkish +territories in Asia. The Berlin treaty encouraged the Armenians +to look to the powers, and not to Russia for protection; and the +convention, which did not mention the Armenians, was regarded +as placing them under the special protection of Great Britain. +This impression was strengthened by the action of England at +Berlin in insisting that Russia should evacuate the occupied +territory before reforms were introduced, and so removing the +only security for their introduction. The presentation of identic +and collective notes to the Porte by the powers, in 1880, produced +no result, and in 1882 it was apparent that Turkey would only +yield to compulsion. In 1881 a circular note from the British +ministry to the five powers was evasively answered, and in 1883 +Prince Bismarck intimated to the British government that +Germany cared nothing about Armenian reforms and that the +matter had better be allowed to drop. Russia had changed her +policy towards the Armenians, and the other powers were +indifferent. The so-called “Concert of Europe” was at an end, +but British ministries continued to call the attention of the +sultan to his obligations under the treaty of Berlin.</p> + +<p>Russia began to interest herself in the Armenians when she +acquired Georgia in 1801; but it was not until 1828-1829 that +any appreciable number of them became her subjects. +She found them necessary to the development of her +<span class="sidenote">Russian policy.</span> +new territories, and allowed them much freedom. +They were permitted, within certain limits, to develop their +national life; many became wealthy, and many rose to high +positions in the military and civil service of the state. After the +war of 1877-78 the Russian consuls in Turkey encouraged the +formation of patriotic committees in Armenia, and a project was +formed to create a separate state, under the supremacy of Russia, +which was to include Russian, Persian and Turkish Armenia. +The project was favoured by Loris-Melikov, then all-powerful in +Russia, but in 1881 Alexander II. was assassinated, and shortly +afterwards a strongly anti-Armenian policy was adopted. The +schools were closed, the use of the Armenian language was discouraged, +and attempts were made to Russify the Armenians and +bring them within the pale of the Russian Church. All hope of +practical self-government under Russian protection now ceased, +and the Armenians of Tiflis turned their attention to Turkish +Armenia. They had seen the success of the Slav committees +in treating disturbances in the Balkans, and became the moving +spirit in the attempts to produce similar troubles in Armenia. +Russia made no real effort to check the action of her Armenian +subjects, and after 1884 she steadily opposed any active interference +by Great Britain in favour of the Turkish Armenians. +When Echmiadzin passed to Russia, in 1828, the Catholicus began +to claim spiritual jurisdiction over the whole Armenian Church, +and the submission of the patriarch of Constantinople was +obtained by Russia when she helped the sultan against +Mehemet Ali. Subsequently Russia secured the submission of +the independent catholicus of Sis, and thus acquired a power of +interference in Armenian affairs in all parts of the world. During +1900 Russia showed renewed interest in Turkish Armenia by +securing the right to construct all railways in it, and in the +Armenians by pressing the Porte to restore order and introduce +reforms.</p> + +<p>The Berlin treaty was a disappointment to the Gregorian +Armenians, who had hoped that Armenia and Cilicia would have +been formed into an autonomous province administered by +Christians. But the formation of such a province was impossible. +The Gregorians were scattered over the empire, and, except in a +few small districts, were nowhere in a majority. Nor were they +bound together by any community of thought or sentiment. +The Turkish-speaking Armenians of the south could scarcely +converse with the Armenian-speaking people of the north; and +the ignorant mountaineers of the east had nothing in common, +<span class="sidenote">Revolutionary movement.</span> +except religion, with the highly educated townsmen +of Constantinople and Smyrna. After the change in +Russian policy and the failure of the powers to secure +reforms, the advanced party amongst the Armenians, +some of whom had been educated in Europe and been deeply +affected by the free thought and Nihilistic tendencies of the day, +determined to secure their object by the production of disturbances +such as those that had given birth to Bulgaria. Societies +were formed at Tiflis and in several European capitals for the +circulation of pamphlets and newspapers, and secret societies, +such as the Huntchagist, were instituted for more revolutionary +methods. An active propaganda was carried on in Turkish +Armenia by emissaries, who tried to introduce arms and explosives, +and represented the ordinary incidents of Turkish misrule +to Europe as serious atrocities. The revolutionary movement +was joined by some of the younger men, who formed local +committees on the Nihilist plan, but it was strongly opposed +by the Armenian clergy and the American missionaries, who saw +the impossibility of success; and its irreligious tendency and the +self-seeking ambition of its leaders made it unacceptable to the +mass of the people. Exasperated at their failure, the emissaries +organized attacks on individuals, wrote threatening letters, and +at last posted revolutionary placards, 5th of January 1893, at +Yuzgat, and on the walls of the American College at Marsivan. In +the last case the object of the Huntchagists was to compromise +the missionaries, and in this they succeeded. The Americans were +accused of issuing the placards; two Armenian professors were +imprisoned; and the girls’ school was burned down. Outbreaks, +easily suppressed, followed at Kaisarieh and other places.</p> + +<p>One of the revolutionary dreams was to make the ancient +Daron the centre of a new Armenia. But the movement met with +no encouragement, either amongst the prosperous peasants on the +rich plain of Mush or in the mountain villages of Sasun. In the +summer of 1893, an emissary was captured near Mush, and the +governor, hoping to secure others, ordered the Kurdish Irregular +Horse to raid the mountain district. The Armenians drove off +the Kurds,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and, when attacked in the spring of 1894, again held +their own. The vali now called up regular troops from Erzingan; +and the sultan issued a firman calling upon all loyal subjects +to aid in suppressing the revolt. A massacre of a most brutal +character, in which Turkish soldiers took part, followed; and +aroused deep indignation in Europe. In November 1894 a +Turkish commission of inquiry was sent to Armenia, and was +accompanied by the consular delegates of Great Britain, France +and Russia, who elicited the fact that there had been no attempt +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span> +at revolt to justify the action of the authorities. Throughout +1894 the state of the country bordered upon anarchy, and +during the winter of 1894-1895 the British government, with +lukewarm support from France and Russia, pressed for administrative +reforms in the vilayets of Erzerum, Van, Bitlis, Sivas, +Memuret-el-Aziz (Kharput) and Diarbekr. The Porte made +counter-proposals, and officials concerned in the Sasun massacres +were decorated and rewarded. On the 11th of May 1895 the +three powers presented to the sultan a complicated scheme of +reforms which was more calculated to increase than to lessen +the difficulties connected with the government of Armenia; but +it was the only one to which Russia would agree. The sultan +delayed his answer. Great Britain was in favour of coercion, but +Russia, when sounded, replied that she “would certainly not +join in any coercive measures” and she was supported by France. +At this moment, 21st of June 1895, Lord Rosebery’s cabinet +resigned, and when Lord Salisbury’s government resumed the +negotiations in August, the sultan appealed to France and Russia +against England. During the negotiations the secret societies had +not been inactive. Disturbances occurred at Tarsus; Armenians +who did not espouse the “national” cause were murdered; the +life of the patriarch was threatened; and a report was circulated +that the British ambassador wished some Armenians killed +to give him an excuse for bringing the fleet to Constantinople. +On the 1st of October 1895 a number of Armenians, some armed, +went in procession with a petition to the Porte and were ordered +by the police to disperse. Shots were fired, and a riot occurred +in which many Armenian and some Moslem lives were lost. The +British ambassador now pressed the scheme of reforms upon the +sultan, who accepted it on the 17th of October. Meanwhile there +had been a massacre at Trebizond (October 8), in which armed +men from Constantinople took part, and it had become evident +that no united action on the part of the powers was to be feared. +The sultan refused to publish the scheme of reforms, and massacre +followed massacre in Armenia in quick succession until the 1st +of January 1896. Nothing was done. Russia refused to agree +to any measure of coercion, and declared (December 19) +that she would take no action except such as was needed for +the protection of foreigners. Great Britain was not prepared +to act alone. In the summer of 1896 (June 14-22) there +were massacres at Van, Egin, and Niksar; and on the 26th of +August the Imperial Ottoman Bank at Constantinople was +seized by revolutionists as a demonstration against the Christian +powers who had left the Armenians to their fate. The project +was known to the Porte, and the rabble, previously armed +and instructed, were at once turned loose in the streets. Two +days’ massacre followed, during which from 6000 to 7000 +Gregorian Armenians perished.</p> + +<p>The massacres were apparently organized and carried out in +accordance with a well-considered plan. They occurred, except +in six places, in the vilayets to which the scheme of +reforms was to apply. At Trebizond they took place +<span class="sidenote">The massacres.</span> +just before the sultan accepted that scheme, and after +his acceptance of it they spread rapidly. They were confined +to Gregorian and Protestant Armenians. The Roman Catholics +were protected by France, the Greek Christians by Russia. The +massacre of Syrians, Jacobites and Chaldees at Urfa and elsewhere +formed no part of the original plan. Orders were given +to protect foreigners, and in some cases guards were placed over +their houses. The damage to the American buildings at Kharput +was due to direct disobedience of orders. The attacks on the +bazars were made without warning, during business hours, when +the men were in their shops and the women in their houses. +Explicit promises were given, in some instances, that there would +be no danger to those who opened their shops, but they were +deliberately broken. Nearly all those who, from their wealth, +education and influence, would have had a share in the government +under the scheme of reforms, were killed and their families +ruined by the destruction of their property. Where any attempt +at defence was made the slaughter was greatest. The only +successful resistance was at Zeitun, where the people received +honourable terms after three months’ fighting. In some towns +the troops and police took an active part in the massacres. At +Kharput artillery was used. In some the slaughter commenced +and ended by bugle-call, and in a few instances the Armenians +were disarmed beforehand. Wherever a superior official or army +officer intervened the massacre at once ceased, and wherever +a governor stood firm there was no disturbance. The actual +perpetrators of the massacres were the local Moslems, aided by +Lazis, Kurds and Circassians. A large majority of the Moslems +disapproved of the massacres, and many Armenians were saved +by Moslem friends. But the lower orders were excited by reports +that the Armenians, supported by the European powers, were +plotting the overthrow of the sultan; and their cupidity was +aroused by the prospect of wiping out their heavy debts to +Armenian pedlars and merchants. No one was punished for the +massacres, and many of those implicated in them were rewarded. +In some districts, especially in the Kharput vilayet, the cry of +“Islam or death” was raised. Gregorian priests and Protestant +pastors were tortured, but preferred death to apostasy. Men and +women were killed in prison and in churches in cold blood. +Churches, monasteries, schools and houses were plundered and +destroyed. In some places there was evidence of the previous +activity of secret societies, in others none. The number of those +who perished, excluding Constantinople, was 20,000 to 25,000.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +Many were forced to embrace Islam, and numbers were reduced +to poverty. The destruction of property was enormous, the +hardest-working and best tax-paying element in the country was +destroyed, or impoverished, and where the breadwinners were +killed the women and children were left destitute. Efforts by +Great Britain and the United States to alleviate the distress were +opposed by the authorities, but met with some success. After +the massacres the number of students in the American schools +and colleges increased, and many Gregorian Armenians became +Roman Catholics in order to obtain the protection of France.</p> + +<p>The Armenian revolutionary societies continued their propaganda +down to the granting of the Turkish constitution in +1908; and meanwhile further massacres occurred here and there, +notably at Mush (1904) and Van (1908).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Abich, <i>Geologie d. armenischen Hochlandes</i> (Wien, 1882); +Bishop, <i>Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan</i> (Lond., 1891); +Bliss, <i>Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities</i> (Lond., 1896); +Bryce, <i>Transcaucasia and Ararat</i> (4th ed., Lond., 1896); +De Coursous, <i>La Rébellion arménienne</i> (Paris, 1895); +Lepsius, <i>Armenia and Europe</i> (Lond., 1897); +Murray, <i>Handbook for Asia Minor</i> (Lond., 1895); +Parly. Papers, <i>Turkey</i>, I. (1895); <i>Turkey</i>, I., II. (1896); +Supan, “Die Verbreitung d. Armenier in der asiatischen Turkei, u. in +Transkaukasien,” in Pet. <i>Mitt</i>. vol. xlii. (1896); +Tozer, <i>Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor</i> (Lond., 1881); Cholet, <i>Arménie, Kurdistan, et Mésopotamie</i> (1892); +Lynch, <i>Armenia</i> (2 vols., 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. W. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Armenians and Kurds have lived together from the earliest +times. The adoption of Islam by the latter, and by many Armenians, +divided the people sharply into Christian and Moslem, and placed the +Christian in a position of inferiority. But the relations between the +two sects were not unfriendly previously to the Russian campaigns +in Persia and Turkey. After 1829 the relations became less friendly; +and later, when the Armenians attracted the sympathies of the +European powers after the war of 1877-78, they became bitterly +hostile.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> According to some estimates the number killed was 50,000 or more.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMENIAN CHURCH<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>. No trustworthy account exists of +the evangelization of Armenia, for the legend of King Abgar’s +correspondence with Christ, even if it contained any historical +truth, only relates to Edessa and Syriac Christianity. That the +Armenians appropriated from the Syrians this, as well as the +stories of Bartholomew and Thaddeus (the Syriac <i>Addai</i>), was +merely an avowal on their part that Edessa was the centre from +which the faith radiated over their land. In the 4th century and +later the liturgy was still read in Syriac in parts of Armenia, +and the New Testament, the history of Eusebius, the homilies of +Aphraates, the works of St Ephraem and many other early +books were translated from Syriac, from which tongue most +of their ecclesiological terms were derived. The earliest notice +of an organized church in Armenia is in Eusebius, <i>H. E</i>. vi. 46, +to the effect that Dionysius of Alexandria <i>c</i>. 250 sent a letter to +Meruzanes, bishop of the brethren in Armenia. There were many +Christians in Melitene at the time of the Decian persecution in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250, and two bishops from Great Armenia were present at the +council of Nice in 325. King Tiridates (<i>c</i>. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 238-314) had +already been baptized some time after 261 by Gregory the +Illuminator. The latter was ordained priest and appointed +<i>catholicus</i> or exarch of the church of Great Armenia by Leontius, +bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. This one fact is certain amidst +the fables which soon obscured the history of this great missionary. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span> +Thus the church of Great Armenia began as a province of the +Cappadocian see. But there was a tradition of a line of bishops +earlier than Gregory in Siuniq, a region east of Ararat along the +Araxes (Aras), which in early times claimed to be independent +of the catholicus. The Adoptianist bishop Archelaus, who +opposed the entry of Mani into Armenia under Probus <i>c</i>. 277, was +also perhaps a Syriac-speaking bishop of Pers-Armenia. Almost +the earliest document revealing anything of the inner organization +and condition of the Armenian church in the Nicene age is +the epistle of Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, to the Armenian +bishop Verthanes, written between 325 and 335 and preserved +in Armenian. Its genuineness has been unreasonably suspected. +It insists on the erection of fonts; on distinction of grades +among the ordained clergy; on not postponing baptism too +long; on bishops and priests alone, and not deacons, being +allowed to baptize and lay hands on or confirm the baptized; +on avoiding communion with Arians; on the use of unleavened +bread in the Sacrament, &c. We learn from it that the bishop +of Basen and Bagrevand was an Arian at that time. By the year +450 these two districts already had separate bishops of their own. +The letter of Macarius, therefore, if a forgery, must be a very +early one.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The Armenians must, like the Georgians a little +later, have set store by the opinion of the bishop of Jerusalem, +or they would not have sent to consult him. It was equally from +Jerusalem that they subsequently adopted their lectionary and +arrangement of the Christian year; and a 9th-century copy +of this lectionary in the Paris library preserves to us precious +details of the liturgical usages of Jerusalem in the 4th century. +We can trace the presence of Armenian convents on the Mount +of Olives as early as the 5th century.</p> + +<p>Tradition represents the conversion of Great Armenia under +Gregory and Tiridates as a sort of triumphant march, in which +the temples of the demons and their records were destroyed +wholesale, and their undefended sites instantly converted into +Christian churches. The questions arise: how was the transition +from old to new effected? and what was the type of +teaching dominant in the new church? Armenian tradition, +confirmed by nearly contemporary Greek sources, answers the +first question. The old order went on, but under new names. +The priestly families, we learn, hearing that the God preached by +Gregory needed not sacrifice, sent to the king a deputation and +asked how they were to live, if they became Christians; for until +then the priests and their families had lived off the portions +of the animal victims and other offerings reserved to them by +pagan custom. Gregory replied that, if they would join the new +religion, not only should the sacrifices continue, but they should +have larger perquisites then ever. The priestly families then +went over <i>en masse</i>. How far the older sacrificial rules resembled +the levitical law we do not know, but in the canons of Sahak, +<i>c</i>. 430, the priests already receive the levitical portions of the +victims; and we find that animals are being sacrificed every +Sunday, on the feast days which at first were few, in fulfilment +of private vows, in expiation of the sins of the living, and still +more of those of the dead. No one might kill his own meat and +deprive the priest of his due; but this rule did not apply to the +chase. The earliest Armenian rituals contain ample services for +the conduct of an <i>agapē</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) or love feast held in the church off +sacrificial meat. The victim was slaughtered by the priest in +the church porch before the crucifix, after it had been ritually +wreathed and given the holy salt, by licking which it appropriated +a sacramental purity or efficacy previously conveyed into the +salt by exorcisms and consecration. In the canons of Sahak the +priest is represented as eating the sins of the people in these repasts.</p> + +<p>It is easy to underrate the importance in religion of a change +of names. The old sacrificial hymns were probably obscene +and certainly nonsensical, and the substitution for them of the +psalms, and of lections of the prophets and New Testament, was +an enormous gain. We do not know precisely how the eucharistic +rite was adjusted to these sacrificial meals; but, in the +canons of Sahak, 1 Cor. xi. 17-34 is interpreted of these meals, +which were known as the Dominical (suppers). The Eucharist +was, therefore, long associated with the <i>matal</i> or animal victim, +and only in the 8th century do we hear of an interval of time being +left between the fleshly and the spiritual sacrifices, as the two +rites were then called. The Basilian service of the Eucharist +was used in the 5th century, but superseded later on by a +Byzantine rite which will be found translated in F.E. Brightman’s +<i>Eastern Liturgies</i>. The Eucharist was no doubt the one +important sacrifice in the minds of the clergy who had attended +the schools of Constantinople and Alexandria; yet the heart of +the people remained in their ancient blood-offerings, and as late +as the 12th century they were prone to deny that the mass could +expiate the sins of the dead unless accompanied by the sacrifice +of an animal. Perhaps even to-day the worst fate that can befall +a villager after death is to be deprived, not of commemoration +in the mass, but of the victim slain for his sins. The keenest +spiritual weapon of the Armenian priest was ever a threat not to +offer the <i>matal</i> for a man when he died.</p> + +<p>Another survival in the Armenian church was the hereditary +priesthood. None but a scion of a priestly family could become +a deacon, elder or bishop. Accordingly the primacy remained +in the family of Gregory until about 374, when the king Pap +or Bab murdered Nerses, who had been ordained by Eusebius +of Caesarea (362-370) and was over-zealous in implanting in +Armenia the canons about celibacy, marriage, fasting, hospices +and monastic life which Basil had established in Cappadocia. +It may be remarked that Gregory’s own family was a cadet +branch of the Arsacid kin which had occupied the thrones of +Persia, Bactria, Armenia and Georgia. His primacy therefore +was in itself a survival of an earlier age when king and priest +were one. He was in fact a <i>rex sacrificulus</i>, and later on, when +the Arsacid dynasty fell in Armenia <i>c</i>. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 428, the Armenian +catholicus became the symbol of national unity and the rallying-point +of patriotism. The line of Gregory was restored in 390 in +the person of Isaac or Sahak, son of Nerses, and his patriarchate +was the golden age of Armenian literature. But by this time the +autonomy of the Armenian church was thoroughly established. +On the death of Nerses the right of saying grace at the royal +meals, which was the essence of the catholicate, was transferred by +the king, in despite of the Greeks, to the priestly family of Albianus, +and thenceforth no Armenian catholicus went to Caesarea for +ordination. The ties with Greek official Christendom were +snapped for ever, and in subsequent ages the doctrinal preferences +of the Armenians were usually determined more by antagonism +to the Greeks than by reflection. If they accepted the council +of Ephesus in 430 and joined in the condemnation of Nestorius, +it was rather because the Sassanid kings of Persia, who thirsted +for the reconquest of Armenia, favoured Nestorianism, a form of +doctrine current in Persia and rejected in Byzantium. But later +on, about 480, and throughout the following centuries, the +Armenians rejected the decrees of Chalcedon and held that the +assertion of two natures in Christ was a relapse into the heresy of +Nestor. From the close of the 5th century the Armenians have +remained monophysite, like the Copts and Abyssinians, and have +only broken the record with occasional short interludes of orthodoxy, +as when in 633 the emperor Heraclius forced reunion on +them, under a catholicus named Esdras, at a council held in +Erzerum. Even then all parties were careful not to mention +Chalcedon. The march of Arab conquest kept the Armenians +friendly to Byzantium for a few years; but in 718 the catholicus +John of Odsun ascended the throne and at the council of Manazkert +in 728 repeated and confirmed the anathemas against +Chalcedon and the tome of Leo, that had been first pronounced by +the catholicus Babken in 491 at a synod held in Valarshapat by +the united Armenian, Georgian or Iberian, and Albanian churches. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span> +The Armenians marked their complete disruption with the Greeks +by starting an era of their own at the synod of Dvin. The era +began on the 11th of July 552, and their year is vague, that is to +say, it does not intercalate a day in February every fourth year, +like the Julian calendar.</p> + +<p>The two churches of Iberia and Albania at first depended on +the Armenian for ordination of their primates or <i>catholici</i>, and in +large part owed their first constitution to Armenian missionaries +sent by Gregory the Illuminator. The Iberians still reverence +as saints the Armenian doctors of the 5th century, but as early +as 552 they began to resent the dictatorial methods of the +Armenians, as well might a proud race of mountaineers who +never wholly lost their political independence; and they broke +off their allegiance to the Armenian see very soon afterwards, +accepted Chalcedon and joined the Byzantine church. The +Albanians of the Caucasus were also converted in the age of +Gregory, early in the 4th century, and were loyal to the +Armenians in the great struggle against Mazdaism in the 5th; +but broke away for a time towards 600, and chose a patriarch +without sending him to Armenia for ordination. Eventually +this interesting church was engulfed by the rising tide of +Mahommedan conquest, but not before one of their bishops, +named Israel, had converted (677-703) the Huns who lay to the +north of the Caspian and had translated the Bible and liturgies +into their language. If the Albanian and Hunnish versions could +be found, they would be of the greatest linguistic importance.</p> + +<p>The mother church of Armenia was established by Gregory at +Ashtishat in the province of Taron, on the site of the great temple +of Wahagn, whose festival on the seventh of the month Sahmi +was reconsecrated to John the Baptist and Athenogenes, an +Armenian martyr and Greek hymn writer. The first of Navasard, +the Armenian new year’s day, was the feast of a god Vanatur +or Wanadur (who answered to <span class="grk" title="Zeus xenios">Ζεὺς ξένιος</span>) in the holy pilgrim +city of Bagawan. His day was reconsecrated to the Baptist, +whose relics were brought to Bagawan. The feast of Anahite, +the Armenian Venus and spouse of the chief god Aramazd, was +in the same way rededicated to the Virgin Mary, who for long was +not very clearly distinguished by the Armenians from the virgin +mother church. The old cult of sacred stones and trees by an +easy transition became cross-worship, but a cross was not sacred +until the Christ had been, by priestly prayer and invocation, +transferred into it.</p> + +<p>What was the earliest doctrine of the churches of Armenia? +If we could believe the fathers of the 5th and succeeding centuries +Nicene orthodoxy prevailed in their country from the first; +and in the 5th century they certainly chose for translation the +works of orthodox fathers alone, such as Chrysostom, Basil, +Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory Nazianzen, Cyril of Jerusalem and +Cyril of Alexandria, Athanasius, Julius of Rome, Hippolytus, +Irenaeus, avoiding Origen and other fathers who were becoming +suspect. However, we do hear of versions of Nestorian writers +like Diodore of Tarsus being in circulation, and the <i>Disputation</i> of +Archelaus proves that the current orthodoxy of eastern Armenia +was Adoptianist, if not Ebionite in tone. The Persian Armenians +as late as the 6th century had not heard of the faith of Nicaea, +and only then received it from the catholicus Babken. They sent +a copy of their old creed to Babken, and it closely resembles the +Adoptianist creed of Archelaus, the gist of which was that Jesus, +until his thirtieth year, was a man mortal like other men; then, +because he was righteous above all others, he was promoted to the +honour and name of Son of God. He received the title by grace, +but was not equal to God the Father. Because the Spirit worked +with him, he was able to vanquish Satan and all desires, and +because of his righteousness and good works he was made worthy +of grace and became a Temple of God the Word, which came +down from heaven in Jordan, dwelt in him and through him +wrought miracles. From such a standpoint the baptism of Jesus +was the moment of the divine incarnation. The man righteous +above all others was then reborn of the Spirit, was illuminated, +was spiritually anointed, became the Christ and Son of God. In +effect the fathers of the Armenian church often fell back into such +language, far removed as it is from orthodoxy; and they emphasized +the importance of the baptismal feast of the Epiphany on +the 6th of January by refusing to accept the feast of the physical +birth of the 25th of December. As late as 1165 their patriarch +Nerses defends the Armenian custom of keeping Christmas on +the 6th of January on the express ground that as he was born +after the flesh from the Virgin, <i>so he was born by way of baptism +from the Jordan</i>. The custom from the first, he says, had been +to feast on one and the same day the two births, much as they +differed in sacramental import and in point of time. We see +how deep the early Adoptianism had struck its roots, when a +primate of the 12th century could still appeal to the baptismal +regeneration of Jesus. The same Nerses held that the second +Adam, Jesus Christ, received a new body and nature and the +sevenfold grace of the Spirit <i>in the Jordan</i>. The Armenian +doctors also taught that John by laying hands on Jesus and +ordaining him at his baptism sacramentally transferred to him +the three graces or <i>charismata</i> of kingship, prophecy and priesthood +which had belonged to ancient Israel. After baptism, if +not before, the flesh of Christ was incorruptible. It consisted of +ethereal fire, and he was not subject to the ordinary phenomena +of digestion, secretions and evacuations.</p> + +<p>Monastic institutions were hardly introduced in Armenia +before the 5th century, though Christian rest-houses had been +erected along the high-roads long before and are mentioned in +the <i>Disputation</i> of Archelaus. The Armenians called them <i>wanq</i>, +and out of them grew the monasteries. The monks were, strictly +speaking, penitents wearing the cowl, and not allowed to take +a part in church government. This belonged to the elders. At +first there was no separate episcopal ordination, and the one rite +of elder or priest (Armen. <i>Qahanay</i>, Heb. <i>cohen</i>) sufficed. There +were also deacons, half-deacons and readers. Besides these there +was a class of <i>wardapets</i> or teachers, answering to the <i>didascalos</i> of +the earliest church, whose province it was to guard the doctrine +and for whom no rite of ordination is found in the older rituals.</p> + +<p>A few other peculiarities of Armenian church usage or belief +deserve notice. In baptism the rubric ordains that the baptized +be plunged three times in the font in commemoration of the +entombment during three days of the Lord. In the West trine +immersion was generally held to be symbolic of the triune name +of “Father, Son and Holy Ghost.” This name the Armenians +have used, at least since the year 700; before which date their +fathers often speak of baptism into the death of Christ as the +one essential. As late as about 1300 a traveller hostile to the +Armenians reported to the pope that he had witnessed baptisms +without any trinitarian invocation in as many as three hundred +parish churches.</p> + +<p>The paschal lamb is now eaten on Sunday, but until the 11th +century, and even later, it was eaten with the Eucharist at a +Lord’s Supper celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday +after the rite of <i>pedilavium</i> or washing of feet. On the morning +of the same day the penitents were released from their fast.</p> + +<p>The rite of extreme unction was introduced in the crusading +epoch, although it was already usual to anoint the bodies of dead +priests. The worship of images never seems to have taken root +among Armenians; indeed they supplied the Greek world with +iconoclast soldiers and emperors. The worship of crosses into +which the Spirit or Christ had been inserted by the priest must +have satisfied the religious needs of a people who, save in architecture, +showed little artistic faculty. In their older rituals we +find a rite for blessing a painted church, but no word of statues. +Frescoes in their churches are rare, and mostly too high up for +veneration to be paid to them.</p> + +<p>On certain days the cross was washed, and the water in which +it had been washed was a sovereign charm for curing sickness +in men and animals and for bringing fertility to the land.</p> + +<p>In the older rituals we find a rite of <i>exhomologesis</i>, for restoring +those who had sinned after baptism. It was a medicine of sin +that could only be used once and not a second time. In form +it is a rehearsal of the first baptismal rite, but with omission +of the water. It involved like the first rite open confession and +repentance, and absolution by the church. In a later and less +rigorous age this rite was abridged and adjusted to constant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span> +repetition, in such wise that a sinner could be restored to grace +not once only, but as often as the clergy chose to accept his +repentance and confession. Thus the whole development of the +penitentiary system is traceable in the MSS.</p> + +<p>The confession of a dying man might be taken by any layman +present, and written down in order to be shown to the priest when +he arrived. It then was the duty of the latter to supplicate for +his forgiveness, and administer to him the Eucharist.</p> + +<p>The clergy of all grades were originally married. The parish +priests, or white clergy, are so still, except some of the Latinizing +ones. But since the 12th century, or even earlier, the higher +clergy, <i>i.e.</i> patriarchs and bishops, have taken monkish vows and +worn the cowl.</p> + +<p>There were abortive attempts to unite the Armenian church +with the Byzantine in the 9th century under the patriarch +Photius, and again late in the 12th under the emperor Manuel +Comnenus, when a joint council met at Romkla, near Tarsus, but +ended in nothing (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1179). Neither could the Armenians keep +on good terms even with the Syriac monophysites. From the +age of the crusades on, the Armenians of Cilicia, whose patriarch +sat at Sis, improved their acquaintance with Rome; and more +than one of their patriarchs adopted the Roman faith, at least in +words. Dominican missions went to Armenia, and in 1328 under +their auspices was formed a regular order called the United +Brethren, the forerunners of the Uniats of the present day, who +have convents at Venice and Vienna, a college in Rome and a +numerous following in Turkey. They retain their Armenian +liturgies and rites, pruned to suit the Vatican standards of orthodoxy, +and they recognize the pope as head of the church.</p> + +<p>The patriarchs of Great Armenia first resided at Ashtishat, +on the Araxes. From 478 to 931 they occupied Dvin in the same +neighbourhood, then Aghthamar, an island in the Lake of Van, +931-967, the city of Ani, 992-1054, where are still visible the +magnificent ruins of their churches and palaces. Since 1441 the +chief catholicus has sat at Echmiadzin, the convent of Valarshapat, +now part of Russian Armenia. A rival catholicus, with a +small following, still has his cathedral and see at Sis. The catholicus +of Valarshapat is nominally chosen by all Armenians. A +synod of bishops, monks and doctors meets regularly to transact +under his eye the business of the convent and the oecumenical +affairs of the church; but its decisions are subject to the veto of +a Russian procurator. There are Armenian patriarchs, subject +to the spiritual jurisdiction of Echmiadzin, in Constantinople and +Jerusalem. In the latter place the Armenians occupy a convent +on Mount Sion, and keep up in the churches of the Sepulchre and +of Bethlehem their own distinct rites and feasts, the only ones +there which at all resemble those of the 4th century.</p> + +<p>The following list of councils was compiled by John, catholicus +about the year 728, and read at the council of Manazkert, when +the dogmatic and disciplinary attitude of the Armenian church +was defined once and for all:—</p> + +<p>1. In twentieth year of catholicate of Gregory and thirty-seventh +of Trdat, the king, on return of Aristaces from council of +Nice, bringing the Nicene creed and canons.</p> + +<p>2. Council held by St Nerses on his return from the council of +the 150 fathers at Constantinople against Macedonius.</p> + +<p>3. Held by St Sahak and Mesrop on receipt of letters from +Proclus and Cyril after the council of Ephesus, when the “Glory +in the Highest” was adopted. Held against Nestorianism.</p> + +<p>4. Held by Joseph, disciple of Mashdotz (Mesrop) and St Sahak, +in Shahapiwan in the sixth year of King Yazkert (<i>i.e.</i> Yazdegerd) +of Persia, for the regulation of the church. Forty bishops present. +(The Massalians were anathematized.)</p> + +<p>5. Held by Babken, catholicus, in the City-plain (<i>i.e.</i> Dvin), +in the 18th year of King Kavat (<i>i.e.</i> Kavadh), against the +heresy of Acacius and Barsuma (Bar-sauma), the friends of +Nestorius. The true (Nicene) faith was sent to the Armenians of +the farther East (shortly afterwards a slightly different creed was +adopted, identical with a pseudo-Athanasian symbol used by +Evagrius of Pontus and given in Greek in Patr. Gr. xxvi. Col. +1232).</p> + +<p>6. At the beginning of the Armenian era, held by Nerses in +Dvin, in the fourth year of his catholicate, in the fourteenth of +Chosroes’ reign and in the fourteenth of Justinian Caesar. +Held against Chalcedon, uniting the Baptism and Christmas +feasts on the 6th of January (Epiphany), declaring for mono-physitism, +and adopting in the <i>Trisagion</i> the words “who wast +crucified for us.” This settlement lasted for about seventy-four +years.</p> + +<p>7. After the retaking of Jerusalem and recovery of the Cross +from the Persians in the eighteenth year of his reign, Heraclius +called a mixed council at Karin (Theodosiopolis) of Greeks and +Armenians under Ezr (Esdras), catholicus, at which the preceding +council of Dvin was cursed, its reforms repudiated and the +confession of Chalcedon adopted. This remained the official +attitude of the Armenian church until the catholicate of Elias +(703-717). John, catholicus, denies to Ezr’s meeting the name of +council, and so makes his own the seventh.</p> + +<p>8. Under John, catholicus, in Manazkert, in the one hundred +and seventieth year of the Armenian era (= <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 728) under +the presidency of Gregory Asharuni Chorepiscopos (Gregory +Asheruni). All the Armenian bishops attended, as also the +metropolitan of Urhha (Edessa), Jacobite bishops of Gartman, +of Nfrkert, Amasia, by command of the archbishop of Antioch. +Chalcedon was repudiated afresh, union with the Jacobites +instituted, use of water and leaven in the Eucharist condemned, +the five days’ preliminary fast before Lent restored, Saturday as +well as Sunday made a day of feasting and synaxis, any but the +orthodox excluded from the Maundy Thursday Communion, +the first communion of the new catechumens; union of the +Baptismal and Christmas feasts was restored, and the faithful +forbidden to fast on Fridays from Easter until Pentecost. In +general these rules have been observed in the Armenian church +ever since.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For list of authorities on the Armenian church see the works +enumerated at the end of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armenian Language and Literature</a></span>. +For the relations of the Armenian church to the Persian kings see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>, section viii. §§ 2 and 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> If a forgery, why should this letter have been assigned to Macarius, +a comparatively obscure person whose name is not even found in the +menaea of the Eastern church? But convincing proof of its authenticity +lies in Macarius’ reference to himself as merely archbishop of +Jerusalem, and his avowal that he was unwilling to advise the +Armenians, “being oppressed by the weakness of the authority conceded +him by the weighty usages of the church.” Jerusalem was only +allowed to rank as a patriarchate in 451, and the seventh canon of +Nice subordinated the see to that of Caesarea in Palestine. To this +decree Macarius somewhat bitterly alludes.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> +The Armenian language belongs to the group called Indo-European, +of which the Iranic and Indic tongues formed one +branch, and Greek, Albanian, Italian, Celtic, Germanic +and Baltic-Slavonic dialects the other great branch. Unlike +<span class="sidenote">Language.</span> +most of these, Armenian lost its genders long before the year +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400, when the existing literature begins. Modern Persian +similarly has lost gender; and in both cases the liberation must +have been due to attrition of other tongues which had a different +system of gender or none at all. So the Armenians were ever in +contact on the north with the Iberians of the Caucasus who had +none, and with the Semitic races on the south and east which had +other ways of forming genders than the Indo-European tongues.</p> + +<p>From the original Armenian stock can be readily distinguished +a mass of Old and Middle Persian loan-words. These are so +numerous that for a time Armenian was classed as an Iranian +tongue. For more than a thousand years, say until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 640, +Armenia was an appanage of the realm of the Persians and +Parthians. Until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 428 the Armenian throne was occupied by +a younger branch of the Arsacid dynasty that ruled in Persia +until the advent of the Sassanids (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 226), and the internal +polity and court administration of Armenia were modelled on the +Persian or Parthian. Accordingly over 200 proper and personal +names in Armenia were Old Persian, as well as 700 names of +things. If we count in the derivative forms of these words we +get at least 2000 Old Persian words. Often the same Persian +word was borrowed twice over in an earlier and later form at an +interval of centuries, just as in English we inherit a word direct +or have taken it from Latin, and have also assimilated from +French a later form of the same. The Persian influence in +Armenian was already strong as early as 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when Xenophon +used a Persian interpreter to converse. In some of the Armenian +villages they answered him in Persian. The Persian loan-words +already present in Armenian as early as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 mirror the +earlier political and social life of Armenia. Thus many of their +kings and nobles had Persian names; Persian also were most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span> +words used in connexion with horses and the chase, with war +and army, with dress, trade and coinage, calendar, weights and +measures, with court and political institutions, with music, +medicine, school, education, literature and the arts. Many +everyday words were of the same origin, <i>e.g.</i> the words for village, +desert, building and build, need, rich or liberal, arm (of body), +rod or goad, face, opposite, wicked, unfriendly, discontented, +difficult, daughter, eulogy, a youth, wary, enjoy, unhappy, +volition, voluntary, unwilling, blind, cautious, blood-kin, coquet +with, slumber, humble, mad, grace or favour, memory or attention, +grandfather, old woman, prepared, duty, necessary, end, +endless, superior, confident, mistake, warmth, heat, glory. The +language of their old religion was mainly Persian, but in the +4th century they derived numerous ecclesiological words from the +Syrians, from whom by way of Edessa and Nisibis Christianity +penetrated eastern Armenia. The language of the garden and +the names of plants were also Persian. They had their own +numerals, but the words for one thousand and for ten thousand +are Persian.</p> + +<p>Yet more indicative of the extent of the Persian influence is the +adoption of the adjectival ending -<i>akan</i> and -<i>zan</i>, added to purely +Armenian words; also of the preposition <i>ham</i>, answering to <i>con</i> +in “conjoin,” “conspire,” added to purely Armenian words, as +in <i>hambarnam</i>, I take away, and <i>hamboir</i>, a kiss, a word which, +strange to say, the Iberians in turn borrowed from the Armenians. +From Persia also the Armenians took their names for surrounding +races, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Tatshik</i> or <i>Tajik</i>, first for Arab and then for Turk, +<i>Ariq</i> for Persians, <i>Kapkoh</i> for Caucasus, <i>Hrazdan</i>, <i>Vaspuragan</i>, +&c. The Armenians call themselves <i>Hay</i>, plural <i>Hayq</i>; their +country <i>Hayasdan</i>. The Iberians they called <i>Virq</i> or <i>Wirq</i> +(where <i>q</i> marks the plural), the Medes <i>Marq</i>, the Cappadocians +<i>Gamirq</i> (Cimmerians), the Greeks Yûnes or Ionians; Ararat they +call <i>Masis</i>, the Euphrates the <i>Aradsan</i>, the Tigris <i>Teglath</i>, +Erzerum is <i>Karin</i>, Edessa <i>Urhha</i>, Nisibis <i>Mdsbin</i>, Ctesiphon +<i>Tizbon</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>When the Persian and other loan-words are removed, a stock +remains of native words and forms governed by other phonetic +laws than those which govern the Aryan, <i>i.e.</i> Indian and Iranic, +branch of the Indo-European tongues. Armenian appears to be +a half-way dialect between the Aryan branch and Slavo-lettic. +Much, however, in Armenian philology remains unexplained. +For example the plural of nouns, pronouns and the first and +second persons plural of verbs are all formed by adding a <i>q</i> or <i>k</i>, +which has no parallel in any Indo-Germanic tongue. The +genitive plural again is formed by adding a <i>tz</i> or <i>c</i>, and the same +consonant characterizes the composite aorist and the conjunctive. +In all three cases it is unexplained. In the verbs the termination +<i>m</i> for the first singular at once explains itself, and the <i>n</i> of the +third plural is the Indo-Germanic <i>nti</i>. But not so the second +person singular ending in <i>s</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>berem</i>, I bear, <i>beres</i>, thou bearest. +This has a superficial likeness to the I.-G. <i>esi</i> in <i>bheresi</i>, “thou +bearest.” Yet we should expect the <i>s</i> between vowels to vanish, +and give us in Armenian <i>berê</i>. Perhaps, therefore, an old variant +of <i>esi</i>, similar to the <span class="grk" title="essi">ἐσσί</span>, lies behind the Armenian <i>es</i>, +thou art, and the <i>es</i> in <i>beres</i>, thou bearest. In any case it is clear +that many of the oldest forms which Armenian shared with other +Indo-Germanic dialects were lost and replaced by forms of which +the origin is obscure. Perhaps a closer study of Mingrelian and +Georgian will explain some of these peculiarities, for these and +their cognate tongues must have had a wider range in the 7th and +8th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> than they had later when clear history begins. +The attempts made by S. Bugge to assimilate Old Armenian to +Etruscan, and by P. Jensen to explain from it the Hittite inscriptions, +appear to be fanciful. There is a large Semitic influence +traceable in Armenian due to their early contact with the Syriac-speaking peoples to the south and east of them, and later to the +Arab conquest. Much remains to be done in the way of collecting +Armenian dialects, for which task there are written materials +as far back as the 12th century over and above the work to be +done by an intelligent traveller armed with a phonograph. Two +main dialects of Armenian are distinguishable to-day, that of +Ararat and Tiflis, and that of Stambul and the coast cities of +Asia Minor. The latter is much overlaid with Tatar or Turkish +words, and the Tatar order of words distinguishes the modern +Armenian sentence from the ancient.</p> + +<p>It remains to say that classical Armenian resembles rather the +modern idiom of Van than of western Armenia. It was a plastic +and noble language, capable of rendering faithfully, yet not +servilely, the Greek Bible and Greek fathers. Often the Armenian +translators, and especially after the 5th century, rendered word +for word, preserving the order of the Greek. This literalness, +though unpleasing from a literary standpoint, gives to many of +their ancient versions the value almost of a Greek codex of the +age in which the version was made. The same literalness also +characterizes their translations from Syriac.</p> + +<p>The Armenians had a temple literature of their own, which +was destroyed in the 4th and 5th centuries by the Christian +clergy, so thoroughly that barely twenty lines of it +survive in the history of Moses of Khoren (Chorene). +<span class="sidenote">Literature.</span> +Their Christian literature begins about 400 with the invention of +the Armenian alphabet by Mesrop. This was probably an older +alphabet to which Mesrop merely added vowels; but, in order +to pacify the Greek ecclesiastics and the emperor Theodosius the +Less, the Armenians concocted a story that it had been divinely +revealed. Once their alphabet perfected, the catholicus Sahak +formed a school of translators who were sent to Edessa, Athens, +Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea in Cappadocia, +and elsewhere, to procure codices both in Syriac and Greek and +translate them. From Syriac were made the first version of the +New Testament, the version of Eusebius’ History and his Life of +Constantine (unless this be from the original Greek), the homilies +of Aphraates, the Acts of Gurias and Samuna, the works of +Ephrem Syrus (partly published in four volumes by the Mechitharists +of Venice). They include the commentaries on the <i>Diatessaron</i> +and the Paulines, Laboubna and History of Addai, the +Syriac canons of the Apostles.</p> + +<p>From the original Greek were rendered in the 5th century the +following authors and works. An asterisk is prefixed to those +which have been printed:—*Eusebius’ <i>Chronicon</i>; *Philo’s lost +commentaries on Genesis and Exodus, and his lost treatises on +Providence and Animals, as well as a great number of his works +still preserved in Greek; *the entire Bible (the New Testament +is a recension after Antiochene Greek texts of an older version +made from the oldest Syriac text); *the Alexander romance +of the pseudo-Callisthenes; *<i>Epistles</i> and <i>Acts</i> of Ignatius of +Antioch; *many homilies of Gregory Thaumaturgus; *Athanasius +(a large number of works, many of them wrongly +attributed); Irenaeus, <i>Adversus Haereses</i> and <i>Ad Marcianum</i> +(recently found); *Hippolytus’ commentaries on the Song of +Songs and Daniel, and many fragments; *Timotheus’ life of +Athanasius; Theophilus of Alexandria, various homilies; +*Eusebius of Gabala or Severianus, fifteen Homilies; *Cyril of +Jerusalem, <i>Catecheses</i> and Letter to Constantine; *<i>Wisdom of +Ahikar</i>; *the <i>Apology</i> of Aristides; Gregory of Nazianzus, +thirty-four Homilies; *Nonnus’ work on Gregory (perhaps a +version of 6th century); Basil of Caesarea, *<i>Hexaëmeron</i>, +fifteen Homilies on faith, epistle to Terentius, ascetic writings +and canons, on the Holy Spirit, to Cledonius, &c. Helladius of +Caesarea’s life of Basil; Gregory of Nyssa’s treatise on the +Beatitudes, and many other homilies, Commentaries on Song of +Songs, *On Human Nature (Nemesius), panegyrics on sundry +Martyrs, and other works (but some of these versions belong to +the beginning of the 8th century); Epiphanius of Salamis, Commentary +on the Gospels, *<i>On weights and measures</i>, *<i>Physiologus</i>, +canons and many homilies; Evagrius of Pontus, Homilies and +Ascetic works, Letters to Melania, &c.; John Chrysostom, +*Homilies and Prayers, in very beautiful language; *Proclus, +patriarch of Constantinople, many homilies; *Nilus the Ascete, <i>On +the Eight Spirits of Evil</i>; *Josephus, <i>On the Jewish War</i>; Dionysius +of Alexandria, *<i>Against Paul of Samosata</i> and other fragments; Acacius, +bishop of Melitene, *<i>Letters</i> to Sahak; Julius of Rome +(fragments); Zenobius, Homilies (? from Syriac); the <i>History</i> +of Julius Africanus was perhaps also translated in this century, +but it is lost. To the 5th century belong the versions of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span> +Nicene canons, of which the Armenian text as preserved is barely +intelligible, of the eucharistic rites called of *Basil, *Chrysostom, +*Ignatius and others; also the *Hours or Breviary, the *Rites +of Ordination, Baptism, of the making and release of Penitents, +of Epiphany, and perhaps the many rites of animal sacrifice, for +these are partly originals, partly versions of lost Greek texts. +A mass of martyrs’ acts were also rendered in this century, +including parts of the lost collection made by Eusebius. Among +these the *<i>Acts and Apology</i> of Apollonius restore a lost 2nd-century +text. The *<i>Canons</i> of Sahak also purport to be translated +from a Greek original about the year 330.</p> + +<p>The Armenians were so busy in this century translating Greek +and Syriac fathers that they have left little that is original. Still +a number of historical works survive: *Faustus of Byzantium +relates the events of the period <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 344-392 in a work instinct +with life and racy of the soil. It was perhaps first composed in +Greek, but it gives a faithful picture of the court of the petty +sovereigns of Armenia, of the political organization, of the blood +feuds of the clans, of the planting of Christianity. Procopius +preserves some fragments of the Greek.</p> + +<p>The *<i>History of Taron</i>, by Zenobius of Glak, is a somewhat +legendary account of Gregory the Illuminator, and may have been +written in Syriac in the 5th, though it was only Armenized in a +later century.</p> + +<p>*Elisaeus Wardapet wrote a history of Wardan (Vardan), and +of the war waged for their faith by the Armenians against the +Sassanids. He was an eye-witness of this struggle, and gives a +good account of the contemporary Mazdaism which the Persians +tried to force on the Armenians. *Lazar of Pharp wrote a history +embracing the events of the 5th century up to the year 485, as a +continuation of the work of Faustus.</p> + +<p>*A history of St Gregory and of the conversion of Armenia +by Agathangelus is preserved in Greek, Armenian and Arabic. +The Arabic edited by Professor Marr of St Petersburg seems to +be the oldest form of text. The Greek is a rendering of the +Armenian. It is a compilation, and the second part which +contains the <i>Acts</i> of Gregory and of St Rhipsima seems wholly +legendary. The Greek and Armenian texts were edited together +by Lagarde.</p> + +<p>*The <i>History of Armenia</i> by Moses of Khoren (Chorene) +relates events up to about the year 450. It is a compilation, +devoid of historical method, value or veracity, from all sorts of +previous authors, mostly from those which already existed in an +Armenian dress. Some critics put down the date of composition +as low as about 700, and it was certainly retouched in the late +6th century.</p> + +<p>*A long volume of rhetorical exercises, based on Aphthonius, +is also ascribed to Moses of Khoren, and appears to be of the 5th +century. The *geography which passes under his name may +belong to the 7th century. Various homilies of Moses survive, +as also of Elisaeus.</p> + +<p>Gorium wrote in this century a *<i>Life of Mesrop</i>, and Eznik a +*<i>Refutation of the Sects</i>, based largely on antecedent Greek works. +The sects in question are Paganism, Mazdaism, Greek Philosophy +and Manicheism. A volume of *homilies under the name of +Gregory the Illuminator, but not his, also belongs to this century, +and a series of ascetic discourses attributed to John Mandakuni, +who was patriarch 478-500.</p> + +<p>Of the 6th and 7th centuries few works survive except anonymous +versions of the *<i>Acts of Thomas</i> (perhaps from the Syriac), +of the *<i>Acts of Peter and Paul</i>, *of John (pseudo-Prochorus), +*of Bartholomew, and of other apostles; also of *the Acts of +Paul and Thekla, *of Titus, *of the Protevangel, *of the Testaments +of the patriarchs, of the *<i>Gospel of Nicodemus</i>, or <i>Acts of +Pilate</i>, of the *<i>Book of Adam</i>, of the *<i>Deaths of the Prophets</i>, of +the *<i>History of Baruch</i>, of the *Apocalypses of Paul and of the +Virgin Mary, of the *Acts of Sylvester, and of an enormous +number of other similar apocryphs. Some of these may be of the +5th century. Two volumes of these apocryphs of the Old and +New Testaments have recently been published at Venice. To +these centuries belong also the versions of the Acts of the council +of Ephesus, of Gangra, Laodicea and of other councils. To the +late 7th century belong the *calendarial works of Ananiah of +Shirak, who also has left a *<i>chronicon</i> compiled from Eusebius, +Andreas of Crete, Hippolytus and other sources. In the *<i>Letter-book +of the Patriarchs</i>, lately printed at Tiflis, are to be found +a number of controversial monophysite tracts of these and the +succeeding three centuries, important for church history. It +includes a mass of documents relative to the churches of Iberia +and Albania. The chief literary monument of the 7th century is +the history of the wars of Heraclius and of the early Mahommedan +conquests in Asia Minor, by the bishop Sebeos, who was an eye-witness. +The *history of the Albanians of the Caucasus, by +Moses Kalankatuatzi, also belongs to the end of this century. +To the middle of the 7th century also belong the translations of +Aristotle’s treatises *<i>On the Categories</i>, and *<i>On Interpretation</i>, +and of *Porphyry’s <i>Isagogē</i>, as well as of voluminous Greek +commentaries on these books; the version of the *Grammar of +Dionysius Thrax and an incomplete Euclid. The translator +was one David called the Invincible, who also wrote monophysite +tracts. At the end of this 7th century one Philo of +Tirak is supposed to have made the version of the *History +of Socrates, unless indeed it was made earlier. To this century +also seems to belong the Armenian version of a *history of the +Iberians, by Djuansher, a work full of valuable information.</p> + +<p>The early 8th century was a time of great literary activity. +Gregory Asheruni wrote an important *commentary on the +Jerusalem Lectionary, and his friend *John the catholicus (717-728) +commentaries on the other liturgical works of his church; +he also collected all existing canon law, Greek or Armenian, +respected in his church, wrote *against the Paulicians and +Docetae, and composed many beautiful hymns. *Leoncius the +priest has left a history of the first caliphs, and Stephanus, bishop +of Siunik, translated the *controversial works of Cyril of +Alexandria (whose <i>Glaphyra</i> and commentaries, however, seem +to have been translated at an earlier period). He also translated +the works of Dionysius the Areopagite, commented on the +Armenian breviary and wrote hymns.</p> + +<p>In the 9th century Zachariah, catholicus, the correspondent of +Photius, wrote many eloquent homilies for the various church +feasts. Shapuh Bagratuni wrote a history of his age, now lost. +Mashtotz, catholicus, collected in one volume the Armenian +rituals.</p> + +<p>In the 10th century (<i>c.</i> 925) the catholicus John VI. issued his +*history of Armenia, and Thomas Artsruni a *history of his clan +carried up to the year 936. Ananias of Mok (943-965) wrote a +great work against the Paulicians, unfortunately lost. Chosroes +wrote a *commentary on the eucharistic rites and breviary, +*Mesrop a history of Nerses the Great; *Stephen of Asolik wrote +a history of the world, and a commentary on Jeremiah; *Gregory +of Narek his famous meditations and hymns; Samuel Kamrdjtsoretzi +a commentary on the Lectionary based on Gregory +Asheruni.</p> + +<p>In the 11th century the catholicus Gregory translated many +Acts of Martyrs, and John Kozerhn wrote a history, now lost, as +well as a work on the Armenian calendar; Stephen Asolik a +*history of Armenia up to the year 1004; *Aristaces of Lastiverd +a valuable history of the conquest of Armenia by the Seljuk +caliphs. We may also mention a *monophysite work against +the Greek doctor Theopistus by Paul of Taron; *letters and +poems of Gregory Magistros, who also was the translator of the +*<i>Laws, Timaeus</i> and other dialogues of Plato.</p> + +<p>The 12th century saw many remarkable writers, mostly in +Cilician Armenia, viz. Nerses the Graceful (d. 1165), author of an +*<i>Elegy</i> on the taking of Edessa, of *voluminous hymns, of long +*Pastoral Letters and Synodal orations of value for the historian +of eastern churches. *Samuel of Ani composed a chronicle up to +1179. Nerses of Lambron, archbishop of Tarsus, left a *Synodal +oration, a *Commentary on the liturgy, &c., and his contemporary +Gregory of Tlay an *<i>Elegy</i> on the capture of Jerusalem, +and various *dogmatic works. In this century the *history of +Michael the Syrian was translated; Ignatius and Sargis composed +*commentaries on Luke and *the catholic epistles, and +*Matthew of Edessa a valuable history of the years 952-1136, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span> +continued up to 1176 by Gregory the priest. Mechithar +(Mekhitar) Kosh (d. 1207) wrote an elegant *<i>Book of Fables</i>, +and compiled a *corpus of civil and canon law (partly from +Byzantine codes).</p> + +<p>In the 13th century the following works or authors are to be +noticed:—*history of Kiriakos of Ganzak, which contains much +about the Mongols, Georgians and Albanians; *Malakia the +monk’s history of the Tatars up to 1272; *Chronicle of Mechithar +of Ani (fragmentary); *Vahram’s rhymed chronicle of the +kings of Lesser Armenia; *history of the world, by Vartan, up to +1269. In this century mostly falls the redaction of a large fable +literature, recently edited in three volumes by Professor Marr of +St Petersburg.</p> + +<p>14th century: *history of Siunik, by Stephen Orbelian, +archbishop of that province 1287-1304; *Sempat’s chronicle +of Lesser Armenia (952-1274), carried on by a continuator to +1331; *Mechithar of Airivanq, a chronography; *Hethoum’s +account of the Tatars, and chronography of the years 1076-1307. +John of Orotn (d. 1388) compiled commentaries on John’s +gospel and the Paulines, and wrote homilies and monophysite +works; his disciple Gregory of Dathev (b. 1340) compiled a +*<i>Summa theologiae</i> called the <i>Book of Questions</i>, in the style of the +<i>Summa</i> of Aquinas, which had been translated into Armenian +c. 1330, as were a little later the *<i>Summa</i> of Albertus and works +of other schoolmen.</p> + +<p>15th century: *<i>History of Tamerlane</i>, by Thomas of Medsoph, +carried up to 1447.</p> + +<p>17th century, Araqel of Tabriz wrote a *history of the Persian +invasions of Armenia in the years 1602-1661.</p> + +<p>In the above list are not included a number of medical, +astrological, calendarial and philological or lexicographic works, +mostly written during or since the Cilician or crusading epoch. +The hymns used in Armenian worship rarely go back to the 5th +century; and they were still few in number and brief in length +when Nerses the Graceful and his contemporaries more than +doubled their number and bulk in the 12th century. Most +Armenian poems embody acrostics, and their poets began to +rhyme in the 8th century or thereabouts. Since the 15th century +a certain number of profane poets have arisen, whose work is +less jejune on the whole than that of the hymn and canticle +writers of an earlier age. Gregory Magistros (d. 1058) abridged +the whole of the Old and New Testaments in a *rhyming poem, +and set a fashion to later writers. Such works as *<i>Barlaam and +Josaphat</i>. the *<i>History of the Seven Sages</i>, the *<i>Wisdom of Ahikar</i>, +the *<i>Tale of the City of Bronze</i>, were freely turned into verse in the +13th and following centuries.</p> + +<p>It will be realized from the above enumeration of works +written in each century that Armenian literature was purely +monkish. There was no epic or romance literature; although +this was not lacking in the contiguous country of Georgia, +where there seem to have always been knights and ladies willing +to read and keep alive a literature of poetry and narrative, not +altogether suitable for monks, and more akin to Persian literature.</p> + +<p>Other forms of faith than the orthodox had a hold in Armenia, +particularly the Nestorian and the Manichean. Sundry works of +Mani were translated in the year 588, but are lost. Perhaps +certain works of Diodore of Tarsus survive, but the orthodox +monks were so vigilant that there is little chance of finding any +other monuments than those of the stereotyped orthodoxy.</p> + +<p>The 16th century saw the first books printed in Armenian. +A press was set up at Venice in 1565, and the psalms and breviary +were printed. In 1584 the Roman propaganda began its issue of +Armenian books with a Gregorian calendar. In the 17th century +presses were working at Lembourg, Milan, Paris, Isfahan (where +in 1640 a large folio of the <i>Lives of the Fathers of the Desert</i> +appeared), in Leghorn, Amsterdam (where in 1664 the first +edition of the Hymn-book, in 1666 the first Bible, and in 1667 the +first Ritual were printed), Marseilles, Constantinople, Leipzig +and Padua.</p> + +<p>The press which has done most in printing Armenian authors +is that of the Mechitharists of Venice. Here in 1836 was issued a +magnificent thesaurus of the Armenian language, with the Latin +and Greek equivalents of each word. At that time there was no +dictionary of any language and literature to be compared with +this for exhaustiveness and accuracy. There are now Armenian +presses all over the world, reprinting old books or issuing new +works, often translations of modern writers, English, French, +Russian and German.</p> + +<p>The chief collections of old Armenian MSS. are: at the +convent of *Echmiadzin at Valarshapat; at Stambul in the +library of the fathers of St Anthony; at Venice in the Mechitharist +convent of San Lazaro; at the *Mechitharist convent in Vienna; +in the *Royal library at Vienna; in the *Paris Bibliothèque +Nationale; in the Vatican library; in the British Museum; in +the *Bodleian; in the Rylands library; in the *Berlin and +*Munich libraries; *in Tübingen; in St Petersburg, and in the +*Lazarev institute at Moscow; at New Joulfa, the Armenian +suburb of Isfahan. Private collections have been made by Mr +Rendel Harris in Birmingham (presented to the university of +Leiden); at Parham and elsewhere. A printed catalogue exists +of those marked with an asterisk.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—F. Combefis, <i>Historia Monothelitarum</i> (Paris, 1648); +Arshak Ter Mikelian, <i>Die armen. Kirche, iv. bis zum xiii. Jahrhundert</i> +(Leipzig, 1892); H. Gelzer, “Die Anfänge der armenischen +Kirche” in the <i>Berichte der Königlich. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der +Wissenschaften: Historisch-philologische Classe</i> (1895), p. 171; +Gutschmid, <i>Kleine Schriften</i> (Leipzig, 1892), t. iii.; Langlois, <i>Collection +d’historiens arméniens</i> (Paris, 1867) (the translations often careless); +E.W. Brooks, <i>The Syriac Chronicle</i> known as <i>Zachariah of Mitylene</i> +(London, 1899), p. 24; Dulaurier, <i>Recherches sur la chronologie +arménienne</i> (Paris, 1859); Agop Manandian, <i>Beiträge zur albanischen +Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1897); G. Owsepian, <i>Die Entstehungsgeschichte +des Monotheletismus</i> (Leipzig, 1897); Cardinal Angelo Mai, <i>Nova SS. +patrum bibliotheca</i>, 6 vols. (Rome, 1844-1871), vol. ii. contains Latin +version of Armenian canons; Hergenrother, <i>Photius</i> (Regensburg, +1867); Tchamchian, <i>History of Armenia</i> (in Armenian at Venice +and English abridged translation entitled <i>M. Chamich</i> by John +Audall, Calcutta, 1827); Domini Joannis Onziensis, <i>Opera Latine</i> +(Venice, 1834); Nersetis Clajensis, <i>Opera omnia Latine</i> (Venice, +1833); A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus in the <i>Recueil de la société +orthodoxe de Palestine</i> (St Petersburg, 1892) (Armenian +correspondence with Photius translated); Enthymius Zigabenus, <i>Panoplia, +Patrol. Gr.</i> vol. 130, col. 1173; E. Dulaurier, <i>Histoire de l’église +armén.</i> (Paris, 1857); le Quien, <i>Oriens christianus</i>; Mansi, <i>Concilia</i>, +vol. 25; Steph. Azarian, <i>Ecclesiae Armenae Traditio</i> (Rome, 1870); +A. Balgy, <i>Historia doctrinae catholicae inter Armenos</i> (Vienna, 1878); +Clemens Galanus, <i>Conciliatio Ecclesiae Armenae cum Romana</i> +(Rome, 1690); L. Alishan, <i>Sissouan, contrée de l’Arménie</i> (Venice, +1893), in Armenian, but also in French translation; <i>Recueil d’actes +relatifs aux Arméniens</i> (3 vols., Moscow, 1833); St Martin, <i>Mémoires +historiques sur l’Arménie</i> (Paris, 1818); V. Langlois, <i>Voyage dans la +Cilicie</i> (Paris, 1861); H.G.O. Dwight, <i>Christianity in Turkey</i> (London, +1854); De Damas, <i>Coup d’œil sur l’Arménie</i> (Lyon, 1887); H.F.B. +Lynch, <i>Armenia</i> (2 vols., London, 1902); J. Issaverdens, <i>Armenia, +Ecclesiastical History</i> (Venice, 1875); E. Dulaurier, <i>Historiens +arméniens des Croisades</i> (Paris); Giovanni de Serpos, <i>Compendio +Storico</i> (Venice, 1786); Garabed Chahnazarian, <i>Esquisse de l’histoire +de l’Arménie</i> (Paris, 1856); Gelzer, “Armenien” in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopadie für protestantische Theologie</i> (ed. 3, Leipzig, 1897); +Hefele, <i>Hist. of Councils</i>, vols. 3 and 9; F. Néve, <i>L’Arménie chrétienne</i> +(Paris); P. Hunanian, <i>Histoire des canciles d’Orient</i> (Vienna, +1847); Gr. Chalathianz, <i>Apocryphes</i> (Moscow, 1897), and other +works; Brosset, <i>Collection d’historiens arméniens</i> (St Petersburg, +1874), and numerous other works by the same author; J. Catergian, +<i>De fidei symbolo quo Armenii utuntur</i> (Vienna, 1893); Ricaut, +<i>The present state of the Greek and Armenian Churches</i> (London, 1679); +H. Denzinger, <i>Ritus orientalium</i> (Würzburg, 1863); Fred. C. Conybeare, +<i>Rituale Armenorum</i> (Oxford, 1905); F.E. Brightman, <i>Eastern +Liturgies</i> (Oxford, 1896); P. Vetter, <i>Chosroae magni explicatio missae</i> +(Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1880); L. Petit, articles on Armenian religious +history, councils, literature, creed and discipline in <i>Diction. +de théologie catholique</i>, cols. 1888-1968; F.C. Conybeare, “The +Armenian canons of St Sahak” in the <i>American Journal of Theology</i> +(Chicago, 1898), p. 828; C.F. Neumann, <i>Geschichte der armenischen +Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1836); Simon Weber, <i>Die katholische Kirche in +Armenien</i> (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1903); Sukias Somal, <i>Quadro +della Storia Letteraria di Armenia</i> (Venice, 1829); M.V. Ermoni, +“L’Arménie” in <i>Revue de l’orient chrétien</i> (for year 1896); F. +Tournebize, “Histoire de l’Arménie” (<i>ib.</i> 1902-3-4-5); R.P.D. Girard, +“Les Madag” (<i>ib.</i> for year 1902); H. Hübschmann, <i>Armenische +Studien</i> and <i>Grammatik</i> (Leipzig, 1883 and 1895). Grammars by +Petermann (in <i>Porta Orientalium Linguarum</i> series), by Prof. Meillet +of Paris, by Prof. N. Marr of St Petersburg (in Russian), by Joseph +Karst (of the Cilician dialect). Texts of most of the Armenian fathers +and historians have been printed by the Mechitharists of San Lazaro, +Venice, and are readily procurable at their convent.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMENTIÈRES,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department +of Nord, on the Lys, 13 m. W.N.W. of Lille on the Northern +railway from that city to Dunkirk. Pop. (1906) 25,408. The +chief building is the hôtel de ville with a 17th-century belfry. +There are communal colleges for girls and boys, a board of +trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a national technical +school. The town is an important centre for the spinning and +weaving of flax and cotton; bleaching, dyeing and the +manufacture of machinery are among the other industries. Its +industrial prosperity dates from the middle ages, when, however, +woollen, not cotton, goods were the staple product.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMET<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (diminutive of Fr. <i>arme</i>), a form of helmet, which was +developed out of existing forms in the latter part of the 15th +century. It was round in shape, and often had a narrow ridge or +comb along the top. It had a pivoted or hinged vizor and nosepiece, +and complete chin, neck and cheek protection, closely connected +with the gorget. It is distinguished from the basinet by its +roundness, and by the fact that it protects the neck and chin by +strong plates, instead of a “camail” or loose collar of mail; +from the salade and heaume by its close fit and skull-cap shape; +and from the various forms of vizored burgonets by the absence +of the projecting brim. It remained in use until the final +abandonment of the complete closed head-piece.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1757-1814), son of +Charles II.’s general, Carl Gustaf Armfelt, was born in Finland +on the 31st of March 1757. In 1774 he became an ensign in the +guards, but his frivolity provoked the displeasure of Gustavus III. +and he thought it prudent to go abroad. Subsequently, however, +(1780) he met the king again at Spa and completely won the +monarch’s favour by his natural amiability, intelligence and +brilliant social gifts. Henceforth his fortune was made. At first +he was the <i>maître des plaisirs</i> of the Swedish court, but it was not +long before more serious affairs were entrusted to him. He took +part in the negotiations with Catherine II. (1783) and with the +Danish government (1787), and during the Russian war of 1788-90 +he was one of the king’s most trusted and active counsellors. +He also displayed great valour in the field. In 1788 when the +Danes unexpectedly invaded Sweden and threatened Gothenburg, +it was Armfelt who under the king’s directions organized the +Dalecarlian levies and led them to victory. He remained +absolutely faithful to Gustavus when nearly the whole of the +nobility fell away from him; brilliantly distinguished himself in +the later phases of the Russian war; and was the Swedish +plenipotentiary at the conclusion of the peace of Verelä. During the +last years of Gustavus III. his influence was paramount, though +he protested against his master’s headstrong championship of the +Bourbons. On his deathbed Gustavus III. (1792) committed +the care of his infant son to Armfelt and appointed him a member +of the council of regency; but the anti-Gustavian duke-regent +Charles sent Armfelt as Swedish ambassador to Naples to get rid +of him. From Naples Armfelt communicated with Catherine II., +urging her to bring about by means of a military demonstration +a change in the Swedish government in favour of the Gustavians. +The plot was discovered by the regent’s spies, and Armfelt only +escaped from the man-of-war sent to Naples to seize him, with the +assistance of Queen Caroline. He now fled to Russia, where he +was interned at Kaluga, while at home he was condemned to +confiscation and death as a traitor, and his unjustly accused +mistress Magdalena Rudenschöld was publicly whipped to gratify +an old grudge of the regent’s. When Gustavus IV. attained his +majority, Armfelt was completely rehabilitated and sent as +Swedish ambassador to Vienna (1802), but was obliged to quit +that post two years later for sharply attacking the Austrian +government’s attitude towards Bonaparte. From 1805 to 1807 +he was commander-in-chief of the Swedish forces in Pomerania, +where he displayed great ability and retarded the conquest of the +duchy as long as it was humanly possible. On his return home, +he was appointed commander-in-chief on the Norwegian frontier, +but could do nothing owing to the <i>ordres, contre-ordres et désordres</i> +of his lunatic master. He would have nothing to say to the +revolutionaries who in 1809 deposed Gustavus IV. and his whole +family. Armfelt was the most courageous of the supporters of +the crown prince Gustavus, and when Bernadotte was elected +resolved to retire to Finland. His departure was accelerated +by a decree of expulsion as a conspirator (1811). Over the +impressionable Alexander I. of Russia, Armfelt exercised almost as +great an influence as Czartoryski, especially as regards Finnish +affairs. He contributed more than any one else to the erection +of the grand-duchy into an autonomous state, and was its first +and best governor-general. The plan of the Russian defensive +campaigns is, with great probability, also attributed to him, and +he gained Alexander over to the plan of uniting Norway with +Sweden. He died at Tsarskoe Selo on the 19th of August 1814.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>Gustavus III.</i> vol. ii. (London, 1895); Elof +Tegner, <i>Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt</i> (Stockholm, 1883-1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMIDALE,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a town in Sandon county, New South Wales, +Australia, 313 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 4249. It +lies at an elevation of 3313 ft., in a picturesque mountainous +district, for the most part pastoral and agricultural, though it +contains some alluvial gold diggings. Antimony is found in large +quantities near the town. Armidale is a cathedral town, being +the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and belonging to the joint +Anglican diocese of Grafton; Armidale St Peter’s, the Anglican +cathedral, and St Mary’s, the Roman Catholic, are both fine +buildings. The town is the centre of great educational activity, +its schools including the New England girls’ school, St Patrick’s +college, the high school, the Ursuline convent and state schools. +Armidale became a municipality in 1863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMILLA,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> <span class="sc">Armil</span> or <span class="sc">Armillary Sphere</span> (from the Lat. +<i>armilla</i>, a bracelet), an instrument used in astronomy. In its +simplest form, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the +equator, the <i>armilla</i> is one of the most ancient of astronomical +instruments. Slightly developed, it was crossed by another ring +fixed in the plane of the meridian. The first was an equinoctial, +the second a solstitial armilla. Shadows were used as indices of +the sun’s position, in combination with angular divisions. When +several rings or circles were combined representing the great +circles of the heavens, the instrument became an armillary +sphere. Armillae are said to have been in early use in China. +Eratosthenes (276-196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) used most probably a solstitial +armilla for measuring the obliquity of the ecliptic. Hipparchus +(160-125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) probably used an armillary sphere of four rings. +Ptolemy (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 107-161) describes his instrument in the +<i>Syntaxis</i> (book v. chap, i.), and it is of great interest as an +example of the armillary sphere passing into the spherical +astrolabe. It consisted of a graduated circle inside which +another could slide, carrying two small tubes diametrically +opposite, the instrument being kept vertical by a plumb-line.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:376px; height:383px" src="images/img575.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From M. Blundeville’s <i>Treatise of the first principles of +Cosmography and specially of the Spheare.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Armillary Sphere. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1636.</td></tr></table> + +<p>No material advance was made on Ptolemy’s instrument until +Tycho Brahe, whose elaborate armillary spheres passing into +astrolabes are figured in his <i>Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span> +The armillary sphere survives as useful for teaching, and may +be described as a skeleton celestial globe, the series of rings +representing the great circles of the heavens, and revolving on an +axis within a horizon. With the earth as centre such a sphere +is known as Ptolemaic; with the sun as centre, as Copernican.</p> + +<p>The designer of the instrument shown no doubt thought that +the north pole might suitably have the same ornament as was +used to mark N. on the compass card, and so surmounted it +with the <i>fleur-de-lys</i>, traditionally chosen for that purpose on +the compass by Flavio Gioja in honour of Charles of Anjou, king +of Sicily and Naples.</p> + +<p>Armillary spheres occur in many old sculptures, paintings +and engravings; and from these sources we know that they were +made for suspension, for resting on the ground or on a table, for +holding by a short handle, or either for holding or for resting on a +stand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Tycho Brahe, <i>Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica</i>; +<i>M. Blundeville, his Exercises</i>; N. Bion, <i>Traité des instrumens de +mathématique</i>; also <i>L’Usage des globes célestes</i>; Sédillot, <i>Mémoire sur +les instrumens</i>; J.B. Delambre, <i>Histoire de l’astronomie ancienne</i>; +R. Grant, <i>History of Physical Astronomy</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. L. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMINIUS,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> the Latinized form of the name of <span class="sc">Hermann</span>, or +more probably <span class="sc">Armin</span> (17 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21), the German national +hero. He was a son of a certain Segimer, a prince of the tribe of +the Cherusci, and in early life served with distinction as an officer +in the Roman armies. Returning to his own people he found +them chafing under the yoke of the Roman governor, Quintilius +Varus; he entertained for them hopes of freedom, and cautiously +inducing neighbouring tribes to join his standard he led the +rebellion which broke out in the autumn of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9. Heavily +laden with baggage the troops of Varus were decoyed into the +fastnesses of the Teutoburger Wald, and there attacked, the +completeness of the barbarian victory being attested by the +virtual annihilation of three legions, by the voluntary death of +Varus, and by the terror which reigned in Rome when the news +of the defeat became known, a terror which found utterance +in the emperor’s despairing cry: “Varus, give me back my +legions!” Then in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 15 Germanicus Caesar led the Romans +against Arminius, and captured his wife, Thusnelda. An +indecisive battle was fought in the Teutoburger Wald, where +Germanicus narrowly escaped the fate of Varus, and in the +following year Arminius was defeated. The hero’s later years +were spent in fighting against Marbod, prince of the Marcomanni, +and in disputes with his own people occasioned probably by his +desire to found a powerful kingdom. He was murdered in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21.</p> + +<p>In 1875 a great monument to Arminius was completed. This +stands on the Grotenburg mountain near Detmold. Klopstock +and other poets have used his exploits as material for dramas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Much discussion has taken place with regard to the exact spot in +the Teutoburger Wald where the great battle between Arminius and +Varus was fought. There is an immense literature on this subject, +and the following may be consulted:—T. Mommsen, <i>Die Ortlichkeit +der Varusschlacht</i> (1885); E. Meyer, <i>Untersuchungen über die +Schlacht im Teutoburger Walde</i> (1893); A. Wilms, <i>Die Schlacht im +Teutoburger Walde</i> (1899); F. Knoke, <i>Das Schlachtfeld im Teutoburger +Walde</i> (1899); E. Dünzelmann, <i>Der Schauplatz der Varusschlacht</i> +(1889); and P. Höfer, <i>Die Varusschlacht</i> (1888). For more general +accounts of Arminius see: Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, edited by H. Furneaux +(1884-1891); O. Kemmer, <i>Arminius</i> (1893); F.W. Fischer, <i>Armin +und die Römer</i> (1893); W. Uhl, <i>Das Portrait des Arminius</i> (1898); +and F. Knoke, <i>Die Kriegszüge des Germanicus in Deutschland</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMINIUS, JACOBUS<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1560-1609), Dutch theologian, author +of the modified reformed theology that receives its name of +Arminian from him, was born at Oudewater, South Holland, on +the 10th of October 1560. Arminius is a Latinized form of his +patronymic Hermanns or Hermansen. His father, Hermann +Jakobs, a cutler, died while he was an infant, leaving a widow and +three children. Theodorus Aemilius, a priest, who had turned +Protestant, adopting Jakob, sent him to school at Utrecht, but +died when his charge was in his fifteenth year. Rudolf Snellius +(Snel van Roijen, 1546-1613), the mathematician, a native of +Oudewater, then a professor at Marburg, happening at the time +to visit his early home, met the boy, saw promise in him and +undertook his maintenance and education. But hardly was he +settled at Marburg when the news came that the Spaniards had +besieged and taken Oudewater, and murdered its inhabitants +almost without exception. Arminius hurried home, but only to +find all his relatives slain. In February the same year (1575), +the university of Leiden had been founded, and thither, by the +kindness of friends, Arminius was sent to study theology. The +six years he remained at Leiden (1576-1582) were years of active +and innovating thought in Holland. The War of Independence +had started conflicting tendencies in men’s minds. To some it +seemed to illustrate the necessity of the state tolerating only one +religion, but to others the necessity of the state tolerating all. +Dirck Coornhert argued, in private conferences and public +disputations, that it was wrong to punish heretics, and his great +opponents were, as a rule, the ministers, who maintained that +there was no room for more than one religion in a state. Caspar +Koolhaes, the heroic minister of Leiden—its first lecturer, too, +in divinity—pleaded against a too rigid uniformity, for such +an agreement on “fundamentals” as had allowed Reformed, +Lutherans and Anabaptists to unite. Leiden had been happy, +too, in its first professors. There taught in theology Guillaume +Feuguières or Feuguereius (d. 1613), a mild divine, who had +written a treatise on persuasion in religion, urging that as to +it “men could be led, not driven”; Lambert Danaeus, who +deserves remembrance as the first to discuss Christian ethics +scientifically, apart from dogmatics; Johannes Drusius, the +Orientalist, one of the most enlightened and advanced scholars of +his day, settled later at Franeker; Johann Kolmann the younger, +best known by his saying that high Calvinism made God “both +a tyrant and an executioner.” Snellius, Arminius’s old patron, +now removed to Leiden, expounded the Ramist philosophy, and +did his best to start his students on the search after truth, +unimpeded by the authority of Aristotle. Under these men +and influences, Arminius studied with signal success; and the +promise he gave induced the merchants’ gild of Amsterdam to +bear the further expenses of his education. In 1582 he went to +Geneva, studied there awhile under Theodore Beza, but had +soon, owing to his active advocacy of the Ramist philosophy, to +remove to Basel. After a short but brilliant career there he +turned to Geneva, studied for three years, travelled, in 1586, in +Italy, heard Giacomo Zarabella (1533-1589) lecture on philosophy +in Padua, visited Rome, and, open-minded enough to see its good +as well as its evil, was suspected by the stern Dutch Calvinists of +“popish” leanings. Next year he was called to Amsterdam, +and there, in 1588, was ordained. He soon acquired the reputation +of being a good preacher and faithful pastor. He was commissioned +to organize the educational system of the city, and is +said to have done it well. He greatly distinguished himself by +fidelity to duty during a plague that devastated Amsterdam in +1602. In 1603 he was called, in succession to Franz Junius, to a +theological professorship at Leiden, which he held till his death +on the 19th of October 1609.</p> + +<p>Arminius is best known as the founder of the anti-Calvinistic +school in Reformed theology, which created the Remonstrant +Church in Holland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Remonstrants</a></span>), and contributed to form +the Arminian tendency or party in England. He was a man of +mild and liberal spirit, broadened by varied culture, +constitutionally averse from narrow views and enforced uniformity. +He lived in a period of severe systematizing. The Reformed +strengthened itself against the Roman Catholic theology by +working itself, on the one hand, into vigorous logical consistency, +and supporting itself, on the other, on the supreme authority of +the Scriptures. Calvin’s first principle, the absolute sovereignty of +God, had been so applied as to make the divine decree determine +alike the acts and the destinies of men; and his formal principle +had been so construed as to invest his system with the authority +of the source whence it professed to have been drawn. Calvinism +had become, towards the close of the 16th century, supreme in +Holland, but the very rigour of the uniformity it exacted provoked +a reaction. Coornhert could not plead for the toleration of +heretics without assailing the dominant Calvinism, and so he +opposed a conditional to its unconditional predestination. The +two ministers of Delft, who had debated the point with him, +had, the better to turn his arguments, descended from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span> +supralapsarian to the infralapsarian position, <i>i.e.</i> made the divine +decree, instead of precede and determine, succeed the Fall. +This seemed to the high Calvinists of Holland a grave heresy. +Arminius, fresh from Geneva, familiar with the dialectics of Beza, +appeared to many the man able to speak the needed word, and so, +in 1589, he was simultaneously invited by the ecclesiastical court +of Amsterdam to refute Coornhert, and by Martin Lydius, professor +at Franeker, to combat the two infralapsarian ministers +of Delft. Thus led to confront the questions of necessity and +free will, his own views became unsettled, and the further he +pursued his inquiries the more he was inclined to assert the +freedom of man and limit the range of the unconditional decrees +of God. This change became gradually more apparent in his +preaching and in his conferences with his clerical associates, and +occasioned much controversy in the ecclesiastical courts where, +however, he successfully defended his position. The controversy +was embittered and the differences sharpened by his appointment +to the professorship at Leiden. He had as colleague Franz +Gomarus, a strong supralapsarian, perfervid, irrepressible; and +their collisions, personal, official, political, tended to develop and +define their respective positions.</p> + +<p>Arminius died, worn out by uncongenial controversy and +ecclesiastical persecution, before his system had been elaborated +into the logical consistency it attained in the hands of his +celebrated successor, Simon Episcopius; but though inchoate in +detail, it was in its principles clear and coherent enough. These +may be thus stated:</p> + +<p>1. The decree of God is, when it concerns His own actions, +absolute, but when it concerns man’s, conditional, <i>i.e.</i> the decree +relative to the Saviour to be appointed and the salvation to be +provided is absolute, but the decree relative to the persons saved +or condemned is made to depend on the acts—belief and repentance +in the one case, unbelief and impenitence in the other—of +the persons themselves.</p> + +<p>2. The providence or government of God, while sovereign, is +exercised in harmony with the nature of the creatures governed, +<i>i.e.</i> the sovereignty of God is so exercised as to be compatible +with the freedom of man.</p> + +<p>3. Man is by original nature, through the assistance of divine +grace, free, able to will and perform the right; but is in his fallen +state, of and by himself, unable to do so; he needs to be regenerated +in all his powers before he can do what is good and pleasing +to God.</p> + +<p>4. Divine grace originates, maintains and perfects all the good +in man, so much so that he cannot, though regenerate, conceive, +will or do any good thing without it.</p> + +<p>5. The saints possess, by the grace of the Holy Spirit, sufficient +strength to persevere to the end in spite of sin and the flesh, but +may so decline from sound doctrine as to cause divine grace to be +ineffectual.</p> + +<p>6. Every believer may be assured of his own salvation.</p> + +<p>7. It is possible for a regenerate man to live without sin.</p> + +<p>Arminius’s works are mostly occasional treatises drawn from +him by controversial emergencies, but they everywhere exhibit +a calm, well-furnished, undogmatic and progressive mind. He +was essentially an amiable man, who hated the zeal for an +impossible orthodoxy that constrained “the church to institute +a search after crimes which have not betrayed an existence, yea, +and to drag into open contentions those who are meditating no +evil.” His friend Peter Bertius, who pronounced his funeral +oration, closed it with these words: “There lived a man whom +it was not possible for those who knew him sufficiently to esteem; +those who entertained no esteem for him are such as never knew +him well enough to appreciate his merits.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Arminius (in Latin) were published in a single quarto +volume at Leiden in 1629, at Frankfort in 1631 and 1635. Two +volumes of an English translation, with copious notes, by James +Nichols, were published at London, 1825-1828; three volumes +(complete) at Buffalo, 1853. A life was written by Caspar Brandt, +son of Gerard Brandt, the historian of the Dutch reformation, and +published in 1724; republished and annotated by J.L. Mosheim in +1725; and translated into English by the Rev. John Guthrie, 1854. +James Nichols also wrote a life (London, 1843).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMISTICE<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>arma</i>, arms, and <i>sistere</i>, to stop), a +suspension of hostilities by mutual agreement between two +nations at war, or their respective forces. An armistice may be +either general or particular; in the first case there is a complete +cessation of hostile operations in every part of the dominions of +the belligerent powers; in the second there is merely a temporary +truce between two contending armies, or between a besieged +fortress and the force besieging it. Such a temporary truce, when +for a very limited period and for a special purpose, <i>e.g.</i> the +collection of the wounded and the burial of the dead, is termed +a <i>suspension of arms</i>. A general armistice cannot be concluded +by the commanders-in-chief unless special authority has been +previously delegated to them by their respective governments; +otherwise any arrangement entered into by them requires subsequent +ratification by the supreme powers of the states. A partial +truce may be concluded by the officers of the respective powers, +without any special authority from their governments, wherever, +from the nature and extent of the commands they exercise, +their duties could not be efficiently discharged without their +possession of such a power. The conduct of belligerent parties +during an armistice is usually regulated in modern warfare by +express agreement between the parties, but where this is not the +case the following general conditions may be laid down. (1) Each +party may do, within the limits prescribed by the truce, whatever +he could have done in time of peace. For example, he can raise +troops, collect stores, receive reinforcements and fortify places +that are not actually in a state of siege. (2) Neither party can +take advantage of the armistice to do what he could not have +done had military operations continued. Thus he cannot throw +provisions or reinforcements into a besieged town, and neither +besiegers nor besieged are at liberty to repair their fortifications +or erect new works. (3) All things contained in places the +possession of which was contested, must remain in the state +in which they were before the armistice began. Any infringement +by either party of the conditions of the truce entitles +the other to recommence hostile operations without previous +intimation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMOIRE,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> the French name (cf. <span class="sc">Almery</span>) given to a tall +movable cupboard, or “wardrobe,” with one or more doors. It +has varied considerably in shape and size, and the decoration of +its doors and sides has faithfully represented mutations of fashion +and modifications of use. It was originally exceedingly massive +and found its chief decoration in elaborate hinges and locks of +beaten iron. The finer ecclesiastical armoires or aumbries which +have come down to us—used in churches for the safe custody of +vestments, eucharistic vessels, reliquaries and other precious +objects—are usually painted, sometimes even upon the interior, +with sacred subjects or with incidents from the lives of the saints. +The cathedrals of Bayeux and Noyon contain famous examples; +the most typical English one is in York minster. By the end of +the 14th century, when the carpenter and the wood-carver had +acquired a better mastery of their material, the taste for painted +surfaces appears to have given place to the vogue of carving, and +the simple rectangular panels gradually became sculptured with +a simple motive, such as the linen-fold or parchment patterns. +In the treasury of St Germain l’Auxerrois the ends of the +15th-century armoires are treated in this way. In that and the two +following centuries the keys and the escutcheons of the locks +became highly ornamental; usually in forged iron, they were +occasionally made of more precious metals. By slow degrees the +shape of this receptacle changed—from breadth was evolved +height, and the tall form of armoire became characteristic. The +Renaissance exercised a notable effect upon this, as upon so +many other varieties of furniture. It became less obviously and +aggressively a thing of utility; its proportions shrank from the +massive to the elegant; its artistic effectiveness was vastly +enhanced by its division into an upper and a lower part. Enriched +with columns and pilasters, its panels carved with +mythology, its canopied niches filled with sculptured statuettes, +and terminating with a rich cornice and perhaps a broken +pediment, it was widely removed in appearance, if not in purpose, +from the uncompromising iron-mounted receptacle of earlier +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> +generations. During the 16th century, when the surging impulses +of the Renaissance had died away, the armoire relapsed +into plainness, its proportions increased, and it was again constructed in one piece. Ere long, however, it grew more sumptuous +than ever. Boulle encrusted it with marqueterie from +designs by Bérain; it glowed with <i>amorini</i>, with the torches and +arrows of Cupid, with the garlands which he weaves for his +captives, and when allusiveness left a corner vacant, it was filled +with arabesques in ebony or ivory, in brass or white metal. +While the royal palaces and the hôtels of the great nobility were +filled with those costly splendours, the ordinary cabinetmaker +continued to construct his modest pieces, and by the middle of +the 18th century the armoire was found in every French house, +ample in width and high in proportion to the lofty rooms of the +period. It is not to be supposed that so useful a piece of furniture +was confined to France. It was used, more or less, throughout +a considerable part of Europe, but it was distinctively Gallic +nevertheless, and never became thoroughly acclimatized elsewhere +until about the beginning of the 19th century, when it +developed into the glass-fronted wardrobe which is now an +essential detail in the plenishing of the bed-chamber, not merely +in France and England, but in many other countries. The +<i>armoire à glace</i> was known and occasionally made in France as +far back as the middle of the 18th century, and almost the earliest +mention of it connects it with the scandalous relations of the +Maréchal de Richelieu and the beautiful <i>fermière générale</i>, Mme +de la Popelinière, who had one made to mask a secret door. In +the conventional and not very attractive wardrobe of commerce +it is difficult to descry the gracious characteristics of the armoire +of the Renaissance or the 17th century, and it is not altogether +surprising that Théodore de Banville should have condemned one +of the most solidly useful of household necessaries as a “hideous +monster.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMORICA<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Aremorica</span>), the Roman name, derived from +two Celtic words meaning the “seaside” (<i>ar</i>, on, and <i>mor</i>, sea), +for the land of the Armorici, roughly the peninsula of Brittany. +At the time of the Roman advance on Gaul there were five +principal tribes in Armorica, the Namneti, the Veneti, the Osismii, +the Curiosolitae and the Redones. It was subdued by Caesar, +who entirely destroyed the seafaring tribe of its south coast, the +Veneti. Under the Empire it formed part of the province of +Gallia Lugudunensis (Lugdunensis). It contained hardly any +towns, though many large country houses, and was perhaps less +Romanized than the rest of Gaul. In and after the later part of +the 5th century it received many Celtic immigrants from the +British Isles, fleeing (it is said) from the Saxons; and the Celtic +dialect which the Bretons still speak is thought to owe its origin +to these immigrants. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brittany</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1832-1901), American +merchant and philanthropist, was born in Stockbridge, New +York, on the 16th of May 1832. He was educated at Cazenovia +Academy, Cazenovia, N.Y., worked for several years on his +father’s farm, and in 1852 with a small party went overland to +California, a large part of the journey being made on foot. Here +during the next four years he laid the foundations of his fortune. +In 1856 he became associated with his friend, Frederick S. Miles, +in a wholesale grocery and commission business at Milwaukee. +In 1863 he became the head of the firm of Armour, Plankington +& Co., pork packers, whose headquarters were at Milwaukee. He +also obtained a large interest in the firm H.O. Armour & Co., +which was founded by his brother, Herman Ossian Armour +(1837-1901), and which, starting as a grain commission business, +in 1868 established also a large pork-packing plant. Of this firm, +the name of which was changed to Armour & Co. in 1870, he +became the head in 1875, and thereafter the business made +such rapid progress that in 1901 as many as 11,000 hands were +employed. Besides contributing to many charitable enterprises, +Armour founded the Armour Institute of Technology at Chicago +in 1892 and the Armour Flats in Chicago, built for the purpose of +supplying at a low rental good homes for working men and their +families. He also contributed liberally to the Armour Mission in +Chicago, which was founded in 1881 by his brother, Joseph +Armour. At the time of his death, on the 6th of January 1901, +Philip D. Armour’s private fortune was supposed to exceed +$50,000,000.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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