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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Science of Trapping, by Elmer Harry Kreps
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Science of Trapping
+       Describes the Fur Bearing Animals, Their Nature, Habits
+       And Distribution, With Practical Methods For Their Capture
+
+Author: Elmer Harry Kreps
+
+Illustrator: Elmer Harry Kreps
+
+Release Date: October 19, 2010 [EBook #34098]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENCE OF TRAPPING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Linda M. Everhart, Blairstown, Missouri
+
+
+
+
+SCIENCE OF TRAPPING
+
+DESCRIBES THE FUR BEARING ANIMALS,
+THEIR NATURE, HABITS AND DISTRIBUTION,
+WITH PRACTICAL METHODS
+FOR THEIR CAPTURE.
+
+By E. KREPS.
+
+REVISED EDITION.
+
+Published by
+A. R. HARDING, Publisher
+106 Walnut Street
+St. Louis, Mo.
+
+Copyright. 1909.
+By A. R. HARDING PUB. CO.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  I. The Trapper's Art
+  II. The Skunk
+  III. The Mink
+  IV. The Weasel
+  V. The Marten
+  VI. The Fisher
+  VII. The Otter
+  VIII. The Beaver
+  IX. The Muskrat
+  X. The Fox
+  XI. The Wolf
+  XII. The Bear
+  XIII. The Raccoon
+  XIV. The Badger
+  XV. The Opossum
+  XVI. The Lynx
+  XVII. The Bay Lynx or Wild Cat
+  XVIII. The Cougar
+  XIX. The Wolverine
+  XX. The Pocket Gopher
+  XXI. The Rabbit
+  XXII. Tracks and Signs
+  XXIII. Handling Furs
+  XXIV. Steel Traps
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  The Author with a Catch of Furs
+  Trap Set in Correct Position at Den
+  The Balance Pole
+  The Skunk
+  The Mink
+  Mink Set under Log
+  The White Weasel
+  The Marten
+  A Marten Set
+  The Fisher
+  The Otter
+  Otter Trap Set under Ice
+  The Beaver
+  Trap, Set for Beaver
+  Beaver Trap Set under Ice
+  The Muskrat
+  The Red Fox
+  Water Set for Fox
+  Dry Land Set for Fox
+  The Coyote or Prairie Wolf
+  Scent Set for Wolf
+  Bank Set for Wolf and Coyote
+  The Grizzly Bear
+  The Raccoon
+  The Badger
+  The Opossum
+  The Lynx
+  The Wild Cat or Bay Lynx
+  The Cougar
+  The Wolverine
+  The Pocket Gopher
+  Burrow of Pocket Gopher
+  The Rabbit
+  Rabbit Snares
+  Tracks of Furbearing Animals
+  Tracks of Furbearing Animals
+  Tracks of Furbearing Animals
+  Tracks of Game Animals
+  Canadian Pattern Stretching Boards
+  Steel Traps
+
+  [Illustration: The Author with a Catch of Furs.]
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Among the many outdoor occupations, trapping the furbearing animals
+is perhaps the most pleasant and in many instances is also very
+profitable.
+
+Although trapping was one of the earliest industries of this country,
+the occupation has not passed away, along with the vanishing
+wilderness, for there is more trapping done today than at any time
+during the past. Scattered all over North America, in both the
+thickly settled portions and the more remote districts are thousands
+of trappers who are each season deriving both pleasure and profit
+from this unique calling.
+
+Trapping in itself is an art. Many of the wild creatures are
+exceedingly wary and the trapper must match his reason against the
+instinct, the natural wariness and the acquired knowledge of the
+animals. This wariness alone has saved some species of animals from
+extinction, and although man is superior to all brute life, such
+intelligent animals as the fox and the wolf frequently prove a match
+for the most expert of trappers.
+
+In order to be successful, one must know the wild animals as a mother
+knows her child. He must also know and use the most practical methods
+of trapping, and it is my object to give in this work, the most
+successful trapping methods known.
+
+These modes of trapping the furbearing animals have for the most part
+been learned from actual experience in various parts of the country,
+but I also give the methods of other successful trappers, knowing
+them to be as good as my own. I am personally acquainted with some of
+the most expert trappers in North America and have also followed the
+Indians over their trap lines and in this way have learned many
+things which to the white man are not generally known.
+
+E. KREPS.
+
+
+
+SCIENCE OF TRAPPING.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE TRAPPER'S ART.
+
+During past ages many of the wild creatures of the forest and stream
+were hunted and captured in various ways by the inhabitants of the
+wilderness,--the flesh of these animals being the principal food of
+many tribes of savages and the skins being used for clothing; but it
+was only after furs became a staple article of wearing apparel among
+civilized nations and the traders had learned of the profits to be
+made in the fur trade that wholesale and systematic trapping began.
+For many years after the commencement of the fur trade in this
+country, the occupation of trapping was monopolized by the native
+inhabitants, but later some of the bolder of the white race pushed
+into the wilderness and learned the trapper's art.
+
+To-day there are thousands of trappers scattered over the United
+States, Canada, Alaska and Mexico and the catching of wild animals
+for profit is no longer considered to be an occupation fitting only
+for the savage, for there is scarcely a farmer, ranchman or other
+person whose calling brings him close to nature who is not more or
+less interested in the fur-bearing animals. Wild animals are not all
+hunted for the sake of their furs. There are some such as the wolf,
+coyote, mountain lion and wild-cat which have become positive
+nuisances because of their destruction of stock and for such the
+government and in many cases the stockmen pay a bounty. The capture
+of wolves and coyotes especially has become a profitable business.
+
+As to the profits to be derived from this occupation, there are
+professional trappers in the North, South and West whose catches
+amount to from five hundred to two thousand dollars or more each
+season, but the number who do as well as that is comparatively small.
+By far the greater number of trappers are those who follow other
+occupations and devote only their spare time to the capture of wild
+animals and they are for the most part farmers and country boys who
+in this way add considerable to their yearly income.
+
+It is not at all necessary to go into the wilds in order to do
+successful trapping, and almost any farming section will be found to
+be a paying trapping ground. Indeed, the country man or boy will in
+most cases do far better in his own home district than he would by
+going into some place with which he is not familiar even though the
+fur-bearing animals be more plentiful there than at home. In his own
+territory he will learn the haunts of each kind of fur-bearing
+animal, its route of travel, the dens, etc., and this knowledge will
+be of great value when the actual trapping commences.
+
+Of course all of the various species of animals will not be found in
+any one section but where one is missing there will be some other
+found in fair numbers. Muskrats are most numerous as a rule in the
+settled parts of the country and wherever the muskrat is found there
+the mink is also. Skunks are found almost everywhere and the ease
+with which they may be captured makes the trapping of them a
+lucrative business. Foxes are found in most of the hilly sections and
+while they are not so easily captured, one can make a success of it
+if he gives the matter careful study and uses sufficient care in
+setting and attending the traps. In many parts of the South the
+raccoon is found in abundance as is also the opossum and the otter,
+the wild cat and other animals are found more sparingly in many parts
+of the country.
+
+The trapper no matter where he is located is certain to meet with
+many hardships but it is a pleasant calling for all of that and there
+is a certain amount of pleasure in even the roughest experiences.
+Once one has followed trapping for a few seasons it is almost
+impossible to give up the wild, free life. The study of the habits of
+the wild creatures which is necessary if one wishes to become a
+successful trapper brings one into close touch with nature and the
+work is extremely fascinating.
+
+In the early days before the steel trap came into general use, the
+deadfall and the snare were used almost exclusively for the capture
+of the fur-bearers, but at present when steel traps have reached a
+high state of perfection, are sold at prices which place them within
+the reach of all, they are preferred by most trappers and many of the
+most expert have discarded the wooden traps entirely. However, both
+the deadfall and the snare are good traps for certain animals and it
+is well to know how to make and use them for one may sometimes see a
+good place in which to place a trap but may not have a steel trap
+along. In such cases the knowledge of how to construct a practical
+deadfall will be of value. It is true that many of the fur-bearing
+animals are too cunning to be captured by such a contrivance but some
+of the most wary fall easy victims to the snare. Some of the most
+expert fox trappers use the snare in preference to the steel trap but
+the number is comparatively small.
+
+Many styles of traps have been invented and some of the most
+promising styles were placed on the market but it is doubtful if any
+trap will ever be designed which will equal in popularity and general
+usefulness the old time jaw trap, commonly known as the "steel trap".
+These traps have been improved in many ways until at present they are
+almost perfect and are made in sizes and styles to meet all
+requirements and all conditions of trapping.
+
+The jaw traps possess decided advantages over all other styles of
+steel or wooden traps. They are light and compact and may be moved
+from place to place without inconvenience to the trapper, will
+capture the most wary animals as well as the most stupid and will
+work perfectly under all conditions whether set in the water or on
+dry land, on the snow or on a log or stump or the side of a tree.
+They may be used with or without bait and if the proper size of trap
+is used and it is set in the right way it will capture almost any
+animal that comes that way. What other style of trap possesses all of
+these advantages?
+
+As most of those who have never done any trapping know practically
+nothing regarding the use of traps I will outline briefly the methods
+usually employed for the capture of fur-bearing animals before
+proceeding farther.
+
+Most of the animals which are caught in traps are decoyed by means of
+a bait,--something in the line of food which appeals to its
+appetite,--so placed that in attempting to reach it the animal places
+its foot in the trap. The most common way is by setting the trap in
+the entrance to some natural enclosure, such as a hollow log or
+stump, a hollow between trees, or a hole in the rocks, or under a
+stump the bait being placed in the enclosure beyond the trap. Failing
+to find a natural enclosure, the trapper constructs one, using such
+material as may be found on the spot. It is advisable as a rule to
+make as little disturbance as possible and to give the enclosure a
+natural appearance.
+
+It sometimes happens that an animal can not be induced to approach a
+bait and in such cases the "blind set" is resorted to,--in other
+words the trap is set without bait in a trail where the animal
+travels or at the entrance of its den. Failing to find such a place
+the trapper carefully studies the route of the animal and selects a
+place where some natural or artificial obstruction will crowd it into
+a certain spot where he carefully sets his trap in such a way as to
+catch the animal the next time it comes along. These blind sets are
+as a rule very successful and many trappers use such methods
+exclusively.
+
+In setting steel traps, great care is advised for the one who learns
+to do this most neatly, leaving everything natural is, as a rule, the
+most successful. One should always be certain to get the trap in the
+right position for to miss catching an animal not only means its loss
+for the time being but many of them will become wiser from such
+experiences and their capture will be more difficult afterwards. The
+trapper is wise also who gives sufficient attention to the fastening
+of the trap, thus reducing the animal's chances of escape after it is
+once caught.
+
+To properly set a steel trap on dry land one should dig a "nest" for
+the trap, deep enough to allow the covering to be flush with the
+surroundings and just a little larger than, and of the same shape as
+the trap when set. This hollow should be lined with dry leaves or
+moss and the trap placed therein. To make the trap rest solidly so
+that there is no danger of it being tipped over also to make the jaws
+set level, the spring should be twisted around towards the jaw which
+is held down by the trigger or "dog". The trap should then be covered
+with some light, dry material in keeping with the surroundings, a few
+dead leaves or a sheet of paper being used first to prevent the
+covering from rolling under the pan and in that way prevent the trap
+from springing. Instead of doing this some trappers place a bunch of
+cotton or dry moss under the pan but I do not think this advisable.
+
+  [Illustration: Trap Set in Correct Position at Entrance of Den.]
+
+In all cases when setting traps at dens, on trails or at the
+entrances of enclosures, the trap should be so placed that the jaws
+will be lengthwise of the animal's approach so that it will step
+between the jaws and not over one of them. If the setting is reversed
+the rising jaw will sometimes throw the animal's foot out of the
+trap.
+
+There are various good methods of fastening and the proper one to use
+depends on the nature of the surrounding and the species of animal
+that one is setting for. Water animals should be drowned as quickly
+as possible after they are caught and in order to secure this result
+the "sliding pole" is used. This is simply an inclined pole leading
+into deep water and of a size that will enable the ring of the trap
+chain to travel easily its entire length. The most common way of
+using the sliding pole is to thrust the small end into the bed of the
+stream and fasten the other end securely to the bank. The pole should
+have a few branches near the small end to prevent the ring from
+sliding off. All water animals when caught in traps plunge into deep
+water immediately and the ring of the trap chain sliding down the
+pole makes it impossible for the captured animal to again regain the
+shore. In order to make this outfit more certain when setting for
+large animals such as otters and beavers, a stone of six or eight
+pounds should be tied firmly to the chain but not near enough to the
+trap to interfere with the action of the swivel.
+
+In trapping for muskrats and mink the usual practice is to simply
+stake the trap the length of the chain into the deepest water
+available, the weight of the trap being sufficient to hold the animal
+under water.
+
+For land animals the trap may be fastened to a "clog". This is simply
+a chunk of wood, a pole, brush or stone, the object being to hamper
+the animal in its movements and prevent it from getting a dead pull
+on the trap and chain. In fastening to the clog the staple may be
+used or the chain may be dropped through the ring so as to form a
+loop which is slipped over the clog, a few snags being left stand to
+prevent the chain from being drawn over the end. When setting for
+bears the ring is slipped over the clog,--a pole,--and fastened with
+a spike or wedge. Some trappers prefer to use a pronged iron drag and
+this is especially desirable when trapping for the more cunning
+animals such as the fox, coyote and wolf as the drag may be covered
+without leaving much sign. A stone may be used in the same manner by
+securing with wire to the end of the chain.
+
+For the animals mentioned the traps are sometimes staked down
+solidly, the stake being driven out of sight but this gives the
+animal a dead pull and they will sometimes escape.
+
+Such of the fur-bearers as are likely to escape by gnawing or
+twisting off a foot may sometimes be held securely by the use of the
+"spring pole" or better still, the "balance pole". The spring pole is
+a small springy sapling, trimmed of its branches and planted firmly
+in the ground. The trap is fastened to the small end which is drawn
+down and held in that position by being hooked lightly under a
+crotched stake or a link of the chain may be hooked to a headless
+nail driven in the side of the stake. In theory this device works
+nicely but in practice it is not found to be perfect as the wood will
+lose its "spring" if kept bent for some time, especially in freezing
+weather.
+
+  [Illustration: The Balance Pole.]
+
+The balance pole is more faithful in its action. It is simply a long
+slender pole fastened in a crotch or tied to the side of a sapling,
+the trap being secured to the small end. It is so balanced that the
+weight of the butt will not only lift the trap but the captured
+animal as well. It is fastened down in the same way as the spring
+pole and is released by the struggles of the animal.
+
+In order to keep steel traps in perfect working order they should
+have a certain amount of attention. Repairs will be necessary at
+times and before the trapping season commences one should look them
+all over and see that they are in good condition. The triggers should
+be so adjusted that the pan will set level. All parts should work
+freely and the trap should neither spring too easily nor too hard.
+Rust on traps is not desirable and may be prevented to a great extent
+by boiling the traps occasionally in a solution of evergreen boughs,
+maple, willow or oak bark or walnut hulls. This will give the traps a
+blue-black color and they will not rust for a considerable length of
+time. New traps will not take the color very well but they should be
+boiled just the same to remove the oil also the varnish with which
+some manufacturers coat their traps. Some trappers smoke their traps
+before setting believing that the odor of the smoke will smother that
+of the metal. This however is not in my opinion a good idea as clean
+iron has no odor and the smell of smoke enables the animal to locate
+the trap, thus having just the opposite of the effect desired.
+
+Others again, grease or oil the traps which is also bad for the same
+reason and another thing worth considering is the fact that a greased
+trap does not have as good a grip as one which has not been so
+treated. For my own part I would rather have my traps red with rust
+than to have them oiled, and if it is necessary to oil the joints of
+a stiff working trap, use some oil having practically no odor, never
+strong smelling substances such as kerosene.
+
+As to the number of traps that one can handle, this depends on
+conditions. The kind of animals that one intends to trap for, the
+nature of the country, the method of setting and tending traps, the
+amount of fur to be found, etc., must all be considered. The muskrat
+trapper who is in a good location where traps may be set from a boat
+or in the marshes where muskrat houses are plentiful as on some parts
+of the Atlantic Coast, can easily handle from seventy-five to a
+hundred or more traps, looking at them once a day. The marten
+trappers of the Northwest sometimes use five or six hundred traps,
+but the traps are not set far apart and the trapper spends a number
+of days in going over the line. In the thickly settled districts
+there are comparatively few who use more than five or six dozen traps
+for they must be seen each day, and for beginners from two to three
+dozen traps will be sufficient.
+
+As before mentioned, steel traps are made in various sizes so that
+they may be used for all animals, from the smallest to the largest.
+
+The No. 0 is the smallest size and is intended for such small animals
+as the pocket gopher, the rat and the weasel. If the spring is of
+fair strength as it is in the higher grades they may also be used for
+muskrat and marten. They are used extensively by the marten trappers
+of the Rocky Mountain region.
+
+The No. 1 is known as the muskrat trap and is the best size for this
+animal. It is also used for mink, skunk, opossum and marten.
+
+The No. 1 1/2 is a very popular trap as its size and strength adapt
+it for general use. It is known as the mink trap, but the tendency
+among trappers is to use the 1 1/2 for larger game and the No. 1 for
+mink. It is the best size for skunk, and if the spring is of fair
+strength, it will hold the fox, coon, fisher and lynx as well as all
+smaller animals.
+
+The No. 2, which is the smallest size of the double spring style is
+known as the fox trap. It is also the best size for coon and is
+sometimes used for otter especially in the North but in my opinion it
+is too small for regular use on otter.
+
+Next in order is the No. 3 which has been named the otter trap, and
+it is the proper size to use for this animal. It is also used for
+catching the coyote, beaver, wild cat and lynx and is a very popular
+trap in the more remote sections of the country.
+
+The No. 4 trap was originally intended for the capture of the beaver
+and is the proper size for that animal. The higher grades of this are
+also used to a great extent for trapping the timber wolf, also for
+otter and coyote.
+
+The best trap for wolves, however, is the 4 1/2 which was designed
+especially for trapping these animals. It is considerably heavier
+than the No. 4 and is fitted with a longer chain and a pronged drag.
+This size is also used for taking the cougar or mountain lion.
+
+The bear traps are known as the No. 50, the No. 5 and the No. 6. The
+No. 50 is the smallest but is sufficiently strong for the black bear.
+For those who prefer a larger trap for this animal, the No. 5 will
+prove satisfactory, and it will also hold the grizzly, but is rather
+small for that animal. The size best adapted to the capture of the
+larger varieties of bears is the No. 6, which will hold almost any
+living animal.
+
+In addition to the traps mentioned, there are a number of special
+styles designed to meet the demand from those trappers who desire
+special traps for some certain animals. Among these may be mentioned
+the clutch traps, the single spring otter traps and the traps with
+offset jaws.
+
+It should be understood that in writing the foregoing description of
+traps, I had in mind the higher grades only. In the following
+chapters devoted to the capture of the various animals, the proper
+sizes and brands of traps to use will be given.
+
+  [Illustration: The Skunk.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE SKUNK.
+
+The skunk is an animal of the weasel family, and is found throughout
+the United States and the southern parts of Canada. A full grown
+specimen will usually measure sixteen or eighteen inches, from the
+nose to the root of the tail, which is about twelve or fourteen
+inches long and quite bushy. The color is a glossy black, with
+usually, a white V-shaped stripe extending from the top of the head
+to about half the length of the back. Often, this stripe is quite
+broad and extends the length of the body, while in others the stripe
+is missing, there being only a white spot on the head, and a white
+tip to the tail; this latter marking being found on all specimens. In
+some of the Pacific coast States, a variety is found having only a
+single white stripe running the entire length of the back. There is
+also a small species found in parts of the Mississippi valley, which
+has white spots, instead of stripes. This animal is known to the fur
+trade as well as the trappers, as the "civet cat", although the true
+civet cat is quite a different animal.
+
+The skunk has become quite famous, among country folks, because of
+its powerful scent, which is found in two glands near the root of the
+tail, which the animal can eject at will. This scent is perhaps the
+most powerful and offensive of all odors, and the use of it is the
+skunk's only means of defending itself against enemies.
+
+The skunk makes its den in the ground, usually along a gravelly
+hill-side, and it sometimes makes use of the den of the woodchuck. In
+thickly settled countries where the dens have been destroyed by
+hunters, they often make their homes under barns and out-buildings,
+and even under dwelling houses, much to the discomfort of the
+inmates.
+
+The skunk is a nocturnal animal, searching for food only at night and
+remaining in its den during the day. During the cold part of the
+winter, they remain in their dens, coming out only on warm nights,
+until after the middle of February, when their mating season
+commences, and the males travel, at this time in almost all kinds of
+weather.
+
+The young are born in April and May, and there are usually from four
+to ten in a litter, though occasionally there will be a larger
+number.
+
+Their food consists mostly of insects, grubs, young birds and eggs,
+and when they have an opportunity to do so, they will kill and eat
+poultry, etc. They are also fond of carrion, and even the flesh of
+their own kind.
+
+In the northern states the skunk becomes prime about the last week in
+October, while in the extreme south they are probably not prime until
+the last week in November. In the north they commence to shed their
+fur about the tenth or fifteenth of March, while in the south they
+shed still earlier. During very cold weather, when the skunks have
+been confined to their dens for a considerable length of time, the
+warmth of the dens has a tendency to injure the fur. The males also
+fight among themselves and their fur is often injured in this way. At
+other times the fur is spoiled somewhat, because of too small an
+entrance to the den, the fur having a rubbed or woolly appearance. It
+is the fine black skins taken when in the best condition, that are
+the most valuable. Skunks are, perhaps, found in the greatest numbers
+in the eastern states, and the trappers from that section, make more
+money from skunks than from any other animal.
+
+In winter, one may track them to their dens, and if the den is a good
+one, may find any number of skunks, up to a dozen, in the same den.
+It is a common practice to dig the den open and kill all the inmates,
+but as this method means the destruction of a good den, it is not
+advisable to do so. The best way is to trap them, as in this way the
+den will not be injured, and it is almost certain that you will find
+skunks in the same den each season. Such a den is worth money to the
+trapper. The oil of the skunk, if rendered carefully, without
+burning, is useful, and is often used by country people as a remedy
+for croup.
+
+The most common method of trapping the skunk is to set the trap in
+the entrance of the den, without bait, but where there are many dens,
+or where the dens are hard to find, it is best to use bait. In
+setting the trap in a den, it should be set just inside the entrance,
+unless the mouth of the den is small, when it should be set just
+outside. The trap should be set with the jaws lengthwise of the hole,
+so that the skunk steps between the jaws, and not over them, as by
+stepping over the jaw the foot is likely to be thrown out of the
+trap, by the jaw, as the trap springs. This rule also applies to all
+traps set in dens or enclosures of any kind. The common way of
+fastening is to stake the trap or fasten to a clog, but the balance
+pole is better.
+
+No great care is necessary in covering the trap, as the skunk is not
+suspicious, but it is always best to use care, especially in setting
+baited traps, as one never knows what animal may come along. On one
+occasion I caught a fox in a trap set for skunk.
+
+It is a good idea also, when trapping at dens, to put a small scrap
+of bait inside of the den, as many skunks that are traveling about,
+only look in and turn away, and if the trap is set inside, will not
+be caught. If, however, there is a small bait inside the den, the
+skunk will attempt to get it, and will be caught in the trap.
+
+The traps most used for skunks are the No. 1 and No. 1 1/2. There are
+also some special traps manufactured for these animals, having double
+jaws or webbed jaws, to prevent the animal gnawing off its foot.
+
+Traps set for skunk should be visited every day, as otherwise the
+captured animals are likely to escape. They seem to struggle more on
+dark stormy nights, and during such weather, one should get around to
+his traps as early as possible in the morning.
+
+Sometimes one can find a well-defined trail leading away from the
+mouth of the den. In such a case, several traps may be set in the
+trail, thus doubling or trebling the chance for a catch.
+
+When good dens cannot be found, dig a hole under an old stump, and
+place a bait inside, setting the trap directly in front of the hole
+and cover with dry dirt. Sprinkle some scent about, on the stump and
+ground; use care in setting as you are likely to catch a fox,
+providing the trap is carefully set and covered, and the stake driven
+out of sight. For bait use tainted meat of almost any kind.
+
+Another good way is to find a spot of sandy ground, and set the trap
+in a small hole, covering with sand. Cut the bait into small pieces
+and scatter it all around the trap, also, if you have it, sprinkle
+some scent around. The trap may be fastened to a brush drag, and the
+brush set up to look as though it were growing there.
+
+If you can find a tree or stump with two spreading roots, set the
+trap between these roots and fasten the bait on the side of the tree,
+about ten inches above the trap.
+
+Still another way is to make a small pen of old, rotten wood, stones
+or stakes, setting the trap in the entrance, and placing the bait in
+the pen beyond the trap.
+
+Any natural enclosure, such as a hollow log, a hole in the bank, or
+in a wall or pile of stones, makes a good place in which to set a
+trap.
+
+Skunks may also be taken in box traps, deadfalls and snares, and they
+seldom become scented when caught in such traps.
+
+For bait, the following are all good: muskrat, skunk, chicken, birds
+of any kind, rabbit, squirrel, mice, rotten eggs or fish--tainted
+bait is always to be preferred for skunks, fresh bait being second
+choice.
+
+To make a good decoy, take one-half dozen rotten eggs, and the scent
+of one skunk, and mix thoroughly. A mixture of the male and female
+scent is probably best. Many of the decoys recommended for the fox
+are also good for skunk. The scent of the skunk itself, is one of the
+very best to use.
+
+Most trappers object to having the scent of skunks on their clothing
+and for this reason I give the following methods for killing the
+captured animals, so that they will not throw their scent. If the
+trap is staked, or fastened to a clog, cut a club about four or five
+feet long, and approach the animal very slowly, using care not to
+make any quick movements. If the skunk raises its tail, as though it
+intended to throw its scent, stop, and stand perfectly still until it
+drops its tail again, when you can go nearer. In this way if you are
+careful, you can easily get within striking distance, when you should
+deliver a good smashing blow across the back. If the back is broken,
+the muscles which operate the scent glands will be paralyzed, and
+there will be absolutely no danger of getting a charge of perfumery.
+
+Some trappers fasten their traps to the end of a ten or twelve foot
+pole, and by approaching carefully, can pick up the pole, when by
+going slowly, the skunk may be led to the nearest water where it may
+be drowned. Lead the skunk into shallow water, gradually working it
+into deeper, holding its head under until nearly drowned, then let it
+have a little air,--just a breath, and push it under again, keeping
+it there until its struggles cease. If the animal is caught by a
+front foot, it may be carried to the water, as a skunk can seldom
+throw its scent if lifted off the ground, and not allowed to touch
+anything with the hind feet or tail.
+
+Another method is to cut the animal's throat with a small, very
+sharp, pointed knife blade, attached to the end of a ten foot jointed
+pole. Approach the animal carefully and place the point of the knife
+against the side of the animal's neck, just over the jugular vein.
+Push steadily against the knife; as soon as the blood flows freely,
+move away and allow the animal to die.
+
+Perhaps the quickest method is to shoot the skunk in the center of
+the back, with a 22 caliber rifle or pistol. This breaks the back
+killing the animal almost instantly, and there will be no scent
+whatever.
+
+If the trap is fastened to a balance pole you can kill the animal by
+a blow across the back. Never shoot them in the head, or stride the
+head with a club, as they are certain to throw their scent if killed
+in this way.
+
+If the fur of the skunk has become scented, I use the following
+method for removing the scent: Build a fire and throw an armful of
+evergreen boughs on it so as to make a dense smoke. Hold the scented
+animal in the smoke for about five minutes, using care to keep it
+away from the fire or the heat will curl the hair. After the skunk is
+skinned hang the skin in an airy place for a few days, when there
+will be practically no smell left.
+
+Before skinning or handling the skunk, rub your hands with some kind
+of grease. After the animal is skinned, wash your hands well, using
+soap and hot water; there will be no scent remaining on the hands.
+Benzine or gasoline will also remove the scent from the hands or
+clothing. Cider vinegar is also said to be good. If the clothing is
+buried over night in damp ground, the scent will usually draw out.
+
+The track of the skunk is peculiar and is not likely to be mistaken
+for that of some other animal. Although a member of the weasel
+family, it does not travel by a series of jumps as does the weasel,
+mink, marten, etc., but maintains a steady walk, and the foot-prints
+will be an even distance apart and spread considerably so as to make
+a wide trail. The length of step is about five inches and the
+footprints will measure from one to one and a half inches in length,
+according to the size of the animal.
+
+  [Illustration: The Mink.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE MINK.
+
+The mink is a small carnivorous animal, belonging to the weasel
+family. It is found throughout the United States and the greater part
+of Canada and Alaska. A distinct species is also found in Europe and
+Asia. In North America there appears to be several varieties, varying
+considerably in size and color. A large, light-colored variety is
+found in the country drained by the Mississippi River and its
+branches, and also in the prairie country of Canada. This variety
+sometimes reaches the weight of four pounds, or even more, and the
+skin, when properly stretched, will sometimes measure thirty-six or
+thirty-eight inches from tip to tip. A smaller and darker variety is
+found in the Eastern States and the Eastern parts of Canada and Lake
+Superior regions, and a still smaller and very dark colored mink is
+found in Northern Maine and parts of New Brunswick. A small, light
+colored variety is found on the Pacific coast.
+
+The mink has a long, slender body, a small head, and rather short
+legs. The tail is usually about eight inches long and is quite bushy.
+The fur is thick, fine and glossy, and the color varies from a very
+light brown to very dark. The usual color is dark brown, the fur on
+the tail being darker than that on the body.
+
+The mating season commences about the last week in February and ends
+about the middle of March. The young are born in April, there being
+from four to six in a litter.
+
+The mink is not an amphibious animal, but it is found only along the
+streams and watercourses, from which it obtains a large part of its
+food. It is a great rambler, traveling long distances along the
+streams and lakes, and always following the same route. When on these
+trips it explores the drifts and log-jams, holes in the bank, hollow
+logs, etc., which habit is taken advantage of by the trapper.
+
+The fur of the mink is at its best during the months of November,
+December and January, in the north; while in the extreme south, they
+are only number one, during December and January. In February, the
+fur commences to fade, and they are not worth so much. The dark
+colored skins command the best prices.
+
+The food of the mink consists of fish, frogs, birds, squirrels, mice,
+rabbits, muskrats, etc., all of which are good for bait. They are
+also very fond of poultry.
+
+The traps most used for mink are the Nos. 1 and 1 1/2. The webbed jaw
+and the double jaw traps are especially desirable for mink, as when
+caught in these traps, they cannot escape by gnawing off the foot.
+
+There are probably more methods used in trapping the mink than in
+trapping any other animal. In localities where they take bait well,
+the usual plan is to set the trap in the entrance to a natural or
+artificial enclosure, on the bank of the stream, placing a bait on
+the inside of the enclosure. The trap should be nested down, and
+covered with some light material in keeping with the surroundings.
+The trap may be fastened to a light clog or a balance pole, or if
+very close to the water, to a sliding pole. The bait should be
+strictly fresh. Some good scent may be used if desired. Hollow logs
+and holes in drifts and under stumps make good places for sets. Some
+trappers do not set in an enclosure, but hang the bait about eighteen
+inches above the trap. I do not, however, consider this a
+satisfactory method. When an artificial enclosure is used, it should
+be roofed over with bark, or evergreen boughs to protect that trap
+from the snow.
+
+For fall trapping, many prefer to set traps in the water. The
+following method is one of the best for a water set: find a steep
+bank where the water is shallow, and runs smoothly and rapidly, make
+a hole in the bank, on a level with the water, making the hole about
+ten inches deep and about four inches in diameter. Put a piece of
+fresh bait back in the hole, fastening with a small stick, and set
+the trap in the water at the mouth of the hole. Stake the trap the
+full length of the chain into the water and cover with mud or
+water-soaked leaves.
+
+Along the streams where little sand-bars lead out into the water
+select a place on one of these bars, where the water is only an inch
+or two in depth, set the trap under the water, close to the edge of
+the stream. Fix a small fish on the point of the stick, out in the
+stream a foot from the trap, pushing the stick down until the bait
+rests partly under water. Stake the trap so that the catch will
+drown. This is a very successful set and requires but little time and
+trouble to make.
+
+In some localities the mink do not take bait well, in which case,
+blind sets--traps without bait must be depended upon. In the fall
+while the water is still open, find a high bank where the water leads
+off fairly deep, leaving only a very narrow strip of shallow water,
+at the foot of the bank. Set the trap in the edge of the water and
+stake full length of the chain into the stream. Place a couple of
+water-soaked leaves on the trap, and drop a few pinches of mud on
+them to hold them in place. The steep bank on one side and the deep
+water on the other, will guide the mink into the trap. If, however,
+the shallow water extends out some distance from the bank, take a
+chunk of water-soaked wood, and stand it in the water, just beyond
+the trap, leaving the top rest against the bank. This will leave only
+a narrow passage over the trap, and you may be pretty sure of
+catching your mink. A similar set should be made on the opposite side
+of the stream, if conditions are favorable. This is a very good
+method for use in the south.
+
+After streams are frozen, a different plan must be adopted. In such
+cases if you can find a jam or drift extending across the stream,
+find an opening, leading through this drift, close to the bank, and
+set the trap in this opening, covering with fine, drift dirt. In case
+you cannot find a suitable passage, make one and stop up all other
+holes. A little scent of the right kind may be used here to good
+advantage.
+
+  [Illustration: Mink Set Under Log. XX Shows Positions of Traps.]
+
+The illustration shows two traps set under an old log, spanning the
+stream. The log protects the traps from rain or snow, and a glance at
+the cut will show that it would be practically impossible for a mink
+to pass along the stream without being caught. The same set is good
+for the raccoon. If the stream is frozen fill the opening, under the
+log, with old, dead brush, so that there is no chance for the mink to
+pass, except over the traps.
+
+Another good method for the wary mink is as follows: find a high,
+steep bank along the stream; if it overhangs, so much the better, and
+about two feet above the water, make a hole about four inches in
+diameter, and a foot or more deep. Leave the dirt that you dig out,
+rest directly in front of the hole, and set the trap in this dirt,
+covering with same. Pack dry moss around the jaws and cover the trap
+first with a sheet of paper, finishing with a thin layer of dirt. Put
+some good mink scent in the hole; the musk of the mink itself is best
+for this set. If the traps can be visited every day, it is a good
+plan to stake the trap, so that the mink will roll around over the
+ground, and the next one will be more easily caught.
+
+Where mink travel around a lake, go to the outlet and lay a hollow
+log across the stream, just where the water leaves the lake. Set a
+trap in this log, covering with fine, rotten wood, and every mink
+that travels around the lake, will attempt to run through the log,
+and will be caught. If you cannot find a hollow log near at hand,
+build a covered passage-way of poles and chunks, and set your trap in
+this passage.
+
+Mink may also be taken in box traps and deadfalls.
+
+Scents are much used and there are some few which have proved
+attractive. Fish oil is one of the most common scents for mink and
+other animals. It is made by taking fish of almost any kind, cutting
+them into small pieces, and putting in a wide mouthed bottle. Let
+stand in a warm place, loosely covered, until the fish are thoroughly
+rotted, and in a liquid state; this scent may be used alone or
+combined with others.
+
+If a female mink can be caught, during the mating season, remove the
+generative organs, and place them in a bottle, adding about two
+ounces of fish oil and all of the mink musk you can get. This is
+undoubtedly the best scent ever devised. It should be used without
+bait.
+
+In traveling, the mink goes "the jump" and its foot-prints are
+always in pairs, the space between each set being from eighteen to
+twenty-four inches. The footprints will measure from one to one and
+one-fourth inches in length, with one always somewhat in advance of
+the other.
+
+  [Illustration: The Weasel.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE WEASEL.
+
+The weasel is the smallest of all carnivorous animals and the various
+species and varieties are distributed over the greater portion of
+northern Asia, Europe and North America. In this country alone
+naturalists recognize some twenty species and sub-species, most of
+which are found in Canada and Alaska, also the northern and western
+states. Of these it is only the northern varieties, those which
+become white in winter that are of importance to the trapper.
+
+The ermine of Europe is a species of weasel, and the American white
+weasel is sometimes called the ermine, its fur being used to imitate
+the fur of that animal.
+
+The change of color in the fur of this animal is not understood by
+naturalists. It occurs only in the most northern portions of its
+range and it is not known whether the animal really sheds its brown
+summer coat when the cold weather approaches or whether the fur
+bleaches, but it is certain that the change occurs in some way, the
+fur becoming white in the fall and changing to brown again in spring.
+
+The smallest variety of the weasel is found in northwestern Canada
+and Alaska and with it the black tip of the tail so characteristic of
+the weasel is missing. Very large weasels are secured in the northern
+part of Maine, but it is said that the finest skins are obtained in
+Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.
+
+The weasel from many sections have a peculiar, sulphury yellow cast
+to the fur, especially on the hind-quarters, and of many of these
+stained skins only the black tip of the tail is of value. What causes
+the stain is not known, neither is there any known method for
+removing it. One fur buyer states that about seven out of every ten
+skins received, show this yellow stain and are of little value.
+
+The weasel is one of the most blood-thirsty of animals and is very
+courageous. It is a terror to rats, mice, rabbits, partridges and
+poultry. It will kill for the love of slaughter, even when not
+hungry, and I have known a single animal to kill more than thirty
+chickens in a night, sucking only a little of the blood from each.
+
+On one occasion I knew a farmer who had turned a drove of fair-sized
+pigs into a pasture, and one day, hearing a wild squealing over along
+the pasture fence, went to investigate. He found the entire drove of
+porkers running along the fence and squealing from terror and
+following them was a little brown weasel.
+
+Curiosity is highly developed in the weasel. Many times I have seen
+them in my camp at night and if I remained perfectly quiet they would
+approach to within a few feet and stand upright on their hind legs to
+get a good view. At the least movement, however, they would disappear
+only to return a minute later.
+
+As before mentioned the weasel is a blood-thirsty creature, and when
+it finds some food that is to its liking it can scarcely be driven
+away. On various occasions I have found them attempting to remove the
+bait from my traps and such times I would adjust the trap so as to be
+very easily sprung, and then step aside and wait for the animal to be
+caught.
+
+The weasel has a sharp eye and a keen nose. While trapping in the
+North I would always keep on hand a supply of snared rabbits for use
+as bait, and often weasels would come into the camp at night,
+attracted by the bait, and it is interesting to note how quickly they
+could scent out the freshest rabbit in the pile and by biting into
+its ears would attempt to drag it away. Quite often they were able to
+move a fair sized rabbit. I usually kept a trap setting in my camp
+and in this way in one season caught fifteen weasels in one camp.
+
+I have never learned anything regarding the breeding habits of the
+weasel, but judging from the large numbers of these animals found in
+favorable localities I would say that they are very prolific.
+
+For trapping this animal I recommend the No. 1 1/2 trap and prefer a
+trap that is loosely hinged and springs easily, such as the Victor.
+Any trap will hold a weasel but when caught in the smaller sizes they
+quite often double up about the jaws and when they die and freeze in
+that position it is difficult to remove them from the trap. With the
+1 1/2 they are always caught over the body and there is little
+trouble from that source. As the animal is so very light in weight it
+is necessary that the trap springs very easily. There are various
+styles of rat traps on the market which make excellent weasel traps,
+but as one never knows what animal may happen along, I prefer to use
+the steel trap.
+
+My method of setting is to place the trap inside of a small enclosure
+of chunks of wood, bark, sticks or whatever is most convenient. No
+covering is needed but when setting on the snow I make a bed of
+evergreen boughs for the trap to rest on. Rotten wood will answer
+just as well. I fasten the bait with a stick just back of the trap so
+that the weasel will be obliged to stand on the trap when attempting
+to remove the bait, for it should be remembered that they will never
+eat any food where they find it if able to move it away. Fasten the
+trap securely for some larger animal is likely to be caught. I do not
+place the traps far apart, where tracks are seen in fair numbers, and
+I drag a fresh killed rabbit from set to set, splitting it open with
+a knife so as to leave a bloody trail. Any weasel that strikes the
+trail is sure to follow it.
+
+For bait I prefer rabbit to anything else as it contains more blood
+than other baits and fresh blood is the only scent that I know of
+which will attract the weasel.
+
+In order to obtain good prices it is necessary that the fur be kept
+clean and I use a small cloth bag in which to carry my catch.
+
+The tracks of the weasel resemble those of the mink but are
+considerably smaller. The average length of jump is perhaps about
+eighteen inches.
+
+  [Illustration: The Marten.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE MARTEN.
+
+The marten is a carnivorous animal belonging to the same family as
+the weasel. The principal species are the pine marten of North
+America, the beech or stone marten of northern Europe, the sable of
+Russia and Siberia and the Japanese sable. Naturalists usually class
+the fisher with the martens, also. The Russian sable is the finest of
+the martens, the pine marten of Labrador being next in value. The
+pine marten is found throughout the timbered regions of Canada and
+Alaska, also in the mountainous districts of the western states. A
+few are still found in northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New
+York, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine.
+
+In size the marten is about the same as the mink of the North and
+East, being somewhat lighter in the body, but the longer fur causes
+it to appear fully as large. It has longer legs than the mink, and
+the feet are larger and heavily furred. The tail is thick and bushy,
+the ears and eyes, large and the muzzle is more pointed than that of
+the mink. The fur is very fine and soft, the color varying from a
+rich yellow to almost black. The fur of the tail is darker than that
+of the body, and the face, lighter. The ears, on the edges, are
+greyish white and there Is always a yellow or orange spot on the
+throat.
+
+In the more southern portions of their range, the martens are quite
+pale. The finest and darkest skins come from Labrador and the country
+east and south of Hudson Bay, also from northern British Columbia and
+the interior of Alaska and the Yukon province. The marten is strictly
+an animal of the woods, being found only in the heavily timbered
+country. Their favorite haunts are in the rough, broken country,
+where the timber is of various kinds. They feed on rabbits,
+squirrels, mice, birds and eggs and probably have no trouble in
+obtaining a sufficient amount of food, but unlike the mink and the
+weasel, they never kill more than is needed to supply their wants.
+
+The young are usually born in April, and there are from three to five
+at a birth. Just where they make their dens I cannot say. Some
+writers say they live in hollow trees, while others assert that they
+live in holes in the rocks or ground. I should say that the latter
+idea is most likely to be correct, at least as regards the marten of
+the far north, as in that part of the country, hollow trees are few
+and far between. One peculiarity regarding the martens is the fact
+that they occasionally disappear from a locality in which they were
+formerly numerous. The common supposition is that they migrate to new
+feeding grounds when food becomes scarce.
+
+The marten travels mostly in the gullies and depressions on the
+mountains and hills. As they usually follow the same route, when one
+sees their tracks in such a place, he can be reasonably sure, if he
+sets his trap there, that he will make a catch. They are not shy or
+suspicious and are easily caught. In many ways, marten trapping is
+the most pleasant as well as the most profitable kind of trapping. As
+they are found only in the timbered country, the trapper does not
+feel the storms like he would in an open country. They are easily
+caught, light to carry and easily skinned. Moreover, they are a very
+valuable fur and if one is in a good locality, he will make a large
+catch in a season. They usually become prime about the 15th of
+October and remain in good condition until the last of March.
+
+In countries where the snow does not fall too deep, the traps are set
+in small enclosures, the same as for the mink. If there is snow on
+the ground, I set my traps as follows. With my snowshoes, I tramp the
+snow down solid, at the foot of a tree, and build a small pen of
+stakes, or chunks split from an old stump. The stakes or chunks, are
+arranged so as to form the sides of the pen and the sides are placed
+about six or seven inches apart, the tree forming the back of the
+pen. I roof the pen with evergreen boughs, to protect the trap from
+the falling snow. It is a good idea to leave a couple of boughs hang
+down over the mouth of the pen so as to hide the bait from the birds,
+and also to prevent the rabbits from entering the pen. I set the trap
+on a bed of boughs, just inside of the pen, and cover lightly with
+tips of evergreen. The bait is placed on a stick behind the trap. I
+fasten the trap to a toggle, but if only marten is expected, the trap
+may be fastened in almost any way, as they seldom escape. It is also
+a good idea to bend a small twig and place it under the pan of the
+trap, to prevent it from being sprung by birds, squirrels and
+weasels.
+
+For bait, rabbit, partridge, squirrel, fish, small birds or meat of
+almost any kind is good. The Indians sometimes smoke-cure salmon,
+pickerel, or white fish, for marten bait, and other trappers use
+putrefied salmon roe, but the majority prefer to use fresh bait. Some
+trappers advise dragging a piece of fresh, bloody meat along the
+line, to lead the marten to the trap.
+
+
+  [Illustration: A Marten Set.]
+
+Another very good method is the following: Find a small spruce, about
+three inches in diameter and cut the tree about two feet above the
+snow, leaving the top of the stump V shape. Draw the tree forward and
+lay it over the stump, so that the butt of the tree will be three or
+three and a half feet above the snow. Now, about a foot back from the
+end, flatten off a place for the trap and set the trap on the pole.
+Tie the trap fast with a light string and loop the chain around the
+tree. Split the butt of the tree, and fasten the bait in the split.
+This is a very good set, possessing advantages over most methods. The
+birds can not eat the bait, the trap is not bothered by weasels or
+rabbits, the marten must stand on the trap when trying to get the
+bait, and when caught, falls off the pole and can not get back.
+
+In the mountains, where the snow falls deep, the traps are set on the
+trees, five or six feet above the snow. The most common way, is to
+make two cuts in the tree with an axe, and drive in two wooden pegs,
+about five inches apart. Set the trap and place it on the pegs, one
+peg passing through the bow of the spring, the other between the jaws
+and the bottom of the trap. Draw the chain around the tree and staple
+solidly. The bait is pinned to the tree, about a foot above the trap.
+A bunch of boughs may be placed over the bait to hide it from the
+birds.
+
+If desired, a notch may be cut in the tree and a trap set in the
+notch. The notch should be about four inches deep and about twelve
+inches from top to bottom. Cut the bottom smooth, so the trap will
+set solid and fasten the bait in the top of the notch. Staple the
+trap to the tree. If desired, you can lean a pole against the tree
+for the marten to run up on, but this is not necessary.
+
+The trapper should always be on the lookout for places in which the
+trap may be set without much labor. Sometimes a tree can be found,
+with a hollow in one side and this makes a good place for a set. Lean
+a pole against the tree, with one end resting in the hollow, set a
+trap on the pole and place a bait in the cavity above the trap. At
+other times a cavity may be made in the side of a rotten stub and a
+trap set in the same way. The traps recommended for marten are the
+No. 1 of any make, but the No. 0 Newhouse is much used. If there are
+fishers, lynx and other large animals about, it is best to use a No.
+1 1/2 trap. Deadfalls are also used and they may be built on the
+ground or snow, or on the top of a stump, or the side of a tree. The
+track of the marten resembles that of the mink, except that it is a
+trifle larger and the footprint wider in proportion to the length.
+The toes do not make as clear a print as do those of the mink, the
+feet being more heavily furred.
+
+  [Illustration: The Fisher.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE FISHER.
+
+The fisher belongs to the weasel family and is classed by naturalists
+among the martens, under the name of Pennant's Marten. To the
+trappers, however, it is best known as the fisher, and in the Eastern
+States and Eastern Canada, as the "black cat". It is strictly a North
+American animal, being found scattered over a large part of Canada
+and Alaska, and also in California and other parts of the Pacific
+Coast, Northern Michigan, the Adirondack mountains of New York, the
+White mountains of New Hampshire and in Northern Maine.
+
+In general appearance, the fisher resembles both the marten and the
+wolverine, but is larger than the former and smaller than the latter.
+Compared with the marten, the ears are smaller and more rounded, the
+tail longer and the animal is far more stoutly built. An average,
+full size fisher, will measure two feet from the nose to the root of
+the tail and will weigh from ten to fifteen pounds. The tail is
+peculiar, and is the most valuable part of the skin; It measures,
+usually, about sixteen inches in length, is heavily furred, thick at
+the base, and tapers to a point. The color of the fur varies, some
+specimens being very pale and others almost black. The general color
+is a yellowish grey on the face, head and neck, light brown on the
+back, dark brown on the hind-quarters and the tail and legs, a
+brownish black. The under parts are darker than the back. The fur is
+fairly fine and soft, though not nearly as fine as that of the
+marten.
+
+For its size, the fisher is an exceedingly powerful animal, and is
+rather hard to hold in a trap, as it will struggle as long as life
+lasts. The animal possesses a musk, having a peculiar, rank odor,
+which it ejects when alarmed. The food of the fisher consists
+principally of rabbits, partridges and other small animals and birds,
+but it will scarcely refuse anything in the line of flesh,
+occasionally eating mink, weasel, etc., out of traps. It also preys
+on raccoons in the parts of its range where those animals are found
+and sometimes kills and eats the porcupine. Neither is it a strictly
+carnivorous animal, as it feeds largely on the berries of the
+mountain ash and in seasons when these berries are plentiful, the
+fisher does not take bait well. At such times the Indian trappers
+will often use a bunch of mountain ash berries for bait.
+
+They are found most plentiful on the higher ground, where the land is
+fairly well timbered, and the surface of the country is very ragged.
+They are great travelers and follow the wooded ravines whenever
+possible. Like all other animals of a rambling nature, each
+individual has its regular route of travel, and when you see a track,
+especially in a ravine, you may be sure that the animal will come
+that way again. The fur becomes prime about the first of November,
+and remains in good condition until the first of April, or sometimes
+longer. They are not very prolific, there being only from two to four
+in a litter. The young are usually born in April.
+
+Usually, the fisher is easily trapped and will enter the trap as
+readily as the marten, but there are "off seasons" when food is
+plenty and the animals are rather shy. On such occasions I have seen
+them refuse to cross my trail in the snow. In most cases, however,
+they will jump into the trail and follow it to the trap. When
+trapped, the animal struggles violently and if the leg is broken, is
+likely to twist off the foot and escape. It will also chew up
+everything within reach and the traps must be well fastened. The use
+of a balance pole is advised, but where, for any reason, it cannot be
+used, the traps should be fastened to a heavy log. The most common
+method for trapping the fisher is by setting a trap in a pen of
+stakes or a natural enclosure, the same as recommended for marten,
+but the pen should be larger. It should be two feet high, wide at the
+top and just wide enough for the trap at the bottom.
+
+The bait should be placed on a stick in the back of the pen and the
+trap should be covered with some light material. The pen should be
+roofed with evergreen boughs, to protect the trap from the snow. It
+is the custom among the Indian trappers to make the trap pen of green
+wood, splitting it and placing the stakes so that the split side will
+be inward. The object in this is to enable the animal to more easily
+locate the bait, for sometimes when the fisher scents the bait but
+cannot find it at once, he moves on. If however, the pen presents a
+bright interior it attracts the animal's attention and leads to an
+investigation. This method is used generally, but should not be
+employed when setting for the more wary animals.
+
+The Indians also at times hang the bait by a piece of light wire,
+in preference to placing on a stick. This is so that the little
+wood-mice can not reach and destroy the bait, and I have found it to
+be a very good plan. A small twig should be placed under the pan of
+the trap to prevent squirrels and birds from springing it.
+
+For trapping the fisher, I recommend the No. 1 1/2 traps of all
+makes, also the No. 2 Victor and Oneida Jump traps. Mr. Charles
+Carner, a noted trapper of California, uses the following method.
+Find somewhere on the fisher's route of travel, a small bushy
+evergreen tree with limbs coming down to the ground, cut away a few
+of the limbs, on one side, so as to make a sort of enclosure. The
+limbs that are cut away should be stuck in at the sides and back to
+make the pen tighter. The bait should be tied to the stem of the tree
+and the trap set a short distance in front of the bait, so as to
+catch the animal by the fore foot. The trap is fastened securely to
+the butt of the tree. Mr. Carner recommends the use of the following
+scent. Fish oil, oil of anise, assafoetida and muskrat musk,
+thoroughly mixed. He saturates a rabbit with the scent and draws it
+from trap to trap, and on the last trap uses the rabbit for bait.
+This scent is also used by some other noted trappers.
+
+I have also caught fishers by building a pen on an old log, lying
+with one end above the ground. I would make some splits in the log
+with my axe, drive in a few stakes and weave evergreen boughs among
+the stakes, roofing the pen with boughs. The trap should be set the
+same as in the first method and should be stapled to the top of the
+log, so that when the animal jumps off on either side, he can not get
+his front feet or the trap down to the ground. The above methods are
+all very good, but if a particularly shy animal refuses to enter the
+pen, try setting in a natural enclosure, and if this fails, try the
+following method:
+
+Under some thick evergreen tree, scrape up a cone shaped pile of
+snow, making it two feet high and pack the snow solid. Have the trap
+fastened to a clog and bury the clog in the snow. In the very top of
+the mound, hollow out a place for the trap and line this place with
+evergreen tips. Set the trap in this nest, cover it with a piece of
+paper, and brush a half inch of snow lightly over the paper. For
+bait, use a whole partridge or rabbit and hang it by a string from a
+limb of the tree, so that it hangs about two and a half feet above
+the trap.
+
+Brush your tracks shut with a bunch of boughs and when looking at the
+trap do not go too close. This method is very good for the shy ones
+but is too much trouble to use as a regular set, when putting out a
+long line of traps. The best places in which to set for fishers is in
+the timbered ravines, especially where two ravines join. Other good
+places are at the ends of lakes, the points of swamps, and in narrow
+strips of timber connecting larger bodies.
+
+The track of the fisher is very similar to that of the marten but is
+larger. The length of jump is about three feet and the footprints
+from one and a half to two inches in length.
+
+  [Illustration: The Otter.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE OTTER.
+
+The otter is a carnivorous animal, somewhat resembling the mink in
+appearance. They are found in various parts of the world and will be
+met with in most of the wilder parts of North America. The northern
+or Canadian otter is the most common, but there are other varieties
+known as the Carolina otter, the Florida otter and the Newfoundland
+otter. In habits and general appearance they are all similar.
+
+A distinct species is found in the North Pacific, and is known as the
+sea otter. This animal is considerably larger than the fresh water
+species, and has a shorter tail. The fur is of great value.
+
+The otter is an aquatic animal, living in and near the streams and
+lakes, and getting its living from them. It has a long body, short,
+stout legs, and webbed feet; the tail is long, thick at the base, and
+tapering to a point. The neck is thick, the head comparatively small,
+with small ears, set well down on the sides of the head. The fur is
+of two kinds, the under fur being fine, soft and wavy, and of a light
+silvery color; while the outer fur or guard hairs, are longer,
+coarser, and usually straight, the color varying from brown to almost
+black. The fur of the tail and under parts is shorter and stiffer
+than that on the back, sides and neck; that on the under parts having
+a silvery tint. Otters frequently measure three and one-half feet in
+length and weigh from fifteen to twenty-five pounds. The skin, when
+stretched, will often measure five feet from tip to tip, and
+sometimes even more.
+
+The food of the otter consists principally of fish, trout being their
+favorite food; but they also feed on muskrats, clams, frogs, and the
+smaller animal life, found in the beds of streams and lakes.
+
+They capture muskrats by entering their houses and their holes in the
+banks.
+
+Otters usually make burrows in the banks of streams, lining the nest
+with leaves and grass. The entrances to these burrows are under the
+water and it is my belief that they inhabit them only during the
+breeding season. The young are born in April and May and there are
+from two to four in a litter.
+
+The otter is a great traveler, following the lakes and water courses,
+sometimes going a distance of one hundred miles on a single trip.
+Apparently he is always in a great hurry to reach a certain place,
+some lake or pond, at which, having reached, he may remain for
+several months, and again he may leave immediately after his arrival.
+
+Otters sometimes have slides on the banks of streams, down which they
+slide into the water, apparently for pastime. They also have landing
+places on the banks of streams and on logs projecting into the water,
+where they go to roll in the grass and leaves, or to lie in the sun.
+These places are seldom visited in the fall, but in the spring, they
+will land at almost every place as they come along.
+
+In traveling, they usually follow the center of the stream, as they
+are more at home in the water than on land. In winter they travel
+under the ice, wherever the water is deep enough to allow of their
+passage. The otter's legs being very short, he has a peculiar method
+of traveling on the ice or snow. He throws himself forward, sliding
+on his belly, and by repeating the move in rapid succession, is
+enabled to get along at a surprising rate of speed.
+
+Wherever there is a sharp bend in the stream, the otter will make a
+short cut across the point, and if the stream is traveled much, you
+will find a well-defined trail in such a place. Where two streams lie
+close together, they sometimes have a trail from one stream to
+another. Also wherever a long point of land projects into a lake,
+they are likely to have a trail across the point.
+
+The otter appears to be on very friendly terms with the beaver, and
+if there are any beavers in the country, the otter is sure to find
+them and will spend considerable time in the same pond. When there
+are a number of families of beavers in the same locality, the otter
+will spend nearly all of its time with the beavers, visiting from one
+family to another. Wherever he finds beaver cutting along the stream,
+he examines it, and will most likely follow up the stream to find the
+beaver. This habit is taken advantage of by the Indian trappers of
+the north, as will be explained later.
+
+In the north, the otter becomes prime about the first week in
+November, and remains in good condition until about the first of
+June. In the south they are seldom prime until the first of December,
+and commence to shed from the first to the fifteenth of April. The
+fur of the otter is valuable, the dark, straight haired ones being
+worth the most. Occasionally an otter is found having a decided curl
+to the ends of the hair, the ends being turned forward. These are
+called "curly" otters and are not near so valuable as the others.
+
+Otters are found in good numbers in the swamps of the southern
+states; in Florida, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana and the lowlands
+of Texas. They are also quite plentiful in some parts of
+Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine; also in the wilds of
+Labrador, Ungava, Quebec, Ontario, Yukon, Mackenzie and Alaska. The
+most valuable otters come from the far north, but they are probably
+more plentiful in the south, and the southern trapper has the
+advantage of having open water all winter.
+
+The best traps for otter are the numbers 2 1/2, 3 and 3 1/2 Newhouse;
+the Nos. 3 and 4 Hawley & Norton; and the No. 14 Oneida jump, also
+the "Seminole" pattern, Blake & Lamb.
+
+The point to keep in mind when trapping for otter, is that they are
+very shy of the scent of man; more so perhaps than any other animal,
+and unless great care is observed, are likely to be frightened
+entirely out of the locality in which you are trapping. This human
+scent theory is disputed by some trappers, but I speak from my own
+experience, and from the experience of many expert trappers with whom
+I am acquainted. If one will use a little judgment he will readily
+understand why human scent is alarming to many wild animals. Man is
+the natural enemy of all wild animal life, and all wild creatures
+realize this fact. Now you will see that any indications of the
+presence of man, puts the animal on its guard; especially is this the
+case in the wilderness where the animals are not accustomed to seeing
+the tracks of man wherever they go. When an animals finds human
+scent, he has positive proof that man has been in that vicinity.
+
+Footprints and other human signs, if there is no scent, are not so
+alarming, as they are likely to be mistaken for signs made by some
+wild animal. Although the animals of the wilderness are more afraid
+of human scent than those found in the settled countries, they are
+just as easily trapped. The more wary animals found in settled parts,
+are always looking for danger because of the continued presence of
+man in their locality, but on the other hand, they are not likely to
+be frightened by human scent because it is a common thing to them.
+
+As mentioned before the otter is sure to visit the beavers, if there
+are any about, so if you know of a family of beavers, go to that
+place and if you can find an old beaver dam, on the stream
+somewhere, below where the beavers are located, make a break in the
+center of this dam, so that all of the water will flow through this
+opening, and set the trap in the water, in the upper end of this
+passage. Narrow down the passage to about eight inches, by driving a
+few old stakes on each side of the trap. The trap may be staked, but
+it is better, if the water is deep enough, to use a sliding pole, so
+that the captured animal will drown. No covering is needed on the
+trap, but after it is set, the entire setting should be drenched with
+water, to remove the human scent. This is an excellent set and will
+remain in working order until late in the fall, as the water
+immediately above the break in the dam will not freeze until long
+after other water is closed by ice. Even in the coldest weather this
+set may be kept from freezing by roofing it over with evergreen
+boughs, and banking it well with snow.
+
+Beavers and beaver dams are not found in every locality, but wherever
+otters are found traveling on small streams, they may be trapped in
+the following manner:
+
+Find a narrow place in the stream, where the water flows smoothly,
+and narrow up the stream by placing a bunch of old dead brush in each
+side, leaving a passage of about eight inches in the middle. Lay a
+few stones among the brush to keep them in place. Set the trap in the
+opening, and splash water over the brush and banks. The trap may be
+staked but it is better to fasten to a clog. Cut a small sapling of
+such a size that the ring of the chain will just pass over the butt
+of the sapling. Slip the ring over the clog and fasten it by
+splitting the butt and drive a wedge in the split, or by driving a
+staple over the ring. The clog may be placed on the upper side of the
+brush, used to block the stream, and the top may be tied to the
+shore, so that it will not be carried away by high water. In very
+small streams, a narrow passage may be made, by simply placing a few
+stones in either side, leaving a narrow passage in the middle, in
+which to set the trap.
+
+When you can find a sharp bend in the stream, with a trail across the
+point, set the trap in the water, at the end of the trail. Use same
+care as advised for the other sets.
+
+For spring trapping this method is excellent: if you can find one of
+the otter's landing places on the bank, prepare the place for setting
+in the fall in the following manner: Make a nest for the trap in the
+center of the trail and fill the nest with grass and leaves. Lay a
+bunch of dead brush or a chunk of rotten wood on each side of the
+trail, so as to leave only a narrow passage and cut a clog and lay it
+in place. The otters seldom visit these places in the fall, so there
+is no danger of frightening them. In the spring, before the snow is
+all gone, go and set your trap in the place prepared, covering with
+the leaves and grass, and attach to the clog, covering the entire
+setting with a little snow. As the snow melts, it takes with it all
+of the scent and signs, leaving the trap ready for the first otter
+that comes along.
+
+If you do not find the landing places until after the snow is gone,
+set the traps just the same, washing the scent away by sprinkling
+with water, or set the traps in the water where the otter climbs up
+the bank.
+
+  [Illustration: Otter Trap Set Under Ice.]
+
+Another very good method for spring trapping, is to set the trap in
+the edge of the water, where the bank bluffs a little, sticking up a
+few fresh cut, green sticks behind the trap, and at the sides. Post a
+piece of the dried oil castor of the beaver on a stick, behind the
+trap, and about ten inches high. The ordinary beaver castor is also
+good. The oil castor is very attractive to the otter, and the green
+sticks are also attractive, as the otter mistakes them for beaver
+cutting. Always fasten the trap so the animal will drown, as you are
+likely to catch a beaver in this set.
+
+One of the best methods of trapping otter in winter, after the
+streams are closed with ice, is as follows: Find a long pool of still
+water, where you are sure the otter will be traveling under the ice,
+and at either end of this pool, where the water is about ten inches
+deep, cut a hole through the ice, make a pen of dead sticks in the
+water, making the pen about nine inches wide, by twelve or fifteen
+inches deep. Now take a fish and fasten it to a stick, in the back of
+the pen, and set the trap in the entrance, staking it securely. Drive
+the stake about ten inches in front of the pen, and directly in front
+of the trap. The object in this is to cause the otter, in entering,
+to twist his body, in which act, he will put his foot down in the
+trap. Throw some snow in the hole, so it will freeze over. The bait
+should be renewed once a week. In case you cannot get fish for bait,
+use the head of a rabbit, the breast of a partridge, or a piece of
+muskrat. The bait should be skinned.
+
+The otter will also be attracted by any white object. I know a
+trapper who caught one in this way by baiting with a white door knob,
+and the Indians sometimes use a piece of fresh peeled poplar for
+bait.
+
+If the ice has formed when the water was above its usual level, there
+will be an air space, between the water and the ice. In such a case,
+cut a hole through the ice at the edge of the water, placing a piece
+of beaver castor on a stick behind the trap. The hole may be closed
+by covering with a block of ice.
+
+When the otter has been working on a lake for some time, you will
+find where he has been coming out at the springholes, which are found
+on nearly all lakes. In such places the water is always shallow, and
+a trap may be set on the bottom directly under the hole. Great care
+must be used however, for if the otter is not caught the first time
+he comes out, he will be frightened away.
+
+Otters often land on the logs which project into the water. When you
+can find such a log, cut a notch for a trap, so that it will set
+about two inches deep, and place some mud in the notch so as to hide
+the fresh cutting. Some very successful trappers, set their traps in
+this way, and place some good scent on the log, above the trap.
+
+If you can find an otter slide, find the place where the animal lands
+on the bank to visit the slide, and set the trap under about two
+inches of water.
+
+The Nos. 2 1/2 and 3 1/2 Newhouse traps were designed especially for
+trapping otters on their slides. The trap should be set at the foot
+of the slide, so as to catch the animal by the breast or body.
+
+Otters often travel in pairs, and it is usually advisable to set two
+or three traps on one stream.
+
+Do not make your camp near the stream, and do not travel along the
+stream more than necessary. In looking at the traps, do not go too
+close, unless the traps need your attention.
+
+There is no way in which the sea otter can be trapped and they are
+hunted only with rifles. The methods employed in hunting them have
+been very successful and as a consequence the animal has been
+practically exterminated.
+
+The track of the otter is peculiar, owing to their strange mode of
+travel. As before mentioned their method of travel is a series of
+plunging slides and in the snow they make a deep furrow, their
+footprints being from four to eight feet apart, according to the
+"sliding conditions". When two or more are traveling in company, they
+will usually all run in the same trail. Their tracks are as a rule,
+only seen on lakes and streams, but occasionally they will go
+overland from one stream to another. The footprints will measure
+about one and one-half or one and three-fourths inches in length and
+about the same in width.
+
+  [Illustration: The Beaver.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE BEAVER.
+
+When this country was first explored and settled, beavers were found
+in good numbers throughout the United States and Canada, but at
+present they are extinct in many of the states where they were once
+abundant. Today they are found in fair numbers throughout the greater
+part of Canada and Alaska, also in a few of the northern and western
+states. There are also a few beavers found in the south at the
+present time. However, many of the states, as well as some of the
+provinces of Canada, have made laws prohibiting the trapping or
+killing of beavers, to prevent them from being exterminated.
+
+The beaver is an amphibious animal, resembling the muskrat in
+appearance but much larger. It has the same thick, heavy body, short
+neck and scaly tail. The hind feet are large and strong and the toes
+are connected by a web; the front feet are small. The tail is "paddle
+shaped," four or five inches wide and about ten inches long. When
+full grown, the beaver will weigh from forty to fifty pounds,
+although occasionally a much larger one is found. The under fur is
+very fine and soft, and is mixed with longer and coarser hairs called
+"guard hairs". The prevailing color is a rich, reddish brown, on the
+back and sides, and ashy beneath.
+
+The food of the beaver consists mostly of bark, of such woods as
+poplar, birch, willow and cottonwood, as well as the roots of the
+water lily. In the south they also eat corn.
+
+Beavers build houses of sticks, stones, and mud, similar in shape to
+the houses of the muskrat, locating usually, in the edge, of a pond
+or lake, but often making a large pond to suit their requirements, by
+building a dam across the stream. Even when their houses are built on
+a lake or pond, they always build a dam across the outlet, so as to
+raise the water two or three feet.
+
+The dams are built of the same material as the houses. Sometimes
+there are one or two small dams found below the main dam, and they
+are so well made that they will last for many years, and are so tight
+that the water usually drips evenly over the top.
+
+The houses are also very well made, the walls being several feet in
+thickness. There are usually two entrances, both under water. The
+size and general shape of the house depends on the number of beavers
+inhabiting it. The house of a full family of beavers will usually
+measure about twelve feet in diameter at the water line, but will
+some times be even larger, and the height is about six or seven feet.
+When there are only two or three beavers, the house is much smaller,
+and more pointed on the top.
+
+A full family consists of from six to eight members. There are
+usually two old beavers, two or three two year olds, and two or three
+young. The reason for this is that the young beavers remain two years
+with the parents, and as it requires several years for them to grow
+their full size, there are always three sizes in a family. When they
+have reached the age of two years, they start out and make a house of
+their own, the beavers born the spring before, becoming the medium
+size, and a new litter taking their place. By autumn, the beavers
+that have left the main family have their house and dam completed and
+a store of food laid up for winter.
+
+Many of the beavers travel about through the summer, following the
+streams, and return to their homes early in the fall. Sometimes, if
+they are late in getting back they will have to work day and night,
+in order to get sufficient food gathered for winter, before the ice
+comes. This food consists of saplings and small trees, which they
+gnaw off about a foot above the ground, drag into the edge of the
+water, where they are cut up into pieces of different lengths, stored
+away, under water in front of the house. Just how they cause this
+wood to sink, remain in place under the water, is a mystery. The
+beaver spends the entire winter under the ice. When he feels hungry
+he goes out and gets a piece of wood, takes it into the house, eats
+the bark, and takes the peeled stick out again. They repair the house
+and dam each fall and they also make holes in the bank under water,
+to which they can retreat in case the house is disturbed, or when
+they hear a noise on the ice.
+
+Trappers who are well acquainted with the habits of the beaver, can
+make a fair estimate of the number of inmates of a house. It
+sometimes happens that a pair of young beavers, or a lone beaver that
+has escaped from some family which has been trapped, will locate in
+an old deserted house, and then it is not such an easy matter. The
+experienced trapper, however, is not likely to be fooled. He goes
+along the shore and carefully examines the stumps, where the animals
+have been cutting trees for food. The amount of stuff that has been
+cut will show, usually; but he has still a better way of determining
+whether the work was done by one or more beavers. He examines the
+teeth marks on the stumps, and if they are all alike, he decides that
+there is not a full family, but only two, or perhaps only one.
+
+A lone beaver that has escaped from the trapper, is difficult to
+trap. I remember once finding such a one, located on a large pool of
+a fair sized stream. He had no dam and had only a small house along
+the bank. I found him in the fall, while the water was still open,
+and he was busy laying in a supply of food for winter. Well, I went
+there one rainy day and set two traps. I set the traps very
+carefully, fastening to sliding poles, which I had cut quite a
+distance away so as not to make any noise near the house. The rain
+washed the scent away in a short time, and I could see no reason why
+he should take alarm; but he did, just the same. I kept those traps
+set a week, but did not catch him, nor did I ever see any fresh signs
+there, after I had set the traps. Apparently he had left the place
+immediately after I had set the traps. An Indian trapper had trapped
+several families of beavers, near there the season before, and this
+beaver was one that had "given him the slip."
+
+In cutting timber, the beaver takes the wood in small chips, gnawing
+all around the tree, until it falls. He knows absolutely nothing
+about throwing the tree in the direction in which he wishes it to
+fall, but lets it fall just as it is inclined to go. I have seen
+where a tree had lodged, refusing to fall, and the beaver had stood
+up and cut several pieces off the butt, and as the tree still refused
+to fall, he had let it remain hanging. It was a case of hard work and
+no pay.
+
+When one finds a family of beavers, and expects to trap the same
+ground each season, he should not attempt to catch them all, as by
+leaving a few to breed, he is sure of getting beavers each season.
+The Indians, in such cases, trap the old beavers only, which they do
+by setting the traps a good distance from the house, for the young
+beavers never venture far away.
+
+Many beavers are trapped in the fall just before the ice forms, but
+their fur is not prime until mid-winter. In the north they remain in
+good condition until the first of June; in the south they would
+probably not be good after the middle of April.
+
+Beaver castors have a market value, usually selling for seven or
+eight dollars a pound. In preparing them, they should be dried
+slowly, in a shady place. Most trappers prefer to keep the castors
+for scent, as it is attractive to many animals. The Indians sometimes
+combine the two scents by making a hole in the beaver castors, and
+squeezing the contents of the oil castors into them. The castors are
+then hung up and allowed to dry. This is more or less attractive to
+all animals, only a small piece being used in connection with the
+bait.
+
+The best traps for beavers are the Nos. 2 1/2, 3, 3 1/2 and 4
+Newhouse, the No. 4 Victor, the No. 4 Oneida Jump, and Blake & Lamb.
+
+  [Illustration: Trap Set for Beaver--Sliding Pole.]
+
+The following methods of trapping are for use in open water, in
+either the fall or spring. The first method given is usually
+considered best:
+
+Find a place where the bank bluffs a little and the water is of good
+depth. Make a little pocket in the bank, several inches deep, and set
+the trap in the water directly in front of this pocket, where the pan
+of the trap will be about two inches under water. Take a piece of
+beaver castor and fasten it to the bank with a stick, about fourteen
+inches above the water, and as far back in the pocket as possible. If
+you are using some other scent instead of beaver castor, just dip a
+small stick in the scent and fasten it to the bank. Fasten the trap
+so that the beaver will drown; the sliding pole is best. Be sure to
+use a dead pole or stake, as if a green pole is used the other
+beavers may carry it away, trap and all. This is a very good method
+for spring and fall, or at any time when there is open water:
+
+Here is another method for the same kind of place:
+
+Set the trap under water at the foot of a steep bank, and fasten a
+couple of green poplar or cottonwood sticks on the bank, directly
+over the trap, so that the beaver will step into the trap in trying
+to reach them. Have the fresh cut ends of the sticks showing plainly,
+and make your set near the house or dam so that the beavers are sure
+to see it. Fasten trap so that the captured animal will be sure to
+drown. No covering is needed on traps when they are set under water.
+
+Look for the beaver's slides or trails where he drags his food into
+the water, and if the water is deep enough to drown him, set the trap
+under about two inches of water, just where he lands on the bank.
+This set is all right in the fall, when the beaver is laying in his
+food for the winter, but is not much good in the spring. Some
+trappers set the trap a foot or more from the shore, where the water
+is about six inches deep, as by so doing the beaver is caught by the
+hind foot, and is not so likely to escape. When using a set of this
+kind, it is best to use a number 3 1/2 or 4 trap, as the No. 3 is too
+small for the beaver's hind foot.
+
+Beavers usually have a slide or trail over the center of the dam, and
+this makes a very good place to set a trap. Set the trap under water
+on the upper side of the dam, just where the trail leads over. Be
+sure to fasten the trap so that the animal will drown, as if it is
+not drowned, it is almost certain to escape, and even if it does not,
+the others will be frightened and you will have a hard time to get
+them.
+
+In the spring, after the ice has gone, it is a good plan to set a few
+traps along the stream, baiting with beaver castor, as the beavers
+are traveling at this time, and you are likely to catch one almost
+anywhere along the streams. When setting traps in this way, it is
+best to drench the set with water to remove the human scent. The
+beaver is seldom afraid of human scent, but there is likely to be an
+otter along that way, and you stand a good chance of catching him in
+a trap baited with beaver castor.
+
+Beavers may be caught in mid-winter and early spring, by setting
+baited traps under the ice. It is not much use to set traps under the
+ice in early winter, as the beaver's food is still in good condition,
+and they will not take bait well; moreover you are likely to frighten
+them and make them harder to trap later on. The following methods are
+among the best for use under the ice, the one first given, being most
+used, and is probably the best:
+
+Go close to the beaver's house where the ice is thin, and by cutting
+small holes in the ice, find a place where the water is about twelve
+inches deep. Having found such a place, enlarge the hole until it is
+about sixteen by twenty inches in size, making a pen the same size as
+the hole, by shoving down dead sticks about four inches apart. If the
+bottom is very hard, you will have to freeze the sticks to the ice,
+to hold them in place. This may be done by throwing snow in the
+water, and packing it around the sticks and against the edge of the
+ice. When the pen is completed, cut a piece of green poplar about 1
+1/2 or 2 inches thick and two or three feet long, and fasten it to a
+stake by one end--the poplar being placed at a right angle to the
+stake. This green poplar is for bait, and the stake should be driven
+down in one corner of the pen so that the bait is within two or three
+inches from the bottom, and close along one side of the pen,
+extending a foot or more beyond the entrance.
+
+  [Illustration: Beaver Trap Set Under Ice.]
+
+The trap should be staked and set well inside of the pen, and quite
+close to the bait, so that the jaw of the trap will just clear the
+bait. This set will be readily understood by referring to the cut. If
+the bottom is of thin mud, as is often the case, you will have to
+make a bed for the trap, by sinking a bunch of evergreen boughs
+inside of the pen. It is also best to fasten the bait near the
+entrance to prevent the beaver from swinging it around. When the set
+is completed, cover the hole with evergreen boughs, bank it with
+snow, to keep it from freezing.
+
+It is best to let this set go for about a week before looking at it.
+The beavers will be frightened and will not approach the set for a
+few days, but finally one of them musters up courage enough to try to
+pull the bait out of the pen. When he finds it fast, he cuts it off
+at the entrance of the pen, takes it to the house to eat it; this
+sharpens his appetite, makes him more courageous, and he finally
+ventures into the pen for the balance of the bait. In attempting to
+cut the bait, he places one front foot on the bait and the other one
+in the trap. When using this set you should use three or four sets at
+each house.
+
+Another good ice method is as follows: Find the proper depth of
+water, about fourteen inches, and make a pen of dead sticks arranging
+them in the form of a half-circle. Now take some green poplar and
+shove them down firmly into the bottom, about six inches apart, close
+up to the stakes, on the inside of the pen. These bait sticks must be
+long enough to reach above the ice, so that they will freeze fast at
+the top. Stake the trap and set it in the center of the enclosure,
+with the pan about nine inches from the center bait. Throw some snow
+in the hole, so that it will freeze and hold the bait sticks
+securely.
+
+The following method is one of the best for use in deep water: Cut a
+dead pole about four inches in diameter and six or seven feet long.
+Flatten the pole at one end, and loop the trap chain around the pole;
+then set the trap on the end of the pole and tie it with a string, to
+hold it in place. Now, cut an oblong hole in the ice, and place the
+pole in the water in an inclined position so that the trap is about
+twelve inches below the ice. Pack wet snow around the pole to hold it
+in place, fasten two sticks of green poplar in the ice over the trap,
+one on either side. In attempting to cut the bait, the beaver will
+put his foot in the trap.
+
+Always fasten your trap to a dead stick or pole, for if a green stake
+is used, the beavers are likely to carry it away, trap and all.
+Poplar and cottonwood make the best baits, but in case they cannot be
+obtained, use birch, willow or black cherry.
+
+When setting traps near the house, in open water, make as little
+noise as possible, and do not remain in the vicinity longer than
+necessary.
+
+When trapping in open water, never camp or make a fire near the pond
+where the beavers are located. In winter, after the ice has formed,
+it does not matter.
+
+If you find a beaver house in winter when the snow is deep, and wish
+to know if it is inhabited, examine the house, and if the snow is
+melted on the top, you may be sure there are beavers in it.
+
+Another way to tell whether a house is inhabited, is to cut a hole
+through the ice and shove down a piece of green poplar, filling the
+hole with snow. Examine it in about a week, and if the poplar has
+been cut, you may be sure you have found beavers.
+
+The track of the beaver is seldom seen as they do not move about much
+in winter and on their trails their tracks are obliterated by the
+food which they drag into the water. The trapper does not look for
+tracks, but for more conspicuous signs, such as houses and dams with
+fresh cut wood.
+
+  [Illustration: The Muskrat.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE MUSKRAT.
+
+The muskrat is a small herbivorous animal of the amphibious class.
+Its head and body are from thirteen to fifteen inches in length. The
+tail is nine or ten inches, two edged, and for two-thirds its length
+is rudder shaped and covered with scales and thin, short hair. The
+front feet are small, the hind feet, large and slightly webbed,
+making the animal an expert swimmer. The color of the fur is brown
+above and ashy beneath.
+
+The muskrat is a nocturnal animal, but is sometimes seen in the day
+time. Their food consists of grass and roots, fruit, grain and
+vegetables. They will also eat clams, sometimes, when food is scarce.
+They thrive best in sluggish streams and ponds, bordered with grass
+and flags, the roots of which are their chief support and from the
+tops of which they construct their houses. These structures are dome
+shaped, and rise, sometimes to a height of five feet from the water.
+The entrances are at the bottom, under water, so that the inside of
+the house is not exposed to the open air. From six to ten muskrats
+are sometimes found in one house. Hundreds of these dwellings can be
+counted from a single point in many large marshes.
+
+The muskrats found on the streams do not build houses, but live in
+holes in the bank, the entrances of which are under water. The
+muskrat is found throughout the greater part of the United States and
+Canada. They are especially numerous in the marshes on the coast of
+Delaware and Maryland. This muskrat ground is owned by private
+parties, who lease the ground to the trappers for a certain length of
+time, the trapper catching all the animals he can in that length of
+time. Muskrats are also very plentiful in some parts of Western
+Canada. These animals are very prolific, bringing forth from six to
+nine at a birth and three litters in a season. They have many
+enemies, such as the fox, mink, otter and owl, but their greatest
+enemy is man.
+
+Muskrats are trapped in the fall, winter and spring, but they are not
+prime until mid-winter, and some are not fully prime until the first
+of March. Nevertheless, they are more easily caught in the fall, and
+as the skins bring a fair price, the most trapping is done at this
+time, that is for "bank rats,"--those living in holes in the banks.
+Where the muskrats live in houses, they are trapped mostly after the
+ice had formed.
+
+In the far North the skins are in good condition until the first of
+June, while in the extreme South they should not be trapped after the
+first of April. The muskrats found in settled districts are larger
+and better furred than those of the wilderness, also, those found
+East of the Mississippi River are larger than those of the West.
+
+When trapping for these animals, the traps should always be staked
+full length of chain into deep water, so that the captured animal
+will drown, as otherwise they are almost certain to twist off the
+foot, and escape, unless they are caught by a hind foot. Many
+trappers set their traps several inches under water, as by so doing
+they catch the rat by a hind foot, and there is very little danger of
+them escaping. Some stake their traps the length of the chain into
+deep water, and drive another stake about a foot beyond. The muskrat,
+when caught, winds the chain around the outer stake and is thus
+prevented from reaching the bank. Others prefer to tie a stone on the
+end of the chain, and lay the stone in deep water.
+
+The traps most used are the Nos. 1 and 1 1/2, but the No. 0 is also
+used sometimes. The Victor trap is a great favorite, as it does not
+have a strong a spring as the higher priced traps, and is not so
+likely to break the animal's leg. The single spring Oneida Jump traps
+are also fine traps for muskrats.
+
+One of the most common methods of trapping the muskrat is to find
+their slides on the bank and set the trap at the foot of the slide
+under about two and a half or three inches of water. No covering is
+needed.
+
+If you can find a log, with one end lying in the water, examine same
+and if there are muskrat droppings on the log, cut a notch for the
+trap, so that it will be just under water when set in the notch. The
+chain may be stapled to the log.
+
+Another good way is to find their holes in the bank and set a trap in
+the entrance, staking into deep water.
+
+If the water is still, and there is much grass in the water, look
+around, and you will find their feeding beds,--beds of grass which
+appear to be floating on the water. Set traps on these beds, under
+water.
+
+If you know there are muskrats about and you can not find any of the
+places described above, select a steep bank, and set the trap under
+two or three inches of water at the foot of the bank. Pin a piece of
+bait to the bank about ten inches above the trap.
+
+Where muskrats are found in large numbers as in a pond or slough,
+proceed as follows: Get a board about twelve inches wide and sixteen
+feet long and nail strips across it, arranging them in pairs, just
+far enough apart to let a trap set between. A board of this size will
+hold six or eight traps. The traps may be stapled to the edge of the
+board and some small pieces of bait scattered the entire length. The
+traps should be covered with dirt or dead grass. Attach a rope to one
+end of the board and anchor it in the water where the muskrats are
+sure to find it.
+
+To trap muskrats in their houses in winter, cut a hole in the side of
+the house, and set the trap inside, on the bed. Fasten the trap to a
+stick outside of the house and close the opening tight, so the diving
+hole will not freeze. I have had best success at this kind of
+trapping by using a small trap, No. 0, and a good length of chain, as
+it gives the rat more chance to drown. The traps should be visited
+evening and morning.
+
+In the spring, when the ice has just commenced to melt, you will find
+small piles of grass roots projecting above the ice. Move this aside
+and you will find a hole in the ice, with a feed bed directly in
+under it. Set a trap on this bed and cover the hole.
+
+The best baits for muskrats are sweet apple, parsnips, carrot,
+pumpkin, corn and the flesh of the muskrat. While they do not eat the
+meat, they will go to smell at it, which is all that is needed.
+Muskrat musk, beaver castor and catnip are all attractive to the
+muskrat.
+
+  [Illustration: The Red Fox.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE FOX.
+
+The various members of the fox family are found in almost all parts
+of the world but are most abundant in the Northern Hemisphere. There
+are many species and varieties, but it is those of North America that
+are of the most interest to the trapper.
+
+Those found on this continent are the red, the gray, the kit and
+Arctic foxes, and there are a number of varieties of the red and gray
+species. The black, silver and cross foxes are supposed to be only
+color varieties of the red, but why this occurs, and only in the
+North, is a mystery.
+
+The Silver or Black fox is the most beautiful and most valuable of
+all the foxes. It is found in the high, northern latitudes of both
+continents. In this country, it is found as far south as the northern
+tier of states. They are most abundant in the interior of Alaska, the
+Northwest Territories, Ontario, Northern Quebec, Labrador and
+Newfoundland.
+
+At the London fur sales, specimens have been sold at over one
+thousand dollars each, but the average price is probably about two
+hundred dollars. Wherever the Silver fox is found, the Cross or Patch
+fox is found also, and they also range somewhat farther south. They
+are always found in greater numbers than the Silver variety.
+
+The red fox is the most common and is distributed over a larger
+territory than the other varieties. They range from the northern
+timber line, to well down in the Southern States. They are probably
+most abundant in the Eastern provinces of Canada and the England
+States, but they are found in fair numbers in parts of New York,
+Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Michigan
+and the larger part of Canada and Alaska.
+
+The Gray fox is one of the least valuable, and is most abundant in
+the Southern States. In the East they range as far north as
+Connecticut, In some places they have supplanted the Red species, and
+in other places the grays have disappeared and the reds have taken
+their place.
+
+The fox, as well as the wolf and coyote, belongs to the dog family,
+which is second, only to man in intelligence. The different species
+are all practically the same size, but the same varieties vary in
+size in different localities. The average weight is from nine to ten
+pounds. In general appearance they somewhat resemble the dog, being
+rather light of build, considering their height. The ears are erect
+and pointed, the tail thick and bushy, and the muzzle small and
+pointed. The fur varies in the different species, being coarse and
+rather short on the Gray, while that of the Silver fox is extremely
+fine and soft.
+
+The mating season comes in February, and e young are born usually in
+April, there being from four to nine in a litter. They make dens in
+the sand hills and in rocky districts, den in the rocks. Except
+during the breeding season they spend very little time in the dens,
+but lie during the day in some clump of brush or weeds, or often on
+top of a stump or log. In mountainous sections they lie during the
+day, somewhere on the mountain side and come down into the valleys at
+night in search of food.
+
+The fox is not strictly a carnivorous animal. When food is scarce
+they often feed on apples and other fruits, but their regular food is
+flesh. They are fond of partridge, rabbits, mice, skunk, muskrat or
+opossum flesh, carrion of almost all kinds, fish, eggs, poultry, and
+often they come around the camps and gather up the scraps, bread,
+bacon rinds etc. If they are given time and not disturbed they become
+quite bold in coming to such places for food and the trappers
+sometime take advantage of this peculiarity by baiting them awhile
+before setting the trap.
+
+The fox in the North becomes prime in the beginning of November and
+remains in good condition until the middle of March, when the fur
+begins to take on a rubbed and woolly appearance. In the South they
+do not become prime until the last of November or the beginning of
+December and go out of prime in February. Most of the foxes are
+trapped in the fall before the ground freezes too hard for dry sets,
+and of course, many of them are not prime.
+
+The traps recommended for the fox, for dry land use are the Nos. 2
+and 3 Oneida Jump and Blake & Lamb, the 1 1/2 Newhouse and Hawley &
+Norton and the No. 2 Victor. For water and snow trapping, the Nos. 3
+and 4 Oneida Jump and Blake & Lamb, and the 21 1/2 and 31 1/2
+Newhouse will be found most desirable.
+
+In places where there are springs and small streams, there is no
+better method than the old water set, which is made as follows: It is
+best to find a spring which does not freeze, but for early fall
+trapping a brook will do. The rise and fall of the water in small
+streams sometimes makes trouble, and a spring or small pond gives
+best results. The spring should be at least four feet in diameter and
+should be prepared for the set in the summer, but if care is used,
+may be fixed up during the trapping season. A moss covered stone, or
+a sod (according to surroundings) should be placed about a foot and a
+half from shore, and should rise about two or three inches above the
+water. This is the bait sod. The trap is set half way between the sod
+and the shore, and the jaws, springs and chain should be covered with
+mud, or whatever is found in the bottom of the spring.
+
+  [Illustration: Water Set for Fox.]
+
+The pan of the trap should just be covered with water. Now take a
+nice piece of moss or sod and place it on the pan of the trap, so
+that it will rise an inch above the water. When properly placed, this
+sod will look natural and will, apparently be a safe stepping place
+for the fox. The pan should be so adjusted that it will not spring
+too easily. A small piece of bait and also some scent should be
+placed on the larger sod.
+
+In making this set you should wade up the outlet of the spring, and
+stand in the water while making the set. Do not touch the bank or any
+of the surroundings. The trap should be fitted with a chain about
+three feet in length, with a two prong drag attached, but most
+trappers simply wire a stone of eight or ten pounds weight to the end
+of the chain. The drag, whatever is used, should be buried in the bed
+of the spring.
+
+I recommend the flesh of the muskrat, skunk, opossum or house-cat for
+bait, and it should be allowed to taint by remaining about a week in
+a glass jar. This method was first used by William Schofield a famous
+fox trapper of the Eastern states. Two men have been known to catch
+over one hundred foxes in a season with this method, besides
+considerable other furs taken in the same traps, for the method is
+good for many other animals besides the fox.
+
+One trapper recommends setting the trap in exactly the same manner,
+except that the bait sod is omitted, and the bait, a bird, is
+fastened by means of a stick thrust in the bottom of the spring. The
+stick must be entirely out of sight, and the bird, apparently,
+floating in the water. Both of these methods are very good, and are
+especially recommended for the novice, as they are the easiest and
+surest methods to start on.
+
+The water sets given above, can of course, only be used in certain
+places, for in some of the best fox countries, springs cannot be
+found, and even the streams are not suitable for trapping. For this
+reason many professional fox trappers prefer to use dry land sets,
+and the blind set will be found to be one of the very best.
+
+Look for fox tracks in old stock trails, foot paths, old roads in the
+woods, openings under fences, etc., and having first cleaned the
+traps by boiling or washing, find a narrow place in the trail and dig
+out a nest for the trap. Make this nest so that when the trap is set
+in it, the jaws will lie lengthwise of the trail. Line this nest with
+dry grass or leaves, and having attached the trap to some sort of a
+drag, set it and place it in the place prepared. Fill in all around
+the outside of the jaws with dry dirt, and cover the springs. Now
+lay a piece of clean paper over the trap and cover all with about
+one-fourth inch of dirt, making it look like the other parts of the
+trail as much as possible. The chain and drag must be carefully
+concealed.
+
+It is best to have a basket or piece of canvas in which to place the
+dirt while making the set and to carry away what is not needed. Do
+not spit near the trap, and do not leave any signs of your presence.
+It is not necessary to wear gloves, but the hands should be kept
+clean. This is an excellent method, especially for the old, sly
+animals.
+
+  [Illustration: Dry Land Set for Fox.]
+
+The professional trappers of the East use the bait method, mostly,
+and although the different trappers use different baits and scents,
+the methods of setting the traps are all, practically the same.
+
+The following directions are almost the same as you will get when you
+buy a method at from $1.00 to $5.00 or more. "Prepare your bait about
+a week before you want to set the traps, by cutting into pieces about
+half the size of an egg, and placing in a clean jar to become
+tainted. Put a little bit of scent on each bait before placing in
+jar. There are different ways for preparing the traps; most trappers
+prefer to boil them in hemlock boughs, or lay them over night in
+running water. Wear clean gloves when handling the traps and carry
+them in a clean basket. Now find an old stump or a rock along some
+hillside, and dig a hole under it making the hole four or five inches
+in diameter and ten or twelve inches deep. Stake the trap solid,
+driving stake out of sight, and set the trap about ten inches in
+front of the hole. Cover the trap first with a piece of clean paper
+and finish by about one-fourth inch of dirt dug out of the hole. It
+should look as if some animal had dug the hole and scratched the dirt
+out in front. Use a small shovel made for the purpose, or a sharpened
+stick to dig the hole, and keep your gloves on all the time. Do not
+walk around, but stand in the same spot until the set is complete.
+Now put a piece of bait in the back of the hole, using a sharpened
+stick to handle the bait and put just a little scent by the side of
+the hole. When you catch a fox, kill him without drawing blood, and
+set the trap back in the same place. Your chances for catching
+another fox are doubled. Skunks, coons and other animals will also be
+caught in these sets."
+
+The following method is a good one to use in settled countries, as it
+is not so likely to catch dogs and other animals, as other methods
+are. Find an ant-hill, a small, pointed knoll, an old rotten stump, a
+moss covered rock, or an old log with one end off the ground. Set the
+trap on the highest point, covering carefully, so that it looks just
+like it did before the trap was set. Place a fair sized bait, such as
+a skunk or muskrat about eight feet away from the trap. The fox is
+always suspicious of a bait, especially a large one, and will always
+get on the highest point to look at it before going close. Of course,
+there must be no other place for him to get up on, near the bait. In
+the winter, traps may be set on muskrat houses, and bait placed on
+the ice. I think it best to set the traps several days before placing
+the baits, as in that way the human and other scents have a chance to
+pass away. When baiting, go just close enough to throw the bait into
+place.
+
+Some trappers set traps around large baits, such as the carcass of a
+horse, cow or sheep, but I think it best to place the bait by the
+side of a trail and set several traps on the trail from thirty to
+seventy five yards from the bait. When feeding on the bait the foxes
+will travel on the trail, and they will not be looking for danger so
+far away from the bait.
+
+Comparatively few of the professional fox trappers can trap the fox
+successfully after the deep snow come on; but the following methods
+are the best known, and will catch the fox if you use care in
+setting. Of course, snow sets of any kind can only be used when the
+snow is dry and loose and likely to remain in that condition for some
+time.
+
+The first method given is the one used by the Canadian Indians, for
+taking the silver fox in the great northern wilderness. Out on the
+ice on some frozen lake, or on any open, wind swept piece of ground,
+make a cone-shaped mound of snow, beating it solid, so that it will
+not drift away. The trap should be fastened to a clog, and the clog
+buried in the mound. Make the mound about two feet high, and make a
+hollow in the top for the trap to set in. The hollow should be lined
+with cat-tail down, or some other dry material, and the trap set in
+the hollow and covered first with a sheet of white note paper,
+finishing with a half inch or more of loose snow. Do not handle this
+snow with your hands, for if you do it will be certain to freeze on
+the trap. The best way is to take a bunch of evergreen boughs, and
+brush the snow up over the mound so that it sifts lightly over the
+trap. The covering on the trap should be a little lower than the top
+of the mound so that the wind will not uncover the trap. The bait is
+cut into small pieces and stuck into the sides of the mound.
+
+After the trap is set it will only require a short time for the wind
+to drift your tracks shut and remove all traces of human presence,
+and the trap will remain in working order as long as the cold weather
+lasts. If water rises on the ice it will not reach your trap, and if
+there is a snow storm, the first wind will blow the loose snow off
+the mound, leaving just a little over the trap. When looking at the
+traps you should not go nearer than fifty yards, and do not turn off
+your route, but walk straight by. This is a splendid method for use
+in the far north where the snow never melts or freezes during the
+winter months.
+
+For use in the settled countries I have been very successful with
+this method. Find where foxes travel on old wood roads and with your
+traps clean, and with drags attached, go and break a trail in the
+snow by walking back and forth on the road, and set the traps in this
+broken trail without bait. The traps should be set and covered, as in
+the other method, and the chain and clog pushed under the snow at the
+side of the trail. Do not let it appear that you have stopped at all,
+and when looking at the traps you can follow the trail and step right
+over the traps. In settled localities, the fox will follow the trail
+because the walking is better, but in the wilderness where the track
+of a man is seldom seen, they not only refuse to follow the trail,
+but often will not even cross it.
+
+I believe that scent is more used for fox-trapping than for trapping
+any other animal. Some of the best trappers, however, do not use any
+scent at all, but I believe that if the right kind is used, that it
+is a great help. One of the best scents known for dry land or water
+sets is prepared as follows: Remove the fat from one or two skunks,
+chop it fine, and take a sufficient quantity to almost fill an
+ordinary pickle bottle. Take two mice; cut them up and add to the fat
+and let the bottle stand in the sun until the mixture is thoroughly
+decomposed; then add the scent of two skunks and five or six
+muskrats. The bottle must be kept covered so the flies will not blow
+it, but it must not be tightly corked. Different trappers have
+different ways of preparing this scent, but I think this way is the
+best.
+
+Another very good one is made by allowing the flesh of a muskrat to
+rot in a bottle, and adding about four ounces of strained honey and
+one-half ounce of essence of musk.
+
+Pure fish oil is attractive to the fox, and is used by some very good
+trappers. We believe that one of the most successful scents,
+especially for winter use is made by taking the generative organs of
+the female fox, when in heat and preserving it in alcohol. The urine
+of the fox is also good, but in using these two scents, no bait
+should be used.
+
+The brine from mackerel or other fish is claimed to be a good scent
+for foxes, but if there are any porcupines, or snow-shoe rabbits
+about, it will make plenty of trouble as the salt is very attractive
+to these animals.
+
+When making blind-sets, or when setting on a trail some distance from
+a bait, do not stake your traps, but fasten to a drag of some kind: a
+brush, a stone or a grapple. By so doing the fox will not spoil the
+trail for the next one, and the trap may be set back in the same
+place. For a bait set on dry land, the trap may be staked to
+advantage, for if one fox is caught and rolls around over the ground,
+you are more likely to catch another one there.
+
+Do not start out with a dozen traps and expect to make a success of
+fox trapping. You should have all the traps that you can look after.
+
+Do not depend on one method of setting, as a fox will sometimes learn
+your method, but some other method, even if it is not so good, may
+fool them.
+
+When killing foxes in traps, do so, if possible without drawing
+blood. One of the best ways is by piercing the heart with a wire
+dagger. Another good way is by breaking the neck, which may be done
+as follows: Strike the fox a light blow over the head with a stick,
+just hard enough to slightly stun him, and when he drops down, place
+your left hand on the back of his neck, pinning him to the ground and
+with your right hand pull his nose backward against his back. It
+requires some practice to do this right.
+
+The track of the red fox resembles that of a small dog, being perhaps
+a trifle narrower. The length of step is about twelve or fourteen
+inches, and the foot prints of an average sized fox will measure
+about one and a half inches in length.
+
+The track of the gray fox is rounder and more like that of a cat.
+
+Some hunters claim that they can distinguish the track of the male
+fox from that of the female, the footprints of the female being
+smaller and a trifle narrower in proportion.
+
+There is no difference in the footprints of the black, silver, cross
+and red foxes.
+
+  [Illustration: The Coyote, or Prairie Wolf.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE WOLF.
+
+The Wolf belongs to the dog family and is found throughout the
+greater part of North America, also in Europe and Asia, and parts of
+South America. There are many varieties, varying greatly in size and
+color, but there are probably only two distinct species, namely, the
+timber wolf and the prairie wolf, commonly called the coyote. Of the
+timber wolves, we have in this country, the following varieties; the
+small dark grey or black wolf of Florida and southeastern United
+States, the red wolf or southern Texas; the brindled wolf of Mexico,
+the light grey wolf of the central plains region; the dark grey wolf
+of eastern Canada; the white wolf of northern Canada and Alaska and
+the large black or dusky wolf of the northwest coast region.
+
+Of the smaller prairie wolf, there are also several varieties, they
+being found throughout the prairie regions of the United States and
+Canada, extending westward to the foot of the Rocky mountains, and
+also occurring west of the mountains, in the states of Oregon and
+Washington. To the trappers and the western people in general, these
+two species are commonly known as the wolf and the coyote, pronounced
+ki'yote. As a rule, the varieties of timber wolves found in the far
+north are larger than those of the south. While they are found in
+fair numbers in most parts of the regions mentioned, the prairie wolf
+or coyote is far more abundant in the sections lying east of the
+mountains; there being, in most localities, probably fifty coyotes
+for one wolf.
+
+Of the large species, the common grey wolf, of the western stock
+region, is probably most abundant, and the most destructive to stock
+and game. The grey wolf varies considerably in size, the largest
+specimens weighing sometimes more than one hundred pounds. The fur is
+long and heavy and good prime skins bring usually from two to five
+dollars each. In former times, when the buffalo was abundant on the
+plains, they formed the chief food of the wolf, but since the buffalo
+has become an animal of the past, the wolves depend on stock for
+food. They are very destructive to cattle, horses, hogs, goats, etc.
+Occasionally a herd of sheep is raided, but this is of rare
+occurrence, as the sheep are always guarded by the herders.
+
+In the north where there is little or no stock raised, they prey on
+game of almost all kinds, being very destructive to deer and even
+killing moose, at times. They also follow the herds of cattle, which
+range in the mountains during the summer and in winter are found in
+the foot hills. The coyote preys on young deer and antelope and on
+small game, such as rabbits, prairie dogs, sage hens and badgers.
+They are very destructive to sheep, and many of them follow the sheep
+when they are driven into the mountains in summer.
+
+The breeding season of the grey wolf varies considerably, some being
+born in the summer, but the majority are born in March and April. The
+mating season comes mainly in January and February. There are usually
+from five to eleven in a litter. They breed in the foot hills and bad
+lands, in holes in the buttes and rim-rock and sometimes in enlarged
+badger dens. The breeding season of the coyote generally comes later
+than that of the grey wolf; most of them being born in April. They
+also breed in natural excavations in the rocks.
+
+Wolves are great ramblers and range over a large section of country.
+Like all other animals of rambling habits, they have a regular route
+of travel, and while they vary somewhat from the route, you may be
+certain to find them using the same passes through the hills, and the
+same route across a flat. However, when in pursuit of game, they go
+far out of their course.
+
+Almost all of the states where wolves are found, as well as some of
+the provinces of Canada, pay a bounty on wolves and coyotes. The
+bounties are different, in different states and so also, are the
+bounty laws, and the methods of obtaining the bounty money. Usually
+the skin and head, or part of the head, or the feet and bones of the
+legs, must be produced, in order to obtain this bounty.
+
+Besides the state bounty, the ranchmen often offer an additional sum,
+which in most cases, amounts to far more than the state bounty.
+Sometimes, when some particular band of wolves become especially
+destructive to stock, the bounties offered for these wolves amount to
+a fancy sum of money. On one particularly destructive wolf, in the
+state of Wyoming, bounties were offered amounting to five hundred
+dollars. Of course such instances are rare, but in most cases, the
+bounties are sufficient to make wolf trapping profitable, even in the
+summer, when the fur is of no value.
+
+For trapping grey wolves, I recommend only the Newhouse trap. A
+special trap is manufactured, for grey wolves, No. 4 1/2. It has an
+eight-inch spread of jaws and a five foot chain, fitted with a heavy
+iron drag, and with chain, complete weighs nine pounds. However, many
+trappers consider this trap too heavy and the No. 4 Newhouse trap is
+used more than any other. When these traps are used, they should be
+fitted with a heavy chain of suitable length, and a pronged drag. The
+length and style of chain needed will depend much on the method of
+setting. If the trap is to be staked, I think the ordinary length of
+chain is best but unless there are two or more traps used in a
+setting, I would not advise staking the trap.
+
+Some trappers do not use a drag, but wire a heavy stone to the end of
+the chain. The stone should be fastened securely, for it will be
+handled pretty roughly, if a wolf gets in the trap. For the coyote, I
+recommend the Nos. 3 and 4 Newhouse, the 3 and 4 Hawley & Norton, the
+No. 4 Oneida Jump trap and Nos. 3 and 4 Victor. They should also, be
+fitted with special chains, unless the traps are to be staked. Good
+hard-wood stakes should be provided and they should be about fifteen
+inches long, unless the ground is very soft, in which case they
+should be longer. As good hard-wood is scarce in many parts of the
+west, it will sometimes be best to have iron picket pins, made by the
+local blacksmith.
+
+The bait for the grey wolf should be strictly fresh, for if food is
+plenty, they are pretty particular. Any of their favorite foods may
+be used for bait. For the coyote, horse or sheep is probably best,
+but prairie dogs, rabbits (both sage and jack rabbits), sage hens,
+badgers, etc., make good bait. When using small animals for bait,
+they should never be skinned, for that makes the animal suspicious.
+
+Many different kinds of scent have been used for wolves. Some have
+been used successfully but in using scent, one should also use good
+sound judgment, or he will only make the animal suspicious, and
+harder to trap. Beaver castor and Chinese musk are mildly attractive.
+Siberian musk is very attractive to both the grey wolf and the
+coyote. Assafoetida used alone, is worthless, but may be mixed with
+other scents, to advantage. The urine of the wolf, bottled and kept
+until it has become rancid, is a very good scent, and the sexual
+organs of the female, taken when in heat, added to the urine, makes
+it far more attractive to the male. This scent is most successful
+during the mating season and should be used without bait.
+
+A very effective scent and one that is much used is made as follows:
+Place half a pound of raw beef or venison in a wide mouthed bottle
+and let it stand from two to six weeks, or longer, or until it is
+thoroughly decayed and the odor has become as offensive as possible.
+If the meat is chopped fine, it will aid decomposition. When
+thoroughly decayed, add a quart of some liquid animal oil--prairie
+dog oil is probably best, and one-half ounce of assafoetida,
+dissolved in alcohol and one ounce of tincture of Siberian musk, or
+if this can not be obtained, an ounce of pulverized beaver castor or
+one ounce of the common musk used as perfumery. Mix thoroughly and
+bottle securely until ready for use. This scent is attractive to both
+the wolf and the coyote, also to cattle and horses and in using it
+the traps should only be set in places where they are not likely to
+be disturbed by stock.
+
+  [Illustration: Scent Set for Wolf.]
+
+This method of trapping, as well as the above scent formula is given
+by Mr. Vernon Bailey, who made an investigation of the wolf trouble
+in the interests of the Biological Survey and the department of
+Forest Service.
+
+"The best anchor for a wolf trap is a stone drag of 30 or 40 pounds
+weight, to which the trap is securely wired. A long, oval stone is
+best, but a triangular or square stone can be securely wired.
+
+The trap, stone and chain should be buried out of sight close to a
+runway, where the wolves follow a trail or road, cross a narrow pass,
+or visit a carcass, with the trap nearest the runway and when
+covered, flush with the surface of the ground. To keep the dirt from
+clogging under the pan, the pan and jaws should be covered with a
+clean, oval shaped paper, and over this should be sprinkled fine
+earth until the surface is smooth and all traces of paper and trap,
+have been concealed. The surface of the ground and the surroundings
+should appear as nearly as possible, undisturbed. The dust may be
+made to look natural again by sprinkling with water.
+
+Touching the ground, or other objects with the hands, spitting near
+the trap or in any way leaving a trace of human odor nearby, should
+be avoided. Old, well scented gloves should be used while handling
+the trap and making the set, and a little of the scent used for the
+traps should be rubbed on the shoe soles. A piece of old cowhide may
+be used to stand on, and on which to place the loose dirt when
+burying the drag and trap. Place the scent about 6 inches beyond the
+trap and a very little may be sprinkled over the trap, to the trail.
+
+If possible, place the trap between two tufts of grass or weeds, so
+that it can be readily approached from one side only."
+
+As many of the wolf trappers do not believe in scent, the following
+methods are given. They are methods that have been thoroughly tested
+and are being used today, by some of the best trappers. The first
+method is a trail set, for use with a large bait, and is equally good
+for grey wolves and coyotes. It should be remembered, however, that
+trail sets of any kind, can not be used to advantage, if there is
+much stock about. Find a well defined stock trail somewhere on the
+wolf's route of travel and set two traps close together, on the
+trail, then go on from fifty to one hundred yards and set two more in
+exactly the same manner. Use care in setting the traps, so as to
+leave everything looking the same as before. You can wear gloves if
+you like, but I do not think there is much gained by doing so, for it
+is impossible to make a set without leaving some human scent. The
+scent will pass away in a day or two and few trappers count on making
+a catch until after the traps have been set a couple of days.
+
+A large bait should be placed close along the trail and midway
+between the two settings. When the wolves get to feeding on the bait
+they will travel on the trail and will not be looking for danger so
+far from the bait. If desired, only one trap need be set in a place,
+but two are better, as the wolf is likely to step over the trap if
+only one is used. It is a good plan to set the traps several days
+before placing the bait, so as to allow time for the human scent to
+pass away and the setting to take on a more smooth appearance.
+
+Here is a method that is much used for both wolves and coyotes. It
+requires three or four traps and they should all be fastened securely
+to one stout, hard-wood stake. Find a smooth, sandy spot and scoop
+out a little hollow and drive the stake down until the top is below
+the level of the ground. Fasten your bait securely to the top of the
+stake, so as to hide the stake and prevent the wolf or coyote from
+taking the bait away. If three traps are used, spread them out in the
+form of a triangle, if four are used, arrange them in the form of a
+square. Set the traps very carefully, so that when they are covered,
+everything will be smooth and looking just like it did before. As the
+bait is fastened, the wolf can not take it away, and in trying to
+pull it up, will step in one of the traps. He is almost certain to
+get in another one when he commences to struggle, and there is little
+danger of him escaping. If a place can be found where the traps may
+be set between bunches of weeds, cactus, etc., so much the better.
+
+  [Illustration: Bank Set for Wolf and Coyote.]
+
+Another very good method, is to set a trap on top of a straight or
+over-hanging bank, from four to eight feet high, so that when the
+animal is caught it will leap or fall over the bank and be unable to
+get back, where it would have a chance to struggle. The set is made
+as follows: Find two bunches of cactus, growing on the top of the
+bank, fix the bait on the very edge of the bank, between the two
+bunches of cactus. Fasten the bait with a small stake, and drive the
+stake out of sight in the bait. Stake the trap just the length of the
+chain from the edge of the bank, driving stake out of sight, and set
+the trap between the cactus and about twenty inches back from the
+bait, somewhat farther if grey wolves are expected. Cover the trap
+very carefully. If two bunches of cactus can not be found growing
+close together, get some and place it there, so that it will look
+natural, and have the appearance of having grown there.
+
+A single trap may be set almost anywhere, and small pieces of bait
+scattered around the trap. In this way you can bait the trap without
+dismounting from your horse and avoid leaving human scent.
+
+Mr. Vasma Brown, a noted trapper of Texas, gives the following
+method: "Take a large piece of fresh meat and drag it along a trail.
+Stop occasionally and set a trap, just outside of the edge of the
+trail, where the stock will not step in it. Dig out a place for the
+trap and set the trap, covering first with a piece of paper and
+finishing with sand, leaving the place looking just like it did
+before. Cut some of the meat in small pieces and scatter them around
+the trap. Use no scent; fresh pork is the best scent you can get. If
+you can find some animal that the wolves themselves have killed, do
+not fail to set traps there immediately."
+
+When trapping around a large bait, sometimes the animals will not
+approach close enough to be caught. In such cases a small bait may
+sometimes be used to advantage, by setting traps a short distance
+away. The tail of a skunk is said to be an unfailing lure. Do not
+smoke or grease your traps or the wolf is sure to locate them at
+once.
+
+Sometimes a badger will be caught in a wolf trap. If so, do not skin
+it, but kill it and set the trap close by. It will make a fine bait,
+and the trap may be set in the ground that the animal has dug up,
+leaving no signs of human presence.
+
+When trapping during freezing weather, fill in around the jaws and
+springs of the traps with sage leaves, or some similar dry material,
+before covering with dirt.
+
+Always carry a rifle with you when tending the traps. You will get
+shots at wolves or coyotes almost every day.
+
+When visiting wolf traps, always go on horseback and if possible
+avoid dismounting near the traps.
+
+Dark, cold, stormy nights are the best for the wolf trapper.
+
+Use plenty of traps. The more chances you have, the better success
+you will have.
+
+Sometimes a coyote will uncover a trap or dig it up and spring it.
+Nothing can prevent this. Your only remedy is to have lots of traps
+set, and if he fools you in one set, you may fool him in another.
+
+In warm weather, if you can set out a line of traps just before a
+rain, your chances for making a good catch are very good, as the rain
+washes away all human odors, and helps to smooth over the sets. In
+winter, a light snow fall will often help to increase the catch.
+
+The tracks of the wolf resemble those of the dog and fox. An average
+full grown grey wolf will make a foot print about three inches wide
+and four inches long and will step about twenty inches. The average
+sized coyote will make a footprint about two inches in length and the
+length of step is about sixteen inches.
+
+  [Illustration: The Grizzly Bear]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE BEAR.
+
+The bear family is a large one, and its members are found scattered
+over the greater part of the globe, Australia and Africa being
+excepted. They range through all latitudes, from the equator to the
+poles. The following species have been described by naturalists:
+Polar bear, grizzly bear, European Brown bear, American Black bear,
+Alaskan Brown bear, Inland White bear, Glacier bear of Alaska,
+Asiatic bear, Siberian bear, Spectacled bear of South America,
+Thibetan bear, Bornean bear and Malay bear. The three latter are
+called Sun bears, from their habit of basking in the rays of the
+mid-day sun. They are the smallest members of the family and live
+exclusively on vegetables.
+
+Bears differ from each other in consequences of the differences of
+climate, more than almost any other animal. Those that inhabit the
+far north and such high, cold regions as the Rocky mountains, are
+monsters, of great strength and ferocity, while those that inhabit
+warm countries are small, feeble and inoffensive. The smallest of all
+is the Bornean bear, while the Alaskan Brown bear is probably the
+largest. The Grizzly or Silver Tip, and the Polar bears are very
+large.
+
+The American Black bear is probably the most numerous of the family,
+and is one of most interest to the trappers. With the exception of
+the prairie country, they are found scattered over almost all of the
+United States, and a large part of Canada and Alaska. The Cinnamon is
+only a color variety of the Black bear, differing only in color. Both
+kinds are found in the same litter. In some sections, as for instance
+in some of the northwestern states, and in Mexico, the Cinnamon bear
+predominates, while in the east and north they are very rare. The
+average weight of the Black bear, when full grown, is from two
+hundred to three hundred pounds, but specimens have been killed
+weighing far more than these figures. The fur is fine and soft and
+usually of a jet black color.
+
+Bears of all kinds, with the exception of the Sun bears and the Polar
+bear, feed on both vegetable and animal food. The Polar bear lives
+entirely on fish and flesh. Bears, with the exception of the Polar
+species, hibernate in winter. They usually den in the ground or
+rocks, but sometimes in a hollow log or tree.
+
+The mating season is in July and August and the young, usually two,
+are born in January, February and March. They remain with the mother
+until fall, and sometimes longer.
+
+In sections where they are found in fair numbers, they form trails
+through passes in the mountains, along the bottoms of the cliffs,
+around points of the lakes, and in other places of like nature. These
+trails may be easily distinguished from the paths of other animals,
+by the marks on the trees. At intervals, all along the trail, the
+bear will stand on his hind feet, by the side of a tree, gnaw a
+circle around the tree, about five feet above the ground. I am told
+that this marking is done during the mating season. The trails are
+traveled more in the spring and summer than in the fall.
+
+Bears are very fond of fish, and in the north, when fish are in the
+streams, spawning, the bears spend much of their time fishing, at the
+foot of the falls. The sucker is the first fish to spawn, and as soon
+as they are gone, the pike come, and the bears fare well for a couple
+of weeks. After that they feed on the leaves of the poplar, insects,
+berries and nuts, and whatever meat they can find. In some sections
+they remain in the same locality during the entire year; in other
+places they migrate on the approach of cold weather and do not return
+until spring.
+
+The bear becomes prime about the first to the fifteenth of November,
+and remains in good condition until late in the spring. In northern
+sections they do not commence shedding until June fifteenth, and
+sometimes even later. The best time to trap them is in the spring
+just after the snow is gone, but many are trapped in the fall.
+
+The traps for black bears are the Nos. 5 and 15 and the Nos. 50 and
+150 Newhouse. For larger bears the No. 6 is the trap to use, although
+many grizzly bears are caught in the No. 5.
+
+The most common method for trapping bears is the following: Make a
+sort of enclosure of old logs, brush, etc., in the form of a V, about
+eight feet long and two or three feet wide at the entrance. It should
+be three feet high, behind, but it is not necessary to have it so
+high in front. The bait should be fastened in the back of the pen,
+and the trap set in the entrance.
+
+Take a small, springy stick, about eight inches long, and spring it
+under the pan of the trap, to prevent small animals from being
+caught. To do this, stick one end firmly in the ground, and bend the
+other end down, and hook it under the pan. The trap when set, should
+support a weight of twenty-five pounds, but it is my opinion that
+most trappers allow the trap to spring too easily.
+
+Always turn the loose jaw up, and work from in under, for the sake of
+safety. Now drive down a couple of stakes on each side of the trap,
+so as to leave only a narrow passage; cover the trap with leaves or
+moss. It is a good idea to put a good sized piece of moss over the
+pan. To cause the bear to step in the center of the trap, some
+trappers put sharp sticks around the outside of the jaws, others lay
+a stick across the mouth of the pen, about six or eight inches high,
+and close up to the jaws. In stepping over it, the bear is more
+likely to put his foot in the trap. The trap should be fastened to a
+heavy clog of hardwood. For the Black bear, the clog should be about
+six or seven feet long, and just small enough to go through the ring
+on the chain. The ring should be slipped on to the middle and
+fastened with a spike. For the grizzly and other large bears, the
+clog should be larger.
+
+This is the best method, but if you nip a bear once, you will have to
+try some other method, and it is not likely that you will catch him,
+even then, as they become very cunning. Do not set the trap at the
+same place, but find his trail, and make a blind set; preferably
+where the trail leads through a pool of water. Of course you must be
+sure that no person will travel on the trail. Some trappers prefer to
+hang a bait about six feet above the trap and do not use any pen.
+
+Bears may also be trapped successfully with snares and deadfalls but
+the objection to these traps is that the animal is killed instantly
+and if the traps are not visited daily, the skin is likely to spoil.
+
+For bait, there is nothing better than fish, but pork, (either salt
+or fresh), mutton, beef or any kind of large game is good. Even the
+flesh of the bear makes fair bait. Beaver, otter or muskrat meat is
+also good. Honey is very attractive.
+
+There are a number of scents that are attractive to the bear, such as
+fish oil, oil of anise and beaver castor. The scent recommended for
+the raccoon is good for the bear.
+
+The track of the bear is easily distinguished from that of other
+animals, because of its large size. Ordinarily, the bear's mode of
+locomotion is a shuffling walk. The footprints of a large black bear
+will measure about eight inches in length.
+
+  [Illustration: The Raccoon.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE RACCOON.
+
+The raccoon is allied to the bear family. It is found only on the
+Western Continent, where it is represented by two species; the common
+raccoon of the United States and the crab-eating raccoon of the
+tropics. The common raccoon, called coon by the hunters and trappers,
+is found throughout the Mississippi Valley and all of the states east
+and also in the Pacific Coast states, Western British Columbia, Lower
+Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. They are found in greatest
+numbers in those states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+The common raccoon is the one of principal interest to the trapper
+and fur dealer. The body is short and stout, like that of the badger.
+Its head resembles that of the fox. Its tail is ten or twelve inches
+long, thick and bushy. The feet are bare and the toes long. The
+general color is grey, the tips of the hairs being darker.
+Occasionally a very dark one is found, in some cases being almost
+black. The tail is ringed with black and a black band crosses the
+eyes. The raccoon is a nocturnal animal, is omnivorous and hibernates
+during cold weather, coming out in search of food only on warm
+nights.
+
+This food consists of green corn, grapes and other fruits, fish,
+frogs, clams, birds and their eggs and they are also fond of poultry.
+In search of food, they travel mostly along the streams and in early
+fall, in the corn fields.
+
+They den in hollow trees, having an entrance at a considerable
+distance from the ground. In mountainous districts, they also den in
+holes among the rocks.
+
+The young are born in April and May and from two to six are brought
+forth at a time. Their mating season is generally about the last of
+February and the beginning of March, and at this time the males
+travel considerably, crawling into a hollow tree wherever daylight
+overtakes them.
+
+In the North they become prime about November 1st; the season being
+later in the South. They remain in good condition until late in the
+spring. The fur is used mostly for coats and robes.
+
+The nature and habits of the raccoon, like all other animals differs
+considerably in different localities. In most sections they are very
+easily trapped, but those found in some parts of the Pacific Coast
+are said to be quite cunning. Any of the articles of food mentioned
+above, will make good bait; fresh fish however, being preferred. The
+traps to use are the No. 1 1/2 Newhouse or Hawley & Norton, the No. 2
+Victor, and the Nos. 2 and 3 Oneida Jump and Blake & Lamb traps. The
+trap should be fastened to a clog, and in some cases an iron drag
+could be used to advantage, as the coon will get fastened up on the
+first brush he comes to.
+
+The most common method is to set the trap in the entrance of a pen of
+stakes, at the edge of the water where the animals travel. The trap
+may be set dry or under water, as preferred, and the bait should be
+placed in the back of the pen.
+
+Another very good method, much used in the South, is to fasten a
+piece of bright tin or a piece of a white dish, on the pan of the
+trap and set the trap under about two inches of water, near the bank.
+No bait is used, but a little scent may be used on the bank to good
+advantage.
+
+The Southern Trappers sometimes find a tree, stump or rock in the
+edge of the water, and set the trap in the water, just where the
+'coon will walk, when passing around the obstruction. A fence made of
+brush will answer the same purpose.
+
+Where the bank is steep and the water is shallow, dig a six inch
+hole, straight into the bank at the edge of the water. Fasten some
+bait in the back of the hole and set the trap in the water, directly
+in front of the hole.
+
+Where coons are visiting a corn field, find where they go through the
+fence and you will sometimes find a well beaten trail. Set the trap
+in the trail, covered, and fasten to a clog.
+
+If you find a log lying across the stream and there are signs of
+'coons about, cut a notch in the top of the log and set the trap in
+the notch, covering with rotten wood or moss. You are likely to catch
+a fox in a set of this kind.
+
+When a den tree can be found, cut a pole five or six feet long and
+six inches thick; lean it against the tree and set the trap on the
+pole. Cover the trap lightly with moss and staple to the tree.
+
+Any natural enclosure along a stream, such as a hollow log or a hole
+under a stump, makes a good place to set a trap. When trapping for
+foxes with water sets, many coons will be caught in the traps.
+
+One of the best scents for 'coon is made as follows: To a pint of
+fish oil, add twenty or thirty drops of oil of anise and two ounces
+of strained honey. Pure fish oil is used by some trappers and beaver
+castor, muskrat musk and oil of anise are also good.
+
+The trail of the raccoon is somewhat like that of the mink, but the
+tracks are larger. The animal makes the print of the entire foot and
+the long slender toes show plainly. The print of the hind foot will
+be from two and a quarter to three inches in length.
+
+  [Illustration: The Badger.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE BADGER.
+
+Badgers are burrowing, carnivorous animals. They are found in North
+America and various parts of the Old World; one species being found
+in Europe, one in India and another in Japan. There are several
+varieties of the American species and they are found at present only
+west of the Mississippi River, although formerly they ranged as far
+east as Ohio. They are perhaps most numerous on the High, dry plains
+just east of the Rocky Mountains, and range from Mexico to well up
+into Canada. They were at one time quite numerous in Wisconsin and
+Minnesota, as well as others of the Northern and Central States, but
+today are found but rarely in those sections. Wisconsin is sometimes
+called the "Badger State" because of the numbers of these animals
+found there by the early settlers.
+
+The badger is an animal of peculiar build, having a heavy, broad
+body, at times appearing almost flat, as when it crouches close to
+the ground, and the legs are short and stout. The feet are furnished
+with long, strong claws, adapted for digging. The tail is short, the
+ears short and round, the eyes small and black. A full grown specimen
+will measure about two feet or more from the end of the nose to the
+base of the tail.
+
+The color is a grizzly, yellowish grey, being darker on the back. A
+white line traverses the face, head and neck, bordered with black,
+which latter marking extends around the eyes. The sides of the face
+and the throat are white, and there is a black patch in front of each
+ear. The legs and feet are black. The back and sides of the body are
+mottled somewhat by narrow streaks of darker fur.
+
+The fur, or more properly speaking, the hair, is long and appears to
+be parted on the back as it hangs off to either side from a line down
+the center of the back. Each separate hair shows a number of colors
+and it is this which gives the animal the peculiar grizzled
+appearance. Although the animal is, as before stated, of a heavy
+build, the casual observer would scarcely credit the animal with the
+great strength which it really possesses, because of the apparently
+soft and flabby body, however, the strength of the animal is
+surprising. They are slow moving creatures and were it not for their
+strength and powers of digging, they would have difficulty in
+procuring a sufficient amount of food.
+
+They feed on the small burrowing animals mainly, such as the prairie
+dog, the gopher and the pouched rat, and they are enabled to capture
+many of these animals by digging them out of the dens. They also eat
+mice and reptiles and the eggs and young of ground-nesting birds.
+
+Being such an expert digger, the badger makes a deep den. The
+entrance to the den is wide and surrounded by a mound of earth. In
+addition to the main den the animal has a number of others nearby, so
+that one would scarcely know which of them is the main burrow. They
+are hibernating animals and remain in the dens during the cold
+portion of the winter.
+
+The animal is of a rather timid nature, and when alarmed seeks safety
+in the den if possible, but when surprised far from the den, will
+hide wherever possible and failing to find cover will flatten down
+close to the ground and by remaining very quiet, will try to escape
+notice. However when pursued, and finding escape impossible, they
+will fight desperately.
+
+The young are born in early spring, there being as a rule three or
+four in a litter.
+
+The fur of the badger is used for making brushes of various kinds,
+its peculiar texture making it especially desirable for this purpose.
+It is not used for wearing apparel.
+
+The No. 3 trap is the proper size to use for this animal, and only
+the stronger ones should be used. They are caught and held
+occasionally in smaller and weaker traps, yet such cases are
+exceptional.
+
+As the animal is not a valuable one and is not found in large numbers
+in any one locality, they are not much sought by the trappers and the
+most of the Skins which reach the market are from the animals caught
+in traps set for other game. The wolf and coyote trappers catch them
+occasionally, as they may be captured by any of the methods used for
+those animals.
+
+Perhaps the best way in which to capture the badger is to set the
+trap at the entrance to the main burrow, that is, the one showing the
+most use. The trap should be set just outside of the entrance and
+should be securely staked, using a long stake driven out of sight in
+the ground. The jaws of the trap should be parallel with the passage,
+so that the badger will step between the jaws, and not over them. It
+should be bedded down so that the covering will be flush with the
+surroundings.
+
+Traps may also be set with bait. On the plains, material for
+enclosures can not be found but the traps may be set between clumps
+of sage brush or cactus, placing the bait behind the trap, the
+setting being so arranged that the badger will be obliged to walk
+over the trap in order to reach the bait. The trap should be securely
+staked in all cases. For bait, rabbit, sage hen, prairie dog or
+almost any kind of fresh meat may be used.
+
+  [Illustration: The Opossum.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE OPOSSUM.
+
+The opossum is the only American member of the family of pouched
+animals. Only one species is found in this country although others
+are found in other parts of the world. Of the American species,
+naturalists have discovered three varieties, namely the Virginia
+opossum, the Florida opossum and the Texas opossum, all very similar.
+
+The Virginia opossum is the most common and the most widely
+distributed, being found as far north as Pennsylvania and Ohio and
+from there westward to Nebraska and southward. In the southwest the
+Texas opossum is found.
+
+In general form the opossum resembles the house rat but is much
+larger. The tail is almost bare and is prehensile, that is, it is
+capable of holding on to anything which it encircles. The muzzle is
+long and pointed, the ears bare.
+
+In color this animal is generally a grizzly gray but some specimens
+are much darker than others. The fur is long, soft and fluffy.
+
+The opossum dens in the ground and the abode is usually located under
+a stump or rock. The burrows are shallow and terminate in a larger
+cavity lined with dry leaves. They also sometimes locate in hollow
+logs. They are found only in timbered districts and are active
+climbers. Their food consists mainly of mice, eggs and young birds
+and insects, but they are also fond of poultry and almost any kind of
+flesh, fresh or tainted. They are not strictly carnivorous as they
+feed on persimmons, paw-paws, polk berries and other wild fruits.
+
+They are slow moving and stupid creatures and have no means of
+defending themselves against their enemies. It is true that they do
+have a habit of feigning death when frightened but this trick is of
+no value in case of an attack from other animals, for no wild animal
+would be deceived, and even if it were, there would be no hope for
+the opossum for it would only be a case of a meal already prepared
+for the attacking animal. On other occasions instead of feigning
+death the animal will open its mouth and present a rather fierce
+appearance, but there is little danger of them biting.
+
+While the opossum is not a hibernating animal it remains in its den
+during cold weather. It is a southern animal and the severe winters
+in the northern parts of its range are not to the animal's liking,
+They are most active on warm, damp nights for they do not like to
+move about when the weather is dry and the leaves are rustly.
+
+They are very prolific, bringing forth from six to twelve young at a
+litter and in some cases even more. When newly born they are very
+small and imperfectly formed and are carried by the mother in the
+pouch on the under side of the body until large enough to travel.
+
+They become prime about the second week of November in the North and
+remain in good condition until March. In the South they do not become
+prime until about December 1st and commence to shed much earlier than
+in the North. The fur is not a very valuable one but there is a
+growing demand for the flesh which is used as food and in many places
+will meet with ready sale.
+
+I recommend the No. 1 trap for this animal and those of medium
+strength of spring only, as the opossum's foot and leg is tender, and
+if the bones are broken the animal is likely to escape. They do not
+struggle much, however, and comparatively few escape from the traps.
+
+I set my traps in the thick woods, usually in the gullies also along
+the edges of the woods, along fences, etc. The opossum is possessed
+of no cunning whatever, and no special care is needed in setting the
+traps if this animal alone is expected, however, it is always best to
+use care in setting for the most stupid animals, as one never knows
+what animal may pass that way. Whenever possible I place the trap in
+a natural enclosure, such as a hollow in the side of a stump or tree,
+a hollow between two spreading roots, an opening among rocks or in a
+hollow log. Failing to find any such place I construct a small
+enclosure of stakes, bark, stones or pieces of rotten wood, whichever
+is most convenient, and set the trap in the entrance nesting it down
+and covering with whatever is found nearby.
+
+The trap may be staked, stapled or fastened to a clog. For bait I use
+rabbit, fowl, muskrat or small birds of any kind. Bait may be fresh
+or tainted as the opossum is not particular. I have heard of many
+fancy sets and baits and have given some of them a trial, but find
+the method given above to be the most satisfactory.
+
+Opossums will sometimes be caught in traps set for skunks, foxes and
+other animals and there are probably more of them caught in such sets
+than in any other. They may also be caught in wooden traps.
+
+I have caught these animals in traps set on logs spanning the
+streams, also at the entrance of the dens, but if I were setting
+many traps for opossums I would use the above method mostly. The
+opossum makes a wandering, aimless sort of trail, quite broad for
+an animal of its size and the toes are turned outward in walking.
+The footprints of the average opossum will measure about one and
+one-fourth inch in diameter--that is, the front foot--the print of
+the hind foot being from one-fourth to one-half inch larger.
+
+  [Illustration: The Lynx.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+THE LYNX.
+
+The Lynx family is a branch of the cat tribe and its members are
+found in various parts of the world, but it is the European and
+Canadian species that are of the most importance, when viewed from
+the hunters' and trappers' standpoint. There are two species in North
+America, namely, the Canada Lynx and the Bay Lynx or wild cat. The
+Canada Lynx is the most valuable and they are most sought by the
+trappers. This animal is found throughout practically all of Canada,
+Alaska and Newfoundland, also in all of the most northern states and
+in the Rocky mountain region extending down into Wyoming and perhaps
+still farther south. Those found in Newfoundland and Alaska are of
+slightly different varieties.
+
+The Lynx, when full grown will measure about three or three and a
+half feet in length and the weight is from twenty to thirty pounds,
+but occasional specimens will weigh forty pounds or even more. They
+are very "cat like" in appearance but the legs are rather long, the
+feet large and the tail very short. The feet are heavily furred and
+the toes connected with a web, the whole forming a sort of snowshoe,
+which prevents the lynx from sinking in the loose snow. The ears are
+small and pointed and tipped with a pencil of black hairs. The tail
+is also tipped with black. The general color in winter is a silver
+grey on the back, shading to white on the under parts. In summer they
+take on a reddish color. The fur is long and soft and there is a ruff
+of longer fur on the sides of the face, near the throat.
+
+The young are born usually in May and there are from three to seven
+in a litter. The entire family will be found living in the same
+locality and although each will have its own particular route of
+travel, they frequently travel together along the border of certain
+swamps and occasionally the entire family will start off together and
+look for a better feeding ground. They live mostly in the swampy
+parts of the more open country, being rarely found in the great bush.
+In the west they are found in the timbered parts of the mountains. In
+the North, you will find their tracks leading along the edges of the
+swamps and alder or willow thickets.
+
+Their food consists mostly of rabbits and partridge. The snow-shoe
+rabbit falls an easy victim. They have been known to kill small deer
+and caribou, but only in very rare instances.
+
+There has been considerable controversy among naturalists regarding
+the courage of the lynx. From my own observations, I should say that
+they are very cowardly, as a rule, but all rules have exceptions. I
+know of two instances in which the lynx has stood his ground for a
+man, and in one case, for a number of men. This lynx was killed by an
+axe thrown by one of the men at a distance of twelve feet.
+
+In traveling, the lynx usually walks, only running when in pursuit of
+some animal, and always traveling the same route. They are active all
+winter, but travel most in fall and spring. They become prime about
+the first of November and if the spring is late, will remain in good
+condition until the middle of April.
+
+The European lynx closely resembles the Canadian in habits and
+appearance. Its general color is a dull reddish grey, mottled with
+black. In winter the fur is longer and lighter colored than in
+summer. It is found from the Pryenees to the Far North, and eastward
+throughout northern Asia.
+
+As a rule, the lynx is easily taken with the steel trap, unless food
+is very plentiful, when they do not care for dead bait. Almost any
+trap will hold them as they do not struggle much, and I have caught a
+number of them with the No. 1 trap, but because of their large feet,
+I would advise the use of a larger trap. The Nos. 3 and 4 traps are
+perhaps the best sizes to use.
+
+There are various methods of trapping them but the most common, as
+well as the best is to set the trap in an enclosure, with bait. I
+prefer to make the enclosures of split wood, placing the split side
+inward. I make the pen about three feet in height, about two and a
+half feet long, wide at the top and just wide enough to receive the
+trap at the bottom. The pen should be well roofed with evergreen
+boughs to protect the trap from the snow, and the trap should be just
+inside of the entrance. If there is snow on the ground, I make a bed
+of green boughs for the trap to rest on. It is not necessary to cover
+the trap but I prefer to do so. The bait should be placed on a stick
+in the back of the pen.
+
+Rabbit and partridge is the best bait, but it must be fresh, as the
+lynx does not care for stale food. Some scent should also be used as
+the lynx's sense of smell is not so highly developed as that of some
+other animals. Beaver Castor is perhaps the best, but fish oil is
+much used by the western trappers. Muskrat musk is also good.
+
+The trap should be fastened to a stout clog. I use a small spruce or
+balsam tree, about three inches thick at the butt and fasten the trap
+by stapling or by looping the chain around the clog, leaving some
+snags to prevent the chain from slipping over the end.
+
+The rabbits are a great nuisance, they being found in great numbers
+in the northern swamps. The scent of the hands left there while
+setting the trap, also the fresh cutting, attracts the rabbit into
+the pen and it is sometimes difficult to keep the trap in working
+order until the lynx journeys by that way again. The best way I have
+found to keep them out of the trap is by dropping some dead brush in
+front of the enclosure, as the rabbits do not like to jump through
+the dead brush.
+
+Squirrels and birds are also troublesome, and I have found it a good
+idea to place the bait well up under the roof of the pen so as to be
+out of sight of these creatures. I also place a small springy stick
+under the pan of the trap, which will sometimes prevent the squirrels
+and birds from springing it. I sometimes make a trap pen by standing
+up a number of small evergreen trees, cutting the boughs away on the
+inside. This is a very good method.
+
+When lynx do not take bait well, some trappers make a long pen or
+passage, open at both ends and high enough so that the lynx can walk
+through easily. The trap is set inside and some beaver castor or
+other scent is placed on a stick in the passage. Others put scent on
+a piece of red cloth and fix it in a pen of brush, setting the trap
+in the entrance.
+
+As the lynx's eye is more keen than its nose, I have found it a good
+plan to hang a rabbit skin from a string near the setting, so that it
+will swing about in the breeze. This will attract the animal for
+quite a distance, and is a good method to use when setting traps
+along the shore of a lake, as the lynx walks the ice and will
+sometimes pass outside of scenting distance of the trap.
+
+Lynx are easily killed by a blow from a stick but when caught in
+small traps it is safer to shoot them, using a small caliber pistol
+or rifle. Another good way is to choke them by tieing a snare to the
+end of a ten or twelve foot pole. Slip the snare over the animal's
+head, draw it tight and hold the pole; the lynx will die in a very
+short time. The advantage of this method is in the fact that the skin
+is kept clean and free from blood.
+
+The track of the lynx resembles that of the cat but is much larger. A
+large specimen will make a track three and a half inches in diameter
+and the length of step is from sixteen to eighteen inches.
+
+  [Illustration: The Wildcat, or Bay Lynx.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE BAY LYNX, OR WILD CAT.
+
+The Bay Lynx replaces the Canada Lynx throughout the greater part of
+the United States. This animal is known to the fur trade as the wild
+cat and is also known in some localities as the Catamount and the
+bobcat.
+
+The true wild cat is not found in America, being a native of Europe
+and Northern Asia, and resembling the domestic cat, somewhat, in
+appearance. Such cats are also found in certain parts of the United
+States but they are only the descendants of domestic cats which have
+strayed into the woods and become wild, and are not the wild cat of
+Europe.
+
+The Bay Lynx is found throughout the rough timbered portions of the
+eastern, northern and western States, also in the swamps and cane
+brakes of the south. The International Boundary is about the northern
+limit of its range. They are quite plentiful in parts of the south,
+also in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where they have become
+so destructive to sheep that the stockmen pay bounty on those that
+are killed.
+
+The animal is somewhat smaller than the Canada Lynx, but resembles
+that animal in general appearance. It is about thirty inches in
+length, with a tail of five or six inches, and weighs from eighteen
+to twenty-five pounds, in some instances exceeding these figures. Its
+color on the back and sides is of a pale reddish brown, overlaid with
+grayish, the latter color being most prevalent in fall and winter.
+The throat is surrounded with a collar of long hair. The under parts
+are light colored and spotted and a few dark spots are also found on
+the sides. The tail is tipped with black and has half rings on its
+upper surface. The ears are also tipped with black hairs, but this
+tip is not so conspicuous as in the case of the Canadian Lynx. The
+hair is also shorter and coarser, and the feet smaller and less
+heavily furred.
+
+The food of this animal consists of rabbits, partridges, sage hens,
+and any other small animals and birds which they can capture. They
+are fond of poultry and have been known to kill and devour the
+raccoon. As before mentioned, they are partial to mutton. In all
+probability they capture large numbers of mice, moles, prairie dogs,
+etc.
+
+In the West, as in parts of the East the wild cat dens in natural
+holes in the rocks. In the swamps of the South they no doubt, nest in
+hollow trees.
+
+They are, as a rule, shy and retiring animals, but when brought to
+bay show considerable courage and fight desperately. The fur of the
+Bay Lynx is not as valuable as that of the northern lynx. It becomes
+prime in the north about the first of November; in the south three or
+four weeks later.
+
+The wild cat resembles the Canada Lynx so closely in habits, etc.,
+that I do not consider it necessary to give any special methods for
+capturing it. The bait methods recommended for the lynx will also do
+very well for the wild cat, and the same bait may be used. In the
+south it would probably be better to set in natural enclosures
+whenever possible. In the foothills of the Rockies the Bay Lynx is
+frequently caught in traps set for coyotes, although they may be
+captured as easily there as in any other section, and if the trapper
+wishes, he can set his traps in hollows in the rocks, or in
+enclosures of brush, cactus, etc.
+
+Some trappers prefer to hang the bait above the trap, and it is a
+good way, but I think that the enclosure is more certain.
+
+I would recommend the Nos. 2 and 3 traps for these animals. Although
+they may be held at times in smaller traps, any trap having less
+strength than the No. 2 should not be depended on.
+
+The track of the wild cat resembles that of the lynx, but is much
+smaller. The footprints will seldom measure more than one and a half
+inches in diameter, and the step is a trifle shorter than that of the
+Canadian Lynx.
+
+  [Illustration: The Cougar.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE COUGAR.
+
+With the exception of the Jaguar, which will average a trifle larger,
+the cougar is the largest representative of the cat tribe to be found
+in America.
+
+This animal is known locally under various names. In the mountainous
+districts of the Eastern States, where they were once found in fair
+numbers, they were known as the panther or "painter" from a fancied
+resemblance to the panther of tropical Asia. In the far West they are
+most commonly known as the mountain lion, and in other localities as
+the cougar, while in the Southwest they are sometimes called the
+Mexican lion. Throughout the whole of South America they are known as
+the puma.
+
+This animal has probably become extinct in the Eastern States, but
+they are still found in the South, from Florida, westward throughout
+the wild, swampy sections of the Gulf States, into the lowlands of
+Texas, and southward. In the West they are found in all of the
+mountainous portions from northern British Columbia southward, and in
+South America are to be found as far south as southern Patagonia.
+They have at all times been more abundant in the West than in the
+East and are still plentiful in portions of British Columbia, Idaho,
+Wyoming, and Colorado; also in the Pacific Coast States, especially
+in northern California.
+
+In size, the average, full grown cougar will perhaps measure seven
+feet in length from the nose to the tip of the tail, certainly not
+more, and large specimens will weigh from a hundred and fifty to a
+hundred and seventy-five pounds. Occasionally larger specimens are
+found, but they are exceptional. The tail will measure from two and a
+half to three feet.
+
+The color of the cougar is usually of a yellowish brown on the sides,
+a trifle darker on the back and white on the throat and underparts.
+The tip of the tail is dark, almost black in some specimens. This is
+the prevailing color but some will have a grayish cast. While there
+is very little difference in the specimens from the various sections,
+some naturalists claim that the cougar of Florida and other parts of
+the South is a distinct variety.
+
+Cougars prey largely on deer, also in some sections on the wild sheep
+and goats. They also kill small animals, and when pressed by hunger
+they will not hesitate to attack larger animals than the deer; even
+the moose is sometimes killed by the cougar. They are very
+destructive to stock in many parts of the West, particularly to
+horses, and many of the Western States, as well as the stockmen pay
+bounty on cougars. In South America they kill large numbers of wild
+cattle.
+
+Their method of securing game is by creeping cautiously to within
+springing distance, or by watching a runway from the branches of a
+tree, or a ledge of rock from which position they spring upon the
+unsuspecting victim, breaking its neck by a twist of the head. When
+they can get plenty of food they only suck the blood of the captured
+animal, and do not return to the carcass, When food is scarce they
+make a meal of the flesh and cover the remains. In such cases they
+may return for a second meal.
+
+It was only after the panther became rare in the Eastern States that
+the fabulous tales of their daring, and their inclination to attack
+human beings, originated, and such stories are never credited by
+those who are acquainted with the nature and habits of the animal.
+While it would be an easy matter for the cougar to kill an unarmed
+man, they are by nature, timid animals, and not to be feared by
+human beings. While individual animals may attack man on rare
+instances, such occurrences are very rare, and it is safe to say
+that nine-tenths of the "panther stories" have no foundation
+whatever. The western mountain men consider them very cowardly
+animals.
+
+In the mountainous districts the cougars live in natural dens, or
+caves in the rocks, in places that are almost inaccessible to other
+animals. In the swamps of the South they make their home in dense and
+almost impenetrable thickets and canebrakes, where they make a nest
+of sticks, grass, moss and leaves.
+
+The young animals are born in early spring, there being from two to
+four at a birth, but as a rule, only two. The mother animal displays
+considerable anxiety for the safety and comfort of her kittens.
+
+There is no method known by which the cougar may be successfully
+trapped. Owing to their rambling habits one never knows where to
+place a trap for them, and as they prefer to kill their own game,
+they will seldom touch bait. As a rule they do not return to the
+carcass of their victim, but if one can find an animal freshly
+killed, it is a good plan to set a trap by the side of the remains,
+and in case the animal should return for a second meal, its capture
+is likely. Practically all of those which are trapped are taken in
+this way. The No. 4 Newhouse trap is used but the No. 4 1/2 is
+better, for being a larger and stronger trap it is more certain to
+hold the animal. The trap should be fastened to a heavy clog, and the
+trap and clog carefully concealed, for the cougar is wary and
+suspicious.
+
+On rare instances when the trapper has been certain that there were
+cougars in the near vicinity, they have been captured by setting a
+trap in a natural enclosure, placing a fresh, bloody bait behind the
+trap, also by hanging the bait about five feet above a carefully
+concealed trap.
+
+They are most commonly hunted by the aid of dogs, and in this way the
+capture is a comparatively easy matter. When pursued they usually
+take to a tree and remain there until the arrival of the hunter when
+a rifle bullet ends the game. The animal will take to a tree readily
+for any dog which has the courage to follow it.
+
+The skin of the mountain lion is not valuable as a fur, and is used
+principally for rugs, but as before mentioned many of the states pay
+bounties on the animals, so that hunting them may be made a
+profitable business in certain localities.
+
+The tracks of this animal resemble those of the wild cat but are much
+larger. The footprints will measure about four inches in diameter.
+
+  [Illustration: The Wolverine.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE WOLVERINE.
+
+Perhaps the most rare of all fur bearing animals, as well as the
+least known, is the wolverine. This animal belongs to the marten
+family and is the largest, strongest and most cunning of the genus;
+in fact, is claimed to be the most cunning and wary of all the
+furbearing animals, and among the trappers has an unenviable
+reputation.
+
+It is strictly a northern animal and is found scattered over the
+greater portion of Canada and Alaska, ranging southward into the most
+northern portion of the United States. In the Rocky mountain region
+it is found as far south as Wyoming. They are not plentiful anywhere
+and are probably found in the greatest numbers in the Alaskan
+interior, Yukon, Mackenzie and northern British Columbia.
+
+While the wolverine is classed among the martens it appears to be the
+connecting link between the martens and the bears for it is stoutly
+built and very bear-like in general appearance, also is a plantigrade
+animal, walking on the entire sole of the foot. An average specimen
+will measure about thirty inches from the end of the nose to the base
+of the tail. The tail is about ten inches in length, exclusive of the
+long hair and is very stumpy and bushy. The fur is long and flowing
+and is fairly fine. The general color is a dull brown with black legs
+and feet and a black patch about the eyes. A spot or stripe of
+lighter color sweeps along the sides. The teeth are large and strong
+and the curved claws are white, contrasting sharply with the black
+fur of the feet and legs.
+
+The wolverine makes its home in a burrow. As to the breeding habits
+of the animal, my observations have been limited and I can give no
+authentic information. Naturalists disagree as to the number of young
+and the time of birth. Some claim that the young animals are born in
+May, others put the time as late as December. As the other members of
+the marten family give birth to their young in April and May, I think
+it safe to assume that the young of the wolverine are born about the
+same time, and that the number would be from three to five in a
+litter.
+
+The animal is a great traveler, straying sometimes thirty miles in
+each direction from its home. It is not a rapid traveler, however,
+and it is claimed that a man can easily outrun it.
+
+The wolverine is also known under other fancy names, the most common
+of which is "carcajou". In Europe it is called the "glutton" from its
+supposed gluttonous appetite. Among the Indians of the northwest it
+is known as the "mountain devil" and in British Columbia is sometimes
+called the "skunk bear."
+
+The animal really does bear some resemblance to the skunk in its
+appearance and actions, the most noticeable of which is its habits of
+raising its tail when disturbed or when it stops to listen to some
+noise. Sometimes it will stand on its hind legs in order to get a
+better view of some object which has aroused its interest.
+
+The wolverine is not as active as the other members of the genus, but
+its strength and cunning fully compensate for all that it lacks in
+activity. It can seldom capture enough of game to satisfy its hunger,
+therefore it seeks out and robs the caches of other animals, also
+robs the traps of their bait and the captured animals. For this
+reason the animal is despised and dreaded by the trapper. Once one
+has found the trap line it will follow the trail to the end,
+destroying the sets and eating the baits and catch. What it cannot
+eat, it will carry away and conceal presumably for future use. It
+will also sometimes enter the trapper's cabin and destroy or defile
+all that it cannot eat.
+
+Many strange stories are told of the animals cunning and of its evil
+ways. While some of these tales are no doubt true, I feel safe in
+saying that the majority have no foundation whatever. There is no
+doubt that the wolverine is exceedingly wary and that it is a great
+mischief maker, but the fact that the animal is not well known, has
+led the nature writers to draw on their imaginations and these
+wonderful stories are the result. We hear of the animal decoying deer
+to its hiding place by dropping a bunch of moss for them to feed on,
+and then springing upon the unsuspecting animal from a nearby limb.
+We also read of the wolverine biting off the string of a set gun
+without discharging the arm, so that it could eat the bait without
+danger. That such stories are false goes without saying.
+
+Not being plentiful in any one locality the animals are seldom
+trapped and what few are caught are taken when they are visiting
+camps or while robbing the traps of the bait and catch Trapping them
+at all times is difficult work, owing to the natural wariness of the
+animal. That the trap must be well concealed and that the animal must
+be taken when off its guard will be evident to all. The No. 4 trap
+should be used and only those which have strong springs, as the
+wolverine possesses great strength.
+
+The animals are not sought by the trapper and he may consider himself
+lucky if there are none of them on his trapping ground. When they are
+found, the trapper's aim is to get rid of them and the most certain
+way appears to be by means of poison. When they visit the traps a
+fair portion of strychnine placed in the bait will usually bring the
+desired result.
+
+  [Illustration: The Pocket Gopher.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+THE POCKET-GOPHER.
+
+The pocket-gopher is found throughout the Mississippi Valley, ranging
+westward into Colorado and Wyoming, southward into Mexico, and
+northward into the prairie region of Canada. They are also found in
+Alabama, Georgia and Florida. They appear to be most abundant in
+those states bordering on the Mississippi River. There are a number
+of different varieties, but as their habits are the same, a
+description of the Prairie pocket-gopher, will be sufficient.
+
+This animal measures, when full grown, about eight inches from the
+end of the nose to the base of the tail. The tail is about two and a
+half inches long, and thinly covered with hair. The color is a liver
+brown, somewhat lighter on the under parts; the feet white. The legs
+are very short; the feet armed with large claws, adapted to digging.
+The head is large, no neck being visible. The eyes and ears are very
+small. The incisors are large and chisel shaped, for cutting roots.
+On each side of the face and neck are large pouches, having no
+opening into the mouth. These pouches are not used for carrying dirt,
+as is commonly supposed, but are only used for carrying food. The
+animals known as the "grey-gopher" and the "striped-gopher" are no
+gophers at all, but species of ground squirrels.
+
+  [Illustration: Burrow of Pocket Gopher.]
+
+The gopher is a burrowing animal and is seldom seen above ground.
+They are working almost all of the time, during the spring, summer
+and fall, extending the burrows in search of food. They also work in
+winter, when the ground is not frozen, and it is supposed that they
+also work under the frozen ground, when it is not frozen too deep.
+They are most active in the fall when they are storing up food for
+winter.
+
+The burrows will be found from six to twelve inches beneath the
+surface of the ground, the usual depth being about eight inches. At
+irregular distances along the burrow, the animal makes a short branch
+passage leading up to the surface, where it deposits the dirt dug
+from the main passage, in the form of a mound. After the dirt is all
+thrown out, it closes the branch passage, packing the ground in
+solidly, so that the only visible signs of the burrow are the mounds
+of ground. There is a good reason why the animal should be so careful
+to keep the passage closed, for they have a number of enemies besides
+man. Its most dangerous enemies are, perhaps, the little spotted
+skunk or civet cat and the bull snake, as both of these creatures,
+once they get inside of the burrow, follow its course until they find
+their victim.
+
+The food of the gopher consists mostly of roots of plants but they
+often cut the roots of fruit trees. They are particularly destructive
+to alfalfa, and the loss to farmers, caused by these animals, is
+considerable, not only from the plants destroyed by having the roots
+cut, but also from the plants buried under the mounds, and from the
+fact that the mounds interfere with the cutting of the crop. The fur
+is of no value, but owing to the destructiveness of the animals, land
+owners are very anxious to be rid of them. In many places a bounty
+is paid on the gopher, so that they may be profitably trapped when
+fur-bearing animals are of no value.
+
+The traps recommended for the gopher are the No. 0 steel trap and
+some of the various choker traps made especially for this use. In
+setting steel traps, select the freshest mound, and by examining
+closely, one can usually tell which way the dirt was thrown out, and
+will know on which side to look for the burrow. A handy tool is a
+slender, pointed iron rod to use as a probe in searching for the
+burrow. Having located the passage, open it up and set the trap on
+the bottom, sinking it down until level. Cover it lightly with dirt,
+and close the hole by laying a small piece of board, or a shingle
+over the opening, covering with ground.
+
+The trap should be fastened with a stick, and the same stick will
+serve as a marker, so that one can easily find the trap. A small
+spade or a heavy garden trowel will be needed for digging and for
+convenience, the traps, stakes, etc., may be carried in a large
+basket. The regular gopher traps, mentioned above, are more easily
+set than steel traps and printed directions for setting usually
+accompany the traps. They should be set at one side of the burrow, on
+a level with the bottom and with the mouth of the trap just even with
+the side of the passage. Just a little light should be allowed to
+penetrate from behind, and all other parts should be closed, so as to
+exclude light.
+
+The gopher, in coming along the passage, sees the light and goes to
+investigate, when it will be caught in the trap. If too much light
+shows up, he does not go close to look at it, but immediately brings
+a load of dirt and proceeds to close the hole, thus burying the trap.
+All loose dirt should be removed from the burrow before setting the
+trap, as otherwise the gopher will gather up the dirt as it
+approaches the light, and shove it into the trap.
+
+  [Illustration: The Cottontail Rabbit.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE RABBIT.
+
+While the rabbit is classed among the fur-bearing animals, the skin
+having a slight market value, very few of the trappers ever market
+the skins as the price is so little that trapping the animals for
+their fur would not be a lucrative business.
+
+The flesh is much used as food by the northern hunters and trappers,
+and also as bait for traps, and it is well for the trapper to know
+something about the animal and how to capture it.
+
+Properly speaking there are no rabbits in North America, the animals
+known by that name being classed by naturalists as hares, but the
+name is so universally used that it would be useless now to try to
+bring the true name into general use.
+
+There are many species, one or more of which will be found in almost
+every locality of North America, but the most important species are
+the common cottontail, the jack rabbit and the snowshoe rabbit, or
+varying hare. Of these there are many varieties, but they are so
+similar in appearance and habits that I do not consider it necessary
+or advisable to go into detail in describing them in a work of this
+kind.
+
+Rabbits belong to the class known as rodents or gnawing animals, and
+are distinctly different in structure from all other animals of the
+class. The long hind legs, long ears, small tail and soft fur is
+characteristic of the genus.
+
+The common cottontail is found in almost all parts of the United
+States, in certain parts of the north only, being replaced by the
+snowshoe rabbit. They are smaller than the snowshoe and jack rabbits
+and are of a grayish brown on the back and sides shading to white on
+the under parts. The fur is a reddish brown in summer.
+
+Their food consists of grasses, fruits and vegetables, bark, and the
+leaves of evergreen shrubs such as the laurel. They are especially
+fond of fruits, sweet apples being a favorite food, and are also
+partial to cabbage.
+
+Their favorite haunts are the brushy, wooded bottom lands but they
+are also found on the hills and mountains; in fact, in almost any
+place where they can find food and shelter.
+
+The snowshoe rabbit replaces the cottontail in Canada and the most
+northern portions of the United States. As before mentioned they are
+larger than the common rabbits and like the northern weasel the color
+of their fur varies with the seasons. The summer coat is a reddish
+brown, but when the cold weather comes on in the fall they commence
+to take on a white color, the fur of the ears and legs being the
+first to change and in a few weeks the animal will be perfectly
+white. This is nature's provision for the animal's protection, and
+their color in winter is so nearly like that of the snow that when
+sitting under some log or clump of brush they are almost invisible.
+They have many enemies, being preyed upon by all the carnivorous
+animals, also by such birds as the hawk and owl, but as they are
+exceedingly prolific their numbers increase rapidly.
+
+Every few years, perhaps at regular intervals, but of that I am not
+certain, some disease makes its appearance among them and they die
+off rapidly. Some naturalists believe that this is caused by
+inbreeding as the rabbit's circle of acquaintance is comparatively
+small, and his knowledge of the country and the ground covered by his
+wanderings is limited to a very small area.
+
+The food of the snowshoe rabbit consists mainly of grasses in summer
+and the bark of certain young growths in winter. They are very fond
+of salt and wherever there is a trace of it to be found, they will
+come nightly and dig up the soil in order to procure it. The northern
+settlers who use large numbers of these animals for food sometimes
+make a salt lick for the rabbits and watch for the animals in the
+early evening.
+
+The feet of the snowshoe rabbit are very large and are heavily
+furred, forming a sort of snowshoe which accounts for its common
+name. They are very methodical, running the same route so often as to
+form a well defined trail, quite common in the northern swamps and
+hazel thickets. These trails are followed after the snow falls and
+become beaten several inches in depth.
+
+It is from the skins of the snowshoe rabbit that the northern Indians
+make the wonderful rabbit skin blankets. The skin is ripped down the
+back of the hind legs and is drawn off whole and while still fresh is
+cut into one long strip averaging an inch in width. Immediately after
+cutting, the strip rolls up leaving the outside covered with fur and
+resembling a fur rope. These skins are wound into a ball and kept
+frozen until the desired number has been secured when they are woven
+into a frame, the ends being sewed together. It makes the warmest bed
+covering known, and is used universally by the northern trappers. It
+also was a great comfort to those who went into Alaska and Yukon in
+search of gold.
+
+ [Illustration: Rabbit Snares.]
+
+The jack rabbit is found mostly on the western plains and is the
+largest of the American hares. They resemble the ordinary rabbit in
+structure, but the ears are very long and the tail is more like that
+of the deer. In running they make long leaps, all four feet hanging
+straight down, presenting a singular appearance.
+
+Rabbits are seldom trapped with steel traps, but almost every country
+boy knows how to take them in box traps baited with sweet apples. The
+cottontail may also be taken in a spring pole snare, such as shown in
+the cut. The noose is made of twine and is about ten inches in
+diameter. When carefully made they are almost certain in action. They
+should be baited with sweet apple or cabbage.
+
+The snare used for the snowshoe rabbit is a very simple contrivance.
+The white trappers use No. 20 brass wire, doubled and twisted with a
+small loop on one end, and made into the form of a slip noose.
+
+The snares are set on the trails, the bottom of the noose being about
+four inches above the trail and the loop, about four inches in
+diameter, is attached firmly to a brush placed horizontally over the
+path. A short stick is set upright under the noose and others are
+placed on either side of the snare. When properly arranged the noose
+will take the animal by the neck when it attempts to leap through,
+and it will be choked by its struggles.
+
+The Indians make the snares of light linen cord but with the white
+man this method is a failure as the rabbit will invariably stop and
+bite the cord. I do not understand why they do not bite the snares
+set by the Indians.
+
+Where tracks are plentiful and good trails cannot be found I have
+caught them by placing a few fresh twigs of birch or tamarack on each
+side of the snare. The rabbit is certain to find them and after
+eating those placed on one side it will attempt to leap through the
+noose to reach the others, which, of course, is the end of poor
+"bunny". The smallest and tenderest shoots should be selected for
+bait and only two or three should be placed at a snare.
+
+At other times I have made a fence of small evergreen trees where
+signs of the animals were numerous, and have fixed snares in the
+openings along the obstruction. This is also a successful method.
+
+I have never learned of any method of trapping or snaring the jack
+rabbit, but believe they could be trapped successfully where they
+visit the farms and gnaw the bark from fruit trees as they do in some
+parts of the west.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+TRACKS AND SIGNS.
+
+Old and experienced trappers can read the signs of the forest and
+stream with a degree of accuracy that to the amateur is surprising.
+In this way he can make a fair estimate of the number and kinds of
+fur-bearing animals found in a locality, while the novice would see
+nothing, or if he did see the tracks and signs he would not be able
+to distinguish them, one from another.
+
+To be able to read the signs accurately is essential for successful
+hunting and trapping. The expert trapper will know instantly, on
+seeing a track, just what animal it was that passed that way, and by
+knowing its habits will know about when it is likely to return, and
+how to place a trap for its capture. He can also tell with fair
+accuracy at what time the animal passed that way, and frequently,
+will know whether it was a male or female; whether it was looking for
+food or a place of rest, whether it was on its regular route of
+travel and where it was going. To the novice all of these signs are
+unintelligible.
+
+The art of sign reading can be learned only from experience. While
+the writer can distinguish the signs and tracks of the fur-bearing
+animals, to put this knowledge in print is exceedingly difficult.
+However, I will endeavor here, to describe the tracks of the
+fur-bearing and game animals, and believe that the description will
+be of value to the amateur.
+
+Before the coming of the tell-tale snow, and the myriads of tracks
+which then appear, the stream with its muddy or sandy shores is per
+haps the most promising place in which to look for signs. In the mud
+alongside of a pool of water, the tracks of that busy little animal
+the muskrat, can be seen.
+
+The trail of this animal is accurately shown in the drawing. When
+seen at the water's edge, and only a few tracks are visible, the
+trail appears irregular, but if one can see where it has walked for
+some distance, it will be noted that the animal has a regular step,
+some five or six inches in length, and there is also the trail of the
+dragging tail, most plainly seen in the soft muddy bottom of the
+still, shallow water. In the snow the track will appear the same.
+Only the prints of the hind feet are visible, the front feet being
+very much smaller, and the print being obliterated by those of the
+hind feet. When the animal is running the prints of all four feet are
+readily discernible. The print of the hind foot will measure about
+two and a fourth inches in length if the full impression of the foot
+is to be seen.
+
+  [Illustration: Tracks of Furbearing Animals.]
+
+In addition to the tracks other signs may be seen. Where the animals
+are found in fair numbers they will have well defined trails leading
+from the water. Where the bank is steep the trails are sometimes worn
+an inch or more in depth, owing to the muskrat's habit of sliding
+down the bank, which habit is not practiced in play, but for
+convenience. Other signs are the droppings on the logs which extend
+into the water; the dens with an accumulation of grass at the
+entrance; also the scratch signs on the bank, the feed beds, houses,
+etc.
+
+All signs are plentiful in early fall, and at such times the novice
+is likely to overestimate the number of animals, as the muskrat is
+very active at that season.
+
+The signs of the beaver are very similar to those of the muskrat, but
+the tracks are much larger, and owing to the fact that the level of
+the water in the vicinity of a beaver lodge, is raised far above the
+muddy shores, by the dam the tracks are seldom seen. However, the
+house and dam with the fresh cut wood, and well used trails are all
+of the signs that are needed. Old houses and dams are found
+frequently, but if there is no fresh cutting about, one may be
+certain that the house is uninhabited.
+
+One of the most puzzling things to the novice is to know the number
+of inmates, that is, whether or not it is a full family, but methods
+of determining this are given in the chapter dealing with this
+animal. In the North the beavers are ice bound during the winter
+months, but occasionally one may find them emerging from the water at
+some springhole near the lodge or dam, and at such times the tracks
+may be seen in the snow.
+
+The trail of the otter is unmistakable, owing to its peculiar,
+floundering, sliding mode of travel. It is seldom seen except in the
+near vicinity of the water. In the snow, the track is well defined
+and resembles the trail made by dragging a small log, the footprints
+in the bottom of the trail being very distinct. The length of jump is
+from four to eight feet, depending on the condition of the snow, and
+the footprints will measure about two inches in diameter.
+
+They travel under the ice whenever possible and one may see
+frequently where the otter has bored into a snow bank at the water's
+edge, trying to locate a weak spot in the ice. When they have been
+working under the ice for some time one may find where they have been
+entering at, and emerging from the spring holes near the shore. At
+such places the snow will be packed down solidly and remains of fish
+may be found.
+
+When there is no snow, one may learn of the most frequented
+localities by the number of slides and landing places. At the landing
+places the droppings will be found, and they may be distinguished
+from those of other animals from the large proportions of fish bones
+and scales.
+
+Another animal which will be found frequenting the waterways is the
+mink. The track of this little animal may be found along the muddy
+shore, where the steep bank crowds it down to the water's edge. At
+other times it will travel several rods from the water, and after he
+ice forms, will run on the ice, seldom going far from the shore. Its
+method of travel is an easy lope, and the footprints are nearly
+always in pairs about three inches apart one somewhat in advance of
+the other, and separated by a distance of from one to two feet. The
+footprints measure from one to one and three-fourths inches in
+length. They are sometimes found entering the water at spring holes
+in the ice, and at open places in the rapids.
+
+About the outlets or inlets of lakes and ponds, and at the log-jams
+or drifts on the stream one may sometimes find small, slender pointed
+droppings on the stones or logs. These sign will show unmistakably
+that the route is regularly used by at least one mink.
+
+The track of the weasel is similar to that of the mink, but is
+smaller, but as the weasel is not a water animal, its tracks are more
+likely to be seen along the fences and where logs and rocks are
+plentiful. Here the trail will be found leading here and there in an
+aimless sort of way, and entering every nook and corner, where the
+persistent little hunter thinks it may find a sleepy "bunny" or some
+other animal or bird. The length of jump is from sixteen to twenty
+inches and the footprints measure about one or one and a fourth
+inches in length.
+
+The marten has a similar method of travel and makes a track like
+those of the mink and weasel, being a little larger than the track of
+the mink and the footprint is broader and more rounded; the foot
+being heavily furred the toes do not show so distinctly. The trail
+will be found leading through the gullies and depressions of the
+heavily timbered places, and occasionally they also travel on the
+ridges.
+
+Few signs are seen when the ground is bare but in the dark, sheltered
+ravines, the droppings may sometimes be seen on the logs, resembling
+those of the mink, but somewhat larger. Sometimes one may also find
+where they have killed a bird or rabbit.
+
+  [Illustration: Tracks of Furbearing Animals.]
+
+There is practically no difference between the track of the fisher
+and that of the marten except in size. The footprints of the fisher
+are perhaps a trifle more distinct, and will measure from two to two
+and a half inches in length, the distance between each set of tracks
+being from two and a half to four feet. The tracks of both the marten
+and the fisher are found in the same kind of places, but the fisher
+is more of a rambler and more given to rambling in the open country.
+When the ground is bare one may see occasionally where they have
+killed and eaten rabbits, in which case very little will remain
+except the fur and toes of the victim.
+
+Although the skunk is a member of the great weasel family, its method
+of travel is decidedly different from that of the weasel, for it
+seldom lopes, but has a slow, measured walk. The length of step is
+about five or six inches, and the footprints are from one to one and
+three-fourths inches in length. The trail is rather broad, and if the
+snow is deep and soft the animal sinks deeply, so as to make a trail
+with its body; however, the skunk seldom travels when the snow is in
+that condition.
+
+Signs of the skunk may be noted also in summer and early fall.
+Occasionally one will find in the field, small excavations varying
+from an inch and a half to four or five inches in depth, nicely
+rounded and funnel shaped. This is the work of the skunk, and it was
+hunting for insects or grubs.
+
+The most conspicuous signs, however, are the dens, which may be found
+along the steep, gravelly hillsides. Although the woodchuck makes a
+similar den, one may be able to distinguish them, as a rule. If the
+den is inhabited by skunks one will usually find black and white
+hairs clinging to the mouth of the den, also will be likely to find a
+pile of droppings somewhere near, and to one side of the entrance.
+
+The walk of the opossum is similar to that of the skunk, but the
+trail is broader, the footprints more spreading and the toes turned
+outward. The feet being naked, the toes show very plainly. Their
+tracks are only seen after a warm night, when the snow is melting,
+and the dens are seldom found unless one can follow the trail. The
+footprints will measure from one and a fourth to two and a half
+inches in diameter.
+
+The tracks made by the animals of the dog family, the fox, coyote and
+wolf, are all similar, practically the only difference being in size.
+The foxes make the smallest tracks, that of the red fox being about
+two or two and a fourth inches in length and the length of step is
+about fourteen inches. The female makes a narrower track than the
+male, the same being true of many animals. There is no difference in
+the tracks of the silver, cross and red foxes, they being all of the
+same variety, but the gray fox makes a shorter and rounder track,
+easily distinguished from that of the red fox.
+
+In early fall one may see the droppings of the fox along the old wood
+roads and stock paths, and they may be distinguished from those of
+the dog by the remains of apples and other fruits which are found
+there. Occasionally one may see the tracks in the mud or dust of the
+old roads in the woods, and sometimes the dens are to be found.
+
+As before mentioned the track of the coyote is identical with that of
+the red fox, except that it is larger. The length of step is about
+sixteen inches and the track will measure about two and one-half
+inches in length by two inches in width.
+
+The track of the timber wolf is larger, that of a full grown specimen
+measuring about three inches in width by four in length, the length
+of step being about eighteen or twenty inches.
+
+As the tracks of the dogs are similar so also are those of the cats,
+the wild cat, lynx and cougar, or mountain lion, the only difference
+being in size. The two first named are plainly shown in the drawings,
+and as will be noted, that of the wild cat is the smallest, and will
+measure about two inches in diameter with a step of about fourteen
+inches.
+
+  [Illustration: Tracks of Furbearing Animals.]
+
+The lynx makes a step of about the same length and the footprint of a
+large one will be from three to three and a half inches in width.
+
+The cougar makes a larger track than the lynx, otherwise there is no
+difference.
+
+Occasionally one may find where these animals have killed game; the
+lynx will eat all but the feet of a rabbit. The droppings may also be
+seen at times. They resemble somewhat those of the fox, but are
+slightly larger, and never show remains of fruit, as the lynx never
+eats vegetable food.
+
+Along the streams and shores of the lakes and ponds one may see in
+summer and early fall the tracks of the raccoon, where the animal has
+traveled the strip of mud at the water's edge, looking for frogs and
+fish. One may trace the animal along the stream and will find that at
+times it has waded in the shallow water, and then again has gone the
+lope along the water's edge, or, perhaps has made a side journey to
+some cornfield. At such places if coons are plentiful, one may find a
+trail leading through the fence into a field. In parts of the South
+where these animals are abundant, trails may also be found along the
+ponds and swamps.
+
+The coon belongs to the bear family, and like the bear steps on
+nearly the entire bottom of the foot, instead of the toes only, as do
+the cats and some other animals, therefore, the footprint is usually
+long and narrow, and the foot being bare on the bottom, the long,
+slender toes show up distinctively. The animal has the loping method
+of travel, like the mink and weasel, but shows the print of a hind
+foot beside that of the front foot, the right and left alternating.
+The prints of the hind foot will measure from three to four inches in
+length, when the entire track is visible.
+
+One is not likely to mistake the track of the bear, as it is the
+largest of the furbearing animals. As far north as Pennsylvania, its
+tracks will occasionally be seen in the snow, but north of that tier
+of states, the bears seldom move about after the coming of snow. The
+tracks may sometimes be seen in the mud and wet moss of the northern
+swamps, also on the shores of the lakes and along the streams.
+
+The bear has a shuffling mode of walking and turns its toes outward.
+It is fond of walking on logs and will do so frequently, where fallen
+timber is plentiful. The track of a large black bear will sometimes
+measure eight inches in length, and that of the grizzly bear will be
+much larger.
+
+  [Illustration: Tracks of Game Animals.]
+
+Although the tracks are not often seen, other signs are to be found,
+such as logs and stumps, torn open by the bear in its search for
+ants, etc., small poplars broken down in order to secure the young
+leaves, claw marks on chestnut and black gum trees, overturned rocks,
+and those most noticeable signs, the marked trails, which are
+mentioned in the chapter describing this animal.
+
+While the deer are not classed among the fur-bearing animals, they
+are interesting to all trappers, and I have shown drawings of the
+footprints of the common deer, the moose, the caribou, and the three
+most common species of rabbits, namely; the common cottontail, the
+snowshoe rabbit, or varying hare, and the jack rabbit. The tracks
+shown in one-fifth size are of the cottontail.
+
+As will be noted in the drawings of the deer tracks, that of the hind
+foot is narrower and more pointed than that of the front. The doe
+also makes a smaller and more slender track. The average track will
+measure about two and a fourth inches in length. The moose makes a
+similar track, but it is much larger and will measure about four and
+a half to five and a half inches. The track of the caribou will
+average somewhat smaller than that of the moose and is of decidedly
+different shape. It is not so pointed, and the hoof being split much
+higher, it spreads out more, also the prints of the two small toes on
+the back of the foot are to be seen in nearly all cases, while the
+moose does not always show them.
+
+Almost everybody is familiar with the track of the rabbit, but I have
+shown those of the three species mentioned, mainly to show the
+difference in size. The feet being furred heavily, the prints of the
+toes seldom show, except on hard snow.
+
+Some of these tracks were drawn from memory, but others were sketched
+from the actual trails. On the whole, I think they will be found to
+be accurate, at least near enough to enable anybody to distinguish
+the trails of the various animals, and I think that the descriptions
+and illustrations will be of value to the amateur trapper when
+looking over his territory and locating the runways of the animals
+that he proposes to catch.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HANDLING FURS.
+
+To know the habits and the nature of the various animals and to know
+how to catch them is not all that is essential for success, but the
+trapper must also know how to skin the various animals and how to
+cure the skins and prepare them for market.
+
+The loss caused the trapper by the lack of this knowledge is
+considerable; many skins because they have not been fully cured reach
+the dealer in a tainted condition, others are not fully stretched and
+are graded "small" and some do not have the proper shape. Some are
+not cleaned of flesh and fat, do not have the tail bone removed, have
+not been kept clean or have been badly damaged in killing or
+skinning, all of which has a tendency to decrease their value.
+
+I have seen the skins of raccoon, killed before they were prime, and
+stretched on the side of a barn where the glare of the sun burned the
+life out of the skins, rendering them worthless. I have also seen
+skunk and mink skins drawn over the end of a thick board roughly
+fashioned with an axe, and hung up by the nose, the weight of the
+board drawing the head out until it resembled the finger of a glove.
+The trapper who handles his catch in that way can never expect to
+receive full value for his furs.
+
+There are two ways of skinning fur-bearing animals, namely, "casing"
+and skinning "open". The weasel, mink, marten, fisher, fox, opossum,
+muskrat, civet, skunk, wild cat should be cased. The raccoon, bear,
+beaver, badger, cougar, wolf, wolverine and coyote should be skinned
+open. Some dealers prefer to have southern raccoons cased.
+
+To remove a skin by the first mentioned plan, cut it loose around the
+feet and rip down the back of the hind legs, to and around the vent.
+Peel the skin carefully from the hind legs and skin the tail by
+slipping a split stick over the bone, when by gripping the stick with
+the right hand with the bone of the tail between the second and third
+fingers and holding the animal with the left hand, the skin may be
+stripped off easily. Draw the skin downward from the body, keeping it
+as clean of flesh and fat as possible. To facilitate this process the
+animal may be suspended from the limb of a tree or other projection
+by looping a strong cord around the hind legs after they have been
+skinned. The skin should be drawn from the front legs and when the
+ears are reached they should be cut off, cutting downwards towards
+the head. The skin should be cut loose about the eyes and nose, and
+it will then be in the form of a long pocket, fur side in.
+
+The weasel, mink, marten, fisher, fox, skunk, civet cat and wild cat
+should be skinned in this way. The otter must have the tail ripped
+open its entire length on the underside, and as they are a difficult
+animal to flesh, it is best to skin them clean with a knife, leaving
+no flesh or fat adhering to the skin. The muskrat and opossum should
+also be cased, but as the tails of these animals have no fur they
+should not be skinned, the skin being cut loose about the base or
+where the fur ends.
+
+Some trappers do not use much care in removing the skin from the head
+of the muskrat, but simply pull it off by main strength. This leaves
+the flesh of the head remaining on the skin and a collection of such
+skins will usually be graded low and the skins will average a few
+cents less than when properly handled.
+
+To skin an animal "open", rip the skin on the belly from the point of
+the lower jaw to the vent, down the back of the hind legs and on the
+inside of the front legs across the breast to the point of the
+brisket. Animals that are intended only as furs may have the feet cut
+off, but bears, mountain lions, wolves and wolverines should have the
+feet skinned out to the ends of the toes, leaving the claws attached
+to the skin. This increases their value for mounting or for rugs. The
+skin should be peeled from the body, using the knife whenever
+necessary.
+
+In skinning the beaver, rip the skin from the point of the chin to
+the vent and around the base of the tail and cut off the feet, but do
+not rip the skin of the legs. Skin the animal perfectly clean using
+the knife everywhere, as it is almost impossible to flesh a beaver
+after skinning. Not a particle of flesh or fat should be allowed to
+remain on the skin.
+
+After all burrs, lumps of mud and blood clots have been removed from
+the skin it is ready for fleshing. For fleshing all cased skins
+prepare a narrow tapering board of sufficient length to accommodate
+the longest skins and plane it perfectly smooth, rounding the edges
+slightly. Draw the skin over this board flesh side out and scrape all
+flesh and fat from it, using some blunt instrument, such as a square
+edged knife or a hatchet. Turn the skin occasionally and do not flesh
+on the edges of the board or you may score the skin; be careful not
+to damage it in any way. Always turn the fur side out before laying
+it down, so as to keep it perfectly clean.
+
+Open skins, if they have not been skinned clean, are more readily
+fleshed after they are stretched.
+
+A good supply of stretching boards of various sizes should be made in
+advance of the trapping season. Soft pine, poplar, basswood, or cedar
+boards are best, and old dry goods boxes make excellent stretching
+boards. They should be free of knots and should be planed smooth so
+that the furs may be removed easily after they are dry.
+
+For mink the boards should be from 26 to 34 inches in length and from
+3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches wide at widest part, and about 1/2 inch
+narrower at the shoulders from which point it should taper gracefully
+to the head and end with a rounded point. For marten, the boards
+should be a trifle wider. For the average fox or fisher, the board
+should be 4 feet long, about 5 1/4 inches wide at the shoulder and 6
+1/2 at the base. For the otter the board should be about 1/2 inch
+wider and a foot longer. The average lynx will require a board about
+7 1/2 inches wide at the shoulder and 9 1/2 inches at the base, by
+about 5 feet in length. For large muskrats the board should be two
+feet long by 6 inches wide at the base, 3/4 inches narrower at the
+shoulder and with a flat iron shaped head, but more rounded at the
+nose. One should have several smaller sizes also. For skunk and
+opossum the boards should be about 6 inches wide at the shoulder and
+7 1/4 inches at the base, 28 inches long.
+
+These dimensions are for the average animals, but it should be
+remembered that the sizes vary greatly in the various parts of the
+country. In the case of the skunk and the mink especially, there is a
+great difference in size.
+
+  [Illustration: Canadian Pattern Stretching Boards.]
+
+For convenience and good results I advise ripping with a saw, a
+narrow wedge from the center of all boards except those intended for
+muskrats. In this way one can stretch the skins to their full size
+and they may be more easily removed from the boards, after the wedge
+is withdrawn. For large boards to be used for lynx, otter and animals
+of a similar size, I fasten two short strips to the base of one piece
+of the board, as shown in the cut. This stiffens the stretcher and
+prevents the pieces from turning in the skin. All boards should be
+beveled on the sides, leaving the edges thin, round and smooth. The
+boards shown are of the Canadian pattern used universally by the
+Canadian trappers both Indian and white, and recommended and approved
+of by such large dealers as the Hudson's Bay Co. The tendency among
+trappers of more southern districts is to use a less tapered board
+with a more rounded point.
+
+The skins should be stretched as soon as they are fleshed. In using
+the three piece board slip the two halves into the skin, the flesh
+side being out and fasten the hind legs with one or two small nails
+in each, then insert the wedge and draw down all slack parts and
+fasten with nails. Be sure to get the back on one side of the board
+and the belly on the other. Draw up the skin of the lower jaw and
+fasten with a couple of tacks or small nails. In the case of the lynx
+it is advisable to slip a narrow board into each front leg and a
+small incision should be made in the tip of the tail of all animals,
+to allow the moisture to drain out and the tail to dry.
+
+The tail of the otter should be stretched out to its full width and
+well fastened with small nails. Some trappers also split the tail of
+the skunk for about one-half of its length and fasten it in the same
+way.
+
+The proper way to stretch open skins is by lacing them with twine in
+a hoop or frame. The beaver should be stretched round, and a hoop is
+most convenient. My method is to fasten the skin in the hoop at four
+points and then with a large sacking needle and strong twine stretch
+out one quarter at a time. I use a separate twine for each quarter,
+sewing thru the edge of the skin and around the hoop, tying the end
+with a loose knot. In case I find that any part is stretched too much
+or not enough, it is a simple matter to untie the string and give it
+a little slack or take up a little as the case requires.
+
+The raccoon should be stretched nearly square and all other skins to
+their natural shape. A square frame is most convenient, and the
+method employed may be the same as for beavers. Open skins which
+have not been fleshed, should have all of the flesh peeled off after
+they are stretched and then it will frequently be found necessary to
+re-stretch them but this is not difficult when using the twine.
+
+All furs should be dried or cured in a cool, airy place. They should
+never be allowed near the heat of the fire as they dry rapidly and
+become brittle and unfit for use. In camp they may be dried in some
+corner, removed from the fire but they are likely to take on a dirty
+yellow color from the smoke, and it is better to have a shelter for
+them on the outside.
+
+Furs should not be allowed to remain a long time on the boards. As
+soon as they are sufficiently dry to prevent shrinking or wrinkling
+they should be removed. The lynx and all species and varieties of
+foxes should be turned with the fur side out as soon as they become
+dry enough, and if the skin has become too dry to turn, it may be
+dampened slightly on the stiffer parts by placing a damp cloth over
+it. A very little will suffice and one must be certain to allow the
+skin to dry out thoroughly after turning. It is best to watch the
+skins closely and not allow them to become too dry before turning.
+Some trappers turn the skins of other animals, but with the exception
+of those mentioned it is better to leave the fur side in.
+
+When shipping the furs they should be packed flat and bound tightly.
+Those having the fur side out should be kept separate from the others
+so that the fur will not become greasy. I sew the skins in burlap and
+put a card bearing my name and address inside of the package; also
+tie two shipping tags on the outside. Furs handled by the above
+methods will always command good prices and I never have any cause
+for complaint if I ship them to reliable dealers, but when furs are
+badly handled, damaged in killing or afterwards, or unprime, one
+cannot expect the highest market price.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+STEEL TRAPS.
+
+In the preceding pages I have made frequent mention of the Newhouse
+and other brands of traps and the work would hardly be complete
+without a description of these traps.
+
+The Newhouse traps were designed by Sewell Newhouse, a resident of
+Oneida Co., New York, sometime prior to the year 1840 and the first
+of these famous traps were manufactured by the inventor in a little
+blacksmith shop, all of the work being done by hand.
+
+These traps were traded to the neighboring Indians and gradually
+became famous throughout the country. Early in the fifties, Mr.
+Newhouse moved to Kenwood, in Madison County and established a larger
+shop. It was at this time that he joined the Oneida Community and as
+the demand for the goods soon exceeded the output, the firm decided
+that the business must be enlarged and accordingly a small factory
+was erected.
+
+The business proved prosperous and it was found necessary to enlarge
+the plant from time to time in order to increase the output and
+supply the demand which was increasing rapidly as the traps became
+well known, and today these people are the largest manufacturers of
+steel traps in the world.
+
+Great care is used in the tempering of the springs and it is a fact
+well known to the users of this goods that the Newhouse spring is
+more reliable and more durable than any other.
+
+The nearly perfect state of the Newhouse trap as it is made at
+present, has only been reached after years of study and experiment
+and many of the improvements have been brought about by the trappers
+themselves, with whom this firm has a large correspondence. They are
+always pleased to receive any suggestions for the improvement of
+their traps.
+
+Although the Newhouse is a cheap trap, quality considered, it was
+soon found necessary to manufacture a line of cheaper traps and
+several styles were placed on the market. These were remodeled and
+changed in various ways to meet the demands of the consumer, and the
+names were changed with the style.
+
+Those made at present are known as the "Hawley & Norton," the "Oneida
+Jump" and the "Victor". The Hawley & Norton is made in the same style
+as the Newhouse, but is lighter. The Victor is also made in this
+style and it is safe to say that it is the most popular trap on the
+market. More of them are used than of any other brand and being so
+cheap they are especially liked by the beginner and by those who do
+not make trapping their leading occupation. In thickly settled
+districts where traps are often taken by thieves, many trappers
+prefer to use these cheaper grades of traps.
+
+The Oneida Jump trap is a distinct departure from the Newhouse
+pattern. It is a high grade trap but very light and its shape allows
+it to be placed where an ordinary trap could be set only with
+difficulty. Instead of having the long bow spring as in the other
+styles it has a short spring located inside of the jaws and under the
+pan, and it is attached to one end of the bed plate of the trap. This
+makes the trap very compact and it takes up very little room either
+when set or sprung. The traps have been on the market a comparatively
+short time but they have already become quite popular.
+
+All of these traps are made in sizes from No. 0 to No. 4 and the
+Newhouse is made in additional sizes and in special styles as
+described in the following pages.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 0 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 3 1/2 inches. This, the smallest trap made, is used
+mostly for catching the gopher, a little animal which is very
+troublesome to western farmers, and also rats and other vermin. It
+has a sharp grip and will hold larger game, but should not be
+overtaxed.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 1 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 4 inches. This Trap is used for catching muskrats and
+other small animals, and sold in greater numbers than any other size.
+Its use is well understood by professional trappers and it is the
+most serviceable size for catching skunks, weasels, rats and such
+other animals as visit poultry houses and barns.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 81 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 4 inches. Occasionally animals free themselves from
+traps by gnawing their legs off just below the trap jaws, where the
+flesh is numb from pressure. Various forms of traps have been
+experimented with to obviate this difficulty. The Webbed Jaws shown
+above have proved very successful in this respect.
+
+Noting the cross-section of the jaws, as illustrated at the left, it
+is plain the animal can only gnaw off its leg at a point quite a
+distance below the meeting edges. The flesh above the point of
+amputation and below the jaws will swell and make it impossible to
+pull the leg stump out of the trap.
+
+The No. 81 Trap corresponds in size with the regular No. 1 Newhouse.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 91 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws--91, 5 1/4 inches; 91 1/2, 6 1/4 inches. The double
+jaws take an easy and firm grip so high up on the muskrat that he can
+not twist out. A skunk cannot gnaw out either.
+
+These traps are especially good for muskrat, mink, skunk and raccoon.
+
+All parts of the No. 91 except the jaws are the same size as the
+regular No. 1 Newhouse, while the 91 1/2 corresponds to the regular
+No. 1 1/2.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 1 1/2 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 4 7/8 inches. This size is called the Mink Trap. It
+is, however, suitable for catching the woodchuck, skunk, etc.
+Professional trappers often use it for catching foxes. It is very
+convenient in form and is strong and reliable.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 2 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 4 7/8 inches. The No. 2 Trap is called the Fox Trap.
+Its spread of jaws is the same as the No. 1 1/2 but having two
+springs it is, of course, much stronger.
+
+ [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 3 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 5 1/2 inches. This, the Otter Trap, is very powerful.
+It will hold almost any game smaller than a bear.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 4 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 6 1/2 inches. This is the regular form of Beaver
+Trap. It is longer than the No. 3 Trap, and has one inch greater
+spread of jaws. It is a favorite with those who trap and hunt for a
+living in the Northwest and Canada. It is also extensively used for
+trapping the smaller wolves and coyotes in the western stock raising
+regions.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 2 1/2 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 6 1/2 inches. In some localities the otter grows to
+an unusual size, with great proportionate strength, so that the
+manufacturers have been led to produce an especially large and strong
+pattern. All the parts are heavier than the No. 2 1/2, the spread of
+jaws greater and the spring stiffer.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 3 1/2 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 5 inches. The above cut represents a Single Spring
+Otter Trap. It is used more especially for catching otter on their
+"slides." For this purpose a thin, raised plate of steel is adjusted
+to the pan so that when the trap is set the plate will be a trifle
+higher than the teeth on the jaws. The spring is very powerful, being
+the same as used on the No. 4 Newhouse Trap. The raised plate can be
+readily detached if desired, making the trap one of general utility.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 21 1/2 TRAP]
+
+Single Spring. Same as No. 2 1/2 but without Teeth or Raised Plate.
+
+No. 31 1/2 NEWHOUSE TRAP.
+
+Single Spring. Same as No. 3 1/2 but without Teeth or Raised Plate.
+
+Spread of Jaws--No. 21 1/2, 5 1/4 inches; No. 31 1/2, 6 1/2 inches.
+These Traps are the largest smooth jaw, single spring sizes that are
+made. Professional trappers will find these especially valuable when
+on a long trapping line, as they are more compact and easier to
+secrete than the large double spring traps. The springs are made
+extra heavy.
+
+Note.--The 21 1/2 is practically a single spring No. 3 and the 31 1/2
+a single spring No. 4.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 14 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 6 1/2 inches. This Trap is the same in size as the
+No. 4 Beaver, but has heavier and stiffer springs and offset jaws,
+which allow the springs to raise higher when the animal's leg is in
+the trap, and is furnished with teeth sufficiently close to prevent
+the animal from pulling its foot out.
+
+  [Illustration: CLUTCH DETACHABLE TRAP]
+
+Clutch Detachable--Trap can be used with or without it.
+
+Spread of Jaws, No. 23, 5 1/2 inches; No. 24, 6 1/4 inches. The
+inventor of this attachment claims to have had wonderful success with
+it in taking beaver. The trap should be set with the clutch end
+farthest from shore. The beaver swims with his fore legs folded back
+against his body, and when he feels his breast touch the bank he puts
+them down. The position of the trap can be so calculated that he will
+put his fore legs in the trap, when the clutch will seize him across
+the body and hold him securely.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 4 1/2 TRAP]
+
+In response to a demand for a new model of the Newhouse Trap
+especially adapted to catching wolves, the manufacturers have
+perfected a trap which is numbered 4 1/2 and is called the "Newhouse
+Wolf Trap."
+
+This trap has eight inches spread of jaw, with other parts in
+proportion, and is provided with a pronged "drag," a heavy snap and
+an extra heavy steel swivel and chain, five feet long, warranted to
+hold 2,000 pounds. The trap complete with chain and "drag" weighs
+about nine pounds.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 50 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 9 inches. This trap is intended for catching small
+sized bears. In design it is exactly like the standard No. 5 Bear
+Trap, only that the parts are all somewhat smaller. Weight, 11 1/4
+pounds each.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 150 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 9 inches. This trap is identical with No. 5 excepting
+that the jaws are offset, making a space five-eighths inch between
+them. This allows the springs to come up higher when the bear's foot
+is in the trap, and thus secure a better grip. Also there is less
+chance of breaking the bones of the foot. Weight, 11 1/4 pounds each.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 5 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 11 3/4 inches. This trap weighs nineteen pounds. It
+is used for taking the common black bear and is furnished with a very
+strong chain.
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 15 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 11 3/4 inches. To meet the views of certain hunters
+whose judgment is respected, the manufacturers designed a style of
+jaw for the No. 5 trap, making an offset of 3/4 of an inch, so as to
+allow the springs to come up higher when the bear's leg is in the
+trap. This gives the spring a better grip. Those wishing this style
+should specify "No. 15."
+
+  [Illustration: NEWHOUSE NO. 6 TRAP]
+
+Spread of Jaws, 16 inches. Weight, complete, 42 pounds. This is the
+strongest trap made. We have never heard of anything getting out of
+it when once caught. It is used to catch lions and tigers, as well as
+the great Grizzly Bears of the Rocky Mountains.
+
+  [Illustration: BEAR CHAIN CLEVIS AND BOLT]
+
+This cut illustrates Bear Chain Clevis and Bolt, intended as a
+substitute for the ring on the end of the trap chain, when desired.
+
+With this clevis a loop can be made around any small log or tree
+without the trouble of cutting to fit the ring. The chain is made
+five feet long, suitable for any clog, and the prices of bear traps
+fitted with it are the same as with the regular short chain and ring.
+
+  [Illustration: TRAP SETTING CLAMP]
+
+Every trapper knows how difficult it is to set a large trap alone in
+the woods, especially in cold weather, when the fingers are stiff,
+and the difficulty is greatly increased when one has to work in a
+boat. One of these clamps applied to each spring will by a few turns
+of the thumb-screws, bend the springs to their places, so that the
+pan may be adjusted without difficulty. No. 4 Clamp can be used on
+any trap smaller than No. 4 1 /2. No. 5 and 6 are strong clamps,
+carefully made and especially adapted to setting the large traps Nos.
+4 1/2 to 6. They dispense with the inconvenient and dangerous use of
+levers. With them one can easily set these powerful traps. These
+clamps are also useful about camp for other purposes.
+
+
+END OF SCIENCE OF TRAPPING
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Science of Trapping, by Elmer Harry Kreps
+
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